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THE ANNALS .“

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND
CHARLESWORTH'’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.’)

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Ese., F.LS.,
CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
J. H. BALFOUR, M.D., Prof. Bot. Edinburgh,

AND

RICHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.GS.

VOL. XVII.—SECOND SERIES.

BE Se, 2
Deter
LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS} SIMPKIN, MARSHALL,
AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:
LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH:

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1856.

‘*Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis
humane :—ex harum usu Jonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;
ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.
Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper estimata; 4 veré eruditis
et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.””-—
LINNZUS.

“* Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir
qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent
toutes ses opérations.”—BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

Bee ee ote tirsine neiet as aL essyl van powers
Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells
The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild
And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs
That press with nimble step the mountain thyme
And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,
But scatter round ten thousand forms minute
Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock
Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too
Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face
They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush
That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,
Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,
The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,
All, all to us unlock their secret stores
And pay their cheerful tribute.
J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

ALERE fF FLAMMAM.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XVII.

[SECOND SERIES.]

NUMBER XCVII.

Page
I. On the Conjugation of Cocconeis, Cymbella and Amphora; ;
together with some Remarks on Amphiphora alata (?), Kg. By H.
J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant-Surgeon H.C.S., Bombay. (With a
Plate.) ...... eee anew nasnaccans ceaadcs sac catsennsss tne teanescena sas dunas 1
II. Description of a new species of Clausilia from the neighbour-
hood of Cheltenham. By A. SCHMIDT .........cssescsseseseecesevesceseee 10
III. Memoir on the Indian species of Shrews. By Epwarp BiyTu,
Esq. With Notes by Roperr F. ToMEs, Esq. ..e.ececseesessenseeeees 11
IV. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the Struc-
ture of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By Tuomas
Wiuiiams, M.D. Lond. (With a Plate.) ........ccseccocsecssessscsseeees 28
V. On the Origin of the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea.
Peer SAME 0). DANA 2 6t;0ie Assess. eis Aredns aaa uetheep dees cence. 42
VI. On Anthracosia, a Fossil Genus of the Family Unionide. By
WixuiaM Kine, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in Queen’s
College, Galway. (With a Plate.) .........ccessesccccosceccecencseveseonses 51
ee ee, SG Cherint ARSURNUE 5 fac scczernnsasonrsuhaas'aadan xsuadsuncwawees 57
New Books :—Recherches sur les Crinoides du Terrain Carbonifére de
la Belgique, par L. de Koninck et H. le Hon.—A Lecture on the
Geological History of Newbury, Berks, by T. Rupert Jones,
ee isco inscoveecep age ae EEeD cv nvcecsnapecsvasapessecasuaerts 58—61
Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Botanical Society of Edin-
PRN ves cctsecencacnccn seg WIN elie MSE ons x. nedoszesasovesacecs 62—74

Observations on the Blistering Beetles of the neighbourhood of
Montevideo, by M. A. Courbon ; Unusual Dearth of Algz in 1855,
by John Cocks ; Observations on Echini perforating the Granite

1V CONTENTS.

of Brittany, by M. Valenciennes; New Species of Mammals and
Birds ; Description of a New Bird from Guatemala, forming the
type of a new genus, by John Gould, F.R.S. &c.; The late

Page

Mr. Newport; Meteorological Observations and Table......... 75—80

NUMBER XCVIII.

VIII. Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. III.
Some Species of Leperditia. By T. Ruprerr Jongs, F.G.S. (With
EWO PIAGES.) page -ayarpnedoo hhh ones Covemagusp em eelaipensesbamiaiemae «ache

IX. Further Observations on the Development of Gonidia (?) from
the Cell-contents of the Characee, and on the Circulation of the
Mucus-substance of the Cell. By H. J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant
Surgeon H.C.S., Bombay. (With two Plates.) .........---scsccsseeeeeeee

X. Amended Description of the Genus Scaphula, Benson, a fresh-
water form of the Arcacea; with characters of a new species from
Tenhasserim. By W. H. BENSON, Esq. «.....cccocecsssscecsersrscsencenaes

XI. Description of Tanystoma tubiferum, a Burmese form related
to the Genus Anostoma of Lamarck. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

XII. On Pleurodictyum problematicum. By WiLL1AM KiNG, Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy and Geology in Queen’s College, Galway ; Corre-
sponding Member of the Natural History and Medical Society of
Dresden} We.” (With a Pittely 2 ioe 7. ears i sett. pit feteggeawees toscdbbhotpeaecs

XIII. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the Struc-
ture of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By THomas
WiLiiaAms, MA Lond: (With a’ Plates) vis i. .die. iv. ccdseslcns stb eecaamle

XIV. On the Marine Testacea of the Piedmontese Coast. By
J. Gwyn JEFFREYS, Esq., F.R.S. (With a Plate.) ..........sscceceseee

XV. Notes on the Review of G. R. Gray’s “‘ Catalogue of the Genera
and Subgenera of Birds” in the December Number of the ‘ Annals.’
By GARiGRAy; PALS 8s ii.sccteicses Oi. ae ieias docteccaccossedeubeds

New Books :—A Popular History of Palms and their Allies, by Berthold
Seemann, Ph.D. &ec.— Museum of Economic Botany, or a Popular
Guide to the Museum of the Royal Gardens of Kew, by Sir W.
J. Hooker, Director.—A Handbook to the Marme Aquarium, by
P. H. Gosse.—Popular Geography of Plants, or a Botanical
Excursion round the World, by E. M. C. Edited by C. Daubeny,
M.D. &c.—The Flowering Plants and Ferns of Great Britaim: an
attempt to classify them according to their Geognostic relations,

81

10]

127

aloe

131

142

155

189

by J. G. Baker bisennenseceeceeeasssaneeesecessseseceseeeeeeeeseencas 194—199

Proceedings. of the Zoological Society ; Botanical Society of Edin-

EG || onncnndncnissarenranoemenmacans>+ dentiehen atebhatstcghadetdgehtes 200—206

CONTENTS. rf
Page
Memorandum on the Animal of Scissurella crispata, by Lucas Barrett,
F.G.S.; Notes on the Marine Fauna of Weymouth, by William
Thompson ; Meteorological Observations and Table ...... 206—208

NUMBER XCIX.

XVI. On the House Ant of Madeira. By Professor O. Herr, of
Zurich. Translated from the original by R. T. Lowe, M.A. (With
MEMEO cee cies spar aes finden ina hdvanksdcadonceny epatgsnpanwsis dled epaahPseihs cad 209

XVII. Characters of seventeen new forms of the Cyclostomacea
from the British Provinces of Burmah, collected by W. Theobald, jun.,

Riga okay We Es BRINSON, Ege “di 3.5. Fie seas ised Reais tetececelscasenes 225
XVIII. Descriptions of three newly discovered species of Araneidea.
By Josh BOsGrWALE, Pie ieee las cecnestecennesbonaden 233

XIX. On some species of Epilobium. By Cuarues C. BABINGTON,
MAS PIR RSIS, Iie Bc Re aeed tinrneth spr pinata coanashoanss eh scet 236

XX. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the Struc-
ture of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By THomas
Wr renaien ss WIE ott cat FSS Stk PROSE? SU Ce ee ce vacren 247

XXI. Notes on Permian Fossils :—Paltiobranchiata. By WILLIAM
KinG, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in Queen’s University,
Ireland (Q. C. Galway); Corresponding Member of the Natural History
and Medical Society of Dresden, &e. (With a Plate.) ...............06- 258

XXII. On Scissurella crispata. By Witu1am CuaRrk, Esq. ... 269

XXIII. Further Notices of Piedmontese Mollusca. By J. Gwyn
Pee MREE RS De BR PRSET SW ons daiisn ceo anes ne ane tone aaOsenatn dees od ssameeeatshe 271

New Books :—The Natural History of the Tineina, by H. T. Stainton,
assisted by Prof. Zeller and J. W. Douglas.—Sylloge Generum
Specierumque Cryptogamicarum quas in yariis operibus descriptas
iconibusque illustratas, nunc ad diagnosim redactas, nonnullasque
novas interjectas ordine systematico disposuit C. Montagne,
Te. npknngecnmnt ke sectan ause Seapets taaiee h duans orebiieiel arias 272—279

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Botanical Society of Edin-
BREEN, enasak cule capeigin cwevidn ob <viaeseug te save vad na teanis-aWerdurads 279—285

On the Earliest Stages in the Development of Pelagia noctiluca, by
Dr. A. Krohn; Description of a new species of Swift ; Meteoro-
logical Observations and Table .......essecseeseeeeeseeeeeneeees 285—288

vi CONTENTS.

Page
NUMBER C.
XXIV. On the Theory of the Fecundation of the Ovum. By
E. CLAPAREDE ..........008 Sor avecbatanncere topaane ner enenesdaetce seme caaeeent 289
XXV. On some species of Epilobium. By CHARLEs C. BABINGTON,
XXVI. Note on the Genus Scissurella. By J. Gwyn JEFFREYS,
~ OE Ba RSS Be oe ss soe ns, SSeS pau sabe sett cnecs wereeeh eons netics eae

XXVII. On the House Ant of Madeira. By Prof. O. Heer, of
Zurich. Translated from the original by R. T. Lowe, M.A. ......... 322

XXVIII. Notes on Permian Fossils: — Palliobranchiata. By
Witu1aM Kine, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in Queen’s
University, Ireland (Q. C. Galway); Corresponding Member of the
Natural History and Medical Society of Dresden, &c. ..........2000000 333

XXIX. Remarks on the Genera Tanystoma, Nematura, and Anaulus.
By W. H:- Benson, Esq. .2...ses tens sicualedseibeweenbcedasanenveqesas-osaaent 342

XXX. New Researches in Vegetable Embryogeny. By M. TuLasne. 343

XXXI. On the Tracheal System of Insects. By Toomas WILLIAMs,
Wi) SAIGON.” <.0scesuuce>scaueeactoascastetescaessnecgateccacectenssotee neeeeeeee 347

New Books :—Insecta Maderensia; being an Account of the Insects
of the Islands of the Madeiran Group, by T. Vernon Wollaston,
IMA LES. iccaccassoteoe rect t rodeaeeeeec tere eben cere en ee 348

Proceedings of the Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society ; Zoological
Society ......s000.. ae cow cutee arene nam aacuetd ears queer eercaneeeer 356—365

On the Mode in which the Tachine escape from their Pupa-cases, by
Dr. Reissig; On the apparent Absence of a Nervous System in
Nemoptera lusitanica, by M. Léon Dufour; Meteorological Ob-
pervataous Ad ‘Dable x « seincsjecncnieixecicasaenaeanannsaassisbophat om 565—368

NUMBER CI.

XXXII. On the British species of Arctium. By Cuarues C,
BaBineton, M.A., F.R.S. &e. .....0es.c008 se aan Cute nso kb Seder Cee Oe

XXXIII. List of the Mollusca observed between Drontheim and
the North Cape. By R. M‘ANDREW, Esq., F.L.S., and L. Barrett,
I ES ple eecrstsnnnti acy stn ninnnae seni annem naeye ee a eae 378

XXXIV. Some Account of an Infant “ ait ie tan.” By ALFRED
RR. WALGACH} Hagqgit®.. vasa. n. wawamiadaael <akbiok. oasiate wee. 386

CONTENTS. vii
Page
XXXV. On the Theory of the Fecundation of the Ovum. By
E. CLAPAREDE ...... seanceses indi Rake ciosacctiotin, charade Benptorneran ee U.
XXXVI. Another Note on Scissurella. By S. P. Woopwarp,
MEN SeE edad aN FeveaysttundenwaupadcSarersdhecscan eet bidet Step pmeteethay! pats 401
XXXVII. On the Occurrence of the Fossil Genus Conoteuthis,
D’Orb., in England. By 8S. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S. ...... “rreeeeet te 402
XXXVIII. On the Development of the Freshwater Sponges. By
CR IONE VIEERD iki vc unye'cycds snineceuenss bhasgveseusnccaeses ceuesseeaene 403

XXXIX. On the Development of the Chitons. By Prof. S. Lovin. 413

XL. On Cell-development in Plants. By Prof. ARrHuR HEenrrRey,
BREA adih Seis c tae. Sack ain Gagatcannan Ds ahs aaa ta Oh gh Dae Frmgelees be cnpgnses 417

New Books :—A Monograph of the British Hieracia, by James Back-
house, Jun.—List of British Coleoptera, by J. F. Dawson, LL.B.,
EME MONS I, ALE eel alae doe ices vonavodis capeccdeeessiede cas 418, 419

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society; Linnzan
Beciety; Geological Society snc.c.c..ceccssseccacescveccetessens 420—441

The British Museum—its Catalogues and accessions in Zoology; On
the Development of the Lampreys, by M. Schultze; Note on
Clausilia Mortilleti, by Charles Prentice; On a supposed new
species of the genus Equus, by M. I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire ;
Meteorological Observations and Table .........seesseeeeeeeees 441—448

NUMBER CII.

XLI. On the British Diastylide. zo C. Spence Bate, F.L.S.

PUP ILEN GHTCE! PIAGCR;) +500 ccc sececdenedaaremscnsevnewee s+ itl ial. bees saomavaee 449
XLII. Description of a new species of Spherium found near Lon-

ie) Oo: Dr. J B. Gpay, ISS: PBS. Sec, .cnnsanassanavacseionaetes 465
XLII. Descriptions of eight new species of Birds from South

America. By Puiitip Luriey Scuarer, M.A., F.Z.S. &e. ......... 466
XLIV. On Scissurella and Schismope. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys,

Rag pM Seci svt) gussets .freranades arvesdley bh: ones “dep ogee ob -o TESA 470
XLV. On the Orang-Utan or Mias of Borneo. By ALFRED

in WALENCE 325 i2c520ccees dididsicttdedeaseeatdessacsessqetmnanamass snsleaddioks 471

XLVI. On Prof. Huxley’s attempted Refutation of Cuvier’s Laws
of Correlation, in the Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms.
By H. Fatconen, M.D., F.R.S. 8&0. .....0...0000006 Rudd es Orseasateeaeee 476

vill CONTENTS.
Page
XLVII. Descriptions of three new species of Paludomus from

Burmah, and of some forms of Stenothyra (Nematura) from Penang,
Mergui, &e. By W. H. BENSON, Esq. ...eeeeeeeeeceeeeseecteeeneeeseeenes 494

XLVIII. On the Minute Structure of certain Brachiopod Shells ;
and on Vegetable Cell-Formation. By Wr1iLLiAM B. CARPENTER,
CE Pe SE Gis ease cceaneavncabances Schenspeests sikh. Mivenzycemeeee 502

New Books :—General Outline of the Organization of the Animal
Kingdom, and Manual of Comparative Anatomy, by Thomas
Rymer Jones, F.R.S. 2nd edition .....+....++++- sips apiece Melee 507

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Botanical Society of Edin-
burgh — ...scssssseseee aes bea tuea sine. sukes stance ebesteitseecletautee 510—520

On the Influence of the Soil on the Distribution of Plants, by M. Stur;
Note on the Freshwater Dolphins of South America, by M. Paul
Gervais ; Meteorological Observations and Table ..........-. 520—523

PLATES IN VOL. XVII.

PLaTE I. Conjugation of the Diatomacez.
II. Marine Testacea of the Piedmontese Coast.
III. House Ant of Madeira.
IV. Species of Anthracosia.
V. Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.
VIL } Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca.
VIII. | Development of Gonidia from the Cell-contents of the
IX. Characez.
X. Pleurodictyum problematicum.
XI. Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.
XII. New Permian Fossils.

XIII.
XIV. } New British species of Diastylide.
XV.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

WO canecssccesecasece per litora spargite muscum,
Naiades, et circdm vitreos considite fontes :
Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :
Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.
At vos, 0 Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ;
Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco
Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas
Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”’

N. Parthenii Giannettasii Ec\.1.

No. 97. JANUARY 1856.

I.—On the Conjugation of Cocconeis, Cymbella and Amphora :
together with some Remarks on Amphiphora alata (?), Kg. By
H. J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant Surgeon H.C.S., Bombay.

[With a Plate. ]

THE discovery of the mode of reproduction in the Diatomez
through spores, though inferred by Kiitzing, is really due to
Mr. Thwaites. The former, seemg some of the cells in Meloseira
dilated like those of @idogonium, considered it sufficient to declare
that this was one way in which the Diatomez were propagated * ;
but Mr. Thwaites recognized the process fully in Eunotia turgida
in May 1847+, and then first described and figured it most
satisfactorily. He afterwards detected it in Fragilaria pectinalis,
Gomphonema minutissimum, G. un. s.?, Coceonema lanceolatum and
Cistula, and in Epithemia gibbat; and subsequently in Melo-
seira varians and Borreri, Aulacoseira crenulata, Cyclotella?
Kiitzingiana, Orthoseira Dickie, Schizonema eximium, subco-

* Ap. Meneghini ‘“‘On the Animal Nature of Diatomee,” &c., 1845.
Eng. Trans. by C. Johnson, p. 369. Ray Society’s Publications, 1853.

+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xx. p. 9. pl. 4.

t Idem, p. 343. pl. 22.
Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 1

2 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Conjugation of

herens, vulgare and neglectum ; and lastly in Dickieta Danseii *.
Since that, no one seems to have added any more instances of
this process of reproduction in the Diatomez, until Dr. J. W.
Griffith noticed it in a species of “ Naviculat ;” and lately I
have seen it in Cocconeis Pediculus (Kg.), Cymbella Pediculus
(Kg.), and Amphora ovalis (Kg.), mihi, under such circumstances
as to enable me to offer the following descriptions and figures
of it respectively, m each of these genera.

Cocconeis Pediculus (Kg.). On the 4th of September, I per-
ceived a brown incrustation extending over the sides of a basin
in which Nitella, infested with Fragilaria and Cocconeis, had
been kept for upwards of three months; and on examination
with the microscope, it proved to be the latter, of different sizes,
undergoing conjugation and deduplication.

The spore is formed by two of the smaller frustules, one of
which is less in size than the other (Pl. I. fig. 1). These, after
having become approximated, secrete a mucus which holds
them together, while the lining mucus-membranes or primordial
utricles respectively burst open the valves of their frustules
(fig. 2), and approaching each other unite to form the spore
(fig. 3); the latter then assumes a spherical form and the endo-
chromes become mixed (fig. 4), after which the spherical form
becomes elongated and finally elliptical (fig. 6) ; when, the endo-
chrome also becoming scattered in more or less detached por-
tions over the circumference, a single line appears, dividing the
spore longitudinally into two somewhat unequal parts (fig. 7) ;
two other lines then present themselves, one on each side the
first (fig. 8); and the latter, passing into a groove, soon effects
a deduplication of the spore, which then becomes divided into
two sporangial frustules and thus the process is completed
(fig. 9). Very soon after the spore has become spherical, the
valves of the small conjugating frustule are thrown off, so that
it is only now and then that they are seen ; while the valves of
the large one remain attached to it until deduplication com-
mences. The large conjugating frustule bears to the sporangial
frustule (fig. 11) the proportion of ;7;5 to 5+; of an inch; at
least these are their respective measurements.

Cymbella Pediculus (Kg.). On the 17th of August, after
having had a matted portion of Cladophora, Spirogyra and Oseil-
latoria together in a basin for a few days, a number of Cymbelle
of different sizes left the filaments and came to the sides of the
vessel, where they conjugated.

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. i. p. 161. pls. 11 & 12, 1848.
+ Idem, vol. xvi. p. 92. August 1855.

Cocconeis, Cymbella, Amphora and Amphiphora. 3

The spore is formed by two of the smaller frustules, one of
which is less in size than the other (fig. 13). These, after having
become approximated, first secrete around themselves a mucus
in which they are thus imbedded. The commencement of the
sporangial frustules is then indicated by two elliptical masses of
endochrome appearing in the midst of this, parallel to and be-
tween the conjugating frustules (fig. 14); at least this is the
earliest part of the process which | have observed. The spo-
rangial frustules in which the endochromes are enclosed re-
spectively, then become elongated (fig. 15) ; the transverse lines
appear, the endochromes become scattered over their new habi-
tations (fig. 17), and at length the frustules are formed (figs. 18,
19). By this time the mucus-investment and the valves of the
conjugating frustules, which separate during the process, are
thrown off, and the new frustules are thus liberated. The large
conjugating brantale bears to the sporangial frustule (fig. 20) the
proportion “of sty to 345 of an inch; at least, these are their re-
spective measurements.

Amphora ovalis (Kg.), mbi. On the 31st of July, after a mass
of that interesting form of Spirogyra, whose cells after division
conjugate with each other, had spored and sunk to the bottom
of the basin, with an Oscillatoria which was also present, several
species of Diatomez multiplied upon the sides of the basin,
among which were many frustules of Amphora of different sizes
undergoing deduplication and conjugation.

The spore is formed by two of the smaller frustules, one of
which is less in size than the other (fig. 21). These, after ap-
proximation (fig. 22), become invested in mucus, and, presently,
exhibit their endochromes in two globular masses between them
(fig. 23) ; elongation of the sporangial frustules which enclose
these respectively takes place, transversely to the long diameter
of the conjugating frustules (fig. 24) ; the former then assume a
bent form towards each other, and the endochromes becoming
irregularly scattered through them, they attain their utmost de-
velopment (figs. 24-27). Meanwhile the valves of the conju-
gating frustules become separated, and two remain at the ends
of the sporangial frustules, while the other two appear about their
middle, one on each side (fig. 27). The mucus then becoming
dissolved, the valves of the conjugating frustules are thrown off,
and the sporangial frustules are thus set free. The large con-
jugating frustule bears to the sporangial frustule (fig. 28) the
proportion of +7/;5 to <4, of an inch; at least, these are their
respective measurements.

Observations.—Nothing can be more obvious in these pro-
cesses, than that one poimt gained by the conjugating of the
1*

4 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Conjugation of

small frustules is the restoration of the largest size of the spe-
cies ; but perhaps not the most important point. In what way
the small frustules are produced I am ignorant. Braun states
that the effect of cell-division in the Diatomez is to reduce the
size of the frustules*. This is evident enough in the cells of
the Spirogyra; and Meneghini has pointed out how it must be
the case from the conico-truncate form of Cocconeis, where the
plane of division is parallel to the base of the frustule +. But
Braun deduces his opinion from what occurs in Glwocapsa, where
“the size of the cells diminishes with the increasing magnitude
of the family stock (phytodon{),’’ that is to say, that the last ge-
nerations of cells are smallest.

That quantity should be required for restoring the size of the
species, would appear from what takes place in the form of Spr-
rogyra already noticed, where the original cell, after having
been divided into four equal parts, ends in reuniting the con-
tents of each contiguous two of these to form two new spores.
Still more striking is the conjugation of two filaments of another
species, where the cells of one happen to be divided into only
two, and those of the other into four parts each. Here, although
the conjugation is commenced as usual by active tubulation, the
latter proves abortive; for the protoplasm of the large cells
soon withdraws itself from the tube, and wraps its contents up
into an elliptical spore of the normal size of the species ; while
the contents of every other small cell in the opposite filament
(the intervening ones not sporing at all) also wrap themselves
up into small globular spores respectively, but not without a
strong attempt at first to mix with those of their opposite neigh-
bour ;—inasmuch as, in one instance, the tubulation of the
small cell with the large one appeared to have been entirely
formed by the former, whose contents had even passed a little
way into the latter, but finding the spore formed in the large
cell, were about to return to their own, or to remain where they
were when I saw them in this position.

The rationale of this would at first appear to be, that the con-
tents of the large cell found themselves sufficient in quantity to
form the proper-sized spore,—which is the normal process in
Zygnema mirabile (Hass.) §, while those of the small cell in the
other filament found themselves in the opposite condition, and
after making an attempt to mix with their opposite neighbour
withdrew themselves, from finding no response, into their own

* « Rejuvenescence in Nature.” Eng. Trans., by A. Henfrey : Botan. and
Phys. Memoirs, published by the Ray Society, 1853. Foot-note, p. 132.

+ Loc. cit. p. 406. { Loc. cit. Foot-note, p. 131.

§ Hassall’s British Freshwater Algze, p. 156. pl. 25.

Cocconeis, Cymbella, Amphora and Amphiphora. 5

cell, and there wrapped themselves up into a small globular
form*.

Again, in the conjugations above described, one frustule is
always smaller than the other, as if only a certain quantity of
cell-contents were required to make up the portion necessary for
the reproduction of the new sporangia; and this is commonly
the case also in the conjugation of Spirogyra, viz. that one cell
is smaller than the other ; while in Cladophora, the whole of the
contents of a cell move towards one end of it, where they are
condensed into the elliptical form of spore proper to this genus,
without any cell-division or conjugation of separate compart-
ments.

Hence it becomes questionable, whether the division of the
cell has anything to do with the formation of the spore ; while
again it cannot be determined that the formation of the spore is
the process ordained for the perpetuation of the species, until it
be known in what this process essentially consists, or whether
sporing is the only means of reproduction.

On comparing the spore-formations above mentioned with those
described by Mr. Thwaites in the Diatomez, it will be observed,
that Cocconeis agrees chiefly with Fragilaria pectinalis, whose
single sporangium, developed from two small frustules, “ is at
first cylindrical, soon assumes a flattened, somewhat quadran-
gular form, and in many, but not in all cases, undergoes fissi-
parous division before it has put on the exact appearance of a
frustule of the Fragilaria +.”

The processes again in Cymbella Pediculus and Amphora ovalis
respectively, agree with those of Cocconema lanceolatum{ and
Eunotia turgida§. In the latter, the way in which the process
commences is detailed by Mr. Thwaites, but nothing is said
about it in the former ; and although it is easy to conceive how
the sporangial frustules in Amphora ovalis should be formed like
those of Eunotia turgida, yet it is not so easy to conceive how
the processes commence in Cocconema and Cymbella, where the
sporangial frustules he parallel with instead of across the con-
jugating ones ; unless we assume that another act takes place,
in which either the conjugating or the sporangial frustules turn
round to obtain this position.

* Should these small spores develope a filament, the latter would pro-
bably be below the normal size of the species; though the original size
might be gained by the whole of the contents of a single cell of this deve-
lopment, with or without those of the cell of another filament, passing into
one new spore. In this way among the Zygnemacex, as well as among the
Diatomeze, species may be added to this family and subclass respectively
which after all are mere varieties.

+ Loe. cit. vol. xx. p. 334.

$ Loe. cit. vol. xx. pl. 22 C. fig. 3, &e. § Idem, pl. 4.

6 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Conjugation of

Now it so happens that in one of the earliest states that was
presented to me of the conjugation of Amphora, the endochromes
were joined together in the form of the figure 8 (fig. 32), and I
could not help coming to the conclusion that the endochromes
of both frustules passed into one sporangium at first, mstead
of directly into two, as in Eunotia, and then became divided
afterwards; or, that this was an accidental occurrence. If this
is the normal process in both Cocconema and Amphora, then it is
easy to conceive how the sporangial frustules become opposite
each other in both instances, viz. by the division of the united
endochromes taking place either parallel or transversely to the
longitudinal axes of the conjugating frustules. We have some-
thing analogous to this in Meloseira and Aulacoseira, where the
axis of elongation of the sporangium is parallel with the filament
in the former, and at right angles to it in the latter; with the
line of division of course the reverse in each *, that is, with the
filament in Aulacoseira, and across it in Meloseira ; correspond-
ing in the former to Amphora and in the latter to Cymbella.
Facts however are wanting to prove this conjecture.

I need hardly call attention to the difference in the size and
forms of the conjugating and sporangial frustules which are
represented in the Plate, or again remind the reader of what
Mr. Thwaites has stated, viz. that the sporangial frustules, though
very different from the conjugating ones at first, eventually assume
a form very similar to them ; this is effected by fissiparation, and
equally applies to the endochrome as to the frustule. It is well
seen in figs. 23-31. The relative size of the forms represented
in the Plate has been preserved as much as possible, and each
figure is taken from nature, with the exception of No. 2, which
to supply a deficient link has been constructed upon No. 3 and
other observations.

Amphiphora alata (?), Kg. PI. L. fig. 33.

There are at least two species of this genus abounding in the
back-waters of the island of Bombay, and as they do not appear
to have been studied much in their living state, and have con-
stantly come under my observation, I propose offering the fol-
lowing remarks on that one, which, if not identical with, is very
nearly allied to the A. alata of Kiitzing fF.

Frustule.-—Oblong, truncate ; primary surfaces closely approx-
imated, lateral surfaces produced laterally and so compressed as
to form a thin edge, which, being constricted in the centre,

* Thwaites, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 161. pl. 11. A 2, B 2.
+ Species Algarum, p. 93. I regret that I have not his figures to deter-
mine this satisfactorily.

Cocconeis, Cymbella, Amphora and Amphiphora. 7

represents two alate, hyaline appendages on each side, thus
giving the frustule the form of an hour-glass flattened. Valves
forming the primary surfaces thick, oblong, truncate, sometimes
striated (plicated?) longitudinally, closely approximated through-
out, suddenly compressed and narrowed at each end, supporting
on their sides the alate appendages mentioned. Endochrome :
flat, double lozenge-shaped, connected ; consisting of a single (?)
layer, continuous, presenting a transparent area in the centre in
which is the nucleus, and from which a few delicate branched
threads radiate towards the sides of the frustule ; chiefly confined
to the central valves, but occasionally extending for a short
distance into the hyaline appendages.

Movements.—Like those of Diatomez in general, but with a
peculiar contortion, which brings one half of the frustule into
right angles with the other. Deduplication, through the broad
or primary surfaces. Size +7'55 to g+5 of an inch long.

Hab. The brackish water in that part of the main drain of
Bombay which mixes with the sea at every tide; abounding in
silty clots of Oscillatoria which float on the surface.

Observations.—A clot containing several hundred specimens
of this species was placed in a small wide-mouthed bottle in the
middle of December, where they continued to deduplicate up to
the middle of the following June, by the vessel having been re-
plenished from time to time with fresh water. Long before the
last of these frustules were seen the whole of the other organisms
had perished, and the remaining contents of the bottle, which
might have been supposed to contain a number of them empty,
on being examined, were found to contain none; hence it may
be inferred that the frustules are not siliceous or coherent. The
most striking feature about this species is its contortion (fig. 34),
which from the thinness and flexibility of the alate expansions
is effected to such a degree, that the narrow lateral edges, re-
spectively, in one half, are bronght almost into right angles with
the primary or broad surface of the other; a phase which this
Diatomean is continually assuming, and which, at first, is very
difficult to understand. For some time I mistook it for an Am-
phora with one half of the frustule split open, and the edges
turned back. The central valves are frequently marked with
longitudinal lines (folds?), and fine lines may occasionally be
seen cutting each other at acute angles across them; while a
lmear appearance also presents itself sometimes in the alate
appendages parallel to their borders Fig. 37 shows all this;
and sometimes their hyaline transparency is interrupted by
white specks,

This species differs from the navicular forms in the general
and greater flatness of its frustule, in the greater expansion of

8 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Conjugation of

its alate appendages, and in the form of the endochrome, which,
instead of being separated into two portions united through the
intervention of the nucleus and its capsule, as in the navicular
forms, and in Navicule generally, appears to consist of a single,
continuous, thin layer like that of Cocconeis Pediculus. The
lateral surfaces are not lanceolate (“ anguste lanceolata”), as
Kiitzing’s description would seem to imply, and as they appear
to be; for when it is remembered that they are mere margins
formed in the way mentioned, it is evident that this cannot be
the case ; but that it is the margins of the central valves which
present the lanceolate figure (fig. 85), more particularly in the
navicular forms ; while in the species under description they are
suddenly compressed at the extremities, and laterally present the
form of a bottle at each end (fig. 36). Hence I am inclined to
doubt the identity of this with Kiitzmg’s Amphiphora alata.

. Besides the two bright-looking tubercles (holes *) at each ex-
tremity of the frustule which mark the union of the lateral
edges with the corners of the central valves, there are two other
tubercles or holes, one on each side in the angle of constriction
(fig. 36), and therefore corresponding in position to the hole or
mark in the centre of the lateral surfaces of the Naviculet.

Deduplication takes place through the centre of the flat
surfaces, and the new individuals, besides remaining together
until they are fully formed, sometimes separate before this takes
place, and then present the wing-like appendages on one side
only. In fig. 88, where deduplication is nearly completed, the
central valves respectively will as a matter of course be found to
be much narrower than the one represented in fig. 32, where
deduplication has not yet commenced.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

N.B. The black shade in all the figures is intended to represent the
endochrome.

Fig. 1. Cocconeis Pediculus (Kg.). The two conjugating frustules rela-
tively magnified. The largest 7755 of an inch long.
Fig. 2. Opening of the frustules and approximation of the primordial
utricles with their contained endochromes. (Conjectural figure.)
3. Union of the two utricles to form the sporangium.
Fig. 4. Spherical form of the sporangium.
5. Elongation of ditto, and disappearance of the valves of the small
frustule.
6. Elliptical form of ditto, with the thin valve of the large frustule in
front.
. Ditto, with the line of deduplication and the valves of both frus-
tules still adherent.

* Kiitzing and Meneghini. + Meneghini, /. ¢. p. 422.

Cocconeis, Cymbella, Amphora and Amphiphora. 9

Fig. 8. The line of deduplication becoming sulcated and two other lines

appearing one on each side.

Fig. 9. Deduplication effected.

‘ig.
Fig.

Fi

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

‘ig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. «

Fig.
Fig.

10.
ibe

. 12.
13.
14.

Lateral view of sporangial frustule.

Inferior view of sporangial frustule without endochrome, <4, of
an inch long.

Oblique view of sporangial frustule after second or third dedupli-
cation. Lower individual.

Cymbella Pediculus (Kg.). Conjugating frustules relatively mag-
nified. The largest 34,5 of an inch long.

Union of ditto in secreted mucus ; endochromes elliptical, parallel
with frustules.

. First appearance of sporangial frustules.
. Transverse section showing the relative position of conjugating

and sporangial frustules at this period.

- More advanced stage.
. Ditto, where the valves of the conjugating frustules have become

divided. In this, as well as in figs. 15 & 17, one sporangial frus-
tule is hid behind the other, as explained by fig. 16.

. Fully-formed sporangial frustules.
. Sporangial frustule after liberation from the sporangial mucus, &c.,

sez of an inch long.

. Amphora ovalis (Kg.), mihi. Conjugating frustules relatively mag-

nified. The larger ;,;5 of an inch long.

. Conjugating frustules approximated.
. Ditto disunited, but held together by mucus, in which is seen

their endochrome divided into two spherical masses.

. Sporangial frustules appearing, and elongating transversely to

the conjugating frustules.

. Ditto in a more advanced state, valves of conjugating frustules

separating.

. Ditto with ditto, more separated.
. Sporangial frustules formed; two valves of the conjugating frus-

tules remaining in the centre, and one at each end.

. Sporangial frustule liberated, 52,5 of an inch long.
. Ditto undergoing deduplication.
. Ditto after having undergone one or two deduplications, and again

about to deduplicate.

. Conjugating frustule about to deduplicate; here inserted for

comparison with fig. 30.

. Supposed preliminary state to fig. 28; endochrome fissiparating.
. Amphiphora alata (?) (Kg.): shows the broad side of the frustule,

the form of the central cavity, and the shape of the endochrome,
with terminal and lateral foramina.

. Ditto under contortion.
. Oblique view without the endochrome, showing the two compo-

nent parts of the frustule.

. Lateral view without endochrome, showing lateral aperture.
. Different forms of lineolation occasionally seen on the surface.
. Deduplication; complete separation of the individuals not

effected.

10 M. A. Schmidt on a new species of Clausilia.

11.—Description of a new Species of Clausilia from the neigh-
bourhood of Cheltenham. By A. Scumipt.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, 23 Chesham Place, Dec. 12, 1855.

Tue following translation of a notice which I have just received
in Latin from the well-known German malacologist, Dr. Schmidt
of Aschersleben, the collaborateur of Pfeiffer, Rossmassler, and
Menke, will, I think, not be unacceptable to the readers of your
Journal. At all events, it may direct the attention of British
conchologists to an interesting subject of inquiry, and enable
us to decide whether the species in question is henceforth to be
considered as British or not.
I am, Gentlemen,
Your obedient servant,
Wo. J. Hamitton.

Amongst the shells which I have received from the neigh-
bourhood of the town of Cheltenham, I have found Clausilia
Mortilleti, Dumont. As this shell was published by the author
only about two years ago (Bulletin de la Société d’Histoire
Naturelle de Savoie, 1853, p. 78, according to Charpentier), I
do not know whether it has yet been noticed by English mala-
cologists. The author’s specimens, found in the district of Valen-
ciennes (Quénoy near Valenciennes, Département du Nord), at
Lyons, at Lowenburg near Bonn, at Schieder near Pyrmont, and
at Wolfelsfall in Silesia, have been forwarded to me, as well as
the unique specimen from Cheltenham. It is not therefore
probable that this species is on the whole confined to a narrow
district, or that it should live in the single locality alone which
we have mentioned in England. In order that we may as soon
as possible know more about its distribution, I offer the follow-
ing description of it to the notice of English naturalists.

Clausilia Mortilleti, Dumont.

T. subrimata, ventroso-fusiformis, confertim costulato-striata, corneo-
fusca, sericea; anfr. 10-11, convexiusculi, ultimus basi distincte
carinatus ; apertura rhomboideo-pyriformis ; lamella infera pro-
funda, seepe antice ramosa, supera producta cum spirali juncta ;
lunella arcuata ; plica palatalis 1 supera, subcolumellaris vix emersa ;
spatium interlamellare plerumque plicatulum ; peristoma conti-
nuum, breviter solutum.

Long. 14, diam. 4 millim. Apert. 35 long., 2+ lata.

This species is easily distinguished from all those forms which

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 11

are so closely allied both to CZ. ventricosa, Drap., and Cl. lineo-
lata, Heldr., and Cl. plicatula, Drap., by the circumstance that
the strize at the back of the throat (cervix) are rather more
distant from each other than the striz of the penultimate whorl.
It is distinguished from C/. ventricosa both by its smaller size
and the interlamellar plaits (for the true Cl. ventricosa never has
them) ; from C/. lineolata, Heldr. (basiliensis, Fitzinger), and the
other forms allied to Cl. plicatula, both by a distinctly marked
keel bounded on each side by grooves, and by the absence of
the palatal callosity. Nor does it ever possess the rudiment of
a lower palatal fold so peculiar to Cl. lineolata. We shall enter
more fully into this subject in the iconographic monograph
which we have undertaken to write on the Clausilie allied to
ventricosa, plicatula, rugosa, and parvula.
Avor Scumipr.
Aschersleben, Oct. 1855.

II1I.—Memoir on the Indian species of Shrews. By Epwarp
Buiytu, Esq.* With Notes by Rosrrt F. Tomes, Esq.

As an incentive to the investigation of some of the most imper-
fectly known of Indian Mammalia, and not the most inviting of
groups to amateur students, we shall here endeavour to bring
together, and to reduce or digest into intelligible form and
order, the scattered materials available for a monograph on the
Indian Shrews.

It may lead to the discovery of additional real species, and
probably to the diminution of the number of present supposed
species ; besides conducing to the further elucidation of those at
present known and recognized, and especially to a better know-
ledge of the extent of their geographical distribution.

In general the Shrews of tropical and subtropical countries are
distinguished by their comparatively large size, and slaty hue of
every shade from pale grey to black, with rufous tips to the fur
more or less developed, though in some scarcely noticeable + ;
the ear-conch is conspicuously visible above the fur; the tail
thick, taperimg, and furnished with scattered long hairs, which
certain species also exhibit on the body; and the teeth are
wholly white {, and of the following type of structure.

The superior front teeth or quasi-incisors (vide J. A. S. xx. 164)

* From the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

+ In at least some species, the rufous tips appear to increase with age ;
and, to a considerable extent, the colour of these animals is darker accord-
ing to the increase of altitude inhabited by a species.

~ While preparing this memoir, we discovered a remarkable exception in
the instance of Sorex melanodon, n. s.

12 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

are large and strongly hooked, and much longer than their pos-
terior spur ; while the inferior have rarely so much as a trace of
a serrated upper edge: of four upper premolars anterior to the
carnassier, the first is large, the second and third are much
smaller, the fourth is diminutive, and the third exceeds the
second. This group of Shrews is familiarly exemplified by the
common large Musk Shrews of Asia and Africa, and constitutes
the restricted Sorex, L. (vy. Pachyura, De Selys Longchamps*).

The Indian species are as follows :—

1. S. caruLescens, Shaw; S. pzlorides, Shaw; S. giganteus,
Is. Geoffroy ; S. murinus, L., apud Gray : figured in Hardwicke’s
Ill. Ind. Zool. as S. myosurus, Pallas ; whence probably S. myo-
surus, apud Walker, in Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. in. 255. The
common Musk Shrew, or (vu/go) ‘Musk Rat,’ of Bengal, &c.
(but different from the ‘ Musk Rat’ or Muskquash—Freer z1-
spEtHICUS of North America, which is a rodent nearly affined to
the Voles—ARVICOLA).

This animal is described by Mr. Hodgson in the Ann, & Mag.
Nat. Hist. xv. 269 (1845) ; but the length of the tail (as given),
32 in., is possibly a misprint for 33 or 37 in., or more than half
the length of the head and body, which is given as 6in. Num-
ber of caudal vertebrae 24. Total length of skull of adult male,
with front teeth in situbus, somewhat exceeding 13 in. ; of female,
somewhat under greatest breadth of skull of former, +4 in. ; of
latter 2 in. Colour uniform pale grey, slightly tmged with fer-
ruginous, and more conspicuously on the lower parts ; the naked
parts flesh-coloured.

This is the common large Musk Shrew of Bengal, Nepal, and
we believe the valley of Asim; becoming rare in Sylhet, and
wholly disappearing in Arakan. In Nepal Mr. Hodgson styles

* Certain small species of temperate climates were detached by Wagler
from the ordinary Shrews of those climates (with piceous-tipped teeth, &c.)
by the name of CrocipurRa (v. Suncus, Ehrenberg, apud Gray), e. 9.
S. ARANEUS, S. LEUCODON, 8. ETRUSCUS, &c.; but we are not aware that
these are separable from the above, and certainly the various Pigmy
Shrews of India are typical SorrcEs, except that some only of them want
the odoriferous glands on the sides of the body.

N.B. Inthe ‘ Report on the Quadrupeds of Massachusetts,’ published by
the Government Commissioners of the Zoological and Botanical Survey of
the State (1840), the extraordinary statement is made by Mr. E. Emmons,
that “ In the specimens of SoREX which have fallen under my observation,
I have not been able to discover, even with the microscope, any nostrils,
the termination (or extremity) of the nose being apparently an imperforate
membrane.”’ Upon reading this we examined several species (large and
small) preserved in spirit, and easily detected a lateral valvular orifice,
which, on pressure of the snout above, was shown to be perforate, by the
fluid oozmg through. Could Mr. Emmons have tried so simple an expe-
riment ?

Mr. KE. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 13

it ‘the common House Shrew of the plains, and also of the hills
up at least to 6000 feet.” We have seen specimens from the
neighbourhood of Agra; but whether it be the common Musk
Shrew of South India is doubtful on present evidence, though
Dr. Kelaart’s description of the Cingalese animal corresponds.
It certainly does not appear to inhabit the eastern coast of the
Bay of Bengal, from Arakan to the Straits of Malacca. Dr.
Horsfield gives as its habitat “ India generally, and the eastern
islands ;”’ and he notes a specimen from Butan presented to the
India-House collection by Major Pemberton. We suspect that
its reputed existence in the Malay countries needs confirma-
tion.

In addition to the names above cited, Dr. Gray in his Cata-
logue of the specimens of Mammalia in the British Museum
(1843) refers the following name and synonyms to this species :
S. murinus, L.; S. myosurus, Pallas; S. indicus et S. capensis,
Geoffroy ; S. Sonneratii, Is. Geoffroy; 8S. crassicaudatus, Lich-
tenstein; S. nipalensis, Hodgson, and S. moschatus, Robinson.
The last two are merely MS. names ; and indeed the zoological
appellations in Mr. W. Robinson’s ‘ Descriptive Account of
Asam’ are given pretty much at random, and would establish a
most extraordinary community of species among the Mammalia
of that country and of Europe! He gives, “Genus Myeate.
Sorex moschatus, Cuvier. The common Musk Rat.” Now Sorex
moschatus, Li. (nec Cuvier), is the type of the genus Myca.e of
Cuvier ; altered to Myocauea, Fischer (Myogale apud Riippell),
because pre-occupied by Linnzus for a well-known genus of
spiders; and MyocaLea Moscuara is a Russian animal, gene-
rically differing from Mr. Robinson’s Musk Shrew. Nevertheless
his adoption of the term moschatus would seem to indicate the
rankly-smelling 8S. ca#ruLescEeNns rather than S. MuRINUS (vy.
myosurus), which is the only Shrew mentioned in Prof. Walker’s
list of the Mammalia of the same province.

S. Inpicus, Geoffroy, v. S. Sonneratii, Is. Geoffroy, is accepted
as a distinct species from S. c#ruLescens in Dr. Horsfield’s
Catalogue of the specimens of Mammalia in the India-House
Museum (1851) ; and a specimen is noted from the Dukhun,
presented by Col. Sykes, and the following habitat given for the
species —“ Continent and islands of India.” Col. Sykes terms
it the Chuchouder of the Mahrattas ; beimg the same name which
is applied to S. curuLEsceNs in Bengal, spelt Choochundr by
Dr. Cantor (J. A. S.xv. 191) ; and the latter author gives “ Chin-
chorot of the Malays of the Peninsula,” as the name of the very
distinct species referred by him and others to S. murinvs, L. ;
which latter was originally described from Java. According

14 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

to Col. Sykes these troublesome and disagreeable animals are
very numerous in Dukhun, but much more so in Bombay. The
sebaceous glands in an old male were observed to be very large,
and the odour of musk from them almost insupportable ; while
in an adult female the glands were scarcely discernible, and the
scent of musk very faint. [It is tolerably strong in the female
of S. caruLescens ; though more or less so, perhaps, with re-
ference to sexual condition.] ‘ The Sorex rnpicvus and 8. e1-
GANTEUS,” it is added, “are regarded by Col. Sykes as speci-
fically identical, he having killed them in the same room, and
seen them frequently together.” (P. Z. S. 1831, p. 99.) Prof.
Schinz accordingly assigns S. cigantevs, Geoff., Ann. du Mus.
xy. pl. 4. f. 3, as a synonym of S. rnpicus; but the reference is
erroneous, the ‘ Mémoires du Muséum,’ tom. xv. (to which we
have not access) being probably intended. S. cicantxus, Is.
Geoff., Voy. de Bélanger, refers to S. cerulescens of Bengal.

According to M. Isidore Geoffroy, the S. 1npicus (his S. Sonne-
ratit) is a smaller animal than S. c#ruLescens (his S. giganteus),
with tail forming always a quarter of the entire length. Length
of head and body of adult a little under 4 in. (Fr.). Fur ashy,
washed with russet-brown, and pale ashy below. Inhabits the
Coromandel coast and also the Mauritius. If truly a distinct
species from S. CH#RULESCENS, its natural habitat 1s probably
W. India; but we have vainly sought for information of such an
animal.

In Dr. Riippell’s printed Catalogue of the specimens of Mam-
malia in the Frankfort Museum (1842), examples referred to
S. rnpicus, L. (Fr. Cuv. Mamm. ii. t. 28), are noted from Java,
and also from Massoua and from Suez; and a supposed variety,
termed by him §. rnpicvs, var. cinereo-enea, from Schoa; and
he elsewhere suggests that these animals have probably been
introduced by the shipping from 8.E. Asia and its islands, and
so found their way even to Schoa, where a different climate had
effected the colouring of the fur. On ship-board they could of
course subsist on Blatte; but their presence (certainly that
of the foetid S. cerulescens of Bengal) would scarcely escape
remark, the more especially as that of a single dividual might
seriously damage a whole cargo ; besides the obvious necessity of
both sexes bemg required to continue the race, a condition most
likely to be fulfilled by the conveyal of a pregnant female with
her future litter of some five or six. S. cRasstcaupus (nec
crassicaudatus), Lichtenstein, refers to a Musk Shrew inhabiting
Egypt, and stated to be common about Suez, which may there-
fore be presumed identical with Dr. Riippell’s 8S. 1npicus from
Suez; and the description certainly seems to approximate that

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 15

of S. ca#ruLescens (length 5} in. ; tail 24 in.) : and S. Capensts,
Geoffroy, is termed S. rrancinus by Prof. Schinz, who gives
Mauritius as its habitat (length 3” 8!; tail 1" 9"). The most
notable identification is that of Dr. Riippell’s specimens from
KR. Africa and from Java, presuming the latter to be really from
that island.

2. S. murinus, L.; S. myosurus, Pallas ; S. cerulescens, var.,
Raffles; S. Griffithii (?), Horsfield ; the common Malayan spe-
cies originally described from Java, and by Dr. Cantor in J. A.
S. xv. 191, and thus denominated by him after Prof. Schinz
(Synopsis Mammalium), who states it to inhabit Java, Sumatra,
Borneo, Celebes, Amboyna, Japan, Bengal, Abyssinia, and the
Cape of Good Hope.

We have italicized the habitats which probably need veri-
fication : and the Society possesses specimens from the Arakan
and Khésya Hills, which accord with Dr. Cantor’s description,
l.c.; but less so with M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire’s figure in the
Annales du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, tom. xvii. pl. 3. f. 2,
which may nevertheless be intended to represent the same spe-
cies. As compared with a mature female from Arakan, taken
out of spirit, the ears in M. Geoffroy’s figure are represented
too small, and neither the snout nor tail is sufficiently elon-
gated. Length of this Arakan female—head and body 5 in.,
and tail 3 in. ; hind-foot (with claws) 4 in. Unfortunately we
have no Malayan specimen for actual comparison; but there is
every reason to suspect that this species replaces S. cHRv-
LESCENS along the whole eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal,
and thence through the hilly country northward to that skirting
the valley of Asam. Dr. Horsfield mentions a Nepalese speci-
men presented to the India House by Mr. Hodgson; but this
species is unnoticed in the latter gentleman’s Catalogue of
Nepalese animals, and especially in his descriptive notices of the
Nepalese Shrews, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xv. 269.

With the exception of the small 8. renurs, S. Miiller, from
Timor, it appears to be the only well-established species of
Shrew throughout the great Oriental archipelago. In the Tenas-
serim provinces, the Rey. J. Mason states—‘ We have at least
two species of Musk Shrew, both of which emit an offensive
odour.” (Qu. 8S. muriNus and S. serPeNTARIUS?) In S. mv-
RINUS, according to Dr. Cantor, “the smell of musk emitted by
the adult animal, and which in the young is barely perceptible,
is much less intense than in the Bengal Musk Shrew.” S. srr-
PENTARIUS, according to Dr. Kelaart, has a powerfully offensive
musky odour. S. murinus has longer ears than S. cH#RULES-

16 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

cens; and Dr. Cantor describes it as—“ Dark brownish-grey
above, beneath light brownish-grey. Feet and tail flesh-coloured
in the living animal, changing to cinereous after death. In the
young the colour is more of a bluish-grey, slightly mixed with
brown on the back.”’ A stuffed specimen from the Khasya Hills
has the fur longer and less dense than in 8. CHRULESCENS, the
piles somewhat curly, and colour dark ashy at base, with rufous-
brown tips, which give the prevailing hue. A most obviously
distinct species from 8S. CARULESCENS.

We suspect that S. Grifithi, Horsfield, of that naturalist’s
Catalogue of the specimens of Mammalia in the Honourable Com-
pany’s Museum, is no other than our presumed MuRiINus from
the Arakan and Khasya Hills, although described from Afghan-
istan, because we saw a fine skin from Cherra Punji in the
possession of the late Mr. Griffith, which was forwarded to the
India House by Mr. M‘Clelland; and we have previously had
occasion to remark, that specimens of reptiles procured by Mr.
Griffith in Afghanistan and in the Khasya Hills, had manifestly
become mixed and confounded ; whence certain important mis-
takes concerning habitats*. 8S. Griffith is described to be
affined to S. murtnus; “but differing essentially by the uniform
deep blackish-brown tint, and the shortness, delicacy and soft-
ness of the fur. Colour deep blackish-brown throughout, with
a slight rufous reflection in a certain hght. Length of head and
body, 53 ; tail, 23 in.’—Horsfield’s Catalogue.

[From a careful examination of the specimens of S. carv-
LESCENS and S. indicus mentioned by Dr. Horsfield in his
Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum of the Hast India
Company, I am quite persuaded that they are identical, the
latter differing from the former in having the fur of the back
somewhat more tinged with rufous, and the animal in its mounted
state being rather smaller, but the head, teeth and feet are of
similar dimensions. With respect to the comparative length of
the tail, no safe conclusion can be formed from specimens from
which the bone has been extracted, and the form reproduced
according to the fancy of the stuffer.

The specimen of S. murtNus above alluded to by Mr. Blyth
differs only from the above-mentioned species in having the fur
much longer, being nearly twice the length, amounting to 4!",
whilst the fur of S. caruLEScENS scarcely exceeds 2" in length.
The colour also is somewhat darker and browner.

The dimensions of the three specimens in Dr. Horsfield’s
Catalogue are as follow :—

* Vide J. A. S. xxi. 413.

/

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 17

S. cerulescens. S. indicus. 8S. murinus.

“é 4a “é Mi “f vs
Head and body about... 6 60 2 aera ‘
a EE a bes he, 1 7%
asl neo Oe. cee ree:. 2 10 a 2 6
BOPC-ABI Tel ade ess ecawas Nt ee ee ae ae are
MOFGsEOGU aie as ie sassssedee 5k OFA) see.
Tarsus and toes ......... 9 94 9

S. Grirrirutt is a perfectly distinct and well-marked species,
remarkable for the large size of its teeth, which exceed those of
every example of the great S. caruLescens I have yet seen. [
cannot concur with Dr. Horsfield in considering the fur as either
short, close or soft, but describe the species thus—Fur of me-
dium length, deep blackish-grey, glossy and rather coarse ; ears
smaller and more hidden than in 8S. caruLEscens. Front teeth
very large. Head and body about 5" 9!". Head 1" 7" or 8",
Tail 2" 5. Fore-arm 9". Fore-foot 64!". Tibia 11. Hind-
foot 103". Length of lower incisors 31/".—R. F. T.]

3. S. seRPENTARIUS, Is. Geoffroy; S. kandianus, Kelaart.
Described in J. A. S. xxi. 350, from a skin sent by Dr. Kelaart,
as “the large godown Shrew of Kandy,” though scarcely corre-
sponding with his indications, J. A. S. xx. 164,185. A second
skin of precisely the same species, and also an adolescent spe-
cimen entire in spirit, were subsequently forwarded from Mergui
by Capt. Berdmore, as noticed in xxii. 412. In both adults the
tail (vertebrae) measures 24 in.; and the head and body (allow-
ing for some extension of the skin) about 44 in. “The Kan-
dyan specimen is more rufescent than the others, but we can
perceive no further difference whatever ; indeed, to judge from
the two Mergui examples, it would seem that this animal becomes
more rufescent with age.” Dr. Kelaart states that its odour is
as offensive as that of the large Musk Shrew of Ceylon. The
Coromandel coast and the Mauritius are given as its habitats.
Colour duskyish grey, with dark rufous-brown tips to the fur,
more or less developed according to age, and the under parts
somewhat paler.

4. S.soccatus, Hodgson, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xv. 270. A
Sikim specimen which we refer to this species bears considerable
resemblance to the last, but is a good deal darker, with well-clad
feet and tail, and the head and limbs are proportionally larger.
Entire length of skull with front teeth in situbus 14, in.;
breadth ,% in. (nearly) ; entire range of upper teeth 4 in. ; ditto
of S. serPENTARIUS barely exceeding } in. Tail (vertebre)
25, in.; compressed towards tip, which is furnished with a
pencil-tuft of stiffish hairs. Mr. Hodgson thus describes his

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 2

18 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

animal—“ Size and proportions of S. Nemorivacus, H. (nearly),
but distinguished by its feet being clad with fur down to the
nails, and by its depressed head and tumid bulgmg cheeks
(mystaceal region). Ears large and exposed. Colour a uniform
sordid or brownish slaty-blue, extending to the clad extremities.
Snout to rump 34 in.; tail 24 in.; plantain. This animal
was caught in a wood plentifully watered, but not near the
water. It had no musky smell when brought to me dead.”
Hab. Nepal and Sikim.

[For further remarks on the synonymy of this species, see a
note appended to the account of Soriculus nigrescens.—R. F. T.]

5. S. nemorivacus, Hodgson, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xv.269.
Differs from the ordinary type “ by a stouter make, by ears
smaller, and legs entirely nude, and by a longer and more tetra-
gonal tail. Colour sooty-black, with a vague reddish smear ;
the nude parts fleshy-grey. Snout to ramp 33 in.; tail 2 in. ;
planta 41 in. Found only in woods and coppices.” Nepal.
According to Dr. Gray, an example presented to the British
Museum by Mr. Hodgson, as of this species, “is probably only
a half-grown specimen of S. MURINUS ”’ (2. €. CE RULESCENS) ! *
The foregoing description should indicate a very different ani-
mal, but which might be mistaken for the young of S. MURINUS
(verus), and such probably is the supposed 8. MuriNus from
Nepal of Dr. Horsfield’s Catalogue.

[See the note on this last-mentioned species.—R. F. T.]

6. S. HETERODON, nobis, n.s. Very similar to 8. soccaTus
in general appearance, but less dark-coloured, with shorter fur,
and pale instead of blackish feet and tail underneath ; the feet,
too, are broader, especially the hind-feet, and they have a hairy
patch below the heel. The skull, of the same length as in
S. soccatus, and with equally large teeth, is much more narrow,
and the upper quasi-incisors are conspicuously less strongly
hooked than in that and other typical Sortces. From Cherra
Punji in the Khasya Hills.

7. S. nicer, Elliot; described in Dr. Horsfield’s Catalogue
(1851). “Length of the head and body 3 in. ; of tail 23 in.
Tail equal in length to the entire animal, exclusive of the head,
gradually tapering to a point. Snout greatly attenuated. Colour

* We made a description of the identical specimen before it was taken
by Mr. Hodgson to England, viz.—“‘ Of a shining rufescent-brown colour,
merely weaker on the under parts. Length 33 in.; of tail 12 in.; fore-feet
and claws Z in.; the claws alone } in., and of a yellow colour, perhaps
whitish in the fresh animal ; hind-feet and claws 3 in.”

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 19

blackish-brown, with a rufescent shade to the upper parts;
abdomen greyish. From Madras.” (Qu. Madras Presidency ?)

[S. nicer, Elliot, appears like a miniature S. Grirrituit, but
with a long and slender tail. To the description given by
Dr. Horsfield, I may add, that the tail, although long and
slender (thus differing from the larger examples of this section),
has the scattered stiff hairs observable in the species with stout
tails, such as S. caruescens and S. Grirrirar. Fur deep
blackish-grey, tipped with glossy-brown, as in the latter-men-
tioned species, in which, as in S. nicer, the fur has somewhat
of the same glistening appearance so remarkable in some of
the aquatic species of Australian mammals, such as the Orni-
thorhynchus and Hydromys, and also the Myogalea of Europe ;
but at the roots the fur is not so dense as in these aquatic ani-
mals. Head and body 3” 8", about; tail 2 6; fore-foot 6!” ;
planta 9". This note has been taken by the kind permission of
Dr. Horsfield from the specimen described in his Catalogue of
the Mammalia in the Museum of the East India Company.—
R. F. Tomes. }

8. S. rerruGcineus, Kelaart, J. A. S. xx. 185; S. montanus,
apud nos (misled by a label), ibid. 163, vide xxi. 350, note.
Hab. Ceylon.

N.B. The dimensions of the specimen described in J. A. S.
xx. 163, accord with those assigned by Dr. Kelaart to the next
species ; and he states that the two are nearly of the same size,
and that the smell of the present species is very powerful.

9. S. Monranus, Kelaart (nec apud nos, J. A. S. xx. 163).
“Length of head and body 3$ in.; of tail 23 in.; of hind-
foot ¢ in. Fur, above sooty-black, without any ferruginous
smear; beneath lighter coloured; whiskers long, silvery-grey ;
lower part of legs and feet greyish, clothed with appressed hairs.
Claws short, whitish. Ears large, round, naked; the outer
margin lying on a level with the fur of the head and neck, and
being thus concealed posteriorly.” Mountains of Ceylon (“the
blackest Shrew of the highest parts of the island.” Kelaart).

N.B. Dr. Kelaart has lately forwarded an entire specimen in
spirit of a young female Shrew found at Galle (!), though with the
three pairs of inguinal teats well developed, which may prove to
be the young of S. monranvs, but is perhaps distinct and new.
If so, S. Kexaartt, nobis. Colour uniform blackish, above and
below, slightly grizzled and glistening ; the fur short and close,
with scattered fine long hairs throughout (as described of S.
MONTANUS). Length of head and body 23 in.; of tail 14 in.;
and of hind-foot with claws 3 in. p

*

20 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

10. S. premzvus, Hodgson, Ann. & Mag. N. H. xv. 269; nec
S. pygmaeus, Pallas; if the small European species referred by
Schinz, Riippeil, and others to the latter be correctly identified.
S. pyemus, Pallas, apud Schinz, is placed by the latter zoologist
among the species with brown-tipped teeth, and in the division
of them which corresponds to Corsrra, Gray; and the deserip-
tion—cauda basi constricta; auriculis brevissimis—will certainly
not apply either to Mr. Hodgson’s animal, or to various other
minute Indian Shrews hitherto undistinguished from it; and
therefore Mr. Hodgson’s name for the present species may
stand, as he states the structure of the animal to be typical*.
The following is his description :—Snout to vent, less 2 in. ;
tail 1,3, n.; head 4 in.; palmajin.; plantaZin. Structure
typical, save that no odorous glands were detected, nor had the
animal any musky smell. Colour sooty-brown, paler below.
Naked parts of a dusky fleshy hue. Hab. Nepal, where it
“dwells in coppices and fields, and is rarely found in houses.”

Of numerous species of minute Sorices from various localities,
the only one which approaches to the above description is a
species which we have just procured in Calcutta, curiously
enough, while engaged in the investigation of this particular
group. It may be termed

11. S. mELANnopon, nobis, n.s.: from the remarkable colour-
ing of its teeth, which are piceous and white-tipped; exhibiting
thus the reverse coloration of those of Corsira, &c. Length
of adult female 12 in.; tail 1), in.; hind-foot and claws = im.
Colour uniform fuscous, without any rufous tinge; scarcely
paler below; the feet and tail subnude, save the usual scattered
fine long hairs upon the latter, and with the ears and snout of a
livid colour, paler below; claws white, and distinctly visible.

Procured by one of our Museum assistants in his own house,
where he states that he has observed and can probably obtain
others.

12. S. micronyx, nobis, n.s. Length of head and body

3 in.; tail somewhat exceeding 1} in.; hind-foot and claws $3
in.; skull }in. Teeth white. Claws with fine hairs impending
them, and so minute as to be scarcely discernible without a
lens. Fur of a paler and more chestnut-brown than any other
of these minute species examined, and also more silvery below.

* Since writing the above, we have seen the figure of SoREX PYGMZUS,
Pallas and Laxman (S. minutus, L., S. exilis, Gmelin, and S. minimus,
Geoff.), in the Act. Acad. Leop. vol. xiii. pt. 2. t. 25 (1827), and the
species is widely different from all the pigmy Shrews here described, and
is evidently a CorsIRa.

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 21

Feet and tail subnude, or thinly furred, showing the colour of
the skin through; browner above, whitish (or perhaps flesh-
coloured) below. Of two specimens in our Museum, one in spirit,
the other now dried, the latter was obtained by the late Major
Wroughton in Kemaon, the former by L. C. Stewart, Esq., of
H.M. 61st Foot, at Landour, where, he informs us that he
picked up many of them dead, on the surface of the snow, during
the severe winter of 1850-51.

13. 8. Perrorerit, Duvernoy, Guérin’s Mag. de Zool. 1842,
livr. 8. We can only refer to Prof. Schinz’s description of this
species, which is as follows :—‘“ S. not@o saturate fusco-nigri-
cante, gastreo canescente, artubus pedibusque pilosis, auriculis
magnis, conspicuis. Long. corporis 1" 4!", caude 11".” From
the Nilgiris. We have a Darjiling female which approximates
this description, and may prove to be of the same species.
Head and body 1} in.; tail 1 in.; hind-foot and claws $3 in.
Skull somewhat exceeding 3 in. Teeth white. Colour uniform
brown, with a slight tinge of chestnut, and scarcely paler below.
Feet and tail distinctly furred, besides the usual scattered long
hairs on the latter. Claws whitish and conspicuous. Tail
brown above, pale and perhaps flesh-coloured beneath; more
probably, however, of a livid hue, and tapering evenly through-
out. If new, S. Hopesont, nobis.

14. S. nuprpes, nobis,n. s. Remarkable for its naked feet
and yery large ears; also for the odoriferous glands on the sides
being strongly developed, whereas we can detect them in no
other of these minute species. Length of female 17 in.; tail
1, in. ; hind-foot $3 in. Ears conspicuously larger than im the
others ; tail almost nude, save of the long scattered hairs; and
the fore-feet and toes of the hind-feet are conspicuously naked,
and apparently flesh-coloured. Fur uniform brown above (like
the back of Corsira vutGaris), alittle grizzled and glistening ;
the lower parts with a silvery gloss. Tail brown above, pale
(probably flesh-coloured) below ; somewhat thick and uniformly
tapering. Specimen procured at Ambhurst (Tenasserim pro-
vinces).

{Mr. Blyth has since received two from Pegu.—R. F. T.]

15. S. arratus, nobis, n.s. Of this we have only a headless
specimen, which was found, impaled upon a thorn by some
Shrike*, at Cherra Punji, in the Khasya Hills; but the species

* The same fact we have observed in England of Lanius collurio
and Corsira vulgaris, these diminutive Shrews falling an easy prey to
the “ Butcher-birds ;” while the larger members of the same genus are

22 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

is evidently distinct from all the preceding. It is remarkable
for its very dark colour, extending over the feet and tail, which
is even blackish underneath. Length of tail | m., and of hind-
foot } in. Fur blackish-brown above, a little tinged rufescent,
and with dark greyish underneath; the feet and tail conspicu-
ously furred, besides the scattered long hairs upon the latter.

Here may be noticed, that the Society formerly possessed a
specimen of one of these minute Shrews, which was found in a
cellar in Madras, and was presented by Walter Elliot, Esq.,
Madras Civil Service. We formerly considered it identical with
S. MIcRonyx, so that it could scarcely be so with 8S. MELANODON
of Bengal ; it was, however, darker than S. Micronyx; and
more probably 8. Perrorerii (verus), if not distinct from the
whole of the foregoing. It is even probable that several more
Indian species of these most diminutive of all Mammalia remain
to be discriminated. Upon minute comparison of five speci-
mens in our Museum, taken out of spirit and carefully dried for
the occasion, we immediately detected four well-marked species,
and presently afterwards obtained the 8. MELANopON fresh. It
may be further remarked, that we once found the nearly digested
remains of an adult small white-toothed Sorex, rather larger
than a common mouse, in the stomach of an Elanus which was
shot on the banks of the Hugli, about fifty miles above Calcutta ;
but we have since in vain sought to procure the species.

[Since the publication of Mr. Blyth’s memoir, he writes me
word that he has procured another typical Sorex, of which the
following is a description :—

S. rutie1nosus, Blyth, n.s. Length of an adult female
taken from spirits, 54 in.; tail 21 in.; foot plus % in.; skull
1 in., and ¥% in. in greatest diameter. Length of series of
upper teeth ,% in.; breadth of palate 4 m. Soles bare to
the heel ; tail with seventeen vertebre, and perhaps a minute
eighteenth at the tip. The scattered long hairs on the tail
small and fine. Fur dense, porrect, and somewhat velvety ;
dark slaty at base, the rest fuligmous-brown, with conspicuous
dull hoary tips; beneath scarcely (if at all) paler. A second
specimen differs merely in being a trifle smaller. Hab. Schwe
Gyen, Pegu.

Besides the foregoing species thus enumerated by Mr. Blyth,
are two others, named S. saturation and S. Leucors by Mr.
Hodgson ; they have been described by Dr. Horsfield in the

ferociously predatory upon any hapless birdlet they may chance to seize,—
as is likewise the case with Moles, and doubtless other Soricip#& of ade-
quate size and strength.

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 23

Number of the Annals for August of the present year. Both
are from Nepal.

I shall now proceed to give a description of a Shrew from
Mr. Cuming’s collection, received by him from Ceylon, where
it was captured by Mr. Thwaites.

Forms, those of a typical Sorex: teeth white, the lower ones
rather less curved at their points than usual. Odoriferous glands
considerably developed; ears rather large; tail nearly as long
as the head and body, tapering uniformly throughout, appearing
naked and finely annulated, but, on being examined with a lens,
is seen to be furnished with extremely fine short hairs, besides
the usual long ones, which in this species are very fine and thinly
set, and not extending for more than one-third the length of the
tail. Upper surface of the feet furnished with very small thinly
set hairs, appearing almost naked without the assistance of a
lens ; soles of the feet perfectly naked. Fur rather long, being
as much as 2”, which is nearly equal to that of the large S. cxrv-
LESCENS ; dark, close to the skin, but for the greater part of its
length of a grizzled brown, of about the same hue as in Corsira
vuicakis of Europe; beneath decidedly paler, with a yellowish
cast and with a slight silvery gloss, All the naked parts dirty
yellowish-brown; upper surface of the tail browner. Upper
incisors (projecting from the gum) barely 1”; lower ones 11",
Length of head and body 2” 4"; head 101"; tail 111"; fore-
foot and claws 34/"; hind-foot and claws 6". The above was
taken from a male, evidently adult; and a female having the
» mamme considerably developed, but with the teeth exhibiting
some signs of youth, does not differ except in having the tail
a little more slender, slightly quadrangular, and rather more
hairy. Colour of the upper parts darker, and of a slaty hue,
very slightly tinged with brown ; below, grey with a silvery cast,
without any tinge of yellow or rufous. Several others, obviously
immature, resembled this female in colour, but were somewhat
smaller. The only other species from Ceylon, in Mr. Cuming’s
collection, is the S. montanus of Kelaart.

As the species here described appears to differ very con-
siderably from the other small species found in India, I shall
propose calling it Sorex Horsritevpii, as a just tribute to that
well-known naturalist.—R. F. T.]

Another form of white-toothed Shrew, with thick and tapering
tail having scattered long hairs upon it, is exemplified by

Ferocutus, Kelaart. Teeth small; the upper quasi-incisors
shorter and less strongly hooked than in restricted Sorex, with
the posterior spur large; the lower quasi-incisors serrated,
showing two depressions, and therefore a row of three coronal

24 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

points; four small upper premolars preceding the carnassier,
the two medial being of equal size, the first rather large, and
the fourth small. Feet remarkably large. The ear-conch
scarcely visible above the fur.

16. F. macropus. Sorex feroculus, Kelaart; S. macropus,
nobis, J. A. S. xx. 163. Length about 64 in., of which the tail
is 21m; hind-foot with claws nearly 4 m.; the fore-foot } in.
broad, with long and but slightly curved claws, that of the
middle digit { m. in length. Fur somewhat long and very
soft, uniform blackish, very faintly tinged rufescent ; the ex-
treme tip of the tail naked and of a flesh-colour. Inhabits
Ceylon.

Another white-toothed Indian Shrew exists in the Crossorus
Himatayicus, Gray, to be noticed presently. We feel much
doubt of its being correctly referred to Crossopus *.

The greater number of small Shrews inhabiting the temperate
regions of Europe, Asia, and North America, have the teeth
always tipped with ferruginous or pitch-colour, a slender mouse-
like tail with no scattered long hairs upon it, and (save in Ort-
SOREX) the ear-conch concealed amid the fur. There are two
distinct types of dentition.

In one, the upper quasi-incisors are much longer than their
posterior spur (as in restricted Sorex), and the lower have but a
single posterior spur more or less rudimental ; the lateral small
teeth which follow in the upper jaw are four in number (as in
restricted Sorex), the first two being equal, the third somewhat
smaller, and the last (as usual in all Shrews) minute. With this
type of dentition we distinguish

1. Soricutvus, nobis. With the hind-feet of ordmary form
and proportions, unadapted for aquatic habits; and the tail
tapering and a little compressed at the extremity.

17. S. nreREscENS; Corsira nigrescens, Gray, Ann. & Mag.
Nat. Hist. x. 261 (1842) ; Sorex stkimensis, Hodgson, Horsfield’s
Catalogue (1851). Length of head and body 34 in.; of tail 13
im.; hind-feet and claws 3 in. Number of caudal vertebrae 15
(besides the extreme tip). Colour throughout blackish, a little
tinged with rufous ; the feet and claws pale. Very common in
Sikim, and was formerly sent by Mr. Hodgson to the Society’s
Museum, and also to the British Museum, from Nepal.

* Myosorex, Gray, is founded on a Cape species, the SoREX VARIUS,
Smuts, with ear-conch concealed amid the fur, and a slender tail (without
scattered long hairs?); the teeth white, and the dentition slightly modified
upon that of restricted Sorex ; lower quasi-incisors “ with an entire sharp
upper edge.”

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 25

{In a report printed in the J. A. S., bearing the date of Sept.
1854, Mr. Blyth gives a note on this species, which explains
more fully the synonymy than does the present memoir, although
it bears date more recently than the note alluded to. Mr. Blyth
confirms Dr. Gray in referring S. soccatus, Hodgs., and S. ater-
rimus, Blyth, to this species; but he goes on to observe, that
Mr. Hodgson has since described another, and perfectly distinct
species, under the name of S. soccatus, which I presume is the
S. soccatus of the present memoir, a typical Sorex, whilst the
former so-called species is the sole example of the genus Sort-
cutus, Blyth.

After explaining its synonymy, and alluding to the species
since described by Mr. Hodgson as 8. soccatus, Mr. Blyth says:
“The dentition [7. e. of S. nigrescens] is that of Crossopvus, and
not of Corsrra (to which group Dr. Gray assigns the species) ;
but this common little Sikim Shrew does not exhibit the modi-
fications for aquatic habits which are characteristic of Crossorus,
Wagler.” The followmg appears, therefore, to be the synonymy
of this species :—

Corsira nigrescens, Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. x. 261.
1842.
Sorex Sikimensis, Hodgs. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. New Ser.
in. 203.
soccatus, Hodgs. Cale. J. N. H. iv. 288 (not de-
scribed); (?) Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xv. 1845, 270.
aterrimus, Blyth, J. A. 8.B.1843,128? (not described).
Soriculus nigrescens of the present memoir.—R. F. T.]

2. Crossopus, Wagler (v. Hydrosorex, N. Duvernoy, and
Pinalia, Gray). With the hind-feet large and ciliated, and the
tail also compressed and ciliated beneath towards its extremity—
in adaptation to aquatic habits.

N.B. 8. roprens (v. hydrophilus), Pallas, and other Water
Shrews of Europe and N. America constitute the types of this
division ; and Dr. Gray refers to it a Himalayan species, which,
having white teeth, we very much suspect will prove to differ in
other and more important particulars, even though it may
exhibit the adaptive characters of an enlarged and ciliated
hind-foot and compressed and ciliated tail-tip. It is thus de-
scribed :—

18. Cr. Himaxayicus, Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. x. 261
(1842). “Length of head and body 5} in.; tail 3 in.; hind-
foot % (nearly). Slate-coloured black, with scattered long
hairs, which are longer and white-tipped on the sides and rump ;
lower part of the throat and middle of the belly rusty-brown ;

26 Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews.

tail elongate, scaly, with appressed dark brown hairs above and
elongate rigid whitish hairs beneath, and brown elongated rigid
hairs near the tip; feet rather naked; whiskers numerous,
elongate, brown. Teeth white’ Probably from the neighbour-
hood of Simla or Masuri.

[The excellent description given by Dr. Gray of this species
renders it somewhat unnecessary that I should give a detailed
description taken from the same specimen by myself; but having
sent one to Mr. Blyth, at his request, it becomes desirable that
it should appear here, as any future allusion to it might tend to
confuse instead of elucidate. General forms as in the C. FopIENS
of Europe :—Ears hidden in the fur, very small and hairy. Tail
very long and slender, thickly clothed with hair of a stiff nature,
from a distance of about half-an-inch from its root to the tip,
which has a brush or pencil of hairs about a quarter of an inch
long. Nails very short; both fore and hind feet distinctly cili-
ated. Fur rather long, dusky at base, tipped with shining dark
brown on all the upper parts; below the same, but with the tips
paler, especially about the throat, which is stamed with rufous ;
above and around the root of the tail are a number of long pale
hairs, projecting through the fur for a length of about a quarter
of aninch. Head and body about 6"; tail about 3” 6”; hind-
foot and claws 11"; fore-foot and claws 61!". The teeth of this
example are those of a restricted Sorex, and I feel no hesitation
in saying, after a careful examimation, that they have been intro-
duced by the stuffer; also, in the process of preservation, the
tail appears to have been slit up on the under side, thus render-
ing it difficult to decide whether it was ciliated like the feet ;
but, from the appearance of the hair on that part, I think that
it resembled that of C. roprens. It is obviously a true Cros-
sopus.— R. F. T.]

In the other type of dentition, the lower quasi-incisors are
distinctly serrated, with three or four coronal poimts; and the
anterior point of the upper quasi-incisors is not prolonged
beyond a level with its posterior spur; the lateral small teeth
which follow in the upper jaw are five in number, and diminish
gradually in size from the first backward. Tail cylindrical, not
tapering, and furnished with a stiffish brush at the extremity.
Such is the common British Land Shrew, 8. vutearis, L. (for-
merly confounded by British writers with S. anaNeEus, Schreber),
and which is the type of Corsira, Gray (v. Amphisorex, No. 1,
Duvernoy, apud Gray). There are many other species*. We
refer to it doubtfully.

* BiariA, Gray (v. Blarina, Lesson), is founded on S. TALPOIDES,
Gapper, Zool. Journ. v. 28, referred by Blainville to S. BREVICAUDATUS,

.

Mr. E. Blyth on the Indian species of Shrews. 27

19. Cr. (?) caupata; Sorex caudatus, Hodgson, Horsfield’s
Catalogue (1851); for the description seems to indicate a species
closely affined to the European S. Aupinus, Schinz, a skull-less
example of which, from Mt. St. Gothard, is in our Museum ; and
S. ALrrnus is ranged among the species having the Corsrra type
of dentition by Prof. Schinz in his ‘ Synopsis Mammalium ;” its
tail, however, is naked, and compressed at the tip. “ Length of
the head and body 2} in.; of the tail the same, slender, nearly
naked, and very stightly attenuated. Colour saturate blackish-
brown, very slightly rufescent in certain aspects. Snout mo-
derately elongated, furnished at the sides with long delicate
hairs.”

{After a very careful comparison of two specimens in the
Museum at the India House with a specimen of the C. ALprnus
of Europe, which I had taken there for that purpose, I con-
cluded that C. cavpatus and C. ALpinus were very closely
affined, if not perfectly identical. The naked compressed tip of
the tail in the last-mentioned species, as remarked by Mr.
Blyth, also occurs in one of the examples of C. cauparus;
indeed, were this specimen to be placed along with the European
species, it would be almost impossible to distinguish them.

It is probable that many Himalayan species may be found to
be identical with European ones; certainly among the Cheiro-
ptera, the Plecotus and Barbastellus of Mr. Hodgson are iden-
tical with the European representatives of those genera, as I
have ascertained by actual comparison; and the VEesPERTILIO
Darsevincensis of that naturalist differs only from our V.
MYSTACINUS in having the tips of the fur of the back brighter.
—R. F. T.]

We now conclude this effort at a Conspectus of the Indian
Soricin# by soliciting aid from all (probably not many persons
im India) who take any interest in the subject. It will suffice
if specimens could be sent in spirit to the Museum of the
Society (if disembowelled, and the abdominal cavity cleaned of
blood, so much the better for our present purpose, except with
regard to the very diminutive species, examples of which are
particularly acceptable), such being far preferable to badly pre-
pared skins for bemg afterwards set up as stuffed specimens,
besides permitting of much more satisfactory examination of
their differential characters; and it is further desirable that

Say, a N. American species, which, we believe, only differs from Corsira
in the large size of its fore-feet and in its very short tail :—and Orrsorex,
DeKay, is founded on two minute N. American species, which do not ap-
pear to differ from Corsira except in having the ear-conch large and
conspicuously visible above the fur.

Cd

28 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

three or four adults of each kind should be thus transmitted, to
supply our collection with skeleton and stuffed specimens, in
addition to at least one to be retained entire m spirit. The
micro-mammalia, as they have been designated (as Bats, Shrews,
Mice, &c.), require to be thus amply represented im museums,
for their specific distinctions to be rightly understood in many
cases ; and the chaos of Indian Muripa, in particular, will be
never reduced to systematic order, with the synonyms correctly
adjusted, until such a tolerably complete collection of them from
all quarters has been brought together.

[The notes appended to the present memoir were most of
them taken from specimens in the British and India-House
Museums, at the request of Mr. Blyth, and kindly permitted by
Dr. Gray and Dr. Horsfield; but having reached Calcutta too
late for insertion, Mr. Blyth has requested me to add them to
his memoir, and have the whole republished in the ‘ Annals and
Magazine of Natural History.’ I have acted in accordance with
his wishes, and also added references to two species described
by Dr. Horsfield, and given the description of what appears to
be hitherto an undescribed species, in order to render it as com-
plete a monograph of the Indian species as circumstances would

permit.—R. F. T.]

IV.—On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the
Structure of the Oryans of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.
By Tuomas Wrtiams, M.D. Lond., F.L.S., Physician to the
Swansea Infirmary.

[With a Plate. |

[Continued from vol. xvi. p. 421.]

Pectinibranchiata.

Tuis order comprehends a considerable number of families and
genera. It is the largest and most important group of the
Gasteropod Mollusks. In this summary it will be impossible
to present a correct analysis, derived from personal observation,
of the respiratory organs of every genus. If that were possible
indeed to a single observer, an acquisition of great value would
accrue to science. The author is deeply persuaded that even in
such minute constituents of the organism as a single leaflet
from the branchial apparatus, the microscope may reveal the
presence of differences of shape, size, structure, &c., which may

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 29

serve to establish the distinctness of species quite as clearly and
convincingly as the grosser characters of the outward append-
ages. The branchial plates of two separate species, im general
position, in form and size, &c., may to the casual eye of
the descriptive naturalist, appear absolutely identical. Guided
by the microscope, the minute anatomist, however, detects
organic dissimilarities which enable him at once to assign the
objects under view to two distinct animals. A thousand illus-
trations of this kind may be readily adduced to prove the im-
portance of minute investigations of structure. False analogies
suggested by general external resemblances of organs can be
authoritatively corrected only by an appeal to the facts of ulti-
mate structure. How utterly confused, how deeply deficient are
the views of the comparative physiologists even of these advanced
times, as to the history of the renal and urinary systems of the
Invertebrate animals! How difficult, in any given instance of
doubt, to state whether an organ is a kidney or not! The ulti-
mate elements, those last factors which constitute the essence
of the organ, are utterly unknown. For it is not even now
determined what is and what is not essential to the kidney of an
Invertebrate animal. This opprobrium applied but a short time
since to the fluid systems and to the respiratory organs. How
great are the honours yet in store in this field of research for
the clear thinker and fruitful observer !

The general affinities of the Pectinibranchiate order of Mol-
lusks are familiar to all. In all the genera, a spacious branchial
chamber exists (PI. V. figs. 1 & 2). It is a recess over-vaulted by
the anterior termination of the mantle. It occupies the last turn
of the spire. Itis open in front. This arrangement will be after-
wards contrasted with the closed character which it exhibits in the
Pulmonifera. The Pectinibranchs admit of division into two sub-
orders—the Holostomata and the Siphonostomata. In the former,
the margin of the shell and mantle is entire; in the latter, it is
either notched or produced into a canal or siphon (f). Through
this prolongation of the mantle the water enters the chamber.
In the Holostomata it penetrates at the same point in the
fissure between the dorsum of the animal and the edge of the
mantle. The machinery by which the ingress and egress of the
water are effected resides in the branchial hood of the mantle. It
performs regular respiratory movements. These movements,
however, are aided by the invisible agency of cilia. The Pectini-
branchs are prosobranchiate. The heart in all affects a position
immediately behind the branchial organ. The aérated blood
returning from the latter is received directly by the auricle of
the former.

What is designated the branchial vault in the Pectinibranchs

30 Dr. T. Willams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

is not exclusively a respiratory chamber. It serves to lodge
other organs. It contains the heart, the termination of the in-
testine, the excretory ducts of the reproductive system, and
several varieties of glands (Pl. V. figs. 1 & 2). It is therefore
by no means an unimportant part of the body of the mollusk.
Between the position of the rectum and that of the branchie
there obtains in this, as in the Pulmonifera, a constant relation-
ship: one reason for this relationship is a mechanical necessity.
The egressing current from the gills is thus adapted collaterally
to convey away from the body the fecal excreta. This current
connects itself also with the functions of the generative system.
It forms a vehicle for the mucus supplied by the glands of this
chamber. By its aid the latter is enabled to invest the ova as
they escape from the body—constituting thus a cocoon in which
they are temporarily cradled. It is by skilfully subordinating
the office of one organ to that of another, that Nature’s contri-
vance surpasses man’s. In her machinery a force is nowhere
allowed to transpire unutilized. It is always deflected to a pur-
pose; though sometimes to one whose significance may prove
illegible to her observers.

As the details to which the reader’s attention is now solicited
are novel, and now for the first time published, it is desirable
that a clear and concise method of presenting them should be
adopted. The author proposes in the first place to describe the
branchie in those genera especially of this order in which he has
subjected these organs to a special examination. He will then
return to a consideration of the glandular apparatus of this im-
portant cavity, and finally deduce such inferences with respect
to their purpose and function, as their chemistry and the facts
of their minute structure may appear to warrant.

The branchiz of the Pectinibranchs (PI. V. figs. 1] & 2a! a’) are
almost always fixed to the roof of the cavity m which they are
lodged. They occupy an intermediate position between the
“ sland of the mucosity” (fig. 1 4) and the colour-gland (fig. 1 a,
fig. 2 b), which lies invariably to the extreme left. In some
genera the gill is placed at the extreme left of the chamber—at
a point, that is, which is the direct opposite of that of the rec-
tum (fig. 1c). This position is significant of the care with
which Nature locates the breathing organ in order that it may
receive the most direct influence of the aérating current as the
latter enters the cavity. In the following account few differences
in the relative anatomy of this organ will demand attention.
The most striking diversities will be found to affect the figure or
outline-form and ultimate structure of the individual laminz or
pectinations of the gill. These objects are entirely and exclu-
sively microscopic (Pl. V. figs. 3, 4, 9, 13, 14): they are re-

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 31

moved in structure far beyond the sphere of naked vision. Since
however the individual parts of a pectinibranchiate gill con-
stitute under all circumstances sheets whose opposite faces are
more or less smooth, or more or less corrugated and folded, a
little manipulative skill will be required to enable the student to
put to the test of personal observation the particulars comprised
in the following description.

The language commonly used by malacologists in describing
the gills of this order of Mollusks is calculated to lead to many
very false conceptions. They are first said to be “ plumes.” A
‘plume’ or feather is Ji-pectinate, that is, it consists of a stem
bearing ‘barbs’ on either side. Such a word, therefore, conveys
to the mind an untrue image of the real object. The word
* pectinate ”’ is nearer, but still very erroneous, and very inade-
quate as an illustrative analogue. A leaf of the gill of a pec-
tinibranchiate mollusk resembles in figure much more nearly a
‘fan’ than the tooth of acomb. A gill would be a series of
fans laid side by side. It should accordingly be defined rather
as flabelliform (fig. 4) than pecten-iform. The laminz of this
gill are comparable to a ‘fan’ moreover in this remarkable
particular—they are capable of being closed and opened under
the action of muscles. In fact, in other respects they constitute
an apparatus immeasurably more beautiful and complex than
it has hitherto entered into the dreams of naturalists to con-
ceive.

The branchia (fig. 1 a, a) of every genus of this order is seated
on a fixed base which forms a part of the roof of the respiratory
chamber (e, e). In this respect it differs from the breathing
organ of the Tectinibranchs, and resembles that of the Cyclo-
branchs. But the pectinibranchiate gill is distinguished from
that of every branchiferous Gasteropod, and is brought near to
that of a Lamellibranch by a curious incident of structural
mechanism. Lach and every leaf of the gill is stiffened and
strengthened at one of its free borders by the insertion into its
substance of a whalebone-like process of rigid cartilage (fig. 4a, a,
& fig. 7). The presence of this process imparts to this edge of
the organule a thick straight appearance which stands in obvious
opposition to the floating and flexible character of the other
margin (fig. 44). As this process of cartilage is concealed in
the substance of the dorsal border of the leaf, and embraced by
a dense ciliated membrane, it can only be detected by tearing
up the whole leaf into pieces by means of needles. Viewed on
its flat surface the lamina presents a triangular outline (a, b, ¢, d).
This is more or less the figure of the branchial lamin through-
out the entire Pectinibranchiate group. The terminology ap-
plicable in one genus will serve to designate the homologous

32 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

parts in all others. That border which lodges the cartilage may
be called the dorsal or cartilaginous (fig. 4 a-f); that which
stretches from the distal pomt of the cartilage to the extreme
end of the base, the free or flexible border (a, 6, g) formed of the
vascular loops; and thirdly, that may be called the fixed side
(c, c) which is attached to the vault of the cavity throughout its
entire extent, and is the mathematical base of the triangle. In
some genera a portion of the gill is described as pendent and
floating in the cavity. The power to exsert the gill is enjoyed
by Valvata. It is, however, so exceptional a character, that the
branchia in nearly every Pectinibranch may be stated to be
sessile on a fixed base. But in describing the gills of this order,
systematic naturalists without exception commit another error.
In the Siphonostomata, embracing the carnivorous Gasteropods,
the “ branchial plumes are stated to be double, or to be two in
number.” In the Holostomata they are said on the contrary to
be “single,” that is, that there is but one branchial plume. If
this error did not originate with, it certainly has been perpetuated
by Dr. Sharpey. In his article “ Cilia,” m the ‘ Cyclopedia of
Anatomy and Physiology,’ he states that in reflecting the roof
of the branchial chamber in Buccinwm, two sets of gills are seen,
one of which consists of two rows of lamine (fig. 2 5), the other
of one row (a, a). That structure which Dr. Sharpey describes
as a “gill with two rows of lamin,” which is attached to the
extreme left of the vault, is a gland (fig.26; fig. 1 d). The de-
tails of this point will be given on another occasion. In external
characters it looks like a gill. No one but the microscopic
anatomist could note a difference. A deep difference however
does exist. Here again is exemplified the service which minute
special anatomy may render to the cause of general physi-
ology.

His researches enable the author to affirm with confidence,
that in all the Pectinibranchiata the gill is a single organ. Though
in some of the Cyclobranchiata the organ is double, and may
exhibit a bilateral symmetry, in the Pectinibranchs it is single.
To this rule there is no exception. Since the constituent parts
of every pectinibranchiate gill consist of triangular or fan-
shaped leaves, strengthened at the dorsal border by a comb’s
tooth-like process of cartilage, the terms for the construction of
an accurate and consistent general definition of the branchiz in
this family of Mollusks are established. A subdivision of these
organs into two leading classes becomes essential, however, with
a view to a more accurate description of structural minutiz. In
the genera Buccinum and Littorina the extreme representatives
of these two classes occur. The branchial leaf of the former
(fig. 4) is distinguished by smooth sides—that is, it is an unpli-

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 33

eated lamina having the same minute structure in every part of
its extent. In the latter (fig. 3) complex plications (c, c—d, b)
oceur which multiply to a considerable degree the area of the
active surface. This is so remarkable a character, that if the
plieee were a little more prominent, each leaf of the gill of the
Periwinkle might be correctly described as a bipinnate structure
(fig. 3B). The plice are however mere folds of the smooth sur-
face of the lamina, as will be afterwards explained. These parts
are so minute, that the malacologist, using merely the unassisted
eye, would pronounce the gill-leaf of Buccinum and that of
Littorina to be one and the same thing,—to be identically or-
ganized. But how essentially unlike! The evidence furnished
by the ultimate anatomy of the branchie would require that the
family of the Littorimide should be placed m juxtaposition with
the Tectinibranchiata.

The pectinibranchiate gill (fig. 1 a, a; fig. 2a, a) may be de-
fined then as a series of parallel blood-vessels-bearing leaflets,
decreasing in size from the centre of the series to either end,
projecting at right angles and vertically depending from the
walls of the containing chamber. The long axis of the entire
organ is parallel with the line of the rectum and that of the
glands peculiar to this cavity (fig. 1 d, b). Though only two
main varieties of anatomical structure occur among the branchie
of this order, the diversities observable in the size and shape of
the lamine in intermediate examples are as numerous not only
as the genera but really as the species. In the genus Jrochus
(figs. 13 & 14) they are more or less similar in all the species.
In every species, however, some peculiarity is distinguishable in
the contour of the laminz, which suffices to establish specific
independence. Those of Trochus magus (fig. 13) are triangular,
the dorsal border (a, d) being slightly convex, the free or flexible
border (4) being gently concave, while the distal apex is rounded
(a). The base (c) of the longest lamina, which occupies always a
position in the centre of the gill, measures about ;,th of an inch
in full-grown specimens.

In Trochus cinerarius (fig. 14), a closely allied species, the
distal angle (a) is elongated into an acute apex, the free border
(b) is at first convex and then sweeps into a very prolonged base
(e, c), giving to the attached border twice as great a length as in
that of the former species. Other varieties of figure occur in
the gill-leaves of Trochus umbilicatus, and T. tumidus*. The

* In arriving at a knowledge of the exact figure of the branchial lamine,
I have invariably adopted one method of examination. It has consisted in
eutting out a few leaves or a small portion of the centre of the gill; the
section being coincident with the plane of the laminz, and at right angles
with the long axis of the entire organ. This portion is then carefully

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 3

84 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

cartilage which occupies the dorsal edge is curved at its point
in some species (fig. 12), so that it acquires, its root being the
fuleral point, all the resilient qualities of a bow. In others it is
blade-shaped (fig. 7). It tends always to straighten itself. This
tendency is expended upon the flat surface and the free margin
of the laminz, which are thus maintained in a tightened state,
like outstretched or expanded sheets. This is undoubtedly the
true purpose which this peculiar cartilage is intended to fulfil in
the gills of this order of Mollusks. Its existence has never yet
been suspected by anatomists. From the mechanical, lever-like
character of its office, it is evident that upon its duly regulated
action must depend the function of the entire leaflet. Without
it, a sheet of such surpassing delicacy as an individual branchial
lamina could not sustain the required vertical position, Without
some such contrivance the leaflets would be driven, crushed and
folded confusedly by every current and pressure. An elastic
apparatus, of inconceivable beauty and perfection, is realized in
these hyaline invisible and hidden parts. They hold, with a force
of immeasurable gentleness, the respiratory laminz at such a
degree of tenseness as best favours the transit of the water
between them, and of the blood throughout the extent of their
plane superficies. No crumpling or folding or confusion of any
kind can happen even in the relative position of structures of
such extreme tenuity and slenderness. And yet it has never
occurred to the curiosity of any one of the thousand observers
by whom these organs have been witnessed, to catechise Nature
as to the mechanism by which such wonders, though minute, are
_ accomplished! In organic workmanship, minuteness and_per-
fection are often twin qualities of the same machinery! These
cartilages are peculiar to the gills of the Pectinibranchiata, and
as the unfolding of details proceeds, it will be seen that they
undergo variations of size and shape, but never of relative posi-
tion, according to the differences of families, genera, and even of
species. Into the branchial system of this large and important
order they are special importations, fulfilling purposes of a
special nature.

But the office of the border-cartilages is not restricted to the
end which has just been defined. They conduct and protect
the larger afferent and efferent blood-channels of the lamin
(tig.3e). It is by thus transmitting a primary column of blood
placed on the glass slip, floated in salt water if the specimen be marine in
habits, in fresh water if from a freshwater habitat, and then lightly
covered with a plate of thin glass. A few lamin at the same time are
detached by means of needles and torn up, in order that the objects may
be examined under different points of view. Various reagents are used in

the examination of the vessels, cartilages, muscles and fibres, &c. of the
organ.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 85

from the fixed border to the apex of the leaflet, that every single
spot of the flat surface of the latter is rendered available in the
active operation of breathing.

When a single lamina is detached and placed singly, floating
in salt water, under the microscope, and viewed as a transparent
object, it may be supposed that the spectacle must be one of ex-
treme definedness, every one of whose constituent elements may
be readily singled out and read by the eye. This is an @-priorz,
and therefore as usual an erroneous fancy. Nothing is so diffi-
eult to the unpractised observer as to read clearly and accurately
the spectacle under view. It demands an exercised eye even to
distinguish an epithelial particle from a blood-corpuscle, a
blood-channel from the crease or fold of the lamina, a near ob-
ject from one placed at a greater focal distance. Practice and
perseverance will however enable the student to interpret with
confidence and accuracy all the subtle elements of this incon-
ceivably beautiful structure.

A little experience in the art of viewing the branchial organs
of the Gasteropod Mollusks will suffice to assure the least inter-
ested observer, that the blood-channels traverse the plane extent
of the laminz in parallel vessels, of uniform diameter, separated
from each other by appreciable intervals, and bounded by indi-
vidual and independent walls (fig. 4 d,d). In Trochus they
appear to run (fig. 13 e) from the dorsal edge (a) to the free
border (4) along one face of the leaf, and back again along the
other surface, looping round the edge. On both surfaces they
are invested in a similar manner by ciliated epithelium, the cilia
being large at the edges and small over the flat face of the
lamina.

Although the preceding account conveys an exact illustrative
image of the type which prevails throughout the branchial system
of this multitudinous order, yet as this occasion is the first on
which these particulars have been published, it is desirable to
enter into an examination of some few other examples of the
pectinibranchiate gill.

In Phasianella the branchia is said to be partially detached
and free in its cavity, but in other relations it imitates the type
of the Trochidan organ.

The Paludinide are prosobranchiate gasteropod mollusks
which inhabit fresh water. It is curious to observe, that this
marked contrariety of habitat should occasion no variation of
place or structure in the organ of breathing. The branchia of
this family, like those of all pther Pectinibranchs, affects a
position on the vault of the thoracic chamber, having the
rectum and generative ducts parallel to it on the right side,
and the mucous glands on the other. A siphon exists on the

3x

36 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

left of the breathing cavity, while on the right the rectum, as in
Lymneade, is prolonged in form of a tube beyond the edge of
the mantle on the right. In a large specimen of Paludina vivi-
para, it is easy to extract the animal out of its shell by cracking
the latter at different points. The position of the organs con-
tained in the branchial vault may be now seen through the
mantle. The whole cavity, as in all Pectinibranchs, is ciliated.
On the exterior it is also ciliated to a short distance beyond
the edge of the mantle. It lies obliquely in the cavity extendmg
from the posterior left corner to the right anterior end. The
gill is constructed in exact conformity with the pectinibranchiate
model. The leaves of which it is composed are triangular in
shape, the base of the triangle being the free border. They
rest on a fixed base, and carry a rigid process of cartilage in
the substance of the dorsal margin. The blood-channels and
the vibratile cilia exhibit the same disposition as those of Bue-
cinum, which will be presently explained at length. The heart
is situated at the extreme posterior boundary of the cavity near
the pot at which the rectum joins the branchia. The ovary,
filled with young, is seen on the right side of the rectam. The
specimen from which the preceding account has been drawn
had been for some time preserved in spirit ; but the author be-
lieves that near the dorsal edge of each branchial lamina in
Paludina, slight traces of secondary pinne, or plications, will be
discovered, such as those, far more prominently developed, which
are now to be figured and described in the Littorinide. If this
feature of structure should, on a further examination of fresh
examples, be proved to exist, a new point of relationship between
the genera Paludina and Littorina will have been established.
In describing their respiratory system, it was once intended to
place the Littorinide apart as a separate group, in order that
contrast of position might attract towards them immediately the
attention of malacologists. The author, however, thinks that,
for the present—that is, until, by further search, other examples
of the same formation shall have been collected,—it is better to
place the Littorinide here, between the Paludinide and Turri-
tellide (British Mollusca), rather than dislocate the arrangement
of systematists, even at the inconvenience of returning after-
wards to the description of the smooth or unplicated variety of
branchiez. A singular abnormity occurs in the gills of the
genus Valvata. It is protruded for a considerable distance
beyond the shell, at the left side of the body of the animal. It
consists of a long straight axis, from the opposite sides of which
filiform pinnz or secondary processes project. These again
bear minuter pinnule, which are the ultimate processes. This
gill may be regarded as a transitional variety between the plain,

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 37

or smooth, type of the lamina in the Paludinidz and the plicated
form of the organ which prevails probably throughout the Litto-
rinidan family. An opportunity of examining minutely a recent
specimen of Valvata has not yet occurred to the author.

In the genus Littorina, the last turn of the shell is very large
relatively to the second and the third. By this criterion, the
capacity of the respiratory chamber may be estimated. It pre-
sents a considerable size in these mollusks compared with the
bulk of the entire body. The augmented dimensions of the
cavity are due to the increased volume of the contained organs
(fig. 1). The branchia (fig. 1 a, a) is highly developed, and
occupies a large share of the cavity. It extends from the hind-
most boundary to the root of the siphon. It lies obliquely from
left to right along the roof of the chamber. Viewed as a whole,
it will be observed to consist of two halves (fig. 2 a, a), which
are divided by a clearly marked line extending from one extreme
of the organ to the other. One of these halves (fig. 3 a, a) corre-
sponds with the dorsal or cartilaginous borders of the leaves,
and consists of a series of parallel unbending rigid lines or fila-
ments; the other half (fig. 3g), more wavy, flocculent, soft and
flexible, coincides with the membranous portion of the lamine.
To the left of the gill is situated a peculiar gland (fig. 1 d)
having a bipectinate appearance, less developed in this mollusk
than in Buccinum, and which Dr. Sharpey, and after him all
systematic malacologists, has described as a double, though rudi-
mentary gill. It will be shown that it is a true gland. To the
left of the branchia there lies a large glandular mass, which is
always enveloped in viscid mucus, and which exhibits a leafy
or laminose structure. On the reflected roof (as shown in
fig. 1), still further to the left, is observed another glandular
mass (e), which some anatomists have described as the renal
organ ; and, lastly, a duct which belongs to the reproductive
system (j). The structure of these glands will be discussed
on another occasion: the branchia only will be at present
described. Powdered Lycopodium strewn lightly over the fresh
organ will move in one definite direction; namely from the
right, or cartilaginous border, to the left, or membranous
(arrows, fig. 1 a, a). This current, examined more closely,
will be found to be subdivided into as many rivulets as there
are spaces between the leaves of the entire organ. Of course
these superficially indicated currents are but the edges of ver-
tical sheets of water which are in the act of traversing the
spaces between the lamin. These currents are impelled by two
forces, one of which is due to the action of the numerous minute
muscles fixed to the cartilaginous margins of the laminz (fig. 14
ce, d), whose office it is to furl and unfurl, approximate and
separate the individual leaves. By this contrivance a mechanical

38 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

power is capable of being exerted on the strata of water inter-
posed between the leaves, under which it is driven forwards at a
speed regulated by the necessities of the breathing function.
The second force is the ciliary. The large cilia which occupy
the edges, and which are arranged in rows (fig. 3a, a), are
capable of raising a sensible current. The minute cilia which
are distributed over the flat surfaces of the lamine drive along
only microscopic streams.

By means of a thin sharp scalpel, a section may be easily
made through the gill, parallel with the plane of the laminz,
and through the substance of the vault. If this section be made
about the middle of the gill, one of the largest laminz may be
readily detached and placed as an individual object under the
microscope. Such an object is represented im Pl. V. fig. 3.
The dorsal margin curves like a reaping-hook (a, a). It is
stiffened by a large sickle-shaped cartilage (a, e) which extends
from the root to the apex: it supports the whole organ zn situ.
Within this border, running along the side of the cartilage,
are also concealed two large vessels, with which many of the
ultimate blood-channels of the lamina are connected. Along this
dorsal edge are disposed two rows of large cilia, which propel
currents in two opposite directions, downwards along one side,
and upwards along the other. Every part of the leaf beyond
this cartilaginous border consists of a soft membranous sub-
stance (A), thickly vascular, composed, in fact, of little more
than vessels. The next feature to be noticed in the structure
of this branchial lamina is a series of duplicatures (c, ¢ and 3, 0)
of this surface, and is singularly distinctive of the branchial
organ of this family of Mollusks. At first they look like acci-
dental folds of a delicate membrane; but as they occur in every
single leaf throughout the organ, it follows that they are organic
formations. If the leaflet is laid carefully on the glass slip,
floating in water, and gently covered, without pressure, the true
character of these parts may be most clearly determined.
They consist undoubtedly of a difid fold (B) of only one half
of the lamina, for a similar fold exists on the opposite surface.
Each fold is made up of two parts, which are united gradually
at either end, and separated by an interval in the middle. The
long axis of each fold is at right angles with the line of the
dorsal margin ; but the row is parallel with the latter. Slightly
beyond this row of plicee, and nearer to the centre of the leaflet,
is to be observed a second and smaller system (c, c). The folds
are formed in the latter case precisely as in the former. These
two systems of plications are separated from each other by a
narrow space of smooth membrane. All that portion of the
lamina which intervenes between the second row of folds and
the extreme apex (7) of the lamina is a plain unplicated surface,

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 89

sustaining a double series of parallel blood-channels. The ana-
tomy of the folded portion of the leaf may be better understood
on a tranverse section (such section is represented at fig. B),
It will be seen that the duplications of the surface are the same
on both sides (f,/), and that the opposite folds are formed upon
the same transverse axis.

The next problem to be solved in the analysis of this most
beautiful mechanism relates to the disposition of the blood-
vessels (A, h). This question could never be determined by in-
jections, however fine or successful. The practised eye, reading
the same structure throughout an extended series of varieties
and modifications, may infallibly decipher the blood-system
even of these subtle and delicate lamine. The leaf tapers away
into a slender point at the extreme membranous end (y). If
the same blood-channel, or the same drop of blood, travelled
from the dorsal border (a,a) across the entire length of the
lamine, as far as the tapering point (/), it is evident that such
a portion of blood would undergo an excessive degree of aération,
while that which traversed the space at either apex (7, 4) would
fall short of the required amount of oxygenation. This incon-
venience is obviated by giving to the vessels a generally oblique
direction across the plane of the lamina (d, 4). The vessels as
they traverse the folds (c, cand 4, 6) maintain the same character
and direction as they exhibit on the smooth portions. This
fact proves that these folds are really none other than duplica-
tions of the surface. They serve, notwithstanding, to multiply
the active superficies of the little organ, and the vessels which
they carry, although unaltered in direction, are smaller in
diameter and more closely arranged. The ciliary action over
these portions is also more active and vigorous than on other
parts. The vessels are most distinct in outline and disposition
about the central region of the leaf (h, h, fig. 4d). That the
channels are conduits, distinct and individualized, separately
walled, running side by side, and seldom inosculating, may be
unquestionably proved by the steady examination of this part.
That the channels loop around the free edge (figs. 5 & 6) to gain
the other side, along which they return, the observer may con-
vince himself by focusing the microscope at this border. The ap-
pearance is then such as is shown in fig. 5, and fig. 9 6. The
cilia of the flat surface are seated on a pavement epithelium, those
of the borders stand out like filaments from a larger description
of cell (fig. 8).

The author has proved, that in all the species of the genus
Littorina discoverable on the coast around Swansea, the branchial
lamine are constructed on the model (fig. 3) of that just de-
scribed. The duplications are not of the same precise size and
character in all; but in all they exist. He would propose this

40 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

incident of structural type as a criterion of relationship between
the several genera of the family of the Littorinide. He has
not examined the branchiz of Lacuna, Assiminia, Jeffreysia and
Skenea; but those of the genus Rissoa discover a marked ten-
dency towards this peculiarity of formation.

Several families must now be passed over as hitherto unex-
amined. The branchiz of the Muricide may probably, however,
be considered as typically representative of those groups which
intervene between them and the Littorinide.

The whole of this extensive family is said by systematic authors
to be characterized by the possession of two gills; one described
as doubly pectinated, and the other as singly pectinated. As
formerly stated, Dr. Sharpey has adopted this definition in his
article “ Cilia,” in the ‘ Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology.’
The branchial chamber in this family (fig. 2) is constructed on
the same principle as that of other Pectinibranchs. It is a
capacious vault, open in front from one side to the other by a
fissure. On the left side the edge of the mantle is prolonged
into an extended recurved siphon. The glands (ec, 4) of the
cavity, as will be explained afterwards, are highly developed ;
one of them so much so as to have led to the idea that it was a
second branchia. The true gill (a, a), which is a single organ,
stands between this supposed supplementary gill and the large
mucous gland (c), to the left of which is observed the rectum (e).
In the Muricide, the third gland (fig. 1g), called by some
authors the renal gland, is not visible within the boundary of this
cavity. The whole of the interior of the chamber is actively
ciliated ; the exterior is not so. The epithelium here is smooth.
Little peculiarity exists in the branchial system of this family
(fig. 4). The organ is large (fig. 2 a, a); it has the shape of
two cones laid base to base. The broadest laminz are therefore
in the middle, the smallest at either end. It is so situated as
to receive directly the column of water as it enters by the siphon
(f). The course of this water, as indicated by the arrows (fig. 1),
is from left to right; it thus passes first, and in the most pure
state, over the branchiz, then over the mucous gland, and lastly
over the rectum. The planes of the branchial lamine (fig. 4)
are coincident in direction with the main water-current in pass-
ing from the left to the right side of the branchial cavity.
Nothing is so easy as to determine the figure of the gill-leaves
in any of the larger genera of this family. Buccinum is a familiar
example.

The gill of Buecinum undatum is composed of many hundreds
of leaves. These leaves, towards the centre of the organ, are
regularly triangular in figure (fig. 4 a, a). At the extremities,
each lamina loses more rapidly in vertical depth than in length, so
that at last they become scarcely visible creases of the pallial mem-

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 4]

brane. The membranous border is drawn out to a considerable
length (g) beyond that part of the gill which is apparent to the
naked eye. By this extension of the active branchial surface, the
action of the aérating current on the blood is prolonged. In no
single instance of the pectinibranchiate gill are the cartilages of
the laminze so developed as in this family. It is here that the
true structure and office of these singular elements of the bran-
chial mechanism may be most advantageously studied. In the
branchia of Buccinum they are straight, sword-shaped blades
(fig. 7); they are skilfully fitted into the dorsal or thick edge of
the lamina (fig. 4 a, f); they act the part of beams, or arms,
whereon is hung the sheet of the leaflet (a, g). Without them,
the latter could not by any means be held in situ; that is, could
not be maintained at that degree of expansion essential to the
proper and adequate contact of the blood with the water. To
the bases of these cartilaginous beams, muscles (fig. 14 c, d)
are attached, which are capable of influencing the entire leaf,
Under their action it may be either stretched lightly or folded
together like a closed fan. The flat surface of the branchial
lamina in Buccinum is always unplicated.

In the fresh specimen it may be seen, with perfect clearness,
that it is traversed by waving paralle] blood-channels (fig. 4 d, d).
In no instance among the Pectinibranchs is it more easy to con-
vince oneself that these vessels loop at the free flexible margin
(ec) of the leaf than in Buccinum (fig. 5). The lamine are con-
siderable in superficial area (a, g), exhibiting a surface equalling
a tenth of a square inch. The vessels (d) are prominent, being
readily traced by 3 an inch power. The walls display a granu-
lated character (fig. 5 g, g), im consequence of the contents of
the epithelium. This circumstance individualizes each blood-
channel most clearly. The flat surface of the leaf is also covered
by a flat, scaly, polygonal epithelium (fig.6), the cells of which are
filled with minute granules, and armed with short cilia. Along
the base or fixed border of each leaf run two large vessels
(fig. 4c, e), one of which is afferent, the other is efferent. Thus,
in brief, is written the anatomical history of this remarkable
organ. It is at once evident that the key-stone of this structure
is the beam of cartilage, which imparts strength and rigidity to
the dorsal margin of the slender sheet ; and, further, constitutes
a point of attachment to a system of muscles, by which, as by a
lever, the entire apparatus may be extraordinarily furled and
unfurled, and otherwise variously controlled.

_ Another example of the Muricidan gill may be described,
in order to show, that in two closely allied species of the same
genus a striking difference of structure may occur im one and
the same organ.

The apices of the lamine in the gill in Purpura lapillus are

42 Mr. J. D. Dana on the Origin of the

curved sharply (fig. 9 a). In Buccinum, as just stated, the
dorsal border terminates in a straight point. Although this
trait is only a microscopic incident of formation, it is quite
enough to constitute the distinctness of the species. In every
other respect the lamine discover the same structure as that just
explained in Buccinum. The gill-leaves of Murex and Nassa
exhibit also slight variations of shape, compared with the
standard figure of those of Buccinum. From such examples the
naturalist may well exclaim, how marvellous and unaccountable,
that in establishing the independence of species, Nature should
change the very fabric of the minutest parts of the body!

In the Conide and Cypreade, the author has every reason
to believe that the branchiz conform with exactness to the type
of those of Buccinum. They may vary in the special outline of
the amine, but not in essential structure. They lie in the
branchial chamber in the same oblique position, and exhibit
the same relation to the glands of the cavity.

Although the transition may be strange and abrupt, it is con-
venient at this point to pass to the consideration of the pulmo-
niferous Gasteropods; not because there is much im common
between their breathing system and that of the branchiferous
orders, but because the glands contained in the thoracic cavity
of the Pulmonata correspond in structure and dependencies most
intimately with those which are contained in the branchial
chamber of the Pectinibranchs last described. According to
this distribution of subject, the “glands” of the respiratory
cavity of both the branchiferous and pulmoniferous orders will
come to be considered under one head.

[To be continued. |

V.— On the Origin of the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea.
By Mr. James D. Dana.

[The present paper is the conclusion of Mr. Dana’s Report on the
Geographical Distribution of the Crustacea. As the opinions here
put forward appear to be of great importance in the study of the
geographical distribution of animals, we have thought it advisable to
transfer this portion of Mr. Dana’s work to our pages; but the tables
of facts on which they are founded would occupy too much space ;
they will be found in Silliman’s Journal, vols. xvi. xvill. xix. & xx.
—Eps. |

Tue origin of the existing distribution of species in this depart-
ment of zoology deserves attentive consideration. Two great
causes are admitted by all, and the important question is, how
far the influence of each has extended. The first is, original
local creations ; the second, migration.

Under the first head, we may refer much that we have already

Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 43

said on the influence of temperature, and the restriction of
species to particular temperature regions. It is not doubted
that the species have been created in regions for which they are
especially fitted ; that their fitness for these regions involves an
adaptation of structure thereto, and upon this adaptation, their
characteristics as species depend. These characteristics are of
no climatal origin. They are the impress of the Creator’s hand,
when the species had their first existence in those regions calcu-
lated to respond to their necessities.

The following questions come under this general head :—

1. Have there been local centres of creation, from which
groups of species have gone forth by migration ?

2. Have genera only and not species, or have species, been
repeated by creation in distinct and distant regions ?

3. How closely may we recognize in climatal and other phy-
sical conditions, the predisposing cause of the existence of specific
genera or species ?

With regard to the second head, migration, we should re-
member, that Crustacea are almost wholly maritime or marine ;
that marine waters are continuous the globe around; and that
no sea-shore species in zoology are better fitted than crabs for
migration. They may cling to any floating log and range the
seas wherever the currents drift the rude craft, while the fish of
the sea-shores will only wander over their accustomed haunts.
Hence it is, that among the Pacific Islands the fishes of each
group of islands are mostly peculiar to the group, while the Crus-
tacea are much more generally diffused.

A direction and also a limit to this migration exist, (1) in the
currents of the ocean, and (2) in the temperature of its different
regions. Through the torrid zone, the currents flow mainly
from the east towards the west ; yet they are reversed in some
parts during a certain portion of the year. But this reversed
current in the Pacific never reaches the American continent, and
hence it could never promote migration to its shores. Again,
beyond 30° or 35° of north or south latitude, the general course
of the waters is from the west, and the currents are nearly uni-
form and constant. Here is a means of eastward migration in
the middle and higher temperate regions. But the temperate
regions in these latitudes are more numerous than in the tropics,
and species might readily be wafted to uncongenial climates,
which would be their destruction ; in fact they could hardly
escape this. Moreover, such seas are more boisterous than those
nearer the equator. Again, these waters are almost entirely bare
for very long distances, and not dotted closely with islands like
the equatorial Pacific.

In the northern hemisphere, on the eastern coasts especially,

44 Mr. J. D. Dana on the Origin of the

there are warm currents from the south and cold currents from
the north, The former overlie the latter to a great extent m the
summer, aud may aid southern species in northward migrations.
Cape Hatteras is nearly the termination of the summer line of
70° (see Maury’s Chart), a temperature which belongs to the
subtorrid region in winter. On the China coast, at Macao, there
is a temperature of 83° in July, and in the Yellow Sea, of 78°
to 80°. But such northward migrations as are thus favoured, are
only for the season; the cold currents of the winter months de-
stroy all such adventurers, except the individuals of some hardier
species that belong to the seas or have a wide range in distribu-
tion. Sea-shore Crustacea are not in themselves migratory, and
are thus unlike many species of fish. Even the swimming Por-
tunidee are not known voluntarily to change their latitudes with
the season.

The following is a brief recapitulation of the more prominent
facts bearing on these points :—

1. The distribution of individuals of many species through
twelve thousand miles in the torrid zone of the Oriental seas.

2. The very sparing distribution of Oriental species m Ocei-
dental seas.

3. The almost total absence of Oriental species from the west
coast of America.

4. The world-wide distribution within certain latitudes of the
species we have called cosmopolites.

5. The occurrence of closely allied genera at the Hawaiian
Islands and in the Japan seas.

6. The occurrence of the same subtorrid species at the Ha-
waiian Islands and at Port Natal, South Africa, and not in the
torrid zone intermediate, as Kraussia rugulosa and Galene na-
talensis.

7. The occurrence of identical species in the Japan seas and
at Port Natal.

8. The occurrence of the same species (Plagusia tomentosa)
in South Africa, New Zealand, and Valparaiso ; and the occur-
rence of a second species (Cancer Edwardsii (?)) at New Zealand
and Valparaiso.

9. The occurrence of closely allied species (as species of Am-
phoroidea and Ozius) in New South Wales and Chili.

10. The occurrence of the same species in the Japan seas and
the Mediterranean, and of several identical genera.

]1. The occurrence of a large number of identical species in
the British seas and the Mediterranean ; and also in these seas
and about the Canary Islands.

12. The occurrence of closely allied, if not identical, species
(as of Palemon) in New Zealand and the British seas ; and also

Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 45

of certain genera that are elsewhere peculiarly British, or com-
mon only to Britain and America.

13. An identity in certain species of Eastern and Western
America.

The following are the conclusions to which we are led by the
facts :—

I. The migration of species from island to island through the
tropical Pacific and East Indies may be a possibility ; and the
same species may thus reach even to Port Natal in South Africa.
The currents of the oceans favour it, the temperature of the
waters is congenial through all this range, and the habits of
many Crustacea, although they are not voluntarily migratory,
seem to admit of it. The species which actually have so wide a
range are not Maioids (which are to a considerable extent deep-
water species), but those of the shores ; and some, as Thalamita
admete, ave swimming species.

II. The fact, that very few of the Oriental species occur in
the Occidental seas, may be explained on the same ground, by
the barrier which the cold waters of Cape Horn and the South
Atlantic present to the passage of tropical species around the
Cape westward, or to their migration along the coasts.

Moreover, the diffusion of Pacific tropical species to the Western
American coast is prevented, as already observed, by the west-
ward direction of the tropical currents, and the cold waters that
bathe the greater part of this coast.

III. When we compare the seas of Southern Japan and Port
Natal, and find species common to the two that are not now
existing in the Indian Ocean or East Indies, we hesitate as to
migration being a sufficient cause of the distribution. It may
however be said, that driftings of such species westward through
the Indian Ocean may have occasionally taken place, but that
only those individuals that were carried during the season quite
through to the subtorrid region of the South Indian Ocean (Port
Natal, &c.), survived and reproduced ; the others, if continuing
to live, soon running out under the excessive heat of the inter-
mediate equatorial regions. That they would thus run out in
many instances is beyond question; but whether this view will
actually account for the resemblance in species pointed out, is
open to doubt.

IV. When, further, we find an identity of species between the
Hawaiian Islands and Port Natal—half the circumference of the
globe, or twelve thousand miles, apart—and the species, as Ga-
lene natalensis, not a species found in any part of the torrid re-
gion, and represented by another species only in Japan, we may
well question whether we can meet the difficulty by appealing
to migration. It may however be said, that we are not as yet

46 Mr. J. D. Dana on the Origin of the

thoroughly acquainted with the species of the tropics, and that
facts may hereafter be discovered that will favour this view.
The identical species are of so peculiar a character that we deem
this improbable.

V. The existence of the Plagusia tomentosa at the southern
extremity of Africa, in New Zealand, and on the Chilian coasts,
may perhaps be due to migration, and especially as it is a
southern species, and each of these localities is within the sub-
temperate region. We are not ready however to assert, that
such journeys as this range of migration implies are possible.
The oceanic currents of this region are in the right direction to
carry the species eastward, except that there is no passage into
this western current from Cape Horn, through the Lagulhas
current, which flows the other way. It appears to be rather a
violent assumption, that an individual or more of this species
could reach the western current from the coast on which it might
have lived; or could have survived the boisterous passage, and
finally have had a safe landing on the foreign shore. The di-
stance from New Zealand to South America is five thousand miles,
and there is at present not an island between.

VI. Part of the difficulty in the way of a transfer of species
between distant meridians might be overcome, if we could as-
sume that the intermediate seas had been occupied by land or
islands during any part of the recent epoch. In the case just
alluded to, it is possible that such a chain of interrupted com-
munication once existed; and this bare possibility weakens
the force of the argument used above against migration. Yet
as it is wholly'an assumption, we cannot rely upon it for evi-
dence that migration has actually taken place.

VII. The existence of the same species on the east and west
coasts of America affords another problem, which migration
cannot meet, without sinking the Isthmus of Darien or Central
America, to afford a passage across. We know of no evidence
whatever that this portion of the continent has been beneath
the ocean during the recent epoch. An argument against such
a supposition might be drawn from the very small number of
species that are identical on the two sides, and the character of
these species. Libinia spinosa occurs at Brazil and Chili, and
has not been found in the West Indies. Leptopodia sagittaria,
another Maioid, occurs at Valparaiso, the West Indies, and the
Canaries.

VIIL. The large number of similar species common to the
Mediterranean and British seas may be due to migration, as
there is a continuous line of coast and no intermediate tempera-
ture rendering such a transfer impossible; and the passage
farther south to the Canaries of several of the species is not

Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 47

beyond what this cause might accomplish. Still, it cannot be
asserted that in all instances the distribution here is owing to
migration ; nor will it be admitted unless other facts throw the
weight of probability on that side.

IX. But when we find the same temperate zone species oc-
curring in distant provinces, these provinces having between
them no water-communication except through the torrid or
frigid zone, and offering no ground for the supposition that such
a communication has existed during the recent epoch, we are led
to deny the agency of voluntary or involuntary migration in
producing this dissemination. An example of this, beyond all
dispute, is that of the Mediterranean Sea and Japan. No water-
communication for the passage of species can be imagined, An
opening into the Red Sea is the only possible point of intercom.
munication between the two kingdoms ; but this opens into the
torrid zone, in no part of which are the species found. The
two regions have their peculiarities and their striking resem-
blances ; and we are forced to attribute them to original creation,
and not intercommunication.

X. The resemblances found are not merely in the existence
of a few identical species. There are genera common to the
two seas that occur nowhere else in the Oriental kingdom, as
Latreillia, Ephyra, Sicyonia, &c.; and species where not iden-
tical having an exceedingly close resemblance.

Now this resemblance in genera and species (without exact
identity in the latter) is not explained by supposing a possible
intercommunication. But we may reasonably account for it on
the ground of a similarity in the temperature and other physical
conditions of the seas; and the well-known principle of “ like
causes, like effects,” forces itself upon the mind as fully meeting
the case. Mere intercommunication could not produce the re-
semblance; for just this similarity of physical condition would
still be necessary. And where such a similarity exists, creative
power may multiply analogous species ; we should almost say,
must ; for, as species are made for the circumstances in which
they are to live, identical circumstances will necessarily imply
identity of genera in a given class, and even of specific structure
or of subgenera.

If then the similarity in the characters of these regions is the
occasion of the identity of genera, and of the very close likeness
in certain species (so close that an identity is sometimes strongly
suspected where not admitted), we must conclude that there is a
possibility of actual identity of species, through original creation.
This, in fact, becomes the only admissible view, and the actually
identical species between Japan and the Mediterranean are ex-
amples.

48 Mr. J. D. Dana on the Origin of the

XI. When we find a like resemblance of genera and species
between temperate-zone provinces in opposite hemispheres that
are almost exact antipodes, as in the case of Great Britain and
New Zealand, we have no choice of hypotheses left. We must
appeal directly to creative agency for the peopling of the New
Zealand seas as well as the British, and see, in both, like wis-
dom, and a like adaptedness of life to physical nature. The
Palemon affins of the New Zealand seas is hardly distinguish-
able from the common P. squil/a of Europe, and is one example
of this resemblance. It may not be an identity; and on this
account it is a still better proof of our principle, becauset here is
no occasion to suspect migration or any other kind of transfer.
It is a creation of species in these distant provinces, which are
almost identical, owing to the physical resemblances of the seas ;
and it shows at least, that a very close approximation to identity
may be consistent with Divine Wisdom.

The resemblance of the New Zealand and British seas has
been remarked upon as extending also to the occurrence in both
of the genera Portunus and Cancer. It is certainly a wonderful
fact that New Zealand should have a closer resemblance in its
Crustacea to Great Britain, its antipode, than to any other part
of the world—a resemblance running parallel, as we cannot fail
to observe, with its geographical form, its insular position, and
its situation among the temperate regions of the ocean. Under
such circumstances, there must be many other more intimate
resemblances, among which we may yet distinguish the special
cause which led to the planting of peculiar British genera in this
antipodal land.

The close resemblance in species and genera from Britain and
New Zealand, and from Japan and the Mediterranean, and the
actual identity in some species among the latter, prove there-
fore that, as regards the species of two distant regions, identity as
well as resemblance may be attributable to independent creations,
these resemblances being in direct accordance with the physical
resemblancesof the regions. As this conclusion cannot be avoided,
we are compelled in all cases to try the hypothesis of migra-
tion by considering something beside the mere possibility of its
having taken place under certain assumed conditions. The pos-
sibility of independent creations is as important a consideration.
After all the means of communication between distant provinces
have been devised or suggested, the principle still arises, that
it is in accordance with Divine Wisdom to create similar and
identical species in different regions where the physical cireum-
stances are alike ; and we must determine by special and thorough
investigation, whether one or the other cause was the actual
origin of the distribution in each particular case. Thus it must

Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 49

be with reference to the wide distribution of species in the
Oriental tropics, as well as in the European temperate regions,
and the temperate zone of the South Pacific and Indian
Oceans.

XII. With respect to the creation of identical species in di-
stant regions, we would again point to its direct dependence on
a near identity of physical condition. Although we cannot admit
that circumstances or physical forces have ever created a species
(as like can only beget like, and physical force must result sim-
ply in physical force), and while we see in all nature the free act
of the Divine Being, we may still believe the connexion between
the calling into existence of a species and the physical circum-
stances surrounding it, to be as intimate nearly as cause and effect.
The Creator has, in infinite skill, adapted each species to its place,
and the whole into a system of admirable harmony and perfection.
In His wisdom, any difference of physical condition and kind of
food at hand, is sufficient to require some modification of the
intimate structure of species, and this difference is expressed in
the form of the body or members, so as to produce an exactness
of adaptation, which we are far from fully perceiving or compre-
hending with our present knowledge of the relations of species
to their habitats.

When therefore we find the same species in regions of unlike
physical character, as, for example, in the seas of the Canaries
and Great Britain—regions physically so unlike—we have strong
reason for attributing the diffusion of the species to migration.
The difference between the Mediterranean and Great Britain
may require the same conclusion for the species common to these
seas. ‘They are so far different, that we doubt whether species
created independently in the two could have been identical, or
eyen have had that resemblance that exists between varieties ;
for this resemblance is usually of the most trivial kind, and affects
only the least essential of the parts of a species.

The continental species of Crustacea from the interior of dif-
ferent continents are not in any case known to be identical ; and
it is well understood that the zoological provinces and districts of
the land are of far more limited extent than those of the ocean.
The physical differences of the former are far more striking than
those of the latter. As we have observed elsewhere, the varie-
ties of climate are greater ; the elevation above the sea may vary
widely ; ; and numberless are the diversities of soil and its condi-
tions, and the circumstances above and within it. Hence, as the
creation of each species has had reference most intimately to each
and all of these conditions, as well as to other prospective ends,
an identity between distant continental regions is seldom to be
found, and the characteristic groups of genera are very widely

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii.

50 On the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea.

diverse. Comparatively few genera of Insects have as wide a
range as those of Crustacea; and species, with rare exceptions,
have very narrow limits. Where the range of a species in this
class is great, we should in general look to migration as the
eause, rather than original creation; but the considerations
bearing on both should be attentively studied, before either is
admitted as the true explanation.

Throughout the warmer tropical oceans, a resemblance in the
physical conditions of distant provinces is far more common and
more exact than in the temperate zone; and hence it would
seem that we cannot safely appeal to actual differences as an
argument against the creation of a species in more than one place
inthe tropics. The species spread over the Oriental torrid zone
may hence be supposed to owe their distribution to mdependent
creations of the same species in different places, as well as to mi-
gration. Yet we may in this underrate the exactness of physical
identity required in regions for independent creations of the same
species. We know that for some chemical compounds, the condi-
tion of physical forces for their formation is exceedingly delicate ;
and much more should we infer that, when the creation of a living
germ was concerned, a close exactness in the conditions would be
required in order that the creation should be repeated in another
place. Infinite power, it is true, may create in any place; but
the creation will have reference to the forces of matter, the ma-
terial employed in the creation. The few species common to
the Oriental and Occidental torrid seas seem to be evidence on
this point. The fact that the Oriental species have so rarely
been repeated in the Occidental seas, when the conditions seem
to be the same, favours the view that migration has been the
main source of the diffusion in the Oriental tropics.

As we descend in the order of Invertebrates, the species are
less detailed in structure, with fewer specific parts and greater
simplicity of functions, and they therefore admit of a wider
range of physical condition; the same argument against multi-
plication by independent creations in regions for the most part
different, does not, therefore, so strongly hold. As we pass, on
the contrary, to the highest groups in Zoology, the argument
receives far greater weight ; and at the same time there are capa-
bilities of migration increasing generally in direct ratio as we
ascend, which are calculated to promote the diffusion of species,
and remove the necessity of independent creations.

Migration cannot therefore be set aside. It is an actual fact
in nature, interfering much with the simplicity which zoological
life in its diffusion would otherwise present to us. Where it
ends, and where independent creations have taken place, is the
great problem for our study. This question has its bearings on
all departments of Zoology ; but in few has migration had the

Prof. W. King on the Fossil genus Anthracosia. 51

same extended influence as in that of Crustacea. Mollusks, if
we except oceanic species, are no travellers, and keep mostly to
narrow limits.

XIII. There is evidence, in the exceedingly small number of
torrid-zone species identical in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans,
that there has been no water-communication across from one to
the other in the torrid zone, during the period since existing
species of Crustacea were first on the globe.

XIV. As to zoological centres of diffusion for groups of spe-
cies, we can point out none. Each species of Crustacea may
have had its place of origin and single centre of diffusion in
many and perhaps the majority of cases. But we have no reason
to say that certain regions were without life, and were peopled
by migration from specific centres specially selected for this
end. If such centres had an existence, there is at present no
means by which they may be ascertained, The particular tem-
perature region in which a species originated may be ascertained
by observing which is most favourable to its development: we
should thus conclude that the Ranina dentata, for example, was
ereated in the subtorrid region, and not the torrid, as it attains its
largest size in the latter. By pursuing this course with reference
to each species, we may find some that are especially fitted for
almost every different locality. Hence we might show, as far
as reason and observation can do it, that all regions have had
their own special creations.

The world, throughout all its epochs m past history, has been
furnished with life in accordance with the times and seasons,
each species being adapted to its age, its place, and its fellow
species of life,

VI.—On Anthracosia, a Fossil Genus of the Family Unionide.
By Wicttam Krve, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology
in Queen’s College, Galway, Corresponding Member of the
Natural History and Medical Society of Dresden, &c.

[With a Plate. ]

Tux lakes, rivers and estuaries of the Carboniferous period were
inhabited by two groups of Bivalves; the generic characters of
neither have as yet been fully described. One group includes
forms having much of the external aspect of ordinary species of
Unio; while the other comprises members possessing the out-
ward appearance of certain aviculoid forms of Modiola.

But as external resemblances are not always to be depended
on in determining the genus of a fossil shell, some palzeonto-
logists have gone no further, in the present case, than merely
to refer the bivalves in question to the genera named; while

4

52 Prof. W. King on the Fossil genus Anthracosia.

others have placed the Unioniform shells in the totally distinct
genus Cardinia, and the Modioliform species in that of Myalina.

As it is possible that I may have to notice the last-named
genus on a future occasion, | purpose confining myself, in the
present paper, to the Unioniform group.

Some years back, when residing in Neweastle-on-Tyne, I
occasionally obtained some good casts and testiferous specimens
of the so-called fossil Unios from Jarrow pit and some others in
that district ; also from a clay-ironstone band near Whitley.

On examining these specimens, I ascertained that they pos-
sessed certain characters sufficiently distinctive, and were deficient
in a very important one, to warrant their removal from the genus
in which they were usually placed. This led me to propose, in
the Annals for November 1844*, a new genus for the fossils in
question, under the name Anthracosia, on the occasion of my
nominating and describing some other fossil genera,—intending
to publish the diagnosis of it shortly afterwards. I need not
enter into any explanation of the causes which have prevented
this intention being carried out; suffice it to say, that, as several
parties have adopted the name I proposed, and as no one, that
I am aware of, has yet published any generic description of these
fossils, I feel myself bound to take up the subject, even after the
lapse of so many years.

The character which Anthracosia is deficient in, exists in all
the known genera of Unionide. It consists of a largish scar in
each valve, situated immediately behind the impression of the
anterior adductor muscle, and which is evidently supplementary
to the usual number of retractor rauscles belonging to the foot
of other Dimyarian shells, and inserted within or near their um-
bonal cavities. To distinguish the scars left by the supplementary
muscles from those produced by the ordinary anterior foot-retrac-
tors, they have sometimes been termed “supplementary pedal
muscular scars.”

Reverting to the Unioniform fossils, several fine casts have
passed under my notice; but in none have I observed the
“supplementary scars,’—only those usually situated, as in
ordinary bivalves, within or near the umbonal cavities. The
remarkably fine cast, represented in PI. IV. fig. 5, is exceedingly
instructive in this respect.

The absence of these scars appears to have given rise to the
opinion, that the fossils under consideration, though admitted
to be freshwater species, belong to a marine genus, or, at least,
to one (Cardinia) originally formed for some well-characterized
marine shells.

* “On a new Genus of Paleozoic Shells.’”,—Annals and Magazine of
Natural History, vol. xiv. 1844.

Prof. W. King on the Fossil genus Anthracosia. 53

But, notwithstanding the absence in Anthracosia of the sup-
plementary sears peculiar to the Unionidae, there can be little
doubt, from the presence of another essential feature, of the genus
belonging to the family just named.

In most Dimyarians, the ligament extends from the corselet
(where it covers the cartilage, when this last part is external) to
a little in front of the umbones; but the umbonal portion is
seldom well developed, except in certain species—notably in Cy-
prina Islandica, in each valve of which it oceupies a rounded cavity,
excavated in the hinge-plate immediately beneath the umbone,
and in front of the cartilage. In the Unionide, however, the
umbonal portion is as much developed as the corselet division ;
and that part of the hinge-plate, on which it is situated, is never
separated from the teeth by so marked a line of demarcation as
prevails in marine shells. These peculiarities may be distinctly
observed in our British Unios: they are also to be seen in Unio
littoralis, and more or less in all the American species. In these,
as well as marine shells, the corselet ligament is more compact
than the umbonal portion,—the latter being composed of imper-
fectly conjoined laminz, which, in Unionide, produce a number
of parallel curving linear i impressions, commencing from above
the cardinal teeth, and descending behind them, nearly to the
inner or free margin of the hinge-plate. When the umbonal
portion of the ligament is removed, impressions of its constituent
laminz are quite obvious on the hinge-plate.

The fossil genus Anthracosia has evidently possessed the liga-
mental peculiarities of the Unionide in an eminent degree, as
that part of the hinge-plate on which the umbonal ligament was
implanted is comparatively large and deeply excavated ;—indeed,
in the typical species it is much larger and deeper than in any
existing forms that have passed under my notice.

I repeat then, there can be little doubt that its ligamental
characters prove the genus Anthracosia to be a member of the
family Unionide ; but as its mollusk was not furnished with the
usual supplementary pedal muscles, it may be considered as
representing an abnormal section.

Family Unionip2.

Genus ANTHRACOSIA*, nobis.

Syn. Unio, Sowerby and others.
Pachyodon, Brown (not Stutchbury).
Cardinia (in part), Morris and others.

Diagnosis.—Equivalved: meguilateral. Teeth—one in each

* From avOpag = = carbon, im allusion to the carbonaceous deposits in
which the genus is usually found.

kK

54 Prof. W. King on the Fossil genus Anthracosia.

valve below the umbone, rather low and massive: crown of tooth
of right valve excavated anteriorly and ridged posteriorly: crown
of tooth of left valve ridged anteriorly and sloped posteriorly.
Umbonal ligamental fulcra, each a furrow excavated in the
hinge-plate, between the umbone and tooth. Scars of the ante-
rior set of pedal muscles situated above the anterior adductor
muscular impressions.

Typical species, Unio Beaniana*.

The dental system of Anthracosia is much simpler than that
of most Unionide; and it differs so much from what usually pre-
vails in the family as to appear formed on a totally different plan.
The dental formula is merely— Cardinals 4; and the interlocking
of the teeth is simply thus—the excavation of the right-valyed
tooth receives the ridge of the left-valved one; and the ridge of
the former fits on to the slope of the latter, as is exhibited in the
diagram section represented under fig. 8, Pl. IV. In other den-
tiferous Unionide, however much the cardinal teeth may vary in
form and direction, they all appear to be formed on one plan;
and their formula is thus :— Cardinals Renee | with or without
Laterals, the left-valved two clasping the right-valved one (vide
PI. IV. fig. 4). Hence in the latter shells the teeth interlock each
other completely, and much more securely than in Anthracosia.
In the latter genus, however, this defect was undoubtedly com-
pensated by the unusual size of the umbonal portion of the liga-
ment. None of the testiferous specimens which I have examined,
of the type of Anthracosia, exhibit the least appearance of pos-
terior teeth ; nor do casts of some other species before me afford
any indication of their presence in the genus. It will thus be
obvious that the genus Cardinia, which possesses well-developed
posterior teeth, and which is furnished with some other differ-
ential characters, is not the proper group, as some appear to
think, for the shells under consideration.

The fulera of the umbonal ligament of Anthracosia, although
simply an enlargement of a peculiar feature of the Unionide,
nevertheless form a well-marked character in the diagnosis of the
genus. In the typical species they are widish furrows, broadest
and deepest on the inner or free margin of the hinge-plate: that
of the left valve is more deeply excavated than the right-valved
one. The linear impressions of the lamine forming the um-
bonal ligament are rather prominently marked on both fulera,
and they curve suddenly down (formimg a deep sinus) to the
inner margin of the hinge-plate (vide Pl. IV. fig. 2).

Judging from the species represented under fig. 6, Pl. 1V., the
cartilage appears to have been of the usual size. Several speci-

* Vide Supplementary Note.

Prof. W. King on the Fossil genus Anthracosia. 55

mens have occurred to me in which this structure is equally well
porecryad ; and I perceive that Captain Brown represents it in
is Pachyodon (Anthracosia) rugosus*.

The impressions of both adductor muscles are usually well
displayed on casts. The anterior one, which is by far the most
distinct, is strongly jagged in most species. The pallial line,
exhibiting the simple character prevailing generally in the family,
is also often very well marked. The scars produced by the an-
terior pedal muscles are limited to the umbonal cavity and the
edge of the hinge-plate, as in Dimyarians generally (vide PI. 1V.
fig. 5). I have searched repeatedly and carefully on casts of
various species for the supplementary scars, without however
observing any that I could safely conclude were such. Occa-
sionally | have seen marks on or near the part where they usually
occur; but I feel perfectly satistied that they can only be con-
sidered as accidental, having never seen them on good sharp casts.
It is necessary to mention this, as some persons might look upon
such marks as having been produced by the supplementary re-
tractors of the foot.

Probably the absence in Anthracosia of a character hitherto
never found to be absent in the Unionidae, might give rise to the
opinion that the genus ought to be placed in another family.
Further discoveries may render such a step necessary. I feel
persuaded, however, that whatever may hereafter be discovered,
the relationship between Anthracosia and the Unionidae, contended
for in this paper, will not be in the least weakened. At present
I am only disposed to go the length of regarding it as the type
of an abnornal section of the family.

Anthracosia appears to be confined to deposits of the Carboni-
ferous system; for all the Unionide hitherto described as occurring
in secondary and tertiary deposits are normal forms of the family.
The Eocene Unio Solandri, anda small Neocomian species before
me, exhibit the supplementary scars. Mantell detected them im
his Unio Valdensis; and they are well displayed on a Jurassic
species found in the Gristhorp plant-beds, and described some
years ago by my friend Mr. Bean, under the name of Unio dis-
tortus. This specimen appeared to me so interesting as regards
the character under consideration, that Mr. Bean kindly allowed
me to make the sketch which is given in Pl. IV. fig. 7.

Although none of the Carboniferous species that I have seen
display the supplementary scars, it must not be considered that
I have no belief in the existence of normal Unionide during the
primary period. The highly interesting form named Anodon

* “Description of some new species of the genus Pachyodon.”’—Ann.
& Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 391, Pl. 15. figs. 6 & 7 (1843).

56 Prof. W. King on the Fossil genus Anthracosia.

Jukesit by Forbes, and occurring in the Knocktopher plant-beds,
is calculated to settle this point ; for should it possess the scars
in question, the conclusion must arise that normal species of the
family existed in the Devonian epoch,—also contemporaneously
with Anthracosia.

Supplementary Note.

Not being able to identify the type of Anthracosia with any
published species, I am under the necessity of publishing it as
new, naming it after my friend Mr. Bean.

Anthracosia Beaniana, King.

Diagnosis.—Oval : very inequilateral. Umbones small. . Valves
thin, rather tumid, and marked with nearly obsolete wrinkles.

This species has some resemblance to Brown’s Pachyodon
bipennis ; but it differs from the latter notably in the anterior
end being much shorter. The valves throughout their length
are evenly rounded, giving no marked prominence to the um-
bones. It does not appear to have much exceeded an inch or so
in length.

It occurred to me in the coal-measures near Newcastle-on-
Tyne*.

Belmont, near Galway,
December 12, 1855.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Anthracosia Beaniana, King. a, Left valve (which is restored
behind the black line); b, Right valve.

Fig. 2. Dental system of the same species; enlarged. a+, posterior slope,
6+, anterior ridge of cardinal tooth of left valve, a; a, posterior
ridge (fitting on posterior slope (a+) of tooth of opposite valve),
b, anterior excavation (receiving anterior ridge (6+) of tooth of
opposite valve) of right valve, b ; 0, 0, ligamental fulera on hinge-
plate.

Fig. 3. Diagram exhibiting vertical section of cardinal teeth of the same

* A few days ago (Dec. 22) I received from Professor Sedgwick for the
Library of Queen’s College, Galway, the Third Fasciculus of his ‘¢ Synopsis
of the Classification of the British Paleozoic Rocks,’”’ in which I perceive
that Professor M‘Coy has published a genus under the name Carbonicola.
My friend evidently thinks it synonymous with Anthracosia, which he ad-
mits being aware that I intended describing! However, 7f the genus Car-
bonicola possess the characters diagnosed by Professor M‘Coy, it is clearly
not the same as my Anthracosia, which does not possess any lateral teeth.
There are certain errors in the remarks under the genus Carbonicola which
it must be obvious to any one that I am not called on to correct; but it is
otherwise with several interspersed throughout the work. Some of those now
alluded to, I purpose correcting im future Numbers of the ‘ Annals,’ and
the remainder I hope to put right, should J have an opportunity of bring-
ing out a new edition of my Monograph.—Dee. 27, 1855.

Mr. W. Clark on the Genus Assiminia. 57

species. A, anterior end; B, posterior end; a, posterior ridge ;
6, anterior excavation of cardinal tooth of right valve, b; a+, pos-
terior slope; 4+, anterior ridge of cardinal tooth of left valve, a;
ce, umbonal ligament.

Fig. 4. Diagram exhibiting vertical section of the cardinal teeth of Unio
littoralis, a, smgle tooth of right valve, b, clasped by the two
teeth, b, of left valve, a. The remaining letters have the same
references as in fig. 3.

Fig. 5. Anthracosia acuta, Sowerby. Cast, exhibiting adductor muscular
impressions, @, a—scars of the anterior set of foot-retractors, 2—
and pallial line, ec.

Fig. 6. Anthracosia Smithii? Brown. Testiferous specimen, exhibiting
the cartilage, a.

Fig. 7. Unio distortus, Bean. Jurassic. Cast in Mr. Bean’s Museum, ex-
hibiting anterior adductor muscular impression, a—scars of the
anterior set of foot-retractors, b—supplementary scar, c—and a
portion of pallial line, d.

VII.--On the Genus Assiminia.

[We have received a further communication on this subject from
Mr. Clark, in reply to the observations of Dr. Gray in our last
Number, which we must decline publishing, the question having
been sufficiently discussed in our pages to enable the reader to form
his own opinion on the matter in dispute. We cannot however,
in fairness to our correspondent, refuse insertion to the two fol-
lowing paragraphs, which we trust will terminate the correspondence
on this subject.—Eps. }

“With respect to the generic maxims propounded by Dr. Gray,”’
Mr. Clark observes—‘‘I dissent from them,—and disagree with
Dr. Gray’s restriction of the number of the species of a genus, except
under more stringent conditions than he has stated. Dr. Gray’s
comparison of Assiminia and Truncatella is decidedly incorrect, and
I maintain the position that the so-called Assiminia Grayana is
malacologically a well-marked Truncatella.

“I would also draw attention to the unfair manner in which
Dr. Gray has commented on some of my statements: there is a
studied reticence in his observations on important points, the corre-
lative incidents of which are passed over without that notice which
would have supplied corrections and explanations. To give an in-
stance : in these ‘ Annals’ for October I observed that I was ‘not sur-
prised that my logic should not find favour with one who considers
that a genus must be restricted in the number of its species, however
similar these may be in every essential character. Dr. Gray quietly
suppresses every allusion to the words which I have marked in
italics, probably from a fixed idea that essential characters are of no
importance in the establishment of genera. If I am correct in this
supposition, I must still decline to entertain the belief that such
views are held by modern zoologists, notwithstanding Dr. Gray’s
repeated assertion that such is the case.”

58 Bibliographical Notices.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Recherches sur les Crinoides du Terrain Carbonifere de la Belgique.
Par L. pe Konincx et H. te Hon. Bruxelles. 1854.

Tus volume, which has been reprinted from the Memoirs of the
Royal Academy of Belgium, embodies the researches of the authors
on the crinoidal remains which have been found in the carboniferous
limestone of that country. One of the authors, Prof. de Koninck,
has long been known as an acute and zealous paleontologist, and his
work, published in 1842, ‘On the Fossils of the Mountain Limestone
of Belgium,’ was an important addition to geological science, afford-
ing us another term of comparison with the British species, as well
as the affinities and distribution of these upper paleeozoic forms.

At the time of publication of the former work, although containing
descriptions of 500 species from this deposit, only fifteen species of
Crinoids were then recognized. Since that period, by more active
researches, and under very favourable circumstances, a large number
of specimens have been obtained, from which the authors have elimi-
nated, described, and fully illustrated in this work no less than fifty-
three species from Belgium alone. The conditions under which some
portion of the carboniferous series of Belgium occurs, either as decom-
posed limestone or of an argillaceous character, have permitted the
extraction of many specimens in a perfect state of preservation. By
this means the authors have been enabled to study with more preci-
sion and detail than is usual in limestone fossils, the structure of cer-
tain little-known species of Crinoids, and have further been enabled
to confirm or modify the previously received opinions, as well as sug-
gest others, respecting the organization and probable habits of these
singular and interesting animals. The fifty-three species belong to
eleven genera, of which four are new, viz. Mespilocrinus, Graphio-
crinus, Forbesiocrinus and Lageniocrinus. According to the opinion
of Prof. de Koninck, the carboniferous limestone series of Belgium is
divided into an upper and lower; the former, that of Tournay, being
characterized by the Spirifer Sowerbyi, Fischer ; the latter, that of
Visé, by the presence of Productus giganteus, Mart., P. striatus,
Fisch., and Spirifer striatus and S. bisuleatus. This distribution
of species does not, however, accord with the notions of some geolo-
gists. Taking however the facts as stated by Prof. de Koninck with
regard to the distribution of the species of Crinoids, nine belong ex-
clusively to the lower or Productus giganteus horizon ; these are—
and we quote them for the purpose of further investigation in this
country—Cyathocrinus mammillaris, Poteriocrinus calyx, P. M‘Coy-
anus, P. Phillipsianus, P. conoideus, Rhodocrinus uniarticulatus,
Mespilocrinus granifer, Actinocrinus tricuspidatus, Lageniocrinus
seminulum. The first three species have also been found in England.

The remaining forty-four species belong to the superior horizon of
Spirifer Sowerby, and are characteristic of this stage in Belgium.
Twenty-four of these latter are also found in the British deposits.

The prefatory matter contains an historical introduction on the

Bibliographical Notices. 59

Crinoidea, in which the authors give a general review of the phases
in the history of this family, and a summary of the various opinions
as to their affinities and classification which have been suggested by
the principal writers on the subject. A valuable list is also given,
arranged in chronological order, of the works, memoirs and papers
of the naturalists who have alluded to the Crinoidea, from the ‘ De
Natura Fossilium’ of Agricola in 1558 to the present time, and which
includes no less a number of publications than 346! One would
have little thought that this almost paleeozoic dynasty should have
met with so many complimentary inquiries ; fortunately for them,
their “ Aistoire’’ has been protected by better conservators than those
in one of our public departments, where, it has been stated, some
valuable historical documents have been carelessly disposed of by
those who had them in charge!

If however the Crinoidea have had a copious literature, they have
not been so fortunate in their generic names, as is evidenced by the
ase of such words as Gilbertsocrinus, Hallocrinus, and Woodocrinus,
a system commenced by Phillips, adopted by D’Orbigny, and fol-
vwed by De Koninck. Surely those naturalists who have studied
and deciphered the organic structure of these remains, and been thus
ed to regard these forms as distinct from the cognate genera,
night have suggested generic names more consistent with, and
sxpressive of, their true characters, than many of the mongrel
vords that have been assigned to members of this family. No
wonder the classical scholar repudiates the natural-history nomen-
slaturist or modern wordmonger for fossil genera and species. Fol-
jowing out the idea as above noticed, we should not be surprised to
hear of some new American Crinoid with the happy cognomen of
Unclesambocrinus.

In other departments of paleeozoology it would not more excite
our astonishment to hear of such names as Grayoconcha, Gouldornis,
or Owenotherium, terms which, if unappropriated at present, are
quite at the service of the incipient palzeontologist who despairs of
finding explicative terms for generic groups. Nor is the species-
maker blameless. To say nothing of the goodnatured intent of
those who name species and varieties after great men and their
friends—and indeed we wonder we have not yet heard of a T'rilobites
Albertianus,—we think it a proper subject for animadvyersion, that
the species already rejoicing in good personal appellations should, on
account of their less worthy relations, have their patronymic degraded
by the prefix “sud,” as we see in the Terebratula sub-Bentley?,
Ammonites sub-Bakeria, &e.

In the chapter on the general considerations of the Crinoidea, the
authors have given some details respecting the classification, struc-
ture and organization of these bodies, and have discussed the prin-
ciples uf nomenclature as applied to the different parts, as well as
suggested a more easy and consistent notation for the different pieces
forming the calyx or terminal part.

Appended to the memoir is a description of a new genus of Cri-

60 Bibliographical Notices.

noids, recently obtained by a zealous collector, Mr. Wood, from the
mountain limestone near Richmond in Yorkshire, and which, from
the perfection of the specimens obtained, leaves little to desire respect-
ing its illustration. This genus, Woodocrinus, is allied to Cyatho-
crinus and Forbesiocrinus, differmg from the latter in possessing sub-
radial pieces, and from the former in having five of these plates
instead of four. Another peculiarity is found ia the stem, which,
unlike most of the Crinoids, is very slender at the commencement
and gradually increases in diameter with its length.

Prof. de Koninck is at present engaged on a general treatise of the
Crinoidea, and has recently visited this country for the purpose of
obtaining specimens and examining the collections in order to perfect
his work ; therefore any assistance connected with this subject would
not be rendered in vain; for although two valuable works are in
progress, those of Mr. Austin and M. d’Orbigny, there is still room
for further researches on these singular lilyform creatures, which
swarmed so abundantly in the earlier seas, and whose almost entire
absence in the present ocean is probably compensated for, or at
least represented by, the higher members of the same family of
Echinoderms.

A Lecture on the Geological History of Newbury, Berks.
By T. Rupert Jonss, F.G.S8.

This pamphlet, containing the substance of a lecture delivered
before the members of a scientific institute, has however more than
a local interest. In treating of the physical history of a limited
district, the author has brought forward certain geological truths in
a clear and intelligible manner. Popular lectures are not always
satisfactory, partly from the ad captandum style, sometimes from a
discursive array of undigested facts, and frequently from the lecturer
speaking at and not ¢o the audience.

The value of elementary instruction depends upon the correctness
of the facts stated, and the clearness and methodical manner with
which they are enunciated. In this respect Mr. Jones has been suc-
cessful, by arranging the leading principles of geological science in a
concise and common-sense manner. Geology is treated as a history,
the records of which are to be sought for beneath the surface, in the
constitution of the soils and subsoils of the district, in the beds of
earth and stone, which compose the frame-work of hill and valley,
and constitute, as it were, the many-leaved stony volume of the
earth’s primeeval history. Cuvier long ago remarked, that the geo-
logist was an antiquary of a new order. Just as the antiquary finds
materials for history in the many buildings of towns and cities,
whether perfect or in ruins, which have been erected for ecclesiastical,
military or civil purposes, at different periods, in distinct styles, of
various materials, and often rich with sculpture and inscriptions,—
so the geologist examines the many different rocks and soils of which

Bibliographical Notices. 61

the crust of the earth consists, notes the relative position of the
several layers, studies their minerals, and compares their fossils.

In the deeper valleys around Newbury, the different members of
the cretaceous formation crop out ; and these are covered nearer the
town by some of the members of the middle and lower tertiary series,
which in their turn are overlaid by deposits of gravel, the adjacent
valleys of the Kennett and Lambourne being partially oceupied by
peat-accumulations. As the different deposits here exhibited are but
continuous portions of strata spread over more extensive areas, any
remarks concerning the origin of local phanomena necessitate an
inquiry into the successive changes which have obtained over larger
regions of the earth’s surface.

It is thus that local geology, when well explained, embraces larger
views, embodies general principles, and points to their practical
bearings. In this spirit the lecture is conceived. By examining the
nature of the deposits, it is shown how these have been accumulated
by the action of seas and rivers during a long period of time, ‘under
various conditions of climate, and with many changes in the relative
position of land and sea. The order of the succession of these
changes, and the description of their results, together with notices of
the animals and plants that tenanted the lands and waters during this
long period, are also treated of in this lecture.

Nor are the higher inducements to the study of natural science
overlooked. There are a large class, even at present, to whom the
nature and tendencies of geological science are a sealed book, and
whose personal respect for its teachings, if it has dawned, has cer-
tainly not passed the miocene period. With some notions that the
ground beneath us yields certain treasures, they have but little know-
ledge that it exhibits an order and arrangement consistent with the
dictates of Infinite Wisdom. These persons, well-meaning though
they may be, belong to a class not entirely extinct, who regard any
allusion to the Volume of Nature as a book replete with lessons of
divine truth, with feelings somewhat approaching to horror, forget-
ting that there is no true piety in depreciating the evidences to be
derived from the study of the works of Nature.

The Appendix contains tables of the geological formations ; dia-
grams illustrative of the geological structure of parts of Hampshire
and Berkshire ; detailed sections of the strata at some of the locali-
ties near Newbury which yield fossils, as well as an account of the
peat-beds of the Kennet Valley, and also notices and illustrations of
some of the characteristic fossils of the formations ; so that this little
treatise forms not only a useful guide to the physical structure of the
district, but is also explanatory of the characters of the tertiary de-
posits in the western area of the London basin, while it may be equally
consulted with advantage by the general reader, for the concise man-
ner with which the leading points are enunciated.

62 Zoological Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
November 28, 1854.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

On two New Species or Dacnis, AND ON THE GENERAL
ARRANGEMENT OF THE GENUS.
By Paiuie Luritey Sciater, M.A.

1. Dacnis HARTLAUBI, Sclater. D. turcoso-cerulea ; gula loris
et fascia per oculos lata cum cervice laterali et dorso superiore
velutino nigris; alis caudaque minus splendide nigris ; secon-
dariorum marginibus externis ceruleis; rostro et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 4°5; alee 2°6; caude 1°8 poll. Ang}.

Hab. In Nova Grenada.

Obs. Similis D. angelice, sed major, gula nigra, ventre crissoque

ceeruleis concoloribus neque albis.

I have as yet seen only one example of this Dacnis, which is in
the fine collection of birds in the Bremen Museum. In its upper
colouring it resembles D. angelica, but wants the broad black front
of that species. The lower plumage comes nearer that of D. cayana,
but the black does not reach so far down the throat. It slightly
exceeds the latter species in size. The bill and legs are black.

2. Dacnis EGREGIA, Sclater. D. turcoso-cerulea; fronte gula
loris et fascia per oculos lata cum cervice laterali, dorso supe-
riore, alis caudaque nigris; tectricibus alarum minoribus et
secondariorum marginibus externe ceruleis; tectricibus sub-
alaribus et ventre medio crissoque cum tibiis flavis.

Hab. In Nova Grenada.

Obs. Species D. angelice forma crassitie et coloribus fere sequalis,

sed ventre crissoque et tectricibus subalaribus flavis nec albis.

I am indebted to Mr. G. R. Gray for allowing me to name this
pretty Dacnis, of which one specimen was lately acquired by the
British Museum from M. Parzudaki of Paris. In its plumage above
it resembles D. angelica. A glance, however, at its lower surface,
where a bright yellow takes the place of the pure white belly and
underwing-coverts of the other species, is sufficient to show its di-
stinctness.

Since I wrote some papers on the genus Daenis in Sir Wilham
Jardine’s ‘Contributions to Ornithology,’ Professor Reichenbach of
Dresden has treated of this family in his ‘ Handbuch der Speciellen
Ornithologie,’ part iv. Professor Reichenbach is unpleasantly sur-
prised, he there says, to find that I have described a Dacnis cayana,
which is by no means cayana, but no other than his third species,
D. cyanomelas. Now, I admit that my D. cayana is nothing
more than Prof. Reichenbach’s third species, which he calls eyano-
melas; but I maintain that this very bird is no other than the

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of Birds. 63

true cayana of Linnzeus. There is no such bird in existence as that
characterized by Prof. Reichenbach as cayana. Brisson’s descrip-
tion, it is true, is bad, and Buffon’s figure worse, but they can be
respectively intended for no other bird than the common black and
blue species which is called by Prof. Reichenbach D. eyanomelas.

I am in my turn unpleasantly surprised to find that Prof. Reichen-
bach has removed my Dacnis cerebicolor into his genus Arbelorhina,
with which it has nothing to do; that he has made Daenis flaviven-
tris of D’Orbigny’s Voyage a Conirostrum, which it certainly is not,
and has unnaturally placed the hook-billed Dig/osse in the middle of
the typical Dacnidine.

The atricapilla of my former synopsis, Prof. Reichenbach has
with some reason made the type of his new genus Chlorophanes.

Descriptions or Srx New Spectres or Birps or THE Sus-
FAMILY ForMICARIN®. By Parurpe Luriey Scuarer, M.A.

1. Myrmeciza Levucaspts, Sclater.

Supra cinnamomea, subtus alba; vitta laterali utrinque ab angulo
oris ad ventrem descendente nigro; lateribus corporis cum
ventre imo crissoque olivascenti-cinnamomets ; rostro nigro, man-
dibula inferiore, nisi basi, alba; pedibus pallidis ; orbitis nudis.

Long. tota 5°5; ale 2°8; caude 1°8.

Hab. In Peruvia, Chamicurros ; in Nova Grenada; et Rio Negro,
Cobati.

The first specimen of this bird that came into my possession seems
by its make to be a Bogota skin. I have lately obtained a second
from the MM. Verreaux of Paris, marked ‘Peru.’ But a more
satisfactory locality is Chamicurros, on the Huallaga, one of the con-
fluents of the Peruvian Amazon, whence Mr. Gould has lately received
several examples, along with many other interesting birds. Mr.
Gould’s specimens were collected in the month of October, 1852.
Male and female, so labeled, are coloured alike, and noted, “ Irides
red, skin around the eyes and legs light blue.’ My Bogota skin,
and one in the MM. Verreaux’s collection, have the base of the
interscapularies light fawn-colour, forming a large blotch, which,
however, as is often the case in the birds of this sub-family, is only
to be seen when the feathers are raised.

A specimen of this bird in the British Museum is from Cobati, on
the Rio Negro.

The upper plumage of the Myrmeciza leucaspis is wholly dark
cinnamon-colour, and divided from the pure white of the lower sur-
face by a black band. The wing-feathers are blackish within; the
twelve rectrices are wholly darkish cinmnamon-red. The white of the
lower surface narrows as it descends, terminating in a point, and
leaving the sides of the belly and crissum dusky olivaceous cinnamon-
colour.

2. MyRMECIZA MARGARITATA, Sclater.
o Cinereus, subtus dilutior, ventre medio crissoque albescentibus ;

64 Zoological Society :—

alis caudaque nigris, rectricum apicibus albis; remigibus secon-
dariis et alarum atque caude tectricibus superioribus omnibus
maculis magnis, rotundis, albis terminatis.

2 Fusco-brunnea; subtus pallide cervino-rufa; maculis alarum et

caude clare cervinis neque albis.

Long. tota 5°3; alee 2°8; caude 1°8.

Hab. In Peruvia, Chamicurros.

My examples of this curiously marked bird were obtained from
the MM. Verreaux, and are from the same locality as the preceding
species. Mr. Gould’s collection from Chamicurros likewise contains
specimens of both sexes.

The round spots, which render this bird a very recognizable species,
are placed in the wing-coverts at the apex of each feather. In the
secondaries they occupy the end of the outer web, beimg in the first
six nearest the primaries rather small, in the three outer larger and
squarer in form. The upper tail-coverts are much produced, and
are conspicuously terminated with oval white spots. The tail-
feathers are ended only with spots, which are larger on the outer
rectrices.

3. HyrpocNEMIS MELANOLEZMA, Sclater.

Cinereus, subtus valde dilutior ; interscapularibus basi niveis ;
loris et oculorum ambitu cum cervice laterali et gutture toto
nigris ; linea superciliart indistincte albida; tectricibus alarum
nigris, fascia terminali alba; remigibus et rectricibus fuscis,
externe cinereis ; rostro ngro, pedibus pallidis.

Long. tota 5:0; alee 2°5; caudee 1°6.

Hab. In Peruvia, Chamicurros.

This species seems nearly allied in form to the bird named Hypo-
enemis pecilonota by Dr. Cabanis (Orn. Not. in Wiegm. Archiv f.
Nat. 1847. p. 213), and I have therefore placed it temporarily in
the same genus. My specimen comes, like those of the preceding
species, from MM. Verreaux’s Peruvian collection ; and Mr. Gould
has one example marked “male, irides red,’ from Chamicurros,
which agrees with mine. From the same Peruvian collection I have
also Hypocnemis pecilonota (Cab.) and H. cantator (Bodd.), the ~
type of the genus, or a species hardly to be distinguished there-
from.

4. HypocNEeMIS MELANOsTICTA, Sclater.

$ Ex cinereo olivascens ; interscapularibus basi niveis ; tectricibus
alarum nigris, albo anguste terminatis ; loris et regione auriculari
nigris ; subtus cinereus, gutture toto et ventre medio albis ; pune-
tis paucis rotundis in summo pectore nigris ; rostro nigro, pedibus
pallidis.

? Supra rufescenti-olivacea, alarum tectricum marginibus et abdo-
mine toto pallide ochraceis ; gutture, sicut in mari, albo ; mandi-
bula inferiore, nisi apice, alba.

Long. tota 5:0; alee 2°5; caude 1°6.

Hab. In Peruvia, Chamicurros.

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 65

The Peruvian collection of the MM. Verreaux contained several
examples of this prettily marked Ant-Thrush, and Mr. Gould has
also ¢ and 2 from Chamicurros. Both sexes show the white blotch
at the base of the interscapularies. In form they nearly resemble
H. melanolema and pecilonota. Below the white throat, both in
male and female, are eight or ten round blackish spots, forming a
sort of collar, which renders this species easily recognizable.

5. Formictvora CaupatTa, Sclater.

$ Supra niger albo-striatus ; nucha nigra ; dorso postico ferrugineo ;
alis caudaque nigris; tectricibus alarum albo, remigibus autem
primariis et secondariis rufo limbatis; rectricum macula terminali
alba ; subtus albus, sparsius nigro-striatus ; ventre crissoque clare
Serrugineis.

2 Striis corporis superioris et tectricum alarum marginibus sub-
rufescentibus ; dorso postico et ventre dilutius ferrugineis ; striis
pectoris sparsioribus, in gula fere evanescentibus.

Long. tota 58; alee 2°1; caudee 3:1.

Hab. In Nova Grenada.

A close ally of Formicivora ferruginea (Temm.) and its affines,
from all of which, however, it may be distinguished by its extremely
lengthened tail. My specimens were purchased in Paris, and are
Bogota skins.

6. Pirays EryTHROPHRYS, Sclater.

Olivaceo-brunneus, subtus medialiter albus ; fronte loris et regione
superciliari utrinque clare ferrugineis ; loris et regione auriculari
nigris ; striis quibusdam indistinctis in lateribus pectoris cinereis ;
alis caudaque nigricanti-brunneis, illius remigibus clare rufo-
brunneo limbatis et tectricibus omnibus maculis parvis terminalibus
albis.

Long. tota 4°5; ale 2°7; caude 1:7.

Hab. In Nova Grenada.

This is not a true Pithys, I think, but I have placed it as such, as
being allied to Pithys leueophrys ex Nova Grenada. But is the
New Grenadian bird really identical with Tschudi’s Pithys leuco-
phrys?

Nores ON THE HaBits oF soME INDIAN Birps. Parr VI.
By Lieut. BurGess.

Family FrinGILLID2&. Sub-Family PyrrHuLin&.

Genus PyRRHULAUDA.

PyRRHULAUDA CRUCIGER (Temm.).

Buack-BELLIED Fincu Lark.

This little finch lark is common in Western India, on open plains
and grassy plots of ground. It is remarkable for its habit of
squatting close on the ground when approached, trusting most pro-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 2. Vol. xvii.

66 Zoological Society :—

bably to the similarity in colour of the plumage of the wings and
back with that of the burnt grass and dusty ground to escape
notice. This little lark breeds during the months of January and
February, building its nest, which is composed of grass, threads, &c.,
in a hollow in the grassy plains which it inhabits. A nest of this
species which was brought to me at the end of January was com-
posed chiefly of grass; it contained two small eggs, of a grey
tint, speckled with brown. They have been unfortunately broken.
Dr. Jerdon says: “I was fortunate enough to obtain the nest and
eges of this bird very lately (February). The nest is composed
of woven thread mingled with some fibres of grass and one or two
small fragments of cloth. The sides are hardly raised at all; it
was placed in a slight hollow on the open plain near a river, and
contained two eggs, of a slight greenish-grey tint spotted with
brown, chiefly at the larger end.”’

Tribe ScaNsores.
Family Psirracip&. Sub-family MAcROCERCINA.
Genus PaLzorNIs.
PALZORNIS TORQUATUS, Vigors.

The Red-ringed Parrakeet is by far the most common of its tribe
throughout Western India, as probably throughout that continent.
They associate in large flocks, doing much injury to fruit-trees and
crops of grain. As the grain-crops ripen, they frequent the trees in
the neighbourhood, whence they make descents on the fields, retiring
to them with the heads of the grain plants, to eat at their leisure.
As far as my observations go, they prefer carrying off the ears of
the plant to eating the grain in the field. On the approach of night
they retire in large flocks to the shelter of thick mango and other
trees. This Parrakeet breeds during the month of March, in holes
in buildings and trees, laying three or four eggs, of a pure white
colour, 1,3,ths of an inch in length by 1 inch in width.

PaL#orNiIs ALEXANDRI. LARGE RED-RINGED PARRAKEBT.

I have never met with this large species, but I see that Dr. Jerdon
mentions having obtained four young ones from a hole in a tree, in
the month of December.

PALZORNIS BENGALENSIS. RED-HEADED or PLUM-HEADED
PARRAKEET.

I have had many opportunities of watching and closely obser-
ving the habits of these handsome little parrakeets, and am con-
vinced that they are one and the same bird, the red-head being the
mark of an advanced, if not mature plumage. In young birds, the
plum-colour of the head is much mixed with green, the former
colour becoming decided as the birds grow older, and this again
giving way to the red head-dress. I have met with these birds in
the woody ravines and recesses amongst the lower ranges of hills in

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 67

the Deccan, also in the thickly-wooded garden-land near the canton-
ments of Ahmednuggur. In this latter spot I have often watched
them in the hope of securing one of the richly-coloured red-headed
birds. They fly in flocks like Pa/eornis torquatus, visiting the grain-
fields, and carrying off the ears to the neighbouring trees. Their
ery is not so loud and harsh as that of their larger brethren, and
they may thus be distinguished when not seen. I scarcely ever saw
more than two or three red-headed birds amongst a flock of plum-
heads. Ihave not met with the nest or eggs of this species, but
from the very immature plumage of young birds which I shot in
January, I should say that they breed in November and December.

Family Cucutins. Subfamily Cucutin2.

Genus EupyNAmys.

EupyNAMys MACULATUS. Biack Cuckoo or KowEkEt.

Not having met with the nest and eggs of this cuckoo, I am in-
debted to Dr. Jerdon’s catalogue for the following note on the sub-
ject :—‘* The koweel (as is well known in India) lays its eggs in the
nest of the common crow (C. splendens), from which it dislodges
the crows’ eggs. It is said always to choose this crow’s nest. On
one occasion I obtained an egg from the female koweel; it was of a
dirty blue colour, marked with some dusky spots.”

Genus CENTROPUS.

CENTROPUS PHILIPPENSIS (Cuv.). LARK-HEELED Cuckoo.

This very common cuckoo, called by many Europeans in India
**the Malabar Pheasant,”’ is a bird remarkable for its appearance, and
peculiarly loud cry. Its bright chestnut wings and long tail render
it conspicuous, and from the length of the latter, the name of Phea-
sant has doubtless been applied to it. Like others of its kind, it is
fond of thickets and hedges, under the latter of which it may often
be observed walking about and picking up its food, which consists
of lizards, seeds and insects. Though classed in the family of the
Cuculide, this bird differs from Cuculus canorus and Eudynamys
maculatus in one marked respect, viz. that it does not deposit its eggs
in the nest of another bird. Like the yellow-billed American cuckoo,
Coccyzus americanus (Jenyns), it builds its own nest, but whether,
as Mr. Yarrell mentions, in the case of the American bird, its egg is
ever found in another bird’s nest, I cannot say: I never heard of
such a case.

The lark-heeled cuckoo breeds in the spring of the year, as early
as January and as late as April. It builds its nest in hedges and
trees; the nest is composed of grass and small twigs. The eggs,
generally three in number, are of an opaque white, 1} inch in length
by 1 inch and {3,ths in width. The exterior of the shell is of a
peculiarly soft, chalky texture, which soon becomes scratched and
stained.

5*

68 Zoological Society :—

Tribe TENUIROSTRES.
Family CINNYRID.
CINNYRIS ORIENTALIS, Frankl. Purpte HoNEYSUCKER.

As I am anxious to make these papers as complete as possible on
the nests and eggs of the birds of Western India, I have taken the
liberty of transcribing some of the observations made by Dr. Jerdon
of the Madras cavalry, in cases where I have not been able to obtain
information. With regard to the nest and eggs of this honey-sucker
he says: ‘Ihave lately (February) seen the nest of this pretty little
bird close to a house in Jaulnat. It was commenced on a thick
spider’s web, by attaching to it various fragments of paper, cloth,
straw, grass, and other substances, till it had secured a firm hold of
the twig to which the web adhered, and the nest suspended on this
was then completed by adding other fragments of the same mate-
rials. The hole is at one side near the top, and has a slight pro-
jecting roof or awning over it. The female laid two eggs, of a
greenish-grey tinge, spotted with dusky. The first nest it made
was accidentally destroyed after two eggs had been laid, and the
couple immediately commenced building another in a small tree at
the other side of the door, and, as in the first instance, commenced
their operations on a fragment of a spider’s web. They reared two
young ones from the nest.”’

January 9, 1855.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

On THE GENUS CULICIVORA OF SWAINSON, AND ITS COMPO-
NENT Species. By Puitie Lurvey Scuater, M.A.,, F.Z.S.

The genus Culicivora (as established by Mr. Swainson in the
Zoological Journal for 1827) has the Muscicapa stenura of Temminck
for its type, but embraces also the Muscicapa cerulea of Wilson and
its affines. Now these birds belong in reality to two very different
groups; the MW. stenura being a Tyrannine, while the M. cerulea
can hardly be placed within the limits of that family, but must be
arranged either with the old-world Museieapines (as in Bonaparte’s
Conspectus) or with the Sylvians (as in Gray’s Genera of Birds).
Dr. Cabanis in his Ornithologische Notizen, in Wiegmann’s Archiv,
has rightly separated these two forms, but has unfortunately chosen
to call the M. cerulea and its allies Culicivora, and made a new name
Hapalura for the M. stenura—the true Culicivora of Swaimson.
Under these circumstances Hapalura is a mere useless synonym
of Culicivora, Sw., and a new name is required for the group con-
taining M. cerulea, and commonly known as Culicivora. I therefore
propose for it the term Polioptila, from the general grey colouring
of the plumage.

The species of this genus that I am at present acquainted with are
the following :—

1. PoLiopriLA C£RULEA (Limn.).

Motacilla cerulea, Linn. Muscicapa cerulea, Wils. Am. Orn. ii.
p. 164. pl. 18. fig. 5; Audub. pl. 84 3 & 9.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on the genus Culicivora of Swainson. 69

$ Ceruleo-cinerea, fronte et superciliis nigris: subtus carules-

centi-alba, rectricibus extimis albis.

2 Mari similis, sed linea superciliari et frontali nulla,

Hab, United States, Texas, and Mexico.

I cannot discover how the Culicivora mexicana, Bp. Consp. p. 316
(ci which I have examined the type in the Berlin Museum), differs
fro» this species. It appears to me to be merely a female of the
present bird.

2, PoniopriLa puMICOLA (Vieill.).

El Contra-maestre azuladillo, Azara, no. 158, unde Sylvia dumi-
cola, Vieill. C. dumicola, VOrb. Voy. Ois. p. 331. C. boliviana,
Sclater, in Proce. Zool. Soe. 1852, p. 34. pl. 47.

3 Supra plumbea : fronte et genis nigris: subtus plumbescenti-

alba, ventre et rectricibus utrinque extimis albis.

2 Fronte et regione auriculari plumbeis concoloribus.

Hab. Paraguay (Azara); Corrientes and Buenos Ayres in the
Argentine Republic, and Chiquitos and Moxos in Bolivia (d’Orb.).

D’Orbigny and Lafresnaye in their Synopsis in the Magasin de
Zoologie, Hartlaub in his Index to Azara, and Bonaparte in his Con-
spectus, have all more or less confounded the synonyms of this species
with those of the next ; indeed the latter author has united all the
synonyms under one head, and I was thus led into the error of de-
scribing the present bird as new. It is without doubt however the
Azuladillo of Azara, and consequently must bear the specific name
‘dumicola’ of Vieillot. Lichtenstein’s name ‘4ivittata’ belongs to the
next species, though the above-mentioned authors have quoted it as
synonymous with this.

3. PoLioprrya LEUCOGASTRA (Max.).

Pl. Enl. 704. fig. 1, unde Motacilla cerulea, var. 3. Gm. Sylvia
leucogastra, Max. Beit. iii. 710. S. bivittata, Licht. in Mus. Berol.
C. atricapilla, Sw. Zool. Ill. n. s. pl. 57. C. leucogastra, Gray’s
Gen. ? C. dumicola, Bp. Consp. p. 316.

$ Cinerea, pileo nigro: subtus alba, rectricibus utrinque extimis

albis.

2 Pileo concolore cinereo.

Hab. Brazil; Bahia (Pr. Max.); Monte Video (Mus. Berol.) ;
Cayenne (Buffon) : New Grenada.

This species is described by Prince C. L. Bonaparte in his Con-
spectus as C. dumicola, from which it may be easily distinguished by
its black head.

4, PoropriLa BILINEATA (Licht.).

Sylvia bilineata, Licht. in Mus. Berol. Culicivora bilineata, Bp.
Consp. p. 631.
3 Supra plumbea, pileo nigro: loris superciliis et corpore subtus
albis: primariis anguste cinereo, secondariis latius albo mar-
ginatis : rectricibus extimis apice albis.

70 Zoological Society :—

2 Pileo concolore plumbeo: superciliis albis.

Hab. Cartagena (Mus. Berol.).

The type-specimens in the Berlin Museum are the only examples
I have seen of this species ; which may be at once distinguished from
all the preceding by its white superciliary stripe.

REMARKS ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE JACAMARS (GAL-
BULID#), WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEw SPECIES.
By Paruire Lutzuey Scuater, M.A., F.Z.S.

Since I wrote some articles on the Galbulide, which appeared in
Sir William Jardine’s Contributions to Ornithology, and the little
Synopsis of the family afterwards printed apart, I have lost no op-
portunity of examining specimens of these birds in several museums
which I have visited. rts so doing I have acquired some additional
information concerning them, which I now purpose bringing before
the Society, together with characters of what I believe to be three
hitherto unrecognized species.

Genus 1. GALBULA.

1. viridis, Lath. Synopsis of the Galbulide, p. 2, sp. l.

Dr. Cabanis, in his article upon these birds in Ersch and Gruber’s
Encyclopadie, calls the Amazon specimens true ‘viridis,’ and sepa-
rates the Cayenne and Guiana bird from them, under Swainson’s title
‘viridicauda.’ I cannot myself discover much difference between
them. Prince C. L. Bonaparte quotes as a species ‘quadricolor,’ Ver-
reaux, a MS. name for which no specific characters have been pub-
lished. A specimen so labelled im the British Museum is from Peru,
but seems to me barely separable from G. viridis.

2. rufoviridis, Cab. Enc. d. W. u. K. vol. lu. sect. 1. p. 308.
G. maculicauda, Synopsis, p. 2. sp. 2.

Dr. Cabanis’ name has, I believe, a few months’ precedence in
point of date over my ‘ maculicauda, and must therefore be used for
this species. As additional localities, I have now: River Tocantins,
Brazil (Mr. Wallace), and Bolivia (Bridges, in Mus. Brit.).

3. melanogenia, Sclater. Synopsis, p. 3. sp. 3.
I have since seen other specimens of this species, both male and
female, all from Central America.

4. ruficauda, Cuv. Synopsis, p. 3. sp. 4.

Add, as localities : Tobago (Kirk) ; Cumana (Dyson); Cartagena
(Mus. Berol.).

These four species are, as I have already remarked (Cont. to Orn.
1852, p. 93), very closely allied to one another, but may be distin-
guished by the colouring of the rectrices. They are not, however,
placed together in Prince C. L. Bonaparte’s arrangement in his
Conspectus Zygodactylorum.

5. tombacea, Spix (cyanescens, Deville).
From the Upper Amazon and eastern provinces of Peru.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on the Arrangement of the Galbulide. 71

6. GALBULA FUSCICAPILLA, Sclater, sp. nov.

$ Lete viridis ; fronte et pileo summo fuscis : nucha paululum
cyanescente : mento albido : ventre crissoque intense castaneis :
rectricibus extimis rufis, quatuor mediis supra viridibus dorso
concoloribus. Long. tota 8°0, alee 3:0, caudee 3°5.

2 Ventre valde dilutiore.

Hab. In Nova Grenada, Bogota.

I have hitherto confounded this species with the G. tombacea, but
the examination of several examples of the latter bird in the conti-
nental museums has convinced me that they are quite distinct, the
tombacea presenting no appearance of the fuscous crown which di-
stinguishes this species. In one of my specimens, apparently the most
adult, the green descends much lower down than in others I have
seen. The two outer rectrices of this bird are, as is usual in this
genus, abnormally small. The first outer normal pair are ruious,
tipped and externally edged with green. This green is blackish
below, but above vivid as the back. The next two pair are wholly
rufous. The middle four are vivid green above, and blackish-green
below; the submedial pair having some rufous colouring inwardly
towards the base.

7. albirostris, Latham. Synopsis, p. 5. sp. 6.

8. chaleocephala, Deville. Synopsis, p. 5. sp. 7.

I have lately seen many specimens ¢ and 2? of this species. The
male has a white bar on the throat, as in G. albirostris, with which
it is certainly very closely allied. In his ‘Conspectus Zygodacty-
lorum,’ Prince C. L. Bonaparte unites this species with G. leuco-
gastra, with which it has nothing to do. In the ‘Conspectus
Anisodactylorum,’ the origin of iia « error is attributed to an opinion
of mine that they were identical (!), which however I never either
expressed or entertained.

9. eyanicollis, Cassin. Synopsis, p. 6. sp. 8.

Specimens of this bird in the Berlin Museum,—the types of G.
eyanopogon, Cab.,—are from Cameta, which is on the south of the
Amazon, in the province of Para. The female is pale rufous below,
instead of chestnut-red.

10. leucogastra, Vicill. Synopsis, p. 6. sp. 9.

11. chalcothorazx, Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854, p. 110.
From Quixos in Ecuador.

Genus 2. UroGasa, Bp.

1. paradisea (Linn.). Synopsis, p. 8. sp. 11.

2. UROGALBA AMAZONUM, Sclater, sp. nov.

U. purpurascenti-nigra : alis caudaque et hujus tectricibus supe-
rioribus eneis: mento nigrescente, gutture late albo: pileo
antico albescenti-fusco : rostre pedibusque nigris.

72 Zoological Society :—

Long. tota 13:0, alee 3:8, caudee 6°5.

Hab. In Brasi). Boreali, Para, et fl. Amazonuin,

Obs. Similis U. paradisee, sed major et pileo antico albescente
fusco.

It is not without hesitation that I separate this bird from the
former. I have seen many examples of it from North Brazil, and
haye always remarked that they differ from the Cayenne U. paradisea
in size and in the whiteness of the forehead. Mr. Wallace brought
specimens from the neighbourhood of Para, whence I believe came
also my type, which I purchased in Hamburg. I may remark
that there are many other corresponding species of birds in Cayenne
and Brazil, of which the distinctness is generally admitted (such as
Péteroglossus aracari and Wiedi, Caryothraustes cayanensis and brasi-
Hiensis, and Piprites chlorion and chloris), which depend upon differ-
ences similar to, or perhaps less than, those between Urogalba
paradisea and U, amazonum.

Genus 3. BRAcHYGALBa, Bp.

1. dnornata, Sclater, Synopsis, p. 7. sp.10. Brachygalba albi-
ventris, Bp. Consp. Vol. Zygodact., nec Cuv.

To the localities add : Quixos in rep. Equat. (Sir W. Jardine), and
Angostura on the Orinoco (Mus. Kiliens.). é

The female has the belly rufous instead of white. This species is
certainly not the a/biventer of Cuvier, that name having been applied
by him to Le Vaillant’s figure, Supp. H. (cited by Cuvier, insuffi-
ciently perhaps, but not incorrectly, by the number of the page, 46),
and consequently a synouym of Vieillot’s /ewcogastra, as placed by
me in my Synopsis (see Cuvier’s Régn. An. (1829) i. p. 448). I
had supposed G. albigularis of Spix, and not this species, to be the
type of Brachygalba, Bp., because it stood first in the list. When
the creator of a genus gives neither generic characters nor type, the
only rule to go by is to take the first species given as the type species.

2. BRACHYGALBA MELANOSTERNA, Sclater, sp. nov.

Supra nigricanti-fusca ; subtus nigra; mento albido: ventre medio

albo: alis caudaque enescentibus : rostro albo.

Hab. Goyaz in imp. Brasiliensi (Behn); Guarayos in Bolivia
(d’Orb.)?

I observed a specimen of this species in the collection of Professor
Behn, at Kiel. It closely resembles the preceding, but has the
breast quite black and the bill white. It was brought by the owner
from the province of Goyaz, in the interior of Brazil. D’Orbigny’s
specimen, mentioned in my Synopsis, page 7, probably also belongs
to this species.

I have nothing further to say concerning Jacamaraleyon and Jaca-
merops. The Galbuloides Boersi is probably a fictitious bird. Spe-
cimens of Galbaleyrhynchus in the Paris Museum were brought by
MM. Castelnau and Deville from Pebas, on the Upper Amazon ; and
one of these birds, in the collection of Herr Kalckmann of Ham-
burg, was procured in the neighbourhood of Pernambuco in Brazil.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on the Arrangement of the Galbulide.

73

Excluding therefore the Galbuloides, we have at present no less
than twenty species of the family Galbulide, all inhabiting the tro-
One ouly of these birds is found
outside the Isthmus of Panama, and none occur on the western side

pical portions of South America.

of the Andean range.

Azara includes none among the birds of

Paraguay, and two only range so far south as the Brazilian provinces

of Rio and S. Paolo.

The true home of these birds seems to be the

hot, low forests of Guiana and the Amazons, where the number of
species attains its greatest development.

GALBULIDARUM TABULA

| Veragua

GALBULA.

melanogenia
ruficauda
tombacea
Ffuscicapilla
albirostris
chalcocephala .........
cyanicollis
leucogastra

wet ewe wel tee

KH OOONOULRWNY eS

a

UROGALBA.

12. paradisea
13. amazonum

JACAMARALCYON.

16. tridactyla ....-.cs....[ecelece

47 Sbugubris: sci... .c0.8.. 6.

JACAMEROPS.

Eg QITUMIES « coatnesensasiuels ce
19. Isidori

GALBALCYRHYNCHUS.
20. leucotis

| New Grenada
Trinidad

aS es a a ee ee Ce ce i SS EE eee ———— eee eee
aoe . « a.) oe 445 -aee - — a de 6
. |
. .
. . .
. .
7 rf : .
. . . ve
. . .
. . . . . 6 0-me es . o/~s ae f
« . . . . iets we Skt oe = ee. ope >
. . . . . ST. “Roe ae oe . ues
. . . Can re . .
. . . oe CP et - . hs
. . . . - . e - .
- . . . e.
. . . . fe i.
. . . .
. a ores . . ora a) oe “at YET age, ©
. S- neae a . . a5 8 Bem co Ei ot oN 0 © -
. . . whe . . ue » Fe © af otmse
- . . . 2 wea - a 1. . . .
. . . Cc 2« .e a SY € ome. ¥
. . . . . oe ae aa Ee .
. : . - .
. . . . A
noes . . .
. . ee . .
. . © «a ae .
. . . otis ° .
. oe ome ” <a al
. ote ia any BP ~~ e« *
. =e ofits -_ Con Oty . *
<c © . . ese s 2 . . - : 7 >
. @ . . se oe he . oth = Ma
. io . . © ve * . rs . .
> . . . so W. "eq © . - .
. . - ss w . . z
. . . . fe. SS | . . . °
. . . so. = © . . =
. . . >. 8 . . 7
. - . Ste oe . . a .
- . . . vw ¢ . . ote
. . . eo oF . . . ‘
. . . Te a . . .

CAIRNS von cuacanstccansodfees| sie
FUSOVINICES ~ 20 00 veodse|< ee |e"

ee ed

ee ee

chalcothorax ..... aeeslecs|ees

| Venezuela
| Guiana

eeeleee

G

| Lower Amazon

EOGRAPHICA.

| Rio Negro
| Upper Amazon
| Interior Brazil

| Rio Napo
| N.E. Brazil

| East Peru
| S.E. Brazil
| Bolivia

74: Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

November 8, 1855.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “On the Batrachian Ranuneuli of Britain,’ by C. C. Babing-
ton, M.A., F.R.S. (See Annals, vol. xvi. p. 385.)

2. “Note on Linaria sepium, Allman,’’ by C. C. Babington, M.A.,
F.R.S. (See Annals, vol. xvi. p. 449.)

Professor Allman remarked that he found some difficulty in allow-
ing the plant to be a hybrid, as represented by Mr. Babington, but
that, from a recent examination of specimens at Bandon, he believed
it to be only a variety of L. repens.

3. “On the Influence of Last Winter on Trees and Shrubs at
Aberdeen,” by G. Dickie, M.D., Professor of Natural History,
Queen’s College, Belfast.

4, “Notice of the Flowering of the Victoria regia in the Royal
Botanic Garden, Glasgow,” by Mr. Peter Clarke, Curator of the
Garden.

~

5. “On the Structure of Victoria regia, Lindl.,’’ by Mr. George
Lawson.

The lower surface of the Victoria leaf is somewhat peculiar. It
exhibits no stomata, but is thickly clothed with flexuous hairs, con-
sisting of cylindrical cells, and arising each from a small round basal
cell, very distinct both from the other cells of the hair and those of
the epidermis, which latter are filled with diffused colouring matter,
mostly red, but some blue, and a few without colour. These hairs
average about the -.th part of an inch in length, by the z3,th of an
inch in breadth. There are seen scattered over the surface, in ad-
dition to the hairs, numerous round cells, precisely similar to those
which form the bases of the hairs; these apparently indicate non-
developed hairs. The arrangement of these cells (taking together
those which form the bases of hairs and those whose hairs are abor-
tive) is so strikingly similar to the arrangement of the stomata on
the opposite surface of the leaf, as to suggest the question whether
these cells are not homologous with the stomata—are, in fact, the cells
from which stomata would be evolved if they were produced. This
idea is strengthened by the fact that a trace of chlorophyll is seen in
these cells, while it is entirely absent in the urdinary epidermal cells,
but present in well-defined globules in the cells of the true stomata.
Whatever be the homological relationship between the hairs and the
stomata, there can be no doubt that the cells to which I have alluded
represent undeveloped hairs.

6. “Notice of some of the Contents of the Museum of (Economic
Botany in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden,” by Professor Balfour.

Miscellaneous. 75

MISCELLANEOUS.

Observations on the Blistering Beetles of the Neighbourhood of
Montevideo. By M. A. Courzpon.

Tue author states that three species of blistering Cantharides are
found in the neighbourhood of Montevideo,—namely the Epicauta
adspersa, Dej. (Lytta adspersa, Klug), the Epicauta cavernosa,
Reiche, and the Causima vidua, De}. (Lytta vidua, Klug).

Of these, the first, the Zpicauta adspersa, is superior even to the
ordinary Cantharides (Cantharis vesicatoria) inits vesicating power,
and possesses the additional advantage that its application produces
no irritating action on the urinary organs, such as is usually caused
by the common Cantharides. The author discovered this when
treating a patient for acute hepatitis, by applying blisters upon the
seat of pain; the Ypicauta adspersa caused no inconvenience to the
patient ; but on one or two occasions, when blisters of the Cantharis
vesicatoria were used, they produced the customary irritation of the
urinary organs.

This species is exceedingly abundant in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Montevideo in the months of December, January, February
and March, but especially in January and February. Its length is
13-16 millimeters (62-8 lines); it is covered with minute grey scales,
im the midst of which appear numerous small black points. The
antennee are black, and the feet yellow or reddish. It lives on the
common Beet (Beta vulgaris, var. Cicla), and may be very easily col-
lected, especially in the morning and evening, by taking a large sack
with a few beet-leaves at the bottom of it to the places where this
plant grows in abundance, cutting off the stems of the plants close
to the root and shaking them into the sack. The insects may then be
killed by exposing them to the vapour of vinegar, or by packing them
closely in a glass vessel, closing them up hermetically, and exposing
them to the heat of the sun.

The second species, the Hpicauta cavernosa, is about the size of
the preceding species, but is of a yellow colour, with three small
black lines on the head, numerous small black points on the thorax,
and large impressed black dots on the elytra. The legs are reddish.
It is a rare species and occurs only on the Hryngium paniculatum,
an umbelliferous plant which is very abundant on the Cerro de Monte-
video. Its vesicating power is about equal to that of the common
Cantharis.

The Causima vidua is a much larger species, measuring 22-27
millimeters (fin. to 1,1, in.), and is entirely black, except an indi-
stinct white border which sometimes occurs at the extremity of the
elytra. It is found on two leguminous plants, ddesmia pendula and
A, punctata, especially on the former; it devours the flowers. It
occurs in the months of November, December and January. It
is less abundant than the Lpicauta adspersa, but may be collected in
the same manner, and its vesicating power is at least equal to that of
the officinal species. The author did not ascertain whether it acted
upon the urinary organs.

76 Miscellaneous.

The author adds that the vesicating power of these insects resides
in all the soft internal parts, and not, as stated by M. Farines of the
common Cantharides, only in the soft parts of thethorax and abdomen.
He found that the internal parts of the head and thighs employed by
themselves were as efficacious as those of the body, but the hard parts
as usual were destitute of any action. He states that this applies also
to the officinal species.—Comptes Rendus, Dec. 3, 1855, p. 1003.

UNUSUAL DEARTH OF ALG IN 1895.
Devonport, 19th October 1855.

My pear Srr,—The present year has been marked by an unusual
dearth of Algze on all the Devonshire coasts, and this I have not
only had evidence of myself, but it has also been noticed by all my
correspondents, who are rather numerous.

A great many species, which for several successive years I have
been in the habit of finding whenever I sought for them, with as
much certainty as I should in going into my own garden to cut a
cabbage, have altogether disappeared, that is, those plants growing
between the extremes of high and low water marks. This unusual
occurrence from the ordinary course, after careful consideration, I
am inclined to assign to atmospheric influence.

The early months of the present year, not including those which
we usually assign to winter, such as March, April and May, were
exceedingly cold, and frosty nights were not unfrequent even in the
latter end of May. Our lowest tides here occur at the advent of the
new and full moon from about twelve to one o’clock. Plants begin-
ning to grow between the tidal limits were thus exposed to a very
low temperature during the night ; but a very different result followed
at the next low water, occurring at noon, twelve hours after. Here,
those plants were subjected to the influence of a vertical sun, and
these alternate changes from a high to an extreme low temperature,
being followed up during many successive nights and days, had the
effect of destroying them altogether. I am the more convinced that
my views on this subject are correct, inasmuch as I found all the
missing plants by dredging in deep water, and where they could not
be affected by changes in the atmosphere.

Believe me, dear Sir, very faithfully yours,
Dr. J. BE. Gray. JOHN COCKS.

Observations on Echini Perforating the Granite of Brittany.
By M. VaLENCIENNES.

The attention of naturalists has always been awakened by the
curious habit of many Mollusca and Zoophyta, of excavating cavities
for their habitation in rocks often of great hardness and of very dif-
ferent natures. It was at first supposed that these perforating animals
only attacked the calcareous rocks, which led several people to think
that the erosion required to form the hole was assisted by the action
of some acid. It has been admitted of necessity, however, that in
particular cases the animals only employed mechanical means, as
the Teredos and the Pholades and even the Sipunculi were found to

Miscellaneous. 77

pierce wood. Of late years naturalists have observed felspathic
rocks burrowed by Mollusca. M. Caillaud of Nantes sent to the
Academy specimens of granite from Pouliguen in the Bay of
Croisic, perforated by Pholades. The strive traced in the holes,
corresponding with the spiny ribs of the shell of these mollusks,
furnished an evident proof that the rock had been abraded by the
movement communicated by the animal to the shell. Granite altered
by sea-water is more readily attacked.

More recently M. Eugéne Robert exhibited to the Academy a
block of old red sandstone, obtained from the shore of the great
Bay of Douarnenez, which was perforated with numerous holes evi-
dently formed by the Echini which were lodged in them. Each
rounded cavity is in exact proportion, both as to size and form, with
the body of the Echinoderm.

M. Lory, Professor at Grenoble, and well known for his numerous
and excellent works on geology, has begged me to exhibit several
specimens of perforating Echini, which have taken up their abode
in the granite of the Bay of Croisic, not far from Piriac. It is the
same granite as that from the Pouliguen, and in the same state of
alteration. This primitive rock is there perforated by Mollusca
and Echinodermata for an extent of several kilometers. Those
which M. Lory has just discovered are certainly of the same species
as the Echini which burrow in the old red sandstone of the Bay of
Douarnenez. They closely resemble the Mediterranean Lehinus,
mentioned by Lamarck under the name of Echinus lividus. It is
one of the most abundant Echini on the coast, and in the market of
Marseilles, whence Lamarck obtained his specimens. I have never
heard that these individuals possessed perforating habits, and pro-
bably a careful examination of living specimens of the Echinus from
the coast of Brittany may show that it belongs to a distinct species,
notwithstanding its apparent identity with that of the Mediterra-
nean. In this case it might be called Echinus terebrans.— Comptes
Rendus, Noy. 5, 1855, p. 755.

NEW SPECIES OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS.

The well-known naturalist Evyersmann has receutly published a very
interesting paper*, containing an account of some of the most recent
additions to the Mammalogy and Ornithology of the Russian Empire.
The species described are—

1. VesPERUGO KRASCHENINIKOVII, 0. sp.

V.. dentes primores superiores duo interni bifidi, externi simplices
minuti: auricule capite breviores, late, rotundato-subtriangulares,
trago reniformi, dimidiam aurem non attingente: vellus nigrum,
pilorum apicibus canis.

A new species of Bat, belonging to the section of the genus Ves-
perugo with 34 teeth—5 molars in both jaws on each side ;—it is

_* Noch ein kleiner Beitrag zur Mammalogie und Ornithologie des Rus-
sischen Reiches, von Dr. Eduard Eversmann ; Bull. de la Société Impériale
des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1853, no. iy. p. 487.

78 Miscellaneous.

found on the Ural, and is not uncommon in Orenburg, ; it may
therefore be included in the fauna of Europe.

2. Vesperuco Nitsont, Keys. et Blas. Wirbelth. Eur. no. 88.
p. xiv.

3. VESPERTILIO DASYCNEMUS, Keys. et Blas. Wirbelth. Eur.
no. 98. p. xvi.

Both these Bats also occur on the Ural and Southern Wolga.

4, VANELLUS ARALENSIS, 0. Sp.

V. fusco-cinerascens, abdomine, cauda remigibusque secondariis
candidis; primariis nigris: alarum tectricibus nigro alboque mar-
ginatis: pedibus flavis.

A new Plover, only half the size of V. gregarius, Pall. (2. e.
Chettusia gregaria), to which at first sight it shows some resemblance,
especially in respect of its grey colour. It is from the south Kirges-
steppes, which form the northern shores of the Sea of Aral.

5. LANIUS MOLLIS, n. sp.

L. superne cinereo-vinaceus, subtus albidus (fuscescenti-undulatus)
crisso hypochondriisque vinaceis: fascia oculari nigra; remigibus
nigris ; 4'*-9-" basi albis: rectricibus nigris apice albis.

Dr. Eversmann gives a further accurate account of this, as of the
other mammals and birds mentioned in his paper. This Lanius is
described as being larger than L. excubitor ; it was received from the
South Altai, not far from the Chinese boundary on the T'schuja. It
appears to be different from all the species of Lanius described by
Prince Bonaparte in his excellent review of that genus in the ‘ Revue
et Magasin de Zoologie’ for 1853.

Dr. Eversmann’s paper also contains some interesting remarks
about the supposed varieties of Dipus jaculus met with on the southern
steppes, which he considers form two distinct species, different from
the jaculus,—D. decumanus, Licht., and D. vewillarius, Eversm. ; also
upon the distinctions between Lanius phenicurus, Pallas, and the
common Lanius collurio—Puitie LUTLEY SCLATER.

Description of a New Bird from Guatemala, forming the type of a
New Genus. By Joun Gou tp, F.R.S. ete. .

Genus Maracocicxta, Gould.

Gen. Char. Bill straight, shorter than the head ; culmen keeled,
and slightly descending from the middle to the point ; tomiz nearly
straight ; upper mandible slightly notched at the tip; nostrils
placed in a deep depression on each side of the base of the bill;
rictus destitute of vibrissze ; wings semiconcave, moderately long and
slightly rounded ; first quill very short, the fourth the longest ; tarsi
somewhat lengthened and with slight or delicate scutellations ; middle
and hind toes very long; tail moderately long, somewhat concave,

and soft to the touch.
This form is closely allied to Grallaria and Chameza, and would

appear to unite the members of those genera to those of Turdus.
It is very elegant, all the parts being admirably proportioned ; and
the colours harmoniously arranged.

Meteorological Observations. 79

MavacocicaLa Dryas.

Head, cheeks and ear-coverts jet-black, the feathers of the crown
somewhat lengthened ; back, wings and tail dark greenish-olive ;
centre of the throat and under surface pale buffy-yellow, blending
into the olive of the upper surface on the flanks ; the feathers of the
breast and upper part of the abdomen tipped with olive ; bill and
eyelash orange-red ; legs and feet orange-yellow.

Total length 7 inches ; bill 7; wing 33; tail 23 ; tarsi 14 ; middle
toe and nail 1,4, ; hind-toe and nail }.

Hab. Guatemala.

Remark.—In size this bird is rather smaller than the European
Redwing, Turdus Iliacus.—F rom the Zoological Proceedings, Nov.
28, 1854.

Tar LATE Mr. Newport.

A plain but handsome monument, of Aberdeen granite, has recently
been placed in the cemetery of Kensal Green, to the memory of the
late George Newport, the eminent naturalist and physiologist. The
inscription on the stone, which we give below, implies strongly, if it
does not formally express, the merits of the deceased. The fact of
haying a public monument raised to him by those who knew him
best, his friends and fellow-workers, is an eulogy of a kind which can
never be called in question, though his own scientific writings con-
stitute his best and most enduring epitaph.

INSCRIPTION.

Sacred to the Memory of Gzeorce Newport, F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.C.S. &c. &e. He was born in Canterbury on the 4th day of
July, 1803, and died in London on the 7th day of April, 1854.
This monument was erected by Fellows of the Royal and Linnean
Societies to commemorate their regret for the loss of a much-esteemed
colleague, and to testify their sense of the great services rendered by
him to Science.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR NOVEMBER ]855.*

Chiswick.— November 1. Cloudy : frosty at night. 2. Overcast and cold : heavy
rain. 3. Showery. 4. Fine. 5. Clear: dense fog: very fine: rain. 6. Fine.
7. Cloudy. 8. Constant heavy rain. 9. Slight fog: fine. 10. Foggy: very fine:
foggy at night. 11. Very fine: cloudy. 12. Hazy. 13. Overcast. 14. Fine:
frosty at night. 15. Frosty and foggy: very fine: dense fog at night. 16. Dense
fog. 17. Fine: cloudy: rain. 18. Hazy: cloudy: rain. 19. Rain. 20. Drizzly:
fine. 21. Overcast: rain. 22. Drizzly: overcast: fine. 23. Cloudy. 24. Cloudy
and cold: showery. 25. Cloudy: clear: sharp frost at night. 26. Very fine.
27. Overcast: slightrain. 28. Overcast: cloudy: lunar rainbow at 10 p.m. 29.
Overcast: cloudy. 30. Overcast : very fine.

Mean temperature of the month .............s.eeeeseeee pecsrete 40°84
Mean temperature of Nov. 1854 ............ccc.ccseeeeeeeeees ee 39°35
Mean temperature of Nov. for the last twenty-nine years ... 42 °95
Average amount of rain in NOv. ............cscsecceseeeeees esses 2°347 inches,

Boston.—Nov. 1. Fine. 2. Fine: rainpm. 3. Cloudy: raine.m. 4. Fine:
rain a.M. 5. Cloudy: rainp.m. 6. Rain a.m. 7. Cloudy. 8. Cloudy: rain
A.M.andp.M. 9. Fine. 10. Cloudy, 11. Fine. 12—15. Cloudy. 16, 17. Fine.
18, 19. Cloudy: rainr.m, 20. Cloudy. 21. Cloudy: rain p.m. 22, 23. Cloudy:
rain A.M. and p.m. 24. Cloudy: rainp.m. 25. Cloudy. 26. Fine. 27. Cloudy:
rain p.m. 28. Cloudy: rain a.m. andv.m. 29. Cloudy: rain p.m. 30. Cloudy.

* The observations by the Rev. C, Clouston of Sandwich Manse, Orkney,
have not been received.

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“uIRy *‘pulAL *1o}OWOUIET J, *JoJOUMOLU

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.}

No. 98. FEBRUARY 1856.

VIII.—Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. Ul.
Some Species of Leperditia. By T. Ruperr Jones, F.G.S.

[ With two Plates. |
[Continued from vol. xvi. p. 176.]

In Notes I. and II. (‘ Annals,’ August and September 1855) I
have described the little Beyrichie of the Upper and Lower
Silurian rocks, especially of Sweden and Britain ; in this paper
I propose to describe other small Bivalved Entomostracan Crus-
taceans, larger than the former, and characteristically distinct.
These are from the Silurian rocks of Scandinavia, Russia, Arctic
America, and England ; except one which is from the Devonian
rocks of Normandy *.

Two little fossil bivalves + from the palzozoic rocks of Goth-
land were figured and described more than twenty years ago by
Hisinger t, who recognized their general dissimilarity to the
Conchifera, and referred them to the Entomostracan genus
Cythere, which was the only marine bivalved form of the Sub-
class of the Crustacea at that time known to naturalists§.

* I have also seen lately a typical Leperditia from the Carboniferous
Limestone of Tournay, Belgium.

+ Cytherina Balthica and C. phaseolus. It is only of the former that I
can here speak,—as I have not yet obtained any specimen referable to the
latter. Kléden’s Cytherina phaseolus (Verst. Mark Brandenburg, p. 102.
pl. 1. fig. 10) appears to be a distinct form, of great interest. M‘Coy has
referred to C. phaseolus some Irish Silurian specimens; but Mr. Salter
assures me that they do not correspond.

{ In his ‘ Anteckningar i Physik och Geognosi under resor uti Sverige
och Norige ;* and also im his ‘ Lethza Suecica.’

§ O. F. Miiller’s Notes in the ‘ Philos. Trans.’ 1771, and his elaborate
work on the “ Entomostraca,”’ published in 1785, and again in 1792, were
still the chief sources of information on this subject.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 6

82 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

Later researches, however, have greatly extended the list of
the Entomostraca; and there are several well-known existing
forms which possess a bivalved carapace or shell ; such as Cypris,
Cythere, Cypridina, Limnadia, Daphnia, and Nebalia. In these
the carapace is vertical, and its two lateral halves or valves are
either distinct in themselves and united by a more or less elabo-
rate dorsal hingement,—or form one entire shell, doubled
along the back with a flexible fold. Other Entomostraca have
the carapace horizontal and flattened, or nearly so, and marked
by a mesial ridge or line along its greater axis ;—as Apus and
Limulus. Of the above-mentioned genera, nearly all have been
presented in geologic times in forms more or less closely related
to the existing species.

In the case of the fossil Entomostraca, the soft parts, inclu-
ding the maxillary, branchial, and locomotive organs, on which
the generic and sometimes the specific distinctions of the recent
forms are mainly established, have quite disappeared ; and the
hard carapace-valves alone remain to guide us in the recognition
of genera and species. It is fortunate, however, that the families,
and most of the genera even, of the existing Bivalved Entomos-
tracans * have carapaces sufficiently characteristic to enable us
to co-ordinate the fossil forms by the analogies presented in the
form and structure of the valves.

For the most part, the Entomostracan bivalves, both from
their minute size and in their general aspect, are strikingly dif-
ferent from the Conchifera. Some, however, as for instance the
Estheria donaciformis +, may readily be mistaken for ordmary
bivalve shells.

One of the two little Gothland fossils above mentioned,
although it resembles the Conchifera in being bivalved and in
its bean-shaped form, differs from Molluscan bivalves t im
general appearance, and in the combination of the following
characters ;—the great length of the hinge-margin,—the absence
of umbos,—the extreme overlapping of one valve over the other
on the ventral margin,—the uniform smoothness of the surface,

* When we refer to minute distinctions of form, hingement, and orna-
mentation, we find that among the recent Bivalved Entomostraca some
families and even genera have carapaces peculiar to them (Cypridina, Ne-
balia, Limnadia); whilst in other families a nearly similar carapace belongs
to two genera (Cypris and Candona,— Daphnia and Lynceus); and on the
contrary even two characteristically different carapaces occur among the
species of one genus (Cythere and its subgenus Bairdia).

+ Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1849, vol. 11. p. 86. Pl. Annulos. 11.

{ With respect to the characters in which there is an approach in form,
viz. a straight hinge-line and an overlapping of one valve over the other, I
have been favoured with the following note by my friend Mr. Pickermg :—

“On looking over the recent Conchifera, or bivalve Mollusca, I do not

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 83

—the relative thickness and the horny aspect of the valves, which
are marked moreover by a small tubercle, and by a central spot,
formed by a local variation in the tissue of the test.

With these characters, it is readily recognized as a Crustacean ;
but with regard to the place of the Gothland fossil amongst its
congeners, although the several characters above enumerated are
individually represented by other Bivalved Entomostraca, yet
there is no genus, either existing, or yet described from the
tertiary or secondary rocks, to which this fossil can be referred.
The genus Beyrichia, of the Silurian rocks, presents some special
characters in common with the fossil in question ; but the two
forms are unmistakeably distinct *.

In the description of some fossils from the Devonian schist
and limestone of Ille et Vilaine (Brittany), M. Rouaultt im 1851
recognized two new Entomostracan bivalves—a Beyrichia (B.
Hardouinianat, Rouault), and a form on which he founded the
genus Leperditia. The generic characters of this Bretagne spe-
cies (L. Britannica, Rouault) are clearly described, and are closely
applicable to the Gothland fossil above referred to.

Through the kindness of Mr. J. Morris, I have had the op-
portunity of studying some very fine specimens of the Gothland
form, as well as two valves from Néhou, which are referable

find, and indeed do not know of, any genus bearing the same characters
united as in your Crustacean, namely a straight hinge-line and an over-
lapping ventral margin.
“The following genera show more or less one or other of these cha-
racters :—
Solemya,
Lithodomus,
Modiola,
Mycetopus,
Tridina,
Arca,
Meleagrina, |
Perna,
Avicula, inequivalve, with straight hinge-line.
Potamomya,
oy. an overlapping ventral margin.
Thracia,

“The dorsal margin of Solemya, with the ventral margin of Potamomya,
would, I think, produce the form required, but such a form is unknown to
me.”

* Vide antea, vol. xvi. pp. 91 & 174.

+ Bullet. Soc. Géol. France, 2 sér. vol. viii. p. 377. :

t This species was inadvertently overlooked when I was preparing the
Table of the Beyrichia, antea, vol. xvi. p. 175.

I take this opportunity of correcting an erratum in the Table here referred
to:—B. Wilckensiana, and its variety plicata, should be placed under the
heading Corrugate, instead of under Simplices. ee

a straight hinge-line.

84 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

perhaps to M. Rouault’s species. The British Museum and the
Geological Society’s Museum contain some highly interesting
specimens from Gothland. Mr. Salter has submitted for my
examination numerous specimens of Leperditia from the Silurian
limestones of the Arctic Regions and elsewhere ; and Mr. Wood-
ward and other friends have favoured me with several others.
These materials have enabled me to prepare a notice of a few
principal forms of the genus, which, though closely related, have
sufficient peculiarities of the carapace to render them specifically
distinct.
Class CRUSTACEA.
Subclass EnromostRAca.
Order Phyllopoda ?
Family Lererpirip2.

Genus Lerrervitta, Rouault, 1851. Bullet. Soc. Géol. France,
2de série, tome vill. p. 377.

Generic characters.—Animal enclosed in a vertical bivalved
carapace. Carapace inequivalved ; somewhat resembling a tam-
arind-stone and other leguminaceous seeds. Carapace-valves
smooth, convex, horny in appearance, nearly oblong, longer
than broad*, bean-shaped, inequilateral, posterior half broadest ;
dorsal border straight ; ventral border nearly semicircular ; an-
terior and posterior borders oblique above, rounded below, the
valve-margin passing from each end of the hinge-line in an
oblique direction downwards and outwards to about half the
breadth of the valve, where it meets the curved ends of the
ventral border, and so forms the more or less angular extremities
of the valve, the former of which is narrower and sharper than
the latter.

Valves united along their upper (dorsal) borders by a simple
linear hinge ; the two extremities of the hinge- border form angles
with the anterior and posterior borders in each valve.

The right valve larger than the left, being broader, and over-
lapping completely the ventral border of the opposite valve, and
to some extent its anterior and posterior borders. The overlap-
ping ventral border of the right valve forms a thick blunt keel
to the closed carapace.

Each valve is somewhat depressed towards the dorsal border ;
this border in the left valve is thicker than that of the right, and
sometimes slightly overrides it. The ventral margin of the left
valve is turned suddenly inwards, forming a thin plate project-

* The length is measured in the direction of the hinge-line,—the breadth
(or height) in that from the dorsal to the ventral margin.

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 85

ing into the cavity of the carapace. The line of junction of the
inverted border, or ventral plate, and the outer surface of the
valve is angular, and bears a slight suleus and moulding, against
which the overlapping edge of the right valve abuts. The dorsal
or the ventral profile of the closed valves is elongate acute oval ;
the end view of the closed valves is more or less ovate.

Rather above and in front of the centre of each valve, and on
its most convex portion, nearly all the species of the genus pre-
sent a slightly raised, circular or suboval swelling, having a dia-
meter of from ith to ith of the breadth of the valve’s surface.
This swelling is distinguishable by a local change of colour or
of surface-condition, and marks the place of a corresponding
rounded pit, excavated on the interior surface of the valve so
deeply as to render the tissue of the valve at the swelling some-
what diaphanous. The cast of this pit on an inner cast of the
valve is strongly marked, having a greater relative height than
the external swelling. The swelling has usually a reticulated
appearance resulting from vascular impressions on the test: and
from a slight sulcus at the margin of the pit a set of delicate
canals*, tortuous and inosculating, excavated on the interior
of the valve, radiate forwards, downwards, and backwards, gra-
dally becoming fainter towards the edges of the valves.

Anterior to the central tubercle, or “ lucid spot,” and nearer
to the dorsal margin, is a smaller, but prominent, tubercle on
each valve, with a corresponding internal pit. This little tubercle
(the “ anterior tubercle”) is usually seated on or at the edge of
a slightly raised area of irregular outline ; and behind it a short
shallow vertical sulcus, commencing at the dorsal margin, is
usually apparent.

1. Leperditia Balthica, Hisinger, sp. Pl. VI. figs. 1-5.
Cytherina Balthica, Hisinger, Anteckningar i Phys. o. Geol.

part 5. pl. 8. fig. 2; Lethza Suecica, p. 10, 118. pl. 1. fig. 2 a, 8,
pl. 30. fig. 1.

Dimensions of closed or of separate valves of five individuals :-—

Length. Breadth. Thickness.
(inch) (inch) (inch)
3

#4 3% Right (broad) valve.

23 ot Cast of left (narrow) valve.
ay ca Left valve.

+f 49 2; Perfect carapace.

re oT Cast of left valve.

* These are noticed also by Count Keyserling in a species from
Petschora-Land.

86 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

Valves most convex at the middle and somewhat posteriorly ;
the posterior half of the valve broadest and boldly rounded
backwards and downwards. Old individuals less taperimg ante-
riorly, and more oblong, than younger valves. Anterior and
posterior angles of the dorsal edge prominent in well-preserved
specimens, the extremities of the hige-margin being truncate,
and the anterior and posterior margins of the valves obliquely
rounded off from beneath them.

Ventral margin of the right valve overlapping that of the left
to the extent of about 3th the breadth of the carapace.

Dorsal margin of the left valve slightly thicker than that of
the right, which latter is somewhat thickened only at its anterior
third; ventral margin inverted suddenly, and marked with
transverse strie within and without.

Surface of each valve slightly depressed along a narrow area
just within the margin, which forms a gently raised convex
border, narrow on the dorsal edge, broader on the ventral.

Central spot and radiating canals well defined; the latter are
seen, in the cast represented at fig. 4 a, to spring from a circular
vascular impression, or sinus, surrounding the central spot or
tubercle. The radiating canals have left only obscure traces on
the cast* of the small specimen, fig. 5 a; which, however, shows
the reticulated or warty appearance of the central tubercle very
elearly. Anterior tubercle prominent, on an ill-defined shght
elevation, which is bounded behind by a faint sulcus extending
from the dorsal edge to the central tubercle.

The smaller cast, fig. 5 a, which I regard as representing a
younger individual of this species, presents a broadish depressed
margin on the anterior and ventral borders,—a feature that
becomes almost obsolete in the adult specimens. It also bears
a gently curved crenulated ridge, of slight elevation, crossing
obliquely the postero-dorsal region of the valve ;—this ridge is
not traceable in the older specimen, fig. 4a.

Surface smooth, shining; colour usually dark brown; two
large, somewhat worn, odd valves in Mr. Morris’s collection are
light brown in colour ; and in the largest the anterior tubercle is
whitish, with a central black spot (fig. 1 a,c). In these two old
individuals the surface exhibits traces of a fine punctation.

This species occurs in the Upper Silurian limestone of Goth-
land+, where it appears to be not uncommon. Hisinger gives
the localities thus :—“In the Transition limestone of Gothland
at Linna, near Slitehamn ; also in detritus on the sea-shore:
in brownish limestone in the Island Bjork6, near Holmestrand,

* The surface of the cast is covered by very fine but obscure pittings, as
if the inside of the valve had been marked by an ill-defined reticulation.

+ For a notice of the geology and fossils of Gothland, see Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 18, 30, &e.

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 87

Norway.” Count Keyserling* states that this Gothland species
occurs in the Silurian dolomitic limestone on the Waschkina,
Petschora-Land, in company with another species (Leperditia
marginata, Keyserl. sp.).

2. Leperditia Arctica, Jones. Pl. VIL. figs. 1-5.

Leperditia Balthica, var. Arctica, Jones. Salter’s Appendix
to Sutherland’s Journal of a Voyage in Baffin’s Bay, &c., 1852,
vol. ii. p. eexxi. pl. 5. fig. 13; and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. ix.
p. 314.

Dimensions of closed or of separate valves of four individuals :—

Length. Breadth. Thickness.
(inch) (inch) (inch)
- - Right valve.

2 5 see
ot 25 2, Perfect carapace.
er OT ... Right valve.

or 25 ... Left valve.

Valves most convex near the centre, depressed near the mar-
gins ; antero- and postero-dorsal angles strongly marked ; the
anterior extremity acute. Central portion of the ventral border
of right valve projecting downwards with an almost angular
outline (giving the carapace a subtriangular shape), and over-
lapping the left valve to the extent of ith of the breadth of the
carapace.

Dorsal edge of left valve much thicker than that of the right ;
the thickness greatest posteriorly.

Anterior and central tubercles well developed ; the radiating
vascular impressions form a delicate reticulation over nearly all
the inner surface of the valves, and arise from a large groove or
sinus surrounding the central tubercle. This circular sinus is
connected by a still broader sinus with the raised area of the
dorsal border of the valve. There is also another sinus em-
bracing the under side of the anterior tubercle, and passing for-
ward along the raised area in front of the tubercle to disappear
at the antero-dorsal angle. From the lower side of this sinus
fine vascular impressions originate, which freely inosculate with
the others. On one specimen (fig. 1] a) the anterior tubercle is
surrounded by a slightly raised, oval, crenulated border ; and the
surface of the valve immediately beneath the central tubercle
distinctly exhibits by faint raised lines the course of the larger
radiating canals.

Surface smooth and polished ; colour light brown.

* “ Wissenschaftliche Beobachtungen auf einer Reise in das Petschora-
Land.” 4to, 1846, p. 289.

88 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

L. Arctica occurs abundantly in the Upper Silurian limestone
at Cape Hotham in Assistance Bay, and Seal Island in Baring
Bay ; also in Griffiths and Cornwallis Islands. Specimens were
brought to England by Dr. P. C. Sutherland.

This species (which at first, when Mr. Salter showed it to me
in 1852, I was scarcely disposed to separate from the Gothland
species) differs from L. Balthica in several points,—in its smaller
size,—greater angularity of outline,—the greater convexity of
the valves, and depression of their dorsal region,—the thickness
of the dorsal edge of the left valve,—the great overlap of the
right valve,—the greater delicacy and extent of the radiating
canals,—and the lighter colour.

8. Leperditia alta, Conrad, sp.(?) Pl. VII. figs. 6 & 7.

Cytherina alia, Conrad, Report Geol. New York; Vanuxem,
Geology of New York, 1842, p. 112. fig. 28, 6; Hall, Paleon-
tology of New York, 1852, vol. ii. p. 338. pl. 78. fig. 2a, 6, ¢.

A specimen of hard, dark Upper Silurian limestone, containing
numerous specimens of Leperditia, chiefly on a weathered plane
of bedding, was brought to England from the shores of Wel-
lington Channel * by Dr. P. C. Sutherland, and is now im the
Museum of Practical Geology. The fossils are single valves,
with their convex surfaces more or less exposed on the weathered
surface, which also presents numbers of minute bodies, probably
crustacean likewise. The valves are roughened by the irregular
dissolution of their substance, and each has the most prominent
spot of its convexity irregularly enamelled, as it were, by a local
mineralogical condition of the altered calcareous matter of the
fossil. The limestone affords a few specimens by fracture ; these
have smooth surfaces. The characters are as follow :—

Dimensions of separate valves of five individuals :—

Length. Breadth.
(inch) (inch)
5 3
24 24
+ 4 jt valves.
10 6
24 24
25 ae lop:
. a \ Right valves.
24 24

Carapace-valves strongly convex, smooth, dark olive-brown im
colour, more or less oblong, somewhat variable in outline, straight
above, rounded below; extremities obliquely rounded; the
dorsal angles in some much more definite than in others; pos-
terior half broader and rounder than the anterior. Anterior

* Cape Riley or Beechey Island.

Mr. T. Rh. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 89

tubercle distinct, especially in the casts; central tubercle not
distinct.

The anterior and posterior borders of the right valve present a
slight marginal rim, especially in the younger specimens. A
distinct but very narrow marginal rim is seen on the anterior,
ventral, and posterior borders of some young left valves. The
ventral margin of the right valve is thick and incurved, over-
lapping that of the opposite valve, which has its inner edge in-
verted at a somewhat acute angle; this inverted ventral plate is
smooth.

Prof. Hall’s figures, which he refers with doubt to “ C. alta,”
agree in general contour with the form under notice; but the
unworn surface of the latter is not papillose like the Schoharie
specimens. Mr. Vanuxem’s figures are wretched; but as Prof.
Hall appears, after having examined specimens of the fossil
indicated by Conrad and Vanuxem, to be disinclined to separate
the two, it is quite possible that all may be referred to one
species. Mr. Conrad * and Mr. Vanuxem quote the species as
occurring in the Tentaculite limestone of the Waterlime group ;
Prof. Hall’s specimens came from the Coralline limestone of
Schoharie.

The Arctic specimens which I have here referred to Leperditia
alta, although they differ in form less from L. Balthica than from
L. Arctica, still do not present the characteristic obliquely-sub-
oval outline of the former, but, the larger individuals at least,
have a subglobose shape. Their margimal rim, though slight,
is also a good distinctive character. In size they occasionally
equal L. Arctica, but do not approach the magnitude of the
Gothland specimens.

4. Leperditia Britannica, Rouault (?). Pl. VI. figs. 6 & 7.

Rouault, Bullet. Soc. Géol. France, deux. sér. 1851, vol. vi.
p. 377, woodcut figs. 1, 2, 3.
Dimensions :—

Length. Breadth.
(inch) (inch)

3k 2, (about). Bretagne specimen.
at 2; Normandy specimen: right valve.

5 2, Normandy specimen : right valve.
An odd dextral valve, apparently referable to the species in-
dicated above, affords the following characters.

* Under the name of ‘‘ Cytherina fabulites,’ Mr. Conrad has described
(Philad. Acad. Nat. Se. Proceed. vol. i. p. 332) a bivalve Entomostracan
from the Trenton limestone of Mineral Point, Wisconsin, which from the
description of its shape and size is probably a Leperditia.

90 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

Right valve nearly oblong, broadest and roundest behind ;
tapering and angular im front; most convex in the middle;
depressed towards the margins, which are for the most part
slightly raised; ventral border overlapping the opposite valve
to the extent of Ath of the breadth of the carapace; anterior
tubercle distinct ; central spot not defined. Surface smooth, not
polished; black.

Another, but smaller, right valve (younger individual) is simi-
Jar in general form, but relatively shorter and broader.

These two specimens occur on a small fragment of dark,
shelly, Devonian limestone from Néhou in Normandy, which
has been kindly lent me by Mr. Morris.

It appears to me probable that they belong to M. Rouault’s
species (which is from the Devonian rocks of Brittany), although
the latter form appears to differ in the degree of convexity, and
to be shorter and broader in proportion, but unfortunately
neither M. Rouault’s specific description nor figures supply me
with all the necessary terms of comparison.

The Normandy specimen, Pl. VI. fig. 6, differs from the right
valve of L. Balthica im its narrower and more angular outline ;
in the greater depression of the surface towards the margins of
the valve, or more rapid slope from the centre towards the peri-
phery ; and in the greater overlap of the ventral margin.

The vertical transverse section of the closed valves of L. Bri-
tannica, fig. 7, is copied from M. Rouault’s memoir for the sake
of comparison. The ventral overlap of the larger valve is con-
siderable, as in fig.6 a; but the convexity of that valve differs in
the two individuals. The inverted plate of the ventral border of
the smaller valve, as shown in fig. 7, may be remarked as being
of very small extent, compared with that of L. Balthica, and of
some of the species hereafter described. In M. Rouault’s fig. 1,
the small valve is seen to have a dorsal protuberance, like that
in L. gibbera (Pl. VII. fig. 9 a); hence, if I am right in assign-
ing the Normandy specimens to the Bretagne species, their left
valve would have the dorsal hump,—another characteristic fea-
ture distinguishing them from L. Balthica.

5. Leperditia gibbera, nov. sp. Pl. VIL. figs. 8-10.

Dimensions of the separate valves of four individuals :—

Length. Breadth.
(inch) (inch)
9 2, Left valve.

2¢
= 3; Right valve.
1 4 = Right and left valves.

Valves strongly convex; almost oblong, broadest at the pos-

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 91

terior third; extremities obliquely rounded; ventral margin
gently curved ; conyexity greatest on the median line.

Extremities of right valve depressed and margined with a nar-
row flattened rim; ventral margin incurved, and but slightly
overlapping the opposite valve.

Left valve thickened along the dorsal border, especially pos-
teriorly, where it presents a smooth, oval, ridge-like protu-
berance, short and depressed in young specimens, but prominent
and occupying even more than the middle third of the dorsal
edge in old individuals. The protuberance is separated from
the anterior tubercle by an oblique furrow. This dorsal protu-
berance is not present in the right valve at any age. The ex-
cessive thickening of the postero-dorsal portion of the left valve
is also present in M. Rouault’s Bretagne species * ; and a ten-
dency to this condition is indicated in L. Arctica, and very
slightly in L. Balthica.

The rest of the border of the left valve is suddenly depressed
into a narrow, flat, and trenchant marginal rim; the inverted
ventral edge is narrow.

Anterior tubercle well marked; central tubercle indistinct.
Surface of valves smooth, shining, finely pitted, and of a rich
brown colour,

L. gibbera occurs in numbers in the Upper Silurian hme-
stone of Beechey Island, in company with numbers of small
bivalved Entomostraca, probably Beyrichie, among which are
two varieties of B. Kledeni. Specimens of the limestone have
been brought to England by Capt. Sir E. Belcher, and are now
in the Museum of Practical Geology.

6. Leperditia marginata, Keyserling, sp. PI. VII. figs. 11-14
& 15.

Cypridina marginata, Keyserling, Wissenschaftliche Beobach-
tungen auf einer Reise in das Petschora-Land (Geognostische
Beobachtungen), 1846, p. 288. pl. 11. fig. 16.

Cypridina Balthica, Eichwald (non Cytherina Balthica, Hisin-
ger), Bullet. Imp. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 1854, No. 1. p. 99. pl. 2.
fig. 6.

A specimen of whitish (dolomitic) Upper Silurian limestone,
containing numerous specimens of a small Leperditia (chiefly
on a divisional plane of the rock), from the village of Saretche,
in the Government of St. Petersburgh, has been kindly presented
to me by Mr. T. Davidson, who received it from Prof. Kutorga
of St. Petersburgh. It was labelled “ Cypridina marginata, Key-

* Bullet. Soc. Géol. France, 2 sér. vol. viii. p. 377. fig. L.

92 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

serl.” The carapaces have mostly disappeared; but some re-
main in an altered crystalline state, or as a pulverulent, white,
calcareous substance. The casts of the interior, and sometimes
of the exterior, of the valves are very distinct ; but the saccharoid
crystalline character of the matrix has been ill adapted to receive
the impression of any fine vascular or other markings, if such
existed in the originals.

Casts of a right and a left valve are figured in PI. VII. figs. 11,
12; and, having been able, in some instances, to observe portions
of the carapace in place, as well as good casts of the outside, I
am satisfied that the exteriors of the valves presented almost, if
not quite, as strong a marginal rim as is seen in the casts. This I
especially mention, because M. Hichwald, in describing * speci-
mens of a similar form (possibly identical), from Esthland and
Livonia, states that the outsides of the valve have no marginal
sulcus and rim, and that the casts alone exhibit this character.

The St. Petersburgh specimens present the following cha-
racters :—
(inch) (inch)
Dimensions :—Length +4 to 4
Breadth 34 to

Carapace-valves almost equivalve, nearly oblong (subject to
slight variation in outline), broadest at the posterior third,
straight at the back, obliquely curved on the ventral margin, and
obliquely rounded at the extremities; the convexity of the sur-
face is nearly central. The central portion of the ventral edge
of each valve is somewhat incurved ; that of the right valve ap-
parently overlapping that of the left.

The right valve is margined, except on the dorsal edge, by a
well-marked sulcus, running along at a short distance from the
edge, and separating off a narrow, flattened, or slightly convex
border. On the left valve there is a similar marginal rim,
but it dies out on the central incurved portion of the ventral
margin, fig. 12 d.

The anterior tubercle is distinct; the central tubercle can
also be easily discerned on the casts ; the radiating vascular mark-
ings, however, are not apparent.

Of M. Keyserling’s figures of Leperditia marginata (op. cit.),
fig. 16 d (the smallest figure) alone corresponds exactly with the
form under notice ; in fig. 16 (op. c7¢.), and apparently in fig. 16a,
the marginal rim (of right valve) is indicated as passing round

* Moscow Bulletin, 1854.

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 93

the ventral margin as a projecting edge*, keeping the vertical
direction of the valve, instead of being a mere moulding accom-
panying an incurvation of the ventral border. Further, in
fig. 16 ¢ (op. cit.), there is represented an inverted edge to the
right + valve (as in the left valve of L. Balthica) ; and Count
Keyserling remarks, that, whilst the ventral plate in Z. Balthica
is marked with transverse strize, in this species it is smooth.

The Petschora specimens vary from about 3°, to 44 inch, and
even reach nearly 14 inch, in length.

The anterior and the central tubercle are both referred to by
M. Keyserling as being well marked in Z. marginata, and the
cast of the inside of the central tubercle is described as being
beset with crowded unequal wart-like markings, and accompanied
by ill-defined, tortuous, fine vein-markings, radiating backwards.
The sulcus defining the marginal ledge is stated to be “slight
on the surface of the valves, and deepened on the cast.”

M. Eichwald{ describes and figures a form under the deno-
mination of “ Cypridina Balthica,” and at the same time recog-
nizes in the casts, at least, the “margins” seen in Keyserling’s
species, and apparently allows the latter species to be well
established on that character. The individuals of M. Eichwald’s
species vary in length from 4 to 3 inch (according to his figures) ;
and in the text he gives “} inch” as the size. They possess the
anterior and central tubercles, with the muscular impression and
radiating vascular markings. Excepting that the outside, ac-
cording to the author, exhibits no marginal sulcus and rim,
though the internal cast does, M. Eichwald’s figures present no
material differences from the smaller form of M. Keyserling’s
species. Neither the figures, however, nor the description,
afford all the necessary details for satisfactory comparison with
known species.

The specimens here referred to are from “ the upper beds of
the greywacke limestone” of Esthland and Livonia ; and, accord-
ing to M. Eichwald (op. cit.), another similar form, but with a row
of punctiform pits on the border of the valve [query, on a de-
pressed marginal border ?], and without any apparent central
spot and radiating vessels, occurs in the dolomitic limestone
near Gatschina, on the river Oredesch §.

* It is described as “ more or less clearly running along all the oval out-
line of the valve and ending at the hinge-angles.”’

7 As this inversion on the right valve is contrary to what obtains in

other species of the genus, perhaps this figure has been reversed on the
plate.
t Bulletin Imp. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 1854, part 1. p. 99. pl. 2. figs. 7 & 8.
§ M. Eichwald also figures and describes a narrower and slightly arched
form (“ Cypridina minuta,” loc. cit. fig. 6), from the Brandschiefer of Erras
and the vicinity of Talkhof.

94 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

In Plate VII. fig. 14, I have figured a very interesting spe-
cimen, which apparently is referable to the larger form of Count
Keyserling’s species (/oc. cit. fig. 6 atoc). It is m a white
(dolomitic) Silurian limestone, brought by Sir John Richardson
from Pine Island Lake* on the English or Great River, a few
miles north of Cumberland House (about lat. 54°, long. 104°),
and is now in the British Museum.

The fossil represents in relief the interior of a single left cara-
pace-valve, and appears to have been a cast which, subsequently
to the removal of the valve itself, has been smoothly recoated to
a certain extent with a thin covering, similar in colour to the
matrix, but less crystalline. In some aspects, the edge of the
cast being partially non-continuous with the matrix, the fossil
has an appearance of representing the valve itself,—which is not
the case.

It is 4 inch in length and 34 inch in breadth ; similar to some
specimens of L. Balthica in its obliquely suboval outline and
well-defined dorsal angles ; the surface is strongly convex, sloping
gradually posteriorly, but suddenly depressed on the anterior and
ventral margins to meet a well-defined flat marginal rim, which
ends at the extremities of the dorsal border.

Anterior tubercle very distinct, surrounded by an irregular
depression ; central tubercle large, but not elevated ; radiating
vascular markings not apparent; an oblique shallow furrow,
passing from the depression behind the anterior and above the
central tubercle to the most projecting portion of the posterior
portion of the valve, cuts off a somewhat raised area along the
postero-dorsal region.

If there be any inverted plate within the ventral border (like
that represented in Keyserling’s fig. 16 ¢, op. cit.), it is concealed
by the matrix.

I follow M. Keyserling in placing two such apparently dis-
similar forms as figs. 11-14 under one specific appellation,
because my own materials for observation are very limited, and
it is possible that the Petschora-Land specimens have afforded
the necessary links for connecting the two by specimens of
different stages of growth.

If the smaller form (figs. 11, 12) be the young of the larger
one, we have a carapace with a merely moulded and incurved
ventral edge in its young form developing a strongly bordered
margin with an inverted ventral plate (according to Keyserling,
op. cit.) inits older state! If, on the contrary, as I am inclined to
suspect, the smaller form be an adult, it is necessarily distinct,

* Journal of a Boat-Voyage through Rupert’s Land, &c. 2 vols. 8vo.
London, 1851 (vol. i. p. 75).

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 95

and does not come within the typical group of Leperditia, and
should be removed to a subgenus at least.

It should be remarked that L. marginata, as represented by
figs. 11-14 (and M. Keyserling’s figures), differs from L. Bal-
thica, and the other species above mentioned, in having the
greatest convexity on the anterior and inferior region of the
valve, rather than on the central portion.

Fig. 15 represents a cast in sandstone (x 2 diam.), from the
Tilestones (Downton sandstone) of Kington in Herefordshire,
of a Leperditia apparently belonging to the species under notice.
It is associated with casts of small Lingule. Another specimen,
consisting of a cast of the left valve, in the same sandstone, ex-
hibits similar characters.

These individuals measure ,/; inch in length, and + inch in
breadth ; they are rather more angular anteriorly than figs. 11 &
12; they present only obscure traces of a marginal rim; and
their dorsal edge is not quite straight, but very slightly raised at
the centre. Otherwise the general form is similar in the English
and Russian specimens.

The anterior and central tubercles in the Kington specimens
are distinctly seen, and have the same relative position and pro-
portions as in the St. Petersburgh specimens.

With all the slight differences observable, considering the in-
different state of the casts, I do not think that the Kington spe-
cimens can be referred to any other than the Russian species.

This is the first noticed occurrence of Leperditia in British
rocks*, The specimens are in the Museum of Practical Geology ;
and I am indebted to Mr. Salter for having kindly drawn my
attention to them.

7. Leperditia Solvensis, nov. sp. PI. VII. fig. 16.
Length 4 inch; breadth 51, inch.

The impression of the outside of a small valve (an artificial
cast of which is represented, magnified 2 diameters, by fig. 16)
on a fragment of Lower Silurian schist from South Wales has
been kindly communicated to me by Mr. Salter. It is from the
Llandeilo flags (lowest portion) of Upper Solva, Solva Harbour,
St. David’s ; and is now in the Museum of Practical Geology.

The valve was slightly convex+, narrow oblong in shape, nar-

* Count Keyserling, in his remarks on the L. marginata of Petschora-
Land, expressed his astonishment that the Upper Silurian rocks of England
had not yet yielded this species; as it has at last made its appearance, we
may hope that it will soon be represented by numerous specimens in the
cabinets of the indefatigable collectors in Siluria.

+ The degree of convexity of the valve cannot be exactly ascertained, as

96 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

rower at one end than at the other, straight at the back, rounded
at the ends, gently curved below. Excepting at the dorsal edge,
there is a well-defined, flattened, marginal rim. The tubercles
are not apparent.

This fossil approaches very nearly in outline to L. gibbera, and
in some of its characters to L. marginata; but its small size,
slight convexity, narrowness of shape, and large proportion of
marginal rim separate it from these species.

Observations on the Genus.

I must first observe that Prof. Quekett, having microscopically
examined portions of the carapace-valves of Leperditia Arctica,
informs me that they exhibit most distinctly characteristic crus-
tacean structure.

In seeking for the family alliances of this paleozoic genus, we
find some of the characters of its carapace among the existing
bivalved Entomostraca, both of the Phyllopod and Lophyropod
groups ; but others of its peculiarities are not yet traced. It is
not well represented by any known recent form, but partakes of
the characters of several.

Shape.—-The carapaces and carapace-valves figured in Plates
VI. & VII. present a general uniformity of shape, in the sub-
oval outline on three of their edges and the straightness of their
upper or dorsal border. They all possess the antero-dorsal
tubercle, and most of them show some evidence of the central
spot or tubercle. The ventral edge of the left valve is suddenly
inflected to a greater or less extent in all excepting those referred
to L. marginata and L. Solvensis. In the smaller form of the
one (Pl. VII. fig. 12) there is a decided modification of the in-
flection alluded to;—in the latter, and im our large form of
L. marginata, the evidence on this point is imperfect.

The mode in which the two valves close one on the other, by
a strong overlap and an inflected flange, is peculiar to the typical
Leperditia.

With respect to the form of the valves among other bivalved
Entomostraca, fossil and recent, an approach to the outline-
shape of Leperditia is not uncommon ; but, except among the
Beyrichia, few species are definitely characterized by this exact
shape, with its dorsal angles and ventral curvature *. Those
that approach most nearly in this outline of the carapace-valve
are the Limnadidet+ and (with the exception of being notched)
some of the Cypridinine.

its convex portion has been somewhat crumpled by pressure ; in other
respects the original form appears to be well preserved.

* Cypridina Isabella is one of the few examples of this shape (here
modified by an infero-anterior notch) in other genera.

+ Especially in the young state.

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 97

Central spot.—There is another point of resemblance between
Leperditia and the Limnadide, namely the great central spot
with its vascular markings (PI. VI. fig. le; Pl. VII. tig. 4 d).
In Leperditia there appears to be only one circular canal; in
Isaura (Estheria) cycladoides there ave three (Joly*), as there are
also in Lymnetis, as shown by Grube+. These concentric vas-
cular impressions on the inside of the carapace are present also
in other Entomostraca, as for instance, on the lateral halves of
the carapace in Apust and Lepidurus §.

The reticulated centre of this spot (which leaves the low warty
tubercle on the casts of the fossil valves) is the place of attach-
ment for the great adductor muscle of the animal || (Joly, Grube).

The radiating canals, originating at the central tubercle, are
found in Lymnetis (Grube, loc. cit.) as well as in Leperditia.

The concentric, radiating, and reticulate markings are pro-
bably referable to the course of blood-vessels and sinuses. The
carapace of many of these little Crustaceans appears to be ex-
tremely sanguiferous, and an important adjunct to the usual
respiratory organs.

The central spot of Leperditia and the Limnadide is repre-
sented in the Cypridinine, Cyprine, and Cytherine by a group
of variously arranged minute lucid spots, occupying an analogous
position on the valve ; and, in the first-named family at least, I
believe the lucid spots certainly to mark the place of muscular
attachment.

Eye-spot.—The anterior tubercle may with probability be re-
garded as indicating the place of the eye{],—or possibly even as
the external part of that organ; but, excepting some allied
palzeozoic forms, there are no other bivalved Entomostracans
having the eye indicated by a tubercle on the carapace, and few
have the eye placed so high up in the antero-dorsal region.

In the Cyprine and Cytherine the eye is single (coalesced),
and close up to the anterior hinge. Some at least of the Cypri-
dining, in which group the eyes are separate and transversely
distant one from another, have the eyes lower down in the an-

* Annal. Se. Nat. 1842, nouv. sér. vol. xvii. p. 293 &e. pl. 7-9.

+ Bemerkungen iiber die Phyllopoden, &c., von Dr. A. E. Grube ;
Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 1853, p. 109. pl. 7. fig. 22.

+ Baird’s Natural History of the British Entomostraca (Ray Soc.), 1850.

§ Baird, Zool. Soc. lust. Proceed. 1850. Annulosa, pl. 17.

|| This central tubercle in the fossil Entomostraca has been often mis-
taken by paleontologists for an eye-spot. Eichwald (doc. cit. supra) sup-
poses it in Leperditia to be the seat of the ovary, and the associated radia-
tions to be ovarian vessels: this is quite untenable; the eggs are found in
the postero-dorsal region of the recent bivalved Entomostraca.

§ Count Keyserling (Joc. cit. supra) describes this tubercle in L. mar-
ginata and L. Balthica as the “ eye-tubercle.”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 7

98 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

tero-dorsal region,—just above and in front of the musele and
central spot*. This last is the position of the eye-tubercles in
Leperditia.

In the Limnadide the eyes are quite differently situated.
They are closely approximate, and are placed (as in the Daphni-
de) low down on the beaked head (or cephalic rostral buckler)
of the animal; and hence they are sometimes even protruded
from between the anterior margins of the valves in Estheria.

The eye-spots or anterior tubercles of Leperditia, being near
the dorsal edges of its carapace, have an analogous position to
that of the eyes on either side of the mesial line of the horizontal
carapace in the Apodide,—or rather, being somewhat further
apart (measuring across the hinge-line of the valves), those of
Coryceus and Caligus.

Conclusion.—The points of resemblance between the carapace
of members of the recent families of Entomostraca and that of
Leperditia may be indicated as follows :—

Limnadide. Cypridinine. Apodide.
Resemblance in—

Ontline ssa ke teentesess 7 * 7
Central spot for muscular

attachMent: |. <--csss<+<s= J
Vascular markings (sinuses) + - +
Vascular markings al a

Giating) ...2.0s--cescesees
Situation of the eyes ...... — + *
Riye-tobercles, 9 o.60-<0scccenns ~- = ~

The above remarks may be of use not only in showing the
difficulty that exists in co-ordinating this fossil genus (so far as
the remains of the carapace will help us) with its known allies,
but also to some extent in illustrating another example “ of the
combination in extinct animals of characters separately mani-
fested in existing species.”

In concluding this notice of the relations of Leperditia, I
would observe that the successive changes in the developmental
growth of individuals remind us of the gradations of structure
observable among allied species; and, as among the Limnadide,
young individuals + present not a bivalved, but an horizontal
carapace, like that of Apus, so the carapace of an Apodoid ideally
folded in two along its mesial line, with its two halves drawn
together by a transverse muscle, would well represent in most of
its important characters the carapace of a Leperditia; for the
eye-spots would be nearly in the relative position required, and
the central muscle-spot would be associated with vascular mark-

* For instance, Cypridina Zealandica.
+ Estheria and Lymnetis, less than a week old: (Joly, Grube).

Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia. 99

ings. Nor would the valves, thus ideally constructed, be without
considerable resemblance in outline to the Leperditia valves.
Moreover, the vertical dorsal sulcus, which is scarcely apparent
in the typical Leperditia, though strongly marked in another
section of the group, and present also in Beyrichia, would find
its homologue in the nuchal furrow of the folded Apodoid.

Burmeister*, in his review of the classification of the fossil
Entomostraca, observed that Hisinger’s two Gothland species
(together with Kléden’s C. phaseolus) should be regarded as be-
longing to a group distinct from the Cytheres. He proposed to
retain the generic term Cytherina + for them, and to found on
them a distinct family (Cytherinide) of the Phyllopoda ; referring
to Estheria as a closely allied genus. Keyserling and Eichwald
quote L. Balthica as a “ Cypridina.”

There can be little doubt that Leperditia and its allies are suf-
ficiently distinct from the known Entomostracan groups to con-
stitute a separate family, as Burmeister recommended. The
Leperditide (as I propose to term this group), comprising Leper-
ditia, Beyrichia, and some other forms not yet described, may be
regarded as most probably coming within the pale of the Phy/-
lopoda.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI. anp VII.
PLATE VI.

[The figures (excepting fig. 1 c) represent the specimens magnified two
diameters. }

Fig. 1. Leperditia Balthica: a, right valve ; b, the same, anterior extremity ;
c, the same, central spot and anterior tubercle, highly magnified.
—From Mr. Morris’s Cabinet.

Fig. 2. Leperditia Balthica: a, left valve; b, the same, anterior extremity.

This specimen being somewhat worn, does not well show the

sharp angle of the ventral edge. ]|—From Mr. Morris’s Cabinet.

Fig. 3. Leperditia Balthica: a, perfect carapace, showing the right valve ;
b, the same, showing the left valve; c, the same, showing the
dorsal aspect; d, the same, showing the ventral aspect ; e, the
same, showing the anterior extremity.—Mr. Morris’s Cabinet.

Fig. 4. Leperditia Balthica: a, cast of the interior of a left valve, showing
the anterior and central tubercles, and the radiating vascular
markings; 4, the same, ventral aspect ; c, the same, showing the
anterior extremity. The dotted lmes represent an ideal section
of the carapace.— Museum of the Geological Society.

Fig. 5. Leperditia Balthica: a, cast of the interior of a left valve of a

* Organiz. d. Trilob. pp. 57 & 63. (Ray edit. pp. 49 & 55.)

+ The name “ Cytherina”’ was substituted by Lamarck for Miiler’s
Cythere, and has been used by numerous writers in the same sense.
Although “ Cythere’’ has been restored to its original use, and the word
“* Cytherina”’ is adrift, still, from the frequent misuse of the latter term, it
is not eligible as a generic appellation. Dana has lately used the term
“ Cytherinz ”’ to represent a subfamily. wn

100 Mr. T. R. Jones on some species of Leperditia.

smaller individual; anterior and central tubercles distinct, but
radiating vessels only apparent towards the ventral border; 5, the
same, ventral aspect, with a part of the inverted edge remaining
attached ; c, the same, dorsal aspect.— Museum of the Geological
Society.

Fig. 6. Leperditia Britannica? : a, right valve; b, the same, ventral aspect ;
c, the same, anterior aspect. The dotted line indicates the
supposed outline of the opposite valve-—Mr. Morris’s Cabinet.

Fig. 7. Leperditia Britannica, transverse vertical section of the carapace,
after Rouault (Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr. 2 sér. vol. viii. p. 378. fig. 3).

Puate VII.

[The figures represent the specimens magnified two diameters, excepting
figs. 4 d and 5, which are more highly magnified. |

Fig. 1a. Leperditia Arctica, right valve; central and anterior tubercles well
developed, the latter ornamented with an oval crenulated border.
—Museum of Practical Geology.

Fig. 1b. Leperditia Arctica, right valve, anterior extremity.—Museum of
Practical Geology.

Fig. 2. Leperditia Arctica: a, left valve; b, the same, anterior extremity.
—Museum of Practical Geology.

Fig. 3. Leperditia Arctica: a, perfect carapace, showing the right valve ;
b, the same, showing the left valve ; where the carapace is broken,
the radiating vessel-markings are seen; ec, the same, dorsal
aspect; d, the same, ventral aspect ; e, the same, anterior aspect.
—Museum of Practical Geology.

Fig. 4. Leperditia Arctica: a, cast of the interior of a left valve; 0, the
same, ventral aspect; c, the same, anterior aspect; the dotted
line indicates the outline of the opposite valve in section; d, en-
larged view of the cast of the central tubercle; e, fragment of
the same left valve, showing the inner aspect of the “central
tubercle,” or “lucid spot,” and the vascular markings, together
with a portion of the inverted edge of the same valve; the lower
fragment is a portion of the overlapping edge of the right valve.
—Museum of Practical Geology.

Fig. 5. Leperditia Arctica: diagram showing the relations of the over-
lapping and overlapped ventral edges of the valves.

Fig. 6. Leperditia alta? : a, right valve, with weather-worn surface ; , the
same, ventral aspect; c, the same, anterior aspect.—Museum of
Practical Geology.

Fig. 7. Leperditia alta? : a, left valve (young), with weather-worn surface ;
6, the same, ventral aspect; c, the same, anterior aspect.—
Museum of Practical Geology.

Fig. 8. Leperditia gibbera: a, right valve, shell nearly all worn (or rather
dissolved) away; 5, the same, ventral aspect; c, the same, an-
terior aspect.—Geological Society’s Museum.

Fig. 9. Leperditia gibbera: a, left valve, surface well preserved; 5, the
same, ventral aspect; c, the same, anterior aspect.—Museum of
Practical Geology.

Fig. 10. Leperditia gibbera, outline profile of the anterior aspect of the
carapace.

Fig. 11. Leperditia marginata? (young ?): a, cast of right valve; 6, the
same, ventral aspect ; c, the same, anterior aspect.

Fig. 12. Leperditia marginata? (young?) : a, cast of left valve ; , the same,
ventral aspect ; ¢, the same, anterior aspect.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Cell-contents of the Characee. 101

Fig. 13. Leperditia marginata? (young?), outline of the anterior aspect
of the two valves united.

Fig. 14. Leperditia marginata? (adult): a, cast of left valve; b, the same,
dorsal aspect ; c, the same, ventral aspect; d, anterior aspect.—
British Museum.

Fig. 15. Leperditia marginata?, cast of right valve-—Museum of Practical
Geology.

Fig. 16. Leperditia Solvensis, artificial cast of impression of right valve.—
Museum of Practical Geology.

IX.—Further Observations on the Development of Gonidia (?)
from the Cell-contents of the Characez, and on the Circulation
of the Mucus-substance of the Cell. By H. J. Carrer, Esq.,
Assistant Surgeon H.C.S., Bombay.

[With two Plates. ]

Srvce my first “‘ Observations on the Development of Gonidia (?)
from the Cell-contents of the Characee,” &c.* were arranged,
and which I then stated were not so “ extended and complete ”
as they would have been had more leisure been at my disposal,
I have obtained much more precise information on the subject.
The inquiry was then new to me, and the only author to my
knowledge who had engaged in it was Professor Pringsheim,
who met with a similar formation in Spirogyra, &c.+, and had
assumed, as the simplest way of accounting for it, that the
ciliated bodies produced in this way were “ propagative cells of
the Spirogyre capable of development.” In the “ Postscript” to
my “ Observations,” however, I expressed a different opinion,
having at first, with Professor Pringsheim, been under the im-
pression that a development of such “ cells” under such circum-
stances could only belong to the plant in which it took place,
and therefore I called them “ gonidia.” But subsequent obser-
vations favoured the view that they did not belong to Nitella,
and therefore that they should have been called ‘ monads ;”
viewing “monads” in the same relation to Infusorial that
* gonidia” bear to future Algoid developments. That there is a
great resemblance between gonidia and monads, and that there
may be instances where their subsequent forms alone can deter-
mine which appellation should be used for them, in the sense
mentioned, may be easily conceived, and the present is one to
the beginner ; but whether or not it should be so to the expe-
rienced observer, I will not now stop to discuss.

Like all unfinished ivestigations, my first communication

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. No. 91. p. 1, 1855.
+ Id. vol. xi. No. 64. p. 294, 1853.

102 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

will remain uninteresting until its subject is made more compre-
hensive, and it is on this account that I offer the following
additional observations, which, together with figures of all that
requires illustration in this, as well as in my former paper, will
furnish a key to what I have already described, and enable the
reader to correct for himself any false inferences which my
remarks may have caused from my imperfect knowledge of a
development, which at first appears more likely to be vegetable
than animal, and though subsequently proved to be the con-
trary, is after all situated in that part of the scale of living beings
with which we are least acquainted, and where many of the
organisms so much resemble the lower orders of both vegetable
and animal kingdoms, that on one day they are on this side the
line of separation and another day on that, as discovery turns
their balance in favour of one or the other of these great divisions
of organic life.

With such introductory remarks let us proceed then to the
different parts of the subject which require further elucidation.

It will be seen (at p.6, Obs. cit.*), that the “ gonidia,” which
we shall henceforth call “ monads,” lost their cilium respectively
and passed into polymorphic, reptant cells, each of which con-
tained a contracting vesicle ; in fact, into Rhizopoda ; and here we
must leave them for the present, considermg them as Amebe,
which might or might not have had an ulterior development.

Now we find by what Prmgsheim has stated, that he not only
observed a similar development in the cells of Spirogyra, but
also in Cidogonium, Cladophora fracta, and in the young plants
of Nitella syncarpa; to which I may here add the extent of my
own experience in this matter, viz. that such developments are
common in Chara and Nitella, Cladophora and Spirogyra ; occa-
sionally in Hydrodictyon ; in Closterium acerosum and Cosmarium
among the Desmidiz, but never in the Diatomacez +; common
in Euglena and in the dead bodies of Furcularian Rotifera. The
same or similar developments probably take place throughout
the whole of the freshwater Algze and in many of the Infusoria,
but I have only noticed them up to the present time in the
organisms mentioned. Again, wherever I have seen them, they
have appeared to me to have arisen from germs implanted in
the Alg or Infusoria in which they have occurred; and the
organisms which have come from them have been Amebe, Asta-
sig, or colourless flexible Oscillatoria (?). Lam not certain that

* After this, the page alone of these ‘‘ Observations” will be men-
tioned.

+ The Asteridia of the Rev. W. Smith however appear to belong here,
and that naturalist has seen them “occasionally in the Diatomacez.”
(Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. vol. 1. p. 69.)

from the Cell-contents of the Characer. 108

Pleotia should not be added to these, but until further obser-
vation proves this, I must leave it under doubt. May not the
“ spirozoids ” also or “ spermatospheres ” of Itzigsohn belong
to these developments? Their being developed in Spirogyra,
from globules of endochrome which become pale, lose their
colour, and end in becoming “ greyish-white,” at least, gives
them a strong resemblance. How the germs which produce
these developments exist in the cells of Algze without apparently
affecting their vitality, or causing a suspension of their functions,
is difficult to conceive; but that they do so, is proved by the
presence at least of one kind generally, if not always, in the
plants of Characez after they have attained a certain size, and
to that we must now chiefly direct our attention.

My first observations on this development were made on the
internodes of a very small species of Nitella, but latterly they
have been made on the internodes of a very large one ; some of
the oldest of which average six inches in length by one twenty-
fourth of an inch in breadth. Hence they were well adapted
generally for experiments on this Alga *.

Let us now direct our attention to what takes place when one
of these, about three or four inches in length, is so suspended,
that about an inch of the free end may rest upon a slide of glass,
in a little water, while a portion of the latter also is cut off with
a lancet, and the rest covered with another piece of glass for
observation.

Ist. The azial fluid rushes forth and renders the cell-wall
more or less flaccid.

2nd. The mucus-layer in part comes forth, and with it also
portions of the green layer.

3rd. After a short time the expelled mucus, which is appa-
rently separated into masses, but is nevertheless more or less

* There are two species of Nitella in the island of Bombay, the smallest
of which I have already described, and the following is a description of the
large one, or one in question :—

Plant long and straggling, of a deep green colour, with short branches,
crowded towards the top. Oldest internodes 5—6 inches long, some fluted
(from collapse?) where the endochrome has disappeared and left them of
brown colour; terminal internodes shortened and crowded, compara-
tively. Verticils consisting of five short branches, each composed of 2-3
long cells applied end to end, the last terminated by a spine, five minute
spines round each joint, and 10-12 or more round the base of each ver-
ticil; long branches rising between the short branches of the verticil.
Organs of fructification cast together in the axil of the verticil or singly at
the joints of the short branches. Globule spherical, of a brownish-green
colour ; nucule conical, at first white, then black. General characters :—
Great length, dark-green colour, large organs of fructification and large
size of plant generally. Grows in the tank of Nagaum in the island of
Bombay.

104: Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

connected by minute threads of its own material, is drawn back
into the internode almost as quickly as it was ejected.

4th. By now moistening that part of the imternode which is
suspended, the mucus is again made to rush forth, and this
backward-and-forward movement may be kept up for some time
by alternately moistening and allowing the internode to get dry ;
or, by keeping the internode constantly moist, the whole of the
mucus-contents may at once be discharged.

Here there is evidently a rapid endosmosis, and it would ap-
pear that the mucus-contents, which are within the green layer,
are not expelled so much by the contraction of the latter, as I
had inferred (p. 18), but depend for their exit upon the passage
of water through both the cell-wall and the green layer ; while
the “spasmodic ” retraction of the mucus mentioned in the same
paragraph must be chiefly attributed to the drying up of the
cell-wall, and consequent imbibition through the truncated end
of the internode.

Green layer.—The structure of this has already been described,
and the “green disk” was stated to consist of a transparent
capsule or cell, within which is a green, flat disk or nucleus, of
nearly equal diameter, presenting three or more granules in its
composition. It is to the latter now that I chiefly wish to call
attention. In these granules I had only been able to obtain a
faint trace of starch by iodine, and therefore I left the question
of their composition open, although I might have inferred from
analogy that they were starch-grains. Subsequent observation
has now proved to me that they are the rudiments of starch-
grains, and that in some instances where the starch has been fully
formed, they have increased to such an extent as to occupy the
whole of the transparent capsule (Pl. VIII. fig. 5). Thus packed
together of different sizes, they assume the rounded, subangular
shapes of all similar bodies developed in a circumscribed space ;
at the same time they appear to have been formed at the expense
of the green disk, whose substance is much wasted or has entirely
disappeared.

Hence they are generated in the protoplasm of the cell; for if
the green disk be exposed to the action of ether when the gra-
nules are very small, the colour of the nucleus disappears, but its
form remains; while at a still earlier period it also appears to
contain a nucleolus or cytoblast. Under what circumstances the
granules come into existence I am ignorant ; but that they have
nothing to do with the cytoblast may be inferred from their ap-
pearance in the Diatomaceze (Navicula fulva, &c.) outside the cell
of the cytoblast or nucleus, and m the cavity or body of the
frustule, which, up to the time of their appearance together with
that of the oil-globules, is perfectly transparent.

from the Cell-contents of the Characez. 105

Mucus-layer.—lt has been already stated that when this
rushes out it is found to be composed of a granuliferous mucus,
globular vesicles, circular disks, and irregularly shaped opake,
yellowish bodies. The disks, which are circular in the small
Nitella, are elliptical and elongate in the large one; and the
irregularly shaped bodies, which have no particular figure in the
small Nitella, are, for the most part, agariciform and patulous in
the larger species. The same differences obtain also in Chara
verticillata (Pl. VIII. figs. 7-16).

Although many of the globular vesicles present no nucleus,
and many appear to be altogether void of granular contents,
yet most present either a single nucleus or a plurality of such
nuclei; and some which are very large contain a number of
s:naller nucleated vesicles like themselves ; but the typical form
of the globular vesicle consists of a transparent cell-wall filled
with a granuliferous mucus, the grosser parts of which are more
or less collected round the nucleus, which is fixed to or imbedded
in its cell-wall (fig. 14) ; the nucleus being, in fact, equivalent
to the “circular disk” (fig. 8) ; and where we see a plurality of
them in a globular vesicle (fig. 16), it may be inferred that they
are developed there, and that the subsequent bursting of the
vesicle thus allows them to become free and scattered in such
abundance as they are observed to be throughout the mucus-layer.
Another remarkable character of this delicate vesicle is, that it
is endowed with the power of motion, masmuch as many may be
seen on their first issuing to rotate upon their axes, and to un-
dulate or prolong their cell-wall in different directions, while the
granules of the mucus internally are in constant vibratory or
molecular movement, like those of Spzrogyra (produced perhaps
by the irritability of the mucus); while the mucus itself en
masse is continually moving to this side or that, and drawing
all the granules which are imbedded in the moving portion in
the same direction. Hence, with the exception of the contract-
ing vesicle and a far more delicate texture, we have a cell corre-
sponding in every respect to that of Ama@ba and Spongilla.

It will be remembered also, that in my description of Spon-
gilla * it is stated, that the intercellular mucus which binds the
cells together has a polymorphic power, like that of the cells
themselves ; and this appears to be the case, but in a much more
limited degree, with the granuliferous mucus of Nitella, which,
at the time of its issuing from the internode, in masses, under-
goes a slow but appreciable change of form; and either throws
out threads which adhere to the glass, or exhibits in these
threads a distinct retractile movement when the latter separate

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 36, 1849.

106 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

from their points of attachment. It is perhaps more to the
breaking of these than to the “bursting of the vesicles” men-
tioned (p. 19), that the “jerking” movements seen every now
and then in this mucus are to be attributed ; at the same time,
the severation of these threads thus uniting the masses of mucus
may still be a vital act.

The “ irregularly shaped bodies” (fig. 11), which are agari-
ciform in the mucus of the large Nited/a and Chara verticillata
(figs. 12, 13), next claim our attention. They are of an opake,
yellowish colour, and bear a strong resemblance to starch as well
as to fixed oil. It is stated (p. 4) that iodine only turns them
of a “deep brown amber colour ;” but since that, | have fre-
quently found it produce in some a deep claret, almost amount-
ing to purple tint, with portions here and there which were
quite blue. When pressed however, under these circumstances,
between two pieces of glass, part of their substance has, in ad-
dition, assumed a fatty consistence, of a brown amber colour.
What are these bodies then ; and whether do they belong to the
globular vesicles or to the mucus of Nitella, or are they deve-
loped in both; and what is their origin? These are questions
for our consideration which we shall now pursue. From the
apparently promiscuous formation of starch and fixed oil in the
nucule of Nitella, and from the formation of starch-grains, and,
probably as often, fixed oil-globules in the protoplasm of the
“‘ oreen disk,” it does not appear unreasonable to conceive that
similar formations may take place in the mucus-layer (which is
also the protoplasm) of the internode. But I have lately found
that starch is plentifully developed in Spongil/a towards the end
of the season, when it is about to be left uncovered by the water,
and that not only are large starch-grains to be observed, appa-
rently in nothing but the intercellular substance, but that many
of the cells also exhibit traces of starch among their greenish
granular contents ; and some spherical cells appear to contain
nothing else but a translucent amyliferous fluid; while there is
no trace of starch to be found in any part of the capsule or its
contents, nor in the newly developed Spongilla. With organisms
then thus far alike in their products as Nitel/la and Spongilla,
and the presence of an organism so much like Spongilla in
the internode of the former, how to decide which produces
these partly amyloid, partly fatty, agariciform bodies that
abound in the mucus of Nited/a, is a question which had better
be postponed until we come to the development of the latter.
In the meanwhile, with reference to their origimation, I can
state no more than I have done with respect to the origin of the
starch-grains in the green disks, and the starch-grains and oil-
globules which occur together promiscuously in the Diatomacez

from the Cell-contents of the Characez. 107

and in other vegetable cells, viz. that they first make their
appearance in the cavity and substance of the protoplasm ; which
latter is Cruger’s view*.

In the small species of Nitel/a, these irregular bodies were
almost as frequently found appended to, or in the walls of, a
globular vesicle, in the manner of the circular disk or nucleus
itself (fig. 15); frequently seen in plurality as well as singly
within large globular vesicles in both species of Nitel/a, im-
bedded in their internal mucus; and it often, though by no
means always, appeared to me, that the circular disk or nucleus
passed into the irregular body. This seems a not unlikely
origin for them, and would explain their situation when ap-
pended to a vesicle, loose in the granular mucus, or in plurality
in the large vesicles; more particularly, as has before been
stated, from these being the only positions in which the circular
or elliptical disks (nuclei) do appear. At the same time, many
may have had their origin in the mucus itself, just as the
starch-grains of the green disk, perhaps in germs, and this would
account for the minute ones; but whatever may be their origin,
or whether they be a development of Nitella on the globular
vesicles, they form part of the contents of the internode, and
disappear in the course of the passage of the cell-contents into
the so-called “ gonidial cells,” and the subsequent development
of the monads.

With vesicles so nearly allied to Ameba and Spongilla, it
also seems not improbable that they should take in substances
of nutrition after a similar manner ; that is, apparently through
their cell-wall; and although in some cases the irregular bodies
may be developed in the nuclei of daughter-vesicles which have
not left the parent, yet in others they may have been taken in
by vesicles in the way to which I have alluded, viz. for the sake
of food. Hence we frequently see one imbedded in the internal
granuliferous mucus of a vesicle, and not unfrequently under-
going, to a certain extent, that rotatory motion which is pre-
sented by portions of food just mtroduced into the abdominal
mucus of Vorticella, Paramecium aurelia, &. But perhaps the
most remarkable instance of this occurs with the green disks,
more or less of which become displaced and insulated when the
end of the internode is truncated, and thus appear to be caught
up by the globular vesicles immediately the two come into
contact (fig. 17). Donné first called attention to this, terming
the globular vesicles “grosses gouttes huileuses ou albumi-
neuses,” and his observation was confirmed by Dutrochet+. The

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p. 317. See also Mohl’s papers

translated by Henfrey, with observations by the latter, idem, pp. 321-416.
+ Ann. des Se. Nat. Bot. vol. x. p. 348, 1838.

108 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

circulation of the mucus-layer itself is hardly more remarkable
than the rapidity with which the green disks are whirled round
upon their short axis horizontally or vertically, when they get
into the abdominal mucus of one of these vesicles. If this
explanation of it meet with disbelief, I can only repeat im its
support, that the irregular bodies are similarly affected when
they get into this position, though not to such a degree of
rapidity, probably from their greater weight and ragged form
(fig. 18), and that neither these nor the green disks exhibit this
phenomenon when lying outside the vesicles ; while the rotation
of food, when it gets into the abdominal mucus, is a common
occurrence in many of the Infusoria, especially in Vorticella,
Paramecium, &c.

We now come to an important point of elucidation ; viz. if the
globular vesicle can enclose the green disks so rapidly when a
few only of the latter are displaced, they should be able to enclose
a far greater number when the whole of the green layer is broken
up (figs. 19, 20). Hence it becomes much more likely that
this should take place when the so-called “ gonidial cells” are
formed in the internode (fig. 21), than that portions of the
loose mucus, as I had before supposed (p. 7), should wrap up
certain numbers of the green disks respectively in their substance,
and then pass into closed, transparent sacs or cell-walls. Led
on from fact to fact, then, to this conclusion, we now see that
the so-called “ gonidial sac” is not a new formation, but a pre-
existing “globular vesicle,” which, when filled with green disks,
is in an efficient state, as regards nourishment, to multiply itself
by segmentation (fig. 22). That segmentation is the way in
which the litter of monads is produced, would appear, first, from
the cell-wall losmg all power of motion, and apparently life
(fig. 20) ; then the formation sometimes (probably always) of a
secondary more delicate cell or coat within (fig. 21) ; afterwards
a separation en masse of the granules and mucus from the brown
or nutritive matter, now become effete (fig. 23) ; and, lastly, by
the division of this into the htter of monads (figs. 24, 25).
Whereas, in the propagation by ovules in the Ameebous cells, all
foreign matter appears to be thrown off, and the ovules fully
formed and separate previous to encystment and incubation.
After the monads, formerly called “ gonidia,” have been deve-
loped, the inner cell disappears, and the outer one giving way
from decay (?), they escape into the water (figs. 26, 27).

It is not always that this process can be so distinctly seen,
because the brown matter seems sometimes to be so mixed up
with the granules and mucus, that the monads appear to come
directly out of the former, without a previous separation of the
latter.

from the Cell-contents of the Characez. 109

The production of the young Water-net, or Hydrodictyon, is
not unlike this. Here a single gonidium grows into a long
tubular cell, during which its internal surface becomes lined
with a mucus-layer charged with chlorophyll-granules and
starch-grains; this layer, when fully developed, divides up into
gonidia, which, by mere change of position (Braun), force them-
selves into a new Water-net, or separate altogether, and pass out
through a rent in the parent gonidium, now become a long
cylindrical cell; at this moment also the existence of another
more delicate cell, between the outer one and the mucus-layer,
is demonstrated, in which the passage of the gonidia is mo-
mentarily arrested. Here, then, the clief apparent difference
between this process of development or multiplication and that
of the globular cell of the mucus-layer of Ni¢e/la is the intro-
duction of foreign material for the support of the mass during
the time it is undergoing division in the latter, and the prepara-
tion of it in the cell itself for this process in the former. Here
also the cell-wall of the gonidium passes into the cell-wall of the
mother-cell in Hydrodictyon, which corresponds to the so-called
* gonidial cell” of Nite/la, and is not a new secretion ; while
the internal delicate membrane which holds the gonidia in
Hydrodictyon corresponds to the delicate cell-membrane which
immediately surrounds the monads in Nitel/a ; and the monads,
as well as the gonidia of Hydrodictyon, appear to gain their
proper covering from the contents of the secondary cysts, which
coverings in time become respectively the mother-sacs of future
litters. We shall also see by and by, that the same thing takes
place in the segmentation of Paramecia.

The passage of the green disks 7 situ into monads or poly-
morphic cells, mentioned p. 8, is now easily understood ; since,
if the germ producing the first globular vesicle can get through
the cell-wall of the internode without causing a suspension of its
functions, a germ from it might easily get from the mucus-layer
into the green disk of the green layer; and there, living upon
the protein nucleus and green chlorophyll, take the place of the
latter in the transparent cell, which, finally decaying, would
allow the monad or monads thus produced to get into the eavity
of the internode.

Viewing, then, the globular vesicles as an infusorial develop-
ment, all difficulty in accounting for the changes which they
occasion in the cells of the Characee disappears, and all changes
which take place in these vesicles themselves become easily
understood.

But we have yet to discover whether these vesicles existed ab
origine in the mucus of the internode, and, if not, how and under
what form they were introduced.

110 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

Probably the best way of pursuing this part of the subject is
to commence with the development of the new plant from the
nucule, by which we shall see under what form the mucus first
appears.

The nucule of Chara verticillata (fig. 35 a), which is more or
less ovate, consists of three coats, viz. an external or cellular, a
middle or laminar, and an internal or delicate one, within which
is enclosed a quantity of starch and oil, together with a little
mucus.

The external coat (4, b) is composed of five long cells, twisted
twice round the middle coat, side by side, so as to form a
spiral plane, ending at the apex in a group of ten cells, the last
of which are pointed; this group has been called the coronet.
They all, and in every respect, answer in structure, &e. to the
description given of the internode of Nétel/a in my first paper.

The middle coat (e, e), which represents in relief and depres-
sion the spiral lmes impressed upon it by the cellular one,
consists of several very thin laminz, structureless, homogeneous
in composition, and of a dark brown colour by transmitted, but
black by reflected light.

The internal coat (d, d) is a fine delicate colourless membrane,
which frequently adheres very strongly to the middle coat, and
so much resembles the lamine in the latter, that the whole
together present a structure similar to that of the thickened
cells in old filaments of Conferva glomerata. When treated
with iodine alone, this, as well as the middle coat, assumes a
reddish-brown colour; but when sulphuric acid is added, the
internal coat (as well as the next layer to it, which ought per-
haps to be considered a part of it) turns blue, while the middle
coat remains unaltered.

The starch and oil are in pellicled smooth grains, of a sub-
round, subangular, elliptical or compressed form. These grains
are larger in the centre than at the circumference, where they
become almost molecular, and are mixed up with a layer of
mucus, which supports the whole in an ovoid form.

This external mucus may be the preserved protoplasm, and
there may be a cytoblast also ready to assist in the formation of
the first cell; as in Spirogyra, where both protoplasm and cyto-
blast appear immediately the contents of the resting-spore burst
forth to form the new cell.

Such is the composition of the nucule, in the contents of
which I have never seen anything like the “ globular vesicles”
of the mucus-layer; not even where the germinating matter
has perished, and the nucule has remained for several weeks
afterwards exposed to the decomposing action of the water.
Neither have I even seen anything like the globular vesicle, or

from the Cell-contents of the Characez. 111

monad developed from it, in the cells of the filaments producing
the antherozoids of the globule.

We have now to examine the development of the first few cells
of the new plant successively, in order that we may trace the
development of the mucus-layer.

In the Characez, as in Cladophora, but not as in Spirogyra,
the coat immediately covering the grumous contents of the spore
in one case and the nucule in the other, appear to be prolonged
into the cell-wall of the new plant. I infer this from the cell-
wall of the first internode being so firmly attached to the imner
coat of the nucule that it cannot be separated from it without
rupture, since the black colour of the middle coat prevents our
seeing how the continuation is effected after the manner of
Cladophora, where the old cell and the spore-capsule are equally
transparent. By a prolongation of the internal coat into the
new cell-wall, I mean that the former becomes soldered to the
latter, as the latter is secreted or formed by the protoplasm of
the nucule.

Having come to this conclusion, we will now follow the ex-
tension of the new plant to the sixth cell, exclusive of the
cavity of the nucule. At this period we shall find it about
one-fiftieth of an inch in length, and the circulation or full
development of the mucus-layer only established in the cell next
the nucule, which we shall designate the first, and so on to the
terminal one, which will be the sixth.

Beginning then from the sixth, or youngest cell, and tracing
the development backwards, or towards the nucule, we shall find
the following appearances :—

In the terminal or sixth cell, which is not fully formed,
nothing is seen within the cell-wall but a mass of small spherical
hyaline vesicles of different sizes, and the barely perceptible
rudiments of the green disks (fig. 36). In the fifth the number
of vesicles are diminished, by some being larger than the rest,
especially two in the centre, and the rudiments of the green
disks more distinct. In the fourth the two large vesicles
(spaces?) have united into one, and many of the smaller ones
have broken down into, or have been replaced by mucus; the
rudiments of the green disks are more evident. In the third
the same changes are seen, but still more advanced; while in
the second the central space is much larger, though irregular in
form; the mucus increased in quantity, apparently at the ex-
pense of the hyaline vesicles, which are now very few; and the
whole beginning to move gradually round the cell. In the first
the circulation is established ; no hyaline vesicles are seen in the
mucus, though already it presents some of the “irregularly
shaped bodies,” and the green disks are found.

112 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

Thus we see that the mucus-layer appears originally to be
formed by cells of extreme tenuity, and that even the first cell
which presents a circulation may have the irregular, agariciform
bodies in it.

Now the same thing takes place in the roots (fig. 37), which
are given off in a circlet from the first internode or junction of
the first cell with the cavity of the nucule (fig. 35 e), and at this
period far exceed the plant in length and amount of development.
They however present these exceptions, viz. that they are as trans-
parent as glass, from having no green disks, and for some time
bear a large cytoblast in their extremity (f), which however, as
the root elongates, adheres to one side (g), and there appears to
undergo fissiparation and throw out a new circlet of roots (A),
while the old root ends some distance beyond this in a eul de sae
without further development.

Thus we have the green cells of the plant at first, as well as
the roots, so transparent, that the delicate hyaline vesicles which
precede the formation of the mucus-layer can be distinctly seen
through them; while afterwards, when the mucus is fully formed
and in circulation in both, and an equal degree of transparency
still remains in either, no vesicles whatever can be seen, nor
anything like the nuclei belonging to the “ globular vesicles ;”
though, as before stated, a variable number of the irregular
bodies may already be present.

Hence we may fairly infer two things, viz. first, that the
globular vesicles at least do not exist ab origine in the mucus-
layer ; and, secondly, that the irregular-shaped or agariciform
bodies may be formed in it independently of the presence of the
globular vesicles.

As to the external source of the globular vesicles, it does not
seem improbable, now that we know them to be so like Rhizo-
poda in almost every respect, and to produce monads which pass
into small amcebous cells, that they should originally come from
germs of their family ; particularly as all the freshwater species
dwell upon the freshwater Algz, are chiefly dependent on the
mucus of their cells for food, and are always found in greater or
lesser numbers creeping over their tender shoots, or present at
the formation of the resting-spores, when the cell-membrane is
so soft that it can be most easily penetrated.

If we saw an Arcella or Difflugia developed from one of these
monads which pass into an amcebous form, we should have no
doubt about the matter; nor ought we to have much, I think, if
we can find one Alga developing itself in another under similar
circumstances.

For instance, we will take Gidogonium germinating in the midst
of the living cells of a filament of Osczllatoria (princeps, Kg.).

from the Cell-contents of the Characeze. 113

Happening one day to be examining the spores of Cladophora,
with which Conferva, Gidogonium, and this Oscillatoria had been
mixed and kept in a glass for eight or ten months, for the sake
of observing the development of the former, I noticed that in
several of the filaments of the Osci/latoria there were green cells
developing themselves, so much so as to thrust aside the cells of
the Oscillatoria, and break through the thickened sheath of the
old filament, after which they passed into a filament like that of
(Edogonium; but not being sure of the family of the Alga, I
waited for the determination of this, until chance favoured me
with the view of a filament not only extending along the sheath
of one of the Oscillatorie mentioned, but also bearing in addition
the peculiar spore of Gidogonium. Although in many of these
instances the cells of the Oscillatoria were dead, yet in several
the cells of Gfdogonium were growing in the midst of the living
cells, and bursting through the sheath where the latter, from its
transparency and general appearance, bore no signs of previous
injury (Pl. IX. fig. 15).

Now here, neither the spore of Gfdogonium nor its sporule
or gonidium can be supposed to have entered the sheath of the
Oscillatoria, as they, from their size, would probably have caused
such an injury of the sheath as would have led to the death or
rupture of the filament at this part. Hence we may infer, that
these cells arose from germs of extreme minuteness, which never-
theless had the power of penetrating the Oscillarian sheath.
May not the “ globular vesicles” of the mucus-layer of Nitella
have been derived from germs of Rhizopoda equally small, but
endowed with a similar power? Many small species of Gdo-
gonia, like Rhizopoda, have a great tendency to dwell on the
outside of the filamentous Alge; old filaments of Cladophora
are frequently covered with Cidogonium, and it seems not im-
probable that the minute germs of both Rhizopoda and Ctdo-
gonium may have a like parasitic tendency, as well as power to
penetrate into their interior.

Lastly, we have to consider how the germ, when so small, can
possess such power of penetration ; a proposition which is easily
solved when we remember that almost every observation we
make on structural alteration in vitalized parts presents us with
an instance of bodies travelling from one part to another, or, in
other words, effecting change of position by a solution of the
material which obstructs their progress.

As, however, it is desirable to support this by a case in point,
or one as nearly allied as possible, I will cite a development
belonging to the class under consideration, which takes place in
the cells and resting-spores of Spirogyra.

Just after the conjugation of Spirogyra, a number of spherical
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii.

114 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

cells filled with minute refractive granules frequently make their
appearance within the mucus-layer of the cell, and when the
former shrinks from the sides of the latter, these spherical cells
become wrapped up in it (fig. 9a). In this position, if their
granular contents, which the sequel will show to be germs, were
to be liberated into the cell of Spirogyra through the bursting
of their parent-cells, they would in all probability perish, for the
parent-cells have apparently already subsisted, and brought their
progeny to the state of germs, on the nutrient contents of the
cell of Spzrogyra in which they have become developed. But to
provide for this, these spherical cells have each the power, not
only of developing a blind tube, which by the process of solution
to which I have adverted can pass through the cell-wall of the
Spirogyra for the exterior liberation of their germs, but also to
tubulate with each other if necessary, when the contents of all
the cells together may be thus liberated by one or more tubes
only, as the case may require (fig. 9 b) ; and often they will send
one through the septum of the cell into the resting-spore of the
next cell, which being full of nutritious matter, immediately
furnishes food for the whole brood (fig. 10 e). Hence if a blind
tube of a small cell of this kind can make its way through these
comparatively hard membranes by simple solution, for it can
hardly be supposed that it does so by any mechanical power,
the smallest germ may be able to enter the cell or sheath of a
filamentous Alga after the same manner. That the granules of
these spherical cells, which are of different sizes, and, motionless
at first, become locomotive, swarm about the cell, and then pass
out of the tubular prolongations, has been proved to me by ocular
demonstration (fig. 9 &').

Thus I think sufficient evidence has been brought forward to
show, that the globular vesicle of the mucus-layer or proto-
plasm in the cells of the Characez is a parasite, probably of a
rhizopodous nature, apparently introduced after the development
of the young plant, and not impossibly under the form of a
germ, and after the manner of the instances last mentioned.

I have yet however to add a few observations on developments
of a similar kind in the cells, not only of Spirogyra, but in the
body of an infusorium, viz. in Euglena.

During conjugation, the Spirogyre are particularly infested
with these parasites, if such they may be termed, and the rapidity
with which they make their appearance at this period would lead
to the conclusion that the germs from which they originate
must have pre-existed in the cells in which they appear, as in the
Characee ; that is to say, without interfering with their func-
tions. Be this as it may, the peculiar tubulating cell just men-
tioned is very commonly seen in Spirogyra at this time (figs.

Srom the Cell-contents of the Characee. 115

9, 10); and not only in Spirogyra, but also in the dead bodies of
some of the Furcularian Rotifera (fig. 16). To what infusorium
this cell belongs I am ignorant ; but from having seen it associ-
ated with Astasie under circumstances indicative of one being the
product of the other, and more particularly from finding young
Astasie developed in the cells of Spirogyra to a great extent
where the tubulating cell-development was equally prevalent
(fig. 9), with no mother-cells present in the cell of Spirogyra
containing the young Astasie to thus account for their origin
(fig. 9 d), I have supposed that they might have come from the
germs contained in the tubulating cells, which germs have been
conveyed into the cells of Spirogyra in the way above described
(fig. 10). However, whether the tubulating cells are connected
with Astasia or not, young Astasie are also developed within
the cells of Spirogyra to a great extent (fig. 92); and although
they at first have almost as much polymorphism as an Amoeba,
still they retain their cilium, and after a while assume the form
and movements peculiar to Astasia (fig.9d'). I might here
mention, that on one occasion I saw a large Ameba with a long
cilium, at one time assuming the form of Astasia, and at another
that of Ameba, which thus gives us the link between these two
infusoria. The cilium however had not the power of the filament
of Astasia, though it occasionally became terminal.

Besides these developments in the cells of Spirogyra, there is
the one described by Professor Pringsheim*, and frequently a
development of long, slender, colourless filaments, which have a
writhing movement like that of an injured earth-worm. Some
of these filaments present numerous granules in their sheath,
and a faint appearance of cell-division; and I think that I have
seen such filaments coiled up in mother-cells within the Spirogyra-
cell. The same kind of filaments occasionally appear in Clos-
terium acerosum, when its contents are passing into dissolution ;
but long before the chlorophyll has changed colour, or putre-
faction has commenced. To enumerate all the developments of
this kind, however, which take place in the filamentous Algze
is not my present object, and the only other development of the
kind that I need allude to here is that which frequently occurs
in Euglena.

This is also of a Rhizopodous character, and at first I thought
it might be merely another form of Euglena, as Acineta is but
another form of Vorticella; but subsequent observations con-
vinced me that this was not the case. I was led to notice this
development by an apparent metamorphosis of the cell-contents of

* Aun. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xi. p. 210, 1853.
&*

116 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

some fixed and capsuled Euglene (which I had had under observa-
tion) into granuliferous Amebe of a pinkish colour within the
old cell of Euglena itself (fig. 14); and the presence of several
such Amebe creeping about the watch-glass, while many of the
cells of the Huglene (viridis?) were empty, or only contained a
little red effete matter, left no doubt in my mind as to the origin
of both colour and infusorium.

It was also observed in some instances, where the contents of
the Euglena had passed into an Amcebous mass, that the latter
underwent a kind of segmentation, so that several (perhaps
eight) small Amebe were developed instead of one large one.
All this became confirmed on another occasion, when watching
some large Euglene of a purse-like or ovate form (Crumenula,
Dujar.?), wherein the peculiar embryonic cells of the species
(fig. 11 a, b) (for each species has its peculiar-shaped cell of this
kind, and they are all composed like those of Spongilla, viz. of
a transparent compressed capsule, and a faint yellowish trans-
lucent nucleus of nearly equal size) had been developed. Ex-
pecting daily while under observation to see the embryonic cells
liberated by the rupture of the parent-cell, I noticed on one
occasion that several of the latter had become surrounded re-
spectively by a delicate granuliferous Ameba, and from that
moment I knew that all further progress of the embryonic ceils
must cease, for the Amaebe appear to destroy every living or-
ganism which they enclose. However, in a few days the Amebe
had left the Euglene, but the rich green colour of the latter had
faded ; indeed there was hardly any colour at all left, and the
embryonic cells, with which they were originally filled, began to
diminish in number, and give place, at the same time, to a uni-
form granular matter, which soon segmented itself into another
development of six or eight globular masses, much larger than
the embryonic cells (fig. 12). Such a process at first seemed to
be proper to the Euglene, as the contents of one and all suc-
cessively became thus affected ; but presently the spiral coats of
the Euglene respectively gave way, and the globular masses being
hberated, began to creep about under the form of Actinophrys
(fig. 13 a, 6). It then seemed evident that the germs of an
Ameba had been introduced, and that they had become deve- -
loped in the cell of the Euglena at the expense of its embryonic
cells ; but whether or not they had been introduced while enve-
loped in the Amebe mentioned, there are no facts to decide.

This apparent metamorphosis of the cell-contents of Huglena
into Rhizopoda is not only mentioned for the purpose of in-
stancing another of the developments under consideration, but
also for preventing others from being misled, as I was myself at

from the Cell-contents of the Characez. oy

first, into considering this as an alternating form of Euglena. 1
have since almost satisfied myself that Huglena conjugates, and
that the cells which I have termed embryonic pass into Evglene.
But had these cells not been present, there would still have been
room for doubt, inasmuch as a development of the same kind
takes place in some Ame@be, apparently in connexion with the
nucleus alone, with which Euglena also is provided (fig. 11) ; at
the same time that we know the Amwbe to produce embryonic
cells like Spongilla, which cells again are like those of Euglena.
Some Amebe at least then, propagating by germs or gemme,
according as the granules are set free singly or in masses, as
well as by embryonic cells, it might be questioned whether
Euglena does not also possess these two processes. Again, when
we know from Stein, as before mentioned, that Vorticelle pass
into Acinete, and Acineta produce full- formed Vorticelle—and
I have seen some Amebe also produce full-formed Vorticelle—
it becomes necessary to ascertain among these changes, what are
parasitic or foreign developments, and what are merely alternating
forms of the same species,—inquiries which are extremely
intricate and perplexing, but which must be prosecuted tho-
roughly before we shall be able to adjust these matters, or
arrive at a true history of the vital ceconomy of both Infusoria
and Algze.

With reference to the development of the “ciliated sacs”
mentioned at p. 14, I have since ascertained, that the variety of
forms which they assumed depended upon their having been
forced from their cysts before they were fully developed; for I
have since not only had an opportunity of examining them when
just liberated from the latter in the natural way, but of watching
for a long time two individuals of large size and full develop-
ment, which I found free among some filaments of Cladophora.
Having thus called attention to this development, I will describe
the infusorium which appears to be the source of it. Itisa
Paramecium closely allied to Nassula, and, from the likeness of
the oral orifice to the human ear, I propose for it the name of
** Otostoma.”

Orostoma, H. J. C. (new species) (Pl. IX. figs. 6, 7, 8).

Body ovoid, of a light brown colour, covered with longitudinal
lines of cilia (figs. 7, 8). Mouth ear-shaped, in a depression situ-
ated about the junction of the anterior with the middle third of the
infusorium (fig. 7 a); buccal cavity broad, short, curved down-
wards, and a little upon itself outwards, plicated longitudinally
in parallel lines (fig. 6 a). Anus terminal; gland or nucleus
long, fusiform (fig. 7 c), situated between the buccal cavity and
the contracting vesicles (fig. 7 d,d), which are double, and

118 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Circulation of the

connected with a set of vessels something like those of Para-
mecium aurelia*.

The individuals which become encysted in the internode of
Nitella I have never been able to see clearly, on account of their
rapid movements and gorged state with the green disks (fig. 1) ;
but the depression indicating the position of the mouth can be
seen, and two contracting vesicles. After the segmentation,
which stops at 2, 4, or 8, and full development of the new brood
has taken place, the green matter, now become brown, is thrown
off as effete (figs. 3, 5), like that of the “ globular vesicles ”
after the monads appear, and the cysts giving way, the new in-
fusoria come forth, presenting the arrangement of cilia, form of
nucleus, and colour of Ofostoma (fig. 5); but there is only one
contracting vesicle at this time, and the mouth is not so ngidly
fixed or defined as in Otostoma, probably from the tender age of
the new animalcule.

During the process of segmentation, the external and internal
cysts at first appear to be newly secreted, and the old ciliated
mtegument to be divided up into coats for the new litter; but
this does not correspond with what has been before stated,
where the old coat seems to be metamorphosed into a cyst-
covering for the new liter, and another delicate cyst secreted
within this (figs. 2, 3) ; while the internal substance then di-
vides itself up into 2, 4, or 8 sacs, as the case may be, and each
division developes a new ciliated coat for itself (figs. 3, 4).

The presence of a few monads, which probably formed part of
the contents of the internode before they were gorged by the
infusorium, and retained their life by getting between the cysts
(fig. 3 b, b), favours the view that the external cyst was the
originally ciliated coat of the parent infusorrum.

Lastly, I have to give an explanation of the locomotive power
afforded to the fragments of the spiral bands of “ Zygnema”
mentioned at p. 16, which I now feel convinced did not derive this
power from their own mucus, but from having been enclosed
within the bodies of delicate Amebe, which afterwards crept
about under the radiated form of Actinophrys.

Circulation.

It has been shown above, that rhizopodous cells abound in
the mucus-layer of the old internode of Niétella, but at a very
early period do not appear in the internodes or roots of the
young plant. Hence it becomes necessary to adduce further

* In a future communication, I propose describing this “system of
vessels,” which are excretory at the contracting vesicle ; when I shall also
recur to the description of Otostoma more particularly.

Mucus-substance of the Cell in the Characeze. 119

proofs of the mucus-layer, minus the rhizopodous cells, pos-
sessing the “ inherent power of mobility ” mentioned at p. 18,
which was then assigned to it, chiefly upon the inference that
the mucus of the mucus-layer furnished the cell-wall of the so-
called “ gonidial cells,” and that the polymorphic and Jocomotive
power of the latter at the commencement was indicative of the
Same power existing in the mucus in its amorphous, plasmic
state. That such a deduction would be inadmissible if the
development was to be considered infusorial, I stated in my
“ Postscript” (p. 22); and now that the so-called “ gonidial
cells” have been shown to be the globular vesicles of the mucus-
layer, and of a rhizopodous nature, the fallacy of such an infer-
ence is much more evident. But I also observed, that there
were still “ sufficient reasons left” for my considering the rota-
tory motion of the mucus-layer due to an independent con-
tractility.

I have now to give further proof of this; but, unfortunately,
in doing so I must confine myself to what. the mucus-layer
exhibits while within the internodes and roots of the young
plant, supported by what it may be inferred to possess from
analogous motions exhibited by the mucns-layer of other allied
organisms ; for the cells and the roots of the young plant, at
that time when alone we have the power of determining that
there are no rhizopodous cells in them, furnish too small a
quantity of mucus for our watching it in the manner so easily
effected when issuing from the large internode.

To pursue this inquiry, then, we have first to satisfy our-
selves that the motions in Nitella and its allied organisms are
in homologous structures, and then to see how many kinds of
motion this structure presents.

Of their being in homologous structures there can be no
doubt, because the mucus-layer in all is the protoplasm of the
cell ; and they are of two kinds, viz. one of general irritability,
and the other of polymorphic and locomotive power.

The first kind, or that of general irritability, is manifested by
the trembling movement of the granules which are imbedded in
the mucus-layer itself, more than by that of the moving agent
or mucus, which can hardly be seen, from its transparency.
This motion of the granules, which is similar to that termed
“ molecular,” is observed in the mucus-layer of the spine-cells
of Nitella in which no circulation has ever existed, and in that of
the internodes when the circulation is temporarily arrested. It
is also seen in Cladophora, and particularly in Spirogyra; in the
Desmidize (Closterium, &c.) ; in the Diatomacez (Navicula, &c.),
and in the mucus of the cell of Spongilla, &c.

The second kind, or that of polymorphism and locomotion,

120 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Circulation of the

includes the rotatory movement seen in the cells of many aquatic
plants besides the Characez, in which the whole of the mucus-
layer changes place. In Serpicula verticillata (Roxb.), the green
disks are imbedded im the mucus-layer promiscuously, and are
carried round the cell with it; and in Tradescantia the eytoblast
also goes round with the mucus-layer. To this perhaps might
be added the polymorphism of the granular mucus occasionally
witnessed on the septa between the cells of Spirogyra (p. 19),
unless this also be owing to the presence of a rhizopodous
organism.

There is yet however another kind of motion, which has been
observed in Closteriwm Lunula, and some other Desmidie; and.
this, according to the Rey. 8. G. Osborne’s observations, con-
firmed by Mr. Jabez Hogg*, is owing to cilia situated on the
surface of the mucus-layer. By their action, which appears to
be very irregular, and is certainly very perplexing, the brown
corpuscles are urged backwards and forwards, or circulated
more or less round the frond. The same kind of motion is
witnessed in similar corpuscles in Spirogyra, which, coming
next to Closterium in pomt of organization, may be found to be
provided with similar organs. There is no analogy, however,
between the circulation of these corpuscles and the rotatory
movement of the mucus-layer of Nited/a, nor between it and the
circulation of the axial fluid of the latter and its particles. To
assume that the mucus-layer of the internode of Nitedla is urged
on by cilia, would be to assume that the cilia are not on the
surface of the mucus-layer, as in Closterium, but on the inner
surface of the green layer; and then, in the roots, that they are
on the inner surface of the cell-wall, for there is no green layer
there,—which would be absurd. Again, we can see that the
particles contained in the axial fluid are impelled by the irre-
gular surface of the mucus-layer, and this seems quite enough
to account for this circulation.

As regards the general irritability of the mucus-layer, this by
itself is of course no proof of locomotive power, but occurring
in homologous structures, it alhes them in point of property as
well as structure, and therefore affords additional reason for
admitting the phenomena observed in one as confirmative or
explanatory of those which are observed in another organism of
the same or similar nature. Hence, if we have evidence: of a
locomotive power in the mucus-layer of the cells of Spirogyra,
and the object to be gained by it, as well as evidence of the same
power in the mucus-layer of the internode of Nitella, though
the object be not manifest, our conclusion, that the latter is

* Quart. Journ. Microscop. Soc. vol. xi. p. 234, 1854.

Mucus-substance of the Cell in the Characeze. 121

owing to an innate contractility, and not to any foreign organism
or any other moving power, is much more satisfactory than if
it were unsupported by the movement of the mucus-layer in
Spirogyra, where its nature is obvious from the object gained
by it.

“ allude to the movements which take place in Spirogyra
during conjugation, when the mucus-layer, retracting from the
cell-wall of one filament, carries its contents through the tube of
intercommunication, across to the cell of the opposite filament.

To refresh the memory of the reader, I might here briefly sum
up what takes place on this occasion. The first step on the
part of the mucus or protoplasmic layer is to soften a small por-
tion of the cell-wall; it then presses upon this so as to force it
forwards into a tubular prolongation to meet a similar one from
the opposite filament ; the two mucus-layers dissolve the par-
tition which interrupts their union ; the mucus-layer of one cell
then retracts from its cell-wall, gathers up the spiral bands and
cytoblast, and mingling with its fellow at the junction of the
tubular prolongations, passes over into the opposite cell with the
return of the latter, and there amalgamating with it thoroughly,
becomes capsuled and passes into a spherical or elliptical spore,
as the case may be. Now here there is no addition of material
to cause the mucus-layer to grow and protrude from its cell like
a bud or young shoot,—it is an act performed by the mucus-layer
alone, and that too almost faster than the hour-hand travels
round the dial of a watch ; indeed, it is performed so quickly in
Closterium Ehrenbergiui, where a similar process takes place, that
according to the Rey. W. Smith, who has watched it, the dis-
charge of the endochrome and formation of the sporangia are
accomplished with such rapidity, that this may be seen to take
place in the field of the microscope, “the whole operation not
occupying more than a few minutes *.”

Again, in Gdogonium flavescens (Kg.), I was lately fortunate
enough to see the contents of one of the cells wrapped up in
their protoplasmic sac, actually leave the cell, form into a spore,
and whirl off in the manner of zoospores generally. The cell-
wall bore no appearance of spore-dilatation, though the density
of the gonimic contents indicated that it would sooner or later
have done so ; it was a terminal one, and the septum of the free
end had probably been broken when the other part of the fila-
ment had been torn from it in preparing the mass for microsco-
pical examination. As the last part of the cell-contents left their
old cavity distinct locomotion was seen in the mass, and when
the whole had become extricated, several twitchings of the pro-

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 8, 1850.

122 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Circulation of the

toplasm, apparently of adjustment, took place. It then assumed
a globular and afterwards an ovoid shape, when the small end
becoming transparent and throwing out a wreath of active cilia,
it bounded off and was soon undistinguishable from other spores
of the same kind which were present in equally active motion.
At the moment of its exit I observed a delicate membrane at
some distance around it which disappeared (by bursting ?) im-
mediately the cilia began to play.

Having thus brought forward incontestable proof of loco-
motive power in structures homologous with the mucus-layer of
the cell im the Characeze, I shall now only add another instance
of the kind mentioned (p. 19), where a partial movement of
the mucus-layer, again in Chara verticillata, afforded direct evi-
dence of its possessing the independent power of contractility
in question. This occurred in a very young plant where the
roots were nearly an inch long, though not more than the 500th
of an inch broad, and, as before stated, as transparent as glass.
While tracing one of these, in which the circulation appeared to
have ceased, I came to a part where there was a slight move-
ment of the mucus-layer, which mereased up to a certain point,
and then as gradually subsided again. It was a thickened
portion, but apparently composed of nothing more than trans-
parent mucus charged with a number of granules. It was
moving towards the extremity of the root, and was seen to pass
through that part of the latter which was kept in the field of the
microscope for the purpose, leaving all the mucus as still behind
it as that which was beyond the moving portion. To conceive
after this that the mucus-layer of the Characez is endowed with
a locomotive power, seems not difficult, if we cannot conclude
that by this power also it moves round the internode.

Since the above was written, I have read the following pas-
sages In Cohn’s ‘Natural History of Protococcus pluvialis’
(1850), translated by Busk for the Ray Society (doc. cit. p. 532,
1853), and they so accord with my own conclusions on the sub-
ject, that I cannot do better than insert them here, as a termi-
nation to an argument in favour of the moving power of the
mucus-layer or protoplasmic cell of the Characez, instituted for
the purpose of conveying a similar impression :—

“ From these considerations it would therefore appear, as cer-
tain as it can be made by an empirical deduction from the pre-
mises in such a subject, that the protoplasm of botanists and the
contractile substance and sarcode of zoologists, if not identical,
are at all events in the highest degree analogous formations.

“Whence, the distinctions between animals and plants viewed
in the above ight must be thus understood: that in the latter
the contractile substance, as the primordial utricle, is enclosed

Mucus-substance of the Cell in the Characez. 123

within a rigid ligneous membrane, which permits only an in-
ternal motion, evidenced in the phenomena of circulation and
rotation ; while in the former it is not thus enclosed. The pro-
toplasm in the form of the primordial sac is, as it were, the ani-
mal element in the plant in which it is confined, being free only
in the animal kingdom.”

Casual Notes on the Characeze.

Circulation.—I have repeated the experiments of Amici, Du-
trochet and others by ligaturing the internode of the large Nitella
at several places with similar results. The circulation has hardly
been arrested ; but to succeed well in this, an old internode must
be taken. On one occasion an inch of one of these long inter-
nodes was cut out of the centre with a blunt pair of scissors and
placed on a glass slide in a little water, and under a piece of
glass about the same width ; the water therefore but just covered
its extremities ; in this portion the circulation continued in op-
posite directions (for fortunately one of the white lines or “ lines
of repose” was uppermost) for ten minutes by the watch; the
larger bodies ceasing to circulate first, and lastly the molecules.

Tenacity of life—The internodes which I ligatured perished
after a few days; indeed this is the common fate of the Cha-
race ; but the nodes retain their vitality, and the small inter-
nodes also. Single, isolated cells and small internodes, which
ean hardly be seen with the naked eye, frequently retain their
green colour, and keep up a continued rotation of their mucus-
layer for eight and ten months after they have been separated
from every part, dead and living, belonging to the parent plant ;
but they do not appear to increase in size in the least. Those
little shoots which spring from the cells of the nodes (the bulbels
probably of Montagne*) would probably grow into new plants
if favourably situated for nourishment, as the nodes commonly
throw out roots as well as shoots, when the other parts of the
plant are threatened with destruction,

Endosmosis.—The rapidity with which water passes through
the cell-wall of the internode, as shown by the experiment de-
tailed at the commencement of this paper, indicates the amount
of fluid that might pass from one internode to another through
contact even of their extremities ; and hence how the nutritious
fluid formed in the roots might also find its way from the roots
to the extremities of the plant.

Germination.—The nucules of Chara verticillata which were
placed in water on the 21st of March germinated at the end of

* Ann. des Sc. Nat. Bot. 3 sér. t. xviii. p. 65.

124 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

twenty-six days; those placed in water on the 2nd of May after
sixteen days : of fifty nucules placed in water on the 1st of Sep-
tember none have germinated up to the present time (Novem-
ber 15th). At first the young plants appeared im the form of
Nitella, but not having grown beyond three-quarters of an inch
in length, they did not pass into that of Chara. Thus, Chara
begins in the lower form of Nitella; and the oldest internodes
of the large Nitella, where the endochrome has disappeared, are
fluted like the stem of Chara, but not celled like it. Out of the
first set of nucules (viz. thirteen) four only germinated, and one
of these threw out two plants, but both did not grow with equal
rapidity, one remaining abortive or stationary.

Bombay, 15th November 1855.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII. anp IX.
PuLaTE VIII.

Fig. 1. Portion of an internode of Nitelia, showing the arrangement of the
*oreen disks’ in the “green layer;” also (a) one of the white
lines or “‘ lines of repose” *.

Fig. 2. Transverse section of ditto, showing (a) the *‘ green layer;” (0, b) in-
ternal border of ‘‘ mucus-layer ;” (c, c) “‘ lines of repose.”

Fig. 3. Portion of the green layer showing its.structure; also the chloro-
phyll-mucus of the “ green disk ”’ and its transparent cell.

Fig. 4. Cavity of “ green disk” divided into compartments with a granule

~ in each.

Fig. 5. Ditto nearly filled with starch-grams, the chlorophyll having almost
disappeared.

Fig. 6. Starch-grains of ditto, separate.

Fig. 7. Portion of the ‘‘mucus-layer” as it issues from the internode,
containing the “ globular vesicles,” “circular disks,” irregular
bodies and granules.

Fig. 8. “ Circular disk” of small Nitel/a, with molecular-formed nucleus
contracted into an oval shape. 9. Ditto from mucus-layer of
Chara verticillata. 10. Ditto from mucus-layer of large Nitedla.

Fig. 11. Irregular body from mucus-layer of small Nitella. 12. Ditto
agariciform, from Chara verticillata and large Nitella, inferior
view. 13. Ditto ditto, superior view.

Fig. 14. “Globular vesicle’ with circular disk or nucleus in situ, sur-
rounded by granuliferous mucus.

Fig. 15. Ditto with an “irregular body” in the position of the circular
disk or nucleus.

Fig. 16. Globular vesicle containing a plurality of circular disks.

Fig. 17. “ Globular vesicle ” of large Nite/la with disk or nucleus in situ,
surrounded by granuliferous mucus, in which are imbedded two

* All these figures should be viewed as diagrams delineated after nature
as far as circumstances would permit ; and should any discrepancy be found
between them and the text, the reader is requested to be guided by the
latter.

Fig.

y+

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

18.

22.

28

~

from the Cell-contents of the Characeze. 125

“oreen disks ;”’ as they are situated when seen to undergo rota-
tory motion.

«Globular vesicle” of large Nitella, containing agariciform “ ir-
regular body.” 18’. Ditto of small Nite/la, containing in addition
to its nucleus an irregular body imbedded in its granuliferous
mucus; as it is situated when seen to undergo partial rotatory
motion.

Portion of internode of Nited/a, showing the breaking up of the
green layer preparatory to grouping of the green disks.

Ditto, with green disks grouped or enclosed in the “ globular
vesicles.”

Groups which have assumed a spherical form : (a) globular vesicle
or so-called “ gonidial cell”’ stiffened and clarified, yet capable of
projecting ambulatory processes (see fig. 23 a); (b) secondary
coat circumscribing granuliferous mucus, green disk, &c.

** Globular vesicle” showing internal granuliferous mucus cireum-
scribed by secondary coat, mass of green disks, and “ circular
disk.”

This form is often seen without the mucus in a perished, half-
developed state, when the “ circular disk ” is always particularly
evident ; thus with the other elements of the cell at once indicating
its identity with the “globular vesicle’ and rhizopodous nature.

. © Globular vesicle ” showing secondary coat, granuliferous mucus,

and mass of green disks all now separated ; (a, a) stiffened ambu-
latory processes.

Ditto, with granuliferous mucus presenting a mulberry form of
segmentation. Cell about 1-300th of an inch in diameter.
Ditto, lateral view.

Ditto, after separation of the segments into monads, and disap-
pearance of the secondary coat.

Ditto, bursting and giving exit to the monads, green disks, &c.,
and other effete matter contracted into a small brown nucleus.
Small “ globular vesicle’ with “irregular body” in the position
of the nucleus, developing one monad only. Cell or vesicle
1-2150th of an inch; monad 1—4300th of an inch in diameter.

Figs. 29, 30, 31. Monads of the globular vesicles or cells assuming dif-

ferent forms. All about 1-4800th of an inch in diameter when
lobular.

Figs. 32, 33, 34. The same after a few days’ growth; now about 1—-2150th

of an inch in diameter, assuming the forms of Am@ba and Actin-
ophrys ; with contracting vesicle.

Fig. 35. Vertical section of a young plant of Chara verticillata, with nucule

still attached. (a) nucule : (4) external cellular coat ; (c) middle
or laminated black coat; (d) internal delicate coat; (e) circlet of
roots springing from cells of first node; (f) second position of
cytoblast, viz. at the termination of the granuliferous mucus which
fills the extremity of the root ; (g) third position of the cytoblast,
viz. when attached to the side of the root at some distance from
the granuliferous mucus of the extremity; (/) circlet of roots
arising from the cytoblast so situated. The small figures, 1 to 6,
indicate cells of the stem in successive stages of development ;
showing that the formation of the “‘ mucus-layer”’ is preceded by
the presence of a mass of hyaline, spherical vesicles of different
sizes, which at first fill the young cell.

Fig. 36. Last three cells (viz. 4, 5, 6) of fig. 35, more magnified.
Fig. 37. One of the new root-buds of (A), fig. 35, magnified, to show that

126

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

10.

Lig

¥2.

13.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Cell-contents of the Characee.

the mucus-layer of the root also is preceded by the presence of.
hyaline vesicles, as wellas that of the cell of the stem; shows also
first position of the cytoblast, viz. at the free end of the root-bud.

Puate IX.

. Dark green spherical cyst appearing in the internodes of Nitella at

the commencement of decomposition (see p. 14, loc. cit.), of
different sizes, but the largest about 100th of an inch in diameter;
the green colour arising from distension with the green disks and
other contents of the internode.

Ditto after the formation of a secondary cyst circumscribing these
contents.

. Ditto, with the contents of the secondary cyst divided into four

ciliated sacs: (a) effete matter or green disks thrown off;
(6, 5) monads between the two cysts.

. Ditto, with the contents of the secondary cyst divided into two sacs

only, which are ciliated, and contain respectively a portion of the
green disks in their interior.

. Ciliated sae fully developed, now assuming the form of Otostoma.
. Otostoma (H. J. C.) about 100th of an inch long: (a) lateral view

of plicated buccal cavity; (4) spherical vesicles of different sizes,
which together with mucus fill up the abdominal cavity ; (6) one
of these vesicles magnified, containing five smaller ones situated
on one side and filled with a brown yellow fluid.

. Ditto : (a) oral orifice, ear-shaped ; (¢) fusiform organ ; (d, d) con-

tracting vesicles ; (e) pellets of green food, which, when present,
with the mucus and spherical vesicles mentioned in fig. 6, fill the
abdominal cavity ; (f ) anal orifice.

. Ditto, showing arrangement of cilia over the surface.
. Portion of a filament of Spirogyra just after conjugation, showin

(a) a cell containing a development of spherical cells filled with
yellowish refractive granules ; (0) a cell contaming a development
of tubulating cells also filled with yellowish refractive germs or
granules; (b') exit of the latter; (¢) a spore destroyed by the
same development; (d) a cell in which a litter of monads has
been developed, having in addition to polymorphism a single
cilium attached to them respectively, and hence frequently
assuming the form of young Astasie ; (d') the same monads
after having left the cell. Monads about 1-2150th of an inch in
diameter.

Two cells of a filament of Spirogyra, showimg (5) a spore de-
stroyed by the tubulating cell; (c) one of the tubes leading
through the septum of the cell to insert itself into the sound
spore of the next cell.

Euglena (Crumenula, Dujar.(2)) filled with embryonic cells (2),
also showing the nucleus and its cell, and the “red spot” or body
attached to its proper cell: (a) vertical view of embryonic cell;
(6) lateral view of ditto.

Ditto, with embryonic cells and general contents much deranged ;
also presenting faint traces of segmentation of another deve-
lopment.

Ditto, with a few only of the embryonic cells left ; the green
colouring matter gone, and the whole contents of the Euglena
yielding to the development of eight or ten spherical cells filled
with minute granules of equal size; (a, b) the same spherical cells

Mr. W. H. Benson on the genus Scaphula, 127

after exit, assuming respectively the forms of Ameba and Actin-
ophrys.

Fig. 14. Old cell of Euglena viridis presenting one large granuliferous
Ameba instead of several small ones; a portion of effete matter
left in the cell, and the Ameba throwing its processes through its
crevices.

Fig. 15. Portion of a filament of Oscillatoria (princeps, Kg.(?)), in which a
development of some germs of U2dogonium having taken place
in the midst of the cells of the Oscillatoria, they are bursting
through its sheath.

Fig. 16. Furcularian rotiferous animalcule in which the tubulating cell has
become developed : (a) dilated round form assumed by the extre-
mity of the tube before bursting.

X.—Amended Description of the Genus Scaphula, Benson, a
freshwater form of the Arcacea; with characters of a new
species from Tenasserim. By W.H. Brnson, Esq.

Sryce the year 1825, when the little bivalve Arcaceous shell,
Scaphula Celox, described in the ‘ Journal of the Calcutta Asiatic
Society ’ for 1836, occurred to me in the rejectamenta of the
River Jumna in Bundelkhund, no species has been added to the
genus. In the past year a rich collection of land and fresh-
water shells, contaming many new species, was made in the
British provinces of Burmah, from the frontier above Prome
on the Irawadi to Mergui, by Mr. W. Theobald, jun., who has
obligingly submitted them to my examination. Among them I
find a very distinct species of Scaphula, with the epidermis
strongly developed, and the hinges joined by the ligament, as
was the case with one of my specimens of S. Celox, which ex-
hibited vestiges of a light epidermis. A conjecture has been
hazarded by an English naturalist, probably from the view of
the specimens presented to the Zoological Society in 1834, that
the shell was a subfossil extinct form. The present discovery
must set that opinion completely at rest. Besides the specimens
of S. Celox from the Jumna, some were subsequently procured
from the bed of its tributary, the River Cane, at Banda, and in
1835 I observed the species ina collection of shells made in the
vicinity of the Khassya Hills to the east of Bengal.

The new form was found in some abundance in the Tenasserim
River, and we may now hope that other species will yet be
found in Burmah, and in the countries extending to Cochin
China, as they become gradually open to the naturalist.

Scaphula was first made known in the ‘ Zoological Journal’
for 1834. In 1840 Swainson applied the same name to a form
of the Olivacea, having overlooked the previous employment of
the term as a generic designation. The more perfect state of

128 Mr. W. H. Benson on the genus Scaphula.

the Tenasserim species, and the variation of characters, will
permit of a more correct diagnosis of the genus than was possible
from the typical species, specimens of which are exceedingly
rare. No conchologist has collected in Bundelkhund since the
period of my residence in that province, and a search which I
made for specimens of the shell, during a hurried visit to Banda
in 1844, proved fruitless.

Scaphula, Benson. Zool. Journ. 1834, vol. v. p. 464-5.

Testa eequivalvis, valde inzequilateralis, subtrapeziformis, carina valida
ab umbonibus distantibus usque ad marginem posteriorem et
basalem extendente ; cardo rectilinearis, medio tenuis, ad extre-
mitates sulcidentatas latior, dentibus anterioribus 4, crenulatis,
minutis obliquis, posterioribus lamellatis, parallelibus, intus ob-
lique descendentibus, 4 ad 6, primo obliquis, demum transversis,
raro bifurcatis, munita; ligamentum exterius, rhombifcrme, inter
umbones situm; epidermis tenuis vel crasse lamelloso-rugosa ;
musculi adductoris impressio antica unica, posteriores duze sub-
distantes quorum inferior oblongo-quadrata; pallii impressio
integra.

The genus is at once distinguished from its nearest allies,
Arca and Cucullea, by the hinge being limear and edentate m
the middle and for the greatest part of its length, and by the
form and position of the teeth at the extremities ; the laminar
posterior ones, which are sometimes ramose, running obsoletely
and obliquely into the interior of the shell. The two distinct
adductor muscular impressions, and the squareness of the lower
one on the posterior side in both species, are peculiar features
supporting the claims of the type to generic distinction.

Scaphula Pinna, n.s.

Testa elongato-triangulari, subtrapeziformi, extus sub epidermide
albida, intus czerulescente, antice angusta, extremitate subacute an-
gulata, arcuatim descendente, postice subalata, expansa, extremitate
superne arcuata, infra rectangulari; carina acuta, compressa; pagina
postica majori subremote, antica confertim concentrice sulcata,
utrinque radiatim striatula ; epidermide fusco-nigra, crasse rugoso-
lamellata, marginem nigrescentem excedente ; musculi anterioris
impressione ovato-rotundata, posterioribus duabus, superiori sub-
cardinali elongata, angusta, inferiori elongato-quadrata.

Long. 11, alt. 5, crass. 6 mill.

Habitat in flumine Tenasserim.

The River Tenasserim has a course through nearly three
degrees of latitude, between the coast ranges and the high
interior chain which forms the British boundary towards Siam,
before it turns suddenly towards its embouchure at Mergui.

The appearance of a slight iridescence on the bluish enamel

Mr. W. H. Benson on Tanystoma tubiferum. 129

of the interior in this species, is due, when visible, solely to
weathering, and is evidently not the normal state of the surface.
At first sight the shell might be taken for a species of Modiola,
and by its discoverer was supposed to be a species of Dreissena.
It was not until the hinge had been submitted to the lens that
its true characters were ascertained.

A description of the typical species may here be subjoined in
an amended form.

Scaphula Celox, Benson. Journ. As. Soe. Cale. vol. v. p. 750

Testa elongato-trapeziformi, albida, marginibus (superiori et inferiori)
parallelibus, antice rotundata, postice oblique truneata; carina vix
compressa ; pagina antica, multo majori, costulis exiguis radiatis
munita, postica levi; epidermide tenui cornea induta; musculi
anterioris impressione ovata, posterioris inferiori elongato-qua-
drata.

Long. 12, alt. 5, crass. 8 mill.

Habitat in fluminibus Jumna et Cane, necnon in rivo quodam Ben-
galize citra Gangem.

In one specimen, from the River Cane, the keel has a dis-
position to be double, with an intervening furrow. This is ap-
parently only an accidental variation.

Cheltenham, 10th January 1856.

XI. — Description of Tanystoma tubiferum, a Burmese form
related to the Genus Anostoma of Lamarck. By W. H. Ben-
son, Esq.

Tue only Eastern shell hitherto made known which bears any
relation to the Brazilian genus Anostoma, is the little species dis-
covered by the late Capt. Boys in Rajpootana, designated by me
as A. Boysii. It was separated by Pfeiffer under the generic
name of Boysia, and soon after by Albers as Hypostoma. A
singular Anostomatous shell, still more minute than Boysia, was
found by Mr. W. Theobald on the banks of the Irawadi. Its
open umbilicus, differing from the closed rimate volution of the
known types, and especially the curious solute and protracted
last whori and trumpet-mouthed aperture (which is dentate, as
in the ancient genus Anostoma), render it desirable to charac-
terize the shell as a new type of form, under the name of Tuny-
stoma, which may be considered as generic or sectional according
to the views of systematists, some of whom do not admit the
claim of Boysia to generic separation.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 9

130 Mr. W. H. Benson on Tanystoma tubiferum.

Tanystoma, nobis.

Testa convoluta, conoidea; umbilicus apertus; anfractus ultimus

solutus, protractus, sursum tortus, aperturam dentatam alte tollens ;
peristoma horizontale, expansum.

T. tubiferum, nobis.

Testa depresso-conoidea, radiato-striata, cornea, sutura excavata,
spira breviter conoidea, apice obtusiusculo ; anfractibus 3, convexis,
ultimo tubam protractam, sursum tortam, altiorem quam apice,
efformante, ad peripheeriam valide et obtuse carmato, superne
baltea tumida, a peripheria sulco profundo separata, munito,
subtus convexo, margine umbilici aperti perspectivi angulato,
angulo usque ad aperturam extendente; apertura horizontali,
sursum spectante, 6-7-dentata, dentibus lamelliformibus duabus
parietalibus, supera validiori duplicata, inferiori minore profunda,
1 columellari mediocri, 4 palatalibus, quarum superiori duplicata

tertiaque majoribus; peristomate libero, valde expanso, reflexi-
usculo.

Diam. major 4, min. 3, axis 2 mill.

Habitat ad Thyet-Mio prope ripas fluminis Irawadi Burmanici, saxis
calcareis adhzerens.

This interesting shell was found by Mr. Theobald to be very
local, but not uncommon at the spot indicated—about six miles
south of the frontier station. It was not met with lower down
the river at Prome, nor elsewhere.

Cyclophorus fulguratus, Pfr., was found from Thyet-Mio to
Rangoon; and a gigantic Megalomastoma, of the type of M.
Chrysallis, Pfeiffer, resembling in size and figure Pupina grandis
of Forbes, near Moulmein, verifying the opinion communicated
to Dr. Pfeiffer, that the true habitat of those two species was
probably Ava, and not Arva, a river in Columbia, as conjectured
by that author from the illiterate orthography of the name fur-
nished to him.

Five new species of Gray’s genus Alyceus occurred, two of
which are related to the Himalayan A. strangulatus, H., and
A. gibbus of Cochin China. There are also two new forms of
Pterocyclos, two of Pupina, besides a third from Sylhet, a new
Leptopoma, an Otopoma (?), and two or three new Cyclophori.
Two new minute Hydrocene, closely allied to my Khassya Cycl.
sarritum, with the operculum, enable me to fix the place of that
species, as well as of C. ¢ersum, mihi, and probably of C. Milium,
both of which Pfeiffer, im a letter dated some months ago, con-
jectured to belong to Hydrocena. Cyclotus and Diplommatina,
which are Indian forms, are not represented in the collection.

In new Helices the collection is very rich: one form im par-

Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum, 131

ticular is curious, from its resemblance to the North American
H. hirsuta, Say.

Mr. Theobald’s personal researches in the Panjab and Sikkim
have also added new forms from the Salt Range and Darjiling.

Cheltenham, 12th January 1856.

XII.— On Pleurodictyum problematicum. By Wittram Kine,
Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in Queen’s College,
Galway, Corresponding Member of the Natural History and
Medical Society of Dresden, &c.

[With a Plate.]

A Few weeks since I selected, from the extensive sale collection of
Dr. Krantz of Bonn, several fine specimens of the Pleurodictyum
problematicum of Goldfuss, from the Upper Devonian sandstone
of Daun in the Eifel. Previously, I had not examined any
examples of this singular fossil: all the information I then pos-
sessed respecting it was derived from some published figures and
descriptions by Goldfuss, Phillips, and Lyell ; and I had an im-
pression that the vermiform appendage, occurring within it, was
generally considered to be a foreign body.

Pleurodictyum problematicum, as it usually occurs, may im
general terms be described as an oval or nearly circular discoid
body, having one surface free and the other firmly adhering to a
portion of the matrix in which it oceurs. If observed attentively,
it will be seen to consist of a number of closely packed, more or
less inclined subpolygonal cones, with their apex or small end
corresponding to the free surface, and their base attached to the
matrix: the cones are at a slight distance from one another,
but connected by means of a number of short thread-like pro-
cesses crossing the vacant interspaces. Within the central area
of the free surface a sigmoid or S-shaped vermiform appendage
is seen lying among the interspaces, and having both termi-
nations passing down to the opposite or adhering surface.

Sir Charles Lyell has given a tolerably correct view, natural
size, of the free surface of this fossil in his excellent Manual,
p- 429, 5th edit. The same surface is represented, twice the
natural size, in Pl. X. fig. 1, so as to exhibit the different parts
more obviously.

The fossil, as just described, is a cast ; it will therefore be evi-
dent, that the cones are casts of subpolygonal cells,—the vacant
interspaces, their walls,—and the short thread-like processes
crossing the same, casts of tubular openings or foramina in the
cell-walls. It will also be obvious, that the free surface exhibits

9x

132 Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum.

the aggregated bases of the cells ; and it necessarily follows, that
the opposite or adhering surface is that to which the cell-aper-
tures are turned. It will now be understood why Pleurodictyum
problematicum is usually considered a coral.

Respecting the vermiform appendage, Lyell, Milne-Edwards
and Haime consider it to be the remaims of a Serpula, or a ser-
puliform body, and that our fossil is attached to it: on the con-
trary, Phillips describes the appendage in question as “a vermi-
cular cast in the tubule of some mollusk (?) which has perforated
the coral*.”

The “coral” itself struck Phillips as having considerable
resemblance to his Favosites megastoma and F. tenuiseptat, spe-
cies which De Koninck places in his genus Michelinia. Milne-
Edwards and Haime include it m Poritide, a family of their
division Zoantharia perforatat. But Dr. Roemer of Breslau ob-
jects to this coJlocation, and appears to have no doubt whatever
of its close relation to Michelinia, particularly the species M.
favosa§.

Notwithstanding there may be different shades of opinion
among paleontologists respecting the nature of Pleurodictyum,
they all seem to agree in regarding it as a coral, and in con-
sidering the vermiform appendage as having no organic con-
nexion with it. At this stage of the present paper I feel it
necessary to announce, that I totally dissent from the views just
given: I cannot think that the fossil itself is a coral, properly
so called; nor can | reconcile myself to any other opinion than
that the vermiform appendage is a structure constituting an
integral portion of its organization.

Before stating my views, however, I purpose giving a some-
what detailed description of our fossil ; and in doing so I think
it best to describe its different parts in their original state, and
not as casts.

Pleurodictyum problematicum is externally a nearly circular
concayo-convex discoid body, the under surface or base bemg
concave. It seldom exceeds an imch and a quarter in diameter
and about three-eighths of an inch in thickness. Its upper sur-
face slopes off regularly to the margin, which is thi. These

* Vide “ Figures and Descriptions of the Palzozoic Fossils of Cornwall,
Devon, and West Somersetshire,” p. 209.

+ Palzozoic Fossils, p. 20.

t Vide reference to these authors in a subsequent part of this paper.

§ Dr. Roemer’s views are advanced in the last edition of Bronn’s
‘ Lethza Geognostica.’ I have not been able to consult the details of my
friend’s views, as given in this work; but he gave me an outline of them
during a joyous day we had together last September among the Stringoce-
phaluses, Megalodons, &c. at Paffrath. I hope he may be induced to give
an English dress to his views on Pleurodictyum in the ‘ Annals.’

Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum. 133

characters give a vertical section of it a somewhat crescentic
shape, as may be seen by a reference to Plate X. fig. 2.

Internally it consists of a number of short, rather wide, sub-
polygonal cells, with generally four sides, subradially and alter-
nately arranged, and arising from a thin, nearly circular basal
plate thickest in the centre and slightly wrinkled concentrically.
According to Edwards and Haime this part is covered with epi-
theca. By means of the basal plate, a Pleurodictyum attached itself
to some foreign body,—at Daun, generally to the convex valve of
a Chonetes ; but in process of growth it spread beyond the
margins of the shell. Impressions of this part often exhibit
subradial and anastumosing lines, which are nothing more than
marks of the cell-walls arising from its thinness. An impression
of the basal plate with its subradial and anastomosing lines, and
a cast of the Chonetes valve to which it was attached, are repre-
sented in Pl. X. fig. 3.

The cells, of which there appear to be between sixty and
seventy in a full-sized specimen, are nearly upright in the central
portion, exterior to which they become more and more inclined
towards the margin, where they are horizontal or nearly so (vide
Pl. X. figs. 2 & 8). This modification gives rise to a pecu-
liarity of form requiring to be noticed: the central cells * stand
on a true base; but those situated outside of them lose it gra-
dually by one of their side walls (the outermost) becoming insen-
sibly converted into a base ;—the marginal cells, in short, repose
completely on one of their side walls (vide Pl. X. fig. 2). All
the cells, except those in the centre, have their mouth directed
towards the margin.

The cell-bases are usually somewhat rhombic or oval, with
the longitudinal axis directed from the centre to the margin of
the fossil (vide Pl. X. fig. 1); and they are generally 4th of an
inch in length, and ;%ths in width.

All, except the marginal cells, have the inner surface of their
base marked with a central prominence, which becomes converted
into a median ridge in the submarginal cells. The prominences
and ridges have produced those large depressions seen on casts
of the cell-bases (vide Pl. X. figs. 1 & 4).

The cells are marked interiorly with a number of fine longi-
tudinal costules (generally five or six on each of the four walls),
which are spinulose on and near the base, and plain on the sides,
where their linear arrangement is most decided. On the base
the costules are nearly obsolete ; but their spinules are strongly

* Tt will simplify my description by designating the cells confined within
the area occupied by the vermiform appendage—central cells,—those on
the margin—marginal cells,—and those between both of the latter—sub-
marginal cells.

134 Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum.

developed, particularly on each side of the prominence or me-
dian ridge. The plain costules are most prominent near the
margins “of the cells, giving the latter a sulcated character.
Although, from their being nearly obsolete on the base of the
cells, AS is difficult to trace the costules on this part, yet there
are sufficient indications to show that they radiate from the
central prominence or median ridge and pass up the walls.
The intervening furrows are plain, except at the inferior half of
the cells and the marginal portion of the base, where they are
punctured : on casts they appear like granulated lines. The
spinules have produced those pricked holes exhibited on casts of
the cell-bases (vide Pl. X. figs. 1 & sek

The walls of the cells vary from ¥;th to jth of an meh in
thickness, the thickest portion being at the base. Besides the
character last described, they are perforated completely through
or foraminated, usually at intervals of about ;.th of an inch. In
general the perforations or foramima, which are arranged some-
what longitudinally (vide Pl. X. figs. 5 & 6), pass direct through
the substance of the cell-walls, except at or near their base,
where they are long, curved, and sometimes anastomosed (vide
Pl. X. figs. 4 &c.). In their foraminated character the cell-
walls offer a striking resemblance to those of Favosites and
Michelinia.

Interpolated or young cells are occasionally seen springing
from all points of the outermost walls of old submarginal cells :
when not in contact with the basal plate they are of a conical
form, and their pointed base terminates usually in two foramina
which diverge and pass into the adjoinmg cell or cells (vide
Pl. X. figs. 2 & 7).

All the cells, except those in the centre, grew out horizontally
for awhile ; but as soon as new cells external to them were de-
veloped, their aperture became turned up, giving a geniculated
form to their outward outline, as represented in PI. X. figs. 2 & 8.
This peculiarity of growth occasionally gave rise to a consi-
derable interspace between the mouths of old adjacent cells. It
is in this interspace that their interpolated or young submarginal
cells, noticed in the last paragraph, originated. The develop-
ment of the latter did not cause the fossil to increase in height,
as might be supposed ; for in no instance have [ observed them
to rise above the old cells. The increase of Pleurodictyum was
by horizontal growth, mainly due to young cells originating on
its margin: in their earliest stage, even when scarcely {th of an
inch in length, these young marginal cells are foraminately con-
nected with older ones, and their pointed or inferior end is also
often seen terminating in two diverging foramina, as obtains in
their submarginal analogues.

Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum. 135

Within the central area, there winds tortuously through the
substance of the cell-walls the vermiform appendage already
noticed. In thickness it sometimes equals the width of the
cell-bases. The best way of examining this structure is on
a cast of the under surface of the fossil, similar to that repre-
sented in Pl. X. fig. 1, where it may be seen in the centre fol-
lowing a course resembling the letter S through the interspaces
separating the casts of the cells. Neither of its terminations is
seen on the surface under consideration, as both are continued
with a slight outward curve down to the opposite or adherent
surface, completing as it were the form of the letter, but having
the tails bent on one and the same side of its plane. Another
mode of describing this appendage may be adopted by restoring
the fossil in imagination, and placing its upper surface before
the eye. Commencing at one of its terminations, which is situated
about midway between the margin and the centre, it may be
traced passing down among the cells with a sinuous curve to the
basal plate, across the central part of which it makes a sigmoid
flexure ; it next passes with another sinuous curve to the surface,
reappearing at about the middle of the side opposite to where it
entered. The course of the appendage is often difficult to trace ;
but I have no doubt that the one just described, allowing for
some slight deviations, will be found to be approximately correct.
I cannot positively state that I have made out the form of its
terminations, though one of them, in a specimen before me, has
some appearance of being constricted just immediately before it
appears at the surface: with this exception, the thickness of the
appendage, throughout its entire length, appears to be remark-
ably uniform. I also observe that its thickness bears a compa-
rative proportion to the size of the fossil, the largest specimens
having the thickest appendage.

A remarkable circumstance respecting the course of this struc-
ture remains to be noticed. In half the number of specimens
before me, it is folded, where in contact with the basal plate, in
the written form of an s; but in the other half, the letter, as it
were, is exactly reversed. In the specimens represented under
Pl. X. figs. 1 & 4, it may be said to be normally folded ; whereas
in Lyell’s figure referred to it is inversely folded.

Connected with the statement that the appendage passes
through the substance of the cell-walls, I may add, that it never
passes through the cells themselves: those adjacent are short-
ened and variously altered in shape to suit its form, as may be
seen represented in Pl. X. figs. 2 & 9. This is also the case
with the foramina ; for their thread-like casts, when adjacent
to the appendage, never appear as if passing into it, except in
what are obviously accidental cases ; they are always to be seen

136 Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum.

curving over, by, or below it. Both modifications are exhibited
in Pl. X. figs. 1, 2, 4 & 9.

With respect to the cell-apertures, as exhibited on the upper
or convex surface, I have endeavoured by grinding down a
few casts, from their basal or concave surface, to exhibit them.
The specimens at my service for this purpose are, however, so
few, that I have been compelled to represent a gutta-percha im-
pression taken from a very indifferent one (vide Pl. X. fig. 10).
The apertures it will be seen are somewhat circular and sub-
polygonal; and the central portion contains the apertures of
several small cells, the size of which is attributable to the ver-
miform appendage lying beneath them, thereby preventing their
full development. 1 failed in discovering the terminations of the
appendage in this specimen; but judging from others, I am
disposed to place them near the marks * *,

Pleurodictyum having been generally considered a coral, it
may be expected that I should examine the grounds on which
this opinion is founded; but I contend, that it is quite unne-
cessary for me to enter on such a step: all I have to perform is
to prove that the vermiform appendage is integral to the fossil.
It may also be observed, that even before the generally received
view can be discussed, the appendage must first be proved to be
a foreign body. Were it not for the vermiform appendage, I
should at once subscribe to the opinion that our fossil was a
coral ;—the only question with me would be, as to what division
of the class Corallaria it belonged.

Tam quite willing, however, to institute a comparison between
Pleurodictyum and those corals with which it has been associated,
a step which may be of some service in working out the question
shortly to be discussed.

The family Poritide, in which MM. Edwards and Haime
place our fossil, is composed of genera, having, with a few
tertiary and jurassic exceptions*, all its representatives living in
our present seas. The agreement between it and the genera
alluded to consists in the foraminated character of the cell-walls
and the absence of horizontal plates: but there is an important
difference prevailing; as in the group named a well-developed
septal apparatus (consisting of vertical plates) exists, which is
absent in the fossilf.

* Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, since the Introduction to their
Monograph of British Fossil Corals was written, have added a new
genus to the family Poritide under the name Protarea. It is typified
with Hall’s Silurian Porites vetusta. This species and another (Protarea
Verneuili) occur in the Silurian beds of North America.

+ Mr. Rupert Jones has kindly supphed me with a copy of Edwards and
Haime’s diagnosis of Plewrodictyum since much of this paper was written.
As I differ from these able Invertebratologists respecting the homology of

,

Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum. 187

As regards Michelinia (a genus of the family Favositide), with
which Roemer has collocated Pleurodictyum, all its species have
long tubular corallites, which, although agreeing with our fossil
in being foraminated and longitudinally lineated at their margin,
are filled up, except at top, with numerous transverse irregular
curving plates, giving them quite a vesicular structure*. There
is not the least trace of any transverse plates in Pleurodictyum.

Thus admitting for a moment that our fossil is a coral, it
could not be placed either in Poritide+ or Favositide, as defined
by Edwards and Haime ; nor could it, strictly speaking, be placed
in either of the more comprehensive groups named Zoantharia
perforata and Zoantharia tabulata, to which these families re-
spectively belong; it could only be considered as an aberrant
form of either one or the other.

The resemblances just made out are, however, of considerable
value ; for they strongly manifest the side which certain affinities
of Pleurodictyum lean to. These affinities in my opinion belong
to parts subordinate to others only occurring in animals higher
than the Zoanthairs; I am therefore led to consider them as
merely of secondary importance. Hence I may be allowed to

certain parts of this fossil, I have thought it necessary to give a copy of
their description :—“ Polypier subdiscoide, soit libre, soit fixé sur un corps
serpuliforme ou sur une coquille, 4 plateau inférieur recouvert dune épi-
théque forte et présentant quelques plis concentriques ; polypiérites courts,
prismatiques, irradiant en un court faisceau et se terminant sur une sur-
face légérement convexe ; calices polygonaux, un peu inégaux ; trous de la
muraille petits et irréguliers, assez peu nombreux; les murailles un peu
larges. De 20 @ 28 cloisons formées par des poutrelles gréles qui avancent
jusqw au centre de la chambre des polypiérites ; largeur des calices de 3 a 5
millimétres. Ces polypiers n’ont ordimairement que 3 ou 4 centimétres de
diamétre total.”’—Vide “ Monographie des Polypiers fossiles des terrains
paléozoiques,” inserted in the Archives du Muséum, tom. vy. p. 210, 1851.
The passage I have italicized evidently refers to the fine longitudinal
costules (spimulose and plain) intervening between the furrows (punctured
and plain) previously described in the text (p. 133). But, with all due
deference to the opinion of MM. Edwards and Haime, I am strongly dis-
posed to consider the so-called “cloisons ” as simply homologous with the
granulations, spinules and echinated costules seen on the septa of many
Zoanthairs.

* Iam much indebted to my friend George Tate, Esq., of Alnwick, for
placing in my hands his specimens of Michelinia to enable me to make
myself acquaimted with the character of this interesting genus.

+ MM. Edwards and Haime place Pleurodictyum next to Protarea in
Poritide. In their “ Monographie des Poritides,”’ published in the Annales
des Sciences Naturelles, 3 sér. t. xvi. p. 48, referring to their earlier Mono-
graph in the ‘ Archives,’ they state—“et nous nous bornerons A répéter
ici qu’elle différe seulement des Litharea par une épithéque plus déve-
loppée, des murailles plus €paisses et des cloisons plus poutrellaires.”
Intharea, another genus of the family Poritide, is typified with the Astrea
Websteri of Bowerbank,—an eocene fossil described and represented in
their Monograph of the British Fossil Corals, p. 38. pl. 7. fig. 1.

138 Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum.

state, that our fossil possesses strong collateral affinities with
the order Zoantharia.

The question now comes on for discussion, as to what position
Pleurodictyum occupied in the Invertebrate division of the animal
kingdom? As intimated in the early part of this paper, I dissent
entirely from the opinion which regards it as a member of the
class Corallaria. My own opinion is entirely based on the
presence of the vermiform appendage, which I consider a true
organic constituent of the fossil; it therefore behoves me to
establish its claims to be considered in this light.

According to Lyell and Milne-Edwards, Pleurodictyum attached
itself to the verniform appendage, 7. e. the “ Serpula” of the
former, and the “ serpuliform body” of the latter; but this opi-
nion is totally inadmissible from the appendage being always in-
ternal. Recurring to Phillips’s view, that it is ‘a vermicular
cast in the tubule of some mollusk (?) which had perforated the
coral,” it may be observed, in the first place, that as I have not
seen specimens from every known locality*, it would be improper
of me to assert that Pleurodictyum never occurs without the
appendage ; but this I am prepared to state, that, with a few
exceptions, every specimen I have examined from Daun possesses
it :—in making this assertion I speak advisedly, because possibly
some parties may dispute it. I perceive the appendage in the
smallest as well as the largest specimens ; and in some of the
exceptional cases noted, I can see the vacant space which it ori-
ginally occupied. I am therefore led to conclude, that whenever
the appendage is absent it has either fallen out, or been removed
by some accident.

The vermiform appendage in all the specimens that have
passed under my notice is always folded, as before described,
somewhat like the letter S, having its central portion resting on
the basal plate, and its extremities passing up to opposite sides,
between the margin and centre, of the upper surface. This con-
stancy of form and position it is impossible to conceive could
have prevailed had the appendage been a perforating bodyt.

Again, this structure is never seen otherwise than passing

* It is of extensive geographical range, occurring at West Ogwell and
Torquay in Devonshire, Nehou in France, Coblentz and other places on
the Rhine, Daun in the Eifel, Aleje in Spain, Goslar in the Hartz, and
Jefferson County in the State of Indiana, North America. In all these
localities, Plewrodictyum occurs in the Devonian system ; but, according to
Sir R. Murchison, M. Richter has lately described a new species under the
name P. Lonsdalei from the Silurian beds of Saalfeld (vide Quart. Journ.
of the Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 413). Perhaps Milne-Edwards’s Spongarium
may be the basal plate of a fossil havmg some relation to Pleurodictyum ?

+ The two specimens represented under figures 1 & 4. Pl. X. are almost
a fac-simile of each other as regards both form and position.

Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum. 139

through the substance of the cell-walls: in no case can I perceive
any appearance as if it had passed through the cells themselves ;
nor have I ever seen anything to show that it cut, as it were,
any of the foramina*: on the contrary, the cells have been built
around, or adjacent to, the appendage; and the foramina have
been carried over or under it.

These facts I regard as completely proving that the original
of the vermiform appendage was an ab inilio structure—a true
integral organ of Pleurodictyum.

From the absence of all evidence to the contrary, it cannot be
concluded that the appendage was enclosed in a sheath, like that
of some shell-bearing borers +: it must be the cast of a fleshy
tube included in, and protected only by, the substance of the
cell-walls.

The reader will now be prepared for the statement, that I
consider the vermiform appendage as the cast of a tubular
chamber which enclosed the intestinal canal of Pleurodictyum.

But an intestinal canal necessitates the existence of a mouth
and an anus. No coral, however, possesses more than one orifice
to its digestive cavity. Pleurodictyum therefore cannot belong
to any division of the class Corallaria: it must be assumed as
belonging to a higher type in the scale of animal organization.

Considering certain primary groups of the Invertebrata pos-
sessing an oral and an anal orifice—for example, Tunicata, Mol-
lusca and Bryozoaria—if all their existing and extinct represen-
tatives be examined, we shall fail m observing any to be strictly
available for Pleurodictyum. This being the case, our only alter-
native is to have recourse to its collateral affinities, which, as
already seen, lean to Zoantharia. Reflecting on this order, it
may be asked—of the classes named, having two orifices, which
one has the closest relation to it? Obviously Bryozoariat. But
in no cell-bearing forms of this class, such as Lepralia, Eschara,
&c., is there one to be found consisting of large cells with a ver-
miform appendage : all of them have their solid parts consisting

* The vermiform appendage having increased in size as the fossil became
enlarged, thereby encroaching on the adjacent cells, it must not be sup-
posed that cases exhibiting the foramina broken through do not occur. It
may be observed, however, that although I have seen thread-like casts of the
foramina almost, if not completely, touching the appendage, I have never
perceived any appearance as if they had been eut by a boring animal.

+ The cases of close proximity alluded to in the above note completely
dispel the idea that the appendage originally possessed a shelly sheath, as
some have conjectured.

{ It may be readily imagined that the class Tunicata occurred to me as
a group to which Pleurodictyum might belong; but as its collateral affi-
nities lean rather to Mollusca than to the Zoanthie corals, I felt myself
compelled to abandon the idea.

140 Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum.

of innumerable minute cells, each being inhabited by a single
Bryozoon. If it were possible for the intestinal canal of every
animal in a Lepralia to be preserved, a vermiform appendage
ought to occur in every cell.

We have now arrived at the great difficulty which besets us
in considering our fossil to belong to the class Bryozoaria; for
as there is only one appendage to all its cells, it is evident that
each one cannot have been tenanted by a single Bryozoon. But
let us again consider the Zoanthic affinities of Plewrodictyum.
Why may it not have been inhabited by a Bryozoic form orga-
nized after the Zoanthic type? In short, why may not its occu-
pant have been a Zoanthoid Bryozoon? According to this view,
Pleurodictyum, although consisting of a number of cells, be-
longed to a simple individual ; and it necessarily follows that its
cells, instead of being aggregated corallites, were merely cham-
bers corresponding with the interseptal spaces or doculi charac-
teristic of the lamelliferous corals, particularly those mm which
these parts are formed by confluent plates, as in most species of
Stephanophyllia. The cells were probably receptacles for the
generative organs ; and they possibly indicate the existence of a
number of concentric circles of tentacles similar to. those sur-
rounding the orifice of an ordinary Actinia.

In Pleurodictyum, the varying number of cells or chambers,
which is altogether dependent on its size, is not opposed to the
suggestion just made; since the tentacles in Actinia and some
allied genera are well known to increase in number as the polyp
increases in size.

It would be unwise to specialize too much in an hypothetical
restoration of the animal that belonged to our fossil; but I can-
not refrain from hazarding the conjecture that the chambers
were surmounted by the stomach. It is highly improbable that
the vermiform appendage comprised both the stomach and in-
testine, like the alimentary apparatus in Echinide, in which, it
must be understood, the large visceral cavity allows full room for
the necessary dilatation of the gastric portion; because in the
fossil the whole appendage was so hemmed in by the substance
of the cell-walls as to render impossible an increase of any por-
tion of it by repletion, supposing any such portion served as a
stomach. I am therefore led to consider the vermiform append-
age as being the cast of a tubular chamber which enclosed only
the intestinal canal, a view which, it will be observed, is in exact
accordance with my conjecture as to the cells being mferior in
position to the stomach. Perhaps the constriction I noticed at
one of the terminations of the appendage indicates the com-
mencement of the rectum.

In conclusion, it remains for me to observe, that if the view

Prof. W. King on Pleurodictyum problematicum. 141

herein taken of the position of Pleurodictyum in the animal
kingdom be correct, this fossil will necessarily represent a type,

which, although not known as living, is one that there is no

difficulty in conceiving to have existed ; since it forms exactly
the link that seems to be wanted to connect the true Corals with
the class Bryozoaria.

Belmont near Galway, Jan. 9, 1856.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.
PLEURODICTYUM PROBLEMATICUM.

Fig. 1. View of basal or under surface of a cast, twice the natural size,
having the basal plate and nearly one-half of the cells removed
(the latter from the lower portion of figure). One of the extre-
mities or tails of the vermiform appendage is consequently ex-
posed, curving down among the cells to the opposite (upper or
adhering) surface: the other extremity also passes down to the
same surface, but becomes concealed among the cells.

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section through the centre, partly restored, showing
easts of central (upright), submarginal (inclmed) and marginal
(horizontal) cells; also young cells with their poimted base
attached to the outer side of old ones. The appendage (of which
a cross section is exposed) is seen beneath one of the cells, which
is modified (shortened) to make room for it. The base of the
central cells exhibits the furrow or depression resulting from the
central prominence or median ridge thereon. The dark portion
at bottom exhibits the space originally occupied by the basal

late.

Fig. 3. eon of the basal plate, twice the natural size, exhibiting
marks of the cell-bases, and the shell-valve (cast of Chonetes) to
which it adhered. The anastomosing lines are rather too strongly
marked.

Fig. 4. Representation, thrice the natural size, of a portion of central area
of basal surface, exhibiting the appendage with one of its extre-
mities (the left) passing gradually down among the cells (or
rather up) to the opposite (upper) surface. This specimen, which
is different from that under fig. 1, exhibits casts of the foramina
at the cell-bases, where they are “long, curved, and sometimes
anastomosed ;”” but always avoiding the appendage: it also ex-
hibits the depressions (produced by the central prominence or
median ridge), and the pricked holes (produced by the spinules
belonging to the adjoining obsolete costules) on casts of the cell-
bases (central and submarginal).

Fig. 5. Cast of a marginal cell showing its (outer) sides and rhombic base,
with their punctured furrows and plain marginal sulcations (or
intervening costules).

N.B. This figure ought to have been three times its size to
exhibit clearly all the characters belonging to the interior of the
cells. The spinulose costules (not present on this cell) are only
seen on the base of the central and submarginal cells.

Fig. 6. Cast of a submarginal cell showing its inner sides marked with
casts of foramina linearly arranged.

Fig. 7. Casts of submarginal cells exnbiting young interpolated ditto

142 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

with their pointed base terminating in “two foramina, which
diverge and pass into the adjoining cell or cells.”

Fig. 8. Side view of casts of marginal cells. This figure exhibits two
young cells originating on the outer side of an old one, causing
its aperture to be turned up, thereby giving its outward outline a
geniculated form. The small cell to the right reposes completely
on one of its sides.

Fig. 9. Side view of two cells, modified owing to the propinquity of the
appendage, of which a cross section is represented.

Fig. 10, Gutta-percha impression, twice the natural size, of the upper sur-
face, showing the somewhat circular and subpolygonal form of
the cell-apertures. The marks * * indicate the probable situation
of the terminations of the vermiform appendage.

XIII.—On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the
Structure of the Oryans of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.
By Tuomas Wittrams, M.D. Lond., F.L.S., Physician to the

Swansea Infirmary.
[With a Plate. ]

[Continued from p. 42.]
Pulmonifera.

Tue leaf-like appendages of Phyllodoce lamelligera, which expose
to the action of the aérating medium a true chylaqueous fluid,
differ very little in intimate structure from the branchial laminz
of the Crab, the purpose of which is to distribute for respiration
a current of blood, properly so called. But the trachez of Insects
have no parallel amongst the respiratory systems of the Inver.
tebrata. Compared with the respiratory organs of the water-
breathing Articulata, these trachez constitute, in a complete
sense, an apparatus invented de novo. Insects, with reference to
the relations of this system, cannot therefore be said to be to
the water-breathing Annulose and Articulated animals what the
Pulmoniferous Gasteropods are to the water-breathing Mollusca.
In the latter cases nevertheless, the aquatic and atmospheric
systems are strikingly diverse.

In the instance of the air-respiring Crustaceans no change of
structure whatever occurs in the respiratory system. The bran-
chize of the terrestrial Isopoda are precisely the same in every
detail of minute structure as those of the aquatic genera. The
inference arises at once: these Crustaceans are merely modified
water-breathers! But when an animal is to be formed whose
medium of life shall permanently be the atmosphere, a design
in the construction of the breathing system is adopted in-
volving express provisions, which stand at marked variance
from every variety of the water-breathing machinery. It is

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 143

accordingly observed that the contrast between ‘the lung’ of
Pulmoniferous, and the branchia of the Branchiferous Gaste-
ropods is almost as striking and irreconcileable as that which
separates the trachea of the Insect from the breathing plume
of the Annelid or the gill of the Crab. In the midst of the
aquatic Articulata, the air-breathing Insect arises on the scene ;
in the midst of the aquatic Mollusca, the pulmonated Gas-
teropods are formed. The object being one and the same,
namely to produce an air-breathing animal, the artificer being
still within the limits of the Invertebrate subkingdom, the ques-
tion is most natural, Are the means in the two cases also the
same by which the one and the same end is sought to be attained ?
—No! they are most wonderfully and extraordinarily dissimilar.
The trachez of the Insect pervade the entire substance of the
body of the animal. The ‘lung’ of the Snail is a mere bag, in-
flated as if by some rude and fallible artist, under the skin of
the back. The former charms the eye as it discovers the mmgling
of the infinitely perfect with the infinitely minute. The latter
shocks the mind with disappointment as it views the characters
of a contrivance at once coarse, clumsy, and inadequate. But is it
so in reality, or is it so only because imperfectly understood, and
because it is measured by a wrong and unfair standard? Is
not such an apparatus, simple as it is, quite enough to sustain
the sluggish vitality of these slow-moving and sleepy animals ?
And is not the end in view accomplished quite as perfectly as it
is in the case of Insects, though by a machinery of incomparably
greater apparent intricacy? ‘These questions will well prepare
the mind for the investigation of the actual details.

All the terrestrial and the majority of the freshwater Gaste-
ropod Mollusks breathe air. They are provided with a pul-
monary cavity or sac, whose walls are networked with vessels by
which the blood is exposed to the aérating element. No form
of branchiz exists. The animals which present this organization
are all provided with distinct heads and furnished with tentacula
and organs of sight. They walk by the aid of a well-developed
creeping disc. One large division of the land snails is supplied
with an operculated shell ; the rest are inoperculate and some-
times shell-less. The Pulmonifera are closely related to the
plant-eating sea snails (Holostomata) through the Cyclomata,
and to the Nudibranchs by Onchidium. As a group, the land
snails are inferior to the sea snails, on account of the compara-
tive imperfection of their senses, and the union of the functions
of both sexes in each individual.

The typical inoperculate Pulmonifera vary in appearance
and habits, but agree essentially in structure. The respiratory
orifice is small and valvye-like, to prevent too rapid desiccation

144 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

in the land species, and to guard against the injurious entry of
water in the aquatic tribes*. Hence they have been called
Adelo-pneumona (or concealed-lunged) by Dr. Gray ; the Opercu-
lata, by antithesis, being named the Phanero-pneumona or open-
lunged.

The Onchidiadz are sea slugs, breathing by means of a pul-
monary cavity, but living immediately in contact with marine
conditions. According to the dissections of Mr. Hancock, the
“Jung is placed in this group at the posterior extremity of the
body, and has consequently the heart in front of it.”

Respiration in the Limacide is accomplished by means of a
cavity seated on the back near the neck, and covered by the dise
(Pl. XI. fig. 1). It opens on the right by a valvular sphincteric
orifice, which is endowed with an active power of widely dilating
and of closely contracting (e). In this family the rectum does not
traverse the respiratory chamber ; it lies external to, and below
its right boundary. The anal orifice therefore is separate from
that of the respiratory ; it is seen immediately below the latter.
This is a fact of structural disparity between the Limacide and
the Helicide. In the latter the intestine is a prominent object
in the breathing-chamber, and the vent is confounded with the
pulmonary orifice. The position of the generative outlet is
variable.

The following description is founded upon numerous dissec-
tions of the common Slugs. The breathing-sac presents in all
the species the same anatomical characters. It is best studied
by fixing the animal with two strong pins, transfixing the body
in front near the head and behind near the tail ina cork-bottom
dissecting dish. One blade of a strong, blunt-pointed sharp
scissors should be inserted into the pulmonary orifice. The
point should now be carried round the boundaries of the chamber,
the disc being cut as the instrument travels round. Such a
section (fig. ]) will enable the lid of the cavity or the respiratory
disc (b) to be so perfectly raised as to leave the entire space
underneath quite uninjured. <A part corresponding with the
pericardium (ce) will however be found to be adherent to this
roof; it should be snipped with the scissors. The roof, in the
substance of which is lodged the rudimentary shell, should now
be reflected and pinned down (as shown in figs. 1 & 2). From
the central space of the cavity a second membrane (fig. 1 ¢) will
require to be raised. This is much more vascular than the
former integumentary covering (5), and constitutes really a part
of the respiratory surface. This structure serves also as peri-

* See the excellent Manual on Recent and Fossil Shells, by S. P. Wood-
ward. ‘

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 145

eardinm. It overcovers the heart, and embraces the large curved
gland, in the centre of the area bounded by which the heart
(Pl. XI. fig. 1d) is situated. A perfect view of this pulsatile
body is thus obtained. It beats slowly, about 30 or 35 times
in a minute ; less frequently probably in an unmutilated animal.
[t consists of an auricle which is situated under or below the
ventricle. The ventricle is not a linear continuation of the
auricle, separated only by a constriction as it is in the Helicidee,
but a separate organ receiving the auricle by a laterally placed
auriculo-ventricular orifice. It will be seen that the large blood-
channels (fig. 1 gy) which are distributed over the floor of the
eavity, and which in nature are of an opake white colour, con-
verge upon the auricle, and that the aorta (A) rising boldly up
from the ventricle as a vigorous vessel of considerable calibre,
pierces the base of the chamber and disappears, travelling back-
wards among the viscera.

Now of the Limacide it cannot with truth be said that they
are either Proso-branchiate or Opistho-branchiate. The heart
here is certainly not placed either before or behind the respi-
ratory organ, but in its true centre. The ovoid space circum-
scribed by the gland (c’, c’), and roofed down by the pericardium,
has only one opening through which the air can effect its ingress
and egress. This opening corresponds to the point at which
the line of the gland isinterrupted. In some species it is placed
at a point on the left side remote from the external orifice (e), in
others behind ; in others again it has an anterior position. That
portion of the cavity which is without the gland, and between it
and the outer boundary of the disc (f, f), forms a circle, so that the
air may course around the cavity from right to left or reversely,
according to the tendency of the muscular action by which it is
impelled. The movements of breathing are far less manifest in the
slug than in the snail. In the slug the pulmonary orifice slowly
opens, and the bag is emptied by the slow expulsion of the air.
The act of inhalation is performed in a similarly slow manner.
The orifice now firmly closes, and remains closed until the next
act of expiration, which may occur irregularly in ten minutes or
a quarter of an hour.

Two points in the history of the respiratory cavity of the
Limacidze demand special attention. First, the structure and
distribution of the vessels, and secondly, the character of the
membrane or covering by which the cavity is lined. As a rule,
it may be stated that the pulmonary vessels are distributed in
the Limacidz over the floor of the chamber, in the Helicide
over the roof. In the former the mucous gland is considerably
larger than in the latter. The heart of Limaz lies, like the pul-
monary network, on the bottom of the cavity; that of He/iz,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii.

146 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

like its pulmonary refe, is located in the roof. These are features
of striking dissimilarity.

The pulmonary vessels (a) of Limaz are not, as in Heliz,
gathered into one large trunk, debouching in the auricle. They
consist of several trunks, the cylinders of which are so super-
ficially situated as to stand in prominent relief above the main
plane of the cavity. This peculiar appearance results from the
rigid calcareous walls of the vessels. It seems, according to the
author’s dissections, as if two or three veins in Limax opened
into the auricle, but it is not easy to determine their exact num-
ber. The peculiar tenacious mucus secreted by the gland (¢’, c’)
which surrounds the heart (d) is poured out into the respiratory
cavity. But although this is the case, it does not interfere with
the function of the surface over which it is diffused. It does
not become adherent to the latter. This mucus is capable of
enclosing globules of air, and of becoming frothy. In this state
it is frequently extruded from the pulmonary orifice. The study
of these glands and their structure is for the present postponed,
since they share in no way in the process of respiration.

Cuvier and the older anatomists supposed, when they observed
the white colour of the vessels in the Limacidee, that the phzeno-
menon was due to the mi/ky character of the blood by which
they were filled. This is an error. The white colour results
from the mixture of fat and chalk which abounds in the sub-
stance of the walls of the vessels, imparting to them a peculiar
character and extraordinary thickness ; such thickness as renders
it extremely difficult to understand how they are not thereby
disqualified for the office which they are designed to discharge.
The larger vessels (fig. 1 g) stand upon a more superficial plane
than the smaller ones. This disposition gives a cellulated ap-
pearance to the surface (fig. 2), like that of the inside of the
frog’s lung. It is an arrangement which, more completely than
a smooth surface, detains the air in contact with the blood.
But though a tendency to the cellular form is displayed by the
pulmonary membrane, it must be understood that it is not
organized after that fashion, as is the case with the lung of the
frog.

The pulmonary vessels in the Pulmonated Gasteropods form
but one sheet, that is, the blood traverses the area of aérating
surface only once. The blood-currents converge upon the respi-
ratory chamber from all parts of the body. Large trunks (fig. 2)
may be seen at the sides of the cavity before, behind, and at the
sides. These trunks are individually walled vessels ; they are
true pulmonary arteries. They subdivide into smaller vessels,
and these break again into a network constituting the real lung
of the animal. Near the position of the heart, they begin to

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 147

reunite, large trunks becoming visible, which end in the auricle.
The larger trunks are visible to the naked eye; the smallest
require all the skill of the microscopist for their examination.
The coats of the more visible white trunks are rendered colour-
less under the joint agency of dilute muriatic acid and zether:
neither reagent alone will remove the white colour. The acid
will dissolve the lime and leave the fat: the «ther will remove
the fat and leave the lime. The fat and the lime are contained
in cells, and intimately mixed. ‘The lime exists in the form of
amorphous granules ; it does not crystallize even in the rudi-
mentary shell contained in the roof, but from the conical masses
which adhere into groups in some places, it is evident that a
tendency to crystallize is manifested.

It seemed to the author a point of extreme interest to deter-
mine whether the lime and fat which render the outline of these
vessels, especially in the common Black Slug, so conspicuous,
were incorporated in the substance of the vascular walls, and in
what manner, or whether they were lodged in a tissue occupying
the intervals between the vessels. These questions immediately
arose. It appeared so utterly without precedent that vessels,
destined to aérate the blood, the smallest, the most subdivided,
the most thin-walled, the most naked of all the vessels of the
body, in every other animal, vertebrate and invertebrate, should
in the instance of the Limacidee be encumbered with such thick,
even inorganic, rigid parietes !

The physiologist is embarrassed in attributing to a machinery,
by comparison so coarse and clumsy, a function so subtle and
refined as that of breathing. But is it not presumptuous to
pronounce a verdict of imperfection upon any of the works of
Nature? Is it not possible that faultless skill and matchless
adaptation of instrument to purpose, may yet reveal itself beneath
the apparent characters of an organ which at present may appear
rude and ill-contrived? It is more probable that Nature should
be perfect than that her critic should be so.

A transverse section of one of the larger vessels will render it
at once evident that each trunk is lined inéernally by a smooth
non-calcified membrane, and that the lime-particles are deposited
only in the substance of the external coats. The presence of this
imorganic substance destroys the power of the vessels to contract
upon their contents. The blood is circulated therefore through
the pulmonary membrane by some other force than that usually
due to the elasticity of the vessels. Although the fact is of dif-
ficult proof by direct demonstration, it is almost certain that the
exterior of each vessel is also lined by a non-calcified membrane.

It must be so, because active vibratile cilia unquestionably exist
10*

148 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

in various parts of the pulmonary cavity in every species of
Limax*.

If the internal and external coats of the vessels assume thus
the characters of two concentric non-calcified cylinders, it follows
that the mineralized layer must occupy the intervening space,
representing the middle coat. This is probably the truth. But
whether the external membrane and the lining of the cavity be
separate structures or not, it is disputable that the vessels are
enveloped in a thick caleareous sheath. It is obvious, therefore,
that the respiratory gases respectively leaving and enterimg the
blood must traverse this dense septum,—a peculiarity quite with-
out a parallel im the whole history of the organs of respiration.
In the higher animals the pulmonary vessels in all classes are
brought so near the aérating surface, that anatomists of emimence
are not wanting who assert that such vessels are not covered by
any kind of epithelium whatever. If then all structures inter-
posed between the blood and the air are thus studiously reduced
to the utmost extreme of tenuity in the higher animals, how is
it that in these highly organized Gasteropods the respiratory
vessels should not only be encumbered by thick coats, but by
those of an inorganic nature ?

Either in these animals respiration is reduced to a minimum, or
these calcareous coats not only do not interfere with, but literally
facilitate the interdiffusion of the gases. Although this idea
presupposes a mechanism quite unique in the history of the
breathing organs of animals, it involves nothing which contra-
dicts the laws of endosmosis. The mineral which is deposited
in the coats of the vessels is the carbonate of lime. It is im-
possible that such a substance could exert any chemical affinity
either for oxygen or carbonic acid. The lime-particles are so
loosely strewn together that they are separated by spacious in-
terstices. Such a septum would present no obstacle to the diffu-
sion of gases. In fact the endosmotic conditions of the beautiful
experiment devised by Prof. Graham, in which he coated a coarse
sheet of brown paper with a thin film of collodion, are precisely
imitated in the vessels of the Slug. Prof. Graham found that
the organic film so placed did not in the least degree diminish
the rate of diffusion at which gases pass through a sheet of brown
paper.

It is quite certain then that the vessels of the lung-sacs of the
Limacide are encircled by the calcareous coats. The lime is not

* | invite especial attention to this point, because hitherto all anatomists
have denied the existence of ciliated epithelium in the interior of the pul-
monary chamber of air-breathing Gasteropoda. I have proved the fact of
its presence beyond doubt, and by repeated observations.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 149

deposited in Jines, as the cilia are disposed along the branchial
leaves of the Lamellibranchiate Mollusks, leaving a non-ciliated
interval to which the active process of respiration is chiefly
limited. The gases must consequently traverse the entire sub-
stance of the calcareous and membranous coats. The inter-
stices between the calcareous particles might on this view be
considered as each representing a ced/, in which a small volume
of air is held stationarily in intimate contact with the blood,
and beyond the disturbing control of the ever-moving and vary-
ing parietes of the general cavity; and in which, as in the air-
cells of Mammals, the interchange of the gases is a continuous,
not an interrupted, process. But these permeable calcareous
coats, while they divide the oxygen into myriads of infinitesimal
portions, bringing it thus in a state of extreme subdivision into
contact with the blood, act also like other porous bodies upon
gases, by condensing their volumes. The power thus exerted
increases the diffusiveness of the gases, and consequently aug-
ments the measure in a given time of the function of the part,
because it virtually accelerates the interchange of the gases.
The ultimate vessels of the abdominal organs are furnished with
soft non-calcareous coats. The lime in these parts of the body
is present only on the larger trunks. This substance is sup-
pressed, therefore, in those organs in which its presence would
interfere with the nutritive and secernent office of the minute
vessels. Being present on those of the lung, the inference is
unavoidable, that in this situation at least it does not obstruct the
function of the organ. It seems on the clearest grounds that the
mechanical subdivision of the air in a respiratory organ may be
made to supersede the necessity for the subdivision of the blood
by the formation of a rete mirabile. To this end in the Lima-
cide a contrivance of singular simplicity is adopted: the air
is made to rush in steady but infinitely divided currents in the
direction of the blood. This is enough to secure the intended
result. The blood accordingly flows in channels of compara-
tively large diameters. Coarse trunks separated by wide inter-
vals, they contrast most strikingly with the elaborately formed
parallel capillaries of the gills of all the branchiferous orders of
Gasteropods, in which the blood-stream is reduced to the utmost
minuteness.

On no other interpretation of the anatomical facts by which
the pulmonary sac of the air-breathing Gasteropods is distin-
guished, is the reproach of rudeness and coarseness of con-
struction to be removed. On this interpretation the rudeness
is turned into subtlety and the coarseness into refinement, and
the physiologist may cite indeed an organ which at first only
shocked the short-seeing mind with a sense of disappointment,

150 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

as only another illustration of the illimitable fertility of resource
by which every part of every living mechanism is distinguished.
It is only by such a contrivance that the necessary surface for the
aérating process can be realized ; for compare the area of this
lung-sae with the extraordinarily multiplied superficies secured
by the laminose arrangement of the gills im the branchiferous
orders, and how considerably the latter will be found to ex-
ceed the former! In comparing a gill with a lung, even in
the same class of animals, and organized on the same type, it is
necessary to remember that in the former case the oxygen, dis-
solved in water, is brought up to the blood under certain opposing
circumstances, and that a compensation is offered in the divided
state of the blood, while in the latter a similar amount of work
may be done with large vessels and coarse streams, in conse-
quence of the unmixed and direct manner in which the active
element is applied to the vital fluid.

The pulmonary chamber of the Helicide is distinguished by
several anatomical particulars from that of the Limacide. In
the Snail (fig. 3) the rectum (a) enters the precincts of the
chamber, and the heart (4), mucus-gland (g), and pulmonary
vessels (d) are seated on the roof (h) of the cavity. In the Slug,
as already detailedly explained, the rectum is external to the
chamber, and the heart, gland, and pulmonary ree are placed at
the bottom of the cavity.

Felix aspersa (figs. 3, 4 & 5) is the best, because the most
familiar, example of the family of the Helicide. In it, as com-
pared with Limaz,a marked deviation is observed in the posi-
tion of the mucus-gland. That of Helix presents the appearance
of a soft oval mass (fig. 3 g) situated to the right of the heart
when zn siéw ; it is considerably less developed than it is in Limaz.
This proximity of place to the heart has probably some meaning
which is not yet understood. But in structure the gland is the
same in the two families. The auricle (c) and ventricle (0) of
the heart in Helix are placed on the same axis ; they are separated
only by a shght constriction. In Limawx the divisions of the
centre of the circulation are placed on different axes, and more
individualized. In this latter genus it is planted in the centre
of the respiratory plexus, and also in that of the cavity. In
Heliz it is situated at the posterior boundary of the chamber.

The roof in this shelled genus isa flexible membrane (fig. 3 4,
and figs. 4 & 5 c). It is fixed posteriorly to a sort of diaphragm
(fig.3 2) which imperfectly divides the thorax from the abdomen (/).
In the substance of the roof is lodged a stratum of muscles which
contract and relax synchronously with the expiratory collapsing
and inspiratory expanding of the cavity. These respiratory move-
ments are very markedly defined in the animal of Heliz removed

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 151

carefully from its shell (figs. 4 & 6). The fixed position afforded
by the ligament which ties the body to the columella, yields im-
portant service in the mechanical acts of respiration.

The soft abdominal segment (fig. 37) of the body is covered
by a continuation of the mantle. In this situation the mem-
brane is thinner, smoother and more delicate. Jt is quite adherent
everywhere to the subjacent organs. There are no vacuoles either
between it and the inyested viscera, or between the viscera them-
selves. During retraction the foot may be concealed completely
in the cavity of the thoracic moiety of the animal. This ex-
plains why it is that the viscera (brain, cesophagus, portions of
reproductive and chylopoietie viscera, &c.) are so loosely packed
in this region, and why it is that large spaces filled with fluid
le intermediately. Such vacuoles are more spacious in the Heli-
cide than in the Limacide, because in the former the head and
foot are more retractile than in the latter. The anterior surface
or front of the operculum is perforated on the right side by a
large, valvular, irritable sphincteric orifice (figs. 4 & 5 a, a). In
the edge of the mantle directly above this orifice is observed a
deep notch (fig. 4 e), which, when the animal is tightly coiled
up into itself, fits over the orifice. By this simple contrivance,
under all circumstances, the patency of the communication
between the breathing-chamber and the external air is secured.
So important is this point, that, both during hybernation and
when the animal remains long attached to a dry calcareous stone
in arid seasons, the membranous epiphragm which is then formed
from the mucus supplied by the mucus-gland, is valvularly
perforated at a point corresponding to the respiratory orifice.
Respiration therefore, though sometimes greatly reduced in
amount, at no time during the life of the animal completely
ceases.

The pulmonary plexus, which in Helix is restricted to the roof
of the cavity (fig. 3 2), presents a much more regular and sym-
metrical arrangement of the vessels than that of Limax. In
Helix a main vessel (d, d) runs obliquely from left to right along
the vault of the cavity; it terminates by dilating into the auricle
(c) ; it commences at the anterior border (d’) in branches which
converge upon it with great regularity of course. The lateral
trunks are similarly regular. In some places the ultimate vessels
can be traced with the naked eye: they are best viewed as
opake objects, by cutting off the entire roof and placing it,
vessels uppermost, between two slips of glass, and then examining
with a two-inch or an inch object-glass. It will be observed that
the primary or large trunks (fig. 6 a, a,a) run, on the whole, in
parallel directions, enclosing interspaces of pretty uniform dia-
meters ; and that the secondary branches (), b) proceed from the

152 Dr. T. Wilhams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

primary also in a determinate manner, separated by tolerably
uniform distances, and running in tolerably orderly directions,
so that they leave between them spaces which manifest a ten-
dency to symmetry of outline and regularity of are.

The ultimate vessels (fig. 6 ¢, c) undoubtedly obey a similar
method of distribution. If a spot be taken for inspection in
which they are densely present, the vessels will be found to lie in
parallel columns (as represented in PI. XI. fig. 6, which has been
drawn with great care from the actual object). In other places,
especially towards the circumferences of the roof, they exhibit a
more sparse and less regular distribution. If such portions of
this vascular membrane were folded in the “ ridge and gutter”’
fashion, taking care that the secondary vessels comceided with
the borders of the folds, a branchia would be formed whose
structure would conform with the /aminose principle. It may
conversely be said, that the lung of the air-breathing Gasteropod
is nothing but the branchia of the water-breathing Gasteropod,
having the lamine of the gill so unfolded as to form a straight
sheet. This comparison is really not too far-sought. In both
instances the ultimate vessels present a uniform cylindrical cha-
racter, seldom intercommunicating: such a comparison, how-
ever, 1s quite untenable in the case of Limaa (fig.2). Here
the plexus is arboriform and irregular, circumscribing arez of
various sizes and figures. Like that of Zamaa, the lining of this
cavity in Helix is undoubtedly ciliated at various parts. It is
only possible to detect the presence of cilia along the lines of the
larger vessels, and here and there in creases in their vicinities.

From the author’s observations, it is probable that the spaces
between the larger vessels, and coinciding with the capillary
ares, are devoid of ciliated epithelium. Nor is it easy to sepa-
rate the layer of epithelium by which these parts are covered,
from the elements of which the coats of the vessels themselves
are composed.

In Helix the coats of the pulmonary vessels (fig. 3 4) are con-
siderably less calcified, less white in appearance, and more flexible
than those of Linax. They afford, therefore, a more favourable
opportunity for determining their minute structure.

The same surprise may be expressed with respect to this lung-
sac as with respect to that of Zimaz, viz. that so limited a
vascular area presenting vessels so coarsely subdivided, should
suffice, in so bulky an animal, to supply the demands of the respi-
ratory function. While all other animals, even those inferior
to these Mollusks in serial standard, are furnished with organs
which involve prodigious superficies for action, how is it, it may
again be asked, that in these superiorly endowed Gasteropods so
rudely constructed an apparatus, so carelessly formed an organ

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 153

should be enabled adequately to discharge a function so im-
perious ¢

Can there be any peculiarity in the structure of the vessels ?
As the calcareous layer is less developed here than in Limaz, it
is obvious that the presence of this layer is not an indispensable
constituent of the organ. The pulmonary vessels in the Snail
exhibit a structure which cannot well be proved to exist in the
Slug. Their coats bulge out im a cellular-like manner. This
oceurs all round the circumference of each vessel, most di-
stinctly in the smallest. It is impossible to determine whether
the convexities on the exterior correspond with concavities on
the interior of the vessels. But, by inference from the character
of the outside, it seems almost certain that such an arrange-
ment does really exist. If it does, it is not difficult to under-
stand how considerably it is caleulated to augment the surface
of contact between the blood and the air. Though such cellu-
lated parietes might mechanically slacken the speed of the cur-
rent, the function of the part cannot fail to be considerably raised
in amount.

Lymneade.-—“ These freshwater pulmoniferous snails consti-
tute a very natural family, the animals of all bearing a great simi-
larity to each other, and being similarly organized. All have
short, broad snouts, and two tentacula of considerable size, cither
triangular or subulate in shape, with eyes placed at their inner
bases.” (Forbes and Hanley.) Little has been done by anato-
mists to elucidate the structure of this interesting family. In
several features they approximate closely to the Helicide. The
most striking character is the siphon-hke tube into which the
respiratory orifice is prolonged. This siphon (fig. 7 a) is capable
of being considerably extended beyond the edge of the mantle (d).
When the animal is floating reversely near the surface of the
water, it may be seen from time to time to be slowly pushed above
the surface into the air. At this moment, and through it, the effete
contents of the respiratory cavity are emitted, and a supply of
oxygen is drawn in. So wonderfully sensitive and discriminative
is this little organ, that it opens only when it peeps into the
atmosphere. Water never enters into the pulmonary chamber
of Lymneus. The same observation applies to Planorbis.

But in these water-snails the breathing-chamber (fig. 7 ¢)
is more actively ciliated than in the terrestrial families. Not
because they breathe at any time on the aquatic principle, but
probably because the whole tissues in these water-inhabiting
genera are less calcified, and therefore more favourable to the
development of cilia. It must, however, be supposed from these
statements that the breathing-chamber is lined with a continuous

154 On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration.

layer of ciliated epithelium. It is detectible only on certain
parts which chiefly correspond with the lines of the large trunks.
The Limneids differ from the Helicide in being furnished with
a richly ciliated epithelium on the exterior of the respiratory
cavity. In young specimens vibratile cilia may be detected over
the entire abdominal portion of the body. In the old, how-
ever, it disappears from this region, and is replaced by a non-
ciliated variety.

In Planorbis the distribution of cilia is more limited. It is
detectible on the siphon and margins of the thoracic cavity.
With care it is possible to lay open or to remove the roof of this
cavity in a large specimen of Lymneus, fixed by pins whilst
floating in water. The roof delicately cut away is placed between
two slips of glass and examined as an opake object. The larger
vessels present a general arrangement analogous to that for-
merly described in Heliz. A large central trunk runs obliquely
from the left anterior to the right posterior angle of the cavity
(fig. 7 d). It is the main venous channel which terminates in
the auricle (e). The lateral or secondary trunks converge upon
the line of this vessel from all sides. It is scarcely possible, in
consequence of the absence of lime from the coats of the vessels,
to trace the distribution of the ultimate channels. From glimpses
obtained here and there, it is however most probable that they
observe a parallel mode of division such as that already repre-
sented in the Helicide. The heart differs from that of Helix.
The ventricle stands at an angle on the auricle. The axes of
these two divisions meeting at the auriculo-ventricular orifice
would form nearly a right angle. The gland (f) occupies a
position to the left of the heart ; it resembles that of Heliz ;
it is an oval flocculent mass. To the right of the heart, the
rectal intestine (g) enters within the precincts of the respiratory
cavity ; it traverses the chamber along its floor, and terminates
in the siphon (a).

The breathing-chamber in the Lymneade exceeds that of all
other air-breathing Gasteropods in size relatively to that of the
body. The surface for the outlaying of the pulmonary plexus
exhibits a greater relative area. The pulmonary sac of Planorbis
is probably organized after the model of that of Lymneus. It is
formed however on too small a scale to admit of a direct and
satisfactory examination. The siphon is extensile like that of
Lymneus, and like that of the latter genus, the cavity communi-
cates externally by means of the siphon alone.

['To be continued. |

On the Marine Testacea of the Piedmontese Coast. 155

XIV.—On the Marine Testacea of the Piedmontese Coast.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

[With a Plate. ]

Tue conchology of the British islands having been nearly ex-
hausted by the excellent work of the late Professor Edward
Forbes and Mr. Hanley, I had no wish to glean the small hand-
ful that remained in that field; and I therefore determined to
spend part of my “long vacation” in exploring another district,
in which my former labours and experience might prove useful
to me. My original intention was to visit Sardinia, the fauna
of which island is but little known, although its scenery and
antiquities, as well as the habits of its people, have been so
well described, and invested with so much interest, by the book
of my friend Mr. Tyndale; but this mtention was frustrated
by a regulation which I was informed on my arrival in Italy
had been recently made for putting all sea-borne travellers from
the mainland in quarantine for five days, by reason of the pre-
valence of cholera at Genoa and Leghorn. This would have
effectually marred the prosecution of my design; and I there-
fore, but with reluctance, gave it up. Another plan which I
had formed as an alternative before leaving England, was to
explore that part of the Riviera which hes between Genoa and
Portofino on the east. This I subsequently carried out, and
extended by excursions in the same direction to Sestri di Levante
and Spezia, thus including about sixty miles of sea-coast ; and
ultimately, through the assistance of the Chevalier Verany (the
well-known author of one of the most finished livres de luxe
which ever emanated from a scientific pen—his work on the
Mediterranean Cuttles), I made myself acquainted with the tes-
taceous mollusca or shell-fish of the whole of the Piedmontese
sea-board, extending from 43° 40! to 44° 25! of north latitude
between Nice and Genoa, and from 7° 10! to 10° of east longi-
tude between Nice and Lerici. It is, with the exception of the
Gulf of Venice, the most northerly section of the Mediter-
ranean, and is situate in nearly the same parallel of latitude as
the lower part of the Bay of Biscay.

I believe I was the first who ever “dredged” this part of the
Mediterranean ; and as a short account of the adventure may
be useful or interesting to other naturalists, I trust I may be
excused in prefixing it to the more scientific portion of this
communication.

To transport dredges, sieves, and other conchological appa-
ratus across the continent, and afterwards to work in a small
felucca, with the aid of Italian boatmen who never saw a dredge

156 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

or a conchologist before, and whose patois it was very difficult
to understand, is quite a different affair from having, like my
friend Mr. M‘Andrew, a well-found yacht with a crew of trained
and semi-conchological seamen ; to say nothing of the heat, dirt,
and insects which render an autumnal lodging in any town on
the Mediterranean coast anything but comfortable. Although
I do not possess one-half of the qualities which Mr. Kingsley
attributes to a model field or out-door naturalist, I was often
obhged to “rough it.” The first difficulty I had to surmount
was in “clearing” my dredges and sieves at the custom-house
on my arrival in Paris. The ordinary searchers could make
nothing out of these outlandish articles, and referred to the
superintendent, who, after further investigation and inquiry,
decided that they were “machines,” and therefore liable to duty.
After some further explanation, however, I succeeded in inducing
him to reconsider and alter his decision, and I escaped any pay-
ment. Still greater, and more frequent trouble awaited me on
my journey homewards, in getting my cargo of shells passed by
the douaniers on the Lago Maggiore, and in Switzerland and
France ; but I had no reason to complain of our own custom-
house officers.

I started from London on the 1st of August, 1855, and went
to Genoa, vid Paris, Lyons, Chambéry and Turin ; this being the
most direct and expeditious, as well as the cheapest, route. At
Genoa I succeeded in getting ‘a boat with two men for six franes
a day, exclusive of the hire of ropes, for which I had to pay a
like sum; and this made my dredging there expensive, besides
not bemg able to do much work, in consequence of having to
get out of the port and offing on each occasion. The best
ground I met with there was off Foci (two or three miles east
of Genoa), in about forty fathoms water. After staying at Genoa
three or four days, I took the steamer to Spezia, where I arrived
after a boisterous voyage of sixteen hours, the distance run
being not much more than sixty miles. I there put up ata
tolerable inn, called the Hotel de ? Univers, where I made the
usual preliminary bargain, and got a good-sized bedroom, with
café au lait, bread and butter for breakfast, the table d’héte din-
ner, and café noir in the evening, for five lire di moneta regia
(or four shillings) per day, besides wax-lights and attendance.
The former I bought at a shop; and I paid a lire per day alto-
gether for attendance. The table d’hdte was, during the first
week of my stay at the inn, tolerably well filled, ten or a dozen
euests being the average number; but the company afterwards
dwindled away to such an extent, that an officer in the Pied-
montese army (Captain Chiavarini, whose civility I shall not
easily forget) and myself were the only guests; and on one

of the Piedmontese Coast. 157

occasion [ formed the whole of the company, and had a solitary
dinner. Immediately on my arrival at Spezia I engaged a boat-
man, and was so well pleased with him that I continued to
employ him during the whole of my stay there. His name was
Giovanni Solese, and I can safely recommend him to any brother
naturalist who may be inclined to follow in my footsteps. He
was a middle-aged and short but active man, with fine dark
eyes, and a most intelligent and benevolent countenance. His
“moglie” kept a small shop, and let lodgings; and in the
winter he worked at his other trade of a blacksmith. Solese’s mate
or fellow-boatman was, at first, his brother, a taller man, who wore
large ear-rings, and was rather taciturn ; but he was succeeded by
an ancient mariner, who told me he recollected “ Napoleone il
grande” coming to Spezia, where it is well known he intended
to form a magnificent harbour for his Mediterranean fleet. I had
not much difficulty in arranging terms with the boatman ; and
I was well satisfied at having to pay only five francs per day for
the boat, men, and 100 fathoms of rope, being less than half of
what I paid at Genoa. My knowledge of the Italian language
being very rudimentary, I had of course at first some trouble in
explaining to the men the use of a dredge and the mode of
working it, and this I did chiefly by means of signs; but, after
a day or two, my “ cacchiate,” “basta,” and “ tirate” were un-
derstood perfectly well; and the men dredged and sifted the
soil without me on the alternate days, when I was obliged to
stay indoors to examine the produce of the preceding day, as
well as to clean and arrange the specimens. It was, I can
assure my readers, very hard work, from seven or eight in the
morning until five in the evening while dredging, and some-
times till near midnight indoors. My usual practice on dredg-
ing-days was, after working with and directing the men until
noon, to land on some part of the coast, bathe off the rocks,
and then walk back to the little town, conchologizing along the
shore on my way; the men in the meanwhile continuing to
dredge some previously explored part of the Gulf in accordance
with my directions. The modes of collecting which I adopted
were three:—lIst, by the dredge. Of these I took two with
me. The larger one was of iron, and twenty-two inches wide
at the mouth or opening, with an outer net or bag of rope-yarn
fastened to the mouth of the dredge by strips of raw hide, and
an inner and close-meshed net of twine. This dredge had a safety-
chain attached to it, to assist in disengaging the dredge in case
of its getting foul of a submarine rock. The other, or smaller
dredge, was only about a foot wide, and was made of galvanized
iron, with a flexible chain of the same material instead of the
usual arms riveted by bolts and nuts. It was made for me,

158 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

under the superintendence of Professor Robert Ball of Dublin,
and answered pretty well for experimental or deep-sea dredging,
but in my opinion it is not sufficiently capacious or heavy for
ordinary work. The net for this dredge was single, and of close-
woven twine. All the nets had been tanned, to prevent rotting.
In such distant expeditions it is of course advisable to have a
second dredge, in case of losing one. My sieves, which I took
in a case, under lock and key, were six in number, and lmed
with brass wire of different degrees of fineness. The largest
measured about twelve inches in diameter. They are, I need
scarcely say, indispensable in the collection of the smaller shells.
While dredging, I always had a large tub im the boat to wash
the soil, as the sea was never sufficiently calm for that purpose,
and it obviated any risk of losing the sieves overboard. 2ndly,
from sea-weed. By this mode I obtained a great number and
variety of the littoral shells, such as Rissoa, Skenea, and Scissu-
rella, which inhabit and feed on the sea-plants and confervee
that so abundantly clothe the rocks, and are submerged at low
water, or while the sea breeze blows inshore. ‘The plan I
adopted was, to collect in a bag or pocket-handkerchief a quantity
of the sea-weed and coralline with their roots (and while bathing
I had especial opportunities) from different depths; and on re-
turning to my room I steeped the whole in my sieves for some
time in a tub of fresh water, by which means the animals ap-
peared to be instantaneously killed, and dropped mto the sieves.
These were then shaken over sheets of paper, and the contents
were exposed to the sun and dried, and afterwards carefully
sifted and separated from the stalks of sea-weed and larger
shells. The examination of the residuum, which almost entirely
consisted of minute shells, as well as the sorting and arrange-
ment of the specimens, took up a great deal of my time, but
amply rewarded me for the trouble. The 3rd, being the ordi-
nary mode used by collectors, was by picking up shells on the
sea-shore. The tides in the Mediterranean being so feeble and
irregular, there was not at Spezia a line of “spoha marina,”
such as we see on the sandy shores of Great Britam; but by
wading a little, and examining the under side of loose stones, I
found a great many live shells which I never met with im my
own country, such as the Conus Mediterraneus, and several
species of Trochus, Patella, Columbella, Vermetus, and Pollia.
Twice I made excursions to the Island of Palmaria, at the
entrance of the Gulf. I also went to Lerici (near which, on
the beach, stands the house formerly occupied by Lord Byron
and Shelley), and San Bartolomeo on the eastern, and Porto
Venere on the western shore. The Gulf or Bay of Spezia is
about seven miles in length, and varies from three to five miles

of the Piedmontese Coast. 159

in breadth. The tide recedes (for the Mediterranean, consider-
ably) from its head or upper end, laying bare a large tract of
sand. Farther seawards is a fringe or belt of Zostera marina
(or Sea Riband), which appears to ‘be a favourite haunt of the
Murex Brandaris and trunculus, as well as of our common sand-
eel (or anguille of the Italians), the Murena marina of ichthyo-
logists. Beyond this, to a depth of twelve fathoms, is a variety
of ground; a great part being covered with Zostera and other
kinds of sea-weed, another part being gravelly with occasional
patches of shell-sand, another being rocky, and the rest stony
and favourable for the growth of sponges and corals. The
sponge and coral of commerce are not, however, found on that
part of the coast. One day’s dredging I devoted to the exa-
mination of a remarkable spring of fresh water which rises
about fifty yards from the western shore of the Gulf, and is of
such an extraordinary depth and volume as to be visible at a
considerable distance, and even dangerous to small boats. It
resembles in petto the Corrievreckan on the Scotch coast. I
made two or three hauls in the vortex and round the edges of
the spring, but got nothing except dead shells of littoral species,
which must have been washed off the shore by the tide and
waves and absorbed into the whirlpool. It is said that Napo-
leon the First had an idea of using the water of this spring for
his projected harbour. On my dredging-days I always had a
plunge into the bright and deep blue sea, either from the boat,
or from a rock after I landed; but the difference of temperature
between the atmosphere and water was too slight to make it a
refreshing or invigorating process, there being no reaction after
bathing. On one occasion this amusement had more of fright
than refreshment in it. I had swum out from the rocks at
Palmaria, leaving the men to moor their boat, and was return-
ing, when I heard loud cries of “ Guarda, guarda, signore!”” I
fully expected that a white shark (which Admiral Smyth de-
scribes in his list of Mediterranean fishes as “ the most
voracious of human food of all fishes”) wished to make my
acquaintance, or see whether the flesh of a Welshman was as
good-eating as that of an Italian; and having somewhere read
or heard that they were cowardly as well as greedy, I splashed
about in the water as much as I could until I reached land, and
then I understood what the boatmen meant by their caution.
It was to look where I trod when I touched ground, because (as
I then perceived) the rocks were stuck all over with a large sea-
egg (Echinus esculentus), which might have lamed me if the
sharp and stout spines with which they are armed had pene-
trated the sole of my foot. The men were at the time busy in
collecting a quantity of this delicacy for home consumption.

160 Mr. J.G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

I had not before tasted sea-eggs, although this large and edible
kind is not uncommon on the Devonshire coast; but, on being
persuaded by the men to do so, I certainly did not disapprove
of their taste. The only part which is eaten are the lobes at
the side. The flavour is peculiar and indescribable ; and I can
only compare it to something between an oyster and guava jelly.
The substance is pulpy, and appears to melt in the mouth. The
fishermen are very fond of all kinds of shell-fish, cuttles, and
crustacea, the first of which they call “ frutti di mare.”

Outside the Gulf is deep water ; but I was disappointed in my
dredging there. For several leagues seaward, in from fifteen to
fifty fathoms, I met with nothing but tenacious mud (which
my boatmen called “fango”), with Turritella communis and a
curious variety of Calyptrea sinensis, which moulded itself and
adhered to the last whorl of the Turritella.

I found the heat much greater indoors than on the water, as
might have been expected. On the land it was seldom less than
78° Fahr. in the shade. The boat was furnished with the usual
awning, which extended over about two-thirds of it; but this I
generally had taken down on reaching the dredging-ground to
facilitate operations, and the only inconvenience I felt was from
the perpendicular rays of the sun at noonday, which my “ wide-
awake ” scarcely warded off. But in my room it was often very
uncomfortable, because I could not follow the usual custom of
closing the shutters and excluding all the sunlight, inasmuch as
1 should not in that case have had sufficient light to examine
the smaller and almost microscopic specimens; but I was always
obliged to strip myself of my coat and waistcoat. This, with
the aid of the narrow streets and tall houses, gave me some
little relief.

At Palmaria, the fishermen eke out their precarious livelihood
by extracting the “dati di mare” (Lithodomus dactylus) from the
limestone rocks which engird that island. This is done by
means of a crowbar; and the fisherman is often several hours m
the water, up to his middle, breaking the rock in search of the
shell-fish, which he collects im a bag tied round his waist. This
molluscous luxury fetches on the spot no less than four franes
per hundred, and is sent by the steamers to Genoa and Leghorn.
At Porto Venere, which is situate on a promontory at the
western entrance of the Gulf, I observed a great many dealers in
this article ; the shell-fish being kept im pans of sea-water in
dark cupboards. It appears to be the only foreign trade pos-
sessed by that ancient Roman town, which is so full of archways
and picturesque ruins. It must not be imagimed that a natu-
ralist only uses his eyes for his own proper objects. His soul,
“steeped in beauty” by the continual contemplation of the

of the Piedmontese Coast. 161

graceful and varied forms of Nature, is not insensible to artistic
objects, although the angular works of his fellow-man cannot for
one moment be put imto competition with the “teres atque
rotundus ” which is the character of natural forms.

While I was at Spezia, the land breeze or “ vento di terra”
regularly set in from about 2 a.m. to 2 p.m., and the sea breeze
or “ vento di mare” blew inshore during the rest of the twenty-
four hours. The first enabled mine and all the other boats and
vessels to leave the little port and get a good offing, while the
other cooled and refreshed the parched land and its inhabitants.
Sometimes a sudden squall, caused by a wind called the
“borasco,” would arise, especially under high land, and made
my short voyages not quite free from danger.

Although I am not a botanist, I could not help being struck
with the prodigality of Flora in throwing her charms around this
beautiful country. The coast was fringed with myrtle ; and the
olive-groves, being unpruned, had a much less stiff appearance
than in the South of France. The grape-crop had again failed,
but the vines, still faithful to their ancient husbands, spread
their festoons and garlands as of old.

Through the kindness of my table-d’hdte companion (for I
knew no one else, and did not meet with one of my countrymen
during my stay at Spezia), I had an opportunity of joining some
fishing-parties ; and, as it is indirectly connected with my sub-
ject, I will endeavour to describe one of them. My dredging
boat and crew (which were among the best in the place) were
selected for the occasion, and at 9 p.m. the party met on the
pier and embarked, having either a small lanthorn suspended
inside the awning, or the moon when she was up and propitious.
Our party consisted of half-a-dozen ladies and gentlemen. The
boatmen rowed slowly to the fishing-ground while the ladies
sung, and on reaching a cork buoy to which the lines were
attached (which sometimes it took a long time and a consider-
able circuit to do, owing to the small size of the object and the
difficulty of finding it), the sport commenced. There were about
150 hooks attached to lines about two feet in length, which were
fastened at intervals of about a fathom to the main line. This
was attached at each end to the buoy. The lines had been set
in the previous morning, the bait consisting of strips of fish and
small blennies. While the lines were being taken up by one of
the boatmen, the other holding water or rowing in the direction
of the main line, there was of course no little excitement, mingled
with disappointment when sometimes at every other haul a shell-
fish (Murex Brandaris or M. trunculus) was taken. These are,
hike our Buccinum undatum, to which they appear to form ana-
logues, carnivorous and frequently take the fishermen’s bait.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 1]

162 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

The Murex trunculus yields a rich purple dye, and being common
in the Mediterranean (although not known in higher latitudes),
is probably the kind which the ancients made use of for that
purpose, as well as for the table. The fish caught were grey
mullet and sand-eels, some of the latter weighing two or three
pounds. Supper was then prepared; and with the aid of a
brazier of charcoal, frying-pan, oil and salt, our fish were soon
cooked. A flask or two of native wine and some bread completed
the repast, and we returned to shore about midnight.

I staid at Spezia three weeks, and had intended to return by
the “ Ferugio” steamer to Genoa, and try my luck again m deep
water; but a seat in a return-carriage having been offered me
by a vetturino, I gladly availed myself of it, and enjoyed the
journey across the Apennines and along the Riviera di Levante.
The route is beautiful and more varied than by the Cornice. My
only compagnon de voyage was a Lombardese gentleman. We
passed the night at Sestri di Levante, about halfway between
Spezia and Genoa ; and, while taking a stroll on the beach after
dinner, I was so charmed with the place as well as satisfied with
the prospect of its dredging capabilities, that I made a bargain
at the inn and with a boatman, and determined to return thither
from Genoa, where I expected to receive letters. To give some
idea of Italian conscience, I may mention that one boatman
asked me twenty francs per day for the use of his boat with
ropes and two men, which I afterwards got for five franes, being
the same rate as I paid at Spezia! The inn (Hotel de l’Europe)
was very superior to the one I lodged at im Spezia, and I was
“trds-content ” with the accommodation durmg my subsequent
stay of ten days. I was, however, disappointed with the dredg-
ing; for, although the water was deep, and the shells that were
thrown upon the beach gave great promise, the sea-bottom for
leagues, as far as Portofino to the west and the Golfo de la
Riva to the east, consisted of the same tenacious mud which I
found outside of the Gulf of Spezia, and contained scarcely any
other shell than the Turritella communis. I therefore again set
to work in washing sea-weeds and examining the sifted produce ;
and as the inn was a large one, and I was for several days the
only guest in it, I was enabled to work in comparative luxury by
changing my room when the sun came round, and using a vine-
clad balcony (having acircular marble table m the centre) which
faced the east and commanded a view of the Apennines. The
inn being built on the beach, I had thus the sea breeze, shade,
and lovely scenery on both sides. It is certainly the most pic-
turesque spot I ever visited. The fan-shaped Padinia Pavonia
displayed its iridescent hues in the rocky pools; the tall aloé-
flower caused incessant surprise ; and the humble sand-convol-

of the Piedmontese Coast. 163

vulus made my heart throb with recollections of home and its
familiar shores.

At Spezia I had experienced great difficulty in cleaning the
larger whelks and Mediterranean Cone, in consequence of the
strength and size of the muscles which connect the soft parts of
the animal with the shell in the zoophagous Mollusks ; and, in
spite of the chloride of lime which | was obliged to use pretty
freely, my room was certainly not odoriferous in the sense I
could have wished,—to say nothing of a large and strange sort of
fly which was attracted by the decaying animal matter and bred
abundantly in the drawers of my wardrobe, which I had turned
into an extempore cabinet. But at Sestri I met with an ally
which relieved me from this nuisance: it was a small red ant,
that came in swarms from some secret hiding-place, and effectu-
ally cleaned out the shells in an incredibly short space of time.
It appeared to be a species of Atta, probably A. structor; field-
ants being known occasionally to become domestic. Their
tenacity of life was surprising. I wished to bring home a couple
of specimens for an entomological friend, and put them in
boiling-water for several minutes; but some time afterwards the
specimens (which [ had dried and kept in a small box with a
glass lid) were as lively as ever, and seemed not to be at all the
worse for being parboiled.

The excessive saltness of the Mediterranean appeared to me
evidenced at Sestri by the thick crust of salt-crystals which was
formed on the rocks by evaporation from the sea-spray. I never
noticed this on any part of the British coast. Lieutenant Maury,
in his ‘ Physical Geography of the Sea,’ states positively ($ 252)
that the Mediterranean sea is not salting up; but the analysis
of Dr. Wollaston would seem to lead to an opposite conclusion.

While engaged in my work of sifting sea-weeds and picking
out the shells, I could not help reflecting on the immense loss
of animal life which is (perhaps innocuously as well as unthink-
ingly) caused by naturalists. I found on my return to England
that 1 had brought home with me upwards of 13,000 specimens
of marine Testacea, and several thousands of land and freshwater
shells, besides sponges and zoophytes! Of a species of Rissoa,
which I have now described and figured for the first time under
the name of contorta (an analogue of our Rissoa striata), I took
between 1100 and 1200 specimens! These numbers are of
course exclusive of multitudes which were thrown away, as I
neither cared nor had time for collecting more. This wholesale
destruction of life is on first consideration startling ; but I con-
soled myself with thinking that if I had not taken and destroyed
these animals for scientific purposes, some of their natural
enemies would have made another use of them, and that if even

11*

164 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

one-half of them had been allowed to die of old age or natrual
infirmities, the “balance of power” might have been deranged,
and results which we cannot foresee might have ensued from
the redundancy of particular species. Whether the handiwork
of modern naturalists and collectors has any effect in altering
the relative proportion of species is another question. “QO Lord,
how glorious are thy works: Thy thoughts are very deep !”

At Sestri I had the good fortune to meet with a fellow-coun-
tryman and brother lawyer (Mr. Thomas Smythe of the Chan-
cery Bar), whose taste for science and art made his company
very agreeable.

From Sestri I returned to Genoa and proceeded to Nice, having
received a kind invitation from the Chevalier Verany to see him.
I there went through and made notes of his collection of shells
from that and the Genoese coast. It does not appear certain
that Philippi, Risso, Payraudeau, or any other naturalist who
has written on the Mediterranean fauna, ever used a dredge
or sieve ; the mode which they probably adopted being to search
the shores and drift-sand, or to procure the shells from fisher-
men and coral-divers. These methods, and especially the last,
are obviously not well adapted to ensure the correctness of
habitats and localities. M. Verany was, I have reason to believe,
frequently deceived in the same way as our Colonel Montagu by
the credulity or ignorance of others, and im investigating the
question of geographical distribution, such errors frequently
cause wrong conclusions.

From Nice I crossed the Col di Tenda to the Lago Maggiore,
and paid a visit to a friend who had a villa on the borders of the
Lake at Suna. I was much pleased with finding, in consider-
able plenty, the curious little snail, Helix (Drepanostoma) Nautt-
liformis, and a white variety of it, on the hills in different parts
of that district, as well as in the Val d’Anzasca. It has not
been yet discovered on this side of the Alps. The animal is a
true snail, and has two pairs of horns, with eyes, or their analo-
gous organ, on the tips of the upper or longer pair. On the
shores and in the shallows of the Lake, I found a species of
Limneus or pond-snail, which appears to be the Gulnaria lacus-
tris of Leach, in company with L. auricularius, and this induces
me to believe that they are different species. Several kinds of
Pupa and other land-shells, which had been previously noticed
only on the hills which environ the neighbouring Lakes of Como
and Lugano, also occurred to me. Collecting in these woods
was not unattended with some risk, for they swarmed with dif-
ferent kinds of snakes. I more than once found, in searching
the dead leaves and moss, that my hand was within an uncom-
fortable distance of a viper. In the Canero woods I one day

of the Piedmontese Coast. 165

met with a large serpent, which lay stretched out at full length
on a bed of fallen leaves. I at first thought it was dead, and
raised it up by the middle with my stick; but the creature was
only basking, and glided away. The peasants said this kind
was “molto cattivo;” but I believe it was only the common
snake of an extraordinary size. They also spoke of a small, but
very venomous adder, not much thicker or larger than a man’s
finger, which would dart at, and kill, a dog. In a ravine behind
Genoa, where I had been searching for Paludine in a brook, I
saw an animal in the water under a large stone, which I at first
took for an eel ; but while I was speculating on the singularity
of finding an eel in that country, and poking the creature with
my stick, it climbed up a rock and escaped into a deep pool,
hissing violently and showing a blunt and villainous head. Dr.
Gray tells me it must have been a species of Tropidonotus, and
that none of the freshwater snakes are poisonous. However, I
never got bitten ; and I generally took with me a small vial of
sal-ammoniac as a remedy against such a contingency. I also
met several times with the disgusting, but harmless, striped
salamanders.

I here received intelligence of the death of my lamented and
venerable friend, Monsieur de Charpentier, whose loss (although
in the fulness of his years and honours) science has so sensibly
felt. I had hoped to pass a few days with him before I returned
to England.

From the Lago Maggiore I crossed the Alps by the St. Gothard
Pass, and returned home through Lucerne, Basle, Strasbourg,
and Paris. Londimum “ longz finis charteque vizquet.”

I will now proceed with the more scientific part of my memoir.

The extent of the geographical distribution of marine animals,
as well as the laws which regulate that distribution, seem to be
at present involved in such obscurity, that, although I may not
be able to throw much light on the subject, any additional facts
which I can adduce will, I am confident, be useful in assisting
others in time to solve this difficult and interesting problem.

In considering this subject it is necessary, in the first place,
to say a few words as to the definition and limits of what natu-
ralists call “ species.”

The question whether a species exists in the scale of nature,
or not, has been much discussed. Most naturalists maintain
the affirmative. In the earlier stage of natural history it seems
indeed almost absurd or supererogatory to doubt the existence
of species ; the number of objects presented for examination and
comparison being few, and easily distinguishable by certain defi-
nite characters. As science however advances, the number of

166 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

objects increases, and greater difficulty consequently arises in
separating and distinguishing them from each other; the line
of demarcation becomes more and more faint, and the naturalist
is tempted, not only to distrust the distinctiveness of certain
characters which he had before regarded as sheet-anchors, but even
to doubt the possibility of establishing any characters at all. This
phase is ultimately succeeded by more or less critical views,
dependent on the idiosynerasy of the naturalist, as the sphere of
his observation is extended ; and he is then, by a sort of innate
facility, able to discriminate species from varieties, and to assign
to each its proper and relative position. He finds that the
characters of distinctiveness vary in the different groups or
genera and species; that differences of a more or less important
nature, such as form, size, colour, and appendages, arise from
locality, food, and other causes, and only constitute varieties ;
and that there is an inherent tendency of all species to adapt
themselves to certain changes of condition, and to undergo
transformations of frequently the most Protean kind. The dis-
crimination of species and varieties is one of the most important
duties of the naturalist, because, without it, the study of nature
would lead to no result, and there would be no precise data from
which any conclusions could be safely drawn. The facility or
habit of such discrimination depends on both synthesis and
analysis, and is only attainable by practice and a large sphere of
observation. Hence, local naturalists do not in general possess
this quality ; the usual form of their error being to split species,
and attach too much importance to minute differences. The
necessity of rigorous discrimination of species and varieties
cannot, indeed, be too much or too frequently imsisted on.
Messrs. Hooker and Thompson, in the introductory essay to their
recent and valuable work entitled ‘Flora Indica,’ which abounds
in philosophical views and remarks as to species and varieties
of plants, say with justice that ‘the discovery of a form uniting
two others previously thought distinct, is much more important
than that of a totally new species, inasmuch as the correction
of an error is a greater boon to science than a step in advance.”

It is unquestionable that the soft and hard parts of the
Mollusca are of relative and nearly equal value; the former
for generic, and the latter for specific distinction. Both must
be studied in relation to each other; and it seems to me most
illiberal in the malacologist or conchologist to ignore or depreciate
the labours of his brother-naturalist. Philippi, in the second
volume of his ‘ Fauna Molluscorum utriusque Siciliz,’ after
stating that Bivona had seen the animals of several species of
Rissoa, and that he had himself figured the animals of other
species, concludes with this remark, “‘ He species omnes simil-

of the Piedmontese Coast. 167

Zimis animalibus incoluntur.” The same remark will apply to
the “animals” or soft parts of the genus Heli# and many others.
Yet the “shells” or hard parts of the Mollusca are as readily
distinguishable from each other, and form as good criteria of
specific distinction, as the shell of a tortoise, a crab, or an insect,
without reference to the other parts of the animal. Were it not
for this test, fossil shells could no longer be regarded by the
geologist as “medals of creation,’ and the important deduc-
tions which have been founded on them would be nugatory and
valueless.

With respect to the separation and discrimination of “ va-
rieties,” by which term naturalists understand a modification of
the size, colour, and appendages of species, and sometimes even
of their form, I have generally observed that when a difference
of form exists between individuals evidently belonging to the
same genus, in the same locality, and having the same food and
other conditions of habitability, it is probable that such indivi-
duals belong to different species; but that when such difference
exists between individuals belonging to the same genus, which
inhabit distinct and separate localities, they ought to be regarded
only as varieties. This is by no means however a certain rule,
and it depends on the habits of the animal, the relative value of
characters which distinguish each genus, and many other cir-
cumstances.

Now, putting aside the doubts which may be entertained by
naturalists as to the distinction of certain species, we have
positive data for ascertaining to some extent the distribution of
British and Mediterranean Testacea, in the work of Philippi on
the Mollusca of Naples and Sicily, and that of Forbes and
Hanley on the Mollusca of Great Britain and Ireland. The
descriptions and figures in each of these works are most accu-
rate ; and, whether all or many of the objects which have been
so described and figured are true species or merely varieties, the
same result is obtamed, namely a comparison of the Testacea in
each of these districts.

My first impression on examining the Testacea of the Gulf of
Genoa was, that the fauna of the Mediterranean was mixed, and
not peculiar to that sea. I found in it a large proportion of
species which were familiar to me as British, and others having a
more southern and even tropical habitat. This led me to inquire
whether the division into certain definite areas, which the late
Professor Forbes distinguished by the names of Boreal, Celtic,
Lusitanian, and Mediterranean, was well founded ; and the con-
clusion [ have arrived at is, that such a division is arbitrary and
irreconcilable with facts.

In Professor Forbes’s Report (in 1850) to the British Asso-

168 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

ciation for the Advancement of Science, on British Marine
Zoology, as well as in his introduction to the ‘ British Mollusca,’
he has enumerated certain species which he called “ peculiarly
Northern ” or “ Boreal;’’ others which, according to his account,
show the more powerful influence of the Scandinavian element
in our fauna, and which he assigned to a “Celtic” type; some
which he designated as “ peculiarly British,” and again others
that he found to occur in our seas only in a few isolated patches
which he regarded as “Glacial” outliers. Now, of the first-
mentioned or “ Boreal ” species, I found several in the Medi-
terranean (viz. Chiton Hanleyi, Mangelia brachystoma, and Neera
costellata), another (Mangelia Leufroyi or Boothii) has been
described and figured by Philippi as a recent Sicilian species,
and a fifth (Scissurella crispata) 1 believe to be identical with the
Scissurella decussata of D’Orbigny. Of the second division or
“ Celtic ” species, I met with Tapes pullastra (of which the Venus
geographica of continental authors is a variety), demea virginea,
Lucina borealis or radula, and Lucina flexuosa; and Philippi
has given Trochus millegranus and Eulimella Macandrei (his
Melania Scille) as Sicilian species. Of the third division, or
“peculiarly British ” species, several (as Jeffreysia diaphana,
and the so-called Skenee, besides Argiope cistellula of Searles
Wood, which I think cannot be distinguished from the Orthis
Neapolitana of Scacchi) also occurred to me in the Mediterra-
nean; and of the last division or “ Glacial ” species I detected
three species (namely Nucula decussata, Neera cuspidata, and
Cardium Suecicum or minimum), and Philippi has given another
(Arca raridentata or Pectunculoides) as Sicilian. I have more-
over good reason to believe, judging from the very small extent
of ground which has been as yet examined, that these exceptional
species may be considerably added to when the wide extent of
the Mediterranean Sea and its coasts has been more explored. I
have myself been enabled to add to the Mediterranean fauna, in
the short space of time which I devoted to this research, more
than thirty species which had been hitherto considered as
restricted to the British seas. It is obvious that negative evi-
dence of the occurrence of any species (and especially of those
which inhabit deep water) in any given area of sea is inadmis-
sible ; and naturalists do not differ from logicians or lawyers in
rejecting such evidence.

It may indeed be argued in favour of the division into special
or limited areas, that the species I have named, have, in the
course of time, migrated or been diffused from the birthplace of
their primeval ancestors, or from what is now called the centre
or focus of their creation, and that this migration or diffusion
has been facilitated by causes now in operation, and especially

of the Piedmontese Coast. 169

by oceanic currents. But it must be borne in mind that the
great Gulf-stream, which is the only current that could be
effectual for such a purpose, sets from south to north, and
that the indraught current from the Atlantic into the Mediterra-
nean, through the Straits of Gibraltar, sets from west to east.
Major Rennell was indeed of opinion (according to Admiral
Smyth, whose excellent and elaborate work on the Mediterra-
nean I have had frequent occasion to consult), that there is a
general tendency of the Atlantic waters between 30° and 45° of
north latitude, and from 100 to 130 leagues off the land, to
move towards the Strait of Gibraltar, at a rate of not less than
from fourteen to seventeen miles in twenty-four hours ; although
this opinion, the Admiral says, ought to be received cum grano
salis, especially if depth be admitted as a condition of these
400,000 square miles. However, granting that this may to
some (I am not prepared to say to what, or any) extent account
for the migration or diffusion of species from the Lusitanian
coast to the British or Mediterranean seas, it cannot be con-
sidered to operate in the opposite direction; and I therefore do
not see how any species which we may for the present call, with
Prof. Forbes, “ peculiarly Northern ” or “ Boreal” (such as Chi-
ton Hanleyt), or “ Celtic”? (as Lucina flexuosa), or “ peculiarly Bri-
tish” (as Jeffreysia diaphana),or “Glacial” (as Cardium Suecicum),
can find their way into the Mediterranean, while the Gulf-stream
continues its present course. We will even assume that there is
a counter-current (althoygh our present hydrographical know-
ledge does not warrant the assumption) from the north to the
south,—I would ask, how is it possible that species, which, like
Chiton Hanleyi, inhabit the coralline zone, can be transported
across the Atlantic to such a distance? The stationary habits
of the adult animal, which passes its life adhering to stones
and shells, forbid the idea of its voluntary migration. In its
embryo state this Chiton is doubtless (as Mr. Clark has
shown in the ‘Annals’ for December 1855 with respect to its
congener, Chiton cinereus), like many other Mollusca, free, and
capable of swimming about with considerable activity ; but this
stage of growth only lasts three or four days, when the meta-
morphosis or final development takes place, and the creature,
having “ sown its wild oats,” settles down for the rest of its
life, and only crawls about for a short distance in search of food.
The same remark occurs to me with respect to the littoral
species, such as Skenea planorbis (a well-known inhabitant of
Great Britain, and now for the first time noticed by me as
Mediterranean), which would appear to be physically incapable
of crossing the stream of the English Channel in order to diffuse
itself along the western coasts of Europe and gain ingress into

170 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

the Mediterranean. How can this, or any other /ttoral species,
many of which are common to the British and Mediterranean
seas, find its way from one to the other? Voluntary locomotion,
it is tolerably clear to all who know the proverbial slowness of
pace at which a snail, whether land or marine, can travel, would
require an immense time to complete the journey, even if the
animal knew or could find its way. Bivalves, being destitute of
a head or eyes, would of course labour under a greater disadvan-
tage; and besides, their motion is never progressive, but is
effected by eccentric and irregular leaps. The only other modes,
therefore, in which this great change of position could be
accounted for, are, either that the shell-fish may be torn from
their submarine abodes, and carried perforce by the current, or
that they may be in their embryonic state wafted to the place of
destination. The former mode would require it to be taken for
granted that there exist no rocks or other obstacles in the course
of their passage, that the current reaches the sea-bottom (which
is more than doubtful), and that the shell-fish in question live
within the range of the current. The other supposition can
only apply to the Bivalves, Brachiopods and Chitons, whose
embryo or fry are free and tolerably active swimmers, under-
going during that period of their existence a singular metamor-
phosis, as I have myself witnessed in the case of the common
oyster. But as the fry are developed and attain their normal
state within afew days at the furthest after being excluded from
their parent, and then become fixtures for life, or nearly so in the
case of the Chitons, it is hardly possible that the time allotted
to the first stage of their existence would enable them to traverse
such a vast distance. If we reject Forbes’s proposition that the
species I have before mentioned are Boreal, Celtic, British, or
Glacial, and consider them as Mediterranean, the same difficulty
arises ; and we shall not find the mode of transit from the
Mediterranean to the British seas more easy or probable when
we reflect that the only ingress into or egress out of the Medi-
terranean is through the Straits of Gibraltar, and especially
if the only current which flows through that passage is an
indraught, and sets from, mstead of to, the Atlantic. The
popular idea of a counter- or under-current from the Mediter-
ranean outwards is (to say the least) not proved ; and I do not
think Lieutenant Maury, in his recent and excellent treatise on
the physical geography of the sea, has made out a strong case
in its support, in opposition to the opinions of Admiral Smyth
and Sir Charles Lyell. If there is such an outer- or under-current
from the Mediterranean into the Atlantic, shell-fish might, it is
true, be transported from the former to the latter ; but they
would in that case be, metaphorically as well as literally, “ at

of the Piedmontese Coast. 171

sea,” because, according to Maury’s charts and account of the
Gulf-stream, the course northward of that great current hes far
beyond the range of the Mediterranean outlet into the Atlantic.
If there is no such outer current, shell-fish leaving the British
shores would, after crossing the English or Irish Channel, have
to traverse, by a circuitous route, the western coasts of Europe
by means of the great Arctic current, which is supposed to pass
under the Gulf-stream, before they could reach and enter the
Strait of Gibraltar. Either of these suppositions therefore, except
perhaps with respect to pelagic or floating shell-fish (such as the
Pteropods and Janthina communis), does not appear to me well
founded, and still less probable in the case of shell-fish which
permanently adhere to rocks, or their fry, for the reasons I have
before given. I therefore cannot help thinking that the migra-
tion or diffusion, beyond a limited range, of marine shell-fish by
means of oceanic currents now in operation is physically impro-
bable, and that it is unnecessary thus to account for the present
distribution of these animals.

For the same reasons, I am not disposed to admit the theory
which has been propounded and maintained by so many natu-
ralists, that certain areas now exist, containing species peculiar to
each, and having each its own separate nucleus or centre from
which these species have radiated.

In the Jast edition of Lyell’s ‘ Principles of Geology’ is a map
showing the extent of land in Europe which can be proved to
have been covered by the sea during the earlier part of the ter-
tiary, or the eocene, period; and a wide opening from the Bay
of Biscay to the Gulf of Lyons, in the upper part of the Me-
diterranean, appears to have formerly connected that sea with
the North Atlantic. It has been also proved by Brocchi, Phi-
lippi, and Searles Wood, that a large proportion of shells now
living in the Mediterranean are identical with fossil species from
the tertiary strata, both in Italy and Great Britain, and vice
versd; and it is not too much to assume, that in former zras
marine currents existed by which animals might have been trans-
ported from one to the other of those districts, or rather that
they were then diffused throughout a larger area than at pre-
sent. Whether the original birthplace or nucleus of these shell-
fish was in that part of the ocean which is now called the North
Atlantic, or in the Mediterranean, is immaterial ;—all I contend
is, that the areas of geographical distribution, as proposed by
the late Professor Forbes and others, are too much restricted to
existing circumstances, and that they ought rather to be referred
to a prior state of things. As yet, we want infinitely more in-
formation and data as regards the distribution of recent and
fossil shells, as well as a more accurate discrimination of species

172 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

and varieties, and a knowledge of the conditions which influence
the transition of one to the other, before any satisfactory theory
can be established. Whether the term “species” used by na-
turalists to denote distinct assemblages of animals and plants
which have certain characters in common, has indeed any
foundation in nature, is another question; but it is extremely
difficult, if not impossible, to say, with any degree of certainty,
what modification of form (to an extent which we should now
consider amounts to specific distinction) may have taken place
iu any race of animals, and particularly in the Invertebrata,
during the lapse of so many thousands or myriads of years as
have been assigned to the tertiary period. We know the great
change which is continually occurrmg in the form of recent
species caused by a difference of station or habitat, food, and
many other conditions, and to which we give the name of
“variety.” How far then is it right to pronounce, without
doubt or hesitation, that any of the tertiary species differ from
living analogues ; taking into account not only the gradual mo-
dification of form which I have before adverted to as probable,
but also the absence of numerous links both in fossil and recent
species? Iam however satisfied that the proposed distribution
of the European Mollusca into any definite provinces or regions
is not warranted by a mature consideration of those geological
and conchological data which we at present possess.

It is by no means certain that any definite provinces or re-
gions originally had any existence. We know that some species
of shell-fish are what is termed “ cosmopolite,” and are found
in every part of the world at various depths of the sea. The
most familiar instance that occurs to me is Sawxicava rugosa,
which, according to Sir Charles Lyell (Principles of Geology,
p- 650), “‘is spread over all the North Polar seas, and ranges
in one direction through Europe to Senegal, occurring on both
sides of the Atlantic; while in another it finds its way into the
North Pacific, and thence to the Indian Ocean. Nor do its
migrations cease till it reaches the Australian seas.” This
species of shell-fish is found in the sublittoral and laminarian
zones (between low-water mark and fifteen fathoms, or there-
abouts), but never in deep water, on the coast, perforating sub-
marine limestone rocks. Now, although the fry of the Saxicava
is undoubtedly free during the short period of its first stage,
before the shell is developed and its boring powers brought into
action, and it can therefore be wafted some distance, I am not
aware that any marine current or stream sets from one side of
the Atlantic to the other, nor that there exists any intermediate
station, fitted for the reception and habitat of the animal, where
it could settle and propagate a succession of emigrants to con-

of the Piedmontese Coast. 173

tinue the route. Even at the greatest rate assigned by Sir
Charles Lyell to oceanic currents (three miles per hour), it would
take thirty or forty days for the fry of a Saxicava to traverse
the Atlantic; and it is not reasonable to suppose that the de-
velopment of the animal would be postponed for such an extra-
ordinary period, or its vitality suspended, for the purpose of its
migration,—to’ say nothing of the innumerable obstacles that
would occur in its passage, from cross currents, being snapped
up by other animals for food, or a subsidence into some deeper
part of the sea or abyss from which it could not extricate itself.
It seems to me more probable that the species in question was
at its first creation diffused over the whole of the ocean, and
that the area of its habitability was afterwards limited by some
accidental circumstance, such as a deposit of mud, which choked
and exterminated the animal in the intermediate districts.
Something like this I have noticed on the coast of South Wales,
in the case of a once extensive colony of Pholas dactylus having
become extinct within the memory of living man, in consequence
of the bed of peat which they had inhabited having silted up
and been covered with sand and mud by the action of the tides.
Changes of climate, and many other conditions on which the
habitability of such animals depends, may have contributed to
confine the original area for other species within narrower limits ;
and it is therefore not necessary to resort to the theory of mi-
gration, or diffusion of species from one province to another, in
order to account for their present distribution.

Mr. Searles Wood, in his account of a British Crag shell
(Pyrula reticulata), which he considers to be identical with a
species now inhabiting the Indian Ocean, is of opinion that
certain shell-fish which formerly lived together, but are now
found to inhabit different climates, have since retired or mi-
grated into those parts of the world, the one north and the
other south, where the temperature of both is very different
from that which must have been favourable to their existence at
the period anterior to the formation of the Coralline Crag, and
that they have therefore in some degree changed their nature
in assimilating such extremes to their present existence ; and he
assumes that their dispersion was effected by oceanic currents
in opposite directions. He, in fact, attributes the changes
which have taken place in geographical distribution, not to any
alteration in the temperature, but to an alteration in the habits
of the animals themselves, caused by gradual migration. But
I cannot help recalling to my mind the apophthegm of the old
poet, which appears applicable as well to the nature of inferior
animals as to that of mankind: “ Celum, non animum, mutant
qui trans mare currunt.” I consider it to be far more likely

174 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

that a uniform temperature once prevailed, accompanied by a
general diffusion of all animals over the whole world; and that
owing to successive changes of temperature, induced by the
formation or elevation of land in some parts and its submersion
under the sea or depression in others, certain species became
extinct, or survived, as the climates became colder or warmer
in different parts of the globe. Many species (as Dentalium
dentalis) occur in the tertiary strata of Great Britain, which,
apparently, have ceased to live m our seas, although they
still inhabit the Mediterranean; and others (as Mya trun-
cata) are recorded by Philippi as occurring in the same form-
ation in Sicily, which in like manner have apparently ceased
to exist in the Mediterranean, although they still mhabit the
British and North Atlantic seas. Im each of these cases, the
species are conspicuous and abundant in their respective locali-
ties. The upper and lower tertiary formations, both im Great
Britain and Sicily, as well as in the Subapennine district, con-
tain also many species which now inhabit only arctic or tropical
climates; and they are found associated with other species
which now live in the British and Mediterranean seas. Besides
the vast extent of coast and ground in these seas, which has
never yet been explored by naturalists, as well as of the tertiary
strata in Italy and the North of Europe (where a few scratch-
ings here and there, rather than a systematic examination of
their contents, are all that appears to have been hitherto at-
tempted), it must not be forgotten that the whole of the North
Atlantic and Mediterranean seas, together with the area of dry
land in which the tertiary formations in Europe have been
traced, form after all but a small portion of our globe.

The above remarks must be understood to apply rather to
the extent and mode of geographical distribution than to the
existence of special faunas. I do not deny that certain species
may, and probably do, occur only in limited areas. The ques-
tion as to the distribution of land animals and plants seems to
me to involve other considerations than those which refer to
marine animals, namely the influence of climate and winds, as
well as (in the case of plants) the dormant vitality of seeds.

Too much care cannot be taken in the formation of materials
for extending our knowledge of geographical distribution. The
most accurate discrimination of species and varieties is indis-
pensable; as well as the collection of specimens ad ovo, and
from as many localities as possible. The young of the acepha-
lous Mollusks, or Bivalves, always exhibit, after undergoing their
metamorphosis, the peculiar character of the species to which
they belong; but in the Gasteropoda, or Univalves, the case is
often different, owing to the first whorls of their shell bemg

of the Piedmontese Coast. 175

(as in the Cowries) covered by the mantle of the animal, and the
consequent deposition of shelly matter, so as to conceal the
spire, the truncation or decollation of those whorls (as in Caecum),
or the altered position of the branchial opening and subsequent
loss of the spire, as in Fissurella.

The present distribution and existence of the same species of
marine Testacea, in many and widely separated parts of the
globe, may be in some measure accounted for by the equable
temperature which is usually maintamed in the sea, independent
of climate, and by the want of solar influence beyond a limited
depth ; water being, as is well known, one of the worst con-
ductors of heat. Admiral Smyth states that there is a sensible
diminution between the surface-temperature and that obtained
at great depths in the Mediterranean, and which he roundly
estimates at 1° for every twenty fathoms in depth, except where
the agency of submarine currents may be at work, but that
below 180 fathoms to the greatest depths which he had ex-
plored, the temperature varied but little from 42° or 43° of the
Fahrenheit scale ; and he adds, that a comparison of his eight-
fathom observations on the mean temperature of that sea, led
him to consider that the Mediterranean waters average about
3° 5! of Fahrenheit more heat than that of the western part of
the Atlantic Ocean.

The greatest specific variation between the British Testacea
and those of the Mediterranean occurs, as might have been
expected from the difference of latitude and temperature, in
the denizens of the littoral and laminarian zones ; particularly
in the genera Mytilus, Chiton, Patella, Trochus, Buccinum,
Fusus, and Murex. In each of those zones certain species
seem to be represented by their analogues; as Mytilus edulis,
Chiton cinereus, Patella vulgata, Trochus lineatus, Buccinum
undatum and Fusus Islandicus of our own coasts are respectively
replaced in the Mediterranean by Mytilus minimus, Chiton Sicu-
lus, Patella scutellaris, Trochus fragarioides, Murex trunculus and
Fusus corneus.

It is remarkable that examples of the same species from the
Mediterranean are smaller than those found in the British seas.
Tellina balaustina, Jeffreysia diaphana and Rissoa pulcherrima
are instances of this.

A much greater range of variation is found to exist in land
than in marine animals, owing to the more uniform temperature
of the sea and its coasts. According to Mr. MacAndrew, each
of the islands which form the groups of the Canaries, Madeiras,
and Azores, possesses some species peculiar to itself; and every
British conchologist is aware of the very limited habitat which
some land and freshwater shells, as Helix Pisana, Assiminia

176 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

Grayana, Limneus involutus, and others, have in our own coun-
try, and how local and apparently capricious appears to be the
distribution of many species.

The speculation as to the successive and recent creation of
species appears to me very questionable, and more abstruse than
that of geographical distribution ; because we do not know the
extent of modification to which species originally created have
been subject, nor whether all existing species, or the remains of
former species, have been either discovered or destroyed. Hum-
boldt has characterized this subject as one of the mysteries
which natural science cannot reach.

Although considerable pains have of late years been taken to
reconcile the labours of British and Continental naturalists,
much yet remains to be done. The former want of intercourse
between naturalists of our own and other countries, arising
from continual warfare, national jealousies, and the difficulties
of travelling and communication, has unfortunately caused
great confusion in the uomenclature of science ; and no pains
ought to be spared in removing it as much as possible, giving
due credit to authors of every nation according to the priority
of publication. To give some idea of the multiplicity of names
which have been given by different authors to the same species
of Testacea, I may mention that for our common cockle (the
Cardium edule of Linneeus) and its varieties, no less than sixteen,
and for our oyster fourteen different names have been assigned
by British, French, Italian, and German conchologists ; and for
another shell (Budlea scabra of Miiller), six generic and seven
specific names have been given by British, Danish, Norwegian,
Italian, and American writers !

The opportunities which have thus occurred to me of a care-
ful examination and comparison of an extensive series of Medi-
terranean species, and especially those of the more difficult
genera (such as Rissoa and Odostomia), have led me to form
what I believe to be more just conclusions with respect to the
same species in Great Britain; and the result will be shown in
the subjoined list. That list contains all the species which I
found on the Piedmontese coast, as well as some which I ob-
served in M. Verany’s collection from Nice and Genoa. I have
added a few remarks as to some of these, and the descriptions
of ten new species. The names of recorded species are those
of Philippi and the authors of the ‘ British Mollusca,’ except in
a very few cases where it appeared to me necessary to adopt or
notice those given by earlier discoverers. Those species which
were not found by myself, but were communicated by M. Verany,
or noticed by me in his collection, are distinguished by italics.
I had no means at the time of making out the synonymy

of the Piedmontese Coast. 177

for the latter species, and I therefore give the names chiefly
on his authority. I have adopted the arrangement of the
‘ British Mollusca,’ as preferable to that of Philippi, who used
Lamarck’s system. The accompanying plate contains figures,
from Mr. James de Carle Sowerby’s well-known and accurate
pencil, of my new species, and of Bulla ovulata, which was
indifferently figured by Brocchi. I have not thought it neces-
sary to particularize the localities, except in a few instances of
rare or peculiar species.

Any attempt to tabulate, with precision, the per-centage or
proportion of Mediterranean species, in comparison with ‘those
of Great Britain, would be unsatisfactory, as it must necessarily
fluctuate with the continual discovery of new species. The
general (although confessedly imperfect) result at which I have
arrived from my own investigation and reference to other lists
is, that out of about 500 species of British marine Testacea,
one half are identical with those of the Mediterranean, and that
we possess consequently about 250 species which have not yet
been described or indicated as Mediterranean. The species of
Mediterranean Testacea probably number 850, out of which
about 600 have not yet been described or noticed as British.

The works which I have consulted in tke preparation of this
memoir, and especially with regard to the question of geogra-
phical distribution, are,—Brocchi’s ‘ Conchiologia Fossile Sub-
apennina,’ Philippi’s ‘Fauna Molluscorum utriusque Siciliz,’
Forbes and Hanley’s ‘British Mollusca,’ Smith’s ‘Mediterranean,’
Searles Wood’s ‘Crag Mollusca’ in the Palezontographical So-
ciety’s publications, Lyell’s ‘Principles of Geology’ (ninth
edition), Maury’s ‘ Physical Geography of the Sea,’ Hooker and
Thompson’s ‘ Flora Indica,’ Risso’s ‘ Fauna of Southern Europe,’
Payraudeau’s ‘ Mollusca of Corsica,’ D’Orbigny’s Contribu-
tion to Barker-Webb and Berthelot’s ‘ Natural History of the
Canaries,’ Professor Edward Forbes’s Reports to the British
Association, and Mr. MacAndrew’s Pamphlet on the Geogra-
phical Distribution of the Testaceous Mollusca in the North
Atlantic and neighbouring seas (1854), besides many other
scattered contributions to natural history.

Acephala Lamellibranchiata, or Bivalves.

Septaria Mediterranea, Lam. Nice.

Teredina personata, Lam. Nice !

Teredo navalis, in ships’ bottoms. Nice.

Saxicava Arctica, Phil. § Brit. Moll.

Venerupis Irus, Ph. §& B. M.

Corbula nucleus, Ph. §- B. M.—C. rosea (Brown, 1827), B. M.
(C. Mediterranea, Costa, 1829, Ph.). Besides the localities indicated

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 12

178 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

on my authority in the ‘ British Mollusea,’ I have taken this species
on the west coast of Scotland in an immature state; and the Me-
diterranean specimens confirm my idea of its distinctness, and identity
with Costa’s species

Spheenia Binghami, B. M.

Nezera costellata, B. M. (non Corbula costellata, Ph.).—N. cus-
pidata, B. M. (Corbula cuspidata, Ph.).

Pandora obtusa, Ph. § B. M.

Thracia phaseolina, Ph. § B. M.

Solen siliqua, Ph. § B. M.

Solenomya Mediterranea, Ph.

Solecurtus strigilatus, Ph.—S. candidus, Ph. § B. M.—S. coare-
tatus, B. M. (Solen coarctatus, Ph.).

Diodonta fragilis, B. M. (Tellina fragilis, Ph., Petricola ochro-
leuca, Lam.).

Tellina balaustina, Ph. & B. M.—T. pulchella, Ph.—T. donacina
and varieties, Ph. §& B. M.—T. serrata, Ph.—T. incarnata, B. M.
(T. planata, Ph.).—T. Coste, Ph.—T. fabula, Ph. & B. M.—T.
tenuis, Ph. & B. M.

Syndosmya alba, B. M. (Erycina Renieri, Ph.) ; var. (Er. similis,
Ph.).—S. prismatica, B. M. (Er. angulosa, Ph.).

Scrobicularia piperata, Ph. & B. M.—S. Cottardi, Ph.

Donax anatinus, B. M. (D. semistriatus, Ph.).—D. trunculus,
Ph. & B. M.

Mesodesma Donacilla, Ph.

Mactra inflata, Ph.— M. stultorum and var. cinerea, Ph. & B. M.
—M. subtruncata, B. M. (M. triangula, Ph.).

Tapes aurea, B. M. (Venus aurea, Ph.).—T. leeta (Venus leeta,
Ph.) and variety.—T. decussata, B. M. (V. decussata, Ph.).—T.
pullastra, B. M., and var. (Venus geographica, Ph.).—T. virginea,
B. M. (V. Beudanti, Ph.).

Cytherea Chione, Ph. & B. M.—C. Venetiana, Ph.

Venus casina, Ph. § B. M.—V. ovata, B..M. (V. radiata, Ph.).—
V. striatula, B. M.; and variety (V. gallina, Ph.).—V. verrucosa,
Ph. & B. M.

Artemis exoleta, B. M. (Cyth. exoleta, Ph.).—A. lincta, B. M.
(C. lineta, PA.).

Lucinopsis undata, B. M. (Venus undata, Ph.).

Circe minima, B. M. (Cyth. apicalis, Ph.).

Astarte triangularis, B. M. (A. levigata, Ph.).

Isocardia Cor, Ph. & B. M.

Cardium aculeatum, Ph. § B. M.; young (C. ciliare, Ph.).—C.
echinatum, Ph. & B. M.; young (C. Deshayesii, Ph.).—C. erina-
ceum, Ph.—C. tuberculatum, Ph.—C. edule, B. M., var. (C. rus-
ticum, Ph.).—C. pygmeeum, B. M. (C. exiguum, Ph.). Although
there can be no doubt of the identity of these two species, it is rather
singular that Philippi does not notice the interstitial punctures, but
merely says, “ interstitia leviter transversim striata.’””-—C. minimum,
Ph, (C. Suecicum, B. M.). Philippi’s name has the decided priority
and is more appropriate than the local name of Lovén.—C. papil-

of the Piedmontese Coast. 179

losum, (Poli) Ph. (C. nodosum, (Turton) B. M.). Poli’s name has
much the priority of Turton’s. The Mediterranean specimens are
coloured, but appear to differ in no other respect from our own.—
C. punctatum; (and variety (C. scabrum), Ph.).—C. fasciatum, B.M.
(C. parvum, Ph.).—C. Norvegicum, B. M. (C. suleatum, Ph.).

Cardita suleata, Ph.—C. aculeata, Ph.—C. trapezia, Ph.—C. ca-
lyculata, Ph.

Lucina Pecten, Ph.—L. radula, Ph. (L. Borealis, B. M.).—L.
flexuosa, B. M. (Ptychina biplicata, Ph.).—L. leacoma, B. M. (L.
lactea, Ph.).—L. spinifera, Ph. §& B. M.

Montacuta bidentata, B. M.

Turtonia minuta, B. M.

Kellia suborbicularis, B. M. (Bornia inflata, Ph.).—K. nitida,
B. M.—K. rubra, B. M. (B. seminulum, P/.).

Galeomma Turtoni, Ph. § B. M.

Chama Gryphoides, Ph.

Mytilus Gallo-provincialis, Ph. Nice: on ships’ bottoms only.—
M. minimus, PA.

Modiola barbata, Ph. § B. M.—M. tulipa, Ph. §& B. M.—M.
lithophaga, PA. (Lithodomus lithophagus, Lam.).

Crenella marmorata, B. M. (Mod. discrepans, PA.).—C. discors,
B. M.—C. costulata, B. M. (Mod. costulata, Ph.).

Nucula nucleus, B. MW. (N. margaritacea, Ph.).—N. nitida, B. M.
—N. radiata, B. M. Nice.—N. decussata, B. M. (N. Polii et sul-
cata, Ph.).

Leda (Nucula) emarginata, Ph.—L. (Nucula) minuta, Ph.

Pectunculus pilosus, Ph. & B. M., and varieties.—P. violascens,
Ph.

Arca Now, Ph.—A. tetragona, B. M. (A. navicularis, Ph.).—A.
barbata, Ph. §- B. M.—A. diluvii, Ph.—A. lactea, Ph. §& B. M.

Avicula Tarentina, Ph. & B. M.

Pinna pectinata, Ph. & B. M., and variety (P. ingens, auct.).—
P. muricata, Ph.

Lima inflata, Ph.—L. squamosa, Ph.

Pecten varius, Ph. § B. M.—P. pusio, Ph. §& B. M.—P. Teste,
Ph.—P. polymorphus, Ph.— P. Danicus, B. M. (P. adspersus, Ph.).
—P. hyalinus, P/., and variety.—P. maximus, Ph. & B. M.—P.
Jacobeeus, Ph.—P. opercularis, Ph. §& B. M.—P. suleatus, Ph.

Spondylus Geederopus, PA.

Ostrea plicatula, Ph.—O. cristata, Ph. Whether this is a variety
of O. edulis, it is rather difficult to say, as the latter species is subject
to great variation. I certainly never met with the common form of
our oyster (whether “ native,’ ‘‘ Welsh,” or ‘ rock’’) in the Medi-
terranean, nor is it mentioned by Philippi or Payraudeau as a recent
species. Tue kinds now found in that sea are solitary, and not gre-
garious. It is well known that the Romans got their principal supply
from Britain, although the Circeian oyster ranked as a delicacy with
sea-eggs from Misenum and with broad scallops, the boast of
luxurious Tarentum.

Anomia Ephippium, PA. § B. M., and varieties “e polymorpha

12*

180 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

and margaritacea, Ph.).—A. Patelliformis, B. M. (A. scabrella and
elegans, Ph.).

Acephala Palliobranchiata, or Brachiopods.

Terebratula caput-serpentis. Villa Franca.

Argiope (Orthis) truncata, Ph.—A. (Orthis) Neapolitana, Scacchi
(Orthis seminulum, PA., Megathyris cistellula, Searles Wood). A
careful comparison of Mediterranean specimens with those from
Zetland of this variable species, confirms my former opinion of its
identity with the Argiope (Megathyris) cistellula of the ‘ British
Mollusca.’ It would be desirable if Philippi’s name of seminulum
could be retained, instead of the prior but less appropriate name
given by Scacchi.

Pteropoda.

Hyaleea vaginella, Ph.

Spirialis Australis, Bydoux & Souleyet.—S. Trochiformis, yd. &
Soul. (S. Flemingii, B. M.).—S. rostralis, Eyd. & Soul. (8. Mac-
andrei, B. M.).—S. Jeffreysii, B. M. Spezia, where only a single
specimen, however, occurred to me.

Heteropoda.

Carinaria Mediterranea. Nice.

Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata.

Chiton fascicularis, Ph. § B. M.—C. Siculus, Ph.—C. Cajetanus,
Ph.—C. variegatus, Ph.—C. Hanleyi, B. M.—C. Poli, Ph.

Patella scutellaris, Ph.—P. fragilis, Ph.—P. Tarentina, Ph. (P.
athletica, B. M.).—P. Lusitanica, Ph. I did not meet with any of
the usual forms of P. vulgata ; and Philippi enly mentions it doubt-
fully as fossil. It is however a very variable species, and may be
identical with P. czerulea of Lamarck (not of Linnzeus), or some other
of the allied species which are described by Philippi.

Acmeea virginea, B. M. (Patella Gussonii, Ph.).

Dentalium dentalis, PA.; and var. semicostata.—D. novemcos-
tatum, Payr. (D. dentalis, var. 3, PA.). Specimens of the last, which
I took at Spezia, have ten ribs and no intermediate smaller ones, but
numerous fine longitudinal strie. The extremity or apex in my
largest specimen is truncated, but apparently not by an accidental
fracture. Colour the same as in D. dentalis, but the size is larger.

Pileopsis Hungaricus, B. M. (P. ungarica, Ph.).

Gadinia Garnoti, PA.

Calyptreea Sinensis, B. M- (C. vulgaris, Ph.) ; var. gibba; and
var. fulva.

Crepidula unguiformis, Ph.

Fissurella Greeca, Ph. Not the F. Greeca of most British authors,
which is F, reticulata of B. M.—F. costaria, Ph.—F. gibba, Ph.

Emarginula elongata, Ph.—£. cancellata, Ph.

of the Piedmontese Coast. 18]

Scissurella. I cannot help thinking the position assigned to this
genus by its founder, D’Orbigny, is correct, and not between Adeorbis
and Ianthina as proposed by the authors of the ‘ British Mollusca.’
S. elegans, D’ Ord. (S. striatula, Ph.) and var. This species is very
variable in form and sculpture, the longitudinal ribs being more or
less distinct and partial, and the apex more or less flattened or
convex ; but the fine transverse strize are always observable under a
lens magnifying four or five diameters. It has no¢ an operculum ;
but I unfortunately had no microscope with me to examine the
animal. I found it plentifully alive in sea-weed at Spezia and
Lerici.

Scissurella cancellata, n.s. Pl. II. f. 1.

Testa orbiculato-depressa, alba, nitidiuscula ; anfractibus 3, rotundis,
ultimo costis curvis circa 20 elevatis longitudinalibus, carina fissu-
rali interruptis, costellisque totidem transversis decussato ; vertice
planato, carina lata acuta subincrassata canaliculata circumdato,
costis radiatim cincto ; canali transversim et arcuatim striato ;
apertura suborbiculari; umbilico angusto ; latitudine 5, longitu-
dine ,}5 uncie.

Although I only found a single specimen (at Sestri di Levante),
it is so different from any of the species hitherto described, that I
cannot help noticing it. Philippi has described and figured three
species; but the only one this approaches in form (his S. plicata,
which is the S. costata of D’Orbigny) he says has no transverse
striee, “‘striis transversis nu/lis.”’ It agrees with S. Bertheloti of
D’Orbigny (Webb and Berthelot) in the sharp keel which projects
considerably beyond the last whorl ; but the ribs in that species are
much more numerous, and it also wants the transverse striz. It
differs from S. striatula of Philippi in the stronger, fewer and more
distant ribs, both longitudinal and transverse, as well as in the
flattened spire and strong keel. This is also twice the size of either
of Philippi’s species.

Haliotis lamellosa, Lam. Palmaria I.—H. tuberculata, Ph.& B. M.

Trochus granulatus, Ph. & B. M.—T. zizyphinus, B. M.—T.
conulus, Ph. § B. M.; and var. /3. dilatata of Philippi, who refers it
to T. ziziphinus. This last resembles closely the smooth variety of
our species ; and the difference of colour (on which the authors of
the ‘ British Mollusca’ lay stress), as well as the smaller size of the
Mediterranean specimens, scarcely, I think, warrant a specific distinc-
tion; var. (T. violaceus, Risso)—T. dubius, Ph. (T. conulus,
var. ?).—T. exiguus, B. M, (T. crenulatus, Ph.); and var. T. striatus,
Ph. §& B. M.—T. fragarioides, Ph.—T. articulatus, Ph. (T. fraga-
rioides, var.?).—T. Laugieri, Ph.—T. divaricatus, Ph. ; var. levis ;
and var. minor.—7'. sanguineus, Ph.—T. Adansonii, Ph.—T. magus,
Ph. & B. M.—T. canaliculatus, Ph. Nice—T. varius, Ph.—T.
Richardi, Ph.—T. umbilicaris, PA.—T. leucopheus, Ph.; var. ; and
monstr.—T. tumidus, B. M. (‘T. Racketti, Ph.).

182 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

Trochus zonatus, n.s. Pl. II. f. 2, 3.

Testa orbicularis, compresso-conoidea, tenuis, viridescenti-alba, zonis
nigris strigisque obliquis rubris ad suturam anfractuum maculatis
pulchre notata; anfractibus 4, convexiusculis, nitidis, sulcis spi-
ralibus latis (in ultimo anfractu utrinque 6, in penultimo 3) exca-
vatis et interstitiis confertim concentrice striolatis; sutura distincta;
apertura rotundo-rhomboidea, ad marginem exteriorem vix angu-

; th : . |
lata ; umbilico profundo, aperto; long. 5, lat. J, uncie.

Sestri di Levante and Spezia, at the roots of sea-weed in the littoral
zone ; not common.

Although this pretty little shell has relations with Trochus umbi-
licaris in its young state, it may be readily distinguished by the
greater convexity of the whorls and the almost total want of any
angularity or keel on the last volution. The young of this species
closely resembles a Skenea, and it appears to form a passage to this
genus.

Monodonta corallina, Ph.—M. Vieilloti, Ph.—M. glomus, Ph.—
M. Jussieui, Ph.

Turbo rugosus, Ph.

Phasianella pullus, PA. §& B. M.—P. intermedia, PA. I found the
last species in greater plenty than P. pullus, but in the same locality.
The spire is longer and the suture deeper, and the markings are
very peculiar and unmistakeable, as Philippi also remarked. The
fry resembles a Lacuna in form, and has the last whorl and umbilical

rea spirally striated.—P. speciosa, Ph.; and var.

Adeorbis subcarinata, B. M. (Natica? subearinata, Ph.). Nice.

Tanthina communis, B. M. (I. bicolor, Ph.).—I. pallida, B. M.
(1. patula, Ph.).

Littorina Neritoides, B. M. (Turbo Neritoides, PA.).

Rissoa lactea, Ph. § B. M.—R. labiata, Ph., allied to, if not iden-
tical with, R. striatula, B. M.—R. crenulata, Ph. §& B. M.; and var.
minor.—R. cimex, Linn. (R.calathiscus, Ph.); and var. alba.—R. cala-
thus, B. MW. (R. cimex, Ph.).—R. Montagui, PA. ; var. lineolata ; and
var. minor.—R. scabra, Ph. An analogue of R. punctura, B. M.,
which it somewhat resembles. In fresh specimens the spiral cingula
are of a fulvous colour, as in R. Montagui, var. lineolata.—R. Beanii,
B. M. It seems surprising that this common and widely diffused
species should not have been known to Philippi, although I suspect
his R. textilis is the younger state of it before the outer lip and rib
are formed.

Rissoa Philippiana, n.s. Pl. II. f. 4, 5.

Testa clayata, turrita, fusca, solidula; anfractibus 6 planatis, in medio
subcarinatis, costellis longitudinalibus (in ultimo anfractu 12) cin-
gulisque transversis (in ultimo anfractu 5) instructis, cingulis
duobus superioribus tuberculos efformantibus; sutura profunda ;
apertura subrotunda, marginata, subeffusa, tertiam spire partem

- = =) z 1 1 .
zequante ; umbilico nullo ; long. 545, lat. = uncie.

This may possibly be the variety of R. dictyophora, which Philippi

of the Piedmontese Coast. 183

referred to in these words, ‘“ variat cingulis transversis in carinas
acutas elevatis ;”’ but it does not correspond with his description and
figure of the typical species. In the last and penultimate whorls
there are two rows, and in the preceding whorl one row of tubercles.

Foci, near Genoa, on sea-weed in the littoral zone ; not common.
Nice, Verany.

Rissoa costata, B. M. (R. exigua, Ph.).

Rissoa contorta, n. s. Pl. II. f. 6, 7.

Testa brevi-cylindrica, ad apicem obtusa, lutea aut alba, solidula ;
anfractibus 4, ventricosis, sensim crescentibus, leevibus, nitidis,
zonis duabus fulvis cinctis; sutura profunda; apertura subrotunda,
subeffusa, tertiam spiree partem superante, margine connexo,
soluto ; umbilico angusto ; long. ='5, lat. =45 unciz.

Genoa, Foci, Sestri di Levante and Spezia, on sea-weed in the
littoral zone ; common. Nice, Verany.

This elegant species appears to be the representative of our Rissoa
striata ; but it has a different habitat, the latter being found under
stones and at the roots of Corallina officinalis in the sublittoral zone.

Rissoa glabrata, Ph.; and var. alba; (R. punctulum, Ph., Moll. Sic.
vol. i.p. 154). Not the species referred to with doubt by the authors
of the ‘ British Mollusca’ under the name of Odostomia glabrata, but
allied to R. vitrea, from which it differs in the greater solidity of the
shell, its more obtuse whorls, and more contracted aperture which is
strengthened by an outer rib. It varies considerably in size. I found
it in abundance on all the coast, and noticed it in M. Verany’s collec-
tion from Nice.—R. vitrea, B. M.—R. proxima, B, M.—R. incon-
spicua, B. M. (R. rudis, Ph.) ; var. a. albula, B. M. (R. nana, Ph.) ;
var. c, B. M. (R. radiata, Ph.) ; var. d, B. M.; var. (R. granulum,
Ph.).—R. semistriata, B. M. (R. subsulcata, P/.).—R. pulcherrima,
B.M. Some older and more produced specimens agree better with
Philippi’s description and figures of R. soluta than the species de-
scribed under that name in the ‘ British Mollusca,’ but they want the
peculiar markings of R. pulcherrima.—R. fulgida, B. M.—R. parva,
B. M. It is remarkable that Philippi did not notice the typical form,
and that the other and more common form (interrupta) did not oceur
to me among so many thousands of Mediterranean Rissoze.—R. sim-
plex, Ph.; probably a variety of the last; var. (R. pulchella, PA.) :
this has some analogy with R. inconspicua in respect of markings,
but differs in the form of the spire and apex.—R. violacea, Ph.—R.
ventricosa, Ph. (R. rufilabrum, B. M.).—R. oblonga, PA. (R. costu-
lata, B. M.); var. (R. similis, Ph.) ; and var. minor.—R. variabilis,
v. Mihlfeld (R. costata, Ph.). The name of costata given to this
species by Desmarest must be relinquished, as it was long previously
used by Adams for the R. exigua of Michaud; var.: this somewhat
resembles R. labiosa in form, but the texture, colour and markings
are different.—R. labiosa, B. M. (R. elata, PA,).—R. auriscalpium,
Ph.—R. monodonta, Ph.—R. thermalis, (Linn.) Ph. ; var. minor (R.

184 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

ulvee, B. M.).—R. cingillus, B.M.—R. rubra, B. M. (R. fulva, Ph.) ;

var. unifasciata.—R.? littorea, B. M. (Truncatella littorma, P/.).
Rissoina Bruguieri, D’ Ord. (Rissoa Bruguieri, Ph.), R. decussata.

Nice.—R. Chesnelii, Mich. Nice.—R. marginata, Mich. Nice.
Jefireysia diaphana, B. M.

Jeffreysia cylindrica, n.s. Pl. II. f. 8, 9.

Testa longo-cylindrica, ad apicem obtusa, hyalina; anfractibus 4,
brevissimis, nitidis, ultimo reliquos superante ; sutura distineta ;
apertura ovata, subeffusa, 2 spiree partem equante, margine sub-
connexo; umbilico angusto ; long. 4, lat. 4, uncie.

Of this very minute but peculiar species I took only one speci-
men, by dredging in about 12 fathoms at Spezia. It approaches
somewhat in form the Chemnitzia Gulsonze of Clark, which I think
ought to be referred to the same genus.

Skenea planorbis, B. M. The Mediterranean specimens, like those
from Guernsey, are girdled with a single row of circular reddish-
brown spots.—S. nitidissima, B. M. (Truncatella atomus, Ph.).—S.
rota, B. M. Mediterranean specimens are girdled with three bands
of reddish-brown, one on the outer edge or periphery, and the others
on the upper and under side of each whorl; which, with the striez,
render them exquisitely beautiful objects.—S. evilissima (Delphinula
exilissima, P/.). i

Turritella communis, PA. § B. M.—T. triplicata, Ph.

Turritella? pusilla, n.s. Pl. II. f. 10, 11.

Testa turrita, lutea vel fusca, solidula ; anfractibus 12, convexiuscu-
lis, interdum varicosis, plicis 8 longitudinalibus (quarum 3 medi
prominentiores) costellisque transversis (in ultimo anfractu 8, in
penultimo 5) decussatis, in superioribus anfractibus nodulis effor-
matis ; sutura profunda; apertura ovato-rhomboidea, subeffusa,
sextam spiree partem eequante ; long 4, lat. 3; uncie.

In about twelve fathoms, Gulf of Spezia; not common. It has
somewhat the habit of a Cerithium, but differs in its shorter spire,
and, above all, in the form of its aperture.

Czecum trachea, B. MW. (Odontidium rugulosum, PA.).—C.glabrum,
B. M.

Aporrhais pes-pelicani, B. M. (Chenopus pes-pelicani, Ph.).—d.
desciscens (Chen. desciscens, Ph.).

Cerithium vulgatum, Ph.—C. fuscatum, PA. ; var. minor.—C. mam-
millatum, Ph.—-C. reticulatum, B. M. (C. lima, Ph.) ; var. major ;
var. 3. Ph.—C. angustissimum, Forbes (Report on Aigean Inverte-
brata, 1843).—C. adversum, B. M. (C. perversum, Ph.).

Sealaria communis, Ph. § B. M.—S. Turtonis (S. tenuicosta, Ph.).
—S. pseudoscalaris, Ph.—S. pulchella, Ph.

Vermetus semisurrectus, Ph.—V. subcancellatus, Ph.—V. gigas,
Ph.— V. glomeratus, Ph.

Siliquaria anguina, Ph. Nice.

of the Piedmontese Coast. 185

Eulima polita, Ph. § B. M. —E. nitida, PA. (E. polita, var. B, M.).
—E. distorta, Ph. §& B. M.—E. subulata, Ph. §& B. M.

Chemnitzia. For the sake of more convenient arrangement (this
genus being otherwise perhaps too extensive), I have adopted the
views of my late friend Professor Forbes, in separating this genus
and Eulimella from Odostomia; although the transition from one of
those so-called genera to either of the others is gradual and almost
imperceptible. Adult and perfect specimens have occasionally the
columellar tooth or fold. I have detected it even in C. elegantissima
or lactea, as well as in C. gracilis, indistincta, and fenestrata. C.
elegantissima, Ph. § B. M.; var. costis flexuosis et dente columel-
lari.—C. pusilla, PA. §& B. M.—C. gracilis, Ph. : this species is very
distinct in form and the want of angularity in the whorls from the
preceding, with which the authors of the ‘ British Mollusca’ sup-
posed it to be identical. The difference is as great between these
species, as between either of them and C. elegantissima.—C. pallida,
Ph. (Parthenia varicosa, Forbes, Ay. Inv.).—C. rufa, Ph. §& B. M._—
C.scalaris, Ph. §- B. M@.—C. unica (Aclis unica, B. M.).—C. fenestrata,
B. M.—C. indistincta, B. M.

Odostomia clathrata, B. M. A single specimen of this distinct
species occurred to me at Spezia; and I observed another at the
British Museum, in Mr. MacAndrew’s collection from the Canaries.—
O. interstincta, B. M. (Rissoa suturalis, PA.) ; var. angustior.—O.
terebellum, PA. The form, disposition of the ribs, and the greater
prominence of the tooth, distinguish this from the last species. It
is also a British species, having been found both by Mr. Barlee and
myself on the Scotch and Devonshire coasts ; var. angustior.

Odostomia tricincta, n.s. Pl. II. f. 12, 13.

Testa brevi-fusiformis, lutea, zonis tribus angustis fuscis in ultimo
anfractu (2 in penultimo et antepenultimo, 1 in proximo) ornata,
solidula ; anfractibus 6 (quorum 2 supremi sinistrorsum retorti)
ultimo reliquos zequante, complanatis, nitidis, costis circa 20 longi-
tudinalibus subflexuosis interdum bifidis interstitia eequantibus
obsitis; sutura distincta; apertura ovato-rhomboidea, ad basin
subeffusa, tertiam spiree partem eequante, columella prope mediam
uniplicata, labio reflexo; long. =), lat. 4; uncie.

Sestri di Levante, at the roots of Corallina officinalis; not com-
mon. Nice, Verany.

I also observed specimens of this prettily marked shell in Mr.
MacAndrew’s collection from the Canaries at the British Museum.
It may possibly be the Rissoa doliolum of Philippi; but he does not
notice the coloured bands, nor the fold on the pillar lip, and the
number of ribs in his description and figure are fewer.

Odostomia excavata, B. M. (Rissoa excavata, Ph.).—O. Humboldti
(Chemnitzia Humboldti, Ph.). Sestri di Levante; and Verany had
also found it at Nice.—O. conspicua, B. M. My specimens, which
were dredged in about 10 fathoms in the Gulf of Spezia, measured

186 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Marine Testacea

three-eighths of an inch in length, and nearly one-sixth im their
extreme breadth. A half-grown specimen is in the British Museum,
among the shells collected at Lisbon by Mr. MacAndrew; and I
before noticed it in the ‘Annals’ as an Adriatic species.—O. acuta,
B. M.—O. conoidea, Ph. §& B. M.—O. uwnidentata, B. M. (Eulima
monodon, Requien?).—O. Eulimoides, B. M@.—O. Rissoides, B. M.—
O. plicata, B. M.; var. dente inconspicuo (Rissoa elongata, Ph.).—
O. obliqua, B. M.—O. Warrenii, B. M.—O. dolioliformis, B. M.
Eulimella clavula, B. M.—E. acicula, B.M. (Melania acicula, Ph.).

Eulimella striatula, n.s. Pl. Il. f. 14, 15.

Testa subcylindrica, aciculata, hyalina, limo partim induta; anfrac-
tibus 8-9, complanatis, ultimo tertiam spire partem subzequante,
concentrice confertim rugoso-striatis; sutura distincta, obliqua ;
apertura oblonga-rhomboidea, supra acutangulata, infra latiore,

subtruncata ; columella flexuosa; long. ;4,, lat. <4, unciz.

I took two live specimens of this very distinct shell by dredging in
about 10 fathoms at Spezia. It is more delicate than Eulimella aci-
cula, and has the volutions more flattened, the suture more oblique,
and the last whorl and aperture proportionably longer; and it espe-
cially differs in having distinct undulating transverse striz. All the
species of Eulimella exhibit under a microscope similar, but very
faint, and close-set, strie. One of the characters assigned to the
genus Eulimella by its founder (Professor Edward Forbes) is “ solid,
smooth, and polished ;” so that either this character must be ex-
punged, or the genus merged in Odostomia or Chemnitzia.

Eulimella nitidissima (Aclis nitidissima, B. M.).

Truncatella truncatula, Ph. (T. Montagui, B. M.); var. costellata.

Natica olla, Ph.—N. millepunctata, Ph.—N. macilenta, Ph. ; var.
immaculata.—W. nitida, B. M. (N. Marochiensis, Ph.).—N. moni-
lifera, B. M. (N. Guillemini, P/.).

Sigaretus haliotoideus, Ph.

Velutina levigata, B. M.

Lamellaria perspicua, B. M. (Coriocella perspicua, Ph.).

Cerithiopsis tubercularis (C. tuberculare, B. M., Cerithium pyg-
meeum, Ph.).

Tritonium cutaceum, Ph.—T. nodiferum, Ph.

Cassis saburon, Ph.—C. undulata, Ph.

Cassidaria Tyrrhena, Ph.; var. (C. Echinophora, Lam.).

Ranella reticularis, Ph. (R. gigantea, Lam.).

Murex tetrapterus, Ph.—M. Brandaris, Ph.—M. distinctus, PA.
—M. cristatus, Ph. ; var.—M. Edwardsii, Ph.—M. corallinus, B. M.
(Fusus corallinus, PA.).—M. rudis (F. rudis, Ph.).—M. erinaceus,
Ph. & B. M.—M. trunculus, Ph.

Lachesis minima, B. M.(Buccinum minimum, Ph.) ; var.—L. mam-
millata (Nesea mammillata, Risso, Buce. Folinee, Ph.). Nonne
preecedentis varietas ?

Pollia D’Orbignyi (Buccinum D’Orbignyi, P/.).—P. pusio (Buee.
pusio, Ph.).

of the Piedmontese Coast. 187

Nassa reticulata, B. M. (Buccinum reticulatum, Ph.); var. (Buce.
prismaticum, Ph.).—N. variabilis (Bucc. variabile, Ph.) ; varieties 6
& e, Ph.—N. incrassata, B. M. (Buce. Ascanias, Ph.).—N. pygmeea,
B. M. (Buee. asperula, var. Ph.) ; var. sine varicibus mediis.—N.
mutabilis (Buee. mutabile, Ph.).— N. Neritea (Buce. Neriteum, Ph.) ;
var. minor.—N. corniculum (Buce. corniculum, Ph.) ; var. minor, y.
Ph. —N.scripta (Buce. scriptum, Ph.) ; var. 3. Ph. & var. decollata.

Buccinum minus, PA.

Fusus corneus, Ph.—F. craticulatus, Ph.—F. Syracusanus, Ph.—
F. rostratus, Ph.

Fasciolaria lignaria, Ph. (¥. Tarentina, Lam.).

Mangelia reticulata (Pleurotoma reticulatum, P/.).—M. scabra (P.
scabrum, Jef’. in Ann. Nat. Hist. 1847). The discovery of a Medi-
terranean specimen with the last, to which it bears a closer affinity
than to M. linearis, confirms the impression I formed some years ago
that this is a distinct species. It is not, as the authors of the ‘ British
Mollusca’ supposed, the southern or purple-tipped form of M. linearis.
—M. linearis, B. M. (P. lineare, Ph.).—M. purpurea, B. M. (P. Phil-
berti, P/.); var. minor.—M. gracilis, B. M. (P. gracilis, Ph.).—M.
nebula, B. M. (P. Gmannianum, Ph.).—M. brachystoma (P. brachy-
stoma, P/.).—M. costata, B. M.(P. teeniatum, Ph.).—M. rugulosa(P.
rugulosum, P/.); var. mimor.—M. Vauquelini (P. Vauquelini, Pd.).
—M. cerulans (P. cerulans, P.).—M. costulata (P. costulatum,
Ph.).—Judging from the solitary specimen which [ took of this, it
is more nearly allied to our Mangelia turricula than to the Pleurotoma
striolatum of Scacchi, to which the authors of the ‘ British Mollusca’
considered that it very closely approached.— M. Leufroyi, B. M. (P.
Leufroyi, Ph.).—M. attenuata, B. M. (P. attenuatum, PA.).—M.
levigata (P. levigatum, Ph.).

Columbella rustica, Ph.

Mitra ebenus, Ph.—M. lutescens (var. lactea), Ph.—M. Savignyi,

Conus Mediterraneus, Ph.

Cyprzea Europea, B. M. (C. Coccinella, PA.).—C. pyrum, Ph.
(C. rufa, Lam.),—C. lurida, Ph.

Ovula carnea, Ph.—O. spelta, Ph.

Ringicula auriculata, Ph.

Marginella miliacea, Ph.—M. minuta, Ph. The number of folds
on the pillar lip varies from four to six.—M. clandestina, Ph.—M.
secalina, Ph. Nice.

Gasteropoda Opisthobranchiata.

Tornatella fasciata, Ph. § B. M.

Cylichna truncata, B. M. (Bulla truncata, Ph.).—C. mammillata,
B.M. (B.mammillata, Ph.); var. B. M. (truncatula, Jefr.in ‘Annals’ ),
spira non exserta. This still appears to me adistinct species. It is
common at Spezia in muddy ground from eight to ten fathoms.—C.
strigella, B. M. Common at Spezia with the last.—C. umbilieata,
B. M.

188 On the Marine Testacea of the Piedmontese Coast.
Cylichna fragilis, n.s. Pl. II. f. 16, 17.

Testa cylindrica, nitidissima, hy alina, ad apicem constricta et longi-
tudinaliter striatula, aliter leevissima ; spira laxe involuta ; vertice
parum conspicuo, oblique ges ; apertura superne angusta,

infra dilatata, truncata; long. j,, lat. 5 uncie.

A solitary example of this AeNadkable ‘shell occurred to me in
dredging at Spezia, in about 10 fathoms; and Mr. MacAndrew has
also taken it on the coast of Spain. It has somewhat the habit of
an Akera.

Akera bullata, B. M. Genoa.

Bulla Hydatis, PA. & B. M.; var. minor et subglobosa; var. 3. Ph.,
minor, viridula et leevissima. weet ovulata, Ph., “Spezia ; and I alia
noticed a specimen in Mr. MacAndrew’s collection in the British
Museum under the name of ‘Cylichna strigella.” As the only
figure which has been published of this species is in a work little
aon (Brocchi, Conchiologia Fossile Subapennina, 1814), and is not,
to my mind, satisfactory, T have added another figure of it (18, 19)
to, 21. 11.

Scaphander lignarius, B. M. (Bulla lignaria, Ph.).

Scaphander gibbulus, n. s. Pl. H. f. 20, 21.

Testa ovata, turgida, nitidissima, hyalina, utrinque striis circiter
10 fiexuosis versus extremitates approximantibus concentrice im-
sculpta, in medio !zevissima; vertice subtruncato, umbilicato, ad
marginem exteriorem incrassato; apertura in medio coarctata,
superne angulata patula, subtus canaliculata; columella ad basin
uniplicata; long. + fere, lat. 5 unciz.

In from 10 to 12 fathoms, Bay of Spezia; not uncommon. The
animal is flesh-coloured.

Philine aperta, B. M. (Bulleea aperta, Ph.).—P. catena, B. M.
Nice.

Aplysia depilans, Ph. (A. hybrida, B. M.).—A. punctata, Ph.—
A. depressa, Cantraine, and other species which have been published
in the ‘ Journal de Conchiliologie’ for 1853.

Pleurobranchus aurantiacus, Ph.—P. stellatus, Ph., and other
species, for which reference must also be had to the last-mentioned
publication.

Umbrella Mediterranea, Pr. Nice.

Cephalopoda Dibranchiata, or Cuttles.

Argonauta Argo, Ph.
Sepia officinalis, Ph. § B. M., and other species, which have been
so admirably described and figured by Verany in his splendid work.

The total number of species named in the above lists amounts
to 375.

Mr. G. R. Gray’s Catalogue of the Genera of Birds. 189

XV.—Notes on the Review of G. R. Gray’s “ Catalogue of the
Genera and Subgenera of Birds” in the December Number of
the ‘ Annals” By G. R. Gray, F.L.S. &e.

In a recent notice of my “Catalogue of the Genera and Subgenera
of Birds,’’ published in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural
History’ for December 1855, a number of objections are stated to
some of the minor details of that work, which might lead the reader
to suppose that its author had been actuated rather by caprice than
by principle in the matters referred to, and would therefore give an
erroneous impression of the nature of the work, and of its utility to
the ornithological student. With the view of guarding the reader
from such an impression, I am desirous of putting him in possession
of my reasons for adhering to the principles which, after long and
anxious consideration, 1 had deliberately adopted, and which twenty
years’ unremitted attention to the subject has only served to strengthen
and contirm.

Let me observe, in the first place, that no edition of my work was
published in 1844, although that date is given to a previous edition
of it by the reviewer in several places. As however he mentions
this previous edition as containing ‘‘ upwards of 1100 distinct types,”’
it is probable that the original edition of 1840, in which that number
of generic types is to be found, is the one referred to. The only
other edition (the second) previous to the one now noticed, was pub-
lished in 1841.

Passing over the observations on the multiplication of generic
names by the same authors for the same generic types, and on bar-
barously compounded generic names, with which I have nothing to
do but to record them, I come to the first objection taken by the
reviewer, in regard to misspelt names. ‘There seems,’’ he says,
**to be no reason whatever why such an error should be retained in
perpetuum,” and adds, that “Mr. Gray appears to hold, that right
or wrong we are bound to adopt the spelling originally given by the
proposer of the genus, and to allow of no corrections or emendations
even of faults due to typographical errors only.’ This is a strong
charge, to which I distinctly plead “ Not Guilty.”’ I certainly hold
no such opinion, and I am not aware of any statement of mine by
which the charge can be supported. It is true that in a work des-
tined to give, in a concise form, the history of each division, I think
myself bound to record even the variations in spelling that may have
been used by different authors, or by the same author at different
times ; and when the reviewer asks “‘ what benefit can we derive ”’
from such a record, I answer without hesitation that, for want of
this information, naturalists frequently lose much time, and some-
times unavailingly, in their search in indexes and elsewhere for par-
ticular names, because the spelling has been varied from that with
which they are familiar. In some cases too the etymology may be
doubtful, and the proper mode of spelling not easily decided. The
introduction of these variations is consequently in my opinion a
useful addition to such a work; and it is moreover justified by the

190 Mr. G. R. Gray’s Catalogue of

example of other authors, both in this country and abroad, who
have not thought it desirable to leave them “unnoticed and for-
gotten.”

The reviewer next expresses his “fear that confusion is likely to
be caused by the introduction of the French names which Mr. Gray
has permitted in some parts of his list.” If the objection had been
that these names have been introduced too rarely, it would, as it
seems to me, have been better founded. No harm can result from
their insertion, except the unpleasantness arising from the indication
that, in too many instances, those who have done nothing more than
apply a Latin name to a division already clearly established under a
French one, have thus cheaply obtained the credit of having esta-
blished that division for themselves. To avoid the necessity of
appealing to recent cases, let us pass for a moment from genera to
species, and call to mind the natural indignation which has been
universally felt and expressed at the wholesale appropriation by
Gmelin of hundreds of species of birds established by Latham under
English names, but which one of the most ignorant of compilers
conveyed to himself simply by converting Latham’s English into
Latin. For this reason, on the plain principle of swum cuique, it
will be my endeavour to increase rather than to curtail the citations
of such names, the Latinization of which, in many cases, requires
merely the slightest alteration in the termination to render them
much more euphonious than the Greek compounds, which it has
been proposed to substitute in their places. Thus the Picazuwros* of
M. Lesson have been latinized by M. O. Des Murs under the generic
name of Picazurus; and I think no one will deny that Preazurus
gymnophthalmus would be at once a better-sounding denomination
than Crossophthalmus gymnophthalmus, and more just to the ori-
ginal author of the division.

A modern author of some note was considered to have overcharged
a branch of Ornithology “‘ with new and useless denominations,”’
because he gave Greek compounds to those divisions which had pre-
viously received French names ; while I am accused of causing con-
fusion by simply recording the existence of these previous names.

The next point on which the reviewer thinks the principles which
I have adopted “do not work well,” has reference to the question
‘what edition of the ‘Systema Naturze’ we ought to begin with,’’—
a question which he says “has been already discussed in a previous
review of a former edition of Mr. Gray’s book in this Magazine ;”’
and a note at the bottom of the page refers us to ‘‘ Mr. Strickland’s
article in the ‘Annals and Magazine’ for 1851.” The date, how-
ever, is widely incorrect, Mr. Strickland’s article having been pub-
lished in January 1842. In that paper the author, after some
mistaken remarks on Meehring, thinks “a strong case” has been
“made out for establishing a statute of limitations.” “‘ Let natu-
ralists,”’ he continues, ‘‘ agree once for all, to draw an absolute line
at the date of 1760, when the elaborate standard work of Brisson

* This word is wrongly printed in the Catalogue as Picazores, an error
copied by the reviewer.

the Genera and Subgenera of Birds. 191

appeared, and when the ‘binomial method’ was first dawning on
the mind of the great Linnzeus, and let them admit no genera on the
authority of any prior author, nor even of the earlier works of Linnzeus
himself.’ To this purely arbitrary decision I can find no reason
whatever for subscribing. In my work it is justly stated, ‘The
synonymy commences with the edition of Linnzeus’s ‘Systema Na-
ture’ published in 1735*,”’ that is to say, with the first edition of
that immortal work; and I have yet to learn in what respect this
principle does not “work well.” The question has nothing to do
with the ‘‘ binomial method,” which has reference only to species ;
and Linnzeus himself discriminates between the earlier formation of
genera, which were well circumscribed and accurately named long
before the complete circumscription and limitation of species by the
use of trivial names. For this reason, any “statute of limitations”
in regard to genera that should stop short of 1735, would rest on no
intelligible principle, and could not therefore command a general
assent. I will only observe further, that were the date of 1760, as
proposed by Mr. Strickland, to be taken as the “absolute line”’ of
the “statute of limitations,” it would exclude the great and univer-
sally quoted edition of the ‘Systema Naturze’ (the tenth) published
in 1758, in which the binominal system was complete in regard to
Birds ; and the binominal system was not even then merely “ dawning
on the mind of the great Linneeus,”’ but had been fully carried out
through the whole vegetable kingdom in the edition of the ‘ Species
Plantarum’ published in 1753.

The edition of the ‘Systema Natur’ published in 1735 being
then taken as the starting-point, from which the great author of a
uniform system proceeded in the establishment of genera, it is ob-
jected to me that I seem “to give that and the other earlier editions
an occasional preference over the subsequent and more perfect pub-
lications.”’ The fact is, that all the editions are referred to, for the
purpose of showing, in conformity with the entire plan of my work,
when the genus was first proposed and established by Linnzus.
And here, as elsewhere, I offer to every student the means of tracing
out the facts necessary to complete the history of each division, being
quite aware of the natural divergence of minds on all questions of
opinion, and leaving it open to all to form their own opinions in
conformity with those principles which appear most satisfactory to
themselves. My aim is solely to produce a record of facts as com-
plete as possible, and I make no pretensions to the vain attempt of
producing uniformity of opinion.

The reviewer goes on to object that I take ‘it for granted that
the first species on the list of each of these editions was intended to
be the type of the genus,—a point which admits of much argument.”’
It is with the view of saving “much argument,” which would as-
suredly be the result of any other system, that I have laid it down asa
principle for my own guidance, that where no other species is stated

* Systema Nature, sive Regna tria Nature systematice proposita per
Classes, Ordines, GENERA et Species. Lugd. Bat. 1735.

192 Mr. G. R. Gray’s Catalogue of

by the author as typical, it is the safest, best, and only certain rule,
to regard the species first enumerated as the type. This is a subject
to which I have given much thought: some rule was found to be
absolutely necessary ; it was in the highest degree desirable that the
rule should be uniform ; and the principle adopted was the only one,
which after long and careful deliberation appeared to me to fulfil the
required conditions. Others may, if they think fit, and as some
modern authors have done, take the tenth or the twentieth species in
the list as the type of a Linnean genus, and may give plausible rea-
sons for so doing; but all must admit that such a course is one
leading to interminable argument, and leaves the door open to much
individual caprice.

The reviewer proceeds to give instances in which he considers me
to be wrong. ‘‘ Chenalopex,”’ he says, “ (a term always hitherto
appropriated to Anas Algyptiaca,) is proposed to be used for the
dlea impennis, as having been so applied by Mcehring in 1752.”
Now it so happens that Vieillot adopted this generic name from
Meehring in his ‘subsequent and more perfect publication”’ of his
** Analyse’’ in 1818 ; while Stephens did not employ the same word
for Anas Aigyptiaca until 1824. I think the reviewer will now
admit that Chenalopex has not always been appropriated in the
manner stated by him. And let me here observe in behalf of this
unfortunate author (Mcehring), whose work (‘Genera Avium’) I
have been charged with disturbing from the “dusty shelves” on
which it had lain “ forgotten for a century,”’ that long before I could
have written or published a single word, his work had been consi-
dered worthy of quotation by Brisson, Illiger, Cuvier, Vieillot, Lesson
and others, through whose writings I first became acquainted with
his merits.

Again, the reviewer says, ‘‘ The type of the genus Tanagra is
altered, because the 7. episcopus (always hitherto considered as such)
does not stand first in Linneeus’s list.”” Here again the reviewer is
in error. Tanagra was established by Linneeus in 1766, and the
first species in his list is 7. yacapa. In 1805 Desmarest considers
T. tatao (=Aglaia) as the type of Tanagra; in 1811 Illiger, taking
the first-named species in Linnzeus’s list, recurs to 7’. jacapa; in
1816 Vieillot gives 7. cayanensis (=IWholopha) ; m 1817 Cuvier
adopts 7. violacea (=Euphonia) ; in 1820 Temminck takes Lanius
leverianus (= Cissopis) ; while it is not until 1827 that Swainson
proposes 7’. episcopus as the type of the genus Tanagra. But, even
were it possible to set aside all the previously proposed types of this
genus, there still remains a fatal objection against this last-named
appropriation of the name, if “the stern law of priority ”’ is to have
any weight, inasmuch as M. Boie had in the previous year proposed
the name of Thraupis for a species which must be arranged along
with 7’. episcopus ; and consequently, were the views of the reviewer
to be critically carried out, the name of Tanagra would be erased
from the nomenclature of the Tanagers altogether. To this conclu-
sion I am not prepared to follow him; any more than I can admit,
after the above recapitulation of facts, the correctness of his state-

the Genera and Subgenera of Birds. 193

ment that 7’, episcopus has always hitherto been appropriated as the
type of the genus Tanagra.

If I have ‘not ventured to carry out these rules [that is to say,

the recognition of the first-named species of a group as its type, when
no other is indicated as such | throughout to their legitimate result,”’
I have at least shown in the two instances especially r cited, Strix and
Falco, how the matter stands in relation to them. Throughout all
the editions of Linnzeus from 1735 to 1766, Strix Budo is uniformly
placed at the head of his genus Sérix; while the modern innovation
of considering Strix flammea as the type was not legitimately adopted
until 1809 by Savigny ; and so much has the propriety of this deter-
mination been doubted, that no fewer than four ornithologists have
since proposed as many different names for the division of which
Stric flammea forms the type. Had I therefore ‘‘ ventured” to
meddle with this, which I cannot but consider as an unfortunate ap-
propriation, I could not have been charged with an infringement of
the maxim “guieta non movere.” So with regard to Falco, it will
be seen by the quotations in my work itself in what manner Linnzeus
altered his opinion as to the species to be placed first, as follows :—in
the editions of 1735, 1744 and 1758, Falco ehrysaetos (= Aquila) ;
in those of 1748 and 1756, Vultur percnopterus (= Neophron) ;
and finally in 1766 Falco coronatus (= Spizaétus).

But I will not pursue this subject farther. In my work it will be
found that I have endeavoured to give as complete a view as possible
of the facts, by referring to these and similar changes, in order to
assist the student in the application of his own particular views to
the facts of each particular case. I feel abundantly satisfied that the
adoption of the “statute of limitations,’’ as proposed, would have
led to the alteration of many more names than I have “ ventured”
to change, by adopting as my guide the first species of each genus,
as it stood when first established. No “ statute of limitations,” nor
any other rule but that of mere caprice, would sanction many of the
types adopted for the older genera by modern authors, whose great
fault it has been that they have disregarded the labours of their pre-
decessors, and thus involved themselves in those numerous uncalled-
for alterations and repetitions against which the reviewer so justly
declaims.

I pass over the remarks on the subject of names closely resem-
bling each other, as it is probable that no two persons would ever
agree on the exact degree of permissible similarity in sound or spell-
ing, and it is certain that the natives of different countries would
entertain different opinions on the subject ; and come next to the
reviewer's expression of “regret that Mr. Gray had not thought fit
to adopt the very simple rule given in the British Association Com-
mittee’s Report for the formation of the names of the families and
subfamilies in ?de@ and ine.’ On this point (which is quite second-
ary to my main object of ‘‘Genera’’) I have to observe, that the
rules which I have adopted were collected, as the best that had been
proposed by my predecessors, and those which appeared to me to
combine most completely the principles of fairness and justice towards

Ann. §& Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 13

194: Bibliographical Notices.

others, prior to the publication of the Committee’s Report. I saw
in it no inducement to change them, and I have not found that the
most competent judges have adopted the changes of nomenclature
therein recommended. For instance, I am blamed for using the
word Coraciade instead of Coraciide; yet I perceive that the Pre-
sident of the Linnzean Society, in the title of a very valuable memoir
in the last published part of the “Transactions” of that learned
body, does not hesitate to employ the similar term Leucosiade in
preference to Leucosiide, as directed in the Committee’s Report.

The reviewer’s suggestion of “a Catalogue of the unabbreviated
names of the authors of the different genera, and of the chief works
in which they have published them,” is one that has not escaped my
attention. JI have in my possession an extensive list of authors,
accompanied with references to their works; but it is not my inten-
tion to publish it at present, although I may find occasion to do so
hereafter.

In relation to the names of genera proposed by Dr. Schiff (to
which the reviewer might have added the names of Dr. Reichenbach
and others), I held it to be my duty to give all the generic and sub-
generic names that came within my knowledge, whether accompanied
by the statement of the typical species or not. I have fortunately
been enabled in most cases (with the exception of the names of
Rafinesque) to supply this deficiency ; and I hope that I may thus
have been the means of preventing, to a certain extent, the multipli-
cation of names for the same divisions, although I do not attempt,
as it would be useless, to set limits to the subdivision of genera.
The addition of the name of the publisher, as well as of the author,
would have involved the total reconstruction of my book on a different

lan.

i This article is longer than I had intended, but I must be permitted
to end it with the words of a well-known ornithologist :—‘‘ We have
chosen our path :—not having fallen into it by blind chance or way-
ward prejudice; but having selected it from all that lay before us,
with free and deliberate preference. And in full confidence, as far
at least as human reason and foresight can inspire us with confidence,
of having chosen the right way, we shall steadily pursue it.”

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A Popular History of Palms and their Allies. By BertTHoLp
SEEMANN, Ph.D. &c. London: Reeve. 1856.

In introducing his subject to the reader Dr. Seemann states, that
his attention was first directed to the family of Palms through in-
quiries set on foot in his school days, in connexion with the conversion
of his pedagogue’s cane into succedanea for cigars. We cannot lay
claim to the possession of so inquiring a spirit in our youth, or at all
events it did not take that direction. The associations connected
with the name of palm-trees in our minds, and we fancy in those of
most persons, are of a more elevated and less practical nature. To

Bibliographical Notices. 195

us they have a mingled character of strangeness and a sort of classical
grandeur. The frequent mention of palms in the Bible, the marked
attraction they have exerted on all travellers, and the unusual and
peculiar forms revealed in the scanty and imperfect pictures which
until of late years were alone accessible, combined to invest them
with a peculiar, and in some degree mysterious interest.

Until recently, the means which general readers had of forming
an idea of palms were scanty enough. The conventional date-palm
of oriental landscapes, repeated from copyist to copyist, and not at
the first-hand very much like the original ; the stock-group of cocoa-
nut palms in every tropical sketch,—these formed the type upon
which most readers built their conceptions of palms; and, familiar
enough to travellers, they were only superficially known to any but
professed botanists. Even botanists do not date very far back their
knowledge of this family. Humboldt remarks, in his ‘ Ansichten
der Natur,’ that only fifteen species were known at the time of
Linnzeus’s death. Martius’s great work on palms; the labours of
our indefatigable Indian botanists,—that worthy band of naturalists
who have turned to such good account the rich opportunities opened
in the East India Company’s service ; the travels of Humboldt and
Bonpland, and more recently of Wallace and others in America:
have wonderfully extended our knowledge of this family ; to which
public attention is continually drawn more strongly by the wonderful
variety and abundance of their ceconomic products. Cocoa-nuts, as
articles of commerce, are now rivalled by their husk, or coir: palm-
oil is not what it was twenty years ago, a salve, having a questionable
preference in the eyes of old-fashioned domestic “leeches,’’—but the
source of ‘ enlightenment” for thousands,—not merely actually, but
figuratively, since the civilizing influence of the commerce in this
article appears to bid fair to lay the foundation of the taming of
the wild slaving nations of Africa.

It would be difficult to name any vegetable material used in the
arts, or as a staple of food, which is not furnished by one or other of
the palms. ‘Timber; fibrous substances, coarse and fine, capable of
conversion into cordage, clothing, &c.; nuts, hard and enduring enough
to serve as vessels for liquids, or to furnish substitutes for bone or
ivory ; starch, sugar, spirit, vinegar, succulent green vegetable food,
oils of various characters, wax, sweet fruits, nuts—all these are
yielded, sometimes several even by the same tree. Hence the family
is of the highest direct importance to the natives of the tropics, to
which regions it especially belongs, while commerce renders it indi-
rectly important, by converting it into a property for them, since they
can barter the raw products for the industrial products of civilized
nations.

Mr. Wallace’s interesting little work on the Palms of the Amazon
furnished a new set of ideas to the general reader, and Dr. Seemann’s
‘Popular History of Palms’ is exceedingly well calculated to satisfy
the curiosity which Mr. Wallace’s readers must have felt to know
more of these interesting plants. It is especially full in the matter of
the ceconomical products ; in fact, this is the strong point of the book,

13*

196 Bibliographical Notices.

but the descriptions are interesting and often spirited. The amount
of facts collected from various sources, and the practical acquaintance
with the plants possessed by the author, concur to render this little
volume very acceptable to the scientific botanist as well as the
general reader. Twenty plates, illustrative of the most striking
forms, are given; the drawing of them is tolerable; but we must
exclaim against the abuse of the art of chromolithography exhibited
in the blue and dingy-yellow tinting. This, however, is a small
matter. We might suggest to the author, as he claims a scientific
value for the substance of his work, to add to a second edition
a systematic table of contents, and, if possible, a synopsis of the
genera.

Museum of Economic Botany, or a Popular Guide to the Museum
of the Royal Gardens of Kew. By Sir W. J. Hooxer, Director.
Longman & Co. 1855.

In most departments of human activity, practice at the outset far
outstrips Science, who, advancing cautiously, rule and measure in
hand, carefully surveys each step of ground over which she asserts
her mastery. It is long before she thus reduces under law and order
the extensive tracts discovered in the arbitrary forays of practice
into the region of the unknown; but a time comes when practice
does not find it so easy to descend into ‘pastures new,”’ and when
increased difficulties of existence render it no longer profitable to
waste strength in tentative excursions. Then Science assumes her
native pre-eminence, and becomes the leader and law-giver.

This truth obtains in the science which deals with vegetables, or at
least is beginning to become manifest. Advice and instruction are now
sought from the botanist when new materials are required for textile
fabrics, for paper, for supplying oleaginous substances, &c.; and this
demand upon the scientific man is one that must necessarily increase.

The vegetable substances indigenous, or commonly cultivated in
the countries inhabited by civilized nations, have long. formed but a
portion of those used for purposes of manufacture or as articles of
luxury. We find many products mentioned in the Greek and
Roman writers as obtained from the “ East,’’ the real nature and
sources of which were unknown, and enveloped in mysterious or
fantastic fables. In the middle ages, and more especially after the
discovery of the New World and the Cape passage, these substances
multiplied rapidly in commerce. When botanical travellers at length
began to carry scientific curiosity into distant regions, some progress
was soon made in the discovery of the sources of the gums, woods,
fibres, and similar materials, which, though well known to the dry-
salter or the cabinet-maker, were stumbling-blocks to the botanist.
The formation of museums was another important step to the regu-
larization and accumulation of knowledge thus acquired ; but it can
hardly be said that this department of the science had been the object
of a worthy systematic pursuit until of late years.

The formation of the Museum of Economic Botany in the un-

Bibliographical Notices. 197

rivalled Gardens of _Kew—constituting a most valuable and charac-
teristic feature of an institution of which the British botanist has
good reason to be proud—made an epoch in the study of vegetable
products, and a glance at the pamphlet before us shows the remark-
able progress that has been made in a few years. This Museum,
founded in 1847, has already outgrown its original tenement, wherein
it gradually invaded room after room until it filled the house.
Another building, of dimensions suited to the growing importance of
the collection, is about to be erected in the Gardens. On looking
over the multifold objects at present displayed, it is not difficuit to
distinguish a number of substances whose nature and origin have
been revealed through the inquiries set on foot in this Museum,—
forming as it does a centre for the reception of information of this
kind. New facts, frequently furnished from all parts of the world,
are now at once received and enrolled in the chronicles of science,
instead of being scattered, often to be lost, in books of travels and
private letters ; and new or rare products are no longer buried in
private collections of “ curiosities,’ occupants of the drawing-room
iv one generation, of the lumber-room and the rubbish-heap in the
next.

The objects were at first arranged in the Kew Museum according
to their structure or uses. This was found inconvenient in many
respects ; especially that of requiring repetitions, when, as is not un-
commonly the case, the same plant yields substances of very varied
uses. The objects are now arranged in cases devoted to the natural
orders of plants; a plan not only more consistent with scientific
notions, but really conveying much more knowledge to the ordinary
observer. The pamphlet which has served as the text of these
remarks is a catalogue raisonné of the objects now exhibited. It
contains a vast amount of information compressed into a small
compass, much of which is new, and founded upon letters received
with the objects from correspondents in all parts of the world ;—much
collected from works with which botanists only are acquainted, and
many of which are not easily accessible. As an authoritative index
to the useful substances furnished by the various orders of vegetables,
this little book is not merely an indispensable guide to the Museum for
which it was compiled, but it will be found a most valuable aide-
mémoire by all those who are occupied with this department of
knowledge. Further, as it indicates the boundaries of our present
acquaintance with exotic vegetable products, it is most desirable that
it should be in the hands of all travellers, and all residents abroad
whose tastes and opportunities allow of their devoting attention to
natural objects.

A Handbook to the Marine Aquarium. By P. Hi. Gosse.
London: Van Voorst. 1855. 12mo.

The great importauce of the Aquarium as a means of extending
our knowledge of marine zoology is now so generally admitted, that
there is little need for us to dwell upon it. Since the principle of

198 Bibliographical Notices.

maintaining the balance of animal and vegetable life in a confined
space was first put forward, the Zoological Society has established a
fine collection of marine animals, which has enabled even the general
public to appreciate the beauty of these inhabitants of the deep.
Mr. Gosse very naturally concludes, that this exhibition will induce
many to attempt the formation of Aquaria in their own houses ; and
his object in publishing this little book is to furnish such persons
with the necessary directions for the construction and management
of their collections. It is, as he tells us in his preface, founded to a
great extent upon the concluding chapter of his larger work upon the
Aquarium, a work which, from its entering largely upon the natural
history of the animals which may be kept in these artificial rock-
pools, and from the expensive nature of its illustrations, is far too
costly to be generally available as a guide for beginners.

This little handbook appears to contain every information that
can be required for a commencement,—such as the different modes
of constructing and fitting up the tanks, the mode of collecting
animals and plants to stock them, and of keeping the inhabitants in
health in their confined abode. We also find Mr. Gosse’s receipt
for making artificial sea-water, which, notwithstanding Mr. Waring-
ton’s objections to it, appears to answer well, and will no doubt
enable many to preserve marine animals in inland situations where
they would be unable to procure natural sea-water. The whole
of the directions are given in a plain and intelligible style, and the
book will doubtless prove highly acceptable to those who interest
themselves in marine zoology.

Popular Geography of Plants, or a Botanical Excursion round the
World. By HK. M. C. Edited by C. Dauseny, M.D. &c.
London: Reeve. 1855.

A little work of no great pretensions, and, as such, deserving of a
good word. It consists chiefly of gatherings from the narratives of
botanical travellers, loosely dovetailed together and supported on the
framework of Meyen’s Geographical Regions. We think the au-
thor has diluted a little too much, in the desire to be popular; the
mere fact of being sufficiently acquainted with plants to derive any
distinct idea from the many names cited, would almost imply an
amount of previous knowledge sufficient to form a basis for a little
more in the way of general principles. However, tolerable success
has been attained in keeping up the spirit of the narrative style
adopted,—a matter of some difficulty considering the concision re-
quired, and the frequent sudden transitions and changes of scene.
We can recommend the work for the reading of persons young or
old who have a taste for plants, especially to amateur botanists who
have not begun to study in this direction. It is also especially cal-
culated to heighten the interest which ordinary persons may derive
from visits to Kew or other botanical gardens.

The illustrations are very bad—so much so, as to act as a terrible
‘damper’ on the fire of the text.

Bibliographical Notices. 199

The Flowering Plants and Ferns of Great Britain: an attempt to
classify them according to their Geognostic relations. By J. G.
Baker. London. 1855.

This tract is an enlarged form of a paper communicated to the
British Association at its recent meeting at Glasgow. Its subject is
of much interest in the study of the geographical distribution of
plants, and has not received so much attention as it seems to deserve.
Hitherto botanists have endeavoured to determine the causes of the
migration, or creation, of the plants found in different districts, by
attending to the collocation of the places where they grow, rather
than from a consideration of the strata forming the crust of the
earth. Mr. Baker has therefore done good service to science by this
attempt at determining the geological causes that may be supposed
to have had an influence. It is not to be expected that this attempt
should be altogether satisfactory in its results, for many more obser-
vations than we at present possess are wanted before certain conclu-
sions can be attained.

He arranges the strata into two great groups: (1) The dysgeo-
genous, “which are disintegrated with difficulty, and yield only a
feeble detritus.” ‘They absorb moisture readily, and furnish
stations characterized by their comparative dryness,’ and contain a
large proportion of carbonate of lime. And (2) the eugeogenous,
“which abrade easily, and yield an abundant superficial detritus,
which may be either of a sandy or clayey nature. They are com-
paratively impermeable, and consequently hygroscopic upon a grand
scale, furnishing damper stations” than the other group. He
then shows how these classes of strata are distributed through
Great Britain, and endeavours to arrange the native plants into either
those which are spread over the whole country, or confined to one or
the other of the groups. We think that he has been tolerably suc-
cessful, although we should not in all cases agree with him. Indeed,
it seems probable that it is rather the superficial soil that must
often be taken into account, than the underlying strata. The soil
of large districts noted as clay on geological maps, may, and actually
has, a strongly calcareous character from the presence of adjacent
rocks, such as chalk, and accordingly possesses a flora containing
many of the species usually called calcareous, or chalk plants, and
does not produce others commonly found on a clayey soil, but which
dislike the presence of lime or chalk. Mr. Baker has apparently
attended solely, or chiefly, to strata, and neglected the detritus formed
or deposited upon them.

Notwithstanding this objection, we have no doubt that the essay
will be favourably received by botanical geographers, who find that
they must consider all the causes in action, whether they be strati-
graphical, detrital, geographical, or climatal.

In the Press.

We learn that Mr. Gosse has nearly ready a new work on the
Marine Natural History of Tenby and its Vicinity.

200 Zoological Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
February 27, 1855.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

NorTes ON THE HABITS OF SOME INDIAN Birps. Parr VII.
By Lirut. BurGeEss.

Subfamily PRomEeRoripD.

Genus UpuPa.
Upurea Erors. Hoopoe.

In the upper portion of the Deccan the Hoopoe is a common bird,
frequenting gardens and woody spots, and is very partial to sandy
plots of ground, particularly outside the walls of villages. In such
places the sand is perforated with the conical holes of the ant-lion,
and that this is the food sought for by the Hoopoe in these spots, I
discovered on opening the gizzard of one, which was of a very soft
texture, and contained one large grub and two or three ant-lions.
The Hoopoe breeds in the months of April und May, building its
nest in holes in the mud walls which surround towns and villages in
the Deccan. I transcribe a note taken on 7th May 1850 on the
subject : —‘‘ To-day a man brought me word that about fifteen or
twenty days ago he found a pair of Hoopoes breeding in a hole in
the walls of a town; the nest contained two young birds; it was
composed of grass, hemp, and feathers. The same man tells me
that he has discovered another pair building.” The head man of
the town of Jintee brought me an egg of the Hoopoe, which has un-
fortunately been broken. It was of a very pale blue, or rather skim-
milk colour. He found a nest in a hole in a fort wall; it was made
soft with a few pieces of hemp, and contained three eggs.

Tribe FisstrROsTRES.
Family Mrrorip.
Genus Mrrops.

MeErRops 1Npicus. ComMMON INDIAN BEE-EATER.

A common bird in the Deccan, but remarkable for its brilliant
plumage, and active fiy-catching habits. It chooses for its perch
the outside twig of a tree, whence it makes its forage amongst the
insect tribes that are brought out by the morning beams. The Bee-
eater breeds during the months of April and May, laying its eggs mm
holes in banks. On the 13th May 1850, I found a pair of these
birds breeding in a hole in a bank ; the hole was more than an arm’s
‘length in depth. At the bottom of it I found three young birds,
one very small, with scarcely any feathers on it; another somewhat
larger, and the third of considerable size and pretty well fledged.
There was no nest.

That birds of this genus migrate, I had a convincing proof when

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 201

returning to England in 1852. When about half way between
Bombay and Aden, on the evening of either the 8th or 9th May, a
large flock of Bee-eaters was observed fluttering about the ship,
some three or four of which were caught after dusk, when they had
settled on the ropes and shrouds. I obtained three or four for the
purpose of preserving their skins, but in the confusion occasioned by
a shower they were unfortunately thrown overboard. ‘They were
larger than Merops indicus.

Family Haucyonip.
Genus Hatcyon.
HaLcyON SMYRNENSIS.

This and the black and white Kingfishers are the most common of
their tribe in the Deccan, frequenting almost every stream and
nullah. The former breeds during the month of May in holes in
the banks of rivers, laying as many as seven eggs. They are of a
beautiful pinky tinge, owing to the colour of the yolk showing
through the thin delicate shell. The egg is about the size of that of
the little Indian Owl (Noctua indica).

Family CapRIMULGID.
Genus CAPRIMULGUS.

Of the eggs of these birds, of which there appear to be several
varieties in India, I merely subjoin a note made by Mr. Jerdon from
Mr. Elliott’s notes. He states, that he once found the eggs of the
common species, two in number, placed on the ground without any
nest. They were pink, spotted with brown.

Family HirunpDINID&.
Genus Cyrse.Lus.
CYPSELUS AFFINIS. WHITE-RUMPED Swirt*.

I should certainly say that this is a common bird in the Deccan,
about the city of Ahmednuggur. I have seen their nests crowded
together under the roofs of old buildings, choultries and temples,
and obtained the nest and eggs from a rock in the range of hills
about twelve miles from Ahmednuggur, on the road to Aurungabad.
This nest was obtained on 21st September 1849. It was built of
mud and lined with grass, and contained two white eggs. The eggs
are considerably elongated in form.

CypsELUS PALMARUM, Hardw. Bawasian Swirr.

This Swift, according to General Hardwicke, builds its nest on the
leaf of the palm. Dr. Jerdon says that it “is common in all the

* This Swift builds twice during the year; I obtained a nest and eggs in
September, and also found a nest with young birds in April.

202 Zoological Society :—

districts of India, except on the bare table-land.” I have, however,
never met with its nest or eggs.

Genus Hirunpo.

Hirunpo FILIFERA, Stephens.

This very handsome Swallow breeds in old temples and under
projecting stones in wells and banks of streams. On 28th January
1850, I found the nest of this species built in an old well under a large
stone, near the water; the nest was not domed, but open, and the
young ones, three in number, exposed to view. On Ist April 1851,
I took an egg out of a nest of this Swallow; the nest contained
three. The old birds began building about 15th March; the nest
was composed of mud, lined with a few fibrous roots and feathers ;
it was built under a stone in the bank of a stream. The egg is
,$;ths of an inch in length, by rather more than ,3;ths m width ;
white, spotted with two shades of red-brown, the spots forming a
broken belt round the larger end.

Order RAsoREs.
Family Pavonipz.
Genus Pavo.

Pavo cristatus. ComMMON PEAFOWL.

Peafowl abound in the jungles clothing the slopes of the Ghauts,
and in some wooded districts in the interior. In the Decean, in the
wooded hilly portions of the districts of Jamkhair and Scogao they
were plentiful, and a remarkably pretty sight it was to see them
stalking about near the grain stacks, or running along the bushy
banks of the nullahs. They are wary birds, and lead the sportsman
a good chase when once they take to the low spurs of the hills, up
which they run with incredible swiftness. The best plan to secure
them is to wait for their roosting time, under the trees to which they
resort. Thick mango trees appear to be their favourite resting-places.
Peafowl breed at the end of the monsoon, in the months of September
and October, laying, I am told, from three to five eggs, of a buffy
white colour, 2 inches and nearly ;6ths in length, by 2 inches and
nearly ;4,th in width. The nest is said to be composed of grass, and
formed on the ground amongst bushes.

Genus GAuuvs, Briss.
GALLUS SONNERATII, Temm.

As I have not been fortunate enough to obtain the eggs of this
jungle fowl, I have again recourse to my friend Dr. Jerdon’s notes.
He says, “I once found the eggs of this fowl, seven in number, on
the ground in dense jungle at the foot of the Neilgherries. They
were of a light pinkish-cream colour.”

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 208

Family TeTraonip2&.
Genus Trerrao.

Subgenus Prerocues.

PTEROCLES ExUSTUS. COMMON WuisTLING GROUSE.

This Grouse is common in the open plains of the Deccan, flying
in flocks, and, as Colonel Sykes has remarked, announces its approach
by its peculiar and piercing cry. I believe that this Grouse breeds
during the greater part of the year. Eggs of this species (I believe)
have been brought to me from the month of December to May.
The Common Whistling Grouse lays three eggs in a slight hollow on
the bare ground, and the colour of the eggs so much assimilates with
that of the sandy ground on which they are laid, that it is very
difficult to find them. The egg sent is, I believe, the egg of this
species. It measures 1,%ths of an inch in length, and 1 inch and
rather more than ;';th in width, and is of a stone colour, thickly
spotted and blotched with grey and olive-brown. I have in my
collection several eggs of the Sand Grouse, which vary much in
their size and markings.

PTEROCLES QUADRICINCTUS. PAINTED WHISTLING GROUSE.

This handsome Grouse frequents the low stony hills so common in
the Deccan. It is not nearly so common as the last mentioned. I
succeeded in getting two or three pairs, by waiting for them at a
piece of water whither they used to come at dusk to drink. This
Grouse most probably breeds at the same time and lays the same
number of eggs as P. erustus. Many eggs of birds of the sub-
genus Pterocles were brought to me by the people in the districts,
but as they are not generally very accurate observers, and call both
P. exustus and P. quadricinctus by one common name, they could
not tell me to which they belonged ; but from my own observations,
and the notes of Dr. Jerdon, I believe the egg sent with this paper
is that of P. quadricinctus. Dr. Jerdon says, “I have lately got the
eggs of this species, also very similar to the other, but rather smaller,
and with the spots fewer and larger.”

Genus Perpix.

PERDIX PICTA.

I met with the Painted Partridge in the grassy valleys near and
amongst the Western Ghauts near Nassick, in the thickly planted
and rich gardens, and in one of the districts between the Godavery
and the Bheema rivers. In the latter district the Shikaries brought
me several pairs alive. Its very peculiar cry is heard at a consider-
able distance. When out shooting in a valley amongst the Ghauts,
I saw one calling when perched on the low stump of a tree. Dr.
Jerdon says, ‘It breeds during the monsoon, lays six or seven eggs
of a smoky bluish-white colour, of an oval form, much depressed at
the thick end.”

204 Zoological Society.

Subgenus FRANCOLINUS.

FRANCOLINUS PONTICERIANUS. ComMMON PARTRIDGE of India.

This Partridge is found amongst bushes and underwood, but is
particularly fond of thick grassy hedges round garden plantations.
It is found either singly or in pairs. The Grey Partridge breeds
during the months of February and March, laying its eggs, seven in
number, in grassy spots, hedgerows, and amongst bushes. The egg
is of a rich stone colour, 1 inch and 55ths in length, by 1 inch
and th in width, but they vary considerably in colour and size.
This Partridge is by no means a shy bird, but, on the contrary,
appears to prefer fields and gardens near towns and villages to less
frequented spots. By some it is called the Scavenger Partridge,
but I believe there are no grounds for such a term being applied to
it; its flesh is very fair eating. The crop of one which I shot was
full of bajocce and small seeds.

FRANCOLINUS SPADICEUS. SPUR-FOWL.

I procured a specimen of the Spur-fowl on the Ghauts at Khan-
dalla. It was flushed in a garden, and betook itself to a tree in
which I shot it. Its gizzard contained a quantity of earth, some
small stones, and small brown seeds. I was informed by a Shikarie
that they breed in the months of February and March in thick
jungles, making their nests on the ground or in thick close bushes,
and laying three white eggs.

Subgenus CoTurNtIx.

I herewith forward an egg, in itself a bad specimen, but the only
one I was able to procure, and which J believe to belong either to
C. dactylisonans, the large grey Quail, or to C. tewtilis (Temm.).
I believe the egg to be that of the latter, as if C. dactylisonans be
identical with the English Quail, the egg should be of a yellowish or
dull orange-coloured white, blotched or speckled with umber-brown,
whereas the egg now sent is of uniform buff, merely spotted and
discoloured by a long exposure to wet.

Coturnix ArGoonpadg (Sykes). Rock Quatt.

This pretty little Quail, as its name implies, is an inhabitant of
stony hills and bushy sides of streams and nullahs. It lives in
bevies, and is to be met with in company with the grey and black-
breasted Quail. The Rock Quail breeds generally during the months
of November and December, but I have had its eggs brought to me
as late as March, and have procured a young bird well fledged as
early as 20th November. It does not, I believe, lay more than four
eggs, as on three different occasions I have had that number brought
to me, and on a fourth, four young ones just fledged were brought
to me when out quail-shooting. The young were covered with

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 205

down, and had the appearance of being powdered. The egg of this
Quail is of a pale buff colour, 1 inch and jth in length, by ;8ths
of an inch in width.

I take this opportunity of bringing to the notice of the members
of this Society distinguishing marks between the Rock Quail and the
Grey and Black-breasted Quail, and of proposing that the former
species should not be confounded with the two last. The distinguish-
ing marks of the former, the Rock Quail, are the stoutness and depth
of the beak in proportion to its length, the much more rounded form
of the wing, the secondaries and tertials being much more equal in
size with the primaries than those of the Grey and Rain Quail; the
much more defined scaly protection of the legs and feet in the Rock
Quail, and what I believe the most distinguishing mark, the smaller
number of eggs laid by the Rock Quail. I believe that the Grey
and Rain, or Black-breasted Quail, lay eigit or nine eggs, the Rock
Quail not more than four.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

December 13th, 1855.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

Colonel Madden was elected President for the ensuing year.
A considerable number of foreign botanists were elected Hon.
Members.

The following papers were read :—

1. “Report on the State of the Society’s Herbarium.” By the
Curator.

2. “Notes of a Botanical Trip to Ben Lawers and neighbouring
Mountains in August 1855.’ By Prof. Balfour.

This appears to have been a very successful trip. It was stated
that the alpine plants flowered remarkably well in the summer of
1855. Amongst the plants found may be mentioned Polypodium
alpestre and P. flewile, and Cystopteris montana. The latter grew
in a different place from that where Mr. W. Wilson originally de-
tected it. Mr. J. Backhouse has recently gathered it in Caenlochan
Glen, in Forfarshire.

3. “ Report on Musci collected during the same trip.”” By Dr.
Greville.

4. *‘ Additional List of Mosses.’’ By Mr. W. Nichol.

5. “On the rare Lichens of Ben Lawers.” By Mr. H. Mac-
millan.

6. “ List of Desmidee.” By Mr. H. G. Stewart.

7. “ List of Diatomacee.”’ By Prof. Gregory.

8. “Geological Notes.” By Mr. Hector.
The above-enumerated papers, 2-7, all relate to the results of the
same trip, and argue well for the attention paid by Dr. Balfour’s

206 Miscellaneous.

party to the more obscure tribes of plants. They are little more
than lists of names, and do not admit of abstract.

9. “Notice of some of the contents of the Museum in the Edin-
burgh Botanic Garden.” By Prof. Balfour.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Memorandum on the Animal of Scissurella crispata.
By Lucas Barretr, F.G.S.

TENTACLES long, serrated, at the base of which are placed the eyes ;
foot furnished with two pointed lappets
and two long slender serrated cirri on
each side. Operculum very thin, ovate,
with an obscure subspiral nucleus.

No part of the animal was external to
the shell. The only living specimen
occurred at Hammerfest, in 40 to 80
fathoms’ water. When it was placed in
a glass of sea-water, it crawled up the
side and scraped the glass with its
tongue. After immersion in spirit it became inky-black.

Notes on the Marine Fauna of Weymouth.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.
Weymouth, Jan. 23, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—I beg to record the occurrence of Squilla Des-
marestii at Weymouth as follows :-—

In the autumn of 1851, a specimen was brought me that had been
dredged in Weymouth Bay, near Portland. It measured 33 inches.
It is in my cabinet.

On the 22nd December, 1855, I picked up one alive on Melcombe
Sands. We had previously had several days of heavy gales from the
eastward. This specimen, though alive, had been so long out of the
water that it did not recover.

A third specimen was procured by my man on the Ist January,
1856. It was dredged in Weymouth Bay, in twelve fathoms’ water.
The bottom was of pebbles, and also live and dead Pecten opercularis.
In my man’s phraseology, it was a “ pebbly and squinny bottom,
with a lot of live squins.”” Pecten opercularis are here called
Squins.

This specimen, I am happy to say, is now lively and well, and will
enable me to give some information as to its habits. I have as yet
only tried it with a pebbly and shingly bottom, and am therefore
not in a position to write certainly as to its burrowing habits. I
have satisfied myself as to its mode of progression, and can state that
its tail is not used for that purpose, but solely as a defensive weapon.
I hope shortly to complete my paper on its habits.

Meteorological Observations. 207

Gebia deltura.—On the 22nd December, 1855, I found on Wey-
mouth Sands, at the same time with Squil/a Desmarestii, two living
specimens of Gebia deltura. Although living, they were too much
injured to recover, and I was thus unfortunately prevented from
studying their habits. The length of the larger one is nearly 24
inches, and the smaller one 2 inches.

Great numbers of Harvey’s Syrinx were thrown up at the same
time, as also numerous specimens of an Actinia, which I doubtfully
refer to Actinia chrysanthellum (Peach).

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,
WituiaAm THompson.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR DEC. 1855.

Chiswick.—December 1. Hazy: very fine: rain. 2. Cloudy: rain. 3. Clear
and frosty. 4. Foggy: drizzly. 5. Clear: overcast. 6. Slight snow: windy at
night. 7. Clear: fine. 8. Cloudy and cold. 9. Frosty: cloudy and cold: foggy.
10. Overcast : slight snow. 11. Uniform haze. 12. Overcast: sharp frost. 13.
Frosty : fine, with sun : clear and frosty. 14. Overcast: rain. 15. Densely over-
cast: cloudy. 16. Fine: foggy. 17. Foggy. 18. Cloudy and cold. 19. Clear,
cold and dry. 20. Frosty, with dry air. 21. Frosty throughout the day: severe
Frost at night. 22. Frosty: overcast. 23. Overcast: fine: showery. 24. Very
fine: showery at night. 25. Rain. 26. Boisterous, with rain. 27. Rain : cloudy:
fine. 28. Very fine. 29. Fine: very fine: slight rain. 30. Cloudy and fine.
31. Fine throughout.

Mean temperature of the month ...........cceeeeescceeeeeecesees 34°99
Mean temperature of. Dec..1854. -.....cc-ncccowsscascccccasevnces 39 °35
Mean temperature of Dec. for the last twenty-nine years... 39 -64
Average amount of rain in Dec. .......0....cossecsesscovees sees. 1492 inches.

Boston.—Dec. 1. Cloudy: rain p.m. 2. Fine. 3. Cloudy. 4. Fine. 5. Cloudy.
6. Fine: snow a.m. 7. Cloudy: snow p.m. 8, 9. Cloudy: snow A.M. and p.m.
10. Fine: snow a.M.and p.m. 11—13. Fine. 14. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m.
15. Cloudy. 16—21. Fine. 22. Cloudy: snow a.m. 23. cloudy : snow and rain
A.M., and rain p.m. 24. Fine. 25, 26. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 27—29.
Fine. 30, 31. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Dec. 1. Drizzle a.m.: clear p.m. 2. Damp A.m. :
damp, vapours p.m. 3. Showers a.M.: drizzly showers p.m. 4. Rain A.m.:
showers P.M. 5. Snow-showers A.M.: sleetp.M. 6. Snow-showers A.M. and P.M.
7. Sleet-showers a.M.: clear, frost p.m. 8. Cloudy a.m.: cloudy, frostp.m. 9.
Cloudy a.m.: fine, frost p.m. 10. Cloudy a.m.: showers p.m. 11, 12. Snow-
showers A.M. and p.m. 13. Cloudy a.m.: showers p.m. 14. Rain a.M.: drizzle
P.M. 15. Showers a.m.: showers, thunder and lightning p.m. 16. Hail-showers
A.M.: Sleet-showers P.M. 17. Fine a.M.: fine, cloudy p.m. 18. Cloudy a.m.:
sleet-showers p.m. 19. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 20. Bright a.m.: Cloudy p.m.
21. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 22. Clear, frost a.m. and p.m. 23. Snow-showers
A.M.: rain, clear p.M. 24. Bright a.m.:rainp.M. 25. Bright a.m.: Clear p.m.
26. Drizzle a.m.: rain p.M. 27. Rain, drizzle A.m.: fine, cloudy p.m. 28. Damp
AM.: rainp.M. 29. Bright aA.m.: cloudy p.m. 30. Bright a.m.: clear, aurora
P.M. 31. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.M..

Mean temperature of Dec. for twenty-eight previous years ... 41°03
Mean temperature of the month ............. gu dulapcatnescestaas 39 *41
Mean temperature of Dec. 1854 — ....0....ceesscecerecncseeeseres - 39-°13
Average quantity of rain in Dec. for fifteen previous years... 4°21 inches.

The following are the averages for November 1855, with which we have been
favoured by our correspondent the Rey. Ch. Clouston of Sandwick Manse, whose
usual report miscarried owing to the stormy weather which then prevailed :—

Barometer. Thermometer. Rain
A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. in inches.
29-970 29-976. 43°53 43°46 1°37.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 99. MARCH 1856.

XVI.—On the House Ant of Madeira. By Professor O. Heer,
of Zurich. Translated from the original* by R, T. Lowe,
M.A.t+

[With a Plate. ]

I. Apparition and Habits.

Amonest the richly varied insect-tribes the Ants stand foremost
probably in point of numbers. We meet with them everywhere,
in field and garden, meadows and forests, from spring to latest
autumn. In general the unwinged labourers alone are seen;
but in July and August the winged males and females issue from
their nests, and rise in such vast swarms into the air as to attract
occasionally general attention. This was especially the case in
August 1849. On the 7th of August immense swarms, consist-
ing of Myrmica rubra, F., Formica fuliginosa, ¥., and F. nigra,
made their appearance in Winterthur. From two o’clock till
near sunset they appeared in small clouds, glistening in the sun
and reaching up into the higher regions of the atmosphere.
The ground in the town and its environs was quite strewed over
with these little winged creatures. On the 8th of August a whole
tract in width of the Lake of the Four Cantons, between Bauen
and Fliielen, was completely covered with little black, winged
ants (doubtless Formica fuliginosa, ¥.), so that from forty to fifty
could be taken up out of the water at one handful. Many were
yet alive; others were dead: they had not therefore been im-
mersed collectively, but must have fallen on the spot into the
water. On the same evening great bodies of the Formica fuli-

* An die Zurcherische Jugend auf das Jahr 1852, von der Naturforsch-
enden Gesellschaft, Liv. Stiick.

+ The Translator desires thus to express his special thanks to Professor
Heer for a copy of this valuable and interesting Memoir.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 14

210 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

ginosa, F., were also seen in the Lake of Zurich ; but it is related
that at Schondorf in Wurtemberg, on the same evening, swarms
like clouds (to judge from the description), of Myrmica rubra
were moving between three and four o’clock through the coun-
try; and a like report referring to the same day was made from
Soleure, Friburg, Bubendorf and Gelterkinden in the Canton of
Basle : whence it is to be inferred that the swarms were moving
in a southerly direction. The last great swarms (of Myrmica
rubra, F'.) we observed on the 11th of August, on the summit
of the Uetliberg. Similar phenomena occur however every year,
though not in these environs*. It depends in great measure on
the weather. Should this happen to be fine at the time when
the winged ants are quitting the chrysalis state, they all leave
their nests at the same moment, and thus form those immense
great cloud-like swarms ; on the other hand, should the weather
be unfavourable at this epoch, the swarms are distributed over a
longer period, and are not therefore so striking. This is indeed
the case too with our May Chafers. Let fine May weather
all at once set im after a wet April, and all at once (in years
when they abound) great quantities of them make their ap-
pearance, and again after a short time disappear; but if May

* The following account, which appeared in most of the leading journals
at the time, is copied from the ‘ English Churchman’ of Sept. 2, 1852
(No. 505, vol. x. p. 575).—TR.

* Extraordinary Phenomenon.—A lover of natural history, who was in
Romney Marsh on Tuesday the 17th ult., about 5 p.M., gives the following :
—‘ I saw what appeared to be a column of smoke approaching me, about a
quarter of a mile off. Onthe column reaching me, | found it was composed
of red ant-flies. I think the column was a good quarter of a mile in length,
and about from 50 to 100 yards in circumference : it quite darkened the
sky. After it passed me it went over the river Rother, into which millions
and millions of flies fell; and when I crossed it, the water was quite
black. I watched the column for a mile and a half, and, notwithstanding
the numbers left in the river, and on the trees, hedges, &c. over which it
passed, the column appeared undiminished, and lke a wreath of dark
smoke. The extraordinary thing is, that the ant-fiies throughout the whole
marsh, thirty miles in length (as I hear it was so all through the marsh), should
all have taken wing at the same time, and collected together in such vast
numbers. A man who was collecting ant-eggs for me, informs me that
he found himself covered with them, running up to the tops of the strands
of grass and then taking wing. After the fiight he scarcely found one ant-
fly in the nests. Other persons who saw the flight, and who I do not
believe intended to exaggerate, considered the length of the column to be
amile. The wind was in the east, the temperature very sultry, and there
was every appearance of a thunder-storm. Had not my man observed the
ant-flies rise from the ground, I should have thought that they came from
the Continent. The column travelled at the rate of five or six miles an
hour. Those persons fond of natural history will find an interesting
account of these flights, and the reason, in the 2nd volume of Kirby and
Spence, pp. 51, 52.’—Sussex Express.”

‘Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 211

proves rainy, their flights are spread over a much longer
period, and are thus less numerous. The great ant-swarms
of August 1849 lead us by no means therefore to admit, that
in that year an unusually great number of ants were produced ;
but make it only most evident to every one, how populous
the Ant-tribe must be to send out such myriads of winged
individuals, from any two of which a new colony might spring.
Nor must we at the same time overlook that these winged
ants form but by far the smaller portion of the colony, and
that an infinitely greater number of unwinged ones remain be-
hind in the nests. These creatures not ouly thus abound with
us in the lowlands, but are met with here and there up in the
higher Alps (up to 8000 feet above the sea), as they are also
found in higher northern latitudes ; Lapland, for instance, even
possessing thirteen kinds. Still, in warmer countries they are
met with in much greater numbers and more varied forms than
with us. Thus they have their home all over the world, and
everywhere belong to the most numerously constituted tribes of
living creatures. The same condition existed also remarkably in
the old world. We are already made acquainted with eighty-
three kinds of Ants belonging to a former epoch, from the ter-
tiary formation only ; although but two localities (Hiningen and
Radoboj) have been more closely examined in this respect.
These creatures therefore in all ages formed a very important sec-
tion in the insect world. They must consequently perform a part
of the highest importance in the ceconomy of Nature. In Nature
all is motion: unbroken continual production and destruction.
Many animals, indeed, in all classes are appoimted to destroy
and carry away dead substances, and thus prepare again organic
matter for new combinations. This office has been assigned to
the ants also. They work up and destroy, with industry become
proverbial, the productions of the vegetable and animal king-
doms. Though the chief bent of their activity is destructive,
yet is it, through its operativeness in breaking up and clearing
away, besides making preparation for new forms, of the greatest
importance in Nature’s collective household. And a good deal
of the mischief, too, charged upon ants is very unjustly placed to
their account ; as when with us people maintain that they do
harm to fruit-trees, and try therefore to drive them from their
trees. Our species however only hurt the trees when they
build their nests amongst their roots ; but the trees themselves,
as in general all plants, they only ascend to collect honey from
the flowers, and to search for Aphides, whose sweet juices they
lick off. Into our houses they seldom intrude, and the harm
they do in them is, in fact, inconsiderable. In warm countries,
on the other hand, the case is very different. There, ants are
14

212 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

found which not only cause much harm to cultivation, but also
force their way in enormous companies into the dwellings of
man, and thus become terrible pests of the country. One of
these kinds I had opportunity last year in Madeira to become
acquainted with. At first, by the ravages which it caused in my
dwelling, it occasioned me many annoyances; but afterwards,
when I began to pay attention to its habits, it afforded me much
amusement. I communicate these observations in the hope that
they will induce some of our young friends to institute similar
ones themselves, for which the richness of our environs in insects
affords such manifold opportunity.

In the accompanying Plate (III.) is figured the small minute
Madeiran Ant. TFig.1. represents the female, fig. 11. the male ;
figs. 111. & ry. the neuters, which present two very distinct forms.
The one (fig. 111.) has a remarkably large head ; it is larger than
all the rest of the body, and gives the little creature a most
extraordinary appearance ; in the other, the head is much smaller
and nearly circular. These small-headed ants are the working-
class of the colony, and form the mass of its population; we
shall therefore call them the labourers or workers. The large-
headed ants can scarcely amount to ;j5th of these, and serve
partly for the defence of the nest ; we shall therefore distinguish
them by the name of soldiers, from the rest. In still smaller
number appear the females, which not only are much larger than
the labourers, but are also distinguished by their transparent
glassy wings and shining brown colour. The males are not much
bigger than the labourers, and of a coal-black colour. Accord-
ingly, with these ants the family consists of four quite different-
looking individuals: of workers, soldiers, males, and females.
This ant-colony is consequently further developed than those of
our species, in which only one form of neuters (the common
wingless ants) occurs.

The house-ant lives in very numerous societies, under stones
in the ground, and also under the bark of trees, and within the
walls of houses. The stones serve them, in common with all
ants living in the ground, in place of a roof for shelter. Their
nests go down pretty deep into the earth, and are divided into a
great number of passages and chambers. They have several
entrances, which are sometimes covered over, and run like
burrows under the stones. Not unfrequently they form their
nests in flower-pots standing before the windows and on the
balconies.

They are found on the whole south side of the island of
Madeira, up to a height of about 1000 feet above the sea, in
incalculable numbers, especially in hot sunny places. In turnmg
over ten stones in such places, these ants are pretty sure to be

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 213

living under eight. In the city of Funchal there can scarcely be
a house which does not harbour millions of these creatures,
which mount up to the highest stones, issue forth in whole
troops out of the chinks of the walls and floor, and in orderly
regular columns traverse the room in all directions. They creep
up the table legs, along their edges, upon the tables themselves,
and even into chests of drawers, boxes, &e. Bemg extremely
small, they can get in through the smallest cracks and holes.
You may kill thousands on thousands, and yet perceive no de-
erease of them; they are continually replaced by new hosts in
the rear. Only after very heavy rains, during which the water
that came down in torrents made its way between the walls of
our house, did we observe some sort of diminution, which we
thought might indicate that a large number had been drowned.
I found these ants however not only in Madeira, but also at
Seville, in the rooms of our hotel in the middle of the city.
This little creature is attached to no particular kind of food ;
in houses it attacks all sorts of provisions laid in store, especially
preferring sweet things (sugar, honey, syrup, preserved fruits) ;
but not less also fresh fleshy fruits of all kinds. If you leave
on the table a custard-apple, a lemon, or an orange, having only
the smallest opening possible through the rind, you may safely
reckon that in an hour’s time it will be full of ants, going to
and fro in whole trains. But if there be no opening in the
fruit, it is then safe. It would be indeed an easy matter for the
ants to gnaw through the leathery coats; but the essential oils,
which they plentifully contain, appear to protect them; for all
insects are known to avoid these oils. They seem to prefer flesh
to vegetable substances. Raw and boiled meat is eagerly sought
by them ; but insects are very decidedly preferred. I had great
trouble to guard my collections of insects from them. At first
they made their way in numbers into the boxes, and my painfully
collected treasures were grievously mutilated by them, until I
found a means to make them more secure from them. They do
not however seek after dead insects only, but attack also the
living. Very droll it is to see how these tiny httle creatures
seize on flies! Let a fly settle on the table-cover near an ant,
and at once the latter springs upon it, seizing it by a leg. The
fly tries instantly to get free from its enemy and escape; but the
ant has grappled on to the table-cover by its legs, and with its
pincers holds the fly fast. Other ants soon come to help the
first, and the fly is lost. This is much sooner the case when
soldier-ants are near. These spring at once like cats upon the
fly, and gnaw off first its wings and legs, so that it is then easily
carried off by the labourers. But the soldiers never make the
first seizure ; they are much more cowardly than the labourers,

214 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

and often quit the fly when it makes very active exertions to
shake off its assailants. I have never seen the labourers do so.
Sometimes they cannot, indeed, hold the fly fast, as when it is
on a smooth wall or polished table; but they do not therefore
let go their hold with their pincers, but remain clinging to the
fly’s legs when it flies away. When it again settles, the ant
tries again to hold it, and, with the help of its companions
hastening up, to master it. I often shut up flies and ants
together in glasses, in order to observe this battle of the ants and
flies ; and have frequently had opportunity to satisfy myself with
what extraordinary obstinacy* the labourers pursued the flies
buzzing about, and how so insignificant a wingless little creature
could master a winged one about a hundred times bigger.
General Hardwicke relates, that the ants in India are the worst
enemies of the Termites (the so-called White Ants) ; those also
of Brazil are known to clear the houses of these dangerous
guests. With what keenness our little ant attacks the Termites,
I have more than once had occasion to observe. I had procured
a great number of Termites, and had placed them, with the pieces
of wood in which they lived, in a tin box, which was closed with
a lid. The ants however managed to get into the box through
a small chink, and within two hours the box was swarming with
ants, which had destroyed nearly the whole of the Termites,
amounting to a couple of hundred. But it is still much more
extraordinary that even grasshoppers cannot withstand them. I
had in a box half-a-dozen specimens of the Cape Grasshopper
(Gryllus capensis, Li.), which is abundant in Madeira, in order
to observe their habits and their mode of chirp. To my sur-
prise, I soon discovered that whole troops of ants had crept into
the box, furnished as it was with little air-holes, and had attacked
the grasshoppers. These were hopping restlessly about the box,
and had also bitten and killed whole masses of ants, so that the
bottom of the box was quite covered with their nibbled remnants;
but at last the grasshoppers were forced to yield to hostile num-
bers, and, with the exception of the horny portions, were com-
pletely devoured. How should we be astonished to see an
animal of the size of a mouse hunt elephants, and master them ;
and yet a grasshopper in proportion to our ant is bigger than an
elephant! We can but be grateful to these ants for living in
continual warfare with the flies, and other troublesome inmates
of our houses. But they attack also useful msects. I had

* We have observed also the same obstinacy in our own ants, which
will often rather let themselves be torn in pieces than release an object into
which they have once fixed their jaws. I once saw an ant (Formica fusea)
that had seized by the leg a great courser-beetle (Carabus hortensis),
which, in spite of all its efforts, could not free itself.

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 215

placed in front of my room, on a balcony, a Cactus (Opuntia
Ficus indica*, L.), with cochineal insects, in order to acquaint
myself more closely with the metamorphoses of these wonderful
little creatures. Soon however the ants made their appearance
here also, and, by degrees, ate up all the cochineals. This is a
fact very well worth noting, since our ant must do great imjury
to the cochineal-breeding, which for some years past has become
of the greatest importance to the Canary Islands. At least I
saw this ant very plentiful in cochineal-gardens, where they
ought to be exterminated as much as possible.

The predaceous animals, as a rule, spare those of their own kind.
Strange to say, this is not the case with our ant. In hope of
becoming more closely acquainted with their ceconomy, I placed
four winged females, with two soldiers and six labourers, in a
glass, which was stopped at top, but with a hole in the stopper
just large enough to let the labourers go out and in, but not the
bigger soldiers and females. These therefore were obliged to
remain in the glass, in which was placed sufficient food. The
glass was soon entered by other labourers from without, which
presently attacked the females and tore up their wings. Since
the labourers are said to tear off the females’ wings to prevent
their flying away from the nests, I thought at first the matter
might be thus explained; but in the course of a few days the
females had their antennz and legs also torn off; and at last
we found their heads pulled off, and the labourers busy in
tearing them completely asunder, and in carrying away the
separate pieces out of the place. Strange to say, the females
did not defend themselves in the least, which would however
have been easy for them to do, from their considerably larger
size and stronger fangs. They bore all these attacks with the
greatest, and to us incomprehensible, resignation. Nay more ;
even the soldiers were attacked, and one of them killed; some
of the labourers took all sorts of pains to carry away the head,
and get it through the little hele in the stopper; but through
this it would not pass. Thus individuals of their own species
are killed and eat up when they are found in circumstances in
which they can be no longer profitable, as was the case with
these individuals shut up in the glass. Not unfrequently I saw
ants that had been hurt} carried away by labourers, to which

* Rather O. Tuna (Mill.), D.C., which is the common species in Madeira,
and that on which the Cochineal there usually exists. I do not recollect to
have ever seen the true O. Ficus indica, L., in the island, though O. vulgaris,
Mill., sometimes occurs.—R. T. Lowe.

+ But apparently healthy ants also were sometimes carried off in this way.
Rengger relates the same thing (Reise nach Paraguay, S$. 250) of the sau
ant ((Ecodoma cephalotes, Latr.). ‘The labourers are very often seen,”

216 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

they had affixed themselves by laying hold with their fangs at
the abdominal pedicle. I imagined that they were carrying
them to the nest to nurse them, in the same way as they treat
their young with the greatest care; but the very barbarous
habit above related would make it seem more probable that they
were carried into the nest in order to be there fed upon, as bemg
no more capable of work. With the ants, everything is turned
to the most careful possible advantage of the common stock ; and
this reaches so far, that one of the same species, nay, even of
the same family, is not spared, when it can no longer serve its
purpose.

With this bad propensity, it must seem very strange that any
different sorts of animals should be ever met with im their nests.
Snails, worms, caterpillars, and such like, in general are never
found under the same stone; seldom even a millepede (Julus),
which they however attack only when the nest is disturbed,
and then all the ants of every sort fall with great fury on the
strangers, as if they considered these the cause of the misfortune
which has befallen them. The millepedes then try, with violent
contortions, to get free from the ants that cling to them. But
claiming attention as animals peculiar to ants, are a Coccus, and
a very curious little beetle (Cossyphodes iiollastoni, Westw.),
which is never found elsewhere. I found it first in an ants’-nest
in the country ; but afterwards in the balcony of our apartment,
where an ant-colony had established itself in a tub in which
grew a Diosma alba, L.* I have seen at different times more
examples of the same insect, and always at the entrance of the
nest. For what reason this very peculiar little beetle lives in
these ant-colonies, I am not able to explam. We are acquainted
already with a great number of minute beetles which occur in the
ant-nests of our own country. Some of these (such as the little
club-beetles) are regularly tended by the ants; and, as I have
often satisfied myself, they are carried down into the deeper parts
of the nest with the same care and anxiety as the pupe when
the nest is disturbed; but the others are probably merely
tolerated, without being adopted into the family. The Cossy-
phodes seems to belong to the former class.

says he, “travelling home laden with another of themselves. These are
not chance prisoners from another nest, but they belong to one and the
same household; for the one carried is often bigger than its bearer.
Besides, I have often observed, when two ants were returning home, that
one would lay hold of the other and carry it home. If moreover its load
be taken from one of these carriers and placed on the ground, both travel
then along the same road quietly home.” The like has been observed also
amongst our own ants. (Compare Huber, ‘ Recherches sur les Meeurs des
Fourmis,’ p. 140.)
* Diosma ericoides (Sims), Curt. Bot. Mag. t. 2332.—Tr.

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 217

In order to look more into our ants’ manner of proceeding in
their work, I placed a small wooden vessel in a tumbler of water,
and stretched a thread from the vessel through the air to a ledge
on the wall two feet off, and from this ledge a second thread to
the ground. This thread was perpendicular, the first horizontal.
The ants soon passed along the horizontal thread to the vessel in
the water, on which I had laid a small piece of meat. No sooner
was this discovered, than the ants set to work at it. In a short
time, whole masses poured in. At first they were only labourers,
but presently a few soldiers made their appearance in the train
of the former. The soldiers cut up the meat into little pieces,
drawing up their abdomen into an almost vertical direction, like
that of their head. (Compare fig. 111.3). They presented thus a
most curious appearance, when one looked down from above, and
saw only the middle part of the body and the crown of the head.
The meat was cut up into quite small fragments with their great
hatchet-shaped pincers, being held fast at the same time by the
two fore-legs. The labourers took these fragments between
their pincers, and carried them away. Whole trains passed
along the horizontal thread, and each of those that formed them
had a fragment in its mouth. But the labourers alone were
engaged in this act of transport: I never saw a soldier carrying
away anything. At times, indeed, one or another went back
over the thread, but always without taking anything with him.
The ants soon discovered the perpendicular thread, and found
out that they could get easier to the floor of the room by it than by
the wall ; and thenceforward the whole train always passed along
this perpendicular thread down to the ground, and from thence
to acorner of the room, where they disappeared through a little
hole in the wall. Thus, from the vessel in the water they first
passed along the horizontal thread to the wall, where they had
to run along a ledge, and then arrived at the perpendicular
thread, which reached down to the ground. The thread was
always thickly crowded with ants, some passing downwards laden
with fragments, the others empty, mounting upwards; and the
up and down passers always arranged in files, so as not to disturb
each other mutually in their way. More than once I placed ants,
which I had fetched out of another room, in the vessel in the
water. These also soon found, indeed, the thread leading to the
wall; but there they dispersed themselves on all sides; whilst
the others, without stopping, always ran to the perpendicular
thread. This gave me a ready means of ascertaining whether
ants from different nests came into my room or not. A closer in-
vestigation proved the first to be the case. It turned out that all
the ants which resorted to the vessel in the water to fetch food,
belonged to one colony, as well as all which appeared on the

218 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

table on which the vessel stood; and that, on the other hand,
those which were destroying the fruit on the window-seat, must
belong to another nest. From this, however, I could not quite
draw the conclusion, that one ant-colony, when it has fallen in
with a prize, excludes another from a share in it. At least I
have never seen them fighting with each other, which in such a
case would scarcely not have happened. Probably all provision
that may be discovered is considered common property, and each
party keeps as much of it as it can carry away. But if once a
nest has taken entire possession of a thing, then probably the
others keep aloof, and leave it altogether to the first. Here, too,
it is to be considered, that ants clearly have a sort of power of
communication ; for let only a single labourer discover a supply,
and without delay there appears a whole troop of ants to work at
it. We cannot otherwise explain this circumstance to ourselves,
than that the explormg labourer had gone back into the nest,
and thence procured help. It would be in consequence of this
circumstance that, as a rule, ants of the same nest are always
collected for a common work.

That ants have memory, Huber has already pointed out; and
the following observation wouid also confirm it:—One of my
fellow-lodgers had arranged in his room a similar apparatus to
that which I have described above; only in this, from the middle
of the horizontal thread, which was several feet long, a second
shorter thread was carried to the nearest wall. The ants soon
chose this last road; thus going from the vessel in the water
to the middle of the horizontal thread, and thence to the wall
over the thread at right angles to it. After some time this last
was removed. At first all the ants stopped suddenly, exactly at
the place where, before, the thread that led sideways was fastened,
and ran no farther along the horizontal thread. They had there-
fore observed closely for themselves the place whence the side-
thread had branched off, though it had no sort of mark. At last,
after having run restlessly backwards and forwards for some time,
they tried to proceed further on the thread, and thus arrived at
the wall, where they collected together in a cluster, having thence
to seek the way for themselves. Perhaps too the fact here
communicated may be explained by the faculty of tracking in
ants. The dog tracks out, as is well known, the way which
his master has taken toa great distance; and so the ant, perhaps,
possesses a like fine “scent,” which enables it to find again with
certainty the way along which it has once passed. As above
noticed, the larger pieces of meat placed in the vessel were torn
up on the spot into scraps of pretty equal size, such as a single
labourer could well transport ; in like manner were grasshoppers
and larger insects also dealt with; but dead flies, which were

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 219

placed in the vessel, were not divided, but carried off quite
entire. To ascertain the strength of these little creatures, I tied
with a thread first two, then three and four dead window-flies
together, and they dragged even this load of four flies first to the
perpendicular piece of wood to which the level thread was
fastened, aloft, then horizontally along this, and then down the
perpendicular thread till they brought it to the hole in the wall.
Here the flies were first pulled in pieces, because the hole was
too small to let them be carried through it entire. This carriage
of the flies over the thread stretched through the air, was ex-
tremely droll to see. A single fly would sometimes be dragged
away by only two ants; on the load of four flies were mostly
from six to twelve labourers employed. Most of these had laid
hold with their fangs in front, and pulled, going backwards, at
the load; the rest had fastened on the other side, and pushed,
going forwards, in a straight direction, holding on meantime by
their legs to the thread. The motion forwards was always by
short impulses ; on each jerk there followed a longer or shorter
rest. Men are well known to do the same in shoving along a
great load: when several share the work, it is always managed
by a cry (Yo ho), that all may lay hold at once, and so bring
equally to bear the force applied. A like co-operation im these
ants could not but be discerned: the hinder pushed at the same
time as the front ones pulled, and at the same time they left off
and rested for an instant together. But by what kind of means
this unanimity in their operations was attained, I was not able
to discover. The most remarkable thing moreover was, that
sometimes all let go together, and a single one held the whole
load in suspension. Here therefore again some agreement must
have taken place, for not one fly ever fell to the ground: there
was always an ant ready to hold on: but had all left loose at the
same time, the load must have naturally fallen down. The load
was altogether held by the fangs only; with their legs the ants
clung fast to the thread, wherein the peculiar curvature of the
first joint of the foot, and the remarkable claw (see fig. 1. 6 5, ec)
corresponding thereto, had each essentially their share. Thus a
single, and that an unusually minute ant, was able, hanging to
a thread, to support four flies. What immense muscular power
in the fangs and legs does this display !*

Whilst the ants were transporting this burden, they were not
easily disturbed at their work; whilst otherwise they quickly
run off when they are meddled with. For example, if one lifts
up a fruit full of ants, or shakes it, they hurry out as fast as

* A house-ant (dried) weighs 3, of a milligramme; but four window-

flies (also dried) 18,8, of a milligramme. Thus this ant was able to bear
a load 376 times its own weight.

220 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

possible. They do not go back to their nest, but hide themselves
in some cranny, or else under some near object ; but as soon as
the danger is over, they come out again, and betake themselves
afresh to their work. On such occasions one may satisfy oneself
that they do not see far. On taking away from an ant the
morsel it is carrying, it seeks about for it for some time, running
hastily in zigzags up and down; but at times stopping still, and
lifting its head up in the air. When placed at the distance of some
inches, the ant does not go straight up to it, as would be the
case if it could see it, but runs round about in different direc-
tions, and only when at the distance of about an inch, springs
forward on it, as if seeming then to have first seen it. If we
examine the eye of this ant, we shall find that (as, however,
generally in all ants) it is of simple structure, as in most other
insects, and only consisting of a small number of lenses (Ocellen).

In order to see whether these ants would try to pass over water,
IT several times destroyed the connexion formed by the thread
between the vessel in the water and the wall, so that the ants
which happened to be in the vessel were quite cut off. If there
was a scum formed over the water (which is always the case
when the water has stood some time, a thin film spreading over
the water from the falling dust), then they tried to run away
over it; a few got quite safe over, when the film could bear
them; but others broke through and were drowned. But I
never saw such a number fallen into the water that a bridge was
formed by the dead bodies, as is related of other sorts of ants,
and that by this means they reach vessels of provisions placed in
water.

The work of these little creatures goes on alike day and night;
and if you look after them during the day, or in the night, or
early in the morning, you see always the same stirring activity.
Hence they seem to observe no fixed resting-times, at least none
in connexion with the change of day and night. This is also
the case with most of our own native ants, of which Pliny already
relates that they work by moonlight. These however hyber-
nate. The ants of warm countries, and so of Madeira, on the
contrary, do not. One of our own kinds (Formica fusca, L.) is
also found there, and it too continues the whole winter in activity.
Our house-ant is found throughout the whole year in nearly
equal abundance. The males and females probably appear at
the end of summer. Of the former I found only a single example,
whilst females were found in several nests till the new year. In
most cases it might well be that I observed none, because they
keep in the deeper parts of the nest. The females lay minute
little white eggs, out of which proceed little white maggots; the
pupe are free, not enclosed in cases, as In our commen ants

Prof. O. Ileer on the House Ant of Madeira. 221

(Formica), which pwpa-cases with us are falsely called ants’ eggs.
The soldiers are met with in the nests in proportionally greater
numbers than outside; they appear therefore to be provided
for the work within the nest and its defence, whilst the labourers
procure food and take care of the young. At least it is these
which carry away the pupze when the nest is disturbed. That
the soldiers however go out also with the labourers, and are
serviceable to them in their operations on the treasures they dis-
cover, has already been mentioned. Lacordaire (Introduction
i PEntomologie, ii. 498) relates of the Train-ant* ((%codoma
cephalotes, Latr.) of Bengal, that the soldiers accompany the
trains, without mixing with the mass of the army. Stationed
at the sides of the column, they are to be seen marching for-
wards, then again turning back to an earlier occupied post,
halting a moment to see the train file past, and running hastily
up and dow n, especially if a stoppage anywhere occurs, and
their help be necessary. Nay, they will often, as Lacordaire
relates, climb up the plants near the train, station themselves on
the edges of the leaves, and from this elevated post imspect the
train of their troops. In our Madeiran ants the soldiers play
no such prominent part, always marching along in the same
rank and file as the labourers.

All that we have said above relates to one kind of ant only,
the Cicophthora pusilla; but im hot countries there are whole
numbers of species which have similar habits, and which come
into hostile collision with man. In Brazil this is so much the
case, that the mhabitants there say, “The ants are the queens
of Brazil, for they have the most power in the country.” One of
the largest and most dangerous kinds, which is spread over the
whole of tropical America, continental as well as insular (e. g.
Cuba, from whence we have specimens), is the Traim-ant ((co-
doma cephalotes, Latr.). The female is bigger than our hive-bee ;
the labourers about twice as big as those of our red wood-ant.
It lives in very populous colonies in the ground, into which they
dig their dwellings, sometimes nine feet deep. It marches in
great regular trains, and on its course strips bare of leaves, often
in a short time, trees and shrubs. Rengger relates of the Isau
ant (which I do not consider different from the train-ant ), that
in one night many millions, mhabitants of a single nest, levelled
to the ground whole plantations of manioc, maize, potatoes,
melons, garden-stuff, &c. Having rapidly ascended the plants
which they intend to plunder, they place themselves at the

* Visitor-ant, Ang].—Tr.
+ From specimens seen by me in Rengger’s Collection.

222 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

edges of the leaves, and with their fangs cut out ina short time a
piece of about half the size of a farthing, which they then directly
carry home. If,as very often happens, the piece falls to the ground
before they have been able to lay hold of it, they set themselves at
once afresh to work, and do not go down to look after the fallen
piece. It has been maintained, that the Isau throws this piece on
purpose to the ground to save itself and its fellow-labourers the
trouble of carrying it down. But this is by no means the case ;
for the ants approaching from the nest pay no heed to these
pieces of leaf, though the ground is often quite strewed with
them, but each for itself bites its own piece out of a leaf whilst yet
attached to the plant. This communication of the close observer
Rengger serves to correct earlier statements, that the Train-ant
bites the leaves off at the stalk, and lets them fall to the ground,
where their companions stand ready to clip up the fallen leaves
and carry them home. This stripping process is often so rapidly
effected, that sometimes in the morning trees look like besoms
which the evening before were standing in their whole beauty of
foliage ; nay, Lund relates, that he has seen a tree stripped within
half-an-hour. Dr. Delacour speaks of a similar species, which
sometimes in New Spain robs a garden of its whole crop of
plants in one night. One of his acquaintance had planted a
very fine vineyard: at the end of three years the ants made their
appearance, and, in the space of one night, it was despoiled of
the whole of its leaves and destroyed.

The Train-ant properly lives in the open air; but sometimes it
makes inroads in regular trains, like a great army, into houses,
where it immediately makes chase after the flies, the spiders, cock-
roaches, and all vermin generally. However useful this activity,
yet is it so troublesome a guest, that those who live in the house
are not unfrequently obliged to leave their dwelling for some time.
When these ants swarm, the females are caught in great quan-
tities; the abdomen is cut off, fried in butter, and esteemed
a delicacy. Eaten undressed, its taste, says Rengger, is like
that of a hazel-nut; and when slightly toasted, or covered
thick with syrup, it tastes like burnt and sugared almonds.
The Train-ant does not attack people; but this is by no means
the case with certain other American species. Dr. Delacour
speaks of a little reddish-yellow kind, which, by its sharp bite
causing inflammation, is very dangerous to little children. His
own child, twenty months old, once, in the middle of the night,
awakened him by a violent shriek; on examination he found it
covered by a crowd of ants, which had bitten it so violently,
that in the morning it was quite covered with pustules, and for
forty-eight. hours lay in a violent fever. The same kind is a

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 223

great enemy to young chickens, and makes it in many places
very difficult to rear them. But still more dangerous, according
to Dr. Delacour, are some of the wood-ants. In the year 1834,
he says, a young man of respectable family, resting under a tree
on the way from Tampico to Mexico, was attacked by the ants
and completely eaten up. On the following day nothing was
found but his skeleton, with the clothes. A similar accident he
relates also to have happened in the year 1838; nay, he had once
himself nearly fallen a victim to these creatures. In a forest near
Turpan he had been Jeaning for a few minutes against the trunk of
a tree, when all at once he was so violently bitten in all parts of
the body, that he would have sunk down under the violence of
the pain had not two of his hunting companions come up,
stripped off immediately his clothes, and freed him from his
enemies. In Paraguay, also, a species (Odontomachus) is found,
which, when it makes its appearance, puts the inhabitants there
into fear and terror. According to Rengger (‘ Reise nach
Paraguay,’ 8. 262) it appears all at once in great companies, and
attacks men as well as beasts; crickets, spiders, grasshoppers
are immediately torn by them in pieces. I have, says Dr.
Rengger, seen mice, covered with these insects, leave their hole
in torture; young mice, which have been eaten up by them in
their nest ; lizards, and even snakes, flying before them. They
attack people in their sleep, and gnaw them till the pain awakens
them. Dr. Rengger saw a drunken mulatto whose eyebrows,
partly during his own presence, as well as eyelashes, these beasts
entirely eat off, and also gnawed the skin of his face to the quick.
Two of his patients were attacked by these creatures in their
bed, and one of them died soon after, partly in consequence of
the fright.

In tropical Africa, also, certain ants occur which prove ex-
tremely troublesome to man. The most exact information we
possess about them is that afforded by Mr. Savage concerning
the Driver-ant (Anomma arcens, Westw.), which is found on the
west coast of Africa. It is a little black ant, with very sharp
and pointed fangs; and the neuters also present two forms, one
smaller (the labourers) and another larger (the soldiers). The
have no fixed dwelling, but seek their lodging in shallow hollows
under roots of trees, overhanging rocks, and such like, where
they find shade. The direct rays of the sun being fatal to them,
they only come out on cloudy days and by night. If surprised
by the sun at their work, they build over their path a vault with
earth, which they glue together with their saliva. At other
times the soldiers form a vault over the path for the shelter of
the labourers. At the rainy season, if their places of abode are

224, Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

inundated, they form themselves into a round cluster; the young,
with the weaker ones, within, the stronger on the outside, and
thus float about till they come to dry land. If they fall in with
a broad piece of water in the way, they form, by laying hold of
each other, a chain across the water, along which the rest pass
as over a bridge. The Train-ant is also said to do the same.
Madame Merian relates the process thus :—The first ant places
itself on a little bit of wood, and holds fast on to it by its fangs ;
a second lays hold of the first, a third in hke manner of the
second, and so on. In this way they let themselves be
wafted over by the wind, until the last of the chain reaches the
other side, and then at once they pass over the bridge by thou-
sands. The Driver-ant often forms similar chains from the twigs
of trees to the ground. Their food consists principally of animals,
and they kill large-sized ones; even the gigantic snake (Python
natalensis) is exposed to their attacks. Their first assault is
directed on the creature’s eyes; and, when surprised by them,
their immense numbers win the day. They make their way into
houses in crowds by night, when a universal fight of rats,
mice, lizards, beetles, and other vermin, announces their arrival,
and the inmates are obliged to leave their beds and take to flight
into the open air.

Amongst the Ants of India, the Formica indefessa, Sykes, 1s
spoken of as destructive in houses ; and Lieut. Sykes has fur-
nished (Transact. of the Entomol. Soc. of London, p. 104) some
interesting observations, from which we shall extract the following
in particular :—A table laid out with sweets and dishes had its
legs placed in a vessel of water, and the water covered with oil of
turpentine, making it impossible for the ants to reach the legs
of the table. The table stood however near the wall, so that
the larger ants, holding on by their hind-legs to the wall, could
reach the table with their fore-legs and thus get upon it. The
table was therefore drawn further back; but now the ants went
a foot higher up the wall than the level of the table, and jumped
down upon it from the wall, never falling between the table and
the wall to the ground, but always alighting on the table.

In New Holland there are in particular two kinds of Kezton
(EZ. gulosum and E. forficatum, Latr.) which are much dreaded,
from their appearing in great numbers, and for their violent bite.
They are distinguished by their long and straight fangs.

[To be continued. ]

Mr. W. H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea. = 225

XVII.--Characters of seventeen new forms of the Cyclostomacea
from the British Provinces of Burmah, collected by W. Theo-
bald, jun., Esq. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

1. Alyceus pyramidalis, n. s.

Testa perforata, pyramidato-conica, leeviuscula, confertim oblique ar-
cuato-striatula, albido-carnea, apicem versus rubella; spira pyra-
midata, sutura valde impressa, apice obtusiusculo ; anfractibus 5}
valde convexis, ultimo postice inflato, tum constricto, deinde sub-
tumido, aperturam versus latiori, tubulo calloso, elongato, retro-
verso, suturali, pone constrictionem oriente, munito ; apertura ob-
liqua, subcirculari ; peristomate duplici, interno continuo, expan-
siusculo, externo expanso, reflexiusculo, anfractu penultimo bre-
vissime angulatim adnato, superne antice sinuato, tum arcuato, ad
umbilicum leviter emarginato. Operculo 4

Long. 12, axis 10, lat. 10 mill.

Hab. raro ad collem Therabuin, vallis Tenasserim.

Nearly related to the Cochin-Chinese Alyceus gibbus, Fér.,
but easily to be distinguished by its more pyramidal growth,
and by the greater length of the spire in proportion to the
breadth of the last whorl, its more symmetrical proportions,
sculpture, &c. The origin of the sutural tube is abont 4 milli-
meters from the anterior margin of the aperture. This shell
was met with at no other place in the district, and seemed
restricted to a spot of a few acres in circumference. The hill is
of limestone, steeply scarped and almost inaccessible. Three
species of Helix occurred there which were similarly deficient
elsewhere.

2. Alyceus umbonalis, n. s.

Testa late umbilicata, depressa, subdiscoidea, confertim acute ar-
cuatim costulata, cinereo-albida, apicem versus obtusulum, rubel-
lum vel nigrum, rubescente ; spira brevi, sutura profunda ; anfrac-
tibus 44 convexis, ultimo ad latus, spiraliter rugoso-cancellatum,
inflato, tum constricto, deinde tumidiusculo, tubulum retroversum,
elongatum suturalem pone constrictionem gerente ; apertura valde
obliqua, circulari, undata, peristomate duplici, interiori continuo,
expanso, nitidissimo, prope umbilicum sinuato, exteriori expanso,
incrassato, ad anfractum penultimum breviter interrupto ; umbilico
perspectivo. Operculo corneo-fusco, multispirato, anfractuum mar-
ginibus scabre elevatis, extus profunde concavo, intus convexiusculo,
nitidissimo, suleo marginato, umbone centrali papillari munito.

Diam. major 10, minor 8, axis 5 mill.

Hab. ad Akaouktong, prope ripas fluvii Irawadi, nec raro.

As the last-mentioned species exhibited a Cochin-Chinese
form, so does this shell represent, on a larger scale, the little
Western Himalayan species A. strangulatus, Hutton. The sca-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 15

226 Mr. W.H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea.

brous cancellation of the inflated part only of the last whorl is
an unusual feature, no trace of the spiral rug appearing else-
where on the whorls.

The origin of the sutural tube is about 4 millimeters from the
aperture. The shell has much affinity with the Bornean Alyceus
Spiracellum, A. & R., which has a somewhat similar operculum.
Dr. Pfeiffer informs me that it is an Alyceus, and not a Ptero-
cyclos, as conjectured by him before he had an opportunity of
inspecting the shell.

3. Alyceus Amphora, n. s.

Testa anguste umbilicata, ovato-globosa, exilissime costulato-striata,
angie -carnea, versus apicem acutiusculum rubella; spira conica,
sutura subprofunda ; ; anfractibus 4 convexis, ultimo inflato, juxta
aperturam constricto, tubulo suturali longissimo prope peristoma
oriente ; apertura verticali; peristomate duplici, continuo, interiori
breviter porrecto, intus pallide aurantiaco, exteriori expanso, stri-
atulo, incrassato; umbilico intus spiraliter striato, margine com-
pressiusculo. Operculo

Long. 53, diam. obliq. 5 mill.

Hab. ad Moulmein, et in valle Tenasserim raro.

The shell occurs also of a smaller size. It approaches in form
the Sikkim A. Urnula, nobis, but has a more globose aspect.
The extreme length of the sutural tube is remarkable ; it extends
so far round the last whorl as to be visible from the front on
both sides of the shell. The aperture occupies about half the
height of the specimen.

4. Alyceus sculptilis, n. s.

Testa late umbilicata, turbinata, subtrochiformi, acute costulata ; spira
conica, sutura profunda, apice attenuato, acutiusculo ; anfractibus
5 convexis, ultimo ad latus inflato eo costulis confertissimis munito,
tum constricto, antice leviori, tumido, tubulo suturali mediocri,
ab apertura remoto, incumbente, circa umbilicum obtuse angulato,
intus concaviusculo; apertura obliqua, circulari ; peristomate du-
plici, interiori subporrecto, incrassato, margine superne profunde
inciso, interiori dextrali interne crenulato vel denticulato, externo
incrassato, expanso, reflexiusculo, superne incrassato prominente,
ab anfractu penultimo sinu profundo separato. Operculo

Diam. 33, axis 2+ mill.

Hab. raro ad Thyet-Mio prope fluvium Irawadi, non procul a finibus
provincize Burmanicze Britannice.

The specimen is much weathered, and has lost all its colour,
so that I am unable to describe that part of its character. It
presents a new form in the genus, and exhibits peculiar cha-
racters in the slit inside the aperture at its upper part, and in

Mr. W. H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea. 227

the crenulation or denticulation along the callous interior of the
right lip. ‘The teeth are twelve in number, and are disposed in
pairs. The incision resembles that observable in some of the
species of Pterocyclos, and there is a slight disposition towards
the formation of a wing.

5. Alyceus armillatus, n. s.

Testa umbilicata, depresso-turbinata, costulata ; spira conoidea, su-
tura impressa, apice obtuso; anfractibus 33 convexis, ultimo ad
latus inflato, confertius costulato, tum constricto, antice tumido,
leeviori, tubulo suturali brevi, ab apertura remoto, munito ; aper-
tura obliqua circulari, peristomate duplici, interno valde porrecto,
continuo, margine simplici, extus striato, exteriori expanso, re-
flexiusculo ; umbilico subaperto. Operculo i:

Diam. major 2, minor 14, axis 13 mill.

Hab. ad Thyet-Mio cum precedente.

The exterior expanded peristome, forming a conspicuous collar
round the porrect interior portion, is the most prominent cha-
racter in this very minute species. The only specimen received
is in a weathered condition, and so much bleached that the
colour of the perfect shell cannot be ascertained.

Five new forms have here been added to this curious restricted
genus, which now contains nine species, three of which are
Himalayan, one Cochin-Chinese, and one (A. Spiracellum, A. &
R.) from Borneo. The Ultra-Gangetic region must at present be
considered the head-quarters of the type.

6. Pterocyclos pullatus, n. s.

Testa aperte umbilicata, convexo-depressa, confertim radiato-stri-
atula, nigrescente-castanea, superne strigis luteo-albidis, fulguratis,
fasciaque saturata ornata; spira convexa, sutura profunda, apice
prominulo; anfractibus 43 convexis, ultimo longe descendente,
subtus convexo ; apertura vix obliqua, circulari; peristomate du-
plici, interiori breviter porrecto, superne sinu mediocri latiusculo,
interrupto, exteriori vix expansiusculo, superne alam subrevolutam
semicucullatam, antice breviter descendentem obtusam, ab anfractu
penultimo distantem efformante; umbilico mediocri, profundo,
perspectivo. Operculo intus concavo, extus concaviusculo, seabro ;
anfractuum marginibus elevatis; margine laterali lato, lamellis
acutis spiralibus munito.

Diam. major 13, minor 114, axis 6 mill.

Hab. ad Akaouktong, prope fluvium Irawadi, satis frequens.

The less depth of the interior hollow of the operculum and
the structure of the wing show a departure from the typical
species of Pterocyclos, which becomes more apparent in the

southern form next to be described.
15*

228 Mr. W.H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea.

7. Pterocyclos Cetra, nu. s.

Testa late umbilicata, orbiculato-depressa, capillaceo-striatula, luteo-
cornea, strigis radiatis, subremotis, irregularibus, ornata; spira
planata, sutura impressa, apice vix prominulo ; anfractibus 5 con-
vexiusculis angustis, ultimo breviter descendente ; apertura obliqua,
circulari, peristomate duplici, interiori continuo, breviter porrecto,
superne breviter emarginato, exteriori expanso, incrassato, superne
lingua obtusa vix descendente, sinu profundo ab anfractu penul-
timo separata, munito; umbilico lato, non profundo, omnes an-
fractus exhibente, margine subangulato. Operculo

Diam. major 13, minor 10, axis 4 mill.

Haé. ad Moulmein, et in valle Tenasserim satis frequens.

8. Cyclophorus ? scissimargo, 0. s.

Testa umbilicata, globoso-turbinata, sub epidermide cornea albida,
strigis distantibus angulatis picta, radiato-striata, striis exilissimis
et lineis elevatis remotis spiralibus, his quidem ciliatis, cancellata ;
spira conica, sutura profunda, apice obtusiusculo, nigrescente ;
anfractibus 5 convexis; apertura obliqua, subcirculari, superue
leviter angulari, peristomate duplici, exteriori et interiori acutis,
sulco separatis, margine columellari emarginato, parietali adnato,
superne breviter anguste inciso ; umbilico profundo, anguste per-
spectivo. Operculo

Diam. major 7, minor 54, alt. 7 mill.

Hab. ad Phie Than vallis Tenasserim, raro occurrens.

This little species, which has some affinity to C. triliratus, Pix..
is singular on account of the incision which appears in the
parietal margin near its junction with the right lip, a feature
not observed in any other species of the Cyclostomacea. It is
with some hesitation therefore that, in the absence of an oper-
culum, I refer it to Cyclophorus, although the general habit of
the shell bears out the location.

9. Cyclophorus Calyz, nu. s.

Testa late umbilicata, orbiculato- depressa, radiato-striatula, albida,
strigis castaneis radiatis superne picta; spira planata, sutura im-
pressa, apice vix prominulo ; anfractibus 43 convexiusculis, ultimo
compresso, subtus, circa umbilicum minime profundum, latum,
angulato ; apertura obliqua, circulari, peristomate duplici, continuo,
breviter pla externo incrassato, superne expanso, angulato.
Operculo

Diam. major 10, minor 8, axis 3 mill.

Hab. ad Akaouktong, prope ripas fluminis Irawadi.

The flattened depressed form of this shell, and the angular
expansion of the outer peristome at the top of the aperture,

Mr. W. H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea. 229

render it easy of recognition among the depressed and widely
umbilicate forms of Cyclophorus.

10. Leptopoma aspirans, n. s.

Testa perforata, globoso-conica, acuminata, tenui, translucente, ob-
lique et spiraliter exilissime striata, lineis elevatis 6 spiralibus,
zequidistantibus, superne munita, albido-cornea, fasciis fuscis vel
strigis angulatis castaneis ornata; spira acuminato-conica, sutura
impressa, apice acutiusculo ; anfractibus 5} convexis, ultimo ad
peripheriam carinato, subtus leviori ; apertura obliqua, subcir-
culari, peristomate tenui, horizontaliter breviter patente, marginibus
callo tenui junctis, columellari leviter emarginato. Operculo ut in
genere.

Diam. major 11, minor 9, alt. 12 mill., apert. 6} mill. longa.

Had. in valle Tenasserim.

In form it most nearly approaches L. vitreum, Qu., but has a
more acuminate spire. Its sculpture has greater resemblance to
that of the more globose and depressed Bornean species, L. seri-
catum, Pfr. The smaller specimens have a more conical and
trochiform appearance than the larger ones.

11. Megalomastoma gravidum, un. s.

Testa perforata, pupiformi, distorta, solida, leviuscula, vix striatula,
fusco-albida ; spira distorto-ovata, sutura marginata, apice conoideo-
obtuso ; anfractibus 6 convexis, penultimo elongato supra aper-
turam planato, dorso gibbo, ultimo angustiori, antice subito ascen-
dente ; apertura leviter sursum spectante, circulari, fauce fusca,
peristomate albido, incrassato, superne angulato, expansiusculo,
reflexiusculo, intus late sulcato, tum calloso-marginato, callo inte-
riori dextrorsum superne angulato-sinuato, sutura canalis obsoleti
ad angulum anticum raro apparente.

Long. 35 mill., diam. anfr. penult. 20 mill.

Hab. ad Moulmein.

In the obsolete channel, occasionally visible at the top of the
aperture, this shell has possibly some relation to Gould’s WM. sec-
tilabre. The indentation, invariably present in the internal callus
of the aperture, seems to have some reference to the obliterated
channel, and shows a passage to the Pupine. The form has a
great resemblance to that of the gigantic P. grandis, Forbes
(Forbesi, Pfr.), which it exceeds in size. As in that shell, the
great length of the penultimate whorl, above the aperture, con-
trasts with the shortness of the same part in the allied species
M. Chrysallis, Pfr., which does not appear in the collection.

The specimens received are weathered, and may possibly, in a
perfect state, exhibit an epidermis and more colour. The oper-
culum is, unfortunately, not forthcoming.

230 Mr. W.H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea.
12. Pupina Arula, n.s.

Testa imperforata, conoideo-ovata, longitudinaliter striatula, nitidis-
sima, fusco-rubella, apice conoideo, acuto, sutura calloso-margi-
nata; anfractibus 6, ultimo spiram subzequante, antice breviter
ascendente; apertura circulari, angulo superiori acuto adjecto,
callo parietali superne lamella intrante munito; columella pro-
funde incisa, canalem extus apparentem, lingua lata parietali ob-
tectum, callisque duobus divergentibus marginatum, exhibente ;
peristomate obtuso, expansiusculo, extus marginato, margine dextro
supra medium arcuato ; basi foveata. Operculo —— ?

Long. 9, diam. 5 mill.

Hab. ad Yunglaw, in valle Tenasserim, raro occurrens.

It has much affinity with P. awrea, Hinds, the superior canal
being rather simulated than actually developed, and being formed
by an angle, at the top of the otherwise circular aperture, cut off
from the lower portion, in part, by the parietal lamina.

13. Pupina artata, n. s.

Testa imperforata, pupiformi, ovato-acuminata, politissima, fusco-
cornea, translucente, vel hyalina ; spira ovato-conoidea, apice obtu-
siusculo, sutura callosa, lineari; anfractibus 5} convexiusculis,
ultimo 1 testee partem superante ; apertura verticali, circulari,
bicanaliculata ; peristomate obtusiusculo, margine parietali superne
linguam acutam, callo verticali elongato, cum margine dextro sub-
parallelo, marginatum, exhibente, infra cum basali canalem incisum,
ascendentem, extus calloso-marginatum, efformante. Operculo tes-
taceo pauci-spirali, concaviusculo, sutura elevata.

Long. 6, diam. 35 mill.

Hab. ad Moulmein satis frequens.

It has some affinity with the Australian species of the genus.

Although the following shell is not Burmese, yet as it is found
in the Ultra-Gangetie portions of the Bengal Provinces, which
are geographically a continuation of the same zoological tract, I
shall give it a place here.

14, Pupina imbricifera, n. s.

Testa imperforata, ventricose ovato-acuta, politissima, fuscescente,
pellucida; spira conica, apice acutiusculo, sutura leviter impressa ;
anfractibus 63 convexiusculis, ultimo spiram eequante, ventri-
cosiori, antice subascendente ; apertura circulari, bicanaliculata,
peristomate pallide carneo, duplici, interno obtuso, breviter por-
recto, externo expanso, subreflexo, superne longe ascendente, mar-
gine parietali calloso linguam acutam, cum margine dextro con-
niventem, et callum verticalem, validum, elongatum, arcuatim
divergentem, cum processu labri exterioris canalem efformantem,

Mr. W. H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea. 231

exhibente, subtus cum basali exteriore canalem incisum, margini-
bus extus callosis, ascendentem, construente. Operculo —— ?
Long. 10, diam. anfract. penult. 5 mill.
Hab. in provincia Bengalensi orientali Sylhet.

This handsome species is singular on account of the great
development of the callus, which runs up the penultimate whorl
two-thirds of its height, forming, with the prolongation of the
outer lip, a channel leading to the incision at the top of the
aperture.

No species of Pupina has hitherto been described as inha-
biting the mainland of either Cis- or Ultra-Gangetic India,
although Sowerby has assigned a species to the island of Singa-
pore, situated at the extremity of the Malayan Peninsula; these
three species are therefore an interesting addition to the genus
in a geographical point of view, the last one especially, on
account of its occurrence so far to the northward.

15. Otopoma Blennus, nu. s.

Testa anguste et profunde umbilicata, conoideo-globosa, crassiuscula,
leviter striatula, sordide albida; spira conoidea, sutura submar-
ginata, apice acutiusculo; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo
ventricosiore ; apertura obliqua, ovali, superne angulata ; peristo-
mate recto obtuso, marginibus callo brevi, tenuwi, junctis, colu-
mellari leviter revoluto, expanso. Operculo ?

Diam. major 18, minor 15, alt. 184, axis 133 mill. Apert. 103 mill.
longa.

Hab. raro ad Moulmein.

This species is in a worn condition, and in a fresh state may
exhibit more colour. In form it is less depressed in proportion
to the diameter than O. clathratulum, from which it differs other-
wise in sculpture.

16. Hydrocena Illex, n. s.

Testa vix perforata, ovato-acuta, minutissime striata, spiraliter con-
fertim tenuisulcata, succinea, translucente, versus spiram rubello-
fusca; spira nitida, elongato-conica, sutura profunda, apice obtu-
siusculo ; anfractibus 4 valde convexis, ultimo 4 totius testz supe-
rante ; apertura obliqua, ovata, superne angulata, peristomate
tenui, non continuo, marginibus conniventibus, dextro recto, acuto,
columellari reflexiusculo. Operculo tenui, corneo, pellucido, pauci-
spirato, nucleo basali.

Long. 22, diam. 13 mill.

Hab. ad Phie Than, vallis Tenasserim, satis frequens, saxis calcareis
adheerens.

Nearly allied to Hydrocena (Cyclostoma) sarrita, nobis, An-
nals, vol. vui, N.S. p. 188, but more slender in form. The

232 Mr. W. H. Benson on new forms of Cyclostomacea.

presence of an operculum in this species enables me to fix the
proper place of its ally, which inhabits a deep valley near Cherra,
in the Khassya Hills.

17. Hydrocena Pyzis, n. s.

Testa obtecte perforata, ovato-conica, spiraliter sulcata, succinea,
translucente, spiram versus rubente ; spira conica, sutura profunda,
apice obtuso; anfractibus 4 convexis, ultimo 2 totius testee eequante;
apertura obliqua, semicirculari, peristomate tenui, acuto, non con-
tmuo, margine columellari expanso, reflexiusculo. Operculo ?

Leng. 14, diam. 14 mill.

Hab. ad Thyet-Mio.

This species inhabits the northern frontier of the province of
Pegu, that previously described representing the genus Hydro-
cena of Pfeiffer in the southern provinces. The careful exami-
nation of masses of byssus and tree mosses, in which my Cherra
species, sarrita, tersa, and Milium, were detected, will probably
reveal other Burmese forms. H. Pyais, although smaller than
H. Illex, is more coarsely sulcate, and the furrows on the lower
whorl are more distant near the suture than below.

The large variety of Cyclophorus pernobilis figured by Gould,
65 millimeters in the greater diameter, was found sparingly by
Mr. Theobald in the Tenasserim valley, associated with a smaller
shell having a more angular periphery, considered by him to be
merely a variety, and, in the deoorticate state in which it has
been sent, bearing a considerable resemblance to Pfeiffer’s C. ala-
bastrinus, a shell assigned to Ceylon. The figures 4 & 5. pl. 23,
of the new edition of Chemnitz give a very imperfect idea of the
beautiful colouring of the large shell, or of its bright orange
peristome. I much doubt the propriety of Pfeiffer’s reference of
this shell to Schumacher’s C. awrantiacus. A dubious shell,
from Thyet-Mio, with closely-set flexuous spiral striz, has much
greater pretensions to be considered as that species.

C. expansus, Pfr., was not uncommon in the Tenasserim
valley.

C. fulguratus, Pfr., was found, of various sizes, from Thyet-Mio
to Rangoon, where the species has the following dimensions :—

Diam. major 89, minor 382, axis 26 mill.

The colour of the shining orange peristome is very rich. The
operculum is thin and horny, the outer volutions being separated
by a raised edge, and the inner ones ill-defined.

Megalomastoma sectilabre, Gould, is not among the shells re-
ceived, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as my Bornean
species, M. Anostoma, has been mistaken for it on the continent,
but fails to answer the peculiar character assigned to it by
Gould and Mason, viz. the occurrence of a fissure across the

Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered species of Araneidea. 233

peristome at the opposite side from that on which it is observable
in M. altum, Sow. Dr. Pteiffer’s supposed specimen of M. sec-
tilabre is from Borneo, and is, unquestionably, M. Anostoma,
showing a trace of the channel on the inside of the columellar
lip, and none on the opposite side.

Pfeiffer’s Leptopoma Burmanum, collected by Dr. Theodore
Philippi at Mergui, is not to be recognized in the collection. A
bleached and worn shell, without an operculum, and _ inter-
mediate in size between that shell and Cyclophorus expansus, is
marked from Phie Than, and is probably only a variety of the
species last named, with a more acute keel and a less expanded
peristome. L. Burmanum was described from an immature spe-
cimen, and will probably present a different aspect from the
figure given in Chemnitz when found in its full development.

Cheltenham, 25th January, 1856,

Since the conclusion of the above paper, I have received, among
some shells collected in the Burmese territory by Mr. Oldham,
a third species of Hydrocena, intermediate between H. sarrita
and H. Illex, but larger than either. It was found at the Mya-
leit Hill, near Ava, during the stay of the late embassy at that
capital.

XVIII.— Descriptions of three newly discovered species of
Araneidea. By Joun Brackwa tt, F.L.S.

Tribe Octonoculina.
Family Linypurp2.
Genus Neriine, Blackw.
Neriéne cornigera.

Length of the male ;,th of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax z',; breadth ;',; breadth of the abdomen 3, ; length of
an anterior leg }; length of a leg of the third pair 7.

The cephalo-thorax is oval, convex, glossy, slightly elevated
before, where the eyes are situated, and has an indentation in
the medial line: the falces are conical, divergent at the extre-
mity, armed with teeth on the inner surface, and somewhat
inclmed towards the sternum, which is broad, convex, glossy,
and heart-shaped: the maxillz are inclined towards the lip,
which is semicireular and prominent at the apex: the legs are
slender and slightly hairy; the first and fourth pairs are the
longest and equal in length, and the third pair is the shortest ;

234 Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered species of Araneidea.

each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two superior ones
are curved, and the inferior one is inflected near its base. These
parts are of a brownish-yellow colour, the sternum, base of the
lip, and tibiz of the first and second pairs of legs heing the
brownest. The eyes are seated on black spots ; the four inter-
mediate ones form a trapezoid, the anterior pair, which consti-
tutes its shortest side, being the smallest of the eight ; those of
each lateral pair are placed obliquely on a small tubercle and are
almost in contact. The palpi have a brownish-yellow hue, the
digital joint being the brownest ; the cubital and radial joints
are short: the latter, which is the larger, is prominent at its
extremity, in front, and has several long bristles at its base ; the
digital joint is oval, with a long, conical, hornlike process at its
base, whose pointed termination extends to the extremity of the
cubital jot, and is provided with one or two long bristles ; it is
convex and hairy externally, concave within, comprising the
palpal organs, which are highly developed, prominent, compli-
cated in structure, with a small, black, curved, pointed spine at
the base, on the outer side, and are of a yellowish-brown colour.
The abdomen is oviform, convex above, and projects a little over
the base of the cephalo-thorax; it is thinly clothed with hairs,
and of a dark, dull brown hue, that of the spinners being pale
yellowish-brown.

This remarkable spider was discovered among moss growing
under trees in a wood on the northern slope of Gallt y Rhyg, in
the autumn of 1854.

Neriéne montana.

Length of the male th of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax ;!,; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen ;1,; length of
a posterior leg 4 ; length of a leg of the third pair $.

The eyes are seated on black spots, the anterior pair of the
four intermediate ones forming the trapezoid, which are near to
each other, being the smallest and darkest of the eight. The
cephalo-thorax is oval, convex, glossy, with slight furrows on the
sides, which converge towards an indentation in the medial line:
the falces are powerful, conical, vertical, and armed with a few
teeth on the inner surface: the maxille are enlarged at the
extremity, and inclined towards the lip, which is semicircular
and prominent at the apex: the sternum is broad, heart-shaped,
convex and glossy: the legs, which are moderately long, are pro-
vided with hairs and a few fine spines ; the fourth pair is slightly
longer than the first, which surpasses the second, and the third
pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three claws ;
the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior
one is inflected near its base. These parts are of a pale yellow-

Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered species of Araneidea. 235

brown colour, the falces, maxillz and lip having a faint tinge of
red. The palpi resemble the legs in colour; the cubital and
radial joints are short, the latter, which is the stronger, being
somewhat produced at its extremity, in front ; the digital joint is
oval, with a small, conical process at its base, and a lobe near
the middle of the outer side ; it is convex and hairy externally,
concave within, comprising the palpal organs, which are highly
developed, complicated in structure, with a prominent, curved,
scalelike process at the base, on the outer side, and are of a
brownish-red colour. The abdomen is oviform, convex above,
projecting over the base of the cephalo-thorax; it is thinly
clothed with hairs, glossy, and of a dark yellowish-brown colour,
the branchial opercula and spinners being much the palest.

This spider, which was found on Ingleborough, a mountain
in Yorkshire, in September 1855, was received from Mr. R.
H. Meade.

Genus WaLcKENAERA, Blackw.

Walckenaéra vafra.

Length of the male ;'>th of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax ;/,; breadth ', ; breadth of the abdomen ,/; ; length of a
posterior leg ;°, ; length of a leg of the third pair ,3,.

The cephalo-thorax is oval, convex, glossy, with a strong, ver-
tical prominence before, which is somewhat compressed on the
sides and surmounted by a few hairs: the falces are small,
conical, armed with teeth on the inner surface, and inclined
towards the sternum, which is broad, glossy, and heart-shaped :
the maxille are powerful and curved towards the lip, which is
semicircular and prominent at the apex. These parts are of a
brownish-red colour, with the exception of the anterior pro-
minence of the cephalo-thorax, which has a dark brown hue
tinged with red. The legs are long, slender, hairy, and have a
bright yellowish-red tint; the fourth pair is the longest, then
the first, and the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is termi-
nated by three claws ; the two superior ones are curved and pec-
tinated, and the inferior one is inflected near its base. The
palpi resemble the legs in colour, but the radial and digital
joints are tinged with brown ; the cubital joint is clavate; the
radial joint projects two apophyses from its extremity ; one, on
the inner side, is large, pointed, curved outwards in front of the
digital jomt, and has, near its base, a minute process on the
convex side, and a large obtuse one on the opposite side; the
other apophysis, which is smaller and obtuse, is situated under-
neath ; the digital joint is somewhat oval, convex and hairy ex-
ternally, concave within, comprising the palpal organs ; these
organs are highly developed, complicated in structure, with two
long, filiform, contiguous black spines enveloped in membrane,

236 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

originating near the middle and curved in a circular form on the
outer side; a shorter one, also originating near the middle and
enveloped in membrane, is curved obliquely downwards, and
their prevailing colour is brownish-red. The convex sides of the
digital joints are directed towards each other. The eyes are
seated on the anterior part of the cephalo-thorax, two on the
summit of the vertical prominence, and the other six at its base,
in front, each lateral pair being placed obliquely. The abdomen
is oviform, convex above, and projects over the base of the
cephalo-thorax ; it is sparingly clothed with hairs, glossy, and of
a brownish-black colour, that of the branchial opercula being
pale yellowish-white.

Adult males of this species were discovered under stones in
the woods about Hendre House, near Llanrwst, in October 1855.

XIX.—On some species of Epilobium.
By Cuarues C. Basineron, M.A., F.R.S. &e.*

Havine been led to examine the British species of Epzlobium,
and arrived at the opinion that some of them have not received
as much attention as they deserve, and have therefore been mis-
understood, it seems desirable to publish the results. My ob-
ject in so doing is to direct attention to the plants—not to place
before botanists a conclusion satisfactorily attained. There re-
mains much to be done before we can be said well to understand
these plants. Those upon which it is proposed to treat have
been included under the names of E. tetragonum and E. al-
pinum.

Before proceeding to the discussion of the species, it will be
well to clear the way by pointing out the characters upon which
it is believed that we may depend. This will entail a slight
sketch of the arrangement of our Epilobia. Leaving out of
consideration the group called Lysimachion by authors (although
there is a newly-discovered species of that section to be noticed
before ending this paper), we shall find that, taken in its general
sense, the form assumed by the stigmas will separate our plants
into two groups: (1) those which have that organ formed of four
spreading divisions so as to be cross-like, namely #. hirsutum,
E. parviflorum, E. montanum, and E. lanceolatum ; and (2) the
rest of our species, whose stigmas are so placed as to form a club,
either by having the four parts soldered together or by their
being adpressed to each other. In the latter case, that is, when
the stigmas are adpressed, they may sometimes be observed to
separate slightly, but never, as I believe, to become cross-like. It
is only when. taken generally, that the stigma can be safely used

* Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, 10th Jan. 1856.

Mr. C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 237

as a distinctive character ; but if allowance be made for excep-
tions in the case of individual plants, it does seem to afford
valuable help in grouping the species. This is the more desi-
rable from the true biological characters which separate the
species being often not noticeable in the flowering state of the
plants. The characters referred to are the mode of extension of
the plants from year to year. The plants are either ¢wrionate,
stoloniferous, or rosulate ; the stoles are either scaly or leafy, the
scales are somewhat inflated or not so. The leaves upon these
offsets gradually increase in size from the base to the end of the
shoot, and their pairs are all separated by long joints; are all
placede lose together and forma rosette; or those at the end of
the stole are so placed as to form a rosette, the others being
distant. Taking these as the primary characters of the divisions,
we obtain an arrangement which differs but little from that
founded upon the stigma which has usually been employed.
The following is the arrangement proposed :—

I. Turionate ; that is, producing radical suckers.
1. E. hirsutum.

II. Stoles autumnal, rosulate. Stem erect.
+ Stem mostly round. Stigma 4-cleft.

2. E. parviflorum.

3. E. montanum.

4, E. lanceolatum.

tt Stem with raised lines. Stigma entire.

5. E. roseum.

6. E. tetragonum.

III. Stoles zestival, long-jointed throughout, with small leaves. Pri-
mary stem erect. Stigma usually entire.
7. E. obscurum.

IV. Stoles zestival, long-jointed, with small leaves, ending in

autumnal bulbs which become detached. Base of stem cord-
like.

8. E. palustre.
V. Stoles estival, leafy, rosulate.
9. E. alpinum.

VI. Stoles estival, leafy, not rosulate.
10. KE. anagallidifolium.

VII. Stoles eestival, scale-bearing, not rosulate.

11. E. alsinifolium.

238 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

In addition to the characters used in this arrangement, the
following points deserve notice.

1. The stem in some of the plants rises erect directly from a
fibrous root, and usually produces lateral branches from the
axils of its lowest leaves so as to take a rather cespitose form.
This primary stem appears always to be erect, but the lateral
stems or branches are usually procumbent at their base and fre-
quently produce roots there, although throughout the greater
part of their length they are erect or ascending. When the
plants grow in water, or in very wet places, these adventitious
roots are sometimes produced from the lower joinings of the
upright primary stem, and the procumbent part of the branches
is very long: if in this case a branch is carelessly pulled up, the
plant may easily be supposed to have a cordlike base, when its
real structure is very different. Towards the end of the summer,
or in the autumn, these czespitose species usually produce from
close to the base of their stem very short flowerless shoots
having their joints so much contracted that the leaves lie closely
upon each other, and a rosette or rose-shaped tuft is formed.
The original plant does not survive the winter, but in the
ensuing spring the place which it occupied is more or less sur-
rounded by a cluster of new czspitose individuals resulting
from the rosettes of the preceding autumn; each rosette pro-
ducing from its terminal bud a new primary stem, and from
some of its axils a few lateral stems.

In other plants, thick long stoles with distant leaves take the
place of the rosettes. It is only at the end of these stoles that
the least trace of the close arrangement of leaves forming the
rosettes is to be found, nor is it always seen even there. These
long stoles root and live through the winter, and their remains
when attached to the base of the stem of the succeeding year may
be taken for the chordorhizal structure if the stem fails to pro-
duce lateral stems from its lower axils. The character derived
from the chordorhizal base is not therefore wholly to be trusted,
although Fries has confidence in it.

2. Another habit is that in which there is no trace of the
czespitose mode of growth, but in its place there is a prostrate
slender stem producing many adventitious roots, and turning
upwards at the end so as to form the upright stem of the plant.
If branches are at all produced from the lower part of the stem
they are placed at some distance from each other, or in distant
pairs, for the joints are long. Most of these species throw out
from many of their lower joinings stoles furnished with long
joints and pairs of very small leaves, and end in a sort of bulb,
the scales of which are rather fleshy with their upper epidermis
loose. These bulbs become detached in the winter, by the decay

Mr. C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 239

of the stole, together with the stem which has flowered, and
from them spring the plants of the following year.

We may now proceed to the consideration of the species
which are usually included under the name of E. tetragonum.
Fries appears to have been the first botanist who attempted their
separation by a reference to their development ; but that emi-
nent writer has been unfortunate in the specimens distributed
in illustration of the plants, as will be seen hereafter. Applymg
those characters to our native plants, it is found that there are
at least two species included under the name of E. tetragonum.
One of these will retain that name, and another is the E. obscu-
rum of Schreber. The former has the czespitose habit, and pro-
duces sessile or subsessile rosettes after the time of flowering :
the latter is originally czespitose, its primary stem being erect
from the root and branching from its lowest axils, but these
lateral branches are prostrate and rooting to some extent ; and
in the place of the rosettes of the former it has long rooting
stoles. Specimens of this latter plant (EZ. obscurum) are what I
have been accustomed to call KH. virgatum whilst totally in igno-
rance of the H. obscurum. I hope to be able to show that no
great error was committed in doing so. For it is my belief that
Fries himself made the same mistake, if indeed it is a mistake,
and that his #. virgatum exists as a distinct plant from EH. ob-
scurum. He has called various plants by the name of E. vir-
gatum at different times. The plant first issued (Herb. Norm.
i. 46) as E, virgatum is very nearly related to HE. tetragonum,
although perhaps not exactly that species; for it may be the
E. Lamyi (¥. Schultz), as Koch supposed it to be. These spe-
cimens do not accord with the description given in the ‘ Novitiz’
(ed. 2. p. 113) ; but a trust in the accuracy of Fries caused them
to be accepted as typical of his plant. The original source of
the name is the ‘ Fl. Hallandica’ (p. 66), and the description to
be found there may help us in determining what was the plant
really intended by its author. As the book is perhaps not
ic common, the characters are extracted. They are as fol-
ows :—

“ E. virgatum; foliis lanceolatis sessilibus dentatis opacis
caule tetragono pubescentibus, stigmate indiviso.”

To this are added the following remarks :—

* Verum videtur Chamenerion obscurum, Schreb.; sed E. ob-
scurum omnium fere auctorum ad precedens [F. tetragonum|]
foliis alternis, ex. gr. Fl. Dan. t. 1267, pertinet. Radix sub-
repens. Caulis e basi tereti adscendenti erectus, 2—4-pedalis,
vage ramosus, 4-angulus, pubescens, deorsum glabratus. Folia
distantia, opposita alternave, sessilia, lanceolata, subcoriacea,
remote dentata, plus minus pubescentia, constanter opaca. La-

240 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

cinie calycinz villose. Siliqua villosa. Flos sequentis [E.
palustris.”

These descriptions do not agree with the first specimens
(H. N. ii. 46), and differ slightly from the description given
in the ‘ Novitie ;? but they do agree tolerably well with the
specimens afterwards stated by Fries to be the true plant
(H. N.x.), the leaves of which are subsessile, broad, and rounded
a&the base, from whence they narrow, with tolerable regularity,
to their tip, which is suddenly contracted to an obtuse angle.
They are opake, thin, and apparently flaccid, distantly denti-
culate, slightly hairy. The presence of the word “ subcoriacea”
in the ‘ Flora Hallandica’ causes some difficulty, for it is hardly
possible that the leaves of the plant sent to me im the ‘ Herb.
Normale’ (fase. x.) can ever have been subcoriaceous. That
specimen has an upright base, thickening from a slender broken
point, and producing 4 or 5 whorls of fibrous roots,—a structure
different from what I understand by Fries’s term, “ chordo-
rhizum.” After a careful consideration of the plant and the
descriptions, I have arrived at the opinion that the E. virgatum
(Fries, H. N. x.) is H. obscurum, and am inclined to the further
opinion, that the H. virgatum of the ‘FI. Hall’ is the same
plant. The peculiar base of the stem in the specimen probably
results from its having grown in a very wet place.

Having thus, as it is hoped, shown the probability of H. vir-
gatum being a synonym of H. obscurum, we may proceed to the
consideration of the characters, &c. of that plant and its ally, £.
tetragonum. I am indebted to my valued friend Mr. Borrer for
directing my attention to these plants, and pointing out their
more important differences. Since the original sketch of this
paper was written, I have seen a valuable memoir by Dr. Grise-
bach (Bot. Zeit. 1852, p. 849), and Dr. F. Schultz has very
kindly sent to me a copy of his excellent review of it (Arch. de
Flore, ii. 41). From the study of Mr. Borrer’s manuscript
notes and his specimens, and of the writings of these two emi-
nent botanists, I have obtained a tolerably clear idea of the
subject.

The following is the mode in which the plants may be cha-
racterized :—

E. tetragonum (Linn.) ; rosettes subsessile, stem erect, leaves strap-
shaped much denticulate-serrate, limb of the intermediate leaves
decurrent, buds erect, seeds oblong-obovate tubercular.

E. tetragonum, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 348; Curt. Fl. Lond. i. 66
(131); Fries, Herb. Norm. viii. 41 (specimen) ; Reichenb. Fl.
exsic. 357 (specimen); Gren. et Godr. Fl. de Fr.i. 579; F. Schultz,
Archives de Flore, i. 51.

E. adnatum, Griseb. in Bot. Zeit. 1852, p. 854.

Mr. C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 241

Stem upright from the root, usually branched from the base,
with 2-4 raised decurrent lines from the edges of the leaves.
Rosettes usually very nearly sessile, and although they are some-
times shortly stalked when the plant is flooded, they do not even
then resemble the stoles of L. obscurum. Seeds rounded at both
ends, but with a recurved point at the base; that is, if the front
of the sced is observed, the base appears to be blunt, but if a
lateral view is taken, the small point directed backwards is seen.
The intermediate leaves appear to be always decurrent by their
limb, as are often many of the others; they do not narrow much
until near to their upper end; the little teeth are near together,
conspicuous, and often have ineurved callous points. The lower
leaves are more nearly lanceolate, the lowest obovate.

Dr. Grisebach differs from all other botanists by thinking
that this is not the typical plant of Linnzus, and accordingly
changes its name to &. adnatum, and calls the KH. Lamyi (F.
Schultz) the #. tetragonum (Linn.). Dr. Schultz thinks that
Grisebach is in error, and restores the Linnzean name to the
plant that has usually been so called. In this I quite agree
with him. Nevertheless there are difficulties attending the de-
termination of the Linnzean plant that call for a few remarks.
It is highly probable that Linnzeus included the Z. obscurum
under the name of EL. fetragonum. In the first edition of the
‘Sp. Pl? (i. 348) he gives the character as follows :—

*F, foliis lanceolato-linearibus denticulatis: imis oppositis, caule
tetragono.””

In the second and later editions of the same work it is

*E. foliis lanceolatis denticulatis: imis oppositis, caule tetra-
gono ;””

and the remark is added,
«« Summitas, adhue tenella, nutans.”

Our E, tetragonum is very much better described by the former
than the latter of these definitions, and the additional ohserva-
tion shows that Linnzeus had, when preparing the second edition
for the press, fallen into some confusion, for it need scarcely be
remarked, that neither HL. tetragonum, nor E. obscurum, nor E.
Lamyi has a nodding summit. Itis a curious fact, that Linnzeus
does not include E. tetragonum in his ‘ FI. Suecica,’ although it
appears not to bea rare plant in Sweden. May we not thence
conclude that he had little acquaintance with the plant, and thus
account for his altering the character for the worse? This is
rendered more probable when it is found that the figure quoted
by him from Tabernzemontanus (Icon. p, 854) does not represent
E. tetragonum, nor agree with the Linnzan description: what it

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 16

242 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

does represent is a more difficult point to decide, and no attempt
is now made to do it. There is only one specimen preserved in
the Linnean Herbarium with the name and authenticating
marks of EH. tetragonum. The place where it grew is not stated,
and there is no clue to its history. It is not H. tetragonum,
nor either of its close allies, but appears to be the plant now
universally called H. roseum. It seems probable that Linnzus
was led by this specimen into the mistake of altering the specific
character of his plant and adding the erroneous remark. It is
scarcely necessary to observe, that these alterations are derived
from the peculiarities of H. roseum.

E. tetragonum is perhaps a less common plant in Britain than
EE. obscurum. My specimens are from Glen Falloch, Perth-
shire; Congestone, Leicestershire; Cambridge; Stapleton,
near Bristol; Sussex; Sidmouth, Devon; Cork; and the
Channel Islands.

E.. obscurum (Schreb.) ; stoles with distant leaves, stem erect, leaves
tapering from a rounded base sessile remotely denticulate faintly
decurrent, lower leaves oblong blunt, buds erect, sepals linear lan-
ceolate, seeds obovate-oblong tubercular.

‘* Chameenerium obscurum, Schreb. Spic. Fl. Lips. 147.”

Epilobium obscurum, Reichend. Iconog. t. 199. et Fl. excurs. p. 634 ;
Roth, Fl. Germ. ii. 438. et En. Pl. ii. 152; Fries, Herb. Norm.
vili. 42 (specimen); Griseb. in Bot. Zeit. 1852, p. 853; F.
Schultz, Arch. de Flore, i. 218 et ii. 49.

E. virgatum, Gren. et Godr. Fl. de Fr. i. 578 ; Sonder, Fl. Hamb.
2175
Stem ultimately branching from the base as in E. tetragonum,

and the whole plant closely resembling that species. In wet

places the lateral stems are more or less decumbent, and rooting
in their lower part. Stoles in dry places rather short and thick ;
all their leaves in distant pairs, small, successively enlarged, but
not forming a rosette: in wet places they are long and some-
times branch ; their leaves are oval, but narrowed below. It is
only in the spring, when the new stems are commencing from
the ends of the stoles, that anything resembling a rosette is
found. In plants resulting from the stoles of the preceding
year, it is the end of the stole itself that throws out roots, and
sends directly upwards a single erect stem, which, at about the
time of flowering, begins to branch from most of its axils; the
lowermost buds producing stoles, the others flowering shoots.

Individuals of this kind have therefore usually a short prostrate

base, placed often at a right angle to it, and belonging really

to the growth of the preceding year. The capsules are much
shorter than those of E. tetragonum. The seeds of similar form
with those of that species.

Mr. C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 243

My British specimens of EF. obscurum are from Wyken, War-
wickshire; Ilfracombe, Devon; Llanthony, Monmouthshire ;
and Sussex ; and I am informed by Mr. Borrer that it is found
in Herefordshire by Mr. Purchas.

There is something in the look of this plant that distinguishes
it from EF. tetragonum. Tangible characters are afforded by the
leaves. If well-grown specimens of the two plants are con-
trasted, the difference in the shape of those organs will be found
to be rather considerable. The leaf of E. tetragonum is very
well described as strap-shaped, for its sides are nearly parallel
throughout the greater part of their length, the widest part
being placed at about their middle. In EL. obscurum the inter-
mediate leaves are sessile, but apparently not at all decurrent by
their limb (as is the case in its ally), although there is a slight
appearance of decurrence from the sides of the rudimentary
petiole ; they are broadest close to their rounded base, and taper
gradually from thence to their tip. Their teeth are much less
conspicuous and much more distant from each other than those
of E. tetragonum, and there are sometimes a few intermediate
much smaller denticulations. The lowest leaves are usually
shortly stalked and more oval than the others; and, in rare
cases, many of the leaves possess this oval form and are slightly
stalked, only those upon the upper part of the specimen having
the true form belonging to the species. The leaves of E. tetra-
gonum are always shining, those of E. obscurum opake, except-
ing on the stoles. The capsules of H. tetragonum are remarkably
longer than those of its ally, and afford, as Mr. Borrer observes,
a “striking primd-facie distinction in the living plants.” The
stoles of E. tetragonum have their leaves all closely placed so as
to form a subsessile rosette ; those of EL. obscurum have long
joints, and therefore a rosette is not formed, although the leaves
successively become larger. In very dry places, E. obscurum
forms a kind of loose rosette at the end of a short stole. From
the large size of the leaves at the end of the stoles of KH. obscurum,
they may sometimes be carelessly mistaken for a rosette.

E. obscurum is incompletely figured by Reichenbach (Iconog.
t. 199), and represented by the specimen (No. 358) of his ‘ Flora
exsiccata.’? Unfortunately that specimen had not produced its
stoles at the time when it was gathered ; and as the plant drawn
by Reichenbach was obtained from Leipzig, and Schreber’s
‘ Spicilegium FI. Lipsiz’ is the original authority for the name,
there is the more reason to deplore the fact that so imperfect an
illustration is given. In the text of the ‘ Iconographia,’ Reichen-
bach quotes the EH. virgatum (Fries, Fl. Hall. 66) as an un-
doubted synonym of E. obscurum, and the remarks already made
will show that in my opinion he is correct in quoting it; but

16*

244 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

he seems to have afterwards suspected that he was in error, for
in the ‘Fl. excurs.’ he leaves that synonym out, and describes
another plant as E. virgatum, which he supposes to be markedly
distinguished from E. tetragonum and E. obscurum by having a
stigma that ultimately becomes quadrifid. Hartmann, as
quoted by Koch, expressly states of H. virgatum, “ stigma semper
integrum, nunc inordinate 2—4-fidum, nunquami vero cruciatum
vel yegulariter quadrifidum.” Fries says in the ‘ Fl. Hall.,’
“ stiemate indiviso,” in the ‘ Novitie’ ‘ stigmate demum qua-
drifido,” in the ‘Summa’ “stigmatibus in clavam coalitis.”
Petermann (FI. Lipsie, 280) describes H. obscurum, which re-
sembles the plant of this paper, as the Chamenerion obscurum of
Schreber, but adds, “ neque vero sec. herbar.” Reichenbach
makes a similar remark, but neither author tells us what the
plant of the Herbarium really is. The extract from Schreber’s
description given by Reichenbach (Iconog. i. 89, and FI. excur.
635), for I have not succeeded in obtaining access to the original
work, will apply tolerably well to the plant now called EL. ob-
scurum. Roth’s works (Tentamen Fl. Germ. 11. 438, and Enum.
Plant. i. sec. 2. p. 152) contain descriptions of . obscurum
agreeing with that of Petermann, and with the plant pointed out
to me by Mr. Borrer and already described in this paper. Roth
remarks of it, “planta ab EZ. tetragono diversissima est” (En.),
and “ planta per plures annosin horto... . excepta proceritate
non mutavit habitum” (FL).

Sonder describes a plant as #. virgatum (Fl. Hamb. 217), of
which he says “stolombus elongatis, canle ex ascendente basi
stricto,” and quotes to it the specimen erroneously published by
Fries (Herb. Norm. ii. 46) as E. virgatum, and now referred by
Grisebach to EZ. Lamyi (F. Schultz). Sonder quotes L. Lamyi
as being the same as his H. virgatum ; but if his plant has really
the elongated stoles and is chordorhizal, as he appears to intimate
in the words quoted above, then it cannot be the H. Lamy of
F. Schultz, which that botanist states to have “ radice perpen-
diculare,”’ and also to possess ‘ad caulis basin foliorum rosulam
1 (varius 2) proferente, stolonibus nullis.” I am indebted to
my valued friend and correspondent Mr. R. Lenormand of Vire
for two specimens of the H. Lamyi (PF. Schultz), marked as
authentic, gathered in La Vendée. They present so much the
appearance of E. /anceolatum, that we cease to wonder that Koch
referred imperfect specimens of the plant to that species. They
do not branch in their lower half, do not creep, have no stoles
nor rosettes, have narrowly lanceolate rather strongly denticulate
leaves with a wedge-shaped base on one of the specimens, and
a broad base which is rather narrower than the middle of the
leaf on the other. ~The plant is apparently very scarce, and

Mr. C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 245

presents much difficulty. Schultz (Arch. 11. 49) quotes Sonder’s
E. virgatum as a synonym of EL. obscurum, where also he places
the £. virgatum of Godron. Iam indebted to Mr. Sonder for
specimens gathered by himself near Hamburg (at one of the
places mentioned in his ‘ Flora’) in 1842, and sent to me with
the name of EF. virgatum (Fries) ; but I have no doubt that they
really belong to £. vbscurum.

It will be noticed that I have not quoted the #. virgatum of
Koch (Syn. Fl. Germ.). It is omitted because there can be no
doubt that that eminent botanist was unacquainted with the
true characters distinguishing these plants ; and that, as he tells
us himself, he did not know the true £. virgatum until the
second edition of his work was nearly completed. He states
that most of the specimens called E. virgatum by him were
merely 2. tetragonum, or rather perhaps his words may mean
that they were 2. obscurum, which he considered as only a slight
variety of that species.

Dr. F. Schultz thinks that the E. virgatum of Fries’s ‘Summa’
is a hybrid between E#. palustre and E. obscurum. As I have
not seen the true plant of Fries (for his published specimens are
respectively E. Lamyi probably and £. obscurum), it is out of
my power to form any certain opinion. Schultz and Grisebach
both place it in a section characterized by the plants possessing
stoles and hybernacula like those of HF. palustre, whilst Fries
says that its stoles are “elongatos sparsifolios,” like those of
E. obscurum, but that its seeds equal those of E. palustre, and
therefore are twice the size of those of E. obscurum. In another
place Schultz remarks, that the difference between E. virgatum
and LF. ¢etragonum derived from the form of the seeds is not
discoverable. Supposing him to mean E#. obscurum under the
name of H. virgatum, as is perhaps the fact, he is quite correct ;
but if 2. chordorhizum (Fries) is intended, the size of the seeds
must be quite different, as we learn from Fries’s definite state-
ment on the subject. Schultz also informs us (Arch. 1. 46)
that the H. Schmidtianum (Roskov.), noticed by Koch (Syn. 266)
under £. palustre, is not a broad-leaved state of E. palustre as
Grisebach supposes, nor a form of E. virgatum (E. obscurum) as
he formerly thought himself, but that it is a hybrid between E.
palustre and E. obscurum, to which he gives the name of E. ob-
scuro-palustre. 1 quite agree with Fries in believing that far too
many difficulties are attempted to be removed by supposing the
plants to be hybrids ; and also, that hybrids are seldom produced
naturally except in a few genera, such as Verbascum, and that
most of the plants that are so called will prove to be extreme
states of recognized species (see Fries, Mant. iil. 97). Never-
theless it is possible that there may be natural hybrids in this

246 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

genus ; that the H. chordorhizum (Griseb.), E. palustri-obscurum
(Schultz), is one; and that the plant found by Mr. Baker at
Gormire is the first of the two forms of it mentioned by Dr.
Schultz (Arch. u. 46), although the seeds of our plant have not
the long base found in E. palustre, nor more than a yery slight
prolongation of the testa at their rounded summit. But I am
more inclined to place it, provisionally, with H. obscurum, in the
hope that Mr. Baker’s attention may again be directed towards
it. It agrees in most respects with the EH. virgatum (Fries,
Summa), but the top of its stem, when bearing unopened buds,
is stated to nod, and its seeds are not smooth. Its stoles re-
semble those of H. obscurum, but are more slender. In a series
of specimens I find no trace of the bulb-like hybernacula formed
by £. palustre, E. chordorhizum (Griseb.) and E. Schmidtianum,
which last plant Schultz states to have “les stolons de l’E. pa-
lustre.’ It should be added, that its seeds are twice as large as
those of EB. obscurum.

If attention is paid to the stoles, there is no probability of
E. obscurum being confounded with any of the other species,
although those of 2. palustre are somewhat similar in descrip-
tion. The latter plant has very slender stoles, each terminating
in an autumnal hybernaculum which is already described, a long
rooting base to its stem, very narrow leaves with a wedge-shaped
base, nodding buds, and subfusiform seeds which are acute at
the base and narrowed at the top where there is a prolongation
of the testa into a kind of beak bearing the beard. It is never-
theless often difficult to distinguish bad or incomplete specimens
of E. obscurum from E. palustre, for the lowest lateral branches
of the former being usually prostrate and rooting for some
distance, have, when torn off from the plant, much outward re-
semblance to the chordorhizal plants of E. palustre. Indeed it
has already been stated, that there is much reason to fear that
Fries himself has been deceived by such fragments*.

In the ‘ Cybele Britannica’ (in. 350) Mr. Watson mentions
a plant or plants under the joint title of E. vrgatum and EF.
Lamyi, and refers especially to specimens gathered by Mr. T.
Moore in Kent, which were guessed by me to be possibly
E. Lamyi, but which I now am certain are not the plant rightly
sonamed. Mr. Moore’s plant was found in company apparently
with EF. palustre, of which, although it presents some difficulties,
I am inclined to the opinion that it is not a state, but think
that it may be referred to H. obscurum. I am informed that

* My specimens of EF. palustre are from the following places :—-Clova,
Forfarshire; Isle of Skye; Teesdale, Durham; Keswick, Cumberland ;
Llanberis, Caernarvonshire; Llanthony, Monmouthshire; Sandwich,
Kent ; Ma’am, Galway; Ventry, Kerry.

On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration. 247

specimens of it were sent to Dr. Grenier, and that he called it
the E. tetragonum of the ‘ Flore de France.’ In that determina-
tion he was assuredly in error, for the plant can belong to no
other species described in that admirable work than HZ. palustre
or E. virgatum (the E. obscurum of this paper). In obtaining
and quoting the opinion of either of the authors of that ‘ Flora,’
it should be remembered that, although the work is a joint pro-
duction, each portion has its own individual and declared author.
Dr. Godron is the author of the account of the genus Epilobium.
In such cases as this, Dr. Grenier may know no more than the
inquirer about the subject upon which he is consulted.

[To be continued. }

XX.—On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the
Structure of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.
By Tuomas Wrttrams, M.D. Lond., F.L.S., Physician to the
Swansea Infirmary.

[Continued from p. 154.]

The Glands contained in the Resptratory Cavity of Branchiferous
and Pulmoniferous Gasteropods.

Tue respiratory cavity of all Cephalophorous Mollusks, in
addition to the organs of breathing, lodges one, two or more
glandular bodies, the structure and office of which are the subject
even at the present time of dispute among comparative anato-
mists. In different genera these glands affect different relative
positions in the cavity.

In some instances they are near and parallel to the rectum,
in others they encircle the heart, in others they constitute a
mass lying only on one side of this organ. Many of the Pecti-
nibranchs are provided with two glands, in the space between
which on the roof the branchia is situated.

By Cuvier they were called the muciparous glands. Dr,
Sharpey has supposed the one to be a supplementary branchia,
the other he has designated after Cuvier the mucous gland. By
Swammerdam, Poli, Blumenbach and the elder anatomists, they
were supposed to be concerned in the secretion of calcareous
salts. Bojanus conceived that the glands contained in the
breathing-chamber of the higher Gasteropods were homologous
with certain glandular bodies described by him in the Lamelli-
branchs, in both helding a similar relation to the branchie. As
he had proved the latter to be kidneys, he inferred that the
former must be so also. The alleged muciparous glands of the

248 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

Gasteropods were believed by Meckel* to constitute the true
renal system of these animals. A new demonstration of their
renal character was subsequently rendered by Jacobson} by the
discovery of uric acid in the substance of these glands. His
researches comprised analyses of the glands of Helix pomatia,
Limax niger, Lymneus stagnalis and Planorbis cornea. Jacobson’s
views, however, had been anticipated by Déllinger and Holmlicht,
who had long previously indicated these glands as the real
kidneys of these animals. It is stated by Siebold and Stannius§
that in the dried kidneys of Heliz pomatia and Paludina vivipara,
when treated with nitric acid and ammonia, considerable quan-
tities of murexid may be discovered. Treviranus has descended
to the minuteness of asserting that in these Gasteropods a por-
tion of the pulmonary or branchial, recently arterialized blood
passes through the kidneys in its path to the anricle. In another
place in their excellent work, Siebold and Stannius observe that
in the Pectinibranchs the kidney is replaced by a gland which is
situated behind the branchia between the heart and the liver,
and which in the marine species secretes the purple liquid. This
is the gland which Dr. Sharpey has described as a bipectinate
and supplementary gill.

Kidneys have also been described by Quoy and Gaimard,
under the several names of muciparous glands, organ of the
purple, depurating organs, &c.; in Phasianella, Turbo, Bucci-
num, Mitra, Oliva, Caprea, Harpa, Dolium, Cassis, Purpura,
Fusus, Auricula\|. Leydig has also given an account of the
renal siphon of Paludina Vivipara. More recently Mr. Huxley4
has expressed his belief in the correctness of the prevailing views
as to the true renal nature of the glands contained in the breath-
ing-chamber of the branchiferous and pulmoniferous Gasteropods,
and has adopted as conclusive of all doubts, the results obtained
by the lithic acid tests in the hands of Jacobson, Meckel and
Kolhiker**,

The preceding outline of the literature of the question
which relates to the renal system of the Invertebrata will suf-
fice to reveal a chaos out of which it does not seem easy to
evoke aught that is orderly and consistent. It is evident that
the same names have been applied by different observers to very

* Miller, Arch. 1846, p. 13. taf. 1.

+ Miiller’s Arch. vi. 1846.

{ Dissertatio de Helice pomatia. Hireeb. 1813, p. 23.

§ Comparative Anatomy of the Invertebrata, transl. by Burnett, p. 253,
note 3.

|| Voyage de l’Astrolabe, Zoologie, 11.; or Isis, 1834, p. 285; 1836, p. 31.

§ “On the Morphology of the Cephalous Mollusca,” Phil. Trans. 1853.

** Entwickelungsgeschichte der Cephalopoden.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 249

different organs. No clear views as to what should and what
should not be characterized as distinctive of a renal organ in
the Invertebrate animals, have ever been defined by anatomists.
If a marked uniformity of structural type and plan runs
through the entire series of other organs in the Invertebrata,
such as the biliary, respiratory, circulatory, digestive, &c. sy-
stems, the inference is highly probable that a similar serial con-
sistency of plan presides over the renal system. If such be the
case in the Vertebrate, why should it not be so in the Inverte-
brate series? In another place* the author has shown, that
the fluids, viewed as chemical and vital solutions, grow more
and more simple as the zoological scale is traced downwards
(or more and more complex as it is followed upwards) ; he thence
argues that the same tendency to simplification is also mani-
fested by the systems of the solid organs. This is the true
science of the comparative anatomy of organs. Their history in
this sense has never been written. If the true relation between
the solid machinery of the glands and the fluids could be esta-
blished, it would be most certainly discovered that at the point
in the descending series at which a given constituent of the
fluids, which a given gland was specially designed to withdraw,
ceased to exist, the gland would also cease to exist. The pro-
position when thus enounced assumes almost a necessary cer-
tainty. The mind feels at once assured that no other law can
explam the facts, which are indubitable. Anatomists have
always worked on the presumption that the fluids of the lowest
animal must have the same composition as that of the highest,
and that consequently the necessities of the organism in the
two instances must be the same. If the highest animal be
provided with a kidney, therefore the lowest must be endowed
with the same organ. Up to this era in physiology, such in
truth has been the fallacious reasoning by which the most
distinguished cultivators of this science have conducted their
researches. The same observation applies to the secreted pro-
ducts of the physiological actions cf organs. It is supposed
that because certain ingredients are found to exist under all
circumstances in the secretions of the higher animals, conse-
quently the same principles must exist in those of the lowest.
This false logic has led astray the minds of men for an entire
century. There may be nothing in common between the bile
of the Mammal and that of the Cephalopod, yet each may be
the product of the action of a liver. The same reasoning ap-
plies to the urinary secretion and to the renal system. Urea
and lithic acid, the supposed basis and essence of this secretion

* “On the Chemistry, Physiology and Pathology of the Blood,” in the
British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review for 1853-4.

250 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

in the urine of the Vertebrated animal, are not necessarily to be
regarded as the basis and essence of the analogous secretion of
the lowest Invertebrata. If such reasoning were grounded on
truth, it would involve a ridiculous paradox to deny that the
minute anatomy of this system of glands was not precisely the
same in every grade of the series. But it may be proved im-
mediately, and most readily, that the Malpighian coils of capil-
laries, so constantly and essentially distinctive of the kidney
even of the lowest Vertebrated animal, disappear in toto from
that of the Gasteropods and the Cephalopod. Here, at the very
first step, the fundamental structural element of the higher
phase of the organ vanishes. If it be so, is it not reasonable to
infer that a correspondingly marked and essential change has
occurred in the secreted product of each organ ?

The preceding observations, general though they may be, are
abundantly sufficient to justify the assertion, that in the present
state of knowledge with reference to the comparative histology
of the renal system, and the comparative chemistry of the renal
secretion, the physiologist is not in a position to state with
certainty and confidence whether the alleged kidneys even of
the higher cephalous Mollusca are really so or not*.

As the complete history of the glandular bodies which are
lodged in the respiratory cavity of the cephalous Mollusca will
rightly fall within the compass of another series of researches,
the author on this occasion will give only a slight sketch of their
structure, and that more because they are constant attendants
on the respiratory organs in this class of animals, and occupants
of the chamber dedicated to respiration, than because they are
asserted by some anatomists to be muciparous glands, and by
others no less distinguished as true kidneys.

That gland (PI. XI. fig. 1 ec, c', and fig. 3 g) which Cuvier
first designated “Vorgane de la mucosité,” is unquestionably
traceable as one and the same body throughout various changes

* During my recent studies among the Invertebrata, I have accumulated
a large mass of materials elucidatory of the serial anatomy of the renal
system. It would be quite irrelevant to enter further into details in this
place and upon this occasion. I trust that for such a task another eppor-
tunity will occur. I am deeply impressed with the belief that real service
will be rendered to the comparative anatomy of the Invertebrata even by
the publication of such results as have already been attained. It is certain
that the urea and uric acid tests, in determining the renal or non-renal
character of supposed kidneys in the case of the lower and lowest Inverte-
brata, lead to conclusions utterly unworthy of confidence. This point I
have abundantly proved. The presence of uric acid in the renal secretion
supposes a highly nitrogenous or proteinized composition of the blood,—in
fact, such complex conditions as do not exist in the fluids of the lower
invertebrated animal.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 251

of form and place and size, in all the pectinibranchiate and
pulmonated Gasteropods. Under all diversities, it is identifiable
by its anatomical structure. Cuvier thus defines its office and
locality: “ Le rectum, et oviductus de la femelle rampent aussi
le long du cdté droit de cette cavité, et entre eux et les branchies
est un organe particulier composé de cellules recélant une
humeur trés-visqueuse, servant & former une enveloppe com-
mune, qui renferme les ceufs et que animal dépose avec eux*.”
That gland which in Buccinum is situated between the rectum
on the right and the branchia on the left (when the roof is in
situ), and attached to the roof of the branchial chamber, is the
same gland with that which in Limaz niger (fig. 1 ¢, c) lies on
the floor of the pulmonary cavity, is extended in figure, and
circumscribes a space in the centre of which the heart is situated.
These two examples will serve to indicate the extremes of figure
and locality which one and the same gland may assume even in
kindred genera.

In the Littorinide (fig. 7 f) it affects the same position on
the roof between the branchia and the rectum.

In the Helicidee (fig. 3 g) it appears under the form of an oval
mass, situated still on the roof of the pulmonary cavity; and,
when the parts are im situ, to the right of the heart. Thus in
the particular of locality, this gland in Helix differs remarkably
from that of Limaz, in which it is placed on the floor (fig. 1 ¢, ¢)
of the cavity. In the Lymneade it is observed to occupy the
same situation as it does in the Helicidee. The Planorbide are
too small to render it practicable to examine this gland separately ;
but, as in the former family, its position is on the roof and on
the right of the heart.

That gland which by Dr. Sharpey has been called the supple-
mentary and doubly laminose gill, is a totally different organ
from the former. It does not exist under any form in the
pulmoniferous orders. It is largest and most developed in
Buccinum ; in the Periwinkle it is also very distinctly observable.
It is situated always to the left of, and parallel to, the branchia.
It is invariably tinged with a dark green colour. It terminates
anteriorly in a long excretory duct which travels under the
membrane of the vault and ends near the rectum.

By Cuvier, and all systematic naturalists, it is believed to be
the organ which secretes the “purple and other dyes” which
these animals are capable of pouring out, and has been ac-
cordingly designated the “colour-gland.” In relative position
and in general and minute structure, it is readily distinguishable
from the “ organe de la mucosité ” of Cuvier.

* Reégne Animal, vol. sur les Mollusques.

252 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

The author’s purpose at present is simply to present a sketch
of the structure of these glands. No opinion with reference to
their function can assume a stable and reliable form which is not
supported by the results of other researches into the structure
of the corresponding organs of other classes of invertebrate
animals. This more extended task is reserved for another
occasion.

Although in Limaz the so-called “ muciparous gland” differs
both in figure and situation from that of Buccinum, in minute
structure they are not only similar but identical. The folds of
which these bodies are composed were called the “ feuillets
muqueue”’ by Cuvier. They are attached to the internal face of
a sort of a tunica propria, by which the entire gland is closely
bound down. ‘This tunic, regarded in its length, forms a
cylinder. The axis of this cylinder is an open space. The
sides bear the glandular folds. A transverse as well as a longi-
tudinal section of the gland is required in order to display the
true disposition of the glandular lamin.

These bodies are richly ciliated both within and without.
Each fold ends in an excretory duct. The ducts emanating from
each fold are tributary to a common duct which runs along the
axes of the gland and joims the rectum at different pvints in
different genera. This fact, which can be readily verified, is
worthy of remembrance. From this fact alone the conclusion
is beyond dispute, that if these glands be the real bodies by
which the “ mucosity’? with which, almost at will, the respira-
tory cavity in these animals may be filled, it can only attain this
eavity by oozing through or transuding the tunica propria of the
gland,—a conclusion repugnant to reason, and at variance with
all physiological analogy.

In Buccinum the gland is flatter and less cylindrical than in
LInmazx. This occasions a slight difference in the mode in which
the lamine (fig. 8 a) are attached to the tunica propria. It is by
no means difficult to detach a single fold (a) in a perfect state
and place it under the microscope. By this simple expedient
the entire machmmery of this gland is rendered at once evident.

A highly ciliated membrane, more delicate than, although the
prolongation inwards of, the tunica propria, gives its form to,
and contains the gland-substance of, this fold. The external
surface of this membrane, although within the boundary of the
tunica propria, is not the true interior of the gland. The true
interior spaces of the gland communicating with the duct are
not ciliated ; nor is the znternal surface of the rectum in which it
terminates. It will be seen that the entire mass of the glandular
fold or lamina under examination consists of two elements:
first, the Florence-flask-shaped vesicles (fig. 8 6, 6, and B, 6),

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 253

which may not incorrectly be said to represent the lobuli or
acini of the glands of the vertebrated animal; and, secondly,
the intermediate stromatous and cellular structure which fills up
the spaces external to and between the vesicles. In the recent
gland these two parts are so evidently distinct, and indeed so
easily distinguishable, that they cannot be confounded. The
cells (B, b) within the vesicles are densely crowded with semi-
fluid albumen-looking contents, of low refractive power. The
substance contained in these intravesicular cells is unques-
tionably ¢he secretion of this gland. There it is, directly under
the eye, in its very place of production. If by micro-chemical
analysis its composition while thus isolated in cells could be
determined, the problem as to the real nature and office of this
gland might indeed very readily be solved; but the minuteness
of the quantity thus presented to the eye renders such a deter-
mination impossible.

The nucleated cells (c) which occupy the interspaces between the
cecal vesicles are much larger than those contained within these
parts; they are densely filled with oleous granules (d) of a green-
ish-yellow colour and of high refractive index. The nucleus in
these cells is filled only with an albuminous formless semifluid
substance. In this respect they will be found to contrast stri-
kingly with the similarly placed cells of the ‘ colour-gland ”
afterwards to be described. These extra-follicular cells, so densely
charged with a secreted product, perform obviously an import-
ant part in the office of these glands. They are separated from
those within the vesicles only by the walls of the follicles (B, e)
themselves. These walls consist literally of only a hyaline
membrane, structureless, answering simply and exclusively the
mechanical purpose of a limitary or circumscriptive sac. No
cell-elements are contained in its substance. It is evident there-
fore that the cells are the real factors in the act of secretion.
The large pregnant cells (B, e), which stand on the outside of
the czecal follicles of the gland, are soaked in the circulating
fluid. It surrounds them on all sides. But the blood does not
penetrate in mass into the interior of the vesicles. The cells
therefore by which these vesicles are filled cannot derive their
contents directly from the blood. From the relative position of
these parts—the blood, the extra-follicular or stromatous cells,
and the intra-follicular cells,—it seems highly probable that the
blood is first subjected to the agency of the externally situated
cells which cluster around the grape-shaped ends of the glands,
and that the prepared contents of these cells pass thence by
endosmose into the interior of the follicles, where they for the
second time conduce to form, and where they undergo the

254 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

elaborative reaction of, a second system of cells. These last
cells (B, f) are very unlike the former. In the gland of Helix
aspersa they are best seen. Those which are disposed around
the circumference of the space enclosed by the cecum of the
gland are the largest, and each of these cells contains a very
apparent nucleus which is charged with greenish-yellow granules.
As the eye approaches the centre of the caecum, the cells lose
their nuclei and become filled only with a mucus-like, pellucid,
semifluid substance, which eventually escapes into the excretory
channels of the gland. In the gland of Buccinum the dark
nuclei of the circumferential cells (B, f) are much less dis-
tinct. But the mass of cells by which the cecum is filled
presents the same characters as in Heliz. It is impossible here
to avoid the reflection that the cells are considerably larger in
size and more numerous in the glands of an Invertebrated than
in those of a Vertebrated animal. In that of the latter, a net-
work of blood-vessels accurately fits over and embraces exter-
nally the cecal extremities of the gland. In the Invertebrate
animal all glands are constructed in this respect on one general
type. The blood courses in large streams through the stromatous
substance; it never penetrates the hyaline membrane of the
follicle. Those parts of the blood which are appointed to nourish
the cells upon the agency of which the act of secretion depends,
and which cells in their turn furnish the final secreted product,
are destined therefore to pass through an external stratum of
cells and through the basement or hyaline membrane of the fol-
licle before they eventually reach the true secreting cells. This
exemplifies the important part taken by cells in the act of
secretion.

Let the physiologist now review the apparatus whose anato-
mical constitution has in part been defined. A large excretory
duct (fig. 8, B, g), discharging its contents into the rectum, is
traceable as other ducts into a constantly diminishing series of
ducts, until at length the Florence-flask-shaped terminal vesicles
(B, e) are reached. At this point the microscope discloses a
complex system of cells and channels for the transmission of
fluid,—a machinery in fact which is little inferior in intricacy to
that of the glands of the highest animal. It may be reasonably
inferred, that such an organized arrangement in a group of
animals comparatively inferior must be designed to furnish a
product far more important than the “ mucosity” as supposed
by Cuvier. It is next to impossible that this secretion can be
any other than the wrine. But this conclusion should receive
all the certainty of an unquestionable demonstration, since, in
this case, these bodies in the Gasteropods may be recognized

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 255

as a starting-point of great value in the determination of ana-
logies and homologies in the lower members of the series. This
demonstration is reserved for another opportunity.

A second and much smaller gland exists in the respiratory
cavity of the Pectinibranchiata, which hitherto has been variously
called the “colour-gland” and the bipectinate supplementary
gill. This body is not present in the breathing-chamber of the
Pulmonata. In Helix a fringe-like fold (fig. 3 e) of the mem-
brane of the cavity assumes almost the appearance of a gland ;
it is however nothing but a portion of the vascular respiratory
membrane.

The so-called colour-gland is best studied in Buccinwm and the
Littorinide. In both it is situated on the extreme of the roof of
the cavity, being separated from the other gland by the inter-
position of the branchiz. It is considerably smaller in the
Periwinkle than in the Whelk. It has a dark green colour. It
commences posteriorly in a cecal extremity. It is prolonged
anteriorly into a tube or duct which travels underneath the
mucous membrane of the vault until it approaches the termination
of the rectum, where it has its outlet by a separate orifice.
Viewed as an axis (fig. 9 a, a), this duct may be described as
supporting the lobes or leaves (b, 6) of the gland,—as symme-
trical, bilateral, ramose diverticula. This gland presents a
general exterior resemblance to the so-called “ muciparous
gland” of thischamber. It admits of division into two parts—
the dobes first, which correspond with the laminz ; and, secondly,
the /obuli (c) into which the lobes (4, 5) are further subdivided.
One of the /obuli in minute structure represents the arrangement
of the whole gland. These Jobuli do not exist in the “ muci-
parous gland.” ‘This is one distinctive fact. The next is that
the latter gland has a yellow colour, the former is of a dark
green. But distinctions more essential than the preceding
remain to be indicated. A lobule is represented by a bunch of
grapes flattened (fig. 10). The grapes or terminal follicles (a, a)
do not exhibit the same figure or shape as they do in the
“muciparous gland ;” they are more elongated and conical.
From the latter they differ also in their contents. They cir-
eumscribe cells which cannot be confounded with those of the
muciparous gland of the respiratory cavity. The stromatous
tissue (fig. 106) which envelopes the ceca is obviously dissimilar
from that of the latter gland. The dark green colour (c) of
both the extracecal and mtracecal cells is one striking fact of
distinction. This colour is seated in the nuclei of the cells. Like
those of the “ muciparous gland,” these cell-elements are divisible
into two groups; those, first, which are external to the cecum;
and, secondly, those which are within (d). Those which are with-

256 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

out are of a deep dark green colour (c); this colour is concen-
trated in the nucleus. Those which are within the limitary
membrane of the eczecum are less darkly tinged (d). But it is
evident that the latter cells cireumscribe contents which are the
derivative products of the former. The cells situated in the cir-
cumference of the vesicles are more dark than those placed in the
centre. This gradation of colouring is expressive of the stages
through which the secreted product passes. By this coloured
substance this gland is strikingly distinguished from that of the
“ muciparous gland.” The follicles differ in figure from those of
the latter, but the cells do not; they are distinguished only by
the colour of the material by which they are filled.

Arbitrating as mere physiologists, it would be quite impossible
to say why one of these glands should be a kidney and why the
other should not. It cannot be proved by the secreted product
of this gland that it is one really designed to furnish a ‘‘ coloured
fluid.’ This inference is founded simply upon the colour of the
cell-machinery by which this product is elaborated—not upon
the colour of the finished excretion.

The author proposes for the present to leave this question in
an unsettled attitude; but he will venture to state that neither
of these glands is the source of the “mucus” or “ mucosity ”
for which the Gasteropod Mollusks are remarkable. This “mu-
cosity ” is really supplied by a totally different machinery. It is
poured forth by follicles which in all Gasteropod and Nudibran-
chiate Mollusks are more or less thickly strewn over the mucous
and cutaneous surfaces. These follicles will be more minutely
described in speaking of the respiratory organs of the Nudi-
branchiate Mollusks.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES V. anp XI.
PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Animal of Littorina litorea, removed from its shell, having the
branchial chamber laid open,—the roof being everted in order to
show its under or internal surface. e, e, roof; d, colour-gland of
the author, ‘‘ double ”-gill of Dr. Sharpey and other naturalists ;
a, a, branchia, consisting of many hundreds of parallel leaves ;
5, a gland of the mucosity, supposed to have a renal function ;
c, extremity of the intestinum rectum; g, a second gland whose
function is not determined; j, duct of the generative organ ;
i, floor of the branchial chamber; h, mantle; &, abdominal por-
tion of the body.

Fig. 2. Animal of Buccinum undatum, removed from its shell, and showing
the roof of the respiratory chamber everted : f, siphon ; 0, the so-
called double-gill, the colour-gland of the author; a, a’, branchia,
consisting of many hundreds of parallel leaves; d, duct leading
from the colour-gland and terminating near the rectum, e; c, gland
of the mucosity, supposed to have a renal function.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Om NIH

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals, 257

. Enlarged view of a single branchial leaflet of the Periwinkle :

a, a, cartilaginous thick or dorsal edge; 0b, b, folds or second-
ary plications of the surface of the leaflet; (B), the same in sec-
tional view, showing that the plice exist on both faces of the leaf ;
ce, c, a second set of plicze ; h, h, the blood-channels as they course
in a parallel order towards the free margin (g), at which place
they loop round as shown in fig. 5; d, d, (fig. 3) indicate the
fixed border of the lamina where the afferent and efferent trunks
are situated ; 7, the extreme tapering end of the lamina.

. Four branchial leaflets froin the gill of Buccinum undatum, with a

portion of the roof from which they depend: a, a, the dorsal or
cartilaginous border of the lamina; a, f, rows of cilia on the
same; é, c, section of roof to which they are attached; d, d, the
flat surface or face of the leaflet, traversed by wavingly parallel
blood-channels ; a, b, g, the free border at which these channels
loop, so as to reach the opposite face ; c, c, the attached base at
which the afferent and efferent trunks are placed.

. is a small portion of the free border, }, of the last figure, highly

magnified, showing the mode in which the blood-channels, g,
eurve round the free border in passing from one face of the
lamina to the other.

. A small portion of the epithelium from the face of the lamina.
. The hyalime cartilage which gives rigidity to and is enclosed in the

substance of the dorsal border of the lamina.

. Two epithelial ciliated scales from the free margin, 4, of fig. 4.
. @, a, a, a, a, a, six leaflets from the gill of Purpura Lapillus :

a', shows the hook-like manner in which the dorsal border curves
at the point—a contrivance which increases the elasticity of the
cartilage in unfurling and tightening the lamina; c, marks the
course of the blood-channels across the area of the leaf; 6, is the
free or floating border; d, the base; 6, the base of the cartila-
ginous border.

10. is a diagram of the entire gill in Purpura Lapilius, showing the

general form of the organ, the largest and longest laminz being
in the middle, the smallest at either end.

12. The hyaline cartilage from the dorsal border of the gill-leaf of

Purpura Lapillus.

12%. One of the blood-channels from the same, traced at the free

border, showing the mode in which it loops.

13. Seven branchial lamine from the gill of Trochus magus: a, car-

tilaginous border ; d, base of the same; e, face of the lamina in-
dicating the course of the blood-channels ; 5, free border ; c, base.

14. Seven leaflets from the gill of Trochus cinerarius: a, d, cartila-

ginous border; 4, free border; ce, denotes the directions of the
muscular fibres which are attached to the base of the hyaline car-
tilage ; e, e, base.

PuaTE XI.

Fig. 1. Limax niger, showing the roof (a) of the respiratory chamber re-

flected. On its under surface (0) is seen a plexus of vessels,
which are more distinct on the pericardium (e); ec’, c’, represent
the mucous gland; d, heart; g, vessels distributed over the floor
of the respiratory chamber ; e, orifice of the breathing-chamber ;
h, aorta.

Fig. 2. A small portion of the vascular plexus from the breathing-cavity

of the preceding specimen, magnified, exhibiting the tendency to

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii.

258 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

a cellular or locular arrangement (a) in the plan of the vessels ;
6, a large circular trunk circumscribing a “ cell.”

Fig. 2 (6). A small portion of the same plexus from another situation.

Fig. 3. Helix aspersa, removed from its shell: a, intestinum rectum; },
ventricle of the heart ; c, auricle; d, d', main pulmonary artery ;
k, secondary vessels of the pulmonary plexus (A); 7, diaphragm
which divides the thorax from the abdomen (j); f, floor of
thorax, or respiratory chamber.

Figs. 4 & 5. Helix aspersa, out of its shell. Fig. 4 shows the animal in the
act of creeping on the foot (d), and with the respiratory cavity (¢)
in a state of inspiratory distension : a, orifice into the breathing-
chamber ; e’, notch in edge of disk (e). Fig. 5 illustrates the same
animal, the foot being retracted, the respiratory chamber (c) col-
lapsed during expiration, and the orifice (a) being open to take ina
fresh supply of air; e, the disk.

Fig. 6. A portion of the vascular plexus from the roof of the pulmonary
chamber of Helix aspersa, showing the parallel disposition of the
secondary and ultimate vessels.

Fig. 7. Animal of Lymneus stagnalis removed from its shell: a, siphon
in the projected state; 6, c, respiratory chamber; e, heart;
g. denotes the position of the intestinum rectum; f, gland of
the mucosity ; /, flattened ciliated tentacles.

Fig. 8. A. Muciparous gland of Buccinum undatum: a, 6, 6, vesicles ;
c, tervesicular stroma; d, cells from the interior of vesicles.

B. A group of vesicles, seated on a peduncle, magnified : e, a vesicle ;
b, the cells, containing the true secretion with which the vesicles
are filled; f, ultimate cells.

Fig. 9. Transverse section of the “ colour-gland”’ of Buccinum undatum :
c, lobules into which each lobe (0) is subdivided ; a, section of a
large vessel; d, axis.

Fig. 10. A lobule of the former section magnified: a, a, vesicles; 8,
intervesicular stroma composed of coloured cells; d, a small
portion further magnified; c, ultimate cells.

[To be continued. |

XXI. — Notes on Permian Fossils :—Palliobranchiata. By
Wixuram Kine, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in
Queen’s University, Ireland (Q. C. Galway) ; Corresponding
Member of the Natural History and Medical Society of
Dresden, &c.

[ With a Plate. ]

Every paleontological fact connected with the Permian system
is of the highest interest. Apart from the many philosophical
questions pertaining to them, both this geological division and
its fossils are more intimately related to one of the great in-
dustrial resources of Britain than is generally imagined. The
Permian system, in point of fact, is the key to all our covered-up
coal-measures; and its organic remains are the wards of that
key. Should any one discover a bed containing Permian fossils,

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 259

the probability is, that it immediately overlies a series of workable
seams of coal. Dr. Smith, “the Father of English geology,”
strongly urged on the “ viewers ” of Newcastle to sink through
the magnesian (Permian) limestone of an adjoining county,
being fully convinced they would come on as good coal as
occurred in Northumberland. His advice was taken, but not
without considerable mistrust ; and the result is, that Durham
has become one of the principal seats of the colliery trade in
Britain.

The North of England, with its valuable treasures of coal,
may yet find a powerful rival in the North of Ireland. A few
years since, there was much uncertainty prevailing as to the age
of a magnesian limestone occurring at Cultra, near Hollywood,
on the south shore of Belfast Lough, some referring it to the
Permian system*, others to the Carboniferous+. There is now,
however, no doubt on the point, since all its organic remains are
unmistakeably Permian f{.

But Cultra is not the only locality in the North of Ireland
where the Permian system is developed; for in September last
it was my lot to discover, in the neighbourhood of Ardtrea in
county Tyrone, another deposit of magnesian limestone precisely
similar to that occurring at Cultra, and charged with undoubted
Permian fossils$. It now only remains for the colliery engineer
to sink his boring rods through the magnesian limestone of
these localities to ascertain if they contain the usual underlying
coal-measures.

Enough has been stated to show that every particular relating
to Permian palzontology ought to be carefully noted.

Althongh the fossils of the Permian system, as developed in
Germany and England, have long been known through the
researches of Schlotheim, Sedgwick, Phillips and others, yet,

* Vide a paper “On the Magnesian Limestone of Hollywood and its
associated Rocks,” by Mr. James Bryce, in vol. i. of the Journal of the
Geol. Soc. of Dublin. Mr. M‘Adam expressed himself in favour of the
same opinion in a paper which he read at the Belfast Meeting of the
British Association.

+ Vide a paper by Dr. Griffith “ On the Lower portion of the Carbo-
niferous Series of Ireland,”’ in the Brit. Assoc. Report for 1843, p. 45, &c.,
in which the Cultra fossils are identified by M‘Coy, according to Mr. Kelly
(vide Journ. of the Geol. Soc. of Dublin, vol. vu. p. 23), with Devonian
species.

et This fact was first announced by myself in a paper “ On the Permian
Fossils of Cultra,”’ which I read at the Belfast Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation ; vide Repor tfor 1852, p. 53.

§ A paper of mine on this discovery was read at the December meeting
of the Dublin Geological Society. I expect it will be published in the next
Number of the ‘ Dublin Natural History Review.’ :

7*

260 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

when engaged with my ‘Catalogue’ in 1847*, and my ‘ Mono-
graph’ in 1850, I was under the necessity of diagnosing about
fifty-three species, none of which had, at the date first
named, been met with out of England. ‘The late researches of
Dr. Geinitz of Dresden and Baron von Schauroth of Coburg
have, however, brought to light about thirty-three of my new
species as equally indigenous to Germany. The twenty not yet
met with out of England seem to be balanced by about as
many species which have not been discovered anywhere except
in Germany. Those which I have determined as occurring at
Cultra and Ardtrea amount to about thirteen species, all of
which, however, are characteristic of both the English and Ger-
man Permians. The facts just noticed have mainly induced
me to publish in the ‘ Annals’ an occasional paper, which,
although nominally on Permian fossils, will enable me to dis-
cuss a few matters of somei mportance in paleontology.

Family Productide, J. EK. Gray.
Genus Propvucrtus, J. Sowerby.
P. Geinitzianus, De Koninck. PI. XII, figs. 1 & 2.

As I was unacquainted with this species except through the
figures and description in De Koninck’s ‘ Monographie’ of the
genus Productus + (vide pl. 15. fig. 3 a, b, c, d, p. 156 & 157,
1847) ; and as Geinitz was induced to unite it in his ‘ Ver-
steinerungen ’ (vide p. 14, 1848), though not positively, with his
previously described Orthis excavata, 1 was led to adopt this
identification in my Monograph ; but having recently fallen in
with a specimen by accident, mixed with some examples of Pro-
ductus herridus lately received from Dr. Krantz, I now perceive
that De Koninck was correct in regarding it as an undescribed
species.

The figures in the ‘ Monographie’ are doubtless faithful copies
of the specimens they represent; but the example before me
shows that the species is more variable than De Koninck sus-
pected. It is described as having the large valve “ divisée dans
son milieu par un sinus large et peu profond prenant naissance
& une petite distance du crochet ;” but this valve can scarcely be
said to possess a median depression in the specimen which I have
represented under figures ] & 2 in Plate XII.

* Tt is well known in Newcastle that this ‘ Catalogue,’ although pub-
lished in 1848, was ready for publication by the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field
Club in J uly 1847.

+ I feel it necessary to express my obligations to Dr. de Koninck for
presenting me with a beautiful copy of this mvaluable work.

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 261

Productus aculeatus, according to the figures given of it by
De Koninck, seems to be a closely related form, the principal dif-
ference being, that the small valve of the present fossil is not
radially costulated. P. granulosus appears to be another allied
form ; asisalso P. scabriculus. In some of these species the spine-
bases are elongated, and extended considerably in front of the
spines, which are thereby made to appear as if directed back-
wards or towards the hinge: the same character is exhibited in
P. Geinitzianus, but it appears to have escaped the notice of
De Koninck ; or perhaps his specimens did not possess it. The
resemblance between P. Geinitzianus and Strophalosia (Orthis)
excavata clearly led Geinitz to conclude both forms to be iden-
tical; but in the latter species the spines are finer, decidedly
more numerous, and strikingly arranged in quincunx.

Perceiving no trace of teeth or of an area in the example I
have examined, which is about an inch in width, I am led to con-
clude that the species is a true Productus.

De Koninck states that it is a “ very rare species.” His spe-
cimens are from the Zechstein in the neighbourhood of Milbitz.
The specimen figured is from Répsen. It has not yet been made
known as occurring in any British formations.

Productus Schaurothianus, u. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 3,4 & 5.

Lately breaking up a few fragments of dark-coloured Zech-
stein from Répsen, I was agreeably surprised to find a few spe-
cimens of a small shell, which, at first sight, from its possessing
an irregularly impressed or truncated umbone, appeared to me
to be a species of oyster. A closer examination, however, con-
vinced me that it was a Productus, altogether unlike any I was
acquainted with. I therefore embrace the present opportunity
of describing it and of dedicating it to my friend Baron von
Schauroth, who has within the last few years contributed much
towards elucidating the paleontology of the German Permians.

Diagnosis.— General form irregularly hemispherical. Large
valve irregularly and strongly convex ; having a distinct median
depression ; and marked with longitudinal costules, occasionally
dichotomous ; its umbone deeply and irregularly impressed or
truncated. Small valve flattish or slightly concave; wrinkled
parallel to its free margin; and marked with nearly obsolete
radiating costules. Hinge-line about (?) half the width of the
valves.

Productus Schaurothianus has much the aspect of some of the
so-called Thecidiums of the Jurassic system, such as 7’. Deslong-
champsii, Dayid., which has a somewhat similar truncation of
the umbone. With this remarkable peculiarity, it is quite an

262 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

abnormal form of the genus; for no species that I am aware of
possesses a truncated beak. I found two or three specimens
with a fragment of stone (? clay-slate), to which they adhered,
still attached to the truncated surface of the umbone: when
chipped out it left a deep groove on the truncation. Productus
Schaurothianus thus agrees with most species of Strophalosia,—a
circumstance which might induce some to suppose that it be-
longs to the last-named genus ; but I have failed in discovering
any traces of teeth or of an area. Being an attached shell, this
species affords another argument against the opinion that the
Producti adhered to foreign bodies “by means of fibres passing
out of their anterior opening, as advocated by De Koninck.
Attached species, such as the present, evidently adhered to
foreign bodies by their umbone in the same way as oysters, &c.
I suspect that some species moored themselves by means of their
spines, like Strophalosias ; while others, such as Productus gigan-
teus, remained free, resting on their large convex valve, as is the
case with Pecten Jacobeus.

The median depression in Productus Schaurothienus is seldom
exactly im the middle, which causes the large valve to be unequally
lobed. The costules number about five in a quarter of an inch
at the anterior margin. No spines are visible on either valve.
None of the specimens that have occurred to me exceed ths of
an inch in diameter. I am not aware of its occurring im any
other locality than Répsen.

Genus AuLosteces, Helmerson.
? Aulosteges umbonillatus= Productus id.*, King. Pl. XII. fig. 6.

This singular species appears to be somewhat abundant at
Possneck, where its occurrence was first made known by
Schauroth, who has given some characteristic figures of it in his
first ‘ Beitrag +. I diagnosed it as being “ subtriangular mar-
ginally,” which is an error: it ought to have been described as
subquadrate, which may be seen by consulting the figures re-
ferred to in the note.

From the circumstance of this species possessing some “ ap-
pearance of an area,” I ventured to state, in my Monograph,
that eventually it might be found to belong to Helmerson’s

* Vide Monograph of the Permian Fossils of England, p. 92. pl. 11.
figs. 14-17.

“+ Vide “ Kin Beitrag zur Fauna des Deutschen Zechsteingebirges, mit
Beriicksichtigung von King’ s Monographie der Verstemerungen des per-
mischen Systems in England. ” (Aus dem Junihefte des Jahrganges 1853
der Sitzungsberichte der mathem.-naturw. Classe der kais. Akad. der Wis-
senschaften [ Bd. xi. S. 147] besonders abgedruckt.)

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 263

genus Aulosteges. All the German specimens I have seen assist
in lending considerable support to this conjecture ; for they show
more or less traces of a wide irregular area and a closed
fissure*. With regard to its mode of articulation, the following
expression may still be taken as correct :—“ I can say with safety
that it is not furnished with any teeth; it consequently cannot
be a Strophalosia” (Monograph, p. 92). The conclusion em-
bodied in this sentence is completely confirmed by the form of
the reniform impressions, which, on referring to the figure here
given (vide P]. XII. fig. 6), will be seen to agree completely with
those characteristic of Productus, and to be altogether different
from those peculiar to Strophalosia.

With regard to the genus Aulosteges, I possess some good
determinable specimens of the typical species from the Permian
beds of Mont Grebeni near Orenburg, obligingly presented to
me by Col. Helmerson through Sir Roderick Murchison ; Mr.
Davidson has also kindly favoured me with tracings of Col. Hel-
merson’s figures of the same species, illustrative of his original
memoir ; 1 am therefore in a position to speak with more con-
fidence than formerly on the genus. I have no doubt whatever
of its being distinct from Strophalosia, since it is not furnished
with any teeth—structures which are strictly diagnostic of the
last-named genus—inasmuch as species may be truly denti-
gerous, and yet have a concealed or an almost obsolete area, as
in Strophalosia subaculeata.

There is yet one point to be cleared up in connexion with
Aulosteges. Do its reniform impressions project decidedly in
front of the median plate, as in Strophalosia, or no further than
about the extremity of this plate, as in Productus?+ I have
represented the interior of the small valve of ? Aulosteges umbo-
nillatus, on which it will be seen these structures are situated as
in Productus: if it could be positively affirmed that this species
is a true Awlosteges, the reniform impressions would ally the
genus more closely with Productus than Strophalosia.

Genus SrropHaosia, King.
Strophalosia parvat, King.

This species has not yet been noticed as occurring in Germany ;
but I have seen a specimen (cast) adhering to the inner surface

* I formerly suspected the closed fissure to be a noteh in the area
caused by the cardinal process pressing against what I then termed the
** flattened (area-like) space.”

+ Vide my Monograph, p. 95. and pl. 11. fig. 10, and pl. 12. figs. 5, 9, 14
& 30, where these differences are described and figured.

t Vide op. cit. p. 102. pl. 12. fig. 33.

264 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

of a Strophalosia(?) Morrisiana from Péssneck. M‘Coy con-
siders it to be the young of Strophalosia Goldfussi*; but its
hinge-line always appeared to me to be too wide to agree with
the “attenuated posterior end” of the latter: some other dif-
ferences, which I formerly pointed out, appear to separate both
forms from each other.

Strophalosia Morrisianat, King.

In my Monograph it is stated that “two varieties of Séro-
phalosia Morrisiana occur in the Permian rocks of Durham. One
has the large valve slightly convex, with a very small umbone,
and appears to be confined to Tunstall Hill: in the other, which
is rather common at Humbleton Quarry, the corresponding valve
is more rounded and the umbone more prominent : possibly they
are specifically distinct ; and it is this idea which causes me to
be particular in stating that the Tunstall Hill form must be con-
sidered as the type of the species.”

As regards the Humbleton variety, I admitted that it was
closely related to Strophalosia Cancrini, De Verneuil, a Permian
species occurring in Russia; M‘Coy, however, without giving
any satisfactory reasons, states that he entertains “little doubt”
of both being the same speciest. I here speak of the Humbleton
variety, because it is the one which I suspect he had before him
when making the statement quoted.

My attention having been again drawn to the present species ;
and as I cannot subscribe to the opinion just stated, I have con-
sidered it necessary to reopen the question as to its identity with
S. Cancrini; more particularly as De Koninck, having examined
a specimen from Ust-Joschuga in Russia, and compared it with
a Zechstein fossil from Gera in Germany, has expressed himself
similarly to M‘Coy in his ‘ Monographie’ (p. 108). I regret not
having been myself able to examine any Russian type-specimens
of S. Cancrini; but I think I shall be able, by means of the
descriptions which De Verneuil, De Koninck and Count Key-
serling have given of it, to substantiate in a great measure the
view which I entertain on the question at issue.

Strophalosia Morrisiana, taking the Tunstall Hill specimens
as its type, may be described as follows :—General form flatly
concayo-convex ; transversely elliptical. Large valve slightly con-

* British Paleozoic Fossils, p. 458.

+ Monograph, pp. 100 & 101. pl. 12. figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25,
29, 30. Numbers 18 and 19 refer to the type-specimens ; the remaining
numbers to the Humbleton form, which I designated var. Humbletonensis,
stating at the same time that “in ease it should be found to be a di-

stinct species, the varietal should stand for the specific name.”
t M‘Coy, op. cit. p. 457.

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 265

vex; evenly rounded ; often with one or more contracted longi-
tudinal furrow-wrinkles on the sides, and furnished with a number
of long, rather distant, somewhat irregularly arranged, creeping
or adpressed spines directed forward : both inner and outer sur-
face marked with nearly obsolete striz radiating from the um-
bone; also with numerous well-defined incremental lines: umbone
slightly affecting the even roundness of the valve; decidedly
impressed or truncated ; and scarcely curving down to the car-
dinal edge: area a little more in length than half the width of
the valve ; rather low, but well defined, being in the form of a
very obtuse triangle, the sides of which are about equal to 3ths
of the length of the base ; faintly lineated transversely ; and fur-
nished with a narrow deltidium. Small valve shghtly concave ;
here and there exhibiting a few nearly obsolete, slightly elon-
gated indented impressions a little raised at their anterior end,
which causes them to appear as if produced by a blunt-pointed
instrument: both mner and outer surface marked with fine
radiating striz a little more strongly marked than those on the
large valve: nucleus raised a little above the general surface of
the valve: area little more than rudimentary

All the specimens I collected of this species are a little under an
inch in width, and about 3 of an inch inlength. Thesmall valve
I am now strongly inclined to think cannot be considered as spi-
niferous : probably the nearly obsolete indented impressions may
be modified bases of abortive spines. In the Appendix to my
Monograph (p. 245) it is noticed, that this species has its small
valve furnished with spines; and a reference was made to a cast
from Whitley represented under fig. 26. pl. 12, which very
distinctly exhibits these structures ; but I now regard this spe-
cimen as belonging to the species next to be noticed*.

The foregoing description may be considered as an amplifi-
eation of the diagnosis given in p. 160 of my Monograph ;—the
latter, however, is incorrect in some respects, caused by m
including in it certain characters exhibited by the Humbleton
variety.

I am not aware that this species has yet been found anywhere
except at Tunstall Hill.

I shall next proceed to tabulate the differences between it and
Strophalosia Cancrini, taking De Verneuil’s figures and descrip-
tions as my guidef.

* Vide Monograph. In plate 11. fig. 21. is represented an ideal section
of Strophalosia Morrisiana, which must be cancelled, as the spinous cha-
racter 1s altogether incorrect, and the large valve is too convex.

+ Geology of Russia, by Sir R. I. Murchison, De Verneuil and Count
Keyserling, pp. 273, 274. pl. 16. fig. 8, and pl. 18. fig. 7

266

Strophalosia Morrisiana.

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

Strophalosia Cancrini.

Large valve.

Slightly convex, and evenly
rounded.

Transversely elliptical (wider
than long).

Lateral slopes gradually in-
clined, and marked with longi-
tudinal furrow-wrinkles.

Area well defined.

Umbone very slightly affect-
ing the even roundness of the
valve, decidedly impressed or
truncated, and scarcely curving
down to the cardinal edge.

Hinge-line a little more than
half the width of the valve.

Obsoletely striated.

Strongly convex, and swelled
out on the posterior half.
“A little longer than wide.”

Lateral slopes nearly per-
pendicular and _ transversely
wrinkled.

Area so imperceptible as not
to be noticed by De Verneuil,
Keyserling, or De Koninck.

Umbone decidedly promi-
nent, pointed, and incurved
over the cardinal edge.

Hinge-line not much shorter
than the width of the valve.
Decidedly striated.

There appear to be some other differences, as in the spines,
the nucleus of the small valve, &c. ; but those tabulated are quite
sufficient to demonstrate that both forms are specifically distinct.
The specimen of Strophalosia productoidea figured by De Ver-
neuil* has more resemblance to S. Morrisiana than to S. Can-
crint: the Devonian species, however, is too convex ; and its area
is too wide, and not quite high enough for the Permian form.

As regards the variety Humbletonensis, I am more than ever
inclined to consider it as a distinct species, the possibility of
which I was, on a former occasion, impressed with}. At that
time I also alluded to its being more closely related to S. Can-
erm than the typical forms of S. Morriszana; as it appeared to
graduate the one into the other. But I am not yet either dis-
posed to admit its identity with the former, or prepared to say
positively that it is specifically distinct from the latter. The
following description may assist in drawing up a diagnosis,
should it hereafter be considered as a species.

General form rather strongly convex; as wide as long, some-
times longer than wide, rarely the converse. Large valve rather
strongly convex and evenly rounded ; occasionally with one or
more longitudinal wrinkles on the sides; furnished with nume-
rous long somewhat irregularly arranged spines, creeping and

* Russia in Europe, vol. ii. pl. 18. fig. 4 e, f.
+ Vide Monograph of the Permian Fossils of England, p. 101.

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 267

directed forward on the back, erect and bent backward on the
sides and adjacent to the hinge ; both inner and (?) outer surface
marked with numerous fine striz radiating from the umbone ;
also with well-defined imcremental lines: umbone somewhat
tumid ; occasionally a little impressed, and incurving over or
below the cardinal edge : area small ; scarcely perceptible through
the incurvation of the umbone: ¢eeth well developed. Small
valve slightly concave; marked with numerous elongated in-
dented impressions, which are somewhat regularly arranged, and
deepest at their anterior end; both inner and outer surface
marked witb distinct radiating striz; those on the sides near
the hinge dichotomous and arcuated or curving posteriorly ;
they pass uninterruptedly over the indented impressions *, and
are crossed by rather strong incremental lines: nucleus raised a
little above the general surface of the valve.

I have adhered closely to the order in which the various cha-
racters of S. Morrisiana are described, so that the differences
between the two forms may be readily seen. S. Cancrini differs
from the present one,—notably in having the large valve still
more convex ; the umbone pointed and more swelled out behind
the hinge-line ; and the lateral wrinkles transversely directed ;
also in having an imperceptible or concealed area, the width of
which, too, appears to be greater :—furthermore, it seems to be a
much smaller species,—var. Humbletonensis being the largest of
the three forms: some specimens of the latter are nearly an
inch and a half in diameter. De Koninck’s figure of his so-called
Productus Cancrini from Ust-Joschuga would lead one to sup-
pose that its small valve was furnished with spines; but I am
almost certain that such do not occur in the present fossil :
probably the singular elongated indented impressions may be
modified bases of abortive spines similar to those on the corre-
sponding valve of Productus horridus +.

It is this variety which exhibits the remarkable trivalved
character noticed elsewhere{. I am still at a loss to account for
it satisfactorily. The extra valve belongs to the small valve.
Can the mollusk of some specimens have had the mantle belong-
ing to its small valve separated into two layers or divisions, the
innermost one forming the inner valve, and the outermost the
outer valve ?

I suspect all the specimens described and figured by Geinitz,
as Orthothrix lamellosus and Productus Cancrini, belong to
var. Humbletonensis. Schauroth represents a specimen from the

* These striz I formerly described as broken: I was misled by the in-
dented impressions giving them an appearance of the kind.

+ Vide Monograph, p. 90. pl. 11. figs. 6, 7.

{ Vide Monograph, p. 101. pl. 12. figs. 21-24.

268 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

Zechstein-dolomite of Possneck having the spine-bases following
a decidedly linear arrangement*. A specimen before me from
Possneck exhibits very faint traces of spines; but the striz are
well displayed. Doubtless the fossil from Gera noticed by De
Koninck in his ‘ Monographie,’ p. 108, and identified with S.

Cancrini, is the same.

Strophalosia eacavata}, Geinitz.
Var. Whitleyensist, King.

Allusion has already been made to the cast of a small valve
found at Whitley, clearly exhibiting that it was furnished with
spines, and which I formerly regarded as belonging to Séro-
phalosia Morrisiana; but as I now feel pretty certain that the
last form had not a spiniferous small valve, I am under the
necessity of removing the present fossil to the species now
entered on; not, however, without a strung suspicion that it
will turn out to be specifically distinct, in which case the
varietal name here given may be made a specific one. There
is also before me a specimen of a large valve from Tunstall
Hill, which I formerly considered as a variety of the present
species: it agrees so closely with the small valve from Whitley
in marginal outline and the number of spines, as to lead me to
suspect that both belong to the same variety or species: if so,
var. Whatleyensis will stand in the same relation to S. excavata
as var. Humbletonensis does to S. Morrisiana.

Strophalosia excavata has the large valve tolerably convex ;
and its spines are crowded, and more or less regularly arranged
in quincunx ; but var. Whitleyensis is much less convex (consi-
dering the large valve found at Tunstall) ; and the spines are not
so numerous (and consequently they are more apart) ; nor have
they any marked quincuncial arrangement: further, the area
appears to be wider ; and the small valve has its nucleus elevated
above the general surface, as in S. Morrisiana and var. Humble-
tonensts,—a character only slightly seen in S. excavata. It was
the elevated nucleus that led me to regard the Whitley valve as
belonging to S. Morrisiana.

Schauroth I perceive records in his 2nd Beitrag § the occur-
rence of Strophalosia Goldfussi, S. eacavata, S. Morrisiana, S.
lamellosa and 8. Cancrini nm the Permians of Germany. Is it
possible that varieties Humbletonensis and Whitleyensis have been
taken for the last two species ?

* Vide op. cit. fig. 7 a.

+ Verstemerungen, p. 14. pl. 5. fig. 37, pl. 6. fig. 20.

t Monograph, pl. 11. fig. 26.

§ Ein Beitrag zur Palaontologie des deutschen Zechsteingebirges, 1854.

Mr. W. Clark on Scissurella crispata. 269

The family Productide, as will be seen by referring to the
table at the end, has been much better represented durmg the
Permian period than was suspected a few years since: in short—
of the four known genera, Productus, Aulosteges, Strophalosia
and Chonetes*—we are now acquainted with probably about
sixteen Permian species. But what is most remarkable, not a
single representative of the family has yet been found in de-
posits admitted as belonging to a system more recent than the
Permian +. We must not, however, jump to the conclusion,
that the family Productide became extinct at the expiration of
the Permian period: there are extensive geographical areas in
Asia, South America, Australia and other regions, where beds
are developed containing representatives of the family; it is
therefore advisable to wait until the exact, or at least the proxi-
mate age of the beds referred to be determined, before pro-
nouncing that no Productide lived after the setting-in of the
great secondary cycle.

[To be continued. |

XXII.—On Scissurella crispata. By Witiiam Criark, Esq.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, Norfolk Crescent, Bath, February 10, 1856.
THE memorandum and figure of Mr. Lucas Barrett, which have
just appeared in the ‘ Annals,’ vol. xvii. p. 206, N.S., relative to
the animal of Scissurella crispata, is a valuable contribution to
malacological science, as it furnishes data to determine with
sufficient precision the natural position of this curious species,
on which for many years the greatest contrariety of opinion has
existed, and which has not been satisfactorily settled until the
present time. And I will further remark, that this uncertainty
will always prevail when genera are constituted on shell con-

* Mr. Davidson was the first to work out the affinities of Chonetes: he
has proved by its reniform (or ovarian?) impressions, that it belongs to the
family Productide. Vide Introduction to his ‘ Monograph of British
Fossil Brachiopoda,’ 1853. The figure which Mr. Davidson has given of
the reniform impressions on the flat valve of a “‘ new species of Chonetes
from the Devonian beds of Néhou, in France,” proves that this genus is
more related to Productus than to Strophalosia, notwithstanding its pos-
sessing both teeth and an area. With regard to the so-called Chonetes
comoides, its reniform impressions, when discovered, will doubtless settle
the question whether it be a Chonetes or a Strophalosia.

+ The so-called Productus Leonhurdi (now the type of the genus
Koninckia) from the Saliferous rocks of St. Cassian evidently does not
belong to Productide (vide Woodward’s excellent ‘ Manual of Mollusca,’
p- 231). I suspect, however, that it belongs, or comes near, to the family
Davidsonide, proposed in my Monograph (pp. 81 & 151).

270 Mr. W. Clark on Scissurella crispata.

siderations; and they can only be admitted to a provisional
position to await the rectifications that may be required by the
discovery of the animal architect. Conchological dispositions
must ever be the mere arena for surmise and doubtful classifi-
cation.

Mr. Barrett has not stated his views on the systematic place
of Scissurella. Whether this has arisen from omission, doubt,
or from the idea of this species having already been properly
deposited, does not appear. My object is to supply some in-
formation on this point.

Mr. Barrett’s figure is that of a decided Trochidan animal :
this is evident from the ciliated tentacula and lateral vibracula,
which latter organs are peculiar to the Trochide; the four
neck-lappets are composed of a lamina on each side, so deeply
indented as to cause each to appear as two distinct processes ;
these appendages are the invariable concomitants of the Trocha.

Compare these points with the rough woodcut of the animal
of Trochus serpuloides of Montagu, published in the ‘Annals,’
vol. viii. p.45, N. S., and allowing a margin for specialty-varia-
tions, all the generic essentials of the Trochidan animal are incon-
testably apparent.

The late Professor Forbes is one of the naturalists who has, in
his and Mr. Hanley’s ‘British Mollusca,’ rightly placed this
species with the Trochide; but he acknowledges having adopted
that position from some notes of Sars; he however speaks with
doubt, and hopes the animal will be better known.

Mr. Barrett’s discovery shows that the undoubted natural
position of Scisswrella is with the subdiscoidal section of the
delicate minute Trochi; its congeners are the Trochus serpu-
loides, Mont., T. Cutleriana, mihi, and T. nitens of Philippi,
all the animals of which were first discovered by me, and de-
scribed as Trochidans. The operculum of these species is cir-
cular, with a subcentral nucleus and coarse spiral strize; that of
Mr. Barrett’s Scissurella slightly differs. They are all mere
films, and require a good lenticular power to distinguish accu-
rately their form and sculpture.

The fissure in the centre of the outer margin of the shell of
the Scissurella originates in the animal specialty of a prolongation
of the points of the branchial organ to procure a more free
access of the water, and which by its presence, for a time, in-
terrupts at that particular point the testaceous exudation from
the mantle, and thus produces a short fissure, which in progress
of growth becomes obliterated in consequence of the branchial
impediments to the action of the mantle bemg removed to a new
portion of the shell, and in this manner a constant continuation
of the fissure is effected. But surely this scission cannot be

Mr. J. G. Jeffrey’s Notices of Piedmontese Mollusca. 271

considered of sufficient value to entitle the animal to represent
a distinct Trochidan genus, and to nullify its indisputable generic
essentials with the type, Z’rochus, in which we are of opinion it
ought to be deposited, instead of burdening science with the
new genus Scissurella.

There can be no species of Scissurel/a without an operculum,
as its animal has now been proved to be a Trochidan, all of
which are invariably operculated. When that appendage has
escaped notice, it has probably been in consequence of the ex-
treme tenuity of the fabric of its pellicle, and the want of proper
optical power.

The ciliated lateral vibracula of the Trochidan animal vary
from two to four on each side, but are usually three. They
are frequently doubled up, and lie under the flap of the upper
lobe of the foot; and, from their slenderness and change of
position, are often difficult to detect. This remark is made to
meet the possibility of the vibracula in Mr. Barrett’s Scissurella
turning out to be three on each side.

In conclusion I beg to observe, that malacologists are under
great obligations to Mr. Barrett for having solved a long-desired
question, and it would be well if other observers would imitate
him. I will throw out a hint connected with the present inquiry
by mentioning, that it is a great desideratum to obtain notes on
the living Trochus subcarinatus of Montagu (Adeorbis, nonnull.),
which I have in vain sought for during forty years, and the ac-
quisition of which Professor Forbes particularly recommended
to my attention.

Tt is impossible for a single naturalist, however diligent, to do
everything and be everywhere ; it is only by the many, seizing
the opportunities in their respective localities, that science can
be made acquainted with facts to elucidate the unsolved problems
in natural history.

I am, Gentlemen,
Your most obedient Servant,
Wiiiam CLark.

XXIII.—Further Notices of Piedmontese Mollusca.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

Scissurella.—Having, in consequence of Mr. Barrett’s description
of the animal of S. decussata, D’Orb. (crispata of British authors),
in the last number of the ‘ Annals,’ placed under a microscope some
S. elegans, containing the dried animals, I succeeded in detecting a
circular operculum in three out of 145 specimens; and I have also
examined the operculum in the Norwegian specimen dredged by
Mr. MacAndrew. It resembles the operculum of Trochus (sub-genus

272 Bibliographical Notices.

Margarita), to which this genus appears to be allied; although in
Scissurella it is not so multispiral. The slit in adult specimens ends
in a foramen, and is not continued to the edge of the shell or aperture,
as was remarked by the late Mr. G. B. Sowerby, as well as by Philippi,
although D’Orbigny (the founder of the genus) did not notice this
peculiarity. Mr. Woodward (who called my attention to the cir-
cumstance) is of opinion that the fossil genus Trochotoma bears a
close relation to Scissurella. In the Northern Seas, the species
appear to inhabit deep water; but in the Mediterranean they are
littoral.

Trochus zonatus.—It seems that this name had been preoccupied
by Mr. Wood for another species, and I therefore propose to change
my specific name to Skeneoides.

Jeffreysia opalina.—I have found a full-grown and characteristic
example in some shell-sand sifted from seaweed which I collected at
Palmaria ; thus adding another British species to my list.

58 Montagu Square, 22nd Feb. 1856.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Natural History of the Tineina. By H. T. Sraryton,
assisted by Prof. ZELLER and J. W. Dovewas. Vol. 1. London.
Van Voorst. 8vo. 1855.

In the days of our great-grandfathers, and for many years later,
the naturalist was regarded, even by men of cultivated minds, with a
singular mixture of pity and contempt, as something very little better
than a harmless madman. Thus the renowned Bickerstaff, in his
‘Tatler,’ indulges in many curious pleasantries at the expense of the
naturalists of his day—virtuosos, as he calls them; now giving a
ludicrous account of his visit to the ‘‘ingenious”’ Don Saltero, in his
coffee-house and barber’s shop at Chelsea; now administering a sly
poke to the Royal Society; and, lastly, furnishing us with the will
of a virtuoso, who died in consequence of his exertions in pursuit of
a rare butterfly. Forming a collection of insects seems to have been
regarded in those days as one of the most contemptible of all em-
ployments ; and, in fact, the smaller the object studied, the greater
was the contempt entertained for the student. Nowadays, however,
although there may still be a tendency to worship size and strength
in the higher animals, the fact, that amongst the agents employed
by Nature none are more active and powerful than those little crea-
tures whose operations are carried on im secret, and whose minute-
ness often screens their very existence from the eye of the careless
observer, long since admitted by philosophical naturalists, is gradually
dawning upon the popular mind.

Nevertheless entomology appears never to have recovered entirely
from the ill-repute in which it was formerly held; and this is per-
haps mainly to be attributed to the fact, that so many of its votaries

Bibliographical Notices. 273

regard entomology as consisting in a handsome eabinet with glazed
drawers (if made by Standish so much the better), containing rows
of good specimens of insects, each with its appropriate label, and
feel far greater pleasure in the possession of a rare insect than in the
investigation of the most interesting points in the natural history of
their favourites. It is no great wonder, perhaps, that ordinary, plain,
common-sense people should find some difficulty in realizing the ad-
vantages to be derived from the possession of ever so many dry insects
stuck through with pins, and thus be led to consider one of the most
interesting branches of natural history as a somewhat contemptible
study. The existence of this prejudice against the study of ento-
mology may probably be one great reason why this science is so little
in repute even amongst professed naturalists; and we believe that
nine out of ten of our best zoologists know less of insects than of any
other section of the animal kingdom.

The Lepidoptera, more than any other order of Insects, are the
objects of the collector’s avidity. The beauty of their forms and
colours have rendered them the pets of the “fancy,” and of those
so-called entomologists who deserve no better name, whose sole
happiness consists in possession. Indeed, the well-known tendency
of evil communication to corrupt good manners prevails so exten-
sively amongst the British Lepidopterists, that it is not easy to find
any who are not more or less imbued with what we must call the
spirit of ‘ fancy.”

It is therefore with no small gratification that we welcome the
appearance in the field of a gentleman who is well known as an
earnest and conscientious worker, and who now seems determined to
show his brother Lepidopterists that the science of entomology is
not synonymous with the art of pinning insects. The group
selected by Mr. Stainton, for illustration in the work of which the
first volume is now before us, is the extensive tribe or family of the
Tineina, a group of Moths generally of very small size, but fre-
quently of the most elegant forms and brilliant colours, which present
more variety and interest in their ceconomy than any of the other
sections of the order. Until of late years these insects were com-
paratively little known, the number of species with which the older
naturalists were acquainted being very few ; and although many spe-
cies have been described by modern authors, cur knowledge of their
natural history is still very defective.

The present volume, which is the first of a long series, contains
the natural history of twenty-four species, twenty-one belonging to
the genus Nepéicula and three to Cemiostoma. In the larva state
these insects are all leaf-miners, that is to say, they feed upon the
parenchyma of the leaves without injuring the membranes of either
surface. The caterpillars of one or two species, however, live in the
bark of the twigs of broom. ‘The egg is laid, with very few excep-
tions, on the lower side of the leaf, and almost always close to the
midrib or one of the stronger neryures; and it is remarkable that
those moths which deposit their eggs upon the twigs of broom select
the side of one of the projecting angles of the stem for its reception.
The form of the mine formed by the larva is very variable: some~

8

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.2. Vol, xvii.

274 Bibliographical Notices.

times it runs in every direction through the leaf; in other cases it
exhibits more regularity in its arrangement, sometimes taking a
Serpentine form, sometimes running in spirals, or forming nearly con-
centric lines on the disk of the leaf, whilst the larva of one species
follows the edge of the leaf and carries its little mine into every ser-
rature. The caterpillar of one species, which Mr. Stainton calls
Nepticula viscerella, forms a curious mine, bending upon itself at
short intervals, and thus constituting a series of short, parallel, ap-
proximated lines. In most cases the larva has a tendency to enlarge
its mine towards the extremity, and thus, when the creature is nearly
mature, its dwelling usually forms a broad chamber or blotch beneath
the surface of the leaf.

Notwithstanding the apparent convenience of this dwelling-place
for the purpose of undergoing its metamorphoses, the caterpillar
generally quits its little burrow before passing to the pupa state ;
and when the time for this operation has arrived, it eats out of the
upper surface of the leaf, and spins a beautiful silky cocoon on
the footstalk, or the stem of the plant, or even amongst leaves
on the ground, where it awaits its further changes. The first-men-
tioned position is usually adopted by those species which appear in
the perfect state in the summer months, whilst those which pass the
winter in the pupa state select one of the two latter situations: and
it is remarkable that of those species of which there are two broods
in the year, the larvee of the summer brood spin their cocoons on the
footstalk of the leaf; whilst those which change to the pupa state in
autumn, and pass the winter in that condition, resort instinctively to
the protection afforded by the stem of the plant, where they usually
place themselves under a projecting bud or twig, for shelter from the
inclemency of the winter. When the moth is ready to make its ap-
pearance, the pupa pushes its head through the cocoon, and the
elegant little creature is thus enabled to spring at once into the air,
without struggling through the silky meshes of its dwelling, a pro-
ceeding which would ptobably do no little injury to the delicate
scales with which its wings are covered.

Such is the general history of the twenty-four Moths described by
Mr. Stainton in the present volume, and probably that of many
others, as there are still several species belonging to both these
genera with the ceconomy of which our author is not acquainted.
We must regret that Mr. Stainton has not given us something of this
kind in the introductory remarks on each genus, as he could have
done it so much better; and it would also have saved him the trouble
of repeating the greater part of these particulars in his account of
each species, a proceeding which certainly adds unnecessarily to the
extent occupied by their history. Indeed it cannot be too much in-
sisted on in these days, when we are so overwhelmed with works on
natural history that it is almost impossible to keep pace with the
progress of even a single branch of the science, that the author
who presents us with the greatest amount of information in the
smallest possible space is the one who must be regarded as doing the
best service to the cause he professes to have at heart ; and we are
therefore sorry to see that Mr. Stainton, whose earnest desire for the

Bibliographical Notices. 275

advancement of Entomology is evident in every page of this book,
has divided his history of each species into numerous sections, in
such a manner as to extend the space oceupied by each to a very
unnecessary length, especially in conjunction with another feature, to
which we shall refer hereafter. Thus, for example, we have para-
graphs under the following titles :—‘‘ How noticeahle,—Larva ;”
** How noticeable,—Imago ;” and then ‘ Mode of Life,” the latter
containing everything necessary to be known in the two preceding
sections, which might certainly be dispensed with, at a saving of
about a page to each species, and a corresponding adyantage to the
student. Again, we cannot see that the observations placed before
the synonyms of each species are distinct in nature from those fre-
quently placed after them, although arranged by our author in sepa-
rate sections, under the titles of ‘‘ Synonymy”’ and ‘‘ Remarks on the
Synonymy ;”’ aud we cannot but think therefore that it would have
been far better to have amalgamated these remarks under one head.

It will be seen that the above objections apply solely to the plan
which Mr, Stainton has seen fit to adopt in communicating his results
to the world, and have therefore nothing to do with the intrinsic ex-
cellence of his book ; nay, this very profusion of labour in the literary
department of the work may be taken as an earnest that there has
been no lack of energy and perseverance in the prosecution of the
preliminary investigations. Indeed, the copious information furnished
im Mr. Stainton’s book upon every subject connected with the history
of these Moths leaves nothing to be desired in this respect ; and the
eight admirable plates with which it is illustrated furnish capital and
most characteristic representations of the Moths, with their larvze,
the mines of the latter, and the cocoons in which the pupz pass their
period of inactivity. The first four of these plates were drawn and
lithographed by the late lamented Mr. Wing, whose name is a sufli-
cient pledge for their excellence, and some of the drawings for the
remaining plates were also done by him; these haye been completed
by Mr. C. W. Wing and Mr. Ford, and are also exceedingly good,
especially those by the latter artist. Some idea of the industry
exerted in working out the natural history of the species may best be
gained from the fact, that in some cases these little caterpillars,
measuring about 2 lines in length, are taken out of the galleries to
sit for their portraits, and restored again with such care to their
natural position, that they return at once to their ordinary employ-
ment of eating, and finally make their appearance in the perfect state,
probably to figure in one of the innumerable pages of the ‘ Zoologist,’
as what Mr. Kingsley would call “ another thought of the divine mind
rescued from Hela.’ But we must proceed to the consideration of
another curious and important feature of this book, which certainly
exhibits an unusual boldness of design throughout.

Eyer since Ehrenberg discovered that it was impossible to represent
Infusoria properly except upon elephant folio plates, it has become
more or less the fashion amongst zoologists to consider that the size
of works on natural history should be in an inverse ratio to that of
the objects treated of. Our author appears to’ have adopted this
principle, and although he does not attempt to rival thy earns Pro-

*

276 Bibliographical Notices.

fessor of Berlin in the perpendicular dimension of his work, he cer-
tainly shows himself determined to expand most portentously in a
horizontal direction. Thus the present volume is the first of a first
series of ten; it contains, as we have already stated, the history of
only twenty-four species of these little Moths; and as, according to
his own statements, there are now known no fewer than six hundred
species of Timeina, we may presume that the work, when complete,
will extend to at least five-and-twenty volumes,—a small library in
itself.

The process by which Mr. Stainton proposes to fill this enormous
space is the same as that adopted by Prof. Ehrenberg for the same
purpose, but he has improved upon the original notion. Ehrenberg
wrote his book in three languages, German, French and Latin, pro-
bably neglecting the English as unworthy of his notice; but Mr.
Stainton, writing for the world in general, but for Englishmen in par-
ticular, has naturally added English to his list of languages, and his
book appears as though intended for the original builders of Babel
before they had had time to learn each other’s dialects. We are
aware that there are such things as Polyglot Bibles, and doubtless
theological students may find them advantageous in giving dif-
ferent readings of the same passage; but no such benefit would
attend the publication of Bislia Nature on the same principle, and
considering the stature to which they might attain in one language,
we have no wish to see them published in half a dozen.

In Ehrenberg’s case there was indeed some excuse for the adoption
of this plan, as he was putting forth new and startling views, of the
truth of which, false as they have since been proved, he probably
entertained no doubt, and he might therefore be forgiven, if, with
the view of removing every chance of ignorance of facts which he
justly thought would change the face of science, he rendered his
work more voluminous than it might otherwise have been. But in
the present work we can see no such pressing necessity for a polyglot
text, whilst, on the other hand, its disadvantages are sufficiently
obvious. The bulk of the work is increased to more than four times
what is necessary, and we feel convinced that by this expenditure
of labour Mr, Stainton will not add greatly to the number of his
readers. In the present case any continental entomologist, who,
to apply the popular classification of gentlemen, zs an entomologist,
ought certainly to possess sufficient English to enable him to read
this book; and as for those who are in the opposite predicament, we
suspect it will not be easy to make them believe that there can come
any good thing out of England.

It may be thought that these remarks are somewhat ungracious,
inasmuch as Mr. Stainton tells us in his preface that this multiplica-
tion of the work adds nothing to its price, which merely represents
the cost of the plates, and that the book would not have cost a
farthing less, if not only the foreign text, but the whole of the letter-
press had been suppressed; and truly entomologists have to thank
Mr. Stainton for this liberality ; but our object in the above obserya-
tions has been to put it fairly before the author, whether, if he designs
making a present to the entomological world, it might not be possible

Bibliographical Notices. 277

to find one of a more practical character. Nay, we are not sure that
the very means adopted by Mr. Stainton to provide for the greater
diffusion of his work, may not be found in reality to impede its pro-
gress, for many a one seeing a book advertised as in four languages,
and ignorant of the peculiar circumstances under which it was pub-
lished, would be inclined to say to himself,—* I should like it well
enough in English, but I don’t want a parcel of stuff I can’t read.”

If, however, Mr. Stainton is resolved, for the sake of uniformity
or otherwise, to persist in the adoption of the tetraglot plan, we
should certainly recommend him to print his books in four parts cor-
responding with the four different languages. The present columnar
arrangement of the book renders it rather disagreeable to read, as the
matter referring to each species, mstead-of being condensed into two
or three pages, is spread out over eight or twelve; and the only ad-
vantage we can see in this arrangement is the same as that of the
polyglot bibles already alluded to, namely that of furnishing different
readings of the same passage. We must confess that we have found
this conducive to a more correct understanding of our author’s
meaning in one or two cases ; but nevertheless it is hardly a reason
that a writer would urge on his own behalf, and is certainly to be
deprecated for the sake of science.

We trust that Mr. Stainton will take the remarks which we have
felt called upon to offer, in good part. They have been made entirely
from a feeling that energy and perseverance employed in what we
consider the unnecessary expansion of a book are to a great extent
thrown away, and in the hope that, being made in no unfriendly
spirit, they may induce him to take the matter again into considera-
tion before the publication of the next volume of his valuable and
interesting work.

Sylloge Generum Specierumque Cryptogamicarum quas in variis
operibus descriptas iconibusque illustratas, nune ad diagnosim
redactas, nonnullasque novas interjectas ordine systematico dis-
posuit C. Monracne, D.M. &e. Paris, 1855. 8vo, pp. xxiv & 498.

It is now some five-and-twenty years since Dr. Montagne retired
from his labours as Chirurgeon Majeur, and settled at Paris, which
was, we believe, the place of his nativity. On his return he found
that eryptogamic botany was almost entirely neglected in France, and
that the collections made by expeditions sent out into various parts
of the world by the government were forwarded to foreign botanists for
determination. He had been long attached to botany, and had made
considerable collections of phenogamic plants, and he at once formed
a resolution that this reproach should no longer be chargeable against
his countrymen, and he therefore applied himself diligently to erypto-
gamic botany. ‘The time was well chosen in many respects, and
fortunate in the great improvements which had lately been made in
the microscope. There was ample room therefore before him for
discovery, and in his own country he found abundant new matter for
investigation. With active habits he combined considerable know-
ledge of various kinds ; and his talent as a neat and accurate draughts-
man came greatly in aid of his other acquirements. His paper on

278 Bibliographical Notices.

the novelties in the Cryptogamic flora of France was justly admired,
and he soon became known as the great medium of correspondence at
Paris on every subject connected with that branch of botany to which
he had determined to consecrate his labours. Materials rapidly in-
creased upon his hands, the consequence of which was, that month
after month there was a constant flow of new and interesting intel-
ligence from his pen. This, from the very nature of the case, is
scattered up and down through a multitude of works of various de-
scriptions, many of them exceedingly voluminous and costly, and they
are therefore inaccessible to a great portion of those who wish to
consult them. By the advice of Professor Fries, he has therefore
determined to collect diagnoses of all the new species which he has pub-
lished, and they are now united in a handsome volume, accompanied
by copious indices, and enriched here and there with interesting notes.

The following extract relative to the motion of Diatomacee is an
example of the sort of matter with which the technical characters are
here and there interspersed. In describing a new species of Navicula,
which forms a part of the organic matter which occurs in the waters of
Vichy, he takes occasion to give an extract from a letter of M. Petit :—

“The motion of these Navicule is well worth attention. It is
more or less decided according to the degree of their development.
In their more or less rapid progress across the field of view, they
appear to have a certain degree of consciousness, so as to avoid any
obstacles with which they meet. They advance for the purpose of
investigation ; they try them with one of their extremities; but they
appear to do this with a certain degree of precaution. It seems as
though they smell at these obstacles, that they examine them, and
try means of avoiding them.

“T may add, in reply to one of your observations, that I am quite
certain that the movements of these little creatures do not depend on
currents arising from the evaporation of the fluid on the stage, or
from any other physical cause, of which it is easy, with a little atten-
tion, to convince oneself. These movements are certainly self-depend-
ent; for the creatures wander in different, and frequently opposite
directions; and they consist not simply in an agitation without
object, but seem to be directed by a sort of instinct. On carefully
watching them, we see them turn round obstacles, when they cannot
pass above or below them. Sometimes, when they are entangled in
a mass of dead organic matter, they put it in motion by their struggles
to extricate themselves. You may therefore consider as certain all
that I tell you about the spontaneous motions of our Navicula, which
I scarcely regard as a vegetable.

“This morning I have shown the motions of the Ulothrix and
Navicula to Dr. Seguin, who is used to the microscope, and was much
struck with them. He has verified all the information which I have
sent you.

“] said in my first letter, that we meet sometimes with large
quantities of little Navicule not yet, as it appears to me, completely
developed, and which have not at that time the lanceolate extremities.
In this state or stage of growth they possess no motion, which they
acquire in proportion as they increase in size, and do not possess

Zoological Society. 279

their full activity till they have arrived at maturity. What sur-
prises me is, that in spring I find a much larger number than I find
now (September). I see none, for instance, in a state of infancy.
I may add, that in spring it is principally in a kind of reddish scum,
which accompanies the green matter, that I meet with the greatest
number of Navicule, and that now I find less of this scum, which
perhaps depends upon the fact that the water in the basin is more
agitated in summer,—a time when the water is incessantly pumped
up for invalids.

*« As regards the marginal strize, I offer the following remarks :—
M. Quatrefages, who has been at Vichy for his health, examined the
Algze with me, and has endeavoured to discover if the Navicule really
possess these striz. By the help of oblique illumination, we have
clearly established their existence, at least in some individuals. We
are not certain that they are present in all, for on some we have seen
them distinctly on one side only and not on the other, while in other
individuals we have not been able to discover them on either. I
cannot doubt then, that at least a certam number of Navicule do
not present strize, though they are perceptible sometimes on either
margin, sometimes on one only. M. Quatrefages, equally with
myself, has observed the movements which I have described. Finally,
the endochrome in the living organism is not green but yellow, ex-
actly, in fact, as you see it in the dead specimens.”

Hoping that the worthy author will be indemnified for the con-
siderable outlay which the publication must have cost him, we com-
mend this work to the attention of our botanical friends.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

March 13, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

An ARRANGEMENT OF THE FAMILIES OF ECHINIDA, WITH
DescRIPTIONS OF SOME New GENERA AND SPECIES.
By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., P.B.S. ere.

MM. Agassiz and Desor have given the generic characters and a
list of the species of Hchinida, but do not divide the genera of the
normal division into families. I propose to divide them into the
following groups.

The Echinida acrocystos, or those which have a vertical dorsal
vent, a regular globular body, with an inferior central circular mouth,
armed with conical jaws, furnished with five elongate acute teeth, and
with the ambulacra forming continuous vertical bands from the mouth
to the vent. They may be divided into the following families.

I. Tubercles of spines perforated ; spines elongate ; body circular.

Fam. 1. Crparip&.

Ambulacra narrow, formed of double pores; interambulacral
plates few, with a single large tubercle ; spines thick, solid.

280 Zoological Society :—

1. Cidaris. Tessera even-topped.
2. Goniocidaris. Tessera bevelled on the edge.—G. pistillaris.

Fam. 2. DIADEMAD&.

Ambulacra narrow, of one series of double pores ; interambulacral
plaies numerous, with two or more rows of tubercles; spines slender,
often tubular.

1. Astropyga. Body depressed ; ambulacral area with very small
crowded tubercles, bearing very thin spines, much smaller than the
interambulacral spines and tubercles; interambulacral area with
smooth bands.

2. Garelia. Body depressed; ambulacral area narrow, with two
or four series of small tubercles, and thin spines ; interambulacral
area with oblique series of large tubercles and spines, but without
any smooth band; spines tubular.

3. Diadema. Body globular or subdepressed ; ambulacral area
with the same sized tubercles and spines as the interambulacral area.

Il. TYubercles imperforated.
Echinide, Gray, 1828.

Fam. 3. ARBACIAD.

Ambulacral area narrow; ambulacra narrow, with a single series
of double pores ; body circular; spines short, solid.

1. Agarites. Upper surface of the interambulacral area without
tubercles.

2. Arbacia. The upper and lower surface of the interambulacral
area covered with tubercles.

Fam. 4. Hipronoip#.

Ambulacral area as wide as the interambulacral; ambulacra wide,
formed of three separate vertical rows of double pores. Body cir-
cular ; shell thin.

1. Amblypneustes. Body high; porous zones not quite regular;
mouth small, entire.— A. ovum.

2. Boletia. Body depressed; porous zones regular, inner sepa-
rated by a vertical series of tubercles; mouth very large, with five
deep slits.— B. pileolus.

3. Hipponoé (Gray, 1841). Body swollen; two outer porous
zones regular; middle one interrupted ; mouth small, slightly eut.—
H. Sardica.

4. Holopneustes. Body swollen; two outer porous zones regular ;
middle one separate or interrupted ; mouth small, entire.—H. poris-
simus.

Fam. 5. Ecutnip™.

Ambulacral area half as wide as the interambulacral area, with
two (or three) close series of double pores, placed in threes ; buccal
membrane naked ; body circular.

Dr. Gray on the Echinida. 291

A. With angular pores at the junction of the plates.
1. Mespilia. 2. Microcyphus. 3. Salmacis. 4. Temnopleurus.

B. Without any pores at the angles of the plates.
5. Echinus. 6. Psammechinus. 7. Heliocidaris.

Fam. 6. EcHinoMEeTRAD#.

Ambulacral area ouly half as wide as the interambulacral area ;
ambulacral pores in groups of four or more, forming an arched series
round the ambulacral tubercles.

A. Body circular.
1. Strongylocentrotus. Spines equal, subulate, short.

B. Body oblong.

2. Echinometra. Spines subulate, subequal.

3. Holocentronotus. Spines of back elongate, subtriangular ; of
the oral side large, spathulate.

4. Colobocentrotus. Spines of the back very short, truncated ; of
the oral side spathulate.

Dr. Gray described the following species, which he regards as new,
from the British Museum Collection.

Genus CrparRIs.
* Spines smooth or granular.

1. CrpaRIs ORNATA.

Depressed. Tubercles of interambulacral area rather distant ;
spines lanceolate, subulate, depressed, white, red-ringed ; base with
series of small red spots and with regular longitudinal series of gra-
nules; each side with one, and the upper surface of the base with two
series of white angular spines; spinules white, with a central red
streak.— Hab. East Indian Seas.

** Spines verticillate-spinose.

2. CIDARIS VERTICILLATA.

Depressed. Interambulacral tubercles rather far apart ; spines of
upper surface rather elongate (about as long as the diameter of the
body), subulate, smooth; some subulate at the top, others with
scattered conical spines, others obliquely truncated, cupped, and
spinose at the tip; spines of lower surface shorter, cylindrical, trun-
cated, granular near the tip ; those of the oral surface much spotted,

truncated, compressed and largely granular near the end.
Hab. ?

3. CIDARIS ANNULATA.

Orange. Rather depressed. Interambulacral tubercles of moderate
size, far apart; spines elongate, subulate, tapering, red and white
ringed ; suprabasal ring white; with longitudinal ridges. The ridges
of the lower half of the spines spinulose and with scattered larger

282 Zoological Society.

spines; sometimes placed in lines. The dorsal spines sometimes
truncated and slightly cupped at the tip; ambulacral spinules nar-

row, flat.
Hab. West Indies.

4, CrpARIS SPINULOSA.

Interambulacral tubercles small, very far apart; spines elongate,
fusiform, red-brown, with close squamose longitudinal ridges and
scattered subverticillate acute and small spines; the dorsal spines
truncated, cupped and spinose at the end; ambulacral spinules
narrow.—Hab.

Genus ASTROPYGA.

5. ASTROPYGA DEPRESSA.

Shell depressed, very thin; ambulacra swollen; interambulacral
area with a very wide smooth band in the middle and on each side
of the upper part; the lower part of the centre of each area with
three oblique series of larger tubercles; ovarian plate broad, trian-
gular.—Hab. ?

Genus GARELIA.

Ambulacra broad ; the pairs of pores crowded, so as to form two,
or rarely three, series ; ambulacral area narrow, upper part with four
series of small, and lower part with two or four series of rather larger
tubercles; spines of ambulacral area bristle-like, very slender; in-
terambulacral area with several oblique series of larger tubercles,
without any smooth band on the back near the crown; ovarian
plates moderate, triangular.

* Ambulacra convex ; area linear ; spines elongate, subulate, hollow,
covered with whorls of lanceolate scales.

6. GARELIA ZQUALIS.

Ambulacra convex; ambulacral area with two series of tubercles,
the outer series rather the largest, rather narrowed below ; upper
side of ambulacral area with 5:5 oblique series of larger tubercles ;
ovarian plate elongate trigonal; spines purple, or purple and white
ringed.

Var. a. With spines pale, white-ringed.

Var. (3. Spines purple; underside obscurely pale banded.

Var. y. Spines purple, not banded.

Hab. Mauritius.

** 4mbulacra flat ; area wide, with four or five series of spines,
near vertex narrow, with two series of tubercles below; spines
subulate, tapering, longitudinally striated.

7. GARELIA CLAVATA.

Interambulacral area with four oblique series of larger tubercles ;
ambulacra slightly raised ; the upper part of the area near the crown
broad; each side with two or four or six series of small tubercles ;
the lower part narrow, with a single series of rather larger tubercles.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 288

Genus TorEUMATICA.
* Transverse sutural grooves wide and deep; back granular.
8. Toreumatica Harpwickil.

Transverse sutural groove deep, wide; tessera of interambulacral
area high, about twice as broad as high, with one large and several
scattered unequal smaller tubercles.

Hab. ? Presented by General Hardwicke.

** Transverse sutural grooves narrow and small; back equally
granular.

9. ToREUMATICA GRANULOSA.

Transverse sutural groove narrow and shallow; interambulacral
tessera with a subcentral row of large, and numerous nearly equally
scattered smaller tubercles. Near the circumference the secondary
tubercles become more distinct. Base concave.

Hab. t

*** Transverse sutural grooves indistinct ; back equally tubercular.

10. ToreumatTica REEVESII.

Depressed, thin ; tessera of interambulacral area with a single series
of large, and several unequal-sized smaller tubercles. Under-side
rounded, concave in the middle; ambulacral area with two, inter-
ambulacral area with three rows of subequal tubercles; holes between

tessera distinct, between ambulacral tessera circular and deep.
Hab. China. Presented by J. R. Reeves, Esq.

*®KK Transverse sutural grooves indistinct ; back with a smooth band,
near the suture between the interambulacral areas.

11. ToREUMATICA CONCAVA.

Depressed, thin; middle between two interambulacral areas on
the back smooth; interambulacral tessera with a few unequal tuber-
cles near the ambulacra. Under-side deeply concave, largely tuber-
cular; ambulacral area with two, interambulacral with three series of
large tubercles. —Hab. China.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
January 10, 1856.—Colonel Madden, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “On some Species of Epilobium,” by Charles C. Babington,
M.A., F.R.S. &e. (See page 236.)

2. “Observations on the Pollen Tube, its growth, histology, and
physiology,” by P. Martin Duncan, M.B. Lond., F.G.S. Xe.

The author details experiments made on Tigridia conchifiora. In
this plant the style and stigma are at least 4 inches in length, and
after the lapse of fourteen hours from the application of pollen-grains,

284 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

hundreds of pollen-tubes may be seen in the centre of the style, many

in the axis of the ovary, and generally one in each micropyle. The

following is a summary of the results of many experiments on this
lant :—

i 1. The pollen-tube grows at the rate of an inch in four hours, and

under very favourable circumstances (as under great heat and moist-

ure) twice as rapidly.

2. The pollen-tube is not a simple tubular prolongation of the
inner membrane (intine) of the pollen-grain, except to a certain
distance. It is in reality composed of a series of cells, the first of
which is formed from the intine, the second is formed within the
papillose cells of the stigma, the third near the axis of the style, and
the others at varying distances. The last cell is usually at the spot
in the ovary where the tube perforates the cell-wall of the ovary to
enter the canal of the micropyle of the ovule. Each cell is divided
from that above and below by a more or less perfect involution of the
external cell-wall.

3. The pollen-tube passes through the stigma by a regular process
of cell-growth. Afterwards cell after cell is added to the tube by
a process of division, each cell performing its function independently.

4. No germinal vesicles exist in the embryo-sac of the Tigridia ;
the pollen-tube effuses its contents into the sae with whose granular
contents a mixture occurs, and the embryo is evolved out of this

mixture.

3. “Notes on the Chaulmoogra Seeds of India,” by Charles Mur-
chison, M.D., M.R.C.P.L.

A bland fixed oil from these seeds, furnished by the Chaulmoogra
odorata, Roxb., is used by the natives of India in various cutaneous
diseases.

4. “On the Gutta Percha plant of India,” by Dr. Cleghorn.
Records the discovery of it in several parts of Peninsular India.

5. “Notice of the Flowering of Agave americana,” by Joseph
Lister, F.R.C.S.E.

In 1855, at an age of at least fifty years, the Aloe flowered, and
afterwards a small offshoot appeared above the earth, which, instead
of being a small leafy repetition of its parent, bore no leaves, but two
flowers like those produced a few months previously by the central
stem. This offshoot consisted of a succulent underground stem,
about 10 inches long, connected with the underground part of the
main plant. It was also found that there were about a dozen other
offshoots struggling upwards through the earth, terminated by pale
green buds, which, in the case of two that I dissected, contained
rudimentary flowers. Thus the whole constitution of the Aloe appears
to have been remarkably affected with a tendency to flowering ; and
just as the part above ground shot forth a stem with a multitude of
flower-buds, so the underground portion, instead of sending out a few
sprouts terminating in leaf-buds, produced a dozen or more offshoots
ending in flower-buds and destitute of leaves.

Miscellaneous. 285

6. “On the Flowering of Plants, &c., in the Isle of Wight,” by
Dr. T. Bell Salter.

7. “List of Plants in flower, in the open air, in the neighbour-
hood of Ryde, Isle of Wight, in November 1855,” by Dr. T. Bell
Salter.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Earliest Stages in the Development of Pelagia noctiluca.
By Dr. A. Kroun.

In the December number of Miiller’s ‘ Archiv,’ Dr. A. Krohn
has given a remarkable positive proof of the existence amongst
the Meduse of a direct reproduction, without that intervention of
polype-like gemmiparous forms which constitutes what is called
the ‘‘alternation of generations”? in these animals. This mode of
reproduction appears to be of exceedingly rare occurrence in the
Meduse. It has hitherto been observed only in two species besides
the Pelagia noctiluca; namely in Afginopsis mediterranea (by
Miller), and in Trachynema ciliatum (by Gegenbaur). After
repeatedly observing young Meduse, which, from their general
characters, appeared to belong to the genus Pelagia, the author, in
the winter of 1853-54, met with individuals in a more advanced
state, which proved that they were the young of the common Medi-
terranean P. noctiluea; and as in their earlier stage they agreed
perfectly with the young of Medusa aurita, which had not long
been detached from their polype-like nurses, he naturally concluded
that Pelagia noctiluca did not differ essentially in its mode of repro-
duction from the other Meduside. Subsequently, however, Dr.
Krohn met with individuals in a far lower stage of development, the
youngest of which were of such simple structure that it appeared to
him they could not be far from the embryonic state, and he therefore
considered it important to ascertain in what form the embryo quitted
the egg. With this view he examined numerous females without
success, and was therefore compelled to have recourse to artificial
impregnation. His first attempts failed, but in the month of April
he succeeded in his object. Segmentation commenced in the ova
within a few hours after impregnation, and the first free embryo was
seen in the thirty-second hour,

The embryos exhibited an unexpected form. They were always
considerably elongated, sometimes oval or oblong, sometimes very
long, slender, and cylindrical. They measured from 3 to 1 millim.
in length; the anterior extremity is closed and rounded, whilst the
other appears more or less truncated, and exhibits an extremely small
round opening (the mouth), which leads into a well-marked roundish
cayity (the stomach), occupying the hinder third of the body. The
embryos appear semitransparent, in consequence of a delicate whitish
coat, which covers the limpid substance of the body. This is closely
set with fine short cilia, by the action of which the little creatures

286 Miscellaneous.

swim pretty rapidly, with a constant rotation upon their longitudinal
axis.

The development of the embryo takes place by a gradual widening
of the hinder part, which thus acquires a bell-like form, the stomach
becomes much larger, and the oral orifice, which was depressed in
the embryo, becomes considerably protruded. On the third day,
the hinder margin of the bell-shaped umbrella exhibits eight small
rounded lobes, at the same time that eight corresponding appendi-
cular sacs are developed from the stomach. Shortly afterwards the
marginal lobes increase considerably in length, and acquire a some-
what quadrangular form, with their margins slightly indented ; and
at these indentations the rudiments of the marginal corpuscles (oced/?)
make their appearance. At this stage the mouth has become much
larger, and makes its appearance at the extremity of a short tubular
process,—the rudimentary stalk of the four arms possessed by the
perfect animal. The motion of the young animal through the
water is slower than at first ; butit is still principally effected by the
action of cilia, although the umbrella occasionally expands and con-
tracts, producing an undulation of the marginal lobes.

The further progress of the young Medusa to the condition in
which Dr. Krohn first observed it, consists in the growth of the mar-
ginal lobes, and especially of the lappets into which they are divided
by the central indentation, the disappearance of the cilia, the ap-
pearance of crystalline bodies in the marginal corpuscles, the greater
development of the base of the oral tentacles, and the diminution
of the height of the umbrella. At this period also the whitish
coat of the embryo disappears, whilst the urticating organs are
developed.

The author followed the further development of the young Pelagia
until it had acquired the eight additional ventricular sacs characteristic
of the mature animal and the eight marginal tentacles; but he ob-
serves, that four of these had attained a length equal to the diameter
of the disk, whilst the other four were still rudimentary. The stalk
of the oral arms was longer and larger, but the arms themselves were
but slightly developed.—W. 8S. Dauuas.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF SWIFT.

CyYPsELUS GALILZENsIs, Antinori.

C. cauda brevissima, subfureata: corpore nigro-virescente, nitore
metallico perlucido: fronte dilute albida: gula et regione supra-
caudali albis: pogonio externo primze remigis albo limbato.

The third part of last year’s ‘ Naumannia’ contains a communica-
tion from the Marchese Oratio Antinori, describing this ‘‘ apparently
new Swift,’’ which was discovered by him in Palestine, on the borders
of the Sea of Galilee. Two specimens were procured,—Cypselus apus
and C. melba; and Hirundo daurica, rupestris and rustica were breed-
ing abundantly near the same locality. Its similarity to a South
African species (C. leucorrhous, Steph. ex LeVaill. Ois, d Afr.
pl. 244. fig. 2) is commented upon ; but it is hardly probable that it

Meteorological Observations. 287

should be identical with a bird from so different a country. The
Indian species that approaches it most nearly is C. Jeuconyx, Blyth ;
but it appears distinct from that and all other Asiatic species with
which we are acquainted. The zoology of the Holy Land—especially
Ist ornithology—is, in fact, very little known; and it is much to be
wished that, amongst the crowds of English who yearly visit that
country, some would turn their attention to this interesting but
neglected subject.—P. L. S.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JAN. 1856.

Chiswick.—January 1. Overcast: cloudy. 2. Foggy: exceedingly fine: slight
rain. 3. Fine: uniformly overcast: fine. 4. Cloudy and mild: overcast: rain at
night. 5. Rain: densely overcast: rain. 6. Cloudy: rain. 7. Cloudy : foggy :
cloudy. 8. Densely overcast: cloudy and cold. 9. Drizzly: rain and sleet: rain
at night. 10. Cloudy and cold: clear and frosty. 11. Frosty: cloudy: frosty. 12.
Cloudy : sunshine occasionally: cloudy. 13. Clear and frosty: fine. 14. Dry and
frosty. 15. Sharp frost: clear: fine. 16. Fine: rain andfog: cloudy. 17. Over-
cast: cloudy: rain. 18. Slight rain: cloudy. 19. Rain: heavy clouds. 20, 21.
Densely overcast: heavy clouds: slight rain. 22. Densely clouded: rain. 23.
Low clouds: bright sun at intervals: cloudy and windy. 24. Densely clouded
and boisterous: rain: lightning at night. 25. Overcast: fine. 26. Very fine:
rain. 27. Fine: frosty. -28. Frosty: overcast: hail-shower: fine. 29. Clear
and frosty: fine: sharp frost. 30. Frosty: fine: cloudy and cold: frosty. 31.
Clear and frosty : cloudy : frosty.

Mean temperature of the month ........... Reds sah svembawes veyen 38°43
Mean temperature of Jan. 1855 —........ eee seee eee cacetanteereer 33 °45
Mean temperature of Jan. for the last thirty years ............ 36 *94
Average amount of rainin Jan. ...see.eseseeeee Saeaven ease esses 1°690 inch.

Boston.—January 1. Cloudy. 2. Foggy. 3. Finé. 4. Cloudy: rain p.m. 5,
Cloudy: raina.m. 6, Fine. 7. Cloudy. 8. Cloudy: raine.m. 9,10. Fine,
1]. Fine: snow a.m. 12—16. Fine. 17,18. Cloudy: rainp.m. 19. Rain a.m.
20. Cloudy: rainr.m. 21. Rain a.m. and p.m. 22. Fine. 23. Rain a.m. 24.
Cloudy: ran a.m. 25. Fine. 26. Cloudy: raina.m. 27. Fine. 28. Fine: rain
and snow p.M. 29. Fine, 30,31. Cloudy,

Sandwick Manse, Orkney—January 1. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 2. Damp a.m.
andp.M. 3. Cloudy a.m.: damp p.m. 4, Cloudy a.M.andp.m. 5. Damp a.m.:
rain p.M. 6. Dampa.M. and p.m. 7. Rain a.M.andp.m. 8. Sleet-showers a.m.
hail-showers p.m. 9. Snow-showers a.m.: clear, frost p.m. 10. Snowing a.m. :
snow-showers r.M. 11. Snow-showers a.M.: snow-drift p.m. 12. Bright a.m. ;
thaw, showers p.M. 13. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m.: fine, cloudy
pM. 15. Cloudy, frost A.m.: fine, cloudy p.m. 16, Cloudy a.m.: fine, cloudy
pM. 17. Dampa.M.:raine.M. 18. Clear a.m.: fine, clearp.m. 19. Frost a.m.:
rain P.M. 20. Bright a.m.: hail-showers p.m. 21. Bright, frost a.m.: clear,
frost p.m. 22. Clear, frost A.M.: clear p.m. 23. Sleet a.mM.: clear, fine p.m.
24, Cloudy a.m. : cloudy, finer.m. 25. Cloudy a.m.: showers p.m. 26. Showers
A.M.: Sleet-showers P.M, 27. Clear a.M.: showers p.M. 28. Showers a.m.:
snow-showers P.M. 29. Snow-showers A.M. and e.M. 30, 31. Bright a.m.:
snow-showers P.M.

Mean temperature of Jan. for twenty-nine previous years ... 38°38
Mean temperature of this month ............. sists «SORE oping Gt 38 -00
Mean temperature Of Jan. 1855 — ...ceeseseeeeeeeeeeceseeeees sie es, 38 216
Average quantity of rain in Jan. for fifteen previous years ... 4°24 inches,

The remarkable depression of the barometer here on the 23rd, 24th and 25th is
worthy of observation, coupled with the fact, that the gale which it indicated did
not reach Orkney, or the N. of Scotland, while it was violent in England. The
first two of these days were really fine here, and marked so in the Register,

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]}

No. 100. APRIL 1856.

XXIV.—On the Theory of the Fecundation of the Ovum.
By E. Crararipe*,

One of the first discoveries which followed the invention of the
microscope, or at all events one of those which made the most
noise in the world, was the discovery by Ludwig von Hammen
of the spermatozoids in the seminal fluid. This was the com-
mencement of a new era in the physiology of fecundation, an
zra however which must unfortunately be characterized rather
by the accumulation of fruitless theories, than by the discovery
of a great number of facts. These spermatozoids, these mobile
particles of the animal semen, were at first raised to the rank of
independent beings, as spermatic animalcula, and although their
title to this place in the series of beings is nowadays pretty
generally disputed, this antiquated opinion is still far from
being completely banished from the domain of science. The
theories took their course, and Gautin did not hesitate to attri-
bute to the animalcula of the human semen, the actual figure of
Homo sapiens. Others made them penetrate into the ova and
form the embryo. Andry +, mixing poetry with matters with
which it had nothing to do, related how each spermatozoid
arrives in the ovary and penetrates into the egg, by passing
through a little door, which it pulls after it and shuts with the
assistance of its tail. He even went so far as to represent these
little creatures engaging in sanguinary combats at the door of
the ovum, and disputing each other’s right of entrance with such
determination that many lost their arms and legs. Hence arise

* Translated from the Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve for August
1855, p. 284, by W. S. Dautas, F.L.S.

+ See Vallisneri, Istoria della Generazione dell’ Uomo e degli Animali.
1721.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. ig

290 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

miscarriages and deformed children. Leeuwenhoeck contented
himself with conveying them into the uterus, where they changed
their skins like caterpillars and became transformed into men.
Lastly, to come to modern times, according to Prevost and
Dumas*, the nervous system of the embryo is a product of the
zoosperm, whilst the plastic and irritable organs are formed at
the expense of the ovum.

For a long period warm disputes prevailed between the ovists
and the spermatists. The principal representatives of the former
were Malpighi, Antoine Vallisneri+, Hallert and Bonnet §.
Their greatest stumbling-block was the part to be assigned to
the seminal fluid. Bonnet and Haller imagined that it might
constitute the nourishment of the embryo. It is for this reason,
according to them, that a mule has long ears, because the semen
of his father, the Ass, contains a large quantity of quintessence
of ear, &c. They did not trouble themselves with the obstacles
which this opinion might throw in the way of the theory of the
inclusion of germs. Some even refused to admit that the sper-
matozoids were of any importance; like D. Parsons ||, who de-
clared it to be “an extreme nonsense” to believe that those
insignificant creatures called spermatic animalcules could con-
tribute in any way to propagation. Daubenton and Needham {
only regarded them as a product of the decomposition of the
semen ; and we owe some gratitude to Bonnet and Gleichen **
for having demonstrated by experiment that the seminal fluid of
hybrids was incapable of fecundation because it contained no
spermatozoids, which however has not prevented Sir Everard
Home++ in our own century from denying their existence
entirely.

Nevertheless the spermatists appear to have carried the ridi-
culous still further than the oyists. As a foretaste we have
already given a sketch of Andry’s romances. He attributed the
nature of the animals to their spermatozoids ; thus those of the
sheep lived in flocks even while still in the testicle and epidi-
dymis. Santanelli regarded them as cylindrical spirits with five
points. But the first spermatist was undoubtedly Aristotlett,

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, ii.

+ Op. cit. sup.

* Elementa Physiologie Corporis humani. Lausanne, 1757-1766.

§ Considérations sur les corps organisés.

|| Philosophical Observations on the Analogy between the Propagation
of Animals and that of Vegetables. 1752.

| Notes des nouvelles recherches sur les découvertes microscopiques de
VAbbé Spallanzani. Londres, 1769.

** Abhandl. iiber die Samen- und Infusionsthierchen. 1788.

+t Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, vol. v. 1828.

¥} See his works Iepi rijs yeveoews and Tepi Cwaiav popiar.

Fecundation of the Ovum. 291

who declares that the actual procreant element is the male,
whilst the female element only furnishes nourishment. The
ovists, as well as many spermatists, were partisans of the theory
of the preformation or evolution of germs, a theory which soon
gave place to that of metamorphosis. Bonnet himself appears
to have had a tendency this way, for he puts forward the idea,
that the air, the water, the earth and every solid body, are
magazines containing germs. ‘The same germs, which, passing
into plants produce buds and flowers, give birth to embryos
when they penetrate into the ovaries of animals*. In reality
this is not far from the opinion of Heraclitus, who maintained
that the germs were diffused everywhere, and that they were
developed as soon as they arrived in the proper sexual organs.
Perrault, Needham, Buffon and Treviranus merely worked out
this kind of panspermism in various directions, until Oken +
imagined that these universally diffused germs were to be found
in the Infusoria.

It must be confessed that the imagination of our forefathers
was very prolific in the fabrication of theories of generation
which often approached pretty closely to the ridiculous, or at all
events to the comic. However, all these beautiful edifices
crumbled one after the other by their own weight, and of late
years there appeared to be a tacit agreement between physio-
logists, by which they engaged to steer clear of this subject until
they had facts before them. But in the absence of facts, it was
necessary to rest contented with the general ignorance, which
however was soon veiled in a tinsel cloak, by having recourse to
a force, that deus ex machind which physicists, chemists, phy-
siologists and other philosophers use and abuse in accounting
for that which they cannot explain.

People accordingly admitted a dynamic action of the zoo-
sperm. This arrived at the ovum, without however penetrating
into its interior, as Andry’s little door did not exist ; and by its
simple presence, in virtue of a force belonging to its predicate
of spermatozoid, fecundation was effected, but no one knew very
well how or why. The embryologist Bischoff was one of the
principal defenders of this dynamism, which, indeed, was nothing

* The author here appears to have mistaken Bonnet’s meaning in some
unaccountable manner; his statements seem to have a directly opposite
tendency. Thus in stating his hypothesis of the universal diffusion of
germs he says, “‘ they only become developed when they meet with suitable
matrices, or bodies of the same nature ;”’ and in a subsequent passage he
adds, “it is only the germs which contain organic wholes, of the same
kind as that into which they are introduced, that are developed there.””—
W.S. D.

t Die Zeugung. Bamberg, 1805.

19%

292 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

but a reproduction of Harvey’s* ideas, when he compared the
action of the spermatozoids upon the ovum to that of the mag-
net upon iron, or wheu, with Osiander and Treviranus, he called
it a contagion.

The reign cf the old theories appeared to be repudiated for
ever, and it was scarcely expected that they would soon have
raised their heads again to claim the attention of true observers,
no longer taking the title of theories, but rather that of facts,
and demanding no other judges than eyes and a sound intellect.
This_is nevertheless what took place. As early as 1840, a distin-
guished English observer, Dr. Barry+, in a memoir on the em-
bryogeny of the Rabbit, devoted a chapter to the fecundation of
the ovum, and asserted that he had seen this take place under
his eyes. According to him the germinal vesicle of the ovum of
the Rabbit neither dissolves nor bursts, as was generally sup-
posed ; but at a period preceding that of fecundation it becomes
tilled with cells, which render it opake, and then proceeds in
the direction of the periphery, towards the zona pellucida (trans-
parent membrane). The latter presents an attenuation or an
orifice at the pot approached by the vesicle. This, at least, is
what Barry asserts that he has seen several times in perfectly
ripe ovules, even ante corztum. The form of the orifice in
question was sometimes such as to suggest the idea of a rent or
cleft in the membrane; in other cases it appeared as though
there had been a previous attenuation of the membrane. Sub-
sequently{ Dr. Barry again described this phenomenon in
greater detail. With him the nucleolus of the germinal spot is
a peculiar substance which he calls the hyaline. In this hyaline
resides the force (the explanation again leaves nothing to be
desired!) which drives the vesicle towards the zona pellucida.
When the germinal vesicle comes in contact with the membrane
of the egg it bursts, and at the same time an opening is formed
in the latter (zona pellucida). All this is the work of this hya-
linic energy! However, an opening, whether formed or not by
the action of the hyaline, was observed in 1840 by Barry in the
ovum of the Rabbit, and on one occasion he even perceived in
this aperture an object “ much resembling a spermatozoon.” All
these phenomena of course take place before the formation of
the chorion, that is to say in the ovary, or in the uppermost part
of the oviduct. ‘T'wo or three years afterwards Barry § announced
positively that he had seen not only an object “ much resembling
a spermatozoon,” but actually true zoosperms in the ova of

* Exercit. de Generatione Anim. 1651.
+ Phil. Trans. 1840.

~ Miiller’s Archiv, 1851.

§ Phil. Trans. 1843.

Fecundation of the Ovum. 293

the Rabbit. Important as this assertion was, it did not make
much noise in the world. Barry’s discovery passed again into
the shade and no one took it up on the Continent. Bischoff *
contented himself with mentioning it repeatedly as erroneous
and describing it as a mere product of the imagination (Geburt
der Phantasie).

For twelve years Barry’s discovery slumbered. At the end of
this time one of his countrymen, also a good observer, Dr. Nel-
son t, of Glasgow, revived the question by publishing an obser-
vation analogous to that of Barry, although relating to a very
different animal,—an intestinal worm, the Ascaris of the Cat
(Ascaris mystax). According to Nelson the ova of this worm,
at the period when fecundation takes place, are entirely destitute
of vitelline membrane, and possess no envelope of any kind.
They are, generally, triangular, or rather pyramidal in form, in
consequence of their being pressed against one another in the
oviduct. Nevertheless their margins are sufficiently well marked,
in consequence of the cohesion of the yelk : at one of the angles
alone the outline is less distinct, for which reason Nelson gives
this angle the name of the “broken edge.” After copulation,
the spermatozoids, which, in consequence of their form, the
author denominates “ spermatic cells,” penetrate into the ovi-
duct, reach the ova and insinuate themselves into the substance
of the vitellus. According to Nelson, this penetration of the
spermatozoids into the ovum takes place at any point of the sur-
face, and even at several points on the same ovum at once; but
he remarks that the spermatozoids appear to prefer the “ broken
edge” for this purpose. As soon as they are in the egg, the
“spermatic cells” begin to disappear, probably by dissolution,
and their place is occupied by a transparent liquid. In this
phenomenon consists the whole system of fecundation. The
ovum immediately begins to undergo modifications. The vitellus
acquires a spotted appearance, previously noticed by Reichert
in Strongylus, and considered by that anatomist as the result of
the formation of cells in the interior of the yelk ; the existence
of these cells in this Ascaris is completely denied by Nelson.
The germmal vesicle bursts, and its disappearance is immediately
followed by a modification of the granules of the vitellus, which
become transparent. After this transformation Nelson proposes
to give them the name of embryonal granules. In the interior
of the egg, a cell with a nucleus and nucleolus is formed; these
are the blastodermic vesicle and spot. Whilst these things are

* Entwickelungsgeschichte des Kanincheneies, 1842,—des Hundecies,
1845,—des Meerschweinchens, 1852.
+ Phil. Trans, 1852, part 2.

294 M.E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

taking place, the chorion is formed, and the egg continues ad-
vancing by degrees towards the period of its segmentation and the
formation of the embryo. The action produced upon the ovum
by the spermatozoids is consequently, according to the Glasgow
physiologist, of a triple nature:—1. A preservative action, inas-
much as they prevent the destruction and disappearance of the
vitelline granules, and their indiscriminate mixture with the
elements of the germinal vesicle and spot, which, according to
him, inevitably takes place when the ova are not fecundated ;
2. A destructive solvent action, im consequence of which the
vitelline granules and germinal vesicle are gradually dissolved at
the expiration of a certain time; and 3. A transforming action
by which the vitelline granules are metamorphosed into em-
bryonic granules.

It was reserved for a third English philosopher to assist in the
formation of the new edifice, by the announcement of the entrance
of the spermatozoid into the ovum im a third class of animals,
namely the Reptiles. Newport* in his first memoir on the re-
production of the Batrachia, had referred to various experiments
which he had made with the view of throwing discredit upon the
opinion that the spermatozoids could penetrate into the ovum,
which he regarded as possessing but little probability. But a
year-and-a-half afterwards} he recalled his previous opinion in a
remarkable memoir, in which he stated that he had positively
seen spermatozoids, not only within the outer membranes of the
ovum of the Frog, but actually in immediate contact with the
vitelline membrane. The spermatozoids had their heads always
directed towards the centre of the ovum and their tails towards
its periphery, as though they wished to penetrate still further.
The first consequence of the fecundation thus effected, consists,
according to Newport, in the formation of a chamber between
the vitellus and the vitelline membrane at one extremity of the
egg, and the segmentation of the yelk then commences. In a
note written subsequently to the communication of his paper to
the Royal Societyt, Newport announces that he had actually
observed the passage of the spermatozoids through the mem-
branes of the ovum and their arrival in the interior of the
vitellus. He remarks that the penetration does not take place
through a particular opening, but through any point of the sur-
face of the chorion. ‘“ The spermatozoa,” he says, “ do not reach
the yelk of the Frog’s egg by any special orifice or canal in the
envelopes, but pierce the substance of the envelopes at any part
with which they may happen to come into contact.”

* Phil. Trans. 1851. + Phil. Trans. 1853, part 2.
+ Phil. Trans. 1853, part 2. p. 271 (note).

Fecundation of the Ovum. 295

These three discoveries of the penetration of the spermatozoids
into the ovum were soon to be followed by several others. In
fact, we are arriving at the moment when this new theory, or
rather, this resurrection of antiquated ideas now founded upon
observation, was to excite general interest, and bring into the
arena all the distinguished names of which physiology can
boast.

Shortly after Newport’s discovery, there appeared at Konigs-
berg a work by a M. Keber* of Intersburg,—a work which
came forth with the pretension that it would change the face of
science, and convulse with astonishment, not only Kénigsberg,
not only Germany or Europe, but the whole world. The work
was published in two languages, German and Latin, in order
that no one should have an excuse for want of knowledge of the
new doctrine, for ignorance of the truth. “I shall prove by
innumerable observations,” is the pompous announcement of
Keber in his preface, “ that no animal fecundation takes place but
when the spermatozoids penetrate into the ovum, divide in the
vitellus and form the nuclei of the cells of the new organism. . ..
I feel all the weight of this bold assertion; I know that I am
about by this means to place myself in opposition to the Cory-
phei of science, and that more than one, offended at hearing
such an absurdity, will throw this work aside contemptuously,
without reading it, or perhaps at the utmost, will grant it a
place in the series of scientific curiosities. But I have carefully
and conscientiously convinced myself of the truth of my as-
sertions, upon more than 2000 eggs,” &c. Exclaiming, with
Aristotle, that one must have more confidence in one’s own eyes
than in the opinions of others, Keber proceeds, without disturb-
ing himself about the objections which may be raised against
him, or dreaming that Aristotle spoke of the eyes of reason and
not of those of the imagination.

But let us pass to details, and first of all, to the phenomena
which Keber pretends to have observed in the Natadee (Ano-
donta, Unio). According to him, the ovum in these Mollusca is
not enveloped simply in the cortical membrane (Schalenhaut of
Baer) ; but within this there are two others,—the membrane of
the albumen and the vitelline membrane, the former separating
the albumen from the cortical membrane, the second from the
vitellus. The young ova present a cecal prolongation, which
arises from the membrane of the albumen and, piercing the cor-
tical membrane, forms a projection externally. In some cases a
fine membrane is perceptible uniting this process with the ger-

* Ueber den Eintritt der Samenzellen in das Ei, ein Beitrag zur Physio-
logie der Zeugung. 1853,

296 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

minal vesicle. When the ova become larger, the extremity of
the cxcum opens and a small quantity of albumen passes out
from it ; this is to serve as a bait to the spermatozoids (!!). The
ovum then exactly resembles one of those glass flasks used in
chemical laboratories, furnished with a rather short neck. The
spermatozoids arrive from all sides, allow themselves to be taken
by the bait, and penetrate into the neck of the ovum, or the
micropyle, to employ a name now received in science. In its
frolics the spermatozoid loses its tail, so that only its oval head
is found in the neck of the ovum, and this usually occupies a
transverse position. It is difficult to describe the ecstasy in which
Keber was plunged at this discovery, on the day when he was
permitted to see “that which no mortal eye had yet contem-
plated.” Overwhelmed with enthusiasin, and believing himself
initiated into the mysteries of creation, he concludes his first
chapter by exclaiming (in two languages) —“ And the evening and
the morning were the first day” (Hactumque est vespere et mane
dies unus! Da ward aus Morgen und Abend der erste Tag !)!!!

But this is not the whole ;—Keber follows the journey of his
spermatozoids into the eggs, where he is clever enough to recog-
nize them, sometimes by their form, sometimes by their greenish
tint, and sometimes because they begin to jump about (probably
they go into convulsions) under the influence of sulphate of
strychnine *. The spermatozoid has lost its tail, which greatly
facilitates research, seeing that if it was necessary to seek for it
in the egg, its delicacy would certainly prevent its being found.
But we may be allowed to ask how this spermatozoid is to be
distinguished from any other granules, for it is well known the
spermatozoids of the Anodonte are tar from bemg of gigantic
stature. The idea of a blackish tint being characteristic scarcely
needs refutation. The imperfection of our best achromatic
glasses still communicates to certain objects a tinge which varies
according to the micrescope, without taking imto account the
phenomena of diffraction, which must occur at the edges of
a small object situated in the interior of the egg. Henle} indeed
speaks of a yellowish tint in the human spermatozoids ; but he
takes care to add, ‘‘in a certain illumination.” Besides, as the
old proverb says—De coloribus non est disputandum. However,
Keber pretends to recognize the spermatozoid with certamty and
pursues the investigation of its evolution. Weck by week he
describes the changes which it undergoes, until the moment
when it becomes decomposed into granules, which probably

* It is however to be observed that it is precisely this agent that is em-
ployed, as well as chloroform and oil of bitter almonds, to deprive the

spermatozoids of man and other animals of their mobility.
+ Allgemeine Anatomie, p. 949,

Fecundation of the Ovum. 297

afterwards form the nuclei of the embryonal cells. We shall not
enter upon these details, as they are rather too romantic. We
cannot in any case attach the least credence to them, as long as
Keber does not inform us how he succeeded in determining the
period at which his supposed spermatozoid entered into the
ero,

Keber’s discovery is not confined to this. Following in Barry’s
steps, he pretends to have seen the micropyle in the ova of the
Rabbit, and followed the spermatozoids which had just lodged
there. His drawings, however, do not agree very well with those
of the English anatomist, and it is a curious circumstance that
he states that he met with the ovules not only in the uterus and
oviduct, but also and especially in the abdominal cavity, in the
mesentery, &c. He has even found them sometimes in such
numbers in the cavity of the body, that he inquires whether it
is not probable that these so-called ova may at a later period
reach the uterus by some unknown migration (!). Astonishment
will cease when we learn that Keber never saw the ovule of the
Rabbit, as has since been proved by Bischoff *. These so-called
eggs of the Rabbit, covered with vibratile cilia on their whole
inner surface, are a species of hydatic vesicles, furnished with a
tubular peduncle, which have been described by Remak+ under
the name of vibratile vesicles (Wimperblasen). They are pretty
frequently met with on the mesogastrium and mesometrium of
the Rabbit, as well as in the lobes of the thymus gland ; and also
in the Cat. They are, moreover, found before, during and after
the rutting season, and both in young and old individuals. This
last mistake is sufficient to detract remarkably from the value of
Keber’s other observations, especially as he appears to attribute
a very peculiar importance to his discovery of the micropyle in
the Rabbit, since he has the modesty to compare this discovery,
not due to chance, but supported by induction, to that of the
planet Neptune by Leverrier and Galle (!!). And yet Keber’s
conscience was not satisfied as to his fact, for in speaking of
these vibratile vesicles, he exclaims, “ And if these were not eggs,
I should be glad to know what they were !”

Keber’s work, notwithstanding all its faults and errors, could
not but contain some truths, amongst which we may give the
first place to the prediction expressed in his preface, that this
volume would astonish many people, and would be arranged by
many amongst the curiosities of science. This is a position
which it has since attained. Nevertheless, if it had only the

* Widerlegung des yon Dr. Keber bei den Najaden, und Dr. Nelson

bei den Ascariden behaupteten Eindringens der Spermatozoiden in das Ei.
Giessen, 1853.
+ Miiller’s Archiv, 1841 & 1854.

298 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

merit of having called attention to the micropyles of the ova of
the Anodonta, which are so easily found, that it is sufficient to
pass the scalpel over an ovary and place what it takes up under
the microscope in order to see them in great numbers, this would
be something ; but its greatest merit undoubtedly was its ener-
getically inducing the combat. Thus, Bischoff, although appa-
rently a protector of the quarto volume in two languages, inas-
much as it was dedicated to him, could not avoid taking up the
pen to put Keber’s inexperience into its proper place, not with-
out some brusqueness. It was not so much Keber, he said, as
Newport, and especially Nelson, that he came forward to refute ;
few would be led astray by the verbiage of the former, but the
others were philosophers of a much more serious character.
Indeed Nelson’s observations appeared to have nothing impro-
bable about them, to those who were acquainted with the works
of Siebold* and Thaer+ upon the Trematode worms, and those
of Max Schultze{ and Leuckart$ upon the Turbellaria. These
authors have proved that in these hermaphrodite animals, besides
the vas deferens which leads from the testicle to the penis, there
is a second canal which passes directly to the place where the
eggs are formed at the point of union of the canals coming from
the vitellogene and the germigene || ; from which it might be con-
sidered probable that the spermatozoids passing through the
second deferent canal may be enclosed in the ovum at the
moment of its formation, so as to fecundate it at once, although
these authors did not observe anything of the kind. Bischoff
then took upon himself to refute Barry, Nelson, Newport and
Keber. The latter had no strength for the struggle and was
soon overthrown. ‘The vibratile vesicles (Wimperblasen) which
he had taken for eggs gave him the finishing stroke.
LeuckartY on his side had undertaken to show how the mi-
cropyle is formed in the Naiades ; he had ascertained that it was
nothing but the peduncle which attaches the young ovum to the
stroma of the ovary, and which afterwards tears away, still
retaining the form of the neck of a bottle. T. von Hessling**

* Miiller’s Archiv, 1836. t+ Ibid. 1850.

{ Naturgeschichte der Turbellarien. Greifswald, 1851.

§ Troschel’s Archiv, xvii.

|| Or rather from the ovary and the albumen-gland. J. Miiller has in
fact proved that the so-called germigene contains perfectly complete eggs,
so that the vitellogene must descend again to the rank of albuminogene.
Siebold himself, who gave these glands the names of vitellogene and ger-
migene, appears now to have returned to this opinion.

“| Zusatz zu Bischoff’s Widerlegung. He had moreover previously de-
scribed this formation of the micropyle.—Handworterb. der Physiol. iv.
Article Zeugung.

** Zeitschrift fir wiss. Zoologie, April 1854.

Fecundation of the Ovum. 299

took upon himself the easy task of proving to Keber that he had
never seen zoosperms in the interior of the Naiades, that he
could not consequently have followed their development for
weeks, and lastly, that the tailless spermatozoid so often seen by
Keber occupying a transverse position in the micropyle, was
nothing but the inner opening of the latter. The membrane of
the albumen and the vitelline membrane admitted by Keber,
besides the cortical membrane in the Anodonte and Unios,
having no existence in reality, the neck-like micropyle could not
be a prolongation of the former ; it belongs in fact to the cortical
membrane itself.

Nelson’s observations, like those of Barry and Newport, were
more difficult to refute ; but we need not dilate upon the objec-
tions raised against them by Bischoff, as the latter has since
recognized his error. We may however refer to the fact, that
Bischoff asserted that the spermatozoids which Nelson had seen
penetrating into the ova of Ascaris mystax were not sperma-
tozoids, but epithelial productions, to which he gives the name
of epithelial conules. These pseudospermatozoids, or epithelial
conules, according to him, are scattered between the papille of
the mucous membrane of the oviduct, from which they are very
easily detached ; they are wanting, however, in the lower part of
the oviduct (sphincter of Bischoff), and exist under the papille of
the uterus. The vagina presents neither papillz nor epithelial
conules.

In conclusion, Bischoff was very harsh in the tone of his refu-
tation, treating the English anatomists in a somewhat patron-
izing style, and scarcely honouring the unfortunate Keber with
a few strokes of his teeth. What was the astonishment of the
learned world, therefore, when a few months afterwards it saw
a fresh publication of the embryologist of Giessen with the title
—‘‘ Confirmation of the penetration of the spermatozoid into
the ovum, discovered by Newport in the Batrachia, and by
Barry in the Rabbit*.” In this work, Bischoff says, with a
rather solemn tone, “I have repeated Newport’s observations
and hasten to state that I have confirmed them in every respect,
and that there is no longer any doubt that the spermatozoids
actually penetrate into the egg of the Frog. After convincing
myself of this fact, I again took up the study of the ovules of the
Rabbit, and I do not hesitate in stating that I was wrong in
contradicting Barry, and that in this case also there remains no
doubt that spermatozoids really penetrate into the ova of these

* Bestiitigung des von Newport bei den Batrachiern und Barry bei
den Kaninchen behaupteten Eindringens der Spermatozoiden in das Ei.
Giessen, 1854.

300 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

Mammalia.” And elsewhere—“ It is consequently proved that
Newport has the honour of having discovered this curious and
unexpected phenomenon of the penetration of the spermatozoid
into the ovum, as the result of its own movements. This has
nothing to do with the micropyle or anything of the kind; but
these singular organic elements possess the property, by means
of their so-called tail, of exerting so considerable a mechanical
effect as to enable them to traverse the layer of albumen and the
vitelline membrane.” Further on again—“I assert therefore
that I was wrong in the opposition which I made to Dr. Barry,
who is certainly the first who saw a spermatozoid in the interior
of an egg in general, and of a mammalian ovum in particular,
and to him belongs the honour of this discovery.”

Bischoff here attributes. to Barry only the discovery of the
presence of zoosperms in the ova, and not that of their pene-
tration, because he still denies that this penetration takes place
in the manner described by Barry, Neison and Keber, although
he does not dispute the presence of the micropyle in the Ano-
donte. The penetration of the spermatozoa into the ova of the
Rabbit and Frog, as also the presence of the micropyle in those
of the Anodonta, when once sanctioned by Bischoff, could not be
again called in question ; for it certainly must have been a dis-
agreeable task for the celebrated embryologist to retract his opi-
nion, after having declared that the penetration of the zoosperms
into the ovum could only be maintained by the merest novices
in embryology. We owe him all the more gratitude for having
thus placed himself above the suggestions of self-esteem, and
publicly confessed his own error.

From the publication of this “ Confirmation ” we may date the
epoch in which the existence of the micropyle has obtained a
definite place in our physiological knowledge. Nevertheless,
even 1f we suppose that Barry did not see a true micropyle, the
honour of the discovery does not pass to Keber. As we have
stated, Leuckart had mentioned the micropyle a little while
before him, and given an exact history of its formation precisely
in the Unios and Anodons, a history which he has since com-
pleted*. According to him, the ovarian vesicles of the Nazades
consist of a tolerably thick structureless membrane, on the mner
surface of which, instead of a proper epithelium, there is a layer
of fatty molecular corpuscles, united by a tenacious albuminous
mass. It is in this layer that the germinal vesicle with its cha-
racteristic spot is first formed. This vesicle, with the mass of
albumen which surrounds it, soon forms a swelling or lump
on the inner surface of the ovarian vesicle. This gradually in-

* Zusatz zu Bischoff’s Widerlegung.

Fecundation of the Ovum. 301

creases in size and acquires a granular consistence ; it afterwards
becomes the vitellus of the egg. Its surface condenses by
degrees into a membrane, the vitelline membrane (cortical mem-
brane of Baer), and this at a time when the mass of the vitellus
still adheres to the stroma of the ovary (or rather to the ovarian
vesicle) by a tolerably broad base. But this base goes on nar-
rowing more and more, whilst the vitelline membrane continues
its formation, until the ovum at last only adheres to the stroma
of the ovary by a short peduncle like a neck. A transparent
liquid is then formed between the vitellus and the membrane,
and the peduncle is detached from the ovary. This point of
dehiscence is the micropyle of the Naiades.

Leuckart is not the only zoologist who had pointed out the
micropyle before Keber. In 1850, J. Miiller described a canal
traversing the external envelope of the ova of certain Holothuria,
particularly Thyone fusus and Holothuria tubulosa* ; in 1851 he
indicated a similar structure in the genus Ophiothriz+. In 1852
his son Max Miiller described the micropyle in the egg of Stern-
aspis thalassoidest. All these discoveries had preceded that of
Keber, but they had not led their authors to a theory of fecun-
dation, although J. Miiller says $—‘ The comparison of this canal
with the micropyle of the ovule of the Phanerogamous plants
presents itself so naturally to the mind, that I could not avoid
mentioning it here ;”” and Leuckart ||, in mentioning the micro-
pyle in the Nazades, adds—*‘ We might almost suppose that this
singular structure has a certain relation with the act of gene-
ration.” According to J. Miiller the micropyles of the ova of the
Holothurie ave in the cortical membrane (Schalenhaut), besides
which there is also a vitelline membrane. Leuckart{] positively
denies the existence of the latter, and gives the name of “ vitelline
membrane” to that which contains the micropyle. In other re-
spects he describes the formation of the micropyle here exactly
as in the Naiades ;—it is the remainder of the peduncle which
attached the ovum to the stroma of the ovary. The formation
of the peduncle always depends upon that of the membrane, and
as this does not exist at the point of attachment itself, it is
clear that there always remains an opening at the place of the
peduncle. This is the micropyle.

But Lovén appears to have been the first to perceive the mi-
cropyle, for, in a work of his which dates as far back as the year

* Metamorphose der Echinodermen, 4te Abhandl. 1850.

+ Monatsbericht der Berliner Akad. 1851.

~ De Vermibus quibusdam maritimis. Diss. inaug. Berlin, 1852.

§ Ueber die Metamorphosen der Echinodermen, 4te Abhandl. p. 42.

|| Article Zeugung in Wagner’s Handworterbuch der Physiol. iv. p. S01.
“| Zasatz zu Bischoff’s Widerlegung.

302 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

1848*, I find the description of the mode in which the ova are
formed in the Modiolarie and Cardia, which agrees exactly with
that furnished by Leuckart for the Anodons. He also saw that
the ova are prolonged into peduncles at the point where they
adhere to the ovarian ceca.

The completion of the “ Confirmation ” of Bischoff was soon
furnished by the classical work of Meissner on the anatomy
and development of Mermis albicans+, a species of Gordius,
which when young inhabits the caterpillars of Hyponomeuta cog-
natella, and which afterwards passes into moist earth, where its
generative organs acquire their final development and repro-
duction takes place. In speaking of the formation of the ova,
Meissner incidentally mentions the micropyle. This work is
important, inasmuch as it sets forth the homology of the male
and female sexual organs, and the analogy between the semen
andthe ova. The male and female generative organs of Mermis
are, in fact, perfectly similar and consist of a very long vessel, so
that it is impossible to distinguish the internal generative organs
of the male Mermis from those of the female, unless by the
microscopic examination of their contents. The upper part of
the generative tube or vessel of the male, the part designated
by Meissner as the testicle, is filled with round cells, as clear as
water, and composed of an extremely delicate enveloping mem-
brane, an enclosed liquid, and of a large pale granulated nucleus,
containing a nucleolus. These are the male germ-cells (méinn-
liche Keimzellen) as Meissner calls them. The nucleus of these
cells in the course of its development exhibits a fine line on its
surface, which soon becomes a groove and afterwards a con-
striction, until at last the nucleus divides into two. The nucleole
does not divide, but remains in one or other of the secondary
nuclei (ZYochterkern). The secondary nuclei become larger and
divide in their turn, and the nuclei of the third series thus
formed follow their example, and so on, until we find germ-cells
of the size of 1, to #5 of a line, containing as many as twelve
or sixteen nuclei, which all finally attain the size of the primary
nucleus. Each of these nuclei is soon seen to acquire a clear
border,—this is a membrane formed by a differentiation of the
central and peripheric parts of the nucleus. This membrane is
constantly removing further and further from the centre, and in
this way the secondary nuclei (Tochterkern) are converted into
secondary cells (TGchterzellen) which completely fill the primary
cell. The latter then bursts or becomes absorbed, and the

* Bidrag till Kannedomen om utvecklingen af Mollusca acephala lamel-
hbranchiata. Aftryck ur Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar for
ar 1848.

t Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zoologie, December 1853.

Feeundation of the Ovum. 303

secondary cells are set free. They are frequently distributed on
the surface of a sphere of albumen, as is the case in the Anne-
lida and Gasteropoda; for these cells are merely the parent-
cells (Entwickelungszellen) of the spermatozoa. We shall not
follow the further development of the spermatozoa, as its interest
here is but secondary, and we shall pass at once to the formation
of the ova. The generative organs of the female, like those of
the male, are composed of a simple tube or vessel, in which,
starting from the czcal extremity, Meissner distinguishes differ-
ent parts under the names of germigene (LHierkeimstock), vitello-
gene (Dotterstock), albuminogene (Eiweissschlauch), oviduct and
uterus. Microscopically, the germigene is exactly similar to the
testicle, and contains perfectly diaphanous cells with nuclei and
nucleoles. These are the female germ-cells, which present no
difference from those of the male. The nucleus of each of these
cells divides into two, then into four, eight, &c., but there is no
simultaneous division of the nucleole. At this point begins the
differentiation of the male and female generative organs. At the
bottom of the germigene the nuclei approach the wall of the cell
containing them and push it before them, forming sacs into
which the contents of the cell penetrate, and which by the
gradual constriction of their base at last form secondary cells
attached by a peduncle to the primary cell. These secondary
cells are the future eggs, produced by a sort of exogenous gene-
ration of the female germ-cell. At this moment this bunch of
cells passes into the vitellogene, the germ-cell or primary cell
being in the centre, and the ova suspended like pears at its cir-
cumference by means of hollow peduncles. The vitellogene is
perfectly passive, that is to say, it does not secrete the substance
of the vitellus. This is produced in the germ-cell itself, and
penetrates through the peduncles into the secondary cells, that
is to say, into the ova. The membrane of the secondary cells
thus becomes a vitelline membrane ; and the nucleus becomes
the germinal vesicle with its characteristic spot. The bunches
of ova are placed one behind the other in the vitellogene in such
a manner that the germ-cells always occupy the centre and the
ova the periphery. The consequence of this arrangement is the
formation of an apparent axis in the centre of the vitellogene, an
appearance which is owing to the succession of the germ-cells ;
to this Meissner gives the name of rachis or raphe. At the
moment of their entrance into the albumimogene the ova detach
themselves from the germ-cell, and the dehiscence always takes
place at the base of the peduncle, which remains attached to the
ovum. The ova then become surrounded with albumen.
Meissner did not turn his attention particularly to the fecun-
dation ; but, nevertheless, —and this renders his observations of

504 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

more value,—he remarks, incidentally, that sometimes the pe-
duncle remains widely open, and continues to project externally
even after the ovum is surrounded with albumen, so that there
remains a means of communication between the vitellus and the
external world. We may, perhaps, observes Meissner, compare
this structure of the ovum with the micropyle observed by
Leuckart, J. Miller and Keber in the Naiades and Holothurie.

However, a few months afterwards, a new paper by Meissner*
made its appearance, in which he not only confirms the discovery
of a micropyle, but also that of the penetration of the sperma-
tozoa into the ova of very different animals. The greater part
of this work relates to the Ascaris mystax of the Cat, the same
which had formed the subject of Nelson’s observations; but
he mentions several other species of Ascarides, a Strongylus,
some Lumbrici, and the Rabbit. Meissner describes the forma-
tion of the spermatozoa and ova in the Ascarides as exactly the
same as in Mermis albicans. The formation of the micropyle i 18
due to the same circumstance. Nevertheless, he does not
venture to regard this as a general type of development, for he
has himself ascertained that it has exceptions. Thus, in Stron-
gylus armatus the raphe, instead of bemg an apparent axis
formed by the succession of germ-cells, is a true raphe. In this
worm, the ova are a kind of diverticula of a pear-shape, sus-
pended from a single vessel or vitelligenous tube, representing
the germ-cells.

Nelson had seen the spermatozoa of Ascaris mystax penetrate
into the ovum at all parts of its surface, and especially at one
angle of this triangular ovum, to which he gives the name of
the broken edge. Meissner shows, from the mode of formation
of these ova, that they possess a vitelline membrane with a
single aperture, through which he has himself repeatedly seen
one or more spermatozoa penetrate. This opening, the micro-
pyle, coincides exactly in position with the broken edge of Nelson.
The cases in which the English anatomist thought he saw the
penetration take place at other points, are probably to be attri-
buted to errors. The spermatozoa observed by Meissner also
coincide with the spermatic cells of Nelson, which Bischoff de-
clared to be nothing but epithelial conules. Fecundation takes
place at the moment when the ova arrive in the portion of the
tube or sexual vessel which has already been denominated the
albuminogene. ‘The number of spermatozoa which penetrate
by the micropyle is very variable, for Meissner has seen as many
as ten in the interior of a single ovum. When fecundation is

* Beobachtungen iiber das Eindringen der Samenelemente in den Dotter.
Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zoologie, vi. Sept. 1854.

Fecundation of the Ovum. 305

effected, the ovum completes its development in the manner
described by Nelson.

In the Lumbrici, which were also studied by Meissner, things
go on rather differently. In the ninth and tenth segments of
their bodies, these animals possess four vesicles, which were
formerly regarded as testicles, and the correct interpretation of
which was first given by Von Siebold*, who states them to be
seminal receptacles,—a function which also appears to be attri-
buted to them by Van Benedeny+.

These vesicles open externally by means of two small apertures,
formerly mentioned by Leot. They have no communication
of any kind with the ovaries, and it is nevertheless in their in-
terior that the mature eggs are found. They probably arrive
there from the exterior during copulation, so that in fact these
organs should bear the name of common receptacles of the
ova and semen, or of sacs of fecundation. The ovarian ova
which possess a vitelline membrane and a germinal vesicle have
lost these two elements when they arrive in the common recep-
tacles, where they consequently swim completely naked. When
there, they are assailed by the spermatozoa, which penetrate in
crowds into the substance of the vitellus by a corkscrew-like
movement. The united movements of the tails of all these
spermatozoa at the surface of the ovum produce an appear-
ance of waves. The segmentation of the ova commences in the
receptacles, and they are afterwards extruded in a common
capsule.

In this memoir Meissner confirms the discoveries of Barry,
inasmuch as he also certainly saw spermatozoa in the interior of
the ovum of the Rabbit, although he could not positively con-
vince himself of the presence of the micropyle. This is a fact
of great importance. We may always suppose that there is
some error in speaking of the ova of Anodonte and Unios; we
may suppose that the spermatozoa which appear to be within
them, may be in reality above or below them. But it is im-
possible to suppose that an object seen within the zona pellucida
of the Rabbit may be situated above or below it. The object in
question in fact is much too large, and it is impossible that the
internal and external surfaces of the zona pellucida can be in focus
at the same time. The same may be said, with still better
reason, of the ova of the Frog, within which, as we have seen,
Newport discovered spermatozoa.

* Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie.

+ Report on a paper of Van Beneden’s on the Développement du Lombric
terrestre, in Bull. de ?Acad. Roy. de Belgique, xx.

~ De Structura Lumbrici terrestris. Regiomonti, 1820.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 20

306 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

Another memoir of Meissner’s*, which followed immediately
upon the former one, extended the results of his observations to
two new classes of animals, namely the Insects and the Crus-
tacea. The general result of the facts ascertained by him is,
that the spermatozoa which are contained in the receptaculum
seminis of the female (in Insects) after copulation, penetrate into
the vitellus at the moment when the ova descend in the vagina.
For this purpose, these spermatozoa are obliged to traverse an
opening or micropyle, which exists both in the chorion and the
vitelline membrane. He enumerates a long series of insects in
which he observed the micropyle, and sometimes also the pre-
sence of spermatozoa in the interior of the membranes. The
chorion of the eggs of Insects, and particularly of the Diptera,
is often adorned with very regular geometrical designs, and
the micropyle is very easily found, as it generally occupies the
centre of an elegant rosette situated at one of the extremities
of the egg. It is a curious circumstance, that this micropyle
of the eggs of Insects is so easily seen, that it has been described
and figured in a great many instances, although its function
was never suspected. It was regarded only as an ornament,
but not as an opening. Swammerdamm, Roésel, De Geer,
Réaumur, Kirby and Spence, Ratzeburg, Sepp, Léon Dufour,
Herold, Hartig and others have described and figured the
peculiarities of the surface of the eggs of a great many insects,
—peculiarities which all appear to be referable to the existence
of the micropyle. Moreover the observations of Meissner alone
would be sufficient to lead us to suppose the general diffusion of
this structure of the egg in the whole class of Insects, since he
has ascertained the existence of the micropyle in Diptera (Musca,
Tipula, Culex), Coleoptera (Lampyris, Elater, Telephorus), Lepi-
doptera (Adela, Pyralis, Tortrixz, Euprema, Liparis, Pieris),
Hymenoptera (Tenthredo, Polistes, Spathius), and Neuroptera
(Agrion, Panorpa). Subsequently Leuckart has published a very
remarkable work+ on the micropyle of Insects, of which, un-
fortunately, only the first hundred pages have as yet (June 1855)
appeared. In this he describes the micropyle in the eggs of at
least 200 species, which scarcely leaves room to doubt of the
universality of this arrangement in Insects. In a great number
of these species he has even directly observed the entrance of
the spermatozoa by the micropyle, or at least has found them in

* Beobachtungen, &c. No. ii. Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool., Sept. 1854.

+ Ueber die Micropyle und den feimen Bau der Schalenhaut bei den
Insecteneiern. Miiller’s Archiv, 1855. In the ‘ Handworterbuch der
Physiologie,’ article Zeugung, Leuckart had already mentioned the micro-
pyle as an attenuated part of the chorion, which might probably play some
part in fecundation.

Fecundation of the Ovum. 307

the interior of the egg. Leuckart has even arrived at general
laws with regard to the structure of the micropyle in the different
orders. In the portion of this memoir which has now appeared,
only the Diptera, the Hemiptera and the Lepidoptera are re-
ferred to. The following is a summary of these laws:—1. In all
the ¢rue Diptera (not including the Rhipiptera) the micropylian
apparatus consists of a simple opening, situated at the anterior
pole of the egg, or at least in the neighbourhood of this pole.
2. In the Hemiptera the micropyles are almost always more
numerous, and not far from the anterior pole. 3. In the Lepi-
doptera the micropyles are always multiple, forming a variable
number (usually four or six) of canals, which rise from a common
central fossa situated at the anterior pole, and pierce through
the envelopes of the egg in a radiating direction. As regards
the Crustacea, Meissner has ascertained the existence of the
micropyle in the Gammarus pulex of our brooks.

It is curious that Bischoff, after placing himself in the ranks
of the defenders of the penetration of the spermatozoa into the
ovum, should have again taken up the pen* with a certain
degree of asperity to confute the discoveries of Meissner, which
appear to form the most brilliant point, and in a manner the
crown of their productions. Nevertheless, this does not in any
way invalidate the theory of the penetration of the spermatozoa
into the ovum, which is now permanently received into the
science. Bischoff in fact only questions the description given by
Meissner of the formation of the ova, and more especially of the
spermatozoa in Ascaris mystax. Meissner had regarded as
spermatozoa the same corpuscles which Nelson had previously
admitted as such, whilst Bischoff persists in regarding them
only as epithelial conules. On the other hand, Meissner, in
describing the formation of the ova by means of diverticula of
a germ-cell, had differed from Nelson, who had seen the young
ova totally destitute of vitelline membrane. Bischoff adopts
the opinion of Nelson, and positively denies the existence of the
germ-cells and their diverticula, at all events in the Ascaris of the
Cat. But he is greatly embarrassed by his epithelial conules
when it becomes necessary to find the true spermatozoa, which,
he says, must nevertheless penetrate into the egg. Notwith-
standing all this, Meissner, in a subsequent work+, remains
faithful to his theory. The future will decide this question,
which is only accessory here, seeing the abundance of other
materials.

* Ueber Ei- und Samenbildung und Befruchtung bei Ascaris mystaz,
Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool., Feb. 1855.
+ Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Gordiaceen. Zeitschr. fiir
wiss. Zoologie, May 1855. an
20%

308 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

The numerous facts to which we have drawn attention prove
more than sufficiently that fecundation is effected by an actual
penetration of the spermatozoa into the interior of the ova, and
that very often, if not always, this penetration takes place
through a micropyle. It remains to be seen in what envelope
of the ovum this exists, and if it is always possible to explain its
formation in the manner of Lovén* and Leuckart, or in that of
Meissner. Johannes Miiller has, not long sincet, indicated a
peculiar structure in the external membrane of the ova of certain
fishes, especially our river fish,—a structure which has also been
investigated by Lereboullett. This membrane is pierced by a
multitude of little canals, passing from one surface to the other,
and dilating into a funnel-like form at each surface, so that the
membrane presents a facetted appearance. This structure is
particularly remarkable in the Perch (Perca fluviatilis), the egg
of which has a very thick external membrane ; but it is equally
striking from its elegant appearance in the Ruffe (Acerina
cernua) and the Sticklebacks (Gasterosteus trachurus, lagurus,
pungitius, &c.). This structure appears to have been previously
seen by Vogt§, who describes a shagreened appearance of the
cortical membrane in the Coregonus palea; but he seems not to
have remarked that this appearance was due to the presence of
a multitude of little canals, of which the number, according to
J. Miiller, amounts to more than 1,1000 in the egg of the
Perch. It is in this membrane that the micropyle is situated ||.
It is remarkable that this membrane presents a great analogy in
structure with that in which the micropyle is placed in the Holo-
thurie. This latter is characterized by a sort of striation,—an
appearance which is due, according to the opinion of J. Miiller,
to a multitude of little prisms placed perpendicularly upon the
membrane. It is the membrane that Miiller regards as the
cortical membrane (Schalenhaut) 4, and Leuckart as the vitelline
membrane **,

* Bidrag till kannedomen om utvecklingen af Mollusca acephala.
Stockholm, 1848.

+ Ueber zahlreiche Porenkanile in der Eikapsel der Fische. Monatsber.
der Berl. Akad., March 1854.

t Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1854.

§ Embryologie des Salmones, in Agassiz, Hist. nat. des Poissons d’eau
douce de l’Europe centrale. 1842.

|| This micropyle, or at least the funnel at the bottom of which it opens,
is sometimes so large, that Bruch has found it with the naked eye in the
egg of the Trout (Fario lacustris) and the Salmon (Salmo salar). Zeitschr.
fiir wiss. Zoologie, May 1855. The funnel itself was already known to
Von Baer in Cyprinus blicca,—Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fische.
Leipzig, 1835.

¢ eber die Larven und die Metamorphose der Holothurien und Asterien.
1850. ** Zusatz zu Bischoff’s Widerlegung, &c.

Fecundation of the Ovum. 809

It must not be supposed that the shagreened envelope of the
Fishes’ egg is the analogue of the chorion of the Mammalia, or
of the shell, or the shell-membrane of Birds. In fact, the chorion
and the membrane of the shell are not formed until after fecun-
dation, so that it would be useless to seek in them for a micro-
pyle; the former does not exist in the Graafian vesicles of the
Mammalia, nor the latter in the ovisacs of Birds. The shagreened
membrane of Fishes, or capsular envelope, exists in the ovarian
follicles, and consequently before fecundation, so that the sper-
matozoa must traverse it to effect that operation. It is there-
fore furnished with a micropyle, and must be compared with
the zona pellucida of the Mammalia and the vitelline membrane
of Birds. The zona pellucida of the mammalian ovum, the
vitelline membrane of Birds’ eggs, the shagreened membrane of
those of Fishes, the envelope with a crystalline structure of the
ova of the Holothurie, the cortical membrane of those of the
Naiades, the vitelline membrane of those of Mermis and Ascaris,
and the external envelope of the eggs of Insects and of Gam-
marus pulex, are therefore one and the same thing, and may be
designated the membrane of the micropyle*. It is true that the
ova of Gasterosteus and those of other fishes have an apparently
homogeneous membrane beneath the membrane of the micropyle,
and, to establish a complete analogy in the ova of other animals,
it would be necessary to ascertain the existence of this second
membrane in them. Barryt+ has already asserted, that he ob-
served a membrane between the zona pellucida and the vitellus
in the Mammalia. The Insects possess a second membrane,
furnished like the first with a micropyle. Miiller{ speaks of
a membrane which immediately envelopes the vitellus in the
Holothuria, of which, however, Leuckart§ denies the existence.
Keber || asserted that in the Naiades, besides the cortical mem-
brane, he recognized a vitellime membrane, and even a membrane

* It is true that we do not yet positively know whether the zona pellu-
cida possesses a micropyle, although Barry should have seen it, and
Meissner once ascertained the presence in it of an opening which did not
appear to be torn. There remain the Reptiles, of which the vitelline
membrane, to judge from Newport’s observations on the ova of the Frog,
must be permeated in all parts by the spermatozoa. But this does not
appear to be a general rule amongst the Reptiles, nor even amongst the
Batrachia, for, according to an unpublished discovery of Meissner’s, the
ova of the common Tree Frog (Hyla arborea) appear to possess a mi-
cropyle.

Roaches in Embryology, Third Series. Phil. Trans. 1840. It is
his “proper membrane of the substance by which the germinal vesicle is
surrounded.”

{ Echinodermen, 4te Abhandlung, 1850.

§ Zusatz, &e.

|| Ueber den Eintritt der Samenzellen in das Ki. 1853,

310 On the Theory of the Fecundation of the Ovum.

of the albumen. This however appears to be of but little
importance, as it is very possible that this membrane may some-
times be present and sometimes absent. It is only necessary
to suppose, that where it occurs it is pierced by a second micro-
pyle, or that the spermatozoa can pass through its tissue. A
more important point, in our opinion, is the complicated struc-
ture presented by the membrane of the micropyle in the Fishes,
the Holothurie, the Insects*, and probably other animals; for
there are many ova in which the micropyle has not yet been
discovered, but in which the external membrane presents a
shagreened structure, resembling that of the membrane of the
micropyle in Fishes. This is the case, for example, in the ova of
the Hchinorhynchi, &e. But this complicated structure is an
obstacle to the theory of Meissner upon the formation of the
ova, of much greater force than all the objections which Bischoff
was able to bring against it. Is it possible to regard a whole so
complex as this “membrane as a simple cell? There can be no
doubt that we must reply in the negative. We must therefore
either reject the observations of Meissner upon the formation of
the ova of Mermis, or, as they have such an impress of truth
that it is difficult not to yield to them, admit that the ovum is
formed in very different modes in the series of created beings.
The latter opinion has nothing improbable about itt.

The penetration of the spermatozoa into the ovum is a fact
now acquired to science; but this penetration may take place in
very different manners, and we can already distinguish three
principal types :—

1. Penetration through a micropyle; a mode of fecundation
which appears to be very widely spread, as its existence has
already been ascertained in Echinodermata, Worms, Insects,
Crustacea and Fishes, and perhaps also in Reptiles (Hyla) and
Mammalia (the Rabbit).

2. Penetration by all pomts of the surface of the ovum;
observed by Newport in the true Frogs. It is true that we may
in this case suspect an error, and that it is possible that a micro-
pyle may some day be discovered in the Frogs; but is it not
surprising that such careful researches as those which have been

* It is probable, however, that it is not in the external membrane of the
eges of Insects that we find the analogue of the membrane of the micro-
pyle i in other animals. It is probably yather the inner membrane, which is
also traversed by the micropyle. Leuckart however believes he has seen
instances in which the chorion (or outer membrane) alone was traversed by
the micropyle.

+ More especially as Lovén and Leuckart have shown that the ova are
formed in a very different manner in Modiolaria, Cardium, and the Naiades.
The multiple micropyle of the eggs of the Hemiptera and Lepidoptera also
indicates a very different mode of formation.

Mr. C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 311

made upon the ova of the Batrachia by many authors * have not
led to the discovery of the micropyle in them ?

3. Penetration directly into the naked vitellus. It is certain,
in fact, that the mode of origin of the ova described by Meissner
in Mermis albicans, M. nigrescens, and several Ascarides, is not
general even amongst the Nematvid worms, <A great many ova
only obtain an envelope at a very late period, and are probably
fecundated before they possess one, so that they do not require
the presence of a micropyle. Meissner himself has seen the
spermatozoa penetrate directly, and in crowds, into the ova of
the Earthworm, at a period when they are completely destitute
of an envelope. As regards these, Meissner supposes that they
originally possess a membrane which disappears before fecunda-
tion. This is very possible, as we know that a similar disap-
pearance takes place, although at a later period, with the vitel-
lime membrane of the ova of Gasteropoda and Insects (Rathke,
Kolliker, Zaddach, Leuckart +).

[To be continued. |

XXV.—On some species of Epilobium.
By Cuartes C. Basineton, M.A., F.R.S. &e.

{Concluded from p. 247. ]

We will now turn our attention to the species allied to Z.
alpinum, which present some difficulty, from there being pro-
bably two plants which pass by that name. Of this Dr. Godron
was well aware when preparing the account of this genus for the

* Swammerdamm, Biblia Nature. Leeuwenhoeck, Arcana Nature.
Reesel, Hist. Nat. Ranarum nostratium; Niirnberg, 1758. Spallanzani,
Diss. relatives a Hist. Nat. des Animaux et des Végétaux, 1789. Pre-
vost and Dumas, Ann. des Sci. Nat. tome 11. Rusconi, Développement de
la Grenouille commune ; Milan, 1828 ; and Amours des Salamandres, 1821.
Baer, Lettre sur la Formation de l’CEuf, 1829; Repertorium; Miiller’s
Archiv, 1834. Reichert, Entwickelungsleben im Wirbelthierreich ; Berlin,
1840. Vogt, Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelungsgeschichte von der
Geburtshelferkrote ; Solothurn, 1842. Bell, British Reptiles. Newport on
the Impregnation of the Ovum in the Amphibia, Phil. Trans. 1851 and
1853.

+ We might add to these a fourth mode of fecundation, if we admitted,
with Remak (Miiller’s Archiv, 1854), that the spermatozoa are only
destined to transport a substance serving to effect fecundation (die Trager
einer samenihnlichen Substanz). This substance being capable of passing
through the little canals of the external membrane of the ova of Fishes, it
would not be necessary that the spermatozoid itself should penetrate into
the ovum in these animals. But we are already acquainted with the
micropyle in many fishes, and it will probably be discovered in the others,
which renders this theory very useless.

312 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

‘Flore de France.’ He observes, “ L’#. alpinum (Fries, Nov.
Mant. ii. 20) est, sans aucun doute, une espéce distincte de celle
de France et de Suisse. Car la plante de Fries... . porte & la
base de ses tiges, au lieu de stolons filiformes, des rosettes sessiles
de feuilles fasciculées, qu’il compare aux rosettes de l’E. tetra-
gonum.” (Fl. de Fr. i. 578.) It is a cause of surprise to me
that, knowing so much, he did not inquire further into the
subject, but has left the French plant in possession of the name
of E. alpinum, which belongs to that of Lapland. It was the
intention of Linnzus to include under that name the plant of the
Alps; but it is clear, from his quoting Scheuchzer’s work with
doubt, that he was not quite satisfied of their identity. In his
later writings he has removed the mark of doubt from that
reference, and added other synonyms belonging to the alpine
plant and also to E. alsinifolium. The E. alpinum therefore of
the ‘Species Plantarum’ included three plants: namely (1) £.
alpinum of Fries, which must be accepted as the type of the Lin-
nean species; (2) E. alsinifolium of Villars; and (8) E. ana-
gallidifolium of Lamarck, which is the E. alpinum of Godron.

Botanists appear to be now pretty unanimous in distinguishing
Nos. 1 and 2, but seem to have known nothing concerning the
E. alpinum of France and the Alps until Godron published the
remark that has just been quoted. Had not that accurate and
observant botanist directed attention to the subject, it is pro-
bable that we might long have continued to be ignorant of the
fact that the #. alpinum of the north differs materially from
that of the south of Europe. It will have been seen from the
quotation from the ‘ Flore de France,’ that the chief difference
between them is, according to Godron, to be found in the pre-
sence or absence of stoles or rosettes. If such a difference of
habit really exists, itis probable that botanists will not see much
reason for refusing to adopt Dr. Godron’s opinion. That this
southern plant, if distinguished, ought to bear the name given
to it by Lamarck cannot admit of question; for there seems to
be no reason for doubting that he had it in view when he pub-
lished the description and figure of his E. anagallidifolium. He
states that it is closely allied to the EZ. a/pinum of Linneus, but
doubts their identity *.

After stating what I believe to be the characters of the three
plants, a few observations will be made upon them.

E. anagallidifolium (Lam.); joints of the barren stems all long
with small obovate leaves, flowering stem erect from a long rooting

* Jn the paper already noticed, Dr. Grisebach has arrived at conclusions
concerning the allies of E. alpinum similar to those independently formed
by me, and Dr. Schultz appears to adopt them in his review of it.

Mr. C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 313

base, leaves oblong blunt narrowed below not acuminate stalked,
upper leaves lanceolate, buds nodding, sepals oblong blunt, seeds
obovate pointed below apiculate.
E. anagallidifolium, Lam. Dict. ii. 376. t. 278. f. 3; Griseb. 1. c. 853.
E. alpinum, Gren. et Godr. Fl. de Fr.i.577; Reichenb. Fl. exsicc.1061.

Stem filiform, mostly simple, with two slightly raised lines,
usually 3-4 inches long; or prostrate, branched, densely leafy,
rooting. Leaves resembling those of F. alpinum, glabrous or
downy. Flowers pale reddish. Capsules like those of Z. al-
pinum, glabrous or downy. Seeds brown, rounded at the top, but
with a minute point formed by a slight prolongation of the testa :
there appears to be a furrow down the middle of the flat side.

It inhabits the lofty mountains of Scotland. My specimens
are from Morne and Lochnagar, Aberdeenshire ; Clova, Forfar-
shire; Ben Vorlich, Dumbartonshire. In Smith’s Herbarium
there are specimens from Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire; Craig
Chailliach and Ben Lawers, Perthshire.

E, alpinum (Linn.) ; barren stems short their upper leaves closely
placed, flowering stem erect from a short rooting base, leaves oval
or oblong blunt narrowed below not acuminate, upper leaves lan-
ceolate, buds nodding, sepals linear-lanceolate acute, seeds lan-
ceolate-obovate pointed below apiculate.

E. alpinum, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1.348; Eng. Bot. 2001; Fries, Herb.
Norm. viii. 44.

Stem filiform, simple, with two slightly raised lines, usually
3-4 inches long. Leaves pale green. Flowers pale. Capsules
relatively smaller than those of E. alsinifolium, but resembling
them. Seeds rather pale, bluntly rounded at the top, but with
a minute central point formed by a slight prolongation of the
testa, with a keel along the middle of the flat side; but the
keel in this plant and the furrow in £. anagallidifolium is not
ascertained.

It inhabits the lofty mountains of Scotland. All the British
specimens that I have seen belong to the smaller of the two
forms distributed by Fries; they are from Ben Wyvis, Ross-
shire; Drumouchter, Inverness-shire ; Ben na Buird, Aberdeen-
shire; Clova, Forfarshire ; Ben Lawers, Perthshire.

E. alsinifolium (Vill.) ; stoles (yellowish) with small roundish distant
scales, stem erect from a long rooting base, leaves ovate-acuminate
repand-dentate shortly stalked, buds nodding, sepals linear-oblong,
seeds subfusiform.

E. alsinifolium, Vill. Dauph. ii. 511; Deakin’s Florig. Brit. f. 626.

E. origanifolium, Reichenb. Fl. exsice. 775.

E. alpinum, Fries, Herb. Norm. vy. 41.

Stem usually simple, rather thick, with two raised lines, 3-12

314 Mr.C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

inches long. Leaves shining, subpellucid, glabrous. Lowest
leaves blunt. Flowers large, purplish, few. Capsules very
long, upright, long-stalked. Seeds narrowed at both ends, and
continued gradually into a great prolongation of the testa at the
top, causing the beard (pappus) to appear to be stalked.

It inhabits the lofty mountaims of Scotland; the Great
Cheviot in Northumberland; Cronkley Fell, Teesdale, York-
shire; Fairfield, Westmoreland; at and above Aber Waterfall,
Caernarvonshire.

It is not easy to describe the great difference in appearance
that exists between E. alpinum and E. anagallidifolium, and
therefore they will doubtless seem to the reader to be far more
alike than is really the case. I have never seen in EF. alpinum
the remarkable prostrate rooting flowerless shoots which are
characteristic of H. anagallidifolium, and which are as different
from the rather loose rosettes of EH. alpinum as they are from the
stoles of E. palustre. The short leafy stems forming the loose
rosettes of H. alpinum do not become creeping stems nor true
stoles. The sepals may perhaps afford a certain distinction
between them.

It must be added, that I have no acquaimtance with the sup-
posed differences between EH. alpinum and E. anagallidifolium as
they appear in the living plant, and that it is often difficult to
tell accurately to which of them dried specimens ought to be
referred. Well-developed and complete specimens are so very
different, that there is little ground for hesitation in admitting
two plants as natives of the Scottish mountains which have such
markedly different modes of growth as to render it highly pro-
bable that they are distinct species. The identification of these
plants with the H. alpinum of Scandinavia and of the Alps,
respectively, does not, I think, admit of doubt. Botanists will
do well if they direct their attention to the mteresting question
of their specific distinctness.

Scottish botanists should look carefully for the HE. lineare
(Mihl.) which is found on the mountains of Scandinavia, and
may very probably inhabit those of Scotland. It closely re-
sembles both #. alpinum and E. palustre. From the former, to
which it appears to be the most nearly allied, it may be di-
stinguished by its linear obtuse denticulate leaves; its sepals,
although of the same shape, are apparently blunt; its flowers
are “white,” or “cream-coloured.”. From LE. palustre it is
at once known by “vegetatio czspitosa ob rosulas ad basin
sessiles,’ and the total want of the slender stoles of that
species.

It is hardly necessary to expend many words upon the dif-
ferences of H. alsinifolium from the two plants above mentioned,

Mr. C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 315

for its very differently shaped seeds afford a good distinction,
and the appearance of its foliage is very dissimilar. But it is
necessary to direct attention to the singular fact, that the plate
devoted to the illustration of this species in ‘ English Botany ’
represents another plant. Mr, Borrer has kindly favoured me
with the use of authentic specimens, named £. alsinifolium by
the late Mr. Winch, and stated to have been gathered by him
on Cheviot. One of them was communicated by the late Mr.
Sowerby as the plant figured by him in ‘English Botany’
(t. 2000) ; another is stated to be Mr. Winch’s plant by the
lamented Mr. Edward Forster ; and a third is similarly ticketed
by Mr. D. Turner. These three specimens all accord well with
the plate (Eng. Bot. 2000) ; but neither they nor it have, as I
believe, any claim to the name of £. alsinifolium. They are
probably only small states of EL. montanum; imdeed, the culti-
vated specimen from Mr. Turner can scarcely be called small.
Mr. Turner was well acquainted with this rather singular fact,
for in the ‘ Botanist’s Guide? (u. 470) he states, under the
heading of E. alpinum, the name originally applied to the plant
by Winch, that he, in common with other botanists, believed the
specimens sent to him to be “only a starved state of E. mon-
tanum.” Iam inclined to agree with Mr. Turner; but Mr.
Borrer, than whom there is no person better qualified to give an
opinion on such a subject, thinks that “the clubbed stigma and
the angles of the stem tend to a contrary conclusion. These
angles are still visible on the specimens, as lines at least, even
on the large garden fragment.” One thing is clear to both Mr.
Borrer and myself, viz. that the specimen sent to Sowerby, and
figured by him, was not E. alsinifolium. In Winch’s Herbarium
there is a “small mountain variety of #. montanum,” which has
faint decurrent lines upon its lower joints. The Cheviot plant
appears to be chordorhizal, judging from one of the specimens
preserved in that Herbarium; and the plate in ‘ English Botany’
represents an underground stole similar to those of E. alsini-
folium. If we are obliged to allow that hybrids are easily pro-
duced between Epilobia in a wild state, then we might probably
escape from the difficulty by supposing this plant to be one;
viz. between FE. alsinifolium and E. montanum, both of which
are, I believe, to be found upon the same part of that mountain.
On that supposition, the habit and the leaves would result from
the latter plant ; and the stole, the slight angles upon the stem,
and the club-shaped stigma, from the former. Nevertheless
there is great reason to think that Winch did gather the true
E. alsinifolium on Cheviot, for his description of the plant found
there, when in cultivation, accords well with that species. His
words are, “In winter it is not deciduous, but forms wide-

316 Mr. C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

spreading, matted tufts of small leaves, among which the fibrous
roots shoot out, as in proliferous plants. The flower-stems are
partially decumbent, cylindrical, at first simple, afterwards much
branched, and furnished with numerous elliptical, slightly toothed,
soft leaves ; the flowers are few, and the style undivided.” (Bot.
Guide to Northumb. and Durham, i. p.v.) One or two points
in this description, such as that which I have italicized, refer to
the plant which Winch had by some mischance mixed with the
true E. alsinifolium; but I think, for the most part, it cannot
have been taken for that plant. I also think that the Lysimachia
siliquosa glabra minor latifolia of Ray is really E. alsinifolium.
It is most unfortunate that the wrong plant should have been
figured in ‘ English Botany,’ as that error has probably tended
to encourage those who desired to disprove the specific distinct-
ness of FL. alsinifolium; and it is wonderful how botanists who
have had occasion to quote figures of that species, myself amongst
the number, have continued to refer to ‘ Eng. Bot. tab. 2000’
as representing it. Dr. Deakin describes and figures the true
E. alsinifolium (Florig. Brit. u. 549. f. 626); but part of his
remarks seems to have resulted from an inspection of ‘ English
Botany,’ for they do not accord with the description that precedes
them. The lamented Dr. G. Johnston stated (Bot. of Hast.
Borders, 81), that he found #. alsinifolium in the Dunsdale
Ravine on the Great Cheviot ; and as he most liberally presented
his specimens to me, I am enabled to confirm his determination
of the plant, thus proving that that species really does inhabit
those hills. The specimens more nearly resemble those which I
gathered upon Cronkley Fell in Yorkshire than the plant usually
found in Scotland, and seem to be what Fries mentions under
the name of EL. anceps as a variety of this species (Mant. 11. 20).
I am inclined to refer the specimen gathered and named £. al-
pinum by Dr. Douglas (see Bot. E. Bord. 82) to a small state of
E. alsinifolium, but its imperfect state renders this determina-
tion doubtful.

In the valuable and recently published ‘Supplement to the
Flora of Yorkshire’ (p. 67), Mr. J. G. Baker notices a plant
which he found on the “ south bank of the Swale near Topcliffe,”
and describes it as having “subsessile leaves narrowing gra-
dually below .. .. a bisulcate stem, erect buds and dark purple
flowers,” and states his belief that it is probably the EL. purpu-
reum of Fries. If his description is correct, and I have no
reason to think it otherwise, it seems highly probable that his
determination of its name is also right. Mr. Baker kindly pre-
sented me with specimens of it, but unfortunately they are only
lateral branches of what seems to have been a much-branched
plant ; they accord well with the descriptions given by Fries

Mr. C.C. Babington on some species of Epilobium. 317

(Mant. iii. 185, and Summa, 178). Mr. Baker’s plant appears
to have had a hollow “ bisulcate ” stem (but I do not know that
the furrows descend from the dorsal ribs of the leaves, as Fries
states to be the case in his plant), much branched and clothed
with fine scattered hairs ; leaves ovate-lanceolate, suddenly nar-
rowed below into a very short winged petiole, finely and distantly
denticulate ; lower leaves probably opposite ; floral leaves large
and more or less alternate; flowers apparently rather large,
“dark purple,” constantly erect ; sepals hairy, broad, oblong,
acute or perhaps cuspidate; capsules very long, thick, hairy
when young, rising conspicuously above the top of the stem. I
have thought it right to introduce this short notice of the
suspected E. purpureum into the present paper from its appear-
ing to deserve the attention of botanists.

Before closing this communication, it is proper to bring more
prominently forwards than has been done by its discoverer, the
fact that the EZ. rosmarinifolium (Haenke) is a native of Scot-
land. Mr. John Robertson, a very intelligent gardener and
botanist, has had a ‘ Flora of Perthshire’ in preparation for
some years, and would have published it before this time if he
had succeeded in obtaining sufficient subscribers to cover the
expense*. With the prospectus of this book he circulated in
1852 a “ few scraps from the work ” itself, and amongst them
there is the announcement of his having found this plant upon
almost “ inaccessible rocks that overhang the Tarf, a mountain-
stream in Glen Tilt.” He adds, that “it may be readily over-
looked from the frequent nibbling of sheep and other animals.

Tt has also been observed in one or two situations by the
Tay, where doubtless it has been carried . . . by the impetuosity
of the mountain torrents.” The characters for distinguishing it
from E. angustifolium are—

E. rosmarinifolium (Haenke) ; stem erect round, leaves linear not
veined, petals elliptic-oblong not clawed, style equalling the
stamens.

E. rosmarinifolium, “ Haenke in’’ Jacq. collect. ii. 50.

E. Dodonei, Sturm, Deutsch. Fl. fase. 72. t. 5.

Creeping moderately. Stem often decumbent below. Leaves
shortly attenuate at both ends, entire or denticulate, with revolute
margins. Flowers rose-coloured or white.

This is a very interesting addition to the flora of Britain, for,
as far as I can learn, it had not with certainty been ascertained
to grow further north than the Cevennes. Messrs. Hooker and

* Subscribers’ names are received by Messrs. A. and C. Black, publishers,
Edinburgh. Price 10s. 6d.

318 Mr.C. C. Babington on some species of Epilobium.

Arnott seem to throw some doubts upon its having been found in
Glen Tilt, but do not state the cause of them. My inquiries
and those of Mr. Borrer lead us to believe the statement of
Mr. Robertson.

In the ‘ Botanist’s Guide’ there are two stations given for a
plant there called H. angustissimum, both of which rest upon the
high authority of the late Mr. J. W. Griffith. These places are,
“Rocks near Twll dG in Cwm Idwel,’ and “ Rocks of Arran
Pen Llyn.” It has been generally taken for granted that the
plants noticed by Mr. Griffith were small states of HE. angusti-
folium, but no botanist has, I believe, recorded his having re-
cently met with the plant of the latter station, and we have
therefore no means of knowing what it is. In the autumn of
1855 I gathered what seems to be a small form of H. angus-
tifolium upon the rocks rising from the lake called Llyn y Cwn,
which is close to Twil di. It had not flowered, nor did it show
any buds, and grows in the narrow crevices of the rock in such
a manner that I was unable to obtain a root for cultivation. It
should be remembered that the station called ‘ Rocks near
Twll di in Cwm Idwel” by Griffith, is stated by him (Bot.
Guide, i. 82) to be the spot named “ Hysvae” by Richardson in
the 3rd edition of Ray’s ‘Synopsis’ (310), where he found the
Lysimachia Chamenerium dicta, flore Delphini of Parkinson, and
that there is every reason to suppose that Richardson, Griffith
and myself have successively gathered the same plant in the
same or closely contiguous spots. It is curious that Smith
should have taken no notice of these mountain stations.

The true name of the plant found by Mr. Robertson is rather
difficult to determine, not from any doubt concerning the spe-
cies to which it belongs, but on account of some confusion
which has happened in the use of the several names of the allied
plants. The Perthshire plant is—

E. Dodonai, Villars (in part), Allioni, Gaudin (in part), Koch ;

E. rosmarinifolium, Haenke, Reichenbach, Godron ;

E. angustissimum, Wilidenow (in part), Bertoloni (not Curtis
nor Aiton), Waldstein and Kitaibel.

Bertoloni and Godron appear to be justified by the description
given by Villars (Fl. Dauph. ii. 507) in considering that he in-
cluded under the name of H. Dodonei both the small species
which are allied to HL. angustifolium, and therefore have probably
exercised a sound judgement in rejecting that name. But the
former author seems to me to have fallen into an error in
thinking that the plant now under consideration is the 2. angus-
tissimum of Aiton (Hort. Kew. ed. 1. ii. 5), and of Curtis (Bot.
Mag. 76), for the figure given by the latter author seems to fix
that name upon the other species, to which also Reichenbach

Mr. J.G. Jeffreys on the genus Scissurella. 319

applies it. If therefore we think it proper to drop Villars’s
name, the next in antiquity is FE. rosmarinifolium given by
Haenke in 1788. Mr. Borrer has poimted out to me that
Dodoens does not deserve the honour of being commemorated
in connexion with this plant, the figure of which in his work
(Pempt. 85) is only a reprint of L’Obel’s cut (Stirp. Hist. 226),
and all that he says about it is contained in a single sentence
which conveys no valuable information. It is probable that he
never saw the plant. It cannot therefore be said that we
are depriving him of any credit, justly due to him, when we
neglect a name of only partial applicability to our plant and
adopt another which belongs to it alone.

P.S.—The time which has elapsed since the communication
of this paper to the Botanical Society has allowed plants raised
from seeds of EH. Lamyi, taken from the specimens sent by M.
Lenormand, to develope their winter form. The seeds were
sown in a pot in the early part of the summer of 1855; they
flowered in the autumn, and the flowering stems are now (Feb.
22, 1856) quite dead. Around the base of the old stems there
is now a dense mass of rosettes, exactly resembling in all respects
those of E. tetragonum. The plants have not been defended
from the frost, but nevertheless the rosettes are in a healthy
condition. Dr. Schultz remarks of the rosettes, that “si la
plante n’est pas garantie contre le froid dans une chambre
chauffée” (Arch. 1. 53), they perish in the winter; but that if
so defended they produce plants that flower, but do not develope
any more rosettes. It remains to be seen if such will be the
case with the plants in the Cambridge Botanic Garden.

Mr. Borrer informs me that “a plant of H. Lamy, raised
from seed sent by Schultz, is (Feb. 9, 1856) showing tufts of
leaves as strong as, and (as far as I can see) scarcely distinguish-
able from, those of 2. tetragonum, at this time in a north border
in my garden, where it must have borne 24 degrees of frost
[8° Fahr.].” These facts tend to the conclusion that E. Lamyi
is not distinct from E. tetragonum.

XXVI.—Note on the Genus Scissurella.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

Ir would be a boon to science if Dr. Gray, or some other natu-
ralist who is well versed in general conchology, would enlighten
me and probably many more of your readers by assigning a
proper position and resting-place to this singular genus. I am

320 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the genus Scissurella.

by no means satisfied with the general opinion that it belongs to
the Trochide ; although I believe it is allied to that family in
respect of both the shell and animal. Nearly half a century ago,
Colonel Montagu supposed the S. crispata of British authors to
be the fry of a Trochus; but since his time many other species
have been discovered in various parts of the world, all of which
exhibit the peculiar structure of Scissurella; and the recent de-
scription by Mr. Barrett of the external organs, as well as my
own observation of the operculum in another (although pro-
bably not a congeneric) species, have afforded additional data for
ascertaining the true relations of the genus. With respect to
the presence or absence of an operculum, I may remark that
even in the same genus (Mangelia) some of the species are oper-
culated, while others are inoperculate. Ciliated appendages,
simple filaments or cirrhi* varying in disposition and number,
and combined with opercula of different forms (which however
are sometimes wanting), occur in Macgillivrayia and Cheletropis
(pelagic mollusks), as well as in Lacuna, the Fissurellade and
Patella, which are widely separated from the Trechide and from
each other. I submit that the question ought not to be deter-
mined upon analogical considerations alone. The orifice in the
mantle and shell of Scisswredla indicates an affinity to Emarginula
and Fissurella, the young of which are well known to be spiral.
The slit in S. striatula, Ph., does not commence until the animal
is half-grown. Its sides or walls are raised above the surface of
the shell, and present a prominent ridge; a hollow groove being
thus apparently formed for the reception and passage of the ex-
current or anal canal. The foramen in which it terminates is
oblongo-fusiform, being usually more pointed in front; and it
projects like the groove, in this respect resembling an analogous
process in the young of Fissurella. As Mr. Alder justly re-
marks, this conformation appears to exhibit the same relation be-
tween this species and Scissurella as Punctureila bears to Emar-
ginula. The ribs generally cease when the slit begins to be
developed ; and it would seem as if that operation altered or in-
terfered with the original secreting power of the mantle, which
afterwards was applied as well to the filling-up of that part of
the slit which became useless as to the construction of a series
of close-set transverse striz or steps between the sides of the
groove. The foraminal termination of the slit I have only ob-
served in this species (S. striatula), although a great number of
the British species (S. decussata or crispata) have been examined

* Obs. The use of these organs seems to be little known. In Macgil-
livrayia they are supposed to serve for prehension as well as natation ; but
in the majority of cases they probably perform the functions of supple-
mental tentacula.

Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the genus Scissurella. 321

by me. In the first-mentioned species, too, the spire is laterally
compressed, as in Stomatia, and is not so trochiform as in the
others; and if the family of Scisswrellade (as proposed by Dr.
Gray in his “ List of the Genera of Recent Mollusca”) is adopted,
I venture to suggest that for the species in question and others
which possess a similar organization and form, the generic name of
Schismope (ab oxvop%), scissura, et 677), foramen) would be appro-
priate*. Trochotoma, Pleurotomaria (if indeed Scissurella differs
from it), and other fossil genera, may then form part of the same
family ; as no system of classification can be complete in which
what are usually termed “extinct” forms are not comprised.
Sowerby, in his “ Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells,” took the
characters of Scissuredla from a species of the Calecaire grossier of
Grignon, and not from any of the species described by D’Orbigny,
who is not likely to have overlooked the remarkable structure of
the scissural foramen. The position given to Scissurella by the
late Professor Forbes in the ‘ British Mollusca’ (viz. between
Adeorbis and Janthina), cannot, I think, be right; because the
last-mentioned genera belong to very different families. These
minor problems in natural history are very interesting ; and I
hope my friend Mr. Clark will be able next summer to obtain
and describe the animal inhabitant of Adeorbis subcarinata, and
thus increase his valuable stock of observations on the British

Mollusea.
58 Montagu Square, St. David’s Day, 1856.

P.S. Having submitted the above to Dr. Gray, I have been
favoured with his remarks on the subject ; which, with his per-
mission, I will subjoin to my communication :—

* British Museum, 6th March 1856.
“ My pear Sir,

“TI have read your note with much interest ; and I have little
doubt the genus Scisswrel/a belongs to the great group which
has been called Scutibranchia, Rhiphidoglossa, or Trochoida,
characterized by the structure of the gills, the lateral membrane
and tentacles, the peculiar disposition of the teeth and organs of
digestion, and by its generally forming a pearly shell.

“This group consists of the genera Trochus, Rotella, Turbo,
Haliotis, Stomatia, Stomatella, Fissurella and Parmophorus of
Lamarck: and perhaps, according to the theories of some con-
chologists, especially such as study the productions of a small
region only containing a very few representatives of each family,

_ * The only recent species with which I am acquainted (Sc. striatula, Ph.)
is littoral. All the species of Scisswrella proper apparently inhabit deep
water.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 2]

322 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

these might even be considered as a single natural genus.
But to such as study the Mollusca of a larger and more pro-
lifie district, and especially the species now contained in col-
lections brought from various climes, such a union of genera
seems to me most undesirable, particularly as it prevents that
accuracy of observation and discrimination which it is the great
advantage of natural history as a branch of education to establish
and teach.

“ From the study of the animals, shells and opercula of these
Lamarckian genera, I have been induced to form the group into
the following families, viz. Rotellade, Turbinide, Liotiade, Tro-
chide, Stomatellade, Scissurellade, Haliotide and Fissurellade.
I believe that Scissurella is very distinct from Trochus, and inter-
mediate between it and the Haliotide, but more nearly related to
the latter than the former ; and this view of its position has been
strengthened by Mr. Barrett’s description of the animal, as well
as by what you say as to the operculum and structure of the
shell.

“ Though the family of Scissurellade only contains one, or as
you have very properly proposed, two genera, yet they appear
to be all that remain of a large number of fossil genera, con-
taining together more than 3800 well described and figured
species.

“T never believed that Scissurella had any relation with
Tanthina, and the figure and description of the animal distinctly
prove that it has not any.

“ Adeorbis, on the other hand, is clearly a genus belonging to
the same great group above mentioned, and is referable, by the
exquisite structure of its operculum, to the family Liotiade,
characterized by its horny many-whorled operculum being orna-
mented with concentric spiral lines of a calcareous pearly sub-
stance.

“Ever yours sincerely,

«J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq.” J. HOGRAe

XXVII.—On the House Ant of Madeira. By Prof. O. Herr, of
Zurich. Translated from the original by R. T. Lowe, M.A.

[Concluded from p. 224. ]
Il. Description of the House Ant.

(EcoputHora, Heer.

MANDIBLES very strong, in the females and soldiers with a
sharp cutting edge, in the labourers toothed like a saw. Palpi
of the tongue and maxille very short and two-jointed; the

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 323

second joint somewhat longer than the first. The pergamenta-
ceous stalk or stipes of the maxille with a thin membranous,
ciliated sheath (case or cover).

Antenne in the males seventeen-jointed, the first joint thicker
but not longer than the next succeeding joints; in the females,
labourers, and soldiers twelve-jointed, with a rather long shaft
and eleven-jointed flagellum, the three last joints of which form
a slight, gradually attenuated club.

Wings with three cubital and two discoidal cells; the middle
cubital cell stipitate.

The tibia in the females, labourers, and soldiers with a pec-
tinate hook.

The back of the metathorax with spines.

The abdominal pedicle two-jointed, the first joint clavate.

The family consists of males, females, labourers, and large-
headed soldiers.

This genus belongs to the group Myrmicide; it differs alto-
gether from Myrmica, Latr., by the much shorter two-jointed
palpi, by the seventeen-jointed antennz in the males, and the
venation of the wings; in this last pomt it approaches nearer
the genus AZta, but in this the maxillary palpi are five-jointed,
and the metathorax is unarmed with spines. In the two-jointed
palpi our genus agrees with Pheidole and Typhlopone, Westw. ;
the latter genus belongs to the group Poneride, and cannot
therefore come into consideration ; the former is founded by
Westwood on an Indian species, the Atta providens, Sykes;
but from this, Qicophthora differs in the much longer first joint
of the tarsus, the anteriorly sharper-toothed mandibles, the
maxillary-case produced beneath, by the fusiform second joint
of the maxillary palpi, the much less deeply notched upper lip,
the differently shaped abdominal pedicle, and the marked division
of the neuters into two forms, widely differing in the structure

of the head.
(Ecophthora pusilla, Heer.

Allied species to it are the Myrmica omnivora, L. Latr.,
Myrmica nana, Latr., and Atta megacephala, F. Latr., both the
latter of which must certainly belong to the genus (cophthora.
The Myrmica omnivora, Latr., is spread over all tropical America,
and also appears in Egypt as one of the pests of the country.
More recently it has also spread northwards, and in Kasan as
in London does great mischief in houses. From this M. omni-
vora, our Madeira kind is distinguished (over and above the
generic characters) by the armed thorax, and by not having
both the segments of the node or abdominal pedicle (die beiden

Glieder des Knétchens) cylindrical. With the Myrmica nana,
21*

324 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

Latr. (Formica pusilla, De Geer, from South America), it agrees
an size, colour, and the armed thorax; but in that, the thorax,
with the head, is shagreened with numerous little raised points,
which is not the case in our species. In the form and size of the
head, the soldier of the Gicophthora agrees with the Atta mega-
cephala, Latr. (from the Isle of France); yet Latreille would
surely not have overlooked the peculiar striated sculpture of the
head: but since neither the description nor figure gives this,
we cannot identify our species with bis; and this especially as
the female is said to be only a little larger than the neuters,—
the difference in ours being so considerable. From this, A.
megacephala, Latr., the ant so called by Losana (Memorie della
Reale Accademia di Torino, xxxvii. p. 328), is distinct ; and the
description of the species which is found in the gardens of
Piedmont agrees in all points of importance with the soldier of
the Madeiran ant. On the other hand, the description of the
labourer is quite inapplicable, for it assigns to it a larger heart-
shaped head. It is also very surprising that Losana should not
have remarked that the head of the labourer is quite smooth,
and that labourers and soldiers present constant differences, not
only in size, but also in the formation of the head.

1. The Female.

Pl. III. fig. 1. 1, the natural size; fig. 1. 2, ten times magni-
fied ; fig. 1. 3, in profile.

Whole length 3} lines. Length of the head 3 line, breadth
the same. Length of the thorax 1 line, breadth 3 lime. Length
of the abdomen 1} lhne, breadth nearly 1 line. Length of the
upper wings 34 lines, breadth 14 line.

The head is roundish, and of the breadth of the thorax, as
long as broad, with a very slight notch at the base behind.
The eyes are rather small, and composed of few lenses. The
three ocelli are very distinct, and placed at the base of the
head in a triangle. The clypeus is not distinct from the
forehead ; slightly hollowed out directly over the mouth, where
the edge is furnished with a row of punctures. The anten-
nary clefts are somewhat converging forwards, short, but broad
and deep, and rather widening forwards, where the forehead,
which otherwise is flat, becomes more prominent. The
forehead between the antennary clefts is moderately broad,
and furnished at its anterior margin with an impressed, tri-
angular, somewhat smoother compartment, which is faintly
keeled down the middle. The whole upper side of the head
is traversed by fine parallel strize longitudinally, which reach
down nearly to the base of the head; behind the eyes the striz
are fainter, more irregular, and partly obsolete, or passing into

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 325

dots. The upper lip (labrum) (fig. 1. 4) is very small, and de-
pends quite perpendicularly between the mandibles ; it consists
of two horny plates, a very short but broad basal piece, and a
second longer outer piece, which is rounded, and slightly notched
anteriorly ; in the middle of the notch stands a little papilla.
The labrum is beset with a double row of fine bristles, one
within the other upon the edge, with two longer, stouter bristles
in the centre of the lip. The mandibles (fig. 1.5) are very
strong and horny, becoming broader and hatchet-shaped ex-
ternally ; the fore-edge exactly truncate, and produced for-
wards into a strong tooth, furnished with a narrow horny rim
or border extending at the top into a short, not prominent, tooth.
This border, which, as the actual cutting-edge, forms the man-
dibles, is very sharp, but without teeth. The outer edge of the
mandible is grooved ; the upper surface, on the contrary, even.
The maxilla is much smaller. The peduncle (stipes) is perga-
mentaceous, narrowed at the base, notched at the top, to which is
affixed the extremely small two-jointed palpus: this is so small,
that it does not reach to the point of the sheath. The first joint
is cylindric, the second somewhat longer, fusiform, and produced
into a fine point. The sheath extends pretty far out beyond
the stipes; it consists of a stalk-like basal piece (fig. 111. 5. 53)
and a larger membranous very thin upper piece, which is rounded
at top and furnished with a crown of hairs; further below
the hairs cease, and the edge is naked and extremely thin; but
here a border of excessively minute hairs runs obliquely over
the surface of the sheath. The labium is very small, as
long as the stipes of the maxilla, greatly narrowed at the base,
broader outwards and bluntly rounded. The lingual palpi are
two-jointed and very short; the first joint obconic, the second
fusiform and somewhat longer, bearing two bristles. The men-
tum is corneous, and slightly hollowed out. The antenne are
moderately long; the first joint (the scape) extends a little beyond
the edge of the head, and is scarcely perceptibly thickened out-
wards : the flagellum is eleven-jointed; its first joint is about twice
as long as the next very short one ; all are of equal thickness ;
the three last are considerably larger, though not abruptly di-
stinct from the rest ; they are together about the length of the
seven preceding joints. All the joints of the flagellum are finely
hairy, especially the last three.

The thorax is pretty large. The prothoraz is very short, and
not perceptible from above; laterally, however, the side-piece
(Pl. III. fig. 1. 3 a*) forms a pretty broad prominent segment ;
the mesothorax composes the chief part of the thorax (fig. 1. 3 4) ;
the mesonotum is somewhat larger than the head, rather flat
above, nearly circular, but truncate behind, with a transverse
impression and row of impressed punctures, and on either side a

326 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

small black tubercle. The upper side of the mesonotum is quite
even, with only a faint longitudinal groove. The scutellum
(fig. 1. 3 4?) is attached immediately to the mesonotum ; it is
abruptly truncate in front, bluntly rounded behind. The side-
plate of the middle thoracic segment is of about the same size as
that of the anterior, and receives the coxa of the middle leg.
The first piece of the metanotum is extremely short (fig. 1.
3 c'); the second piece (its scutellum, fig. 1. 3 c?) is indeed
longer, but still small and strongly attenuated backwards. On
the back it is even; on each side bordered by a raised margin,
on which stands a distinct prominent black spinule.

The legs are moderately long, with thick but short coxe,
small trochanters, and femora dilated in the middle. The
tibia is considerably shorter than the femur. The anterior
tibia is thickest in the middle, slightly rounded forwards on
the inner side, where there is placed a moveable proportionably
large hook, furnished on its inner side with a membranous
border, which is fringed with a row of fine straight sets (fig. 1.
6 c), giving it the appearance of a comb. The tarsi are long,
and extremely slender and filiform. The first jot is nearly
as long as the tibia, but the four following are very short.
The fifth is thickened outwards, and provided with two curved
very sharp claws (fig. 1. 7), between which lies a membranous
flap (or lobe). The first tarsal joint im the four hinder legs is
straight, but in the anterior pair is very strongly curved at the
base, the curve answering to the pectiniform hook, which has a
similar curvature. It is also worth notice, that on the parts of
the tarsus answering to the houk, the tarsus is clothed with a
thick fine felt of hairs ; whilst on the other parts of the tarsus,
these hairs are longer and less closely set.

The wings extend pretty far beyond the apex of the abdomen.
The fore-wings are much narrowed at the base, and attain their
greatest breadth at three-fourths of their length. They have a
distinct, pretty large stigma. The radial cell, before it, is open,
for the vena scapularis does not run into the margin. The
cubital cells are three, of a similar form to those of the Afte.
The imner cubital cell is polygonal and irregular; it is conti-
guous to the stigma: the second is also closed, somewhat bell-
shaped and pedunculate; the cross vein which divides it from
the third open large cubital cell is connected with the cross-vein
which divides the inner cubital cell from the radial cell, and
which issues from the stigma. The inner discoidal cell is rhom-
boidal and rather small; but the outer discoidal cell is very
large and open. The area interno-media is divided into two cells,
of which the outer one is open, the vena interno-media running
out free. The hind-wings are considerably smaller than the
fore, and the vena scapularis is connected already at one-third

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 327

of their length with the marginal vein ; the v. externo-media di-
vides very soon into two forks, the outer of which is connected
by a little cross veinlet with the scapulary vein, and then pro-
ceeds towards the tip of the wing. The v. interno-media is ex-
tremely short, and opens into the ewterno-media.

The abdomen consists of six segments, the first two of which
form a proportionably long pedicle. Of this the first segment
is strongly curved like a horn, and clavate. At the point of its
insertion into the thorax it is quite thin, but is thickened up-
wards. This thin pedicle is the cause of the great mobility of
the abdomen: when raised perpendicularly up, it shuts on so
close to the metathorax (ef. fig. 1. 2), that from above only its
nearly quadrangular head (i. e. the upper end) is visible; but
when lowered, its head separates from the metathorax in pro-
portion to the obliquity of its position (ef. fig. 1.3). When the
pedicle is raised, the abdomen is lifted up aloft; in the other
case it is depressed. The second joint of the node* (the second
abdominal segment) is much broader, but much shorter, inserted
obliquely into the first, and, seen from above, coroniform. On
either side it is furnished with a small tuft of hairs. The body
of the abdomen consists of four segments, and is shortly oval,
somewhat broader than the head, bluntly rounded before and
behind. The first segment, or third of the whole abdomen, is
the largest; it is of the same length as the three following
together. It is even; only furnished on the back with a faint
longitudinal line, and on the hinder edge with a row of punctures
and a circlet of hairs; the upper side is pretty thickly clothed
with fine short pubescence. The second segment is decidedly
shorter, quite smooth and naked, with only a narrow hairy band
on the hinder edge, and the edge itself ciliated with longer
hairs. The third and still shorter segment presents the same
characters; the fourth only projects a very little.

The colour of the imsect is a shinmg brown. The head is
chestnut-brown ; the fore part lighter, yellow-brown; the edge
of the scutum and the fore-edge of the mandibles black. The
eyes black, the ocelli whitish. The mesonotum is of the same
colour as the head; the metanotum, on the contrary, lighter
yellow-brown ; the tibiz and femora are brown, the tarsi and
antennze light yellow. The abdomen is shining ; lighter in front,
behind blackish-brown: the commencement of the first segment,
and sometimes the (whole) first segment and fore-part of the
second of the body of the abdomen are yellow-brown; the
hinder segment, on the other hand, is dark brown or blackish ;
but the small last (segment) again lighter yellow-brown. In
certain individuals, moreoyer, the whole body is a lighter brown

* Knoétchen—here evidently means pedicle.—Tr.

328 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

than in the majority. The wings are hyaline, whitish, with
yellowish veins. .
2. The Male.

Fig. 11. magnified ten times. As before mentioned, I found
only a single example, which was moreover broken to pieces on
the journey, the head and thorax only remaining perfect. In
fig. 11. 1, the dotted portion (the abdomen) is sketched merely
from memory.

Length of the head 1 of a line; of the thorax 3; breadth of
the same } a line.

It is much smaller than the female, the length of the soldier,
and of a coal-black colour; the legs only are light yellow,
with however the coxe and trochanters black. The head is
small and nearly circular ; its mandibles are small, scarcely per-
ceptible; the palpi, on the other hand, are somewhat longer
than in the female. The head is smooth, bearing in front the
approximate antennz ; these are long, setaceous, and seventeen-
jointed. The first joint is the thickest,-the second of the
same length, as also the 7-8 following; but thence they be-
come gradually shorter, and more abruptly separated from
each other; whence the last seven jomts can be much more
easily distinguished from one another than the first ten. All
the joints (with the exception of the first and last) are cylindric
and thickly pubescent. The thorax is considerably broader
than the head, bluntly rounded anteriorly ; the hinder edge
of the mesonotum with a row of longitudinal excavations ;
the scutellum subtriangular, its edge also beset with impressed
punctures; the abdomen oval. In the wings, the inner discoidal
cell is larger than in the females. The legs are of finer make
than in the females. The femur is thinner, the tibia propor-
tionally longer (fig. 11. 2). The hook at the fore part of the
tibia (cf. fig. 1. 3) is differently formed; it is curved, and also
furnished on the inner side with a row of sete, which are not
however attached to a membranous flap (hautlappen*), and are
not pectinate. The tarsus is much shorter than in the female ;
the first jomt about the length of the second and third together ;
the second, third and fourth are of equal length; the fifth
is thickened outwards, and with two sharp claws.

3. The Labourer.
Fig. rv.—tv. 1, the size of nature ; 1v. 2, magnified ten times.
Whole length 13 line; length of head 3 line; breadth the
same; length of thorax } line, of abdomen + line.

* “ Wautrande ’’ (membranous border) before, in description of the
female.—TR.

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 329

The head is somewhat larger than the abdomen ; it is alto-
gether shining, smooth, and naked. The point of insertion of
the antenne is also marked by a pretty deep groove, and the
anterior border of the forehead likewise furnished with an im-
pression ; on the other hand, the strize, which im the females as
well as in the soldiers are perceived on the head, are wholly
wanting. The mandibles (fig. 1v. 3) are proportionably longer,
but more attenuated at the base than in the female and soldier,
acquiring thus a more slender form ; the two teeth at the point are
longer and much more acute, and the whole inner edge is set with
a row of little teeth, varying in number between ten and twelve.
These teeth are very regularly placed, and give a serrated ap-
pearance to the edge of the mandible. The teeth of both
mandibles fit into each other, and make it intelligible how these
little animals can hold and carry with their mandibles such
considerable loads. The other parts of the mouth are formed as
in the female. The antenne (fig. rv. 4) are much longer in
proportion than in the female and soldier; their shaft or pedicle
extends conspicuously beyond the head, their base; in other
respects their structure is the same. The ocelli are wanting.

The thorax is very narrow ; the prothorax (the collar) is very
finely granulated. The mesothorax is somewhat widened in the
middle ; it is quite smooth and shining; on the other hand, the
scutellum and the metathorax are very finely granulated (only
perceptible under the microscope), the latter furnished on each
side with a small spine.

The legs are formed like those of the female, only much
smaller (fig. rv. 5, 7); their tarsi are extremely fine, with how-
ever sharp claws, between which is seen a membranous lobe
(fig. tv. 6). They are finely pubescent.

The second joint of the abdominal pedicle is proportionably
longer and more slender than in the female; the abdomen itself
very small and shortly oval. The first segment is about half
the length of the whole, and is also much greater than the
second.

The head is sometimes lighter, sometimes darker brown ; the
thorax, shaft of the antennz, femur and tibia light yellow-brown ;
the flagellum of the antenne and the tarsi light yellow. The
shining abdomen chestnut-brown, lighter at the base and tip.

4. The Soldier.

Fig. 111. 1, natural size; fig. 111. 2 & 3, magnified ten times.

Whole length 2 lines; length of head 3 of a line, breadth
full $ line. Length of thorax 7 line ; of abdomen } line, breadth
the same.

Distinguished from the labourers by the head being twice as

330 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

large, emarginate at the base and striated, by the shorter and
stronger mandibles, which are not toothed on their inner edge,
and by the somewhat larger abdomen.

The faintly pubescent head is of enormous size, and much
more deeply emarginate at the base than in the female, so that
it is nearly heart-shaped. A deep longitudinal furrow traverses
it in the middle. The antennal clefts are pretty deep, being
bordered anteriorly and towards the forehead by a rather strong
prominent rim. ‘The fore-part of the forehead has a deep im-
pression like that of the female. The clypeus is very short, and
divided from the head by a faint line. The upper side of the
head is finely striated longitudinally, as in the female; these
striz become obsolete behind the middle of the head, so that its
hinder part is quite smooth. The eyes are small, and the ocelli
are wanting. The trophi are as in the female, as are also the
mandibles, except that on their cutting edge stands a pair of
very small obtuse denticles furnished with a bristle (fig. 111. 4).
The antennz are as in the females; their shaft is much shorter
than the head; the three last joints (fig. 111. 6, 7) are distinctly
separate.

The thorax is similarly formed as in the labourer, except that
the mesothorax is much broader in the middle and bears on each
side a little tubercle (Harchen) furnished with a bristle, by which
structure it is distinguished both from the female and labourer.
The scutellum is almost quadrangular; the hinder piece of the
metanotum is armed on each side with a sharp spinule, and
furnished in the middle with a longitudinal cleft. The whole
thorax is sprinkled with scattered or distinct hairs. The legs are
larger than in the labourer ; otherwise they are of the same form.

The abdomen is much smaller than the head. The first joint
of the pedicle is enlarged into a more prominent scale-hke pro-
tuberance (furnished with a tuft of hairs) than in the labourer ;
the second joint, on the other hand, is shorter and thicker than
in these, and approaches in form that of the female. The first
segment of the abdomen is the largest; the second of about
the same breadth, but shorter; the third rounded behind; the
fourth is very small, and almost withdrawn into the preceding.
It is quite smooth and shining, sparingly sprinkled with fine
bristles, which at the hinder edge of each segment are longer
and set closer together.

The head is sometimes lighter, sometimes darker brown; on
the under side always lighter than on the upper. The edge of
the clypeus and the anterior edge of the mandibles black ; the
antennz and legs are light yellow; the thorax and abdominal
pedicle somewhat lighter brown than the head; the abdomen at
the base and tip of the same colour; the second and third seg-

Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira. 33]

ments, on the other hand, blackish-brown. At times the dark
brown extends further, over even the hinder edge of the first
segment ; but still more frequently it is more contracted, forming
only a dark band over the hinder edge of the second and the
(whole of the) third segment.

Ili. Conclusion.

Comparing with each other these four different kinds which
compose a colony of Gicophthore, we find that the males differ
altogether from the rest in the structure of the head. The
females, soldiers, aud labourers approach each other closely in the
structure of the parts of the mouth, in the legs, and in the equal
number of the abdominal segments; yet the labourer differs
much from the female, not only in being so much smaller, but
by its smooth head, its serrato-dentate mandibles, different strue-
ture of the thorax, owing to the want of wings, as well as by the
form of the second joint of the abdominal pedicle. In size,structure
of the mandibles, and striated head, the soldier forms a middle
link between the female and the labourer ; but, on the other hand
again, it differs much from both in its excessively large perfectly
heart-shaped head, and in the shape of the mesothorax ; assuming
thus quite a peculiar aspect. These forms are very distinctly
marked ; and amongst the numberless specimens seen by me of
this ant, no intermediate link between the labourer and soldier
ever has occurred. In Atta capitata, Latr., which I have ob-
served in great numbers on the Guadalquivir at Seville, as well
as in several other places in Spain, labourers with small heads,
and soldiers with large, occur also; but, between these, traus-
itional forms are found, which is never the case with our (co-
phthora. That the soldiers cannot possibly be slaves captured
from other nests (a circumstance of known occurrence amongst
the Amazon-ants), is proved as well by their very constant
occurrence in the pupa and perfect state in the nests of the
(Ecophthore, whilst they are never found alone, as by their agree-
ment in all essential organs (in their trophi, antenne, and legs)
with the labourers and females. Such a marked distinction
between the two neuter forms as in Cicophthora has not else-
where been observed. Something similar, however, seems to be
the case in several species of the Southern Hemisphere, only it
has not usually been rightly understood. We have seen above,
that in the Train and Driver Ants two forms of neuters are
found, and also in Atta capitata, Latr., which must not be con-
sidered as varieties, but as forms, each of which has its own
special and peculiar position in the ant-ceconomy. Nay, even
amongst several of our own species, attentive observation points

332 Prof. O. Heer on the House Ant of Madeira.

out two forms of labourers ; for example, in Formica herculeana,
L., and F. pubescens, F.; only the difference is not so striking as
in the above-cited species. The same too with the Honey-bee ;
for in the same hive smaller and somewhat bigger labourers are
found, of which, according to Huber, the former take care of the
brood, the latter produce the wax.

At present it is generally held, that the neuters found amongst
all these insects which live together in large families are im-
perfectly developed females ; and one would be led to this view
principally by the resemblance of the working-bees to the
females (the so-called queens), as well as by the fact, deduced
from certain experiments carried on with bees, that in many
cases they can make queens out of working-bees’ eggs. When
indeed a comb full of eggs is introduced from another hive into
one without a queen, this last can sometimes rear itself a new
queen out of it; but this by no means always happens, and I
have myself twice employed this method without any result,
which shows that queens cannot certainly be reared from all eggs
laid in the cells of working-bees. Amongst bees the labourer
indeed is very like the queen; but with ants the difference
is very great: in these, not only are the females much larger
and winged, but they have an essentially differently formed
thorax; so that it seems quite incomprehensible to me that
merely the mode of nutriment should determine such different
kinds of individuals, and that it should depend on the labourers
whether a female or a labourer should proceed from the same egg.
But the explanation is rendered still more difficult by the occur-
rence of a second form of neuters, differing again as much from
the females as from the labourers. In this case we must therefore
hold, that ants possess the means of rearing labourers out of
some and soldiers out of other eggs,—which appears to us very
improbable. Hence we are almost compelled to ascribe the
distinction between the females, labourers, and soldiers, not to
the skill of the ants in rearing them, but to an original dif-
ference ; and consequently to admit, that not only in the male
and female individuals, but also in the labourers and soldiers,
the difference is congenital. This is borne out by the fact that
biformed individuals, between labourers and males (ef. Entomo-
logische Zeit. 1851, p. 295), have already been discovered, in
which one half exactly represents the male, the other half the
labourer ; precisely like bisexual individuals in insects, between
male and female. Were the neuters undeveloped females, we
should not meet with forms like these, but we should rather have
forms of transition between neuters and females, which how-
ever is never the case. Agamst this view it may be alleged, I
am well aware, that in the animal kingdom only two constantly

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 333

different kinds of individuals (male and female) are produced by
the parent, to which all other aberrations can be reduced. But
reference may here be made to the system of alternate genera-
tions, which reaches up into the class of insects (in the Aphides
and the Psychidean genus Ta/eporia) ; and that amongst these,
individuals are produced immediately from the female parent
(the so-called nurses) which are quite different from the neuters.
The neuter ants are to be compared with these; from which
however they again recede, in never being capable of repro-
duction.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IIL.

Representing the four different forms of Gicophthora pusilla.

Fig. 1. The FemALEe.—1. Natural size; 2. magnified teu times; 3. side-
view ; a'. the pronotum; a*. the side-piece of the prothoraz;
b'. the mesonotum; 6°. the scutellum; 6°, the side-piece of the
mesothorax; c‘. the first segment of the metanotum; c?. the
hinder segment of the same, with the spinules; d. the first joint
of the abdominal pedicle; e. the second joint of the same; 4. the
labrum; 5. the mandible ; 6. the fore-leg ; b. tibia; c. the pec-
tinate hook; d. the tarsus; 7. the claws.

Fig. 11. The MaLte.—1. Magnified ten times; 2. fore tibia with tarsus ;
3. its hook, more highly magnified.

Fig. 11. The Sotpier.—1. Natural size; 2. ten times magnified; 3. side-
view, in the attitude of gnawing a piece of meat; 4. mandible ;
5. the rest of the trophi; a. mentum; b. mazille; b'. the stipes;
5°. the palpus; 5%. the sheath; c’. the tongue; c*. its palpi;
6. the last four joints of the antennz.

Fig. 1v. The LAsourer.—l. Natural size; 2. magnified ten times;
3. the mandibles; 4. the antenne; 5. the fore-leg; 6. the claw-
joint of the same; 7. the middle leg.

XXVIII.—WNotes on Permian Fossils :—Palliobranchiata. By
Wixuam Kine, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in
Queen’s University, Ireland (Q. C. Galway) ; Corresponding
Member of the Natural History and Medical Society of

Dresden, &c.
(Coneluded from p. 269.)

Family Rhynchonellide, Gray, 1848.
Genus RHyNCHONELLA, Fischer de Waldheim.

In one of Mr. Davidson’s usual valuable papers lately pub-
lished*, he has been led to question the existence of the genus
Rhynchonella during the Permian period. The query evidently
has reference to the uncertainty hitherto prevailing as regards the

* “« A few Remarks on the Brachiopoda,” Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.
Dec. 1855.

334 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

generic position of the so-called Terebratula Geinitziana disco-
vered by De Verneuil in the Permians of Russia*. This species,
or rather a shell occurring in Germany first noticed by Geinitzt,
and stated to be identical with it, has lately been placed in
Camarophoriat, though the original description given by M. de
Verneuil is somewhat in favour of the Russian type being con-
sidered a Rhynchonella.

Mr. Davidson no doubt was led by his inherent cautiousness
to query the Permian existence of Rhynchonella from the uncer-
tainty named; but as this genus is well known to characterize
both the Carboniferous and the Saliferous systems, this fact alone
would have been considered of sufficient force by some to warrant
their positively concluding that it existed during the Permian
period.

Rhynchonella ? Geinitziana§, De Verneuil. Pl. XII. figs. 7-11.

It is only lately that any specimens of the German fossil,
which Geinitz has referred to the present species, came under
my observation ; it required, however, but a very brief exami-
nation of them to feel convinced that they belong to an un-
doubted Rhynchonella, and a species unsurpassed either in beauty
or histological interest. The specimens alluded to were obtained
out of the dark-coloured Zechstein of Répsen, one of the Ger-
man localities famous for Permian fossils.

Confining ourselves to the species represented by the German
specimens, there cannot be any doubt of its being a true Rhyn-
chonella ; as its large valve is furnished with two well-developed
rostral plates, and the opposite or small valve with the usual
median one. But what constitutes the peculiar interest of this
shell is, that both valves are as distinctly and regularly per-
forated as those of any Terebratulide.

But I am assuming that the German specimens belong to the
species Rhynchonella Geinitziana. Be this as it may, there is no
doubt on my mind of their being the same as those procured by
Dr. Geinitz at Gera, and identified by him in his ‘ Versteine-
rungen’ (/oc. c7¢.) with the Russian species named. I cannot
help thinking, however, that they represent a different species.
De Verneuil describes his shell as having its slightly elevated
ribs “ obsolete or completely effaced near the beak ;” and Count
Keyserling’s testimony is to the same effect, representing them
as “sehr obsolete || ;” but all the specimens from Ropsen, although

* Geology of Russia, vol. ii. pp. 83, 84, pl. 10. fig. 5 a, b.

i Phe Versteinerungen des deutschen Zechsteingebirges, p. 12. pl. 4.
g, .
“+ Schauroth, Beitrag, 1854. § Geinitz, loc. cit.
|| Reise in das Petschora-Land, p. 241, 1846.

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 335

possessing about the same number of ribs as the Russian type,
have the entire umbonal region of both valves distinctly ribbed ;
besides, the ribs appear to be more flattened. Moreover, lentertain
a suspicion that in the Russian shell the small valve is decidedly
more rounded posteriorly ; and I am also led to suspect that its
valves are not so obviously perforated,—a character which I think
could not have escaped the observation of M. de Verneuil or
Count Keyserling. However, for the present, I am content
with having simply pointed out what I consider to be some im-
portant differences, leaving it for others to confirm or overthrow
my suspicions.

The Roépsen shell is subpentagonal ; and, compared with most
species of the genus, it may be said to have slightly convex
valves, both being only somewhat tumid posteriorly : the small
valve, however, has its anterior half rather strongly elevated, and
its sides sloping somewhat rapidly. The mesial sinus, or ridge,
terminates in front without giving any very abrupt wave to
the anterior margins: the wave is decided, but regular. The
ribs amount to about four or five in the sinus, and nine or
more on the lateral areas: they are broad, flat, evenly rounded,
and separated from each other by a narrow, line-like sulcation.
The rostral plates project forward about one-fourth the length of
the shell, with rather a strong divarication. The median plate
extends a little further along the small valve. The point of the
umbone is sharp and somewhat projecting; and the foramen is
small. The perforations are large, and separated from each
other by an interspace about equalling twice their own diameter :
they give the surface of the shell a finely granulated structure ;
and appear to decrease a little in size as they pass outwardly
through the capillary fibres, which are exceedingly fine*. This
interesting species has not yet been found out of Germany.

* In my ‘ Monograph ’ it is stated, that I noticed the existence of perfo-
rations in every species of Rhynchonella, as well as other Brachiopods, that
had passed under my observation: hence I was led to make the statement
—* in short, I doubt their absence in any Brachiopod whatever ” (op. cit.
p- 110, &e.). Dr. Carpenter, in his chapter “ On the Intimate Structure of
the Shells of Brachiopoda,” appended to Mr. Davidson’s ‘ Monograph’ of
British fossil species of this Class, having deemed it necessary to anim-
advert somewhat strongly on the above piece of scepticism (vide op. cit.
pp. 31, 32 & 35—notes), I have been induced to make the following ob-
servations :—Although Dr. Carpenter’s researches, as detailed in his * Re-
port on the Microscopie Structure of Shells,’’ published in the volume of
the British Association Meeting for 1844, were generally considered as lead-
ing to most important results; yet it is well known that many regarded
them as too initiative to be unreservedly accepted in all their totality. Not
that Dr. Carpenter was in any respect to blame ; for it was conceived, that
fossilization had so obliterated the tissue of many shells as to render a de-
tection of it an impossibility ; and it was also conceived that some shells

336 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

Genus Camaropnortia, King.
Camarophoria globulina, Phillips*.

The occurrence of this species in Germany has not yet been
recorded except by Professor M‘Coy, who states that he found
numerous specimens of it from Gliicksbrunn in Count Miinster’s
collection (now in the Cambridge University Museum) under the
manuscript name Jerebratula bisinuatat.

Camarophoria multiplicata, King f.

Schauroth records the occurrence of this species in the lower
Permians of Germany, without, however, stating its locality.
Geinitz represents two specimens in his ‘ Versteinerungen’ (pl. 4.
figs. 48, 49) apparently the same. M/‘Coy unites it with C.
Schlotheimi; but I must still adhere to the opinion that both
are specifically distinct on the grounds stated in my Monograph.

* King’s Monograph, p. 120. pl. 7. figs. 22-25.
+ British Paleozoic Fossils, p. 443.
t Monograph, p. 121. pl. 7. figs. 26-32, pl. 8. figs. 1-7.

were more prone than others to become thus altered. In the genus Rhyn-
chonella, it is true, no one had, that I am aware of, discovered any per-
forations ; but after carefully examining a number of fossil species I was led
to believe, that certain very minute dark points, which I observed here and
there dispersed over the surface of their valves, were the remains of orifices
belonging to extremely minute perforations. I may have been deceived as
to the nature of much that my ‘‘ Stanhope” revealed to me; but will any one
absolutely say that I was so in all cases, now that it is known that perfora-
tions do indisputably exist in Rhynchonella? Geinitziana? A few words as
to Rhynchonella psittacea—the only species, from its occurring in the recent
state, that was likely to settle the question raised by my remarks. I did
not examine this species; but I was acquainted with Dr. Carpenter’s ac-
count of its histology, which account, since I am compelled to defend
myself, I must say seemed to me a very faulty one. Had I been imbued with
the same spirit which Dr. Carpenter manifested when writing his animad-
versions, I might have severely criticised it ; but I valued his general obser-
vations too highly to indulge im any criticisms of the kind. Dr. Carpenter’s
description of the shell-tissue of Rhynchonella psittacea is so far from cor-
rect, that I naturally mferred he must have been equally in error in con-
cluding it to be without perforations. Referrmg to Dr. Carpenter’s first
“Report,” paragraphs 37 & 38, it will be seen that the tissue of this species
is described as consisting of sharply folded ‘ laminz of extreme tenuity ;”
and it is stated that the “sharp foldings”’ produce an appearance as if
the laminz were “‘ traversed by a very regular series of lines.” In para-
graph 36, this conformation is described as “a peculiar variety of the
plicated membranous structure.” Now I may be permitted to state that
this is quite an erroneous description of the shell-tissue of Rhynchonella
psittacea; since it does not consist of “lamine of extreme tenuity” with
‘sharp foldings;” but of closely packed fibres precisely analogous to the
“capillary fibres” or “ fibrous tissue,” noticed in my ‘ Monograph’ as con-

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 337
Family Spiriferide, King, 1846.

Genus Sririrer, J. Sowerby.
Spirifer Permianus, King*.

Schauroth has found this well-marked species in the Zechsteim
dolomite of Péssneck: it is represented under fig. 6 in his Ist
‘ Beitrag.’

Genus Marrinia, M‘Coy.
Martinia Clannyana, Kingt.

This small species, which is extremely rare in the North of
England, appears to be rather abundant in the Zechstein dolo-
mite of Péssneck, where it was first discovered by Schauroth.
It is noticed and figured by him in his ‘ Beitrag’ of 1853. I
procured from Dr. Krantz several examples, most of which are

* Monograph, p. 133. pl. 9. figs. 18-24.
ft Monograph, p. 134. pl. 10. figs. 11-13.

stituting the valves of those Brachiopods which I examined. Dr. Car-
penter’s own testimony, which appeared about seven or eight years after
the publication of his first “ Report,” and three years subsequent to the
appearance of my notices, will bear me out in the correction just made:
“Tn all the recent Terebratulide and Rhynchonellide, and in all the fossil
specimens of those groups, as well as of Spiriferide, Strophomenide and
Productide, in which there is no indication of metamorphic action, the
shell is found to consist of flattened prisms, of considerable length, arranged
parallel to each other with great regularity ’’ (vide chapter “ On the Inti-
mate Structure of the Shells of Brachiopoda,” p. 25). The italicization of
the concluding portion is my own. It is remarkable that Dr. Carpenter
has nowhere, in the chapter from which the above extract has been taken,
made the least allusion to “lamine of extreme tenuity”’ with “sharp
foldings ;” nor has he at all acknowledged that others had previously dis-
covered the so-called ‘‘ flattened prisms” or “‘ capillary fibres,” as they are
termed in my ‘ Monograph’! Surely, if my “ doubt”’ as to the absence of
perforations “in any Brachiopod whatever,” warranted the ignoring of the
little I have done in the matter, this ought not to have been the case with
what has been done by the Vicomte D’Archiac, who undoubtedly was the
first to signalize the “ fibro-capillary structure ”’ of the Palliobranchs (vide
“Rapport sur les fossiles du Tourtia,” in Mém. Soc. Géol. de France,
2 sér. vol. ii. 1847). A few days ago I felt myself justified in laying claim
to this discovery: for, although I had heard that D’Archiac had written
something on palliobranchiate histology, as noticed in the Appendix to my
‘Monograph’ (p. 244), yet I was not aware that he had ascertained the
existence of the fibrous structure until only within the last few days. * * *
But let me not forget to acknowledge that I was in error in doubting the
absence of perforations “in any Brachiopod whatever :” the account which
Dr. Carpenter has given of Rhynchonella psittacea in his late chapter is
quite conclusive on this point; but I cannot help thinking, from their
occurring in R.? Geinitziana, that perforations will yet be found in con-
generic species supposed, or stated, to be without them.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 22

338 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

nearly twice the size of the English specimens that have occurred
to me: they show a very distinct area in the small valve, with a
well-marked deltidial fissure: the deltidium of the large valve is
also open. In my diagnosis, this species is described as “ nearly
smooth ;” but two of the Péssneck specimens, particularly one
of them, show the surface of the valves to have been crowded
with very fine short inclined spines: when these are removed,
the surface has very much the appearance of being perforated
like some fossil Terebratulas.

Martinia Winchiana, King*.

Morris in his ‘ Catalogue of British Fossils, 2nd ed., unites
this species with the last, a step that would seem to be warranted
by the spiniferous character just noticed. But the spines of the
present species appear to be much coarser, judging from the
very imperfect casts before me: further, the umbone of the lar ge
valve appears to be more incurved, and the area not so well
defined. Schauroth figures a specimen from Péssneck, which
he identifies with Martinza Winchiana, on account of its being
covered with spines; but possibly it may be only a specimen of
the last species—a suggestion I would make with less doubt if
the figure did not show the umbone to be more incurved and the
area less defined than in M. Clannyana.

Other Permian PALLIOBRANCHIATA.

Spirifer alatus, Schlotheim.—This species is considered by
many who have noticed it as being inseparable from the S. undu-
latus of Sowerby ; but I would urge on those who entertain this
view to study the young forms, particularly the specimens repre-
sented in my ‘ Monograph,’ pl. 9. figs. 10 & 16, which I con-
sider respectively as representing the young of these two species.

Spirifer multiplicatus, Sowerby, and S. Jonestanus, King.—
Morris, I perceive, unites these species: perhaps he has had an
opportunity of examining specimens which graduate them into
each other. Neither species has yet been observed in Ger-
many.

Epithyris elongata, Schlotheim. — Specimens _ occasionally
occurring at Gliicksbrunn show this to have been a prettily
coloured species. Two specimens before me exhibit several dark
bands, inter-radiating with others of a lighter colour almost con-
tinuously from the umbone to the margin, and increasing in
width in their forward progress: m another the dark bands,
reduced to mere lines, are only developed near the margins.
In my ‘ Monograph’ it is stated, that ‘ Specimens from the
earboniferous limestone of Bolland, often identified with Tere-

* Monograph, p. 135. pl. 10. figs. 14-17.

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 339

bratula hastata, are in no respect different from the ordinary
forms of the present species” (vide p. 149). On again exami-
ning one of the Bolland specimens here referred to, having the
nearest resemblance to Hpithyris elongata, I perceive that the
surface of both valyes shows much stronger incremental breaks
than I have ever seen displayed on any specimens of the Per-
mian species: the valves, too, appear to be thicker.

Epithyris sufflata, Schlotheim.—I have elsewhere stated, that
this species “appears to be identical with a shell found in the
mountain limestone of Bolland, probably hitherto considered a
variety of 2. sacculus—a distinct, though closely allied species*.”
M‘Coy supposes that the shell here referred to is identical with
his E. virgoidest ; but this is not the case. The Bolland
specimen noticed under the last head as resembling E. elongata
has more affinity to M‘Coy’s species. I have been led to re-
examine the ‘shell found in the mountain limestone of Bol-
land,” and I cannot but say, that it agrees most remarkably
with some specimens of the Permian species, particularly the
testiferous one represented under figure 7, pl. vil. of my ‘ Mo-
nograph.’? On the other hand, there are specimens figured on
the same plate closely approximating to true forms of E. sacculus
in its mesial depression and emarginate front. The only dif-
ference I perceive between the Bolland shell alluded to and the
Permian fossil quoted is, that on the former there are faint
traces of a few longitudinal lines on the anterior half of the
valves. I perceive nothing of the kind on any of the Permian
forms, nor do I recognize any on normal specimens of E. sacculus.
There appears to be no difference between them in their histo-
logical perforations.

I have retained the generic name proposed in my ‘ Mono-
graph’ for those Terebratulide resembling the two species just
noticed, in having rostral plates and a shortish loop. Very few
paleontologists appear to agree with me in this respect. I
intended making some observations on the question ; but as Mr.
Davidson is now engaged on species belonging to the same
group, to be published in the next part of his ‘ Monograph of
British Fossil Brachiopoda,’ and feeling confident that he has
much important matter to make known as regards their interiors,
I prefer deferring them until the appearance of his work. I
may then be able to offer a decided opinion, either in favour of,
or against, my former views.

Brachiopods appear, for the most part, to be confined to the
lowest deposits of the Permian system. In the North of Eng-

* Monograph, p. 150. t British Paleozoic Fossils, p. 413.
22%

340 Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils.

land, scarcely any have been found in beds above what | have
termed the “ fossiliferons limestone ;”—the fossils occurring in
the higher members, namely the “ brecciated and pseudo-brec-
ciated,” and the “ crystalline and non-crystalline ” limestones*,
being principally Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs. The same
remarkable fact appears to obtain in Germany; inasmuch as
Brachiopods have rarely been noticed hitherto above the true
Zechsteis, or dolomites; the overlying beds, namely Rauch-
wacke, &c., only contaiming species for the most part identical
with fossils occurring in the uppermost North of England Per-
mians}+. ‘The consideration of these facts induces me to place
the magnesian limestones of Cultra and Tullyconnel in the upper
part of the Permian system ; as they contain no palliobranchiate
fossils. I would likewise place the magnesian limestone of St.
Bees’ Head on the same parallel, Mr. Binney having discovered
therein “casts of Bakevellia, Schizodus, and other shells” t.
The marls in the neighbourhood of Manchester, loaded with
similar fossils, I am also disposed to consider as the equivalents
of the upper synchronous Permians, whether in England or
Germany.

Belmont, near Galway, Feb. 20, 1856.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fig. 1. Productus Geinitzianus, De Koninck. Large valve a little enlarged :
from Gera. 2. Small valve.

Fig. 3. Productus Schaurothianus, King. Umbonal view of large valve:
twice the natural size: from Ropsen. 4. Front view. 5. Small
valve.

Fig. 6. ? Aulosteges umbonillatus, King. Interior of small valve, showing
muscular impressions @, and reniform ditto b: a little enlarged.
A gutta-percha impression of a specimen from Possneck.

* Monograph, Introduction, p. xvii.

+ M. Robert Eisel, of Gera, son of Professor Eisel, informs me that
Productus Cancrini (query, Strophalosia Morrisiana, var. Humbletonensis)
occurs in the Grauer Mergelzechstein of that locality. This deposit, and
the overlying Rauchwacke, &c., I consider to be equivalent to the brecciated,
pseudo-brecciated, crystalline and non-crystalline limestones of the North
of England. The former overlie the highly fossiliferous Zechsteins of
Germany ; and the latter repose on the English fossiliferous and compact
limestones. The presence of a Brachiopod so high in the system, corre-
sponds with the occasional occurrence of Strophalosia Morrisiana in the
breccia of Claxheugh (vide ‘Monograph,’ p. 102); and it seems to be
paralleled by the existence, lately made known by Professor Ramsay, of
casts of a Strophalosia-like shell in the sandstones of Exhall, Warwick-
shire. These sandstones I am disposed to place much higher in the Per-
mian system than Professor Ramsay seems to sanction (vide Quarterly
Journal of the Geol. Soc., vol. xi. part 1. p. 198).

{ Vide Memoir “ On the Permian Beds of the North-West of England,”
in Mem. of the Lit. and Phil. Soe. of Manchester, vol. xii.

Prof. W. King’s Notes on Permian Fossils. 341

. 7. Raynchonella ? Geinitziana, De Verneuil. Umbonal valve: twice
the natural size : from Roépsen. 8. Opposite valve. 9. Side view.
10. Rostral plates. 11. View of capillary fibres and perforations :
highly magnified.

Table of all the known Permian PALLIoBRANCHIATA.

Britain. | Germany. | Russia.

1. Lingula Credneri, Geinitz ...............c0e00 * * ve
2. Discina speluncaria, Schlotheim .......++4+- * * ie
3. Productus horridus, J. Sowerby — ....++2++ * + “ap
4, Leplayi, De Verneutl .....-.0csseseseens a * Be
5. Geinitzianus, De Koninck ......-2+55. ao * rey
| 6. Hemispherium, Kutorga .........+-0++ Jed aad *
WE Schaurothianus, King .......sseeeee eee as * a
_ 8. Aulosteges variabilis, Helmerson ......++++ mate *
| 9. ? umbonillatus, King — .....ssssecereeeee * * be.
(10. Strophalosia excavata, Geinitz ...... esnasioe oa * i
11. Goldfussi, Minster ic. ......cccccssesee * x wie
12, Cancrini, De Verneuil .........00- 00000 2x *
eve horrescens, De Verneuil ......-.00e000: tee *
14. Morrisiana, King ...iescacesessssesssenne * 2 x a
15. var. ? Humbletonensis, King ese...+..| * * a:
16, var. ? Whitleyensis, King .....+...+s+0+ * ct =
7. GEV OM erect ecnencetacrecdeuaph radios * * ae
18. 7 Jamellosa,\Geintie, i2tiiee seen. seen “a * see
19. Chonetes ? sarcinulata, Schlotheim ......... Jf *
20. Streptorhynchus pelargonatus, Schlotheim . * * sea
21. Orthis ined., Keyserling — ....s.cscsescsseeeees es x
22. Rhynchonella Geinitziana, De Verneuil re SF
Pay ? (i oie aide aA ee LOX A * is
24. Camarophoria Schlotheimi, Von Buch ...... * * *
25. globulina, Phillips .....2.c.csescosesees * * eee
26. superstes, De Verneuil .........ceseeeee- Lhea Pw ? x *
27. PUTER, TUNG <a cans vas senennerm arenes | * * -
28. Spirifer alatus, Schlotheim — .......cseeeeeene. * * tt
29. —— undulatus, Sowerby ..........ceseseeeees * * ae |
30. Permngmtiss anys) vine cnsviiensatsiorssxe * * a
31. —— eristatus, Schlothetm — ...........eeeeees Ie goo * ae
32 multiplicatus, Sowerby .....c.seeseeseees 2K aL aaa
33. —— ? Jonesianus, King ....cccecsscsseeeeees * isk oat
34. curvirostris, De Verneuil ..........0000- ak *x
35. —— Blassi, De Vernewil ...........ecceeeeees 38 *
36. rugulatus, De Verneutl .........000+ee0ee ee *
(37 Schrenki, Keyserling .....-ss-ssseeseeeeee ane *
38. Martinia Clannyana, King ....0:.....ccesceeees * * Se
39. P Winelinta; Ring~ 1.3. sR: * ? x a
40. Cleiothyris pectinifera, J. de C. Sowerby ...| * * *
41. Roissyi, L’ Evetllé .....00.+..ceeecesene Ba Mp =e *
42. Epithyris elongata, Schlotheim .......-+...+4 * * *
43. —— sufflata, Schlotheim .........-seceeceseee * * *
144. —— Qualeni, Fischer de Waldheim ......... Ty é *
45. Thecidium productiforme, Schauroth ...... * ave

342 Mr. W.H. Benson on Tanystoma, Nematura, and Anaulus.

XXIX.—Remarks on the Genera Tanystoma, Nematura, and
Anaulus. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

Mr. H. Apams having kindly brought to my notice the previous
employment of the term Tanystoma* for a genus of Coleoptera,
and of Nematura for a genus of Birds, it appears advisable that
fresh names should be given to those testaceous groups.

The term Tanystoma was assigned, in the February Number
of the ‘ Annals’ for the present year, to a curious Anostomatous
form from Burmah. The designation Hypselostoma, having re-
ference to the uplifted position of the mouth of the shell, is now
substituted for the former appellation.

Nematura was described in 1836, in the 5th volume of the
‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta,’ from the shell and
animal of a single species, N. Delta, which I had found at low
tide in the mud of the river Hooghly opposite to Calcutta. The
genus has since that time been increased by several species, from
other parts of the Eastern World, and some yet remain to be
described. The name has been adopted, in systematic and other
works, as referring to a genus of Testacea; but Fischer having
first employed the term, in 1813, in another department of
zoology, I propose to designate the shell as Stenothyra, a title
expressive of the contracted structure of the aperture.

Pfeiffer’s description of Anaulus in the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ for
1855, p. 105, does not indicate the course of the canal or tube,
which terminates in the outer portion of the double peristome
in A. bombycinus, as well as in his new species A. Lorraini, from
Pulo Penang, described in a paper read to the Zoological Society
at a recent Meeting. In the latter species, the opening, at first
sight, might be supposed to be altogether outside of the peri-
stome, but on a closer inspection is found to be embraced by a
portion of it. In both species the canal or tube is sutural and
internal, and can be traced externally along the last whorl, at
the extremity of which it ascends more rapidly in A. Lorraint
than in the original species.

In a specimen of A. Lorraini I was unsuccessful in an attempt
to penetrate the canal with a bristle ; but in one of 4. bombycinus
T have succeeded in passing a hair, through the canal, mto the
concavity of the spire. Mr. H. Adams informs me that Mega-
lomastoma Chrysallis, Pfr., is also an Anaulus, with a similar su-
tural tube, a fact which was ascertained from an accidental per-
foration at some distance from the aperture. He further stated
that the anterior opening was partly concealed by the reflected
portion of the peristome.

* Motschoulsky.

M. Tulasne’s Researches in Vegetable Embryogeny. 343

The use of the tube seems to be the preservation of a commu-
nication with the external air when the aperture is closed by the
operculum. The following addition to Pfeiffer’s description of
Anaulus will be necessary :—

“ Canali suturali interno profunde in caverna spire desinente,
utrinque pervio.”

Cheltenham, 13th March 1856.

XXX.—New Researches in Vegetable Embryogeny.
By M. Turasne*.

Dr. Hermann Scuacut, a German phytotomist well known by
numerous and important works, some months ago+ allowed
himself to be persuaded, that the doctrine of the generation of
plants which he has embraced, namely that of M. Schleiden and
the pollinists, was then peremptorily established and proved. His
belief was founded upon some observations recently made by a
young botanist of Berlin, M. T. Deecke, who, as was asserted,
by an extremely fortunate dissection of the ovule of the Pedicu-
laris sylvatica, had put it beyond a doubt, that the vegetable
embryo is actually produced in the extremity of the pollen-tube
itself, after the mtroduction of the latter into the embryonal sac.
Two of the botanists most competent to judge of this difficult
question, MM. Hugo von Mohl and W. Hofmeister {, have
strongly protested against allowing the memoir and anatomical
preparations of M. Deecke the demonstrative value which was
attributed to them; and although their criticisms have called
forth long replies from MM. Schacht and Deecke, supported
upon new observations $, there would certainly be cause for
astonishment if their confidence in the correctness of their opi-
nions had not been somewhat shaken, and their conviction had
really remained entire.

The passage of every creature from non-existence to existence,
its entrance into life, is a phenomenon too mysterious for us to
flatter ourselves that we shall ever be able to understand exactly
all its circumstances. Nevertheless, as the questions at issue
between M. Schleiden and his opponents are questions of fact,
antecedent to any doctrinal interpretation, and capable of being
judged by our eyes, we need not despair of some day seeing less
diversity of opinion amongst the botanists who occupy themselves

* From the Comptes Rendus, Nov. 12, 1855, p. 790.

+ See the ‘ Flora,’ 1855, part 10.

ft See Annales des Sciences Nat. 4 sér. iii. pp. 209 & 219.

§ ‘Flora,’ 1855, no. 29, and Botanische Zeitung of Berlin, Sept. 14 & 19.

344 M. Tulasne’s Researches in Vegetable Embryogeny.

with embryogeny. At present, far from the hopes of M. Schacht
being realized, or nearly so, I think, that if all discussion with
regard to the Horkelian theory must be closed, as he would have it,
it is by the condemnation and definitive rejection of this theory,
rather than by its undisputed admission into science. Now,
more than ever, I feel certain that it is founded upon a mistake ;
upon that error in which I formerly shared for a moment, which
consists in taking the suspensor of the embryo for the pollen-
tube inserted in the embryonal sac. During the past summer
I have made a great number of dissections to establish the cor-
rectness of the results which I published in 1849 in the ‘ Annales
des Sciences Naturelles’ (3 sér. xii.) ; my brother also has de-
voted considerable time to similar researches, and we have both
always been perfectly convinced, that the embryo, whether ses-
sile or stipitate, that is to say, whether provided or not witha
suspensor, never, at any moment, had the least real organic
continuity with the pollen-tube: the embryo-sac, which is often
thickened at its micropylar extremity, receives the close contact
of this tube externally (it is even sometimes lodged in a fold of
its membrane), but still without ever being torn or perforated
by it ; then on its inner face, either opposite to, or at some distance
from the extremity of this fecundating filament, it gives attach-
ment to the embryo.

In the Labiatz, which have especially furnished us with sub-
jects for examination this year; in the Pansy, the Almond, the
Sloe; in the Caryophyllacez, such as the Pinks, the Holosteum
umbellatum, L., the Cerastia, &c.; m the Scrophularinee, the
Cruciferz, the Fir-tree, and a multitude of other plants, the
embryo adheres to the generative sac by a very broad circular
base, below which it contracts more or less, and again dilates
almost immediately. This base of the embryo, when seen in
front, looks like a large aperture in the membrane of the sac; but
this is only an appearance, notwithstanding the opposite opinion
of MM. Schacht and Deecke, for it is not very difficult to ascer-
tain, as I formerly showed, that the sac is completely closed and
continuous where the nascent embryo is implanted upon it *.
This fact is of great importance, and contributes not a little to
gain the cause for the opponents of M. Schleiden. I add, that
the basal disk of the embryo is frequently of much greater dia-
meter than the pollen-filament, even when the extremity of the
latter, as is often the case, is thickened and enlarged: this cir-
cumstance is not more favourable to the Horkelian theory than
the absence of a perforation in the membrane of the sac, and

* See our memoir already quoted in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’
3 sér. t. xii. pl. 3-7, and especially pl. 5. fig. 10.

M. Tulasne’s Researches in Vegetable Embryogeny. 345

MM. Schacht and Deecke do not appear to have taken it into
account.

Although amongst the gamopetalous plants with personate
corollas, great dissimilarities separate the Scrophularinee from
the Labiate, if we consider especially the structure of the fruit
and seed, yet the study of the ovule and of the generation of the
embryo reveals analogies between these two families which can-
not be mistaken. From the simplicity of its structure and the
softness of its tissues, the ovule of the Labiatz, which has
hitherto been neglected by embryologists, is generally capable
of easy dissection. As in most of the Scrophularinee, the em-
bryo-sac presents vesicular infiations and appendages of very
various kinds both at its extremities and on the sides. The
anterior inflation, or that near the micropyle, usually projects
from the nucleus, and is sometimes sufficiently elongated even
to pass the apex of the ovule; it is obovate and of middling
size in Lamium; of the same form, but more developed, in the
Motherwort (Leonurus Cardiaca); almost globular in various
species of Stachys, Nepeta and Teucrium ; of immense size, sac-
like and often asymmetrical in Betonica, Acinos vulgaris, Pers.,
Galeopsis and Dracocephalum. Towards the middle of this cer-
vical inflation is attached a tubular appendage, which is either
short and simple (Lamium, Stachys), or very long, branched and
spirally twisted (Betonica). The middle region of the embryonal
sac is also usually furnished with a short lateral appendage
(Lamium, Galeopsis, Stachys), or with a basal one, accompanied
by long divergent tubes (Dracocephalum peltatum, .). This
same region alone is filled with the perispermic tissue, in the
midst of which the nascent embryo is buried. The latter is
always borne upon a long and very delicate suspensor, of the
same form as in the Scrophularinez, which is attached to the
rounded apex of the sac; but as the very considerable increase
of this embryoferous ampulla after fecundation often takes place
asymmetrically, and especially at the expense of its lateral ap-
pendage, so as to divide it into two very unequal lobes, the
suspensor may thus be seen fixed near the more or less deep
notch which separates the latter, and consequently removed
from the longitudinal axis of the ovule. The pollen-filaments
are slender, but appear to be nearly solid, from the dense and
very refractive matter with which they are filled. In order to
penetrate into the cavities of the ovary, after having descended
to the base of the style, they have to traverse the tissue of a por-
tion of the gynobase ; then meeting immediately with the funi-
culus of the upright ovule which exists in each compartment,
they rise in the parenchyma of the funiculus itself and only quit
it at the level of the micropyle,—hence they can only be seen

346 M. Tulasne’s Researches in Vegetable Embryogeny.

free for a very short space. Several pollen-filaments often intro-
duce themselves in this manner into each ovuliferous cell, but it
cannot be so frequently proved that the micropyle of the ovule
gives entrance to more than one of them. Their extremity
which comes in contact with the embryo-sac is obtuse and
scarcely inflated ; it applies itself to the surface of the embryo-
sac by twisting in various manners, or lodges itself in a shallow
depression which it sometimes causes. The point of insertion of
the suspensor of the embryo usually corresponds with the pot
of contact of the fecundating tube.

The suspensor in the Caryophyllacez is far from being of the
same tenuity as in the Labiatz ; its diameter on the contrary is
very considerable, and it is divided ito several very unequal
cells. It is attached by a broad base to the apex of the em-
bryo-sac, and sometimes, as in <Alsine media, L., for imstance,
is elongated in a remarkable manner at this point, without how-
ever quitting the sac, which appears rather to become intimately
united with it. The pollen-filament of the Pinks is remarkably
voluminous, and contracts such an adherence to the embryo-
sac, that it easily resists the dragging inseparable from the dis-
section of the ovule; its extremity is often bifid, and then sits
as it were astride upon the sac above the embryoferous disc,
M. Schleiden’s theory is here shown to be in fault in a most
evident manner.

The unusual development of the suspensor towards the micro-
pyle presented by S¢edlaria media, Sm., occurs also, but in a very
exaggerated form, in the genus Calendula. In these plants, the
suspensor, which is at first entirely enclosed in the embryo-
sac, soon becomes formed of two distinct parts: one tubular,
always enclosed and continuous with the nascent embryo; the
other excessively inflated into an oval or elongated vesicle, the
greater part of which is protruded from the sac. M. Schacht
does not appear willing to admit that the suspensor may thus
grow simultaneously in opposite directions at its two extremities.
Would he therefore regard that of Calendula as a modified and
metamorphosed pollen-filament? There is nothing, certainly,
more improbable than such a metamorphosis.

The same author is also in the wrong in calling in the Viola
tricolor, L., in support of his theory. Whenever we have been
able in this plant to see the pollen-filament supporting its kneed
extremity upon the embryonal sac, it has been manifest to us
that it remained entirely out of the sac, that is to say, that be-
tween it and the more or less enlarged embryonal vesicle, the
embryoferous membrane was always extended, in the form of an
uninjured diaphragm.

The same circumstances may also be easily observed in Helian-

Dr. T. Williams on the Tracheal System of Insects. 347

themum. Although very short, the suspensor, in these plants,
bends in a remarkable manner in the middle, and is most fre-
quently attached to the embryo-sac, beside the point touched
externally by the twisted extremity of the pollen-tube.

XXXI.—On the Tracheal System of Insects. By Tuos. WiLL1AMs,
M.D. Lond., F.L.S., Physician to the Swansea Infirmary.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

May I request that you will allow me the favour to announce
in your Journal the results of a series of minute dissections
which I have recently performed on the Tracheal System of
Insects and Myriapods. n consequence of a letter on this
subject from the late Mr. Newport, published in the ‘ Annals’
of last year, calling in question the accuracy of my statements,
I have ever since felt anxious to repeat the observations upon
which those statements were made. That I have now done, and
with the utmost care. I find, that not only are the results then
stated true in every particular, but that they fall far short of
indicating the real distinction between the “ membranous capil-
lary trachee,” and those larger trunks in which the “ spiral”
is visible. My recent studies enable me now to state—

1. That the “spiralled” or larger trachez are mere conduits,
like arteries or veins, and have nothing to do with, take no part
in, the ultimate act of respiration.

2. That this function (that is, the interchange of the gases
concerned in the respiratory act) has its seat exclusively in the
capillary membranous trachez.

3. That the peripheric or extreme distribution of the tracheal
system is conformable in plan to that of a blood-vascular system ;
that is, the capillary or membranous trachez are always placed
intermediately between larger trunks, the branches of which they
serve to connect,—standing to the larger trunks in the same
relation as the capillaries of a blood-vascular system do to arteries
and veins.

4. That the trachez can be discovered, in no single instance,
to end in cecal terminations,—always in mutual imosculations.

5. That this anastomotic arrangement establishes a close
similarity between the tracheal system of Insects, Myriapods,
and the blood-vascular system of the Annulosa,—a homology
first theoretically suggested by Mr. Huxley.

6. That the tracheal system, however, is distinguished from
the blood system in two striking anatomical particulars: in the

348 Bibliographical Notices.

former, the main trunks affect a bilateral position, those of the
latter are dorso-abdominal ; that, with one doubtful exception,
the blood system is closed, while the tracheal system always
(that of a few aquatic larvee excepted) communicates by means
of spiracles with the external atmosphere.

7. That the tracheal and blood systems of Insects come into
conjunction only at the peripheric segments,—the main trunks
of each observing separate courses.

8. That the periphery of the circulating fluid system of In-
sects is constructed in exact conformity with the Crustacean
model, the blood flowing in imparietal channels, in and through
which the capillary trachez are conducted, floating in the nutri-
tive fluid.

I remain, Gentlemen,
Your obedient Servant,
Tuomas Witirams, M.D.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Insecta Maderensia; being an Account of the Insects of the Islands
of the Madeiran Group. By T. VeRNon Wottaston, M.A.,
F.L.S. London: 4to, pp. 634, plates 13.

SoME persons are singularly qualified for producing a work on the
natural history of a country. To give one instance :—Otho Fabricius,
a Danish clergyman, spent some years of his life in Greenland, and
thus acquired an intimate knowledge of that Arctic land, which
modern discovery begins to show must be an immense archipelago
bound by one great band of ice. When he left Denmark, with but
little knowledge of natural science, but ardently desirous of stu-
dying the works of Him, whose word “ut Missionarius ordinatus,
ab honoratissimo Collegio de cursu Evangelit promovendo,” it was
his calling to proclaim, Fabricius took with him, in 1768, that na-
tural-history cyclopzedia of the time, the ‘Systema Nature’ of Lin-
neeus, and, urged by those who ordained him, to study Arctic natural
history at his leisure hours, he returned in six years with great
materials for a Physical, Geographical and Historical History of
Greenland. In May 1779 he wrote the preface of a portion of this
work, the ‘ Fauna Greenlandica,’ which was accordingly published
next year, and the character of which may be best given in the words
of Cuvier: ‘‘ Ouvrage précieux par l’extréme exactitude des descrip-
tions.”’ It is the work of a diligent, observing man, limited by
climate to a highly interesting, but comparatively narrow, field. He
has but few books to distract him, and but few bibliographical re-
searches to make.

Mr. Wollaston, though he went to a tropical climate, was
singularly happy in having such an atmosphere as envelopes an
ocean-girt island of limited size, 250 miles distant from a continent

Bibliographical Notices. 349

with a distractingly large fauna and flora. When he went, Mr. Wol-
laston was regarded by naturalists as one of our ablest entomolo-
gists. The more minute the Coleopteron, the more he seemed to
love it; for beetles he searched the bogs and lakes and mountains of
Ireland and Scotland, and surveyed his native land from Newcastle
to the Chesil-bank—the said bank being a most prolific “field”
under the eye of such an “‘ explorer.””, Mr. Wollaston did not confine
himself to collecting, neither did he leave the ‘‘ minims of nature”
to be determined, by comparison merely, with named specimens in
the collections of friends or in the great museum of his country. He
was a scholar and fond of books ; a Cambridge M.A., with tastes like
his, regards the Latin of Cicero and Tacitus, of Virgil, Horace and
Juvenal, as pedantic when introduced into the technicalities of
science, and so he looks with sympathy on the energetic, though
often unclassical, language of men not generally trained in Halls.
Like Gray of Pembroke, Mr. Wollaston, of Jesus College, was a
naturalist by taste and by study. He “‘ worked out” descriptions,
and thus “served before the mast,”’ before he tried to guide the ship.
He was intimate with the structure of his little friends, and saw how
wonderfully their hooks and spines and notches and hairs and lobes
and appendages are adapted to the peculiar habits and “ ceconomy”’
of insects.

Hard study at college demanded relaxation, and his health
induced him to seek it in a mild and distant climate. He was
happy in knowing a clergyman long resident in Madeira and fami-
liar with some departments of natural history, such as Fishes, Mol-
lusks and Plants, with which he (Mr. Wollaston) was less acquainted,
while this friend, the Rev. R. T. Lowe, having great local knowledge,
directed him to many a favourite spot. Richly was Mr. Wollaston’s
teacher in Mollusca rewarded by his indefatigable pupil ;—but we must
refrain, and proceed to the work on the Coleoptera of Madeira.

The author went to Madeira three times, and so arranged his visits
that he got collections in every month of the year. Having collected
with the utmost zeal and preserved his treasures with the greatest care
and neatness, he brought his insect collections to England, and com-
menced arranging and classifying them. He had not limited himself,
as most British collectors do, to the Coleopterous productions of his
native land, but had a knowledge as well as specimens of most of
the Coleoptera, indigenous to Europe and the shores of the Mediter-
ranean; in truth he had studied the faune of those lands which
most closely resembled Madeira in their animal productions. Not
wishing to anticipate any one, or to interfere with what had been
done before, and which possibly, in the labyrinth and mazes of
journals, might have escaped his notice, Mr. Wollaston visited the
continental collections, and with great openness submitted his insect
treasures to the sight of the various “spécialistes.”” Like Horace,
too, he was in no hurry,—he could afford to wait; and though
he did not literally adopt the Horatian maxim and keep his MS.
for nine years, he made entomologists impatient, by his very
carefulness. And at last the work is out. We might object to

350 Bibliographical Notices.

its size—péya /33Xéov, «.7-A.—we could also say that he published
so large a work at much too cheap a price, and its plates are printed
on too thick paper, though beautifully made and tened; but the
Madeira invalid could not hold even an octavo, so a sumptuous
quarto is just as “ get-at-able,” and the collector, among the towering
rocks of Madeira, would do well to have with him no pocket manual
but one, for he will find it hard work to “ carry” himself over much
of the ground. The plates have the advantage of having been en-
graved by an able entomologist, Mr. F. Smith, from the fine drawings
of Mr. Westwood, that walking cyclopzedia of knowledge in Annulosa.
The work is not a mere technical work,—it is filled with passages of
great interest to the student of the geographical distribution of
animals, and must ever form a prized volume in his library, from its
completeness and its excellence. It is curious, too, to know that there
is no Tiger-beetle in Madeira, though only a short distance from a
continent which produces the Manticora, that largest of the family,
the pale night-loving Platychile, the Algerine Megacephala, and per-
haps fifty species of true Cicindela. It is strange to be told, that in
an island with plenty of wood (Madeira means ‘‘ woody’’) there is no
Buprestis*, and yet in Africa Buprestide of large size and endless
variety, from hairy-tufted Julodes and felspar-retlecting Sternocera,
to minute Anthawie and Agrili, abound ; Madagascar having a pecu-
liar Buprestidous fauna of its own, full af rare magnificence. Africa
is a land of Elateride, from the great Tetralobus and Leptophyllus
with their leaf-plated antennee, to the genera of smaller size, and yet
but one “ skip-jack”’ or “ click-beetle”’ rewarded the assiduity of Mr.
Wollaston, and he found that Hater in Porto Santo. Africa is the
country of Goliath Beetles and of an endless var iety of Cetoniada, which
pasture on the sap and sugar and pollen of its flowery vegetation, but
this family has only one representative in Madeira, and even that is a
very doubtful native. In fact the number of Lamellicorns is so few,
that it is strange to one, who would expect Dynastide and Lucanide in
so tropical and so well-wooded a country. It seems to abound in Cureu-
lionide, and some of the genera of these “‘snouters’’ are peculiar to it,

such as Laparocerus. Its Heteromera, its Ptinide, are abundant.

Mr. Wollaston records 539 species of Coleoptera as found in Madeira.

These species belong to 228 genera—upwards of 30 of which are not as
yet recorded as occurring elsewhere. Of the 13 sections into which
the order Coleoptera is subdivided, the Rhynchophora, as we have
remarked, contain the largest number of species (110), whilst the
Hydradephaga and Eucerata present the smallest, each of them
numbering but 8. To Madeira proper belong 478 species, to Porto
Santo 155, to the Dezerta Grande 77, to the Southern Dezerta 31,

to the Ilheo Chiao 23 ; or to employ Mr. Wollaston’s words in anathes
place, ‘‘ If we choose to regard the Dezertas as one, the group will

* Mr. Wollaston, on a fourth visit, has detected a single species of
Agrilus, and also one of the family Pselaphide ; ; we may here say that we
have often contemplated, with delight, the fine series of type specimens of
“Insecta Maderensia ” now preserved in the British Musenm.

Biblivgraphical Notices. 351

separate itself into 3 natural divisions ; and we shall have, for Ma-
deira proper 478, for the Dezertas 87, and for Porto Santo 155.
Only 8 species have been hitherto discovered on every island of the
cluster—nevertheless 10 more are all bué universal (if indeed, as is
probable, they are not so entirely).’’ We may transfer to our pages
the following note on one of the prime rarities of the place, the
highly interesting genus so aptly named Deucalion by its deseriber :
a second species from the Salvages, remote rocks in the Atlantic, is
deseribed by the author at p. 433, from specimens obtained by his
friend T. 8. Leacock, Esq. of Funchal.

We may mention, that on an island almost antipodal to Madeira,
Lord Howe’s Island, the late able Naturalist of H.M.S. ‘ Herald,’
Mr. John Macgillivray, found a third species (D.? Wollastoni,
n. s.), or rather a species of a closely allied genus, which may
prompt, to the mind of some geologist, an idea bearing on the
great continent Atlantis, of which the lovely Madeira seems to be
one of the few remnants above water. The following extract we
copy from p. 430,—it contains all the remarks on Deucalion,—as
likely to give the general reader some idea of the attractive nature of
the book even to him :—

“There is no genus, perhaps, throughout all the Madeiran Co-
leoptera, more truly indigenous than Dewealion. Confined apparently,
so far as these islands are concerned, to the remote and almost inac-
cessible ridges of the two southern Dezertas, it would seem to bid
defiance to the most enthusiastic adventurer who would scale those
dangerous heights. Its excessive rarity moreover, even when the
localities are attained, must ever impart to it a peculiar value in the
eyes of a naturalist; whilst its anomalous structure and sedentary
mode of life * give it an additional interest in connexion with that
ancient continent of which these ocean ruins, on which for so many
ages it has been cut off, are the undoubted witnesses. Approxi-
mating in affinity to Parmena and Dorcadion, yet presenting a modi-
fication essentially its own, it becomes doubly important in a geogra-
phical point of view ; and it was therefore with the greater pleasure
that I lately received, from T. S. Leacock, Esq., of Funchal, a second
representative from the distant rocks of the Salvages (midway be-
tween Madeira and the Canaries),—on which we may almost pro-
nounce for certain that an entomologist had never before set foot.
Differing widely in specific minutiz, yet agreeing to an identity in
everything generic, they offer conjointly the strongest evidence to
the quondam existence of many subsidiary links (long since lost, and
radiating in all probability from some intermediate type) during the

* “« When we consider indeed the apterous nature of Deucalion, its sub-
connate elytra, and its attachment (at any rate in the larva state) to the
interior of the stems of particular, local plants, or its retiring propensities
within the crevices of rocks, we are at once struck with the conviction that,
during the enormous interval of time which has elapsed since the mighty
convulsions which rent asunder these regions terminated, it has probably
never removed many yards from the weather-beaten ledges which it now
inhabits.”

352 Bibliographical Notices.

period when the whole of these islands were portions (and perhaps
very elevated ones) of a vast continuous land.

*« In the details of their trophi the genera of this section of the
Eucerata are so nearly similar, that we must not look, even in other-
wise anomalous forms, for any very striking irregularities there.
And yet the mouth is not altogether uncharacterized in Deucalion,
since its laterally-rounded upper lip, long and acuminated palpi (the
basal joint of which is broadly sinuated externally, as in Blabinotus),
together with its unusually produced and deeply bilobed ligula, at
once remove it from Dorcadion,—from which moreover its largely
developed and exceedingly uneven prothorax (a hinder zone of which
is suddenly constricted, as though by a wide and tightened belt, and
is ribbed with ¢ransverse plaits), added to its curiously pitted and
tubercular elytra, will still further serve to separate it. In some
respects perhaps it is more akin to Parmena than to Dorcadion:
nevertheless its comparatively gigantic size, and the contracted, pli-
cate, posterior band of its (otherwise) greatly wrinkled prothorax,
apart from the above-mentioned peculiarity of its elytral sculpture
(one of the most remarkable features which it possesses), and its
freedom from the dense elongated pile which is more or less evident
in all the members of the former, will equally distinguish it from
that group also.

«Amongst other singularities, a tendency (which I have likewise
observed, occasionally, in the Morim7) to have one of their elytra a
little shorter than the other is strongly indicated in the Deucaliones.
Thus, of my two examples of the D. Desertarum one is very de-
cidedly so constituted ; and, out of eight of the D. oceantcum it is
traceable in no less than three. Like many of their allies in this
department of the Longicorns, they are gifted with the capability of
making a grating or hissing noise,—the modus operandi in producing
which (since I have not been able to meet with any explanation of it
altogether satisfactory) I have taken some pains to mvestigate. The
solution given by Mr. Westwood, in his admirable ‘ Introduction to
the Modern Classification of Insects’ (vel. i. p. 356), would seem to
come nearest to the truth, but still it does not quite apply to the
species under consideration,—which are moulded, thus far, on one
and the same principle. Mr. Westwood states that the sound is
generated by the friction of a polished portion of the seutellum
against the edge of the prothoracic cavity. In Deucalion, Parmena
and Dorcadion, however, there is a narrow space, in the shape of an
isosceles triangle (the apex being turned towards the scutellum),
which occupies nearly the entire length of the mesonotum, and
which, from its brightness, appears at first sight to be perfectly
smooth. When viewed however beneath the microscope, this longi-
tudinal area is seen to be composed of very fine, transverse, parallel
and acute ridges, closely set together after the manner of a file: and
it is by depressing and raising the prothorax (an act which alternately
exposes and re-covers the upper region of the ewtremely cylindrical
mesothorax) that its under side is brought to play against this inner
dorsal file,—by which process the stridulation is effected. In order

Bibliographical Notices. 353

to convince myself of the reality of this, I have relaxed many speci-
mens of the genera in question, and have caused the sound arti-
ficially with the greatest ease.

** Hence, we can immediately appreciate the object of the broadly
constricted basal margin of the prothorax of Deucalion, which is so
regulated that it may present a more perfect and continuous surface
to the mesothorax,—whilst, by being more tightly drawn as it were
over that especial part, it is made likewise to grate more vigorously
against the lower file. This transverse, coarctate ring is not ex-
pressed at all in Dorcadion, and it is but faintly suggested in a few
of the Parmene: so that we should @ priori have expected that the
stridulating power of Deucalion would be more effectual than is there
the case. And such, on inquiry, we find to be a fact: for so loud is
the sound which the D. Desertarum is able to accomplish, that the
only individual which has come under my notice in a recent state I
heard at a considerable distance; and the second example as yet de-
tected was described by the Rev. R. T. Lowe (who obtained it from
the extreme summit of the Ilheo Bugio, or Southern Dezerta) as
emitting a ‘ buzzing noise, somewhat resembling that of a Humble-
bee.’ Everything indeed in this strange genus seems designed to
give full effect to these, far from unmusical, inter-thoracic notes ;
for, in addition to the hinder contracted belt already mentioned, the
pronotum of Deucalion is furnished with an exceedingly deep,
rounded, postmedial fovea, which (since it projects beneath) must
evidently form an extra instrument of impact to sweep over the
mesothoracic file,—when its head (and, simultaneously, its protho-
rax) is by turns lowered and upraised. In the Salvagian repre-
sentative this impression is less developed than in the Dezertan one;
nevertheless it exists in them both,—conjointly with the other struc-
tural characters above enumerated.

** Deucalion Desertarum, Wollast.

“‘ Apparently of the utmost rarity, the only two specimens which I
have seen having been captured on the respective summits of the
Middle and Southern Dezertas. The one from the former was taken
by myself, during a week’s sojourn in that desolate spot, with the
Rev. W. J. Armitage, in January 1849. I extracted it from a
crevice of an exposed weather-beaten peak (where it had secreted
itself, in company with the Scarites abbreviatus and several species
of Helops) at the immediate point where the great central heights
commence to narrow into an almost perpendicular ridge nearly 2000
feet above the sea. Although I searched with the greatest diligence,
I could not obtain more; nor indeed was I able to procure it during
& subsequent encampment on the island, with the Rev. R. T. Lowe,
at the end of May 1850,—even though I visited the identical crag
and split open the fissures, both of it and of the hardened voleanic
mud in all directions around it. The second example hitherto de-
tected is from the still more perilous steeps of the Ilheo Bugio, or
Southern Dezerta, and it is to the Rev. R. T. Lowe that we are in-
debted for this interesting contribution to the fauna of that almost

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 23

854 Bibliographical Notices.

unapproachable rock. Having, on the 3rd of July 1849, succeeded
in reaching the summit, not without much difficulty and at the
greatest peril (in the pursuit principally of land mollusca and plants),
Mr. Lowe informs me that he met with it beneath a slab of stone,
and that he was attracted (as already mentioned) by its remarkable,
stridulating noise. So local indeed does this insect seem to be, that
it, apparently, has not extended itself even over the Dezerta Grande
(where there are no external obstacles to bar its progress); but re-
tains the very position which in all probability constituted its original
centre of dissemination at the remote period of time when this an-
cient continent received its allotted forms. Judging from the slow-
ness with which creatures of such habits must necessarily (under any
circumstances) be diffused, it is at least unlikely that the present
one could have circulated far, when the now submerged portions of
that region began to give way ; and hence it is not impossible that
the Southern Dezerta with the adjacent part (then united to it) of
the Central one may have embraced the whole area of its actual
primzeval range,— the remains of which (though they be now sepa-
rated by achannel) it still continues to occupy, and from which, even
where physically unimpeded, it has never roamed.”

We may also quote the following passage from p. 113—of general
and great importance on the oft-mooted and much-disputed question
of species ; it occurs as a note to the description of Olibrus bicolor,
and refers to the distinctions between it and Olibrus liquidus :—

“There can be no doubt but that the present insect and the follow-
ing one approach each other very closely, and it is not without hesi-
tation that I have treated them as separate. For some time indeed
I had considered them to be but modifications of the O. bicolor;
nevertheless a careful comparison of a very large series of specimens
has subsequently induced me to believe that they are truly distinct,
since there is no difficulty whatsoever in discriminating them in a
general way, even though it is equally certain that about two exam-
ples out of every forty which I have examined are doubtful, and
might apparently be referred to either. Still, the normal states are
so clearly expressed that I cannot regard these occasional links as
more than exceptional varieties from either side, and which would
fall as unmistakeably into their proper spheres as any of the re-
mainder, were we better able to grasp their exact characteristics, and
to appreciate small shades of difference which are not the less real
because obscure. Nor must we forget that in our ignorance of even
the nature of ‘species,’ so called, we may sometimes err in attempt-
ing to define too rigidly the boundaries of their attributes; for,
whilst, as a matter of course, we must unquestionably assume them
to be absolutely unconnected (that is to say, to have descended from
common parents,—each of their peculiar kind), yet it is difficult to
assert positively that creatures which in outward points are thus in-
timately allied are of necessity so opposite in their endowments that
they may not now and then intermix, and produce those very aber-
rations (albeit perhaps not able, themselves, to perpetuate their race)
which we are apt to lay hold of, even when occurring thus sparingly,

Bibliographical Notices. 355

to destro? the specific claims of the insects which have accidentally
given them birth. And I should frequently, therefore, be inclined
to look upon such-like media as /apsus nature rather than as con-
nective,—at any rate where they are only of rare experience and
exist between forms the limits of which are otherwise clear and un-
ambiguous. With these few remarks, which I have somewhat pro-
longed, as likely to apply in instances besides the present one, it will
be sufficient to add that the O. bicolor (which, if my identification
of it be correct, would appear to attain a rather larger size in Madeira
than the ordinary type) may be distinguished, for the most part,
from O. liquidus, not merely by its superior bulk, but by its less
posteriorly-acuminated outline, by its usually just perceptibly darker
and less brassy hue, and by its legs and antennz being, almost
invariably, both of a more diluted testaceous tinge and (proportion-
ably) a trifle longer. It is an abundant insect, during the spring
and summer months, in certain parts of Madeira, at rather low and
intermediate elevations. In May of 1849, whilst encamped in the
Ribeiro de Santa Luzia with the Rev. R. T. Lowe, I captured it in
the utmost profusion from amongst the long grass and flowers imme-
diately outside my tent,—and in company with the O. liquidus,
which thus, at all events, cannot be a local variety of it.”

The mere British collector who studies as well as names his insects
should get this work, if he has not already got it, on account of the
many valuable ‘clearings’? and detailed descriptions of British
genera. In this aspect the book is singularly valuable and import-
ant, and did space permit, we could refer to many passages in proof.
We may perhaps hope to see the other orders described by Mr. Wol-
laston ; and we trust that his present noble and costly contribution
will not stand long alone, but will be followed by at least another
volume, which will certainly never appear, unless its author be en-
couraged by the sale of this splendid volume, and unless, too, he con-
scientiously thinks, that he will be promoting the knowledge of the
marvellous works of an Almighty hand. Such a work will then form,
so far as the insect portion of the multitudinous Annulosa is con-
cerned, a point for the historian of the geographical distribution of
animals to reason on; and should Messrs. Lowe and Wollaston ever
publish an illustrated volume on the Land Mollusca of Madeira, the
zoologist and palzontologist will be supplied with data for reasoning
on the extremely difficult but intensely interesting question of the
*« distribution’? and what is called ‘‘ extinction’ of species. Insects,
Crustacea—especially the Entomostraca—and Snails (Madeira is a
Helico-metropolis) form certainly the most lasting animated features
of any land ; drought and other cireumstances which destroy Mam-
malia, Birds, Fishes, Reptiles and other orders having hardly any
perceptible influence on these enduring works of ‘‘ Him, who made
the worlds.”

23%*

356 Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
BOMBAY BRANCH ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

January 10, 1856.—W. E. Frere, Esq., C.S., President, in the Chair.

« Notes on the Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.—Organization.”
By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant-Surgeon H.C.S.

After a few prefatory observations respecting the necessity of
studying the more simple, in order to understand the more compli-
cated forms of living beings, the author premises that the freshwater
Infusoria of the island of Bombay are, speaking generally, the same
as those of Europe. He then observes, that, before communicating
a summary of his notes on them, it is desirable that he should make
a few observations on their organization, and adopt such terms as
might facilitate his descriptions. The definition of these forms the
subject-matter of his paper, of which the following is an abstract :—

Pellicula, or Skin.—This term is adopted for the surface-covering
of Infusoria, which, with our present microscopic powers, appears
to be nothing more than a consolidated portion of the subjacent sub-
stance. It has been proposed by Mohl for the surface of the starch-
grain, &c., and the author extends its use to the Infusoria. Dujar-
din likened it to the film which occurs over “flour-paste or glue
allowed to cool in the air.” Although it cannot be demonstrated
when the infusorium is fresh and active, to wit dmeba, yet when the
latter becomes capsuled, its existence is rendered evident by trans-
formation into the investing cyst.

Diaphane, or Transparent Moving Matter.—This is the colourless
material on which the pe/licula rests ; it forms the outer zone of the
infusorium, and is characterized in the 4mebe, where its features are
most evident, by possessing the transparency and structureless appear-
ance of glass, with an amount of polymorphism unequalled by any
other substance in organic creation. It is the agent of progression
and prehension of food in those infusoria which are unprovided with
cilia for this purpose. The term is derived from its transparency,
and has been adopted by the author for convenience of description.

Sarcode, or Abdominal Mucus.—This is a molecular slime which
fills the interior of the infusorium, and is characterized by its turbidity
when compared with the glassy transparency of the diaphane. All
the internal organs are imbedded in it, part of which are fixed and
part moveable; it is also the receptacle of the food, which in the
Amebe passes into, and out of it, directly through the diaphane, as
they have no apertures of external communication for these purposes.
Dujardin applied the term to “the glutinous substance of the in-
terior,’ and to this the author wishes to restrict its use, adopting
‘‘ diaphane”’ for the outer portion of the infusorium as above stated,
which has heretofore been included under the head of ‘‘ sarcode.”
The central part of the sarcode appears to be the agent by which its

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 357

“moveable ” contents are rotated, while the outer surface appears to
be attached to the diaphane, and follows its motions. In the Dia-
tomer, the sarcode appears to be separated from the diaphane by
the siliceous shield or frustule, as in a locomotive species of Pa/moglea
met with by the author, where the cell-wall corresponds to the frus-
tule, and in Zuglena, where a layer of spiral fibre appears to be its
analogue.

Molecule, or small grains.—With these the sarcode is completely
charged. They are colourless and vary in size, being sometimes
hardly visible, while at others they are uniformly large and unmis-
takeable. Of their use the author is ignorant, but for the sake of
distinguishing them from the other organs of the sarcode, he has
adopted the term above mentioned.

Granules, or large grains.—These are bodies of circular, elliptical,
elongated or irregular figures. They are always few in number when
compared with the molecule, and are characterized by their larger
size, thick, dark edges, and colourless appearance, except in some
Rhizopoda, where they bear a yellow substance like endochrome.
They undergo rotation with the other contents of the sarcode, and
never appear to be discharged. When ovules are present, as in
Ameba, they are easily distinguished by the latter being discoid,
circular, transparent at the margin, and generally nucleated. Of the
use of the granules the author is also ignorant, but being sufficiently
constant and remarkable to deserve particular notice, he has pro-
posed this name for them.

Digestive Globules—These are spherical spaces of the sarcode
which are filled with food and water, or, sometimes, with water
apparently alone. They are formed in a fold of the pellicula in
Ameba, &c., and at the inner end of the buccal tube in Paramecium
aurelia and Vorticella, &c., after which they pass into the midst of
the sarcode, and are there rotated until their contents are digested
and absorbed, or a part of one or both are discharged as unnecessary
for nutrition. Where there is a buccal tube, the water and particles
of food are forced down together through it, directly into the sarcode
at its extremity, and here the digestive globules are formed, which
afterwards pass off into the sarcode one after another gradually, like
soap-bubbles from a pipe. Their contents then undergo digestion,
and if not wholly absorbed, the rest passes out at a distinct anal
orifice, which is situated on the surface in Paramecium aurelia, &e.,
and half-way up the buccal cavity in Vorticella. In the dmebe,
&c., as before stated, there are no apertures of external communication
of this kind, and no cilia ; therefore the introduction of food is wholly
effected by the diaphane. For these temporary stomachal dilatations
of the sarcode the author has adopted the term above mentioned.

Spherical Cells, or Biliary Organisms.—These are spherical cells
which abound in the sarcode of some of Ehrenberg’s Trachelina, but
more particularly in an infusorium of the same family which the
author has called Ofostoma, and in which they have been chiefly
studied. They appear to undergo rapid multiplication and decay,
and therefore are present in all stages of development. The most

358 Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society :—

remarkable feature about them is, that the largest contain, among
their granular contents, several smaller cells filled with a brownish-
yellow fluid, which are set free when the parent perishes, and seem
to serve some other purpose than that of reproduction. These
spherical cells appear to the author to be biliary organisms, for they
line the stomach of the binocular and blind Planarie, where the
large ones have a lash of from forty to fifty cilia projecting from one
point of their circumference, which keep up a continued circulation
of the gastric contents by their motion, like that observed in the
Infusoria. Of the use of these organs, for which the author pro-
poses the term “ spherical cells,” he is unacquainted, further than
that there are many points about them which strikingly ally them to
the hepatic cells of higher animals.

Vesicula, or ‘‘ Contracting Vesicle.’’—This is a vesicular organ
presenting a hyaline aspect which appears and disappears rhythmi-
cally. Its services are excretory, and in Paramecium aurelia, where
it is double, each vesicle has a set of radiated lines round it, which
lines extend across the body, and consist, respectively, of a chain
of fusiform sinuses. In the Rhizopoda especially the vesicula
obtains a great plurality, and in Amceba, sometimes, the sarcode
appears to be filled with such vesicles, which not only now and then
burst into the large one or vesicula, but when the latter has discharged
itself, frequently burst of themselves externally. In Paramecium
aurelia, &c., it is attached to the pellicula ; it also bursts externally
in Ameba; but in Vorticella it is attached to the buccal cavity, and
discharges itself close to the anal orifice, as in some Rotifera; in
Astasia it is close to the oral aperture and never disappears entirely,
even if it diminishes now and then in size. It is a distinct organ in
Vorticella and many of the Infusoria, perhaps so in all, and not a
mere accidental dilatation of the sarcode. The term “‘ vesicula”’ is
proposed for it instead of “contracting vesicle,” from the incon-
venience of the latter in description.

Nucleus, or Primary Organ.—This is a circular, moon-like body
(under the microscope), discoidal, and of a faint yellow colour. It
is contained in a transparent capsule, and fixed in the periphery of
the sarcode in the Rhizopoda, Astasia, Euglena, &c. In Ehrenberg’s
class of Enterodelous Infusoria it is for the most part of a different
form. The presence of the capsule in Ameeba causes it to appear as
if surrounded by a narrow pellucid ring, but when the former becomes
globular, the nucleus is observed to be fixed to one part of it. After
a while the nucleus becomes granular and the capsule globular: it
then also enlarges and undergoes deduplicative subdivision, the seg-
ments of which do not fall into the capsule, but burst through it, and
appear in the form of a botryoidal mass on its periphery. When
the granules, which each segment (now become discoid or spherical)
contains, become endowed with locomotive power they separate,
and make their exit through the proper covering of the segment,
while in the. body of the parent (which now perishes), or after the
segment has left its cavity. At first the nucleus appears to be a
presiding organ over the development of the cell, after the manner of

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 359

the nucleus of the vegetable cell, but subsequently it takes on this,
apparently, generative function.

Ovules. — These are discoid, nucleated cells in Spongilla and
Ameba, but globular in the other freshwater Rhizopoda. The
author first pointed out their nature and development in Spongilla
in 1848, and a repetition of the experiments which led to this con-
clusion has been followed by the same results. In Spongilla they
are contained in globular transparent vesicles in the seed-like body
or capsule, and each of these globular vesicles, at an early period,
has been found to possess all the characters of an Amba in the
same condition about to become capsuled; so that the seed-like
bodies of Spongilla are but an aggregation of ova-bearing sponge-
cells, enclosed under one common covering. In Luglypha the ovules
are globular, and appear around the capsule of the nucleus, not
inside it. At an early period, in Spongilla and Ameeba, the ovule
consists of a discoid, transparent capsule, lined with a film of semi-
transparent matter, presenting a glairy, faint greenish-yellow colour ;
the latter afterwards becomes more opake and defined, and subse-
quently, in the course of development, may present a central pellucid
circular area, in the midst of which is a minute, faint yellow body ;
the sarcode then becomes developed, its granules appear, and the
ovule becomes more or less polymorphic, while the central body of
the pellucid area seems to originate the nucleus. Such are the
changes observed in the development of the ovule of the freshwater
Rhizopoda. Similar ovules also oceur in Astasia and in Euglena.
When the capsule of the nucleus has been present in an Amba
filled with ovules far advanced, it has appeared enlarged, and the
nucleus hardly perceptible or effete.

Spermatozoids ’—This term is applied provisionally to the granules
developed from the nucleus, for it not only would appear that in
Spongilla, Ameba and Euglypha this development frequently occurs
without the most distant sign of the presence of ovules, but in Hw-
glypha it is seen to occur both separate and together; that is, the
granular development is sometimes present when the ovules (all of
the same size and five times the diameter of the granules) are also
present around the capsule of the nucleus; so that if the granules
passed into ovules, the latter might be expected to be present of
different sizes, which in fact is the case in Spongilla and Ameba.

Impregnation. — Although the congress of two individuals in
Ameba and Euglypha has frequently been seen by the author, yet it
is not uncommon to witness three and sometimes four of the latter
adhering together by the heads; and whatever bearing this may
have on generation, the ovules and granular development of the nu-
cleus are not preparatory to this act in Euglypha, but subsequent to
it. Should these granules hereafter be found to have a fertilizing
influence over the ovules, the process may be extended even to Cla-
dophora among the filamentous Algze, which, consisting merely of a
layer of nucleated cells within one large cell, would not appear to
require any more organs for reproduction than these cells themselves
possess ; and among the Diatomeze and Desmidiez and filamentous
Algz, such granules presenting a motion distinct from that of the

360 Zoological Society :—

molecules of Brown, are commonly seen, and have been thought by
many to be reproductive organs.

In conclusion, the author adverted to the intimate resemblance
which existed between the organisms of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms at these parts of their scales respectively, insomuch that
they would appear to diverge from one common point, at which
would stand a being neither vegetable nor animal. Spongilla ap-
peared very near this. The author had found that this organism,
towards the end of the dry season, developes almost as much starch
as plants, yet there is not a particle of starch to be found in the
composition of its capsule and ovules. It subsists on nutrition
brought into its cell through endosmosis, yet there is no trace of
cellulose in its cell-wall. It is endowed with polymorphism; but
the protoplasm of the cell in many plants, to say nothing of Alge,
has as much, though it cannot move beyond the cellulose covering
in which it is incarcerated any more than the sponge-cell while the
latter is enclosed en masse within the general pellicula. It is true
that it possesses the vesicula, but Cohn has shown that this exists in
even some of the swarm-cells of Conferve. It is not impossible,
from the great plurality of the vesicule in the Rhizopoda (in which
class Spongilla should be included) and the activity with which they
perform their peculiar function, that the excretory currents of the
canals should be thus produced. Mr. Bowerbank had discovered
cilia on them to assist in this office, but zoospores move about by the
aid of cilia, and in the spore or macrogonidium of Cidogonium
these are very numerous. The granules of Spongilla contain a yel-
low colouring material, like endochrome, and when Spongilla becomes
green, it appears to be caused by a deepening of this colour. So that
after all, the difference between the lower organisms of the animal
and vegetable kingdoms becomes so slight, that, as Nageli and Cohn
have observed, chemical reagents alone can determine the point ; and
even then, the transition, in some of them, of one vital product into
another during the cycle of their existence, makes them, according
to this test, at one time a vegetable and at another time animal;
until, it seems, that there must be a point at which both are equally
combined.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
January 23, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

CHARACTERS OF SIX NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS THAMNO-
pHILus. By Puruie Lutiey Scuater, M.A.

1. THAMNOPHILUS TRANSANDEANUS.

Supra niger; subtus albus; tectricibus alarum superioribus et
caude inferioribus nigris albo terminatis ; cauda nigra rectri-
cibus duabus utrinque extimis macula parva terminali alba.

Long. tota 8°l, alee 3°7, caudee 3°2 poll.

Hab. in rep. Equatoriana, Guyaquil. Mus. Brit.

Obs. Similis Thamnophilo majori, sed tectricibus subcaudalibus

nigris albo terminatis et rectricibus non albo guttatis.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of Thamnophilus. 361

2. THAMNOPHILUS LEUCHAUCHEN,.

¢ Pileo cristato cum lateribus capitis et gutture antico ad me-
dium pectus nigris ; nucha, cervice laterali et corpore subtus
albis ; dorso murino-brunneo ; alis caudaque nigris albo limbatis ;
rectricis une utrinque extime pogonio externo medio et omnium
apicibus albo maculatis ; rostro et pedibus nigris.
? Crista ferruginea ; subtus ochracea, gutture nigro striato,
lateribus capitis et nucha ochraceis nigro mixtis.
Long. tota 6°4, alee 2°8, caudze 2°5.
Hab. in Peruv. Orient., Chamicurros. Mus. P.L.S.
Obs. Affinis Th. atricapillo, Vieill., sed rostro minore, lateribus
cervicis et corpore subtus albis neque cinereis, dorso clariore brunneo
et gutturali nigro non in ventrem producto distinguendus.

3. THAMNOPHILUS ALBINUCHALIS.

$ Supra murino-brunneus ; nucha late alba ; dorsi medii pennis
albo mixtis ; capite summo cristato nigro ; alis fuscis, tectrici-
bus albo limbatis; cauda nigra, rectricum omnium apicibus et
une utrinque extime margine externo albo maculatis ; subtus
albus ; gutture et pectore antico nigris ; capitis lateribus albo
mixtis.
$ Supra brunnescentior, capite et cauda tota rufo-ferrugineis ;
nucha et corpore infra ochraceis.
Long. tota 6°5, ale 3°2, caudze 2°5.
Hab. in rep. Equatoriana, Guyaquil et insula Puna. Mus. Brit.
Obs. Species a Thamnophilo atricapillo nucha alba et colore cor-
poris inferi albo nec schistaceo, a Thamnophilo leuchauchene dorso
albo mixto, crassitie majore, et nucha candidiore distinguenda.

4, THAMNOPHILUS MELANONOTUS.

Niger ; interscapularibus albo mixtis ; dorso postico cinereo ; ab-
domine cinerascenti-albo ; alis nigris albo marginatis ; cauda
nigra, rectricibus omnibus apice et extima utrinque laterali
etiam pogonio externo medio albo maculatis ; rostro et pedibus
nigris.

Long. tota 6:5, ala 3-0, caude 2°5.

Had. in Nova Grenada, Santa Martha. Mus. P.L.S.

Obs. Affinis Thamnophilo atricapillo, sed dorso nigro.

5. THAMNOPHILUS NIGROCINEREUS,

$ Cinereus, capite toto cum dorso summo et gutture nigris ; in-
terscapularibus basi albis; alis caudaque nigricantibus, albo
limbatis ; rectrice una utrinque extima media albo notata ;
rostro et pedibus nigris.

¢ Rufo-brunnea ; gula et ventre medio albescentioribus ; alarum
tectricibus secondariisque et cauda sicut in mari albo notatis..

Long. tota 5°75, alee 3°8, caudz 2°4.

Hab. in Brasilia boreali, Para. Mus. Brit. et P.L.S.

Obs. Similis 74. nevio sed multo major ; rostro fortiore et gutture

nigro.

362 Zoological Society :—

6. THAMNOPHILUS CASIUS.

Lanius cesius, Cuv. in Mus. Paris.

8 Nigro-plumbeus ; pileo cristato gulaque nigris; tectricibus
alaribus anguste albo limbatis; cauda nigricante unicolore ;
rostro pedibusque nigris.

2 Grisescenti-brunnea, crista nigricante ; capitis lateribus, tec-
tricum alarum marginibus et corpore subtus rufis ; rostro nigro,
mandibula inferiore basi et pedibus pallidis.

Long. tota 5:5, alee 3°25, caudee 2°25.

Had. in Guiana Britannica. Mus. Parisiensi et P.L.S.

March 13.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Nores ON THE Hasits OF SOME INDIAN Birps. Part VIII.
By Lirvut. BurGess.

Family SrRUuTHIONID.
Genus Oris.

Otis niGRIcEPs (Vigors). BLAcK-HEADED Bustarp.

This fine Bustard is found in flocks, varying in size, in the open
plains of the Deccan, preferring the dry grassy and stony grounds
to others. It grows to a large size ; one fine male which I measured
was 7 feet across the wings, and 46 inches from the tip of the beak
to the end of the tail. This Bustard may almost be said to breed
all the year round. I have had an egg brought to me in February,
another on the4th May, containing a young bird. A gentleman on the
Revenue Survey told me that he had seen a young Bustard, covered
with down, in the early part of October. I have had a young bird
brought to me late in November, as well as eggs in November and
December. The female generally lays but one egg. A. F. Davidson,
Esq., Superintendent of the Ahmednuggur Revenue Survey, told
me a curious habit of the male Bustard. He says, “‘ About breed-
ing time the male is fond of mounting some elevated spot, and then
strutting about with the tail erected and spread, the wings drooping,
and the pouch in the throat inflated with air, and looking like a
large bladder ; under the hillock where the male was thus displaying
himself were several young ones.”’ In corroboration of this, a boy
told me on the 17th May 1850, that about four days previously he had
seen a Bustard, with a white-looking bag hanging below the neck.
I see in Dr. Jerdon’s Catalogue, that he gives an extract from Mr.
Elliot’s notes to this effect ; speaking of the cock Bustard, he says :
« He was strutting about on some high ground, expanding his tail,
ruffling his wings, and distending his neck and throat, making the
feathers stand out like a ruff.” I do not find it recorded that the
large Bustard of Europe (0. tarda) has this habit of showing him-
self off during the breeding season. The egg of the Black-headed
Bustard varies in size ; the one sent with this paper measures 3,3,ths
in. in length, by 2,3,ths im. in width. It also varies in colour ; the

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 368

general colour is a brownish olive, dashed with pale brown. One
egg which I had was of a nearly uniform palish blue. The egg now
sent was found in a grassy spot on 18th December. As everything
relating to this noble bird is interesting, I give a description of a
young one brought to me on 28th December 1849. It stood about
10 inches in height ; its beak was of a dirty whitish colour, nostrils
large ; irides clear pale hazel, and eyes very large; back mottled,
very much as in the old birds, as also the wing feathers ; front of
the neck pale yellowish-brown, with a dark streak running down the
sides ; legs dull yellowish-white, feet the same, knee-joints very thick ;
there was down on the neck. This was quite a young bird, very
feeble on its legs, and barely able to stand. The Black-headed
Bustard utters, when frightened, a harsh barking note. Its flight is
like that of the Heron, a steady flight, sustained by the continued
flapping of its large wings.

Orts Aurita (Lath.), FioriK1n.

I have not met with the Florikin sufficiently often to allow me to
enter into the argument as to whether the Black Florikin is the male
bird in its breeding plumage, or a distinct species from the common
brown Florikin, but Dr. Jerdon’s arguments in his “ Illustrations of
Indian Ornithology,” appear conclusive, that the black and brown
are one and the same bird in different states of plumage. But this
point might soon be set at rest, by sportsmen and ornithologists in
India ascertaining whether the black-plumaged birds are ever met
with during the cold weather and spring. That the male of the
Little Bustard (Otis tetraxr) should to a certain extent assume this
black plumage during the breeding season, affords strong ground for
the supposition that the Black Florikin is the male in his nuptial
dress. The Florikin breeds during the end of the monsoon, laying
three eggs of a dark olive-green colour, spotted and dashed with
light brown, 1,%,ths in. in length, by 1,5,ths in. in width, the greatest
width being about the centre. The egg now sent was procured with
two others early in September. An officer, who was out shooting,
put up a Florikin and killed it, and on going to the spot where she
rose, found three eggs. I had two specimens of the Florikin sent
to me, both males, one in beautiful black plumage on 2nd October,
the other in the brown plumage on the 4th February.

Family CotumBID2.
Genus CoLtuMBA.

CotuMBA @NAs. Buve PIGEON.

This Pigeon is very common in the Deccan, inhabiting holes in
old forts, walls, temples and wells. It breeds during the cold season,
laying two white eggs. Holes and ledges in wells are its favourite
resorts for breeding. The egg measures 1,4,ths in. in length, by 1 inch
and nearly ,2,ths in width, and is of a clear shining white. An egg is
sent with this paper; it was taken from a well on the 8th December.

364 Zoological Society.

Genus TurRTUR.
Turtur CAMBAYENSIS.

Of this Dove, Dr. Jerdon says in his notes,—‘“ This little dove
abounds over most of India, both in low jungles and near vil-
lages and cantonments, being found, especially towards the north,
in every garden, and frequenting stable-yards, houses, &c.” It is, I
believe, the same as the small Dove to which—not knowing that it
had been previously named—I gave the name of the Vinous-necked
Turtle, on account of the colour of its neck. If this be the case, it
breeds during the month of March, building its nest in low bushes,
and laying two white eggs, rather more than ,%ths of an inch in
length, by nearly ;8,ths of an inch in breadth.

TURTUR RISORIA.

This Dove is considerably larger than the last, and is easily dis-
tinguished by the white crescent on its neck, like the Wood Pigeon
of this country. It abounds in every place ; amongst the prickly-
pear hedges and thickets near villages, in groves of babool trees, and
bushes. Its half plaintive, half laughing note, is heard as soon as
it becomes light, and if the trees over your tent happen to be its
resort, it is anything but conducive to sleep. This Turtle breeds
during the cold season, building in low babool trees ; its nest is com-
posed of a few twigs and pieces of grass. It lays two white eggs,
1,3,ths in. in length, by rather more than ;%ths m width.

Order GRALLATORES.
Family ARDEAD&.
Genus Grus.
Subgenus ANTHROPoOIDES ( Vieillot).

Grus Virco. DemoIseLLE CRANE.

This Crane visits the Deccan during the cold weather, but some-
times remains as late as May. I saw a large flock of them on the
river Seena, near Waterphul, as late as 24th May, and was told that
one had been brought into the cantonments of Ahmednuggur as late
as 12th June, but I never heard of any remaining to breed. It
would be most interesting to find out their breeding haunts, their
manner of nesting, and the number and colour of their eggs. The
greater portion leave the Deccan at the end of March or beginning
of April, and return at the end of November. They feed in the
grain fields, retiring to the larger rivers about ten o’clock, where they
may be seen standing in large flocks in the shallows.

Genus ARDEA.
Subgenus ARDEA.

ARDEA CINEREA (Lath.). Common HERON.

A tolerably common bird in the Deccan, frequenting tanks and
rivers. I found two nests in a tall peepul tree on the 27th February;

Miscellaneous. 865

one contained the egg sent with this paper, the other was a nest just
finished, and contained no eggs. This bird is considered, I believe,
to be identical with the English Heron; it most probably therefore
lays four or five eggs, as Mr. Yarrell states that the English Heron
does. The egg is a uniform sea-green colour, 2;4;ths in. in length,
by | inch and rather more than ;%ths in width.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Mode in which the Tachine escape from their Pupa-cases
and from closed situations in which they often occur. By
Dr. Retssie.

Amoncsr the phznomena of insect-life few things are more re-
markable than the power possessed by soft, newly-developed flies,
such as the Tachine, ot breaking not only out of the hard Jarva-skin,
but also out of the closed situations in which these are generally
found, as, for instance, from the galleries and pupa-cells of Saperda
populnea and Cryptorhynchus lapathi in wood, of Tortrizr resinana
in resinous galls, &c.

To explain this process it has often been supposed that the hard-
ened larva-skin is softened by the insect when about to escape by
means of fluid, or that the aperture was prepared by the larva before
its change to the pupa state. The author however states, that
according to his observations neither of these suppositions is correct;
the margins of the aperture through which the fly escapes are eyvi-
dently broken in a manner which could not be the case if the skin
were softened by the agency of a fluid, and he was never able to
detect any traces of a prepared means of exit. He has therefore
come to the conclusion that the dried larva-skin is burst by the fly,
and his observations have proved that this is done in the way which
he describes as follows :—‘‘The fly when about to escape can con-
vert its head into a most wonderful apparatus, acting in the manner
of a hydraulic press, and by this means not only burst its immediate
envelope, but also overcome any obstacles which may lie in its way
to the open air.”

His observations were made on the following species of T'achina:
T. gilva, Urtg., from Lophyrus pini; T. pilipennis, Fall., from the
resinous galls of Tortrix resinana; T. flaviceps, Rtzbg., from the
pupe of Noctue; T. fera, Linn., from the dried larva of Noctua
piniperda, &c.; but especially upon 7’. bimaculata, Hrtg., from the
cocoon of Lophyrus pini. His results are as follows :—

In 7. bimaculata he first observed that both at the moment of its
escape and for some time subsequently the fly possesses the power
of converting the head into a nearly perfect globe, the diameter of
which is considerably greater than that of the body.

The surface of the globe consists of the slightly translucent perga-
mentaceous skin, which is folded together very beautifully in the
Tachine from the eyes to the mouth, and this is extended to the form
described by a thin fluid.

366 Miscellaneous.

The globe is so placed that the eyes form a solid part of it, and
thus furnish a support for the whole apparatus.

Besides the two eyes the only visible external organs are: a. the
last joints of the antennz; 6. the two horny, bowed palpiform
organs of the mouth; and c. the proboscis. Everything else on the
head, except the bristles of the antenne and of the margins of the
eyes, disappears, and all the visible organs exhibit a change of posi-
tion. Thus the antenne occur on the side of the globe opposite to
the eyes, or quite in front. Only the last joint of each projects from
the globular head, on the surface of which they form as it were a
double hook directed downwards. They still however retain some
power of movement, and the fly appears to employ them in various
ways. The proboscis is directed obliquely backwards, below the
eyes; it also retains some power of motion, and the fly can elongate
or contract it at pleasure. It appears to be an important part of the
apparatus, serving to press the globular head forwards, or rather to
give it a firm support in the pressure which it exerts upon the
obstacles before it.

The two horny palpiform organs which lie between the antenne
and the mouth are also of importance in these operations. They
form a pair of hooks turned downwards and resting with their con-
vex sides against the globular head, so that as this expands their
extremities are pressed into the larva-skin, where they produce the
commencement of the transverse cleft of the aperture, which is after-
wards completed by the general expansion of the head.

Besides this transverse cleft in the larva-skin, there is usually a
second crack running from the apex and dividing the cap which is
thrown off, into two nearly equal portions: this is produced by the
wedge-like action of the antenne.

When the expansion of the head has reached its maximum, it is
maintained for a few seconds, and then the head again contracts ;
but if it has not done its business sufficiently, it is again dilated until
the desired result is obtained. In this way the author observed that
a Tachina which he had enclosed in a narrow glass tube, tried more
than a hundred times to expel the cork by the expansion of its head.

The expansion of the head commences by a prolongation of the
front of the face between the angles of the eyes : this forms a conical
point, having the antenne at its apex. The object of this is suffi-
ciently apparent: the fly can introduce this point into small holes
and crevices in the obstacles which interpose between it and the open
air; these are then enlarged by the globular expansion of the head,
which is doubtless retained in its situation by the action of the
antennee.—Wiegmann’s Archiv, xxi. p. 189.

On the apparent Absence of a Nervous System in the Nemoptera
lusitanica. By M. Leon Durour.

The author states that in examining numerous specimens of the
Nemoptera lusitanica, a species of Neuropterous insect abundant in
Spain and Portugal, he was unable to find any trace of a nervous

Meteorological Observations. 867

system. The head when opened, instead of presenting a distinct
brain or cephalic ganglia, only contained a small quantity of an
amorphous and liquid pulp. In the thorax also, the large nerves
passing into the femora could not be detected. M. Graells of
Madrid was likewise unable to discover any traces either of ganglia
or nerves.

M. Léon Dufour states that the trachee are not plentiful, so that
the respiration cannot be very energetic, and the locomotive power of
the animal is therefore small. In the structure of the alimentary
organs, the Nemoptera differs from the Panorpide, in which family
it has usually been placed, and M. Léon Dufour thinks that its food
is of a fluid nature.—Comptes Rendus, Dec. 31, 1855, p. 1204.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR FEB. 1856.

Chiswick.—February 1. Light clouds: frosty. 2. Cloudy. 3. Frosty: fine
throughout. 4. Overcast: slight rain. 5. Very fine: boisterous at night. 6.
Densely clouded: boisterous. 7. Uniformly overcast: rain. 8. Densely over-
cast: fine: cloudy. 9. Exceedingly fine. 10. Cloudy. 11. Foggy: rain: over-
cast. 12. Rain: fine: rain atnight. 13. Rain: showery throughout. 14. Rain:
fine. 15. Cloudy: very fine: foggy at night. 16. Foggy: very fine: foggy. 17.
Hazy: overcast: foggy at night. 18. Overcast: slight snow. 19. Hazy: cold
and raw. 20. Cloudy and cold throughout. 21. Slight rain: small hail occa-
sionally. 22. Overcast: slight rain. 23. Fine throughout: cloudy at night.
24. Fine: overcast: clear and frosty. 25. Overcast throughout. 26. Cloudy:
slight rain. 27. Overcast. 28. Very slight drizzle: overcast: cloudy. 29. Foggy:
cloudy : frosty.

Mean temperature of the month ...........sescecsscseecsceees oso) 41°54.
Mean temperature of Feb. 1855 —........eseeeeeeees “Sepeoeaesee 28 -01
Mean temperature of Feb. for the last thirty = arr POEL O 38°71
Average amount of rainin Feb. ...0<esescscnsenesscascseesesas . 1543 inch.

Boston.—Feb. 1—3. Fine. 4,5. Cloudy. 6. Rain A.M.andp.m. 7,8. Cloudy:
rain A.M. 9. Cloudy. 10. Cloudy : rain a.M. 11. Cloudy: rainp.m. 12. Rain
AM. 13. Cloudy: raine.m. 14,15. Fine. 16—22. Cloudy. 23,24. Fine.
25—28. Cloudy. 29. Foggy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Feb. 1. Cloudy a.m.: showers, thaw p.m. 2. Cloudy
A.M.: fine p.m. 3. Fine, bright a.m.: fine, clear p.m. 4. Fine, cloudy a.m.:
fine, clear p.m. 5. Fine, drops a.m.: fine, cloudy p.m. 6. Bright a.m. : rain P.M.
7. Bright a.m.: showers p.m. 8. Cloudy a.m.and p.m. 9. Drops A.M. : clear P.M.
10. Bright a.m. : clear, showers p.M. 11. Bright a.m.: clear, fine P.M. 12. Rain
A.M.: showers P.M. 13. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 14. Snow-showers a.m. :
showers p.M. 15. Rain a.m.: cloudy p.m. 16. Drizzle, showers A.M. : drizzle p.m.
17. Damp a.m. and p.m. 18. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 19. Cloudy, frost a.m. :
clear, fine P.M. 20. Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 21. Bright a.m.: clear p.m.
22. Bright a.m.: showers, clearp.M. 23. Bright a.m.: cloudyr.m. 24. Cloudy
A.M.: Clear P.M. 25. Rain a.m.: showers, clear, aurora p.M. 26. Cloudy A.M. :
drizzle p.m. 27. Showers a.m.: fine, cloudy p.m. 28. Drizzle a.m.: damp P.M.
29. Cloudy a.m. and p.m.

Mean temperature of Feb. for previous twenty-nine years ... 38°01
Mean temperature of this month ......... ngncaaaeaseees pemeeacan 40 *84
Mean temperature of Feb. 1855 —....scscecscocscecenceccecscscees 31 64
Average quantity of rain in Feb. for fifteen previous years ... 3°25 inches.

The storm which raged so violently in the South of Scotland on the 6th and 7th
did not reach Orkney or the North of Scotland, but again we had this month as
well as during the gale of last month a great fall of the barometer, which stood
at 28°49 on the 6th at midnight.

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a

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

{SECOND SERIES.]}

No. 101. MAY 1856.

XXXII.—On the British Species of Arctium.
By Cuarues C. Basineron, M.A., F.R.S. &*

In a former paper (Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. 1. iv. 253) I endea-
voured to show that there were two well-marked species of
Arctium inhabiting Britain, and then expressed an opinion that
neither of them accorded well with the plants figured in ‘ English
Botany.’ The names applied to them in that paper were A.
Lappa and A, Bardana, used in the belief that my plants corre-
sponded with those so called by Linnzeus and Willdenow. Since
that period my attention has at intervals been directed to the
genus, and specimens have been often seen that did not well
accord with either of those species. A few years since I was
favoured by my friend M. J. Lange of Copenhagen with a spe-
cimen of a plant called by him A. intermedium, and which he
believes to be distinct from the described species. On the sup-
position that this accorded with a plant observed in Britain, and
that it was nearly allied to what I had formerly named A. Bar-
dana, it is placed in the 3rd edition of my ‘ Manual’ as A. minus
B. intermedium, and the A. Bardana of Smith is incorrectly re-
ferred to it. A careful re-examination of the plants has led me
to the conclusion that throughout the whole of these researches
I have been in error, and that the following remarks present a
more correct view of the subject.

We appear to possess five well-marked species of Arctium in
this country, namely A. tomentosum, A. majus, A. intermedium,
A, minus, and A. pubens, the characters of which I now purpose
endeavouring to point out. But before describing the plants it

* Read to the Edinburgh Botanical Society, March 13th, 1856.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. oi 24

870 Mr. C.C. Babington on the British species of Arctium.

is desirable to direct attention to the points upon which it seems
probable that stress may be best laid. (1.) The arrangement
of the heads presents an easy mode of separating two of the
species from the others. This character must be used cautiously,
for it is only the top of the central stem of the plant that is to
be trusted: it and the branches often have the heads arranged
in the same manner, but frequently the central stem bears a
corymb and the branches racemes of heads. (2.) The form of
the heads is of much value, and their size must not be neglected.
(3.) Although the shape of the phyllaries is nearly the same in
all the plants, their direction is a little different and the appear-
ance of the heads is thereby changed. The inner row has not
this uniformity of shape, but differs considerably in the several
plants. These inner phyllaries are always bordered by a broadish
membrane which sometimes increases in width towards the top,
but in other cases narrows gradually to a rigid pot. (4.) The
florets consist of two parts, the upper of which 1s tubular nearly
throughout. That part which is below the commencement of
the free filaments is slender in all the species ; the upper part is
always much thicker, varies considerably in form, and its length
bears different proportions to that of the lower part. (5.) The
phyllaries either fall short of the florets or equal them. In
the latter case the corolla alone is to be taken into account, for
the anthers and styles are always much protruded.

It is proper to state here the reasons which have led me to
retain the name of Arctium for this genus instead of followmg
DeCandolle in employing it for the A. lanuginosum (Lam.).
Linneus in his first work (Syst. Nat. published m 1731) gave
the name of Arctium to the plant called Lappa by Tournefort,
and characterized it as early as the year 1737 (Gen. Pl.). In
1778 Lamarck transferred the name, under the form of Arction,
to his A. lanuginosum without paying the least attention to its
previous use by Linnzus, and applied the term Lappa to the
Linnean genus. It is doubtless true that the ante-Linnzan
botanists did use Zappa as a generic name, but it has been well
remarked by the Committee of the ‘ British Association for the
Advancement of Science’ appoimted to consider the nomen-
clature of zoology, that “Linnzus was the first to attach a
definite value to genera, and to give them a systematic character
by means of exact definitions ; and therefore, although the names
used by previous authors may often be applied with propriety to
modern genera, yet in such cases they acquire a new meaning
and should be quoted on the authority of the first person who
used them in this secondary sense ” (Report Brit. Assoc. Man-
chester, 1842, p. 110). Applying this excellent rule, which is
just as true in botany as in zoology, to the present case, we find

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British species of Arctium. 371

that the Linnzan name has a priority of many years over that
which Lamarck adopted from the ante-Linnzan ‘Tournefort.
That this was the view taken at the time is shown by the remarks
of Villars (Pl. des Dauph. ii. 27) when continuing to use the
name of Berardia, which he had given in his ‘ Prospectus’ to the
A. lanuginosum of Lamarck. There does not seem to be any
reason for breaking the rule in this instance, for if it should be
said that Tournefort’s genera are well defined and therefore
should not be rejected, then many more of his names ought to
have been adopted in preference to those given by Linnzeus.

1. A. tomentosum (Pers.) ; heads subcorymbose long-stalked sphe-
rical and closed in fruit much webbed (purplish), phyllaries
falling short of the florets subulate, mer row longest and
broad, inflated upper part of florets a little shorter than the
lower part.

A. tomentosum, Pers. Syn. ii. 383 (1807) ; Schkuhr, Handb. iii. 29.
t. 227.

A. Bardana, Willd. Sp. Pl. ii. 1632 (1800); Eng. Bot. t. 2478;
Fries, Nov. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 263.

A. Lappa 3, Linn. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 278, teste Fries, 1. ¢.

A. Lappa, Sven. Bot. t.63; Fl. Dan. t. 642.

Lappa tomentosa, Lam. Dict. i. 377 (1783); All. Fl. Ped. i. 144
(1785) ; Gray, Brit. Pl. ii. 434; Lindl. Syn. ed. 1. 154; DeCand.
Prod. vi. 661; Koch, Syn. ed. 2. 463; Gren. et Godr. Fl. Fr. ii.
281; Reichenb. Icon. Fl. Germ. xv. t. 811; Fl. Dan. t. 2423.

Lappa major montana, capitulis tomentosis sive Arctium Dioscoridis,
Rait Syn. ed. 3. 197.4; Pet. Brit. Pl. t. 23. 6.

Stem and petioles slightly mealy and floccose. Stem 3 to 5
feet high. Leaves cordate-ovate ; lowermost very large. Erect
central stem and usually most of the branches ending in irre-
gular corymbs of heads ; but sometimes many of the branches
have fewer heads with a racemose arrangement. Peduncles very
long, but rarely a few of the lower heads have only short stalks.
Heads large, usually covered with much cobweb-like hair ; occa-
sionally a plant with almost glabrous heads is found. Phyllaries
purplish-green or greenish-purple, each with a small strongly
hooked purplish-yellow rigid poimt ; inner row broad and mem-
branous even near to the end which is purple often quite blunt
truncate or emarginate with a straight rigid excurrent nerve or
rarely shortly subulate. Florets broadest just above the origin
of the free filaments at which point they suddenly enlarge from
a slender tube, become inflated and then narrow upwards, very
persistent with the ripening fruit when they close the small
space left between the ends of the converging phyllaries. Fruit
dark brown with blackish blotches, nearly smooth.

24%

372 Mr.C.C. Babington on the British species of Arctium.

It is probable that the long delay that has attended the
acknowledgement by name of this plant by English botanists,
although it was figured by Sowerby, may have been caused by
its inhabiting the eastern districts of England, and being rarely,
if ever, to be found in other parts of the country. Experience
must prove or disprove this idea. The plant really represented
in ‘English Botany’ not having been seen, any woolly-headed
Arctium was called A. Bardana. The A. minus, which possesses
many of the characters of A. tomentosum, being figured in the
same work under the name of 4. Lappa, the conclusion was
arrived at that A. Lappa and A. Bardana formed only one spe-
cies. For if tab. 2478 is a representation of the plant com-
monly called 4. Bardana in England, then its difference from the
specimens generally found and so named would show that there
is so great a range of variation in the species as to render it
highly probable that the A. Lappa of tab. 1228 is another of its
states. If the true 4. Lappa of Willdenow had been figured in
that valuable work, no such idea would probably have arisen.

In most respects Sowerby’s figure is an excellent represen-
tation of A. tomentosum, but the drawing was probably taken
from a lateral branch, and the relative length of the phyllaries
and florets (as shown in the dissected figure) does not appear to
be correct. The inflated form of the floret is excellently shown.

The A. Lappa (Willd.) not being presented to the notice of
our botanists, but that name given by Smith to A. minus, caused
the erroneous conclusions that only a single variable species
existed in Britain, and also, that there were no more species
upon the European continent.

Although Fries informs us that the A. minus (Schkuhr) is the
true A. Lappaa. of Linnzus, a statement confirmed by the spe-
cimen in his herbarium, still the var. 8. (Linn.), which we know
on the same excellent authority is the plant called A. tomentosum
by Persoon and A. Bardana by Willdenow, is figured in the
‘Svensk Botanik’ (tab. 63) and ‘Flora Danica’ (tab. 643) as
A, Lappa.

It is proper to direct attention to the fact that Gray (J. c.)
and Lindley (/. ¢.) correctly identified the plant of Sowerby as
A. tomentosum, but neither of them seems to have known that
there are two other woolly-headed species in this country.

I have not observed this plant out of Cambridgeshire, but it
is probably much more extensively distributed.

Flowering in August.

2. A. majus (Schkuhr) ; heads subcorymbose long-stalked hemi-
spherical and open in fruit glabrous (green), phyllaries equal-
ling or exceeding the florets subulate, inner row shorter than

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British species of Arctium. 373

the others, subcylindrical upper part of florets more than half
as long as the lower part.

A. majus, Schhkuhr, Handb. iii. 49; Fries, Nov. 264; Wimm. et
Grab. Fl. Siles. iii. 105; Bab. Man. ed. 2. 182, ed. 3. 179.

A. Lappa, Willd. Sp. Pl. iii. 1631 ; Bab. in Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. 1.
iv. 254; Man. ed. 1. 171.

Lappa major, DeCand. Prod. vi. 661; Koch, Syn. 463; Gren. et
Godr. ii. 280.

L. officinalis, All. Fl. Ped. i. 145 ; Reichenb. Icon. Fl. Germ. xv. 54.
t. 812.

L. major Arcium Dioscoridis, Raii Syn. ed. 3. 197. 2.

L. major capitulo glabro maximo, Dill. in Rati Syn. ed. 3. 196. 1.

Burdock, Pet. Engl. Pl. t. 23. 1.

Stem and petioles finely mealy and rather floccose. Stem
3-4 feet high. Leaves cordate-ovate; lowermost very large.
Central stem and usually most of the branches ending in irre-
gular corymbs of heads; but sometimes many of the branches
have fewer heads and a racemose arrangement of them. Pedun-
cles very long, but occasionally a few of the lower heads are only
shortly stalked. Heads very large, quite glabrous or with a
very little cobweb-like hair in their youngest state; after the
florets have fallen, which they seem to do at an early stage of
the growth of the fruit, the head is quite flat and open at the
top, often an inch across, and the involucre is almost exactly
hemispherical with the outer phyllaries deflexed, the middle ones
patent and the inner ones nearly erect. Phyllaries usually all
green and subulate; their hooked points yellowish; imner row
paler, less gradually subulate than the others but narrowimg
upwards until near to the point where it narrows quickly,
scarcely converging over the fruit: the heads therefore do not
appear to be constricted near the top as is the case in the other
species. Florets very nearly cylindrical in their enlarged part,
rather widening than contracting above the sudden enlargement,
deciduous. Fruit yellowish, irregularly rugose.

This is usually not nearly so large a plant as A. tomentosum,
although it often attains a very considerable size. It is conspi-
cuous on account of its long branches and large heads, which
latter much exceed in magnitude those of either of the other
species.

The very long peduncles and corymbose heads distinguish it
and the preceding from the three other species, but in estimating
these characters attention should be paid to the heads forming
the termination of the upright central stem of the plant; it has
been already remarked that the branches do not always present
the same arrangement of the heads. Difficulties may occur

374 Mr.C.C. Babington on the British species of Arctium.

when neither A. majus nor A. tomentosum is known, or when
only the lateral branches are examined, but when an intimate
acquaintance has been obtained with either of them, it is nearly
impossible that any doubt of the distinctness of those species can
continue to exist.

The remarks to be found under A. tomentosum have shown
how differently the name A. Lappa has been applied by bota-
nical writers ; three out of our five species having been so called.
It is therefore desirable that the use of it should cease. It
also appears from the remarks of Fries (Nov. 263), that the
A. majus was certainly not the typical A. Lappa of Linneus ;
the name therefore cannot be properly employed to designate
this plant.

The figure given by Tournefort to illustrate his genus Lappa
rather represents a head of the A. tomentosum than of A. majus
of this paper. The head named L. major by Gaertner is more
hke my A. minus.

A. majus is probably generally distributed in Britain, flower-
ing in August.

My specimens are from Grosmont, Monmouthshire ; Mor-
diford, Herefordshire ; Bluntisham, Hunts ; Clonakilty, Cork. I
have seen it in several other places, but unfortunately my notes
concerning them have been lost.

3. A. intermedium (Lange) ; heads racemose subsessile ovate closed
in fruit slightly webbed, phyllaries equalling or exceeding the
florets subulate, inner row lanceolate shorter than the others,
subcylindrical upper part of the florets equalling the lower
part.

A. intermedium, Lange, MS. in Herb. Bab. et litt.; ‘ Flora of Den-
mark ;? Reichenb. fil. in Icon. Fl. Germ. xv. 54. t. 812.

Stem and petioles floccose. Stem 3-4 feet high. Leaves
roundish-cordate, lowermost large. Central stem usually (?)
nodding and as well as the branches furnished with many nearly
sessile heads arranged in a racemose manner ; ending in three
heads placed close together. Heads moderately large, narrower
than those of A. majus, but appearing long from the ascending
direction of most of the phyllaries, usually slightly webbed.
Phyllaries purplish-green and subulate; their hooked points
purplish-yellow ; inner row purple at the end, lanceolate acute.
Florets cylindrical in their upper half, much resembling those of
A. majus but with different proportions, apparently persistent.
I have not seen the fruit.

This plant may be known from all the others by having its

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British species of Arctium. 375

heads nearly sessile ; each branch usually ending in a cluster of
three heads. ~ Its leaves are apparently shorter in proportion to
their width. It is distinguished from the following plant by
possessing much larger ovate (not spherical and stalked) heads ;
from A. pubens by its closed and nearly sessile heads ; from the
two preceding by the racemose arrangement of the heads even at
the top of the primary stem.

Its distribution is unknown to me, with the exception that I
have gathered it near Berwick-upon-Tweed, and Mr. Newbould
at Hope in Derbyshire. Mr. Baker states (Suppl. to the Fl. of
Yorkshire, 85) that he finds it frequently in Yorkshire, but I
have not seen any specimens of his plant.

It flowers in August, but, like all the other species, may some-
times be found in that state in July.

As I do not know that M. Lange has published the cha-
racters of his plant, it appears to be desirable to insert the fol-
lowing extract from his letter, dated March 1849 :—

“ A, intermedium calath.: adultis ovatis, squamis exterioribus
subulatis viridibus apice stramineis interioribus lanceolatis apice
purpureis. It is the highest of all the species. Plant fresh
green. Stem and head purple brown tinged, the heads doubly
greater than the little form (A. minus). It grows principally in
woods.

“« 4. minus calath. : adultis depresso-globosis, squamis omnibus
subulatis cano-viridibus exterioribus apice stramineis. The plant
low, pale and grayish green. Open ground.”

It is probable that similar characters to the above are to be
found in that botanist’s ‘ Danish Flora, which I have not seen,
and which is written in the language of Denmark.

4. A. minus (Schkuhr) ; heads racemose shortly stalked spherical
slightly contracted at the mouth in fruit slightly webbed
(greenish), phyllaries falling short of the florets subulate, inner
row equalling the others, subcylindrical upper part of the florets
about equalling the lower part.

A. minus, Schk. Handb. iii. 49 ; Fries, Nov. 263.

A. Lappa a, Linn. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 277, teste Fries.

A. Lappa, Curt. Fl. Lond. ii. 173; Eng. Bot. t. 1228.

Lappa minor, DeCand. Fl. Fr. iv. 77; Koch, Syn. 463; Gren. et
Godr. Fl. Fr. ti. 280; Reichenb. Icon. Fl. Germ. xv. 53. t. 811.

Lappa major capitulis parvis glabris, Dill. in Rati Syn. 197. 3.

Lappa major montana, capitulis minoribus, rotundioribus et magis
tomentosis, Raw Syn. 197. 5.

Small-headed Burdock, Pet. 23. 3.

Small woolly-headed Burdock, Pet. 23. 4.

Stem and petioles finely mealy. A smaller plant than either

376 Mr. C.C. Babington on the British species of Arctium.

of the preceding. Central stem usually nodding and as well as
the branches producing scattered shortly stalked heads forming
an irregular raceme, on the lower or later branches the heads
are often nearly sessile ; the terminal head solitary. Heads about
half the size of those of the preceding species and greener than
in it; the amount of web very variable. Phyllaries green, some-
times slightly tinged with purple; the hocked pomts yellow;
inner row purple at the end, gradually narrowed into a rigid
subulate point but not hooked, alone converging over the fruit ;
the others mostly patent or a few of the outer ones deflexed.
Fruit fuscous with black blotches, rugose towards the top.

The small spherical heads of this plant, about the size of a
hazel-nut, readily distinguish it from A. intermedium; -as do
their size, their short stalks, and their racemose arrangement
even upon the central inclined stem, from A. tomentosum. The
very large corymbosely arranged heads of 4. majus clearly point
out that plant as distinct from A. minus. The much larger
hemispherical and long-stalked heads separate A. pubens from it.

Although the typical state of A. minus is very different from
A. tomentosum, it 1s difficult to find any character by which they
may be at all times certainly distinguished. There is a difference
in the shape of the florets: those of A. minus although thick in
their upper part do not enlarge so suddenly as those of A. to-
mentosum, nor do they contract upwards as in it. It is probable
that A. minus never has corymbosely arranged heads ; that they
are always small and shortly stalked; that the florets are deci-
duous so as to leave the tops of the fruits uncovered: that
A. tomentosum always has its central stem erect and corymbose,
although the branches have the heads arranged in racemes ; that
the heads are usually large and those in the corymb have long
stalks; that the florets are usually so persistent as to hide the
ripening fruit; that the phyllaries of the imnermost row are
usually almost wholly membranous and blunt with an excurrent
midrib.

A, minus is probably common, but the distribution of all the
species requires to be carefully determined.

My specimens are from Madingley, Cambridgeshire ; Stone-
leigh, Warwickshire ; Mordiford, Herefordshire; St. Aubin’s,
Jersey ; and I have ascertained that it grows near Saffron Wal-
den, Essex ; Bluntisham, Hunts ; Buntingford, Herts ; and Swan-
sea, Glamorgan.

Note-—The A. Bardana of my former paper (Ann. Nat. Hist.
Ser. 1. iv. 255) includes A. tomentosum and A. minus.

5. A. pubens; heads subracemose stalked hemispherical and open
in frmt much webbed (green) ; phyllaries equalling the florets

Mr. C.C. Babington on the British species of Arctium. 377

subulate, inner row equalling the others and gradually subulate,
subeylindrical upper part of the florets equalling the lower
part.

Stem and petioles thickly clothed with short jointed hairs
which shrink into a coarse mealiness. Stem 3 feet high. Leaves
large, ovate, lowermost cordate-ovate. The central stem erect,
and the branches, ending in irregular racemes of heads. Pedun-
cles rather long, those of the lower heads the longest. Heads
as large as those of A. tomentosum, much webbed when young
but losing much of the web (as is usually the case with the
other webbed species) as they advance towards fruit, ultimately
appearing to be nearly naked. Phyllaries green, each with a
purple-yellow hook ; inner row narrowing upwards but rather
membranous, purple at the end. Florets very nearly cylindrical
in the enlarged part, persistent but not closing the large space
between the nearly upright inner phyllaries. Fruit dark brown,
very rugose and with a few paler spots towards the top.

I am ynable to place this plant satisfactorily under any of the
published species, and think that it is distinct from them. It
differs from A. tomentosum by its subracemose heads with shorter
stalks of which the lower are the longest, heads hemispherical
and open in fruit, inner phyllaries equalling the others and not
widened upwards, upper part of the florets not inflated nor
broadest at the base: from A. majus by its subracemose much
webbed heads, inner phyllaries equalling the others, upper part
equalling the lower part of the florets: from A. intermedium by
its hemispherical open heads of fruit upon rather long stalks
and the inner phyllaries equalling the others: from A. minus by
its heads being twice as large, hemispherical and on longish
stalks, and the phyllaries equalling the florets.

It is more pubescent than either of the others from having
much more numerous and longer jointed hairs upon its stem
and leaf-stalks.

The plant is probably not uncommon. I find it in several
places in Cambridgeshire, am indebted to Mr. Kirk for speci-
mens found by him at Fillingley and Kenilworth in Warwick-
shire, to the Rev. W. W. Newbould for some gathered by him
at Eeclesall near Sheffield, and observed it myself in the valley of
Llanberis in North Wales in August 1855.

Flowering in August.

378 Messrs. R. M‘Andrew and L. Barrett’s List of the Mollusca

XXXIII.—List of the Mollusca observed between Drontherm
and the North Cape. By R. M‘Anprew, Esq., F.L.S., and
L. Barrett, Esq., F.G.S.

Ovr observations extended along 700 miles of coast, 300 of
which were south and 400 north of the arctic circle, and from
the littoral zone to a depth of 200 fathoms. The opportunities
for dredging were most favourable, the coast beg protected
from the Atlantic swell by the numerous islands to the seaward ;
and the deeply indented fiords supplying many secure anchorages
and sheltered dredging grounds. In the following lists the
Norwegian distribution of each species is given, the coast bemg
divided into three provinces, so that the extreme southern hmit
of the arctic species, and the northern limit of the southern spe-
cies, can be more correctly ascertained.

GASTEROPODA.

We met with 103 species of this class ; of these 91 belong to
the order Prosobranchiata, and 12 to the Opisthobranchiata. The
smaller species were extremely abundant, but the larger species
of Buccinum and Fusus were seldom met with.

PROSOBRANCHIATA.
Species. Range. nea Ground. Freq.| Norwegian distribution.
fathoms. | fathoms.

CANCELLARIA, Lam. |

viridula, O. Fabr. ...... | 30-150) 30-150) — gravel, sand. r. {Nord., Fin.
TricHotTrRoPis, Brod. |

borealis, Sow. ......«e.) 5-150) 5-100) lamimaria, gravel. | a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Fusus, Lam. |

propinquus, Alder...... | ABSOONE cts. sand. r:" |/F'im!

antiquus, L eee | 8-70 | 8-40 | gravel, mud, sand.) a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.

islandicus, Chemn....... | SIDE U) ek aac sand, gravel. r. |Fin.

norvegicus (young) .... 100 | ...... sand. ose o/ FIM.
TropHon, Monff. |

clathratus, DL. ...-.c0- - 10-100) 16-100 gravel, sand, nullip.| a. |Nord., Fin.

Gunneri, Lovén......... 8-150) 8-150 nullip., weed, gravel) a. /Dront., Nord., Fin,

Barvicensis ? Johnst.... 70-160) 70 gravel. v. r./Fin.

Note.—The figures in the first column of this and the following pages

indicate the extent of the range at which the species was met with, whether
alive or dead; in the second, the greatest and least depth at which it was
dredged alive ; in the third, the kind of sea-bottom is named ; in the fourth,
the letters express the degree of frequency of occurrence :—a. abundant,
generally distributed and plentiful; f. frequent ; /. local, more or less plen-
tiful in a few localities; r. rare; and v.r. very rare, when but few ex-
amples occurred. In the fifth column the northern Scandinavian distri-
bution is given, the coast being divided into three unequal provinces :
North Drontheim (Dront.); Nordland (Nord.); and Finmark (Fin.).

observed between Drontheim and the North Cape.

379

Species Range living ~ Ground, Freq.| Norwegian distribution.
fathoms. | fathoms. | it
Buccinum, L.
mudatum: Liiscd.. 32. lit.-150) lit.-70 gravel, mud, sand.) a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dalei, POW veceiaass 100-160) 100-160 sand. v. vr. |Fin.
Humphreysianum, Benn. 16-150) 16-150, nullipora, sand. iv. r. Fin.
fusiforme, Brod. ......| -.+++ 30-160, sand. v. r. |Fin.
eyaneum, Brug. ...... lit. lit. rock, sand. a. |Nord., Fin.
Nassa, Lam.
reticulata, L. ......... 8-15 | 8-15 | mud, stones. r. |Nord.
incrassata, Miill. ......) 5-50 | 5-50 | lamimaria, sand. | a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Purpura, Adans. f
TORE: cradeosvexs.| it. lit. rock, sand. a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
PLEevuRoTOMA, Lam.
nivale, Lovén.........+++ 30-150) 30-150) sand, gravel. r. |Nord., Fin.
teres, Forbes .......+.... 50 - lageese sand. 1 sp. Dront.
Bea, Leach.
turricula, Montg. ......| 10-150, 10-130 mud, sand, gravel.| a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
TORER, OTS: 3 isieecewo<Xe 30 10 mud, sand. r. |Nord.
rufa, Montg. ............| 10-200) 10-100mud, gravel, nullip.| a. Dront., Nord., Fin.
mitrula, Lovén ......... 10 10 sand. 1. |Nord., Fin.
Trevelliana, Turton ...| 8-200) 8-150) gravel, mud. a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Derrancia, Millet.
linearis, Montg. ...... 10-40 | 10-40 {nullip., gravel, mud, r. Dront., Nord.
pyramidalis, Strém. ...| 50-100) 50 sand, gravel. r. |Nord., Fin.
Cyprma, L.
europa, Montg. ......| 30 | «..... nullipora. vy. r. |Dront.
Natica, Lam.
ce en OS ae ee 6-50 | 6-50 jnull., gravel,lamin.) a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Montagui, Forbes ...... 3-70 | 3-70 |gravel, nullip., mud) r. Dront., Nord., Fin.
helicoides, Johnst.......| 3-60 | 3-30 gravel, sand. 1, |Dront., Nord., Fin.
pusilla, Gould ......... lit.-150) lit.-150\sand, gravel, weed | 1. |Dront., Fin.
Clausa, Sow. .....cs000- lit.-150) lit.-150) sand, weed, mud. | a. |Nord., Fin.
LAMELLARIA, Montg.
rodita, Lovén .........| «+ e- | 30-40 (coral, gravel, sand.) 1. Fin.
ELUTINA, Flem.
Lo a as 1-150) 1-50 | laminaria, gravel. | r. Dront., Nord., Fin.
flexilis, Montg. .........| 10-40 | 10-40 | laminaria, gravel. |v. r. Fin.
Opostomia, Flem.
plicata, Montg....... «.-| 15-70 | 15-70 sand, gravel. r. Dront., Nord., Fin.
Cuemnirzia, D’Orb.
elegantissima ......... 35-160, 40-100 gravel. f. Nord., Fin.
rufescens, Forbes ...... 50 ascents sand. v. r. Dront.
EvuLIMELLA, Forbes.
Scilla, Sow. ............| 15-200, 25-100) — gravel, mud. r. Dront., Nord.
SAUDIS SE PSL aul tesicces'’ 2 ? sand. r. |Nord., Fin.
Evuuimma, Risso.
bilineata, Alder....... ..| 15-200} 20-100 mud, sand. a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
species (NeW) ..-.......05 2 ?
Polite Ps: sss de --.| 15-70 | 40 sand. v. r. |Dront., Nord.
CeriTuiuM, Brug.
metula, Lovén ......... 20-150) 20-150) mud, sand. f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Species (new) ...042... ? ?
reticulatum, Da Costa) 1-40 | 1-40 mud, laminaria. | f. Dront.

380

Species.

Triroris, D’ Arch.
M‘Andrei, Adams ......
Aporruals, Da Costa.

pes-carbonis, Brug. ...
pes-pelecani, L.
TURRITELLA, Lam.
communis, Risso
ScaLarRiaA, Lam.
grcenlandica, Sow.
Loveni, Adams
Lirrorina, Feéruss.
littorea, L.
rudis, Don.
Nittoraliss 2 jersccseseses
Lacuna, Turton.
vincta, Montg. .........
labiosa, Loven
Rissoa, Flem.
calathus, F. & H. ...02.
striata, Montg. .........
parva, Da Costa
rufilabrum, L.
tilvce, Penn, ldseeennncice
SKENEA, Flem.
SDCCIES Venn qeteanthn sae os
Trocuus, L.
millegranus, Phil.
tumidus, Montg. ......
cinerarius, Montg.
Marearita, Leach.

seeeee

sence

wee eeesee

feet et eceeee

eeeeee

eeereceee

Range. living on
fathoms. | fathoms.
50-100} 50-70
TAU erences
8-40 | 8-40
15-40 | 15-40
15-150) 15-45
30-50 | 30-50
lit.-10 | lit.-5
lit.-7 lit.
lit. ht.
lit.-30 | lit.-30
cio 2-5
5-40 | 5-10
8-25 | 8-25
lit.-10 | lit.-10
1-10 | 1-10
lit. hit.
15-70 | 15-40
15-50 | 15-50
lit.-30 | lit.-30
lit.-30 | lit.-30

Ground. Freq.| Norwegian distribution.
sand, gravel. y.r.|Dront., Nord., Fin.
sand. y.r. |Nord.
gravel, mud. a. |Dront., Nord.
mud, gravel. a. |Dront., Nord.
gravel, sand. fe
gravel. r. |Dront.
rock, nullipora. | a. |Dront., Nord.
rock. a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
rock. a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.

laminaria, gravel.

laminaria. Yr.
laminaria, gravel. | f.
mud, gravel. a.
weed, gravel. f.
laminaria, nullipora| a.
mud. i
mud, gravel. a.
nullip., sand, gravel} r.
null., gravel, lamin.| a.
laminaria, gravel. | a.
gravel, coral. 1.
laminaria, nullipora) a.
lamin., gravel, null.) a.
gravel, weed, coral.) a.
sand, gravel. n
Save 2°99) Weonistew
gravel, nullipora. | a.

laminaria, nullipora| f.

alabastrum, Beck ...... 25-150) 25-100
helicina, O. Fabr....... lit.-30 | lit.-30
undulata, Sow. ......0. lit.-150} lit.-100
cinerea, Couth. ......+.. 10-150} 10-130
ScIsSURELLA, D’Orb.

crispata, Flem. ......+.+ 40-100} 40-80
angulata, Lovén ...... 40-100} ......
PuNCTURELLA, Lovén.

MOACHINASE aeacececsee ces 4-150) 4-70
EMARGINULA, Lam.

reticulata, Sow.......+.. 1-30 1-30
crassa, J. Sow. .......6- SOR 4O.eie
PiLeopsis, Lam.

hungaricus, DL. .........) seeeee 20
PATELLA, L.

Vulgata, L.. .....sccc00s lit. lit.
pellucida, 7. c7.3......! hit.-20 | lit.-20
execa, Mill. .......0000. 20-100) 20-100
Acmma, Esch.

virginea, Miill. ......... 6-50 | 6-50
testudinalis, Mill. ...| lit.-30 | lit.-10

PropriLipium, F. & H.
fulvum, Mill. ...

15-150, 15-100

gravel. v.r.

gravel, rock. | v.r.
rock. a.
rock, laminaria. | f.
gravel, mud. a.
gravel, nullipora. | a.

nullipora, gravel.

gravel, nullipora.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.

Messrs. R. M‘Andrew and L. Barrett’s List of the Mollusca

Dront.

Dront.
Dront., Nord.
Dront.
Dront., Nord.
Dront., Nord.

Dront., Nord.

Dront., Nord.
Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.

Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.

Dront., Nord., Fin.
Nord.

Nord., Fin.

Dront., Nord.
Dront.

Dront., Nord.

Dront., Nord.
Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.

Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.

Dront., Nord., Fin.

ee

observed between Drontheim and the North Cape.

|
|

Species. Range. living mn Ground.
fathoms. | fathoms.
DenTAuium, L.
Ghtmep wm. Wiest. 2.0. 4-200, 4-200) gravel, nullipora. |
species (new) ......... 70-150 70-150 mud,
species (NeW) ...+-+06. 2 2
CuirTon, L.
Hanleyi, Bean ........| ss.00e 35-120) rock, gravel.
FUDGE, ees ine weden| cesses 1-30 | gravel, nullipora.
asellus, Chemn. .........] ssse0 1-130 gravel.
levis, Penn. ......000¢ atl) eee 30-50 nullipora.
marmoreus, O. Fabr....| ..+... 7-30 nullipora, laminaria
cancellatus, Sow. ......| esses | 15-20 gravel.
alveOhis) Sane sesee] caves 120-150 rock.
Cereus, Li iiveserecses] cocece | lit. | gravel.
OPpisTHOBRANCHIATA.
TORNATELLA, Lam.
FORCIACA Eo itest dees cet - 30-35 | 30-35 mud.
Cy.icuna, Lovén.
alba, Lovén ..........-.| 20-150} 20-30 mud, sand.
eylindracea, Penn. ...| 20-70 | 20-40 gravel.
truncata, Montg. ......| 8-100, 8-100 mud, sand.
AMPHISPHYRA, Lovén.
hyalina, Turton ......| ...00 20-30 mud.
ScAPHANDER, Montf.
librarius, Lovén 20-150) 20-30 mud, sand.
PHILINE, Ascanius.
scabra, Mill. ......... 15-40 | 15-40 | mud, nullipora.
aperta, LD. — sssesseeeeee 15-20 | 15-20 nullipora.
quadrata, S. Wood ...) 40-100, 40-100 gravel.
Ap.ysiA, L.
hybrida, Sow. ...... til feces lit.-20 rock.
Doris, L.
Johnstoni, A. & H. ...| ...... lit. rock.
Denvronortus,d4.& H.
arborescens, Miill. ...| ...... lit. rock.
PrEROPODA.

881

Freq.) Norwegian distribution.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Nord., Fin.
r. |Dront., Nord.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Fin.
a. |Nord., Fin.
r. |Nord.
r. |Dront., Nord.
1 sp.|/Dront.
1. |Dront., Nord.

f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Fin.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
l. |Dront., Nord.

r. |Nord.

]. |Fin.

r. |Dront., Nord.

1. |Nord.

Y.

Prof. Lovén in his ‘ Catalogue of the Mollusca of Western
Scandinavia’ enumerates three species of this order ; but we were
not fortunate enough to procure a living or dead specimen of

either species.

We dredged at the entrance of Drontheim fiord

three dead specimens of a species of Cleodora.

Found
living at

Species. Range
fathoms
C.LEopora, species ...| 70

seen

3 sp.|Drontheim.

382 Messrs. R. M‘Andrew and L. Barrett’s List of the Mollusca

BRACHIOPODA.

Five species of this order inhabit the shores of Norway, four
of which we procured abundantly, the great depth of water
along the coast being favourable to their numerical development ;
they range from 25-160 fathoms, and are generally distributed
along the coast, with the exception of Crania anomala, which
becomes extremely scarce in Nordland and is not found in Fin-
mark. The species are mostly gregarious, and often when a
haul of shells is obtained from clean ground, the specimens of
Brachiopoda greatly exceed the other Bivalves and Univalves in
number. Very few dead Terebratule were met with.

Species. Range. ne at Ground. Freq.) Norwegian distribution.
fathoms. | fathoms.

TEREBRATULA, Brug.

cranium, Miill. ......... 15-200) 25-160 gravel. 1. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
TEREBRATULINA,@ Orb.

caput-serpentis, L. ...| 30-100) 30-100, coral, gravel. a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
RHYNCHONELLA, Fisch.

psittacea, Gm. .....6... 40-150) 40-50 gravel. r. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Cranta, Retz.

anomala, Mill. ......... 25-100 25-100, gravel, rock. a. |Dront., Nord.

CoNCHIFERA.

We met with ninety-four species of this class. They are most

abundant on sandy and muddy bottoms.

We dredged off the

Vigten Islands one living specimen of the Lima excavata, which
was by far the largest bivalve met with. Among the shells
brought home were a few specimens which Mr. Woodward has
found to be identical with Limopsis pygmea from the Crag, a shell
hitherto supposed to be extinct.

Species. Range. eine a Ground. Freq.| Norwegian distribution.
fathoms. | fathoms.

|ANOMIA, L.

[~ephippium, DL. ......... 1-160) 1-160) nullipora, gravel. | a. {Dront., Nord., Fin.
patellifoxmis-. ...26.) ~3-28 | 3-25 | gravel, nullipora. | a. |Dront., Nord.
aculeata, Miill. ......... 1-70 | 1-70 | gravel, nullipora. |...... Dront., Nord., Fin.
striata, Lovén......0....- 50 50 gravel. 1. |Dront.

Prectren, Miller.

Gpercilarigg Ws. ..6ss..5| se-0 3-25 | gravel, nullipora. | r. Dront., Nord.
islandicus, Miill. ...... 15-150) 20-40 | gravel, nullipora. | a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
PURIOs ECM mdees. ess] venoos 5-20 laminaria. r. |Dront.

tigrinus, Mill. .......-. 20-100) 20-100) mud, gravel. f. Dront., Nord., Fin.

a

observed between Drontheim and the North Cape.

Species. Range. living = Ground.
fathoms. | fathoms.

PrecTen, Miill.

striatus, Miill. ......... 3-100} 3-50 mud, gravel.
danicus, Chemn. ...... 20-70 | w.00. mud, gravel.
similis, Laskey ......... 15-200) 15-50 | sand, nullipora.
groenlandicus, Sow. .../100-150) 150 sand.
ea ee ee ae 70 70 sand.
Ae 100-150, 100-150 sand.

SPH EMO W) x ciod iia os ov 100-150, 100-150 sand,
Lima, Brug

hians, Gm sseeseeee| 4-25 | 4-25 | gravel, nullipora.

Loscombii, Leach...... 8-50 | 15-25 | gravel, nullipora.
subauriculata, Montg...; 15-120, 15-120) gravel, sand.
excavata, Chemn. ...... 30-150) 120 gravel, rock.
Limopsis, Sassi.

pygmea, Philippi .....| seeees 70-100) — gravel, mud.
Myrtiuus, L.

CUS ae nee ee see-+s| lit.-40 | lit.-40 | nullipora, gravel.
Mopro.ta, Lam

modiolus, LD. ......... 6-30 | 6-30 | laminaria, gravel.

phaseolina, Phil. ...... 30-160 30-160 gravel.

BYRe Sie nannaautdagites sues 30.- | 30 mud.
CRENELLA, Brown.

decussata, Montg. 8-150; 8-100} sand, gravel.

Giscaray Ta... teow ek eoe 3-100) lit.-109} rock, gravel.

Bigrey GAY cc-..c0sess 15-150) 15-150) mud, sand, gravel.

marmorata, Forbes ...| lit.-100) lit.-100| mud, gravel.
Arca, L. |

raridentata, S. Wood...| 20-150) 30-150 gravel

nodulosa, Mill. ...... 15-25 | 15-25 gravel
Nucu.ta, Lam.

a 8-50 | 8-50 | nullipora, gravel.

tenuis, Montg. .........| 8-100) 8-100) gravel, mud.

corticata, Moller ...... 100-150, 100-150 sand, mud.
Lepa, Schum.

pernula, Miill. .........| 20-160) 20-160} gravel, mud.

caudata, Don. ......... 10-160, 10-160) — gravel, mud.

lucida, Lovén ......... 10-160, 10-160) — sand, gravel.

pygmzxa, Munster 120 120 mud.

limatula, Say ......... 120 120 mud.
Carpium, L.

echinatum, D. ......... 20-40 | 20-40 | mud, nullipora.

SOT 1) ere ees lit.-25 | lit.-25 sand, mud.

fasciatum, Montg. ...| 15-100) 15-100} mud, gravel.

nodosum, Turton ...... 3-100) 3-100) nullipora, mud.

suecicum, Reeve ......| 20-150) 20-100) gravel, mud.

elegantulum, Moller...| 30-40 | 30-40 mud.
Lucina, Brug.

borealis, L. ...... eeeeee| 8-30 | 8-30 | mud, null., gravel.

spinifera, Montg. ...... 5 Ot eae sand.

flexuosa, Montg. ...... 7-150) 7-150) mud, gravel.

ferruginosa, Forbes ...| 20-100) 20-100} gravel, sand.

Sarai 2, PAs. vs~s BO-1LOOR cc... sand, mud.

383

Freq.| Norwegian distribution.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
valves} Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.
. |Nord., Fin.
Nord.
. |Nord., Fin.
-r. {Nord., Fin.

seeeee

a. |Dront., Nord.
- |Dront., Nord.
- |Dront.

- |Dront., Nord.

. |Nord.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.

r. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Fin.

f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
l. |Dront., Nord., Fin.

f. |Nord., Fin.
r. |Dront.

f. |Nord.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Nord., Fin.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
l. \Nord.

- |Nord.

l. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
f. |Nord., Fin.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Fin.

f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
1 sp./Nord.

f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord.
valves| Dront., Nord., Fin.

384. Messrs. R. M‘Andrew and L. Barrett’s List of the Mollusca

Found
Species. Range. living at
fathoms, | fathoms.
ARTEMIS.
exoleta, Di.) \\ciscnscsee. 3-10 | 3-10
lincta, Pult. ....c..00s00 8-25 | 8-25
Kewuia, Turton.
suborbicularis, Montg.| 1-25 | 1-25
Monracura, Turton.
substriata, Montg. ...| ...... 20
bidentata, Montg. ...| ...... 50?
Cyprina, Lam.
aslandi¢a: Hetieovce cca 8-70 | 8-70
ASTARTE, Sow.
suleata, Da Costa...... 15-160} 15-160
crebricostata, F......... 20-200) 20-160
elliptica, Brown ...... 4-50 | 4-50
arctica, Gray .......0. lit.-4) | lit.-30
compressa, Montg. 4-50 | lit.-50
Venus, L.
faxciata, Da Costa.<;:-) -5O | «ho.
striatula, Da Costa ...| 3-40 | 3-40
OWatal Penns ie eck: 15-100} 15-100
CASI s, ecl b vce stals 15-25 al Mewes.
Tapes, Megerle.
pullastra, Wood ..,.... 3-10 | wee.
ITN ea Pas os cecete 15-25 | «+0.
Macrra, L.
elliptica, LD. ........ceee 7-150) 7-25
TELLINA, J.
solidula, Pult. ......... 4-98 | 4-25
proxima, Brown ......
fabula, Gronovius......| ...... 3-10
PsaMMoBIA, I.
ferroensis,Chemn....... 3-40 | 3-40
tellinella, Lam. ....:.| sas0s- 3-25
GASTRANA, Schum
Eras, BrP ea yuah ceecee Leen
Donax, L.
anatinus, Lam. ......« 15-25 "|, aesecs
Synposmya, Recluz.
alba, Wood ............ 8-40 | 8-40
prismatica, Montg. «..| 8-150) 8-30
mtermedia, Thompson | 8-70 | 8-70
Soien, L.
UST Lat ee eg pel leecBogc
pellucidus, Penn. ...... 3-40 | 3-40
Mya, L
truncata AE? 2203.51.60... lit.-100} lit.-40
arenaria, Bis! .25c.....608 20-40 | 20-40
CorBuLa, Brug.
nucleus, Lam. ......++. 8-20 | 8-20
NEez#Ra, Gray.
cuspidata, Olivi ...... 40-160} 40-160
costellata, Desh. ...... 20-40 | 20-40

Ground.

nullipora.
mud, gravel.

gravel.

on Spatangus.
sand.

gravel, sand.

sand, gravel.

sand.

gravel.

nullipora.
gravel.

nullipora, sand,

gravel, mud.

20-100} 20-100) sand, nullipora.

nullipora.

nullipora, gravel.
nullipora, gravel.

stew e eer seeeerneeseee

mud, sand.
mud.

mud, gravel.

gravel, mud.
mud.

mud, nullip., gravel.
sand, nullip., gravel.
sand, nullip., mud.
gravel, sand, nullip.

gravel, nullip.,sand.} a.
nullip.,gravel,sand.| a.

-| Norwegian distribution.

-|Nord.
r. |Dront., Nord.

r. |Dront.

r. |Dront., Nord.
2 sp.|Nord.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.

a
a. |Nord., Fin:

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
1

a

Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.

Dront.
Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront., Nord., Fin.
Dront.

] sp.

1 sp.

r. |Dront., Nord.
y.r. |Dront., Nord.

f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.|
f. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Nord.

c. |Dront., Nord.
r. |Dront., Nord.

Dront.
r. |Dront.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.

Nord.
Dront., Nord.

a. |Dront., Nord., Fin.
r. |Dront., Nord., Fin,

a. |Dront., Nord.

f. \Nord., Fin.
r. |Dront.

observed between Drontheim and the North Cape. 385

Found

living at Freq.| Norwegian distribution.

fathoms. | fathoms.
| 30-35 | 30-35 . |Fin.
Fin.

Korenii, Lovén | 45.90 | 70 ~(|

SAXICAVA. /

arctica, L. | lit.-160! lit.-150)

TuHracia, Bl. | |

convexa, Wood oa gravel, mud. | 1. |Nord., Fin.
|

gravel, sand. . |Dront., Nord., Fin.

phaseolina, Lam. ...... weenee | 2-25 gravel, sand. | r. |Nord.
PeripLoma, Schum. |
pretenuis, Pult. nullipora. .r. |Nord.

Lyownsia, Turton.
arenosa, Moller nullipora. . |Nord.

sand. .¥.|Dront.

crispata, L. it. sand. .\Nord.
Xy.LopnHaGa, Turton.
i wood. .r.|Dront.
TeREDO, Adans.

norvegica, Spengl wood. y.¥. |Fin.

TUNICATA.

The species of this class were most abundant on clean ground
at a depth of 15-50 fathoms. In Grote fiord, on a muddy
bottom in 20 fathoms water, a species of Cynthia occurred abun-
dantly in masses composed of twenty to thirty individuals. A
single specimen of Pelonea corrugata was dredged off the coast
of Nordland.

Amovurccium, M.-Edw. Ascip1A, Baster.
argus, M.-Edw. virginea, O. F. Miiller.
Botryuuuvs, Gaertner. CYNTHIA, Savigny.
polycyclus, Savigny. limacina, EF. Forbes.
Borry..oipes, M.-Edw. aggregata, Rathke.
albicans, M.-Edw. PeLonzma, F. & G.

corrugata, Forbes.

Note.—We have several other species of this class which we
think are not described.

Potyzoa,

The number of species collected is about thirteen, of which
six at least seem to have been hitherto undescribed. With one
exception, those which are known appear to belong to forms met
with only in the Arctic or northern part of the temperate zones.
The exception, Retepora cellulosa, of which however only a frag-
ment occurred, is found in the Mediterranean, and probably in

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 25

386° Mr. A. R. Wallace’s Account of an Infant Orang-Utan.

the Southern hemisphere also. One species seems to be identical
with a tertiary fossil, Defrancia stellata of Goldfuss. The most
striking peculiarities in so small a collection are the occurrence
in it of no less than four new species of Eschara, and of two new
(as recent) forms of Defrancia, both abundant generic forms in
the tertiary and cretaceous formations.

CELLEPORA, O. Fabricius. IpMongEA, Lamz.
cervicornis, Autor. atlantica, Forbes.

Escuara, Ray. Hornera, Lame.
teres, n. sp. frondiculata, Lame.
tridens, n. sp. Drastopora, M.-Edw.
saccata, ll. sp. obelia, Johnst.
rosacea, 0. sp. TusBuLipora, Lamarck.

Rerepora, Imperato. hispida, Fleming.
cellulosa, Lam. DeEFRANCIA, Bronn.
beaniana, King. fungiformis, n. sp.

stellata, Goldfuss.

Frequently the dredge came up quite full of masses of one or
more of the above species. At Keilvig, in Finmark, a dredge
from 100 to 160 fathoms water was quite filled with Retepora.
The Cellepora cervicornis frequently formed large patches in
50 fathoms water. The Idmonea atlantica was very common,
attached to a red weed found in the lower part of the Lami-
narian zone. We are indebted to Mr. Busk for the above list
and notes on the Polyzoa; he has also kindly described and
figured the new species, which will be published in an early
Number of the ¢ Annals.’

XXXIV.—Some Account of an Infant “ Orang-Utan.”
By Atrrep R. Wa.uace.

Tus little animal was probably not more than a month old
when I obtained it by shooting its mother, with whom it fell to
the ground apparently uninjured. I found out afterwards that
it had then broken a leg and an arm, which however mended so
rapidly, that I only noticed it a week or two afterwards by
observing the hard swellings on the limbs where the irregular
junction of the bone had taken place. When I first obtained it,
it was toothless, but a few days afterwards it cut its two lower
front teeth. I fed it with rice-water given out of a bottle with
a quill in the cork, which after one or two trials it sucked very
well. When however a finger was placed in its mouth it would
suck at it with remarkable vigour, drawing in its little cheeks
with all its might, thinking no doubt it had got hold of the

Mr. A. R. Wallace’s Account of an Infant Orang-Utan. 387

right thing at last, and wondering that all its exertions could
get no milk out of it. It would persevere for a long time till
at last it gave up with despair and disgust, indicated generally
by a very baby-like scream.

When handled or nursed it was always quiet and contented,
but when laid down alone it would invariably ery, and the first
night or two was very restless. I fitted up a small box as its
cradle with a mat for it to lie upon, which was changed and washed
every day. I soon found it necessary to wash the little Mias
as well, which appeared to have very good effect. It winced a
little and made ridiculously wry faces when the cold water was
poured over its head, but enjoyed the rubbing dry amazingly,
and was particularly pleased at having the hair of its back, head
and legs brushed afterwards, during which operation it would
lie perfectly still as long as I liked to continue it. For the
first day or two it clung desperately with its four hands to what-
ever it could lay hold of, and having once unawares caught hold
of my whiskers and beard, it clutched them with its little hooked
fingers cruelly tight, and I had considerable difficulty in getting
free. It doubtless felt quite at home, being accustomed to cling
from its birth to the long hair of its mother.

When restless it would struggle about with its hands up to
eatch hold of something, and might often be seen quite con-
tented when it had some bit of rag or stick grasped in two or
three of its hands. At other times it would take hold of its own
feet, and latterly its constant practice was to cross its arms like a
little Napoleon, and with each hand seize hold of the long hair
Just below its opposite shoulder. The excessive tenacity of its
grasp however soon diminished. The constant and powerful
exercise of the limbs in the young Mias, remaining as it does for
many hours each day with the whole weight of its body sup-
ported by its four extremities from the body of its mother,
must induce a development of the limbs which can hardly take
place in confinement. We should therefore expect a considerable
difference in the proportions of the limbs and body, between
animals brought up in a state of captivity and those killed in a
state of nature.

I soon found that I could feed my infant Mias with a spoon,
and make its food rather more solid. I gave it soaked or chewed
biscuit with a little sugar and egg, and sometimes sweet potatoes.
These it liked very much, and it was a never-failing source of
amusement to observe the curious changes of countenance by
which it would express its approval or dislike of what was given
it. It would lick its lips, draw in its cheeks, and turn up its
eyes with an expression of the most supreme satisfaction when
it had a mouthful particularly to its taste. On the other hand,

25%

388 Mr. A. R. Wallace’s Account of an Infant Orang-Utan.

when its food was not sufficiently sweet or palatable, it would
turn the mouthful about with its tongue for a moment as if
trying to extract what flavour theré was, and then push it all out
between its lips. Ifthe same food was continued, it would set
up a scream and kick about violently, exactly like a baby in a
passion.

After about three weeks I obtained a small Hare-lipped
Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus), which, though young, had its
first teeth, was very active, aud could feed itself. I placed it in
the same box with the Mias and they immediately became ex-
cellent friends, not exhibiting the least fear of each other. The
little monkey would sit upon the Mias’ stomach, or even on its
face, with very little regard to its feelings, and after feeding
would pick off what was sticking to its lips, and then pull open
its mouth and put its little hand in to see if any was left mside,
and would afterwards lie down across its body im whatever posi-
tion was most convenient, without at all consulting the comforts
of its companion. The poor little Mias would submit to all
these insults with the most exemplary patience, seeming quite
glad to have something warm about its body, and occasionally
taking its revenge by clutching tight hold of the loose skin on
the monkey’s back or head, and then, when he tried to escape,
holding on by the long tail as long as it could, the vigorous
jumps of the monkey generally being too much for it in the
end.

It was curious to observe the difference between these two.
The Mias like a young baby lying on its back quite helpless,
rolling lazily from side to side, stretching out its four hands into
the air wishing to grasp something, but unable to guide its
fingers to any particular object, and when dissatisfied opening
wide its almost toothless mouth and expressing its wants by an
infantine scream. The little monkey, on the other hand, in con-
stant motion, running and jumping about wherever it pleased,
examining everything with its fingers and seizing hold of the
smallest objects with the greatest precision, balancing itself on
the edge of the box, or running up a post and helping itself to
everything eatable that came in its way. There could not be a
greater contrast, and the baby Mias looked more baby-lke by
the comparison.

In order to give my infant a little exercise and strengthen its
limbs, I contrived a kind of ladder upon which I put it to hang
for a quarter of an hour at a time; but this was not much to its
liking, as it could not get all four of its legs into convenient
positions. It would hang for some time by two hands only, and
then suddenly leaving go with one would cross it to the opposite
ehoulder to catch hold of its own hair, and thinking no doubt

Mr. A. R. Wallace’s Account of an Infant Orang-Utan. 389

that that would support it much better than the stick, would
leave hold with the other hand and come tumbling down on to
the floor, when it would immediately cross its arms and lie
quite contented, for it never seemed hurt by any of its numerous
tumbles. I then tried to make a kind of artificial mother for
the little creature by wrapping up a piece of buffalo-skin into a
bundle with the long woolly hair outside, and hung it up about
a foot from the ground. This suited it much better, as it could
sprawl its legs and arms about wherever it liked, and always find
some hair to catch hold of, which its little fingers grasped with
the greatest tenacity. But the very success of this plan led to
its speedy disuse ;—it was too natural; and the poor little crea-
ture thinking it had recovered its mother was continually trying
to suck. It would pull itself up close by the strength of its
arms and try everywhere for a likely place, but only succeeded
in getting mouthfuls of wool, when of course it would be greatly
disgusted, scream violently, and if not rescued would soon let
itself fall. One day it got so much wool into its throat that I
thought it would have been choked, but after much gasping
it recovered, and this plan of giving it exercise had to be dis-
continued.

After I had had it about a month, it began to exhibit some
little signs of learning to run alone. When laid upon the floor
it would push itself along by its legs, or roll over, and thus make
an unwieldy progression. When in its box it would lift itself
up to the edge into almost an erect position, and once or twice
succeeded in tumbling out. When left dirty or hungry, or any-
way neglected, it would scream violently till attended to, varied
by a kind of pumping noise very similar to that which is miade
by the adult animal. If its cries were taken no notice of, or no
one was in the house, it would le quiet, but as soon as it heard
a footstep near it would recommence with great violence.

In five weeks it cut its two upper front teeth, but in all this
time it had not grown the least, remaiming both in dimensions and
weight the same as when I first procured it. This was no doubt
owing to want of milk or other equally nourishing food. Rice-
water was a miserable substitute, and cocoa-nut milk, which I
sometimes gave it, did not quite agree with its stomach. To
this I imputed an attack of diarrhoea which the poor little ani-
mal suffered, for which I gave it a small dose of castor-oil which
operated very well, and it afterwards soon became better. It
was however again taken ill, and this time more seriously. The
symptoms were all those of intermittent fever, accompanied with
watery swellings of the feet and head. It lost all appetite for
its food, and after lmgering for a week a most pitiable objeet,
died, after being in my possession nearly three months. °

390 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

I much regretted the loss of my little pet, which I had at one
time looked forward to bringing up to years of maturity, and
which had afforded me daily amusement and pleasure by its
curious ways and the inimitably ludicrous expressions of its little
countenance. Could I have obtained a regular supply of milk,
or better still, could I have found some animal to have given it
suck, I have little doubt it might have been reared, though it
would probably never have reached the dimensions of its parents.
It is probable that so young an animal of this species has never
been before observed by Europeans. I have therefore given this
brief account of its habits, which may not be uninteresting to
lovers of nature. n

Dimensions of young Orang-Utan.

Length : heel to Crown ....-s..eseeeeeeeeeee Pew
arms’ extended %..6.2.23%2..ceeeee ds lat
légs- extended jo yssiye: .opeasasweeh ss lin
OLHCEL fos sucanaccmasanndeaeeee wesuicon (Dia 2
OF HANGS +. sescsoces Vonascoenes vseeee Wa? pies

GrcEP Gl Mat y hens eseseccstat aes seek. eee erent OTT

GP thich TOU «els carkece-odaeeee 0 32
np ATM dad J. shoes a Meld cae seee sesh 0 3%
of head, chin to Crown ........s...00: Kye 1

Weight 3 lb. 9 oz.

XXXV.—On the Theory of the Fecundation of the Ovum.
By E. CLapaReEDE.

[Concluded from p. 311.]

We have already seen that J. Miiller, on discovermg an open-
ing in the envelope of the ova of Holothuria, could not avoid
mentioning the analogy of this canal with the micropyle of the
Phanerogamous plants, so naturally did this comparison oceur
to the mind. Keber in his turn adopted the name of micropyle
in treating of the ova of the Nazades, and we may now say that
both the name and the analogy are sanctioned by science. The
analogies between the modes of fecundation in the vegetable and
animal kingdoms are indeed of more than one kind. What, in
fact, are the phytosperms of the Cryptogamia,—for an exact
knowledge of which we are particularly indebted to Nageli and
Leszezyc-Suminski,—unless they are the spermatozoa of these
plants? Is it not a very remarkable fact, that in both cases
fecundation should be connected with particles endowed with
motion, which at first sight might be taken for animated crea-
tures? Préyost and Dumas, Siebold, Miller, Wagner, Kolliker,
Quatrefages, Bischoff, Leuckart, &c., have more especially

it

~

Fecundation of the Ovum. 391

brought forward the importance of these mobile particles in the
act of fecundation in animals. Brongniart*, Schleident, Nagelit,
Griffith$, Suminski||, and especially Hofmeister{{ and Hen-
frey**, have also noticed the importance of the movements of
the phytosperms, or vegetable spermatozoa, and the contents of
the pollen in the act of fecundation. From what we know of
the generation of the Ferns, the Lycopodiacez, the Equisetacee,
the Rhizocarpez, the Mosses, and the Characez, does it not
present so great an analogy with the generation of animals, that
the relation must strike everybody? In each case we have
oogenous and spermagenous bodies, which are in such similar
conditions, that we may ask why we may not say simply ovary
instead of archegonium, and testicle instead of antheridium? The
analogy goes so far, that we find in both groups examples of
alternate generations i accordance with the same type. On
one hand, for instance, we have a Hydra which produces, asexu-
ally, buds which become converted into Medusa, whilst the
Medusa acquires sexual organs and produces polypes in its
turn, after fecundation ; and, on the other hand, we have Ferns
which produce buds (the so-called spores) asexually, which are
converted into a prothallium, and this developes antheridia and
archegonia, that is to say, sexual organs, and in its turn re-
produces Ferns, after a fecundation. The sexuality of plants
has been long in making its way into science, and, up to the
most recent times, the entire group of the so-called Crypto-
gamia has been excluded froin the privilege of possessing sexes.
Is it not a singular circumstance, that it should have been re-
served for our age to show that these Cryptogamia are of all
plants those of which the sexual organs possess the greatest
analogy with those of animals? All, or nearly all the Crypto-
gamia in fact appear to possess, on the one hand, archegonia
(or ovaries), and, on the other, antheridia (or testicles) ; in the
latter, spermatozoids are developed. (We prefer the term sper-
matozoid to that of phytosperm, because it is applicable at once
to plants and animals.) We are acquainted with these organs
in the Equisetacee, the Rhizocarpee, the Ferns, the Lycopodi-

* Rech. sur la Génération et le Développement de l’Embryon dans les
Végétaux phanérogames. Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1828.

+ Grundziige der wissenschaftlichen Botanik.

ft Bewegliche Spiralfaden (Samenfaden?) an Farren; in Schleiden und
Nageli’s Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Botanik, 1844.

§ Linn. Trans. xxi.

|| Zur Entwickelung der Farrenkriuter, 1848.

“| Untersuchungen des Vorganges bei der Befruchtung der (£notheren.
Bot. Zeitung von Mohl und Schlechtendal, 1847.

** Linn. Trans. xxi.; Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. 1852.

392 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

aceze, the Mosses and the Characez, and we haye strong pre-
sumptions that we are on the way to discover them in the
Floridex, the Fucoidee, the Lichenes and the Fungi. Lastly,
their existence has lately been ascertained by Pringsheim in the
freshwater Alge*., The analogy of these organs with the gene-
rative organs of animals is so great, that it is the sole reason for
their being regarded as organs of fructification ; for until within
the last few years we had no direct proofs of their function.
And yet botanists are now almost universally agreed to regard
them as organs serving for reproduction. It is an interesting
fact, that at the very moment when the discovery of the pene-
tration of the animal spermatozoid into the ovum startled the
zoologists, that of the passage of the vegetable spermatozoid
into the archegonium appeared on the botanical horizon. It is
scarcely a year since Thuret+ made known some remarkable
experiments made at Cherbourg upon the spores of Fucacee.
He found that the spores of these plants only germinate when
they are in contact with the mobile elements contained in the
antheridia, that is to say, with the spermatozoids (antherozoids).
When the spores are isolated, which is easily done im the dicecious
Fuci, they all perish without exception, and without any develop-
ment. This proves at least that the antheridia have a part to
play in the act of fecundation. But these experiments have not
the value of direct observations, and fortunately the want of
these is beginning to be supplied. Suminski has already
asserted, that he has seen the spermatozoa penetrate into the
archegonium of a Fern (Péeris serrulata). Hofmeister has ob-
served the same phenomenon in another species (Aspidium
jfiiz). These observations, however, have given rise to numerous
objections, reposing to a great extent upon the difficulties of
observation resulting from the tissue which envelopes the arche-
gonium. These objections can scarcely apply to Pringsheim’s
new discovery of the penetration of the spermatozoid mto the
archegonium in Vaucheriat, where the sexual organs are so much
exposed, that we can scarcely suppose the possibility of error.
Besides the reproduction by zoospores, the Vaucherie present
another means of multiplication, which depends on the develop-
ment of their sexual organs; namely, on the one hand of the
recurved horn-like organ, to which even Vaucher$ gave the

* Ueber die Befruchtung der Algen. Monatsberichte der Berl. Akad.,
March 1855.

+ Comptes Rendus, xxxvi. p. 745.

} Ann. of Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. xv. p. 347.

§ Histoire des Conferves d’eau douce. Geneve, 1803. See especially
his Ectosperme sessile, pl. 2. fig. 7 a,—sessile seeds furnished with their
anther.

—_,"

Fecundation of the Ovum. 393

name of filament serving as an anther, and. which actually per-
forms the part of an antheridium ; and, in the second place, of
the slightly recurved organ placed close beside it, to which
Pringsheim thinks we should give the name of sporangium rather
than that of spore. In the course of its development, the
sporangium, which is at first only a simple papilla, acquires a
kind of beak-like process, turned in the direction of the anther-
dium. ‘These two organs are then in direct communication
by their bases with the tube of the Vaucheria, and enclose the
same contents as the latter; but they soon separate from it,
each forming a septum. The sporangium becomes transparent
on its free side, in consequence of the accumulation in that part
of the substance called the pellicular layer* (Hautschicht) by
Pringsheim, whilst the antheridium also becomes transparent,
but by the metamorphosis of its chlorophyll and the remainder
of its contents. The pellicular layer continuing its development
causes the sporangium to cleave at the place of the beak-like
process, and project externally. The part which has thus
issued separates in the form of a mucilaginous mass, and soon
decomposes. By avery remarkable coincidence, as soon as the
sporangium has split open, the point of the antheridium also
opens and pours out its contents. A mass of small moveable
corpuscles issues from it, which, lashing the water with their
tails, move in crowds about the sporangium, pressing against the
pellicular layer. As the beak of the sporangium and the parts
in its neighbourhood are completely transparent and destitute
of chlorophyll, it is easy to make perfectly sure of the penetration
of the corpuscles (spermatozoids) into the interior, if this takes
place. This is the case, according to the observations of Prings-
heim. One or more spermatozoids penetrate mto the interior
of the pellicular layer, and the latter then, in common with the
rest of the contents of the sporangia, becomes surrounded by a
membrane which Mohl might this time consider as a true
primordial utricle, but for its want of primordiality. It is the
mucilaginous pellicular layer itself that becomes converted into
membrane ; for in proportion as the latter thickens, the former
disappears. This cell, which fills all the interior of the sporan-
gium, is therefore the true spore, the result of fecundation. In

* This is, in fact, the primordial utricle of Mohl, of which Pringsheim
disputes the membranous nature. He has shown that the membranous
appearance is due to the reagents employed, which cause the substance
to contract. With sufficiently weak reagents, a mucilaginous mass is
obtained; but nothing that can be compared to a membrane. See
Pringsheim, Grundlinien einer Theorie der Pflanzenzelle, Berlin, 1854 ;
in abstract in Moh] and Schlechtendal’s Bot. Zeitung, 25th May 1855, and
Annals, 2nd Ser. xv. p. 347.

394 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

the course of a few months this spore becomes developed into a
Vaucheria*.

Pringsheim has also completed the observations of Thuret+
and Decaisne on the reproduction of the Fucacee, studying par-
ticularly the common Fucus vesiculosus. In this it is not the
spores, properly so called, that are fecundated, but these give
origin in their interior to eight secondary spores (Thet/sporen).
During the ebb tide, at the moment when the plants are left
dry upon the beach, these secondary spores issue from the
mother-spore, and the antheridial sacs also qut the envelopes of
the male organs. On the return of the tide, the antheridial sacs
burst and give issue to the spermatozoids. These then press in
crowds round the secondary spores, which are not yet enveloped
by any membrane, and penetrate into their interior. After this
fecundation, each secondary spore envelopes itself in a membrane
and becomes developed into a Fucus. In this we have a case
exactly analogous to that of the animal ovum, in which the
spermatozoa penetrate into the vitellus before the formation of
the vitellme membrane, or when it no longer exists (as in the
FEarthworms, according to Meissner).

In the Floridez, it appears that there are two kinds of spores,
of which some reproduce the plant asexually, whilst the others
give rise to a product analogous to the prothallium of Ferns, or
the pro-embryo of Mosses. It is upon the latter that feeunda-
tion takes place. Inthe Angiospermez of Kiitzing, Pringsheim

* A discovery exactly analogous to that of Priagsheim on the Vaucherie
has lately been made by Cohn in a Conferva (Spheroplea annulina, Ag.).
In the cells of this plant stellate spores are produced, which, in their form,
present a most deceptive resemblance to the reproductive bodies of the
Volvox stellatus, Ehr. (hibernating spores of Stein). In the spring, the
contents of these spores divide into two, and afterwards into four or eight
parts, which become developed ito zoospores. These zoospores move
about for a certain time in the water, then fix im some place and give rise
to young Conferve. This is a first asexual generation. These young
Confervee, in fact, are only a kind of prothallium, for new spores, or rather
new sporangia, are formed in their filaments; these present sexual dif-
ferences. Some which present themselves in the form of a membrane,
pierced with a certain number of apertures, have contents which become
converted into spores; these are the archegonia. The others, the mem-
brane of which is also pierced with several apertures, contain small,
mobile, baculiform bodies; these are the antheridia, with their spermato-
zoids. The spermatozoids escape from their prison by passing through
the apertures of the membrane, and, swimming through the water, go in
search of the archegonia, into which they penetrate by passing the aper-
tures of their membrane. Cohn has directly observed this interesting
phenomenon. (Monatsbericht der Berl. Akad., May 1895.)

+ [Thuret had previously seen and described minutely this process of
fecundation : see Proce. See. Cherbourg, 1. p. 161, and Ann. d. Se. Nat.
4th Ser. u. p. 197.— En. Ann. Nat. Hist.)

Fecundation of the Ovum. 395

has also ascertained the existence of two modes of reproduction,
one by zoospores and the other by fecundation ;—at least the
presence of spermatozoids and female organs leads to a suppo-
sition of the latter.

It is clear that fecundation must be a pretty general phzeno-
menon in the Cryptogamia, and it is probably effected throughout
by the entrance of the spermatozoids into the sporangia or arche-
gonia. <A plant allied to Vaucheria, the Achlya prolifera, in
which Unger, Alex. Braun, Thuret and De Bary have studied
the reproduction by zoospores, possesses spores of a second de-
scription, which are destitute of motion. These rather deserve
the name of sporangia, like those of Vaucheria. Pringsheim
has ascertained the existence of a micropyle in them, and has
also pointed out the micropyle in the genera Bulbochete
and CUidogonium. Besides the zoospores and the stationary
spores (sporangia), these two genera possess a third kind of
spores, first indicated by A. Braun under the name of micro-
gonidia*, and which, according to his observations, germinate,
and become converted into a small plant, usually composed of
two cells. It is remarkable that these microgonidia, the struc-
ture of which is exactly analogous to that of the zoospores, fix
themselves in Gidogonium sometimes on the membrane of the
sporangia, and sometimes on the cell which is closest to them,
and in Bulbochete always upon the sporangia themselves. Prings-
heim draws attention to the fact, that these microgonidia, when
once fixed, open and pour their contents close to the micropyle
in Gidogonium, and close to the cleft which takes its place in
Bulbochete. It is true that the existence of spermatozoids in
the microgonidia has not yet been detected; but who can tell
what the future has in reserve for us? It would bea great
advance in the knowledge of the Cryptogamia, if it should be
positively ascertained that the microgonidia are a kind of an.
theridia, for A. Braun has proved the existence of them in a
great many families of freshwater Alge; and it is probable,
from the observations of Thuret upon several families of Fucoidee,
that they also occur in the marie Algz. All that remains to
be proved is the existence of antheridia in the Palmellacee, the
Spirogyra, the Desmidiacee, and the Oscillariee, im order to give
us a complete and uniform picture of the development of the
Algee.

The mother-spores of the Fuct and the sporangia of the
Vaucherie are, morphologically speaking, the homologues of the
central cell of the archegonium in the Ferns and Mosses, to

* Beobachtungen iiber die Erscheimungen der Verjiingung in der Natur.
Freyburg, 1849-1850. (Ray Society’s Publications, 1853.)

396 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

which the canal with which this organ is furnished leads ; they
are also the homologues of the embryonal sac of the Phanero-
gamia. It appears that the central cell of the archegonium
contains no trace of the embryonal cell before fecundation
(Pringsheim), and that the latter is only formed subsequently,
after the entrance of the spermatozoids, surrounding a portion
of the contents of the central cell, and enclosing the sperma-
tozoids.

Pringsheim puts the question, whether something of the
same kind does not take place amongst the Phanerogamia, and
whether the extremity of the pollen-tube, which penetrates into
the embryonal sac, does not contain spermatozoids, which, in
common with the contents of the sac, would surround them-
selves after this fecundation with a fine membrane, and thus
give rise to the first cell of the embryo. Such an hypothesis*
has no want of probability for those who admit Schleiden’s
theory, which, it must be confessed, has made some progress
during the last few years. For my part, Henri Schacht has
shown me some very delicate preparations which appeared to
speak strongly in its favour, and which would have completely
convinced any person who did not bear in mind the difficulty
there is in such remarkably fine preparations in distinguishing
what is interior from what is above or below. I have also exa-
mined Deecke’s famous preparation (a longitudinal section of the
ovule of Pedicularis sylvatica, with a pollen-tube which has
penetrated into the embryonal sac‘), which appears to me to be
strongly in favour of Schleiden, notwithstanding all the objec-
tions which Mohlt¢ has brought against it. In any case, the
analogy with what takes place in the Cryptogamia and in animals
comes in as evidence in favour of the defenders of Schleiden’s
theory; and although there is no doubt that in the mductive
sciences we must be as careful as possible about reasoning from

* Tt is, moreover, perfectly possible that the presence of spermatozoids
may not be absolutely necessary throughout; and it is not improbable
that a liquid may play their part.

+ See an article by H. Schacht, Flora, 1855, Nos. 10 and 11.

* Der vorgebliche entscheidende Sieg der Schleidenschen Befruchtungs-
theorie. Bot. Zeit. 11th June, 1855. These objections, however, are not
of much value with respect to our present subject. Thus, Mohl first objects
that the so-called pollen-tube might very probably be the suspensor of the
embryo issuing through a rent in the sac, although it appeared to Mohl
himself to be a pollen-tube. The argument is not one of the strongest.
Mohl then passes to the second point; that is to say, he denies that the
extremity of the pollen-tube forms the embryo, without however pretending
to dispute that this pollen-tube may penetrate into the embryonal sac. But
we ask nothing more to furnish the analogy with the Cryptogamia and
animals, for in the latter also it is not proved that the embryo is directly
produced from the spermatozoid or spermatozoids.

Fecundation of the Ovum, 397

analogy, we cannot help regarding this as a reason for paying
more attention to an opinion which is held by such distinguished
observers as Schleiden, Schacht, Pringsheim, &c.*

We have thought it necessary to dwell briefly upon the fecun-
dation of the vegetable ovule to complete what we had to say of
the fecundation of the animal ovum ; for it must be confessed,
the relations are here so considerable, that they approach what
we are accustomed to regard as serial identity in the study of
organized beings. The distance which separates the modes of
generation in different animals from one another, is often much
greater than that which separates the mode of generation of a
particular animal from that of a particular plant. Why then
separate what Nature has united? Why wish to follow Schleiden
when he refuses to recognize any relation between the physio-
logical phenomena presented by plants and those of animals
(without saying why, however!) ? Every day the precise limits
which have been arbitrarily drawn between the vegetable and
animal kingdoms are disappearing from our view,—the physical
and chemical characters have fallen one after the other+, and we
have been compelled to fall back upon the presence of vibratile
cilia and a contractile vesicle, which animals alone ought pro-
perly to possess. The first of these characters is already inad-
missible, on account of the zoospores of a great many Alge;
and if we choose to consider the motive organs of these as
bristles rather than as vibratile cilia, the Closteria will always re-
main as a stumbling-block. These, although generally regarded
as plants, and having nothing animal about them, are, in fact,
clothed with vibratile cilia on the whole of their internal surface.
These cilia, first discovered by Fécket, but afterwards disputed
by many, do really exist. If we take the contractility of the
cell as the test, we must raise to the rank of animals the Monads,
Cryptomonads, Chlamidomonads, and all the Monadina in
general, as they have always one or two contractile vesicles.
The botanists must also cease to regard the Euglene as plants,

* [Henfrey (Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. xv. p, 349; Microscopie Dic-
tionary, article Ovul£ ; and in a paper recently laid before the Linnzan
Society of London) holds that the fluid of the pollen-tube fecundates a
protoplasmic corpuscle pre-existing in the embryo-sac, and determines the
formation of a membranous coat conyerting this into the germ- or embryo-
cell_—Ep. Ann. Nat. Hist.]

+ The presence of amylaceous substances has entirely lost its import-
ance since they have been found, not only in the Tunicata, but also in Man
himself. Virchow (Wurzburger Verhandlungen, 1851; Annals, ser. 2,
vol. xiil., p. 158), Prokitanski and Luschka (Virchow’s Archiv, 1853), have
demonstrated the presence of cellulose in the human brain (corpora amylacea
of Purkinje), in the Malpighian follicles, in the spleen, in bones attacked
by softening, &e.

$3 Parente Studien. Bremen, 1847.

398 M. E. Claparéde on the Theory of the

as they possess one contractile vesicle (at least Huglena viridis
does so)*. Many Volvocine also appear to possess contractile
vesicles. It is moreover an idle dispute to attempt to decide
whether these low organisms be animal or vegetable; for even
if the question be decided, the two beings would still remain so
closely related, that it would be a mere splitting of hairs to place
one in one kingdom and the other in another. If there exists
an actual division in Nature, it is that between the organic and
inorganic kingdoms; and even there we must shut our eyes to
certain Polycystina, and especially to some of those agglome-
rations of organized raphides, as it were, raised to the state of
independent beings, to which the name of Thalassicolle has been
given. That my meaning may not be misunderstood—it is with
the relation between animals and vegetables as with those of the
group of Fishes with the neighbouring groups. In its broad
features, the class of Fishes is one of the best existing m zoology ;
but if we descend into details, we shall find the limits, which at
first appeared so well marked, become less and less distinct. If
you ask a young student, he will very readily give you a definition
of a fish, by means of its biconcave vertebre, its heart with two
cavities, its branchize, and some peculiarities of its brain. Butif
you question an ichthyologist, he will be much more embarrassed ;
for he knows, on the one hand, that there are fishes with lungs
and a heart with three cavities (Sirenoides+) ; and, on the other,
that there is a fish without vertebra, without a brain, and with-
out anything that can be called a heart (Amphiowus).

I hope I shall be pardoned for this digression, the only object
of which was to show that it is not without reason that the
vegetables and animals have been united in treating of the
general phenomena of fecundation. We have ascertained the
probable universality in the organized kingdom of the penetration
of the spermatozoids into the ovules ; but what is the part which
they play when once arrived there? According to Meissner,

* To those who attach importance to chemical and physical characters
I would observe, that, according to Angstrém’s observations, whilst the
green extract of the Phanerogamia gives three brilliant streaks im the
spectrum, that of Euglena viridis only gives two, one in the green, the
other in the red. It is remarkable that in this respect the Euglena behaves
exactly like the three Confervee in which Angstrom has studied the pro-
perties of chlorophyll (Conferva glomerata, a Zygnema, and a Vaucheria).
Poggendorff’s Annalen, xciil.

+ It is to be observed, that the opinions of zoologists as to the true
position of these animals (Lepidosiren and its allies) are by no means
settled, so that M. Claparéde is scarcely warranted in treating them as
members of the class of Fishes.—TRANSL.

+ Beobachtungen iiber das Eindringen der Samenelemente in den
Dotter, No.i. Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zoologie, vi., Sept. 1854.

—---”

Fecundation of the Ovwn. 399

at all events in the animals observed by him, they dissolve and
unite to form a drop of oil, which must afterwards mingle with
the substance of the vitellus. Nelson had previously seen them
dissolve into a transparent fluid. But we may justly ask,
whether this be really their destiny, or whether it be not rather
the fate undergone by those which are not made use of, and which
would consequently be condemned to the fatty metamorphosis,
so common in animals, when Nature desires to facilitate the
absorption of useless materials. The spermatists may perhaps
some day raise their heads again, and again seek for their young
embryo in the spermatozoid ; the only object of which in seeking
to lodge itself in the ovum would then be, to find a suitable
medium for its development. In the Larthworms, in which, as
we have seen, the eggs, on arriving m the common receptacle,
float in a very considerable mass of semen, a large quantity of
the latter passes with the eggs into the capsule at the moment
of deposition, Those spermatozoids which have penetrated into
the vitellus become converted there into an oily fat, which
mingles with the elements of the vitellus; the others, according
to Meissner, undergo the same metamorphosis, and remain in
the form of fat around the vitellus. Subsequently, by means of
their vibratile cilia, the embryos pass the whole of this fat into
their alimentary canal, in the same way that the embryos of the
Leeches consume their vitellus of nutrition.

It remains now to be seen whether the new discoveries have
caused the theory of fecundation to take a step forward. The
theory of the dynamists has not made any progress; for to say
that the touching of an ovum by a spermatozoid awakens a
new life in it, may be the expression of the fact, but is not an
explanation. Bischoff, who not long since supposed that the
essential part of the semen is the liquid itself, and that the
spermatozoa only prevented its decomposition by their move-
ments, has abandoned this opinion, and has the merit of haying
introduced into science a new theory, which appears capable of
accounting for the facts, provisionally at any rate, in a more
satisfactory manner*. It is well known that Liebig admits the
existence in nature of a force analogous to the catalytic force of
Berzelius, his force of contact, by means of which he explains
various phznomena which, without it, would be difficult to
understand. It consists in the fact that a body in a state of
chemical decomposition, or, to speak more correctly, a body the
molecules of which are in a state of chemical movement, is
capable of disturbing the chemical equilibrium of certain other
bodies, without adding anything to, or taking anything from

* Ueber die Befruchtungstheorie. Miiller’s Archiv, 1847.

400 On the Theory of the Fecundation of the Ovum.

them,—calling up in them, by virtue of its own state, a chemical
movement which is in relation either to the composition of the
bodies themselves, or to the quality of the chemical movement
existing in the acting body. Thus, to take the commonest ex-
ample, the ferment of beer, being in a state of chemical move-
ment, induces the formation of alcohol in a saccharine solution,
without, however, the occurrence of any chemical combination
between the elements of the ferment and those of the sugar.
This is an attractive hypothesis, and the more so as there is not
perhaps a more general law in nature than that by which a body
in motion communicates a part of its motion to another body
with which it comes in contact; and this is more considerable
in proportion to the amount of resistance offered by the second
body. According to Bischoff, the seminal fluid may be com-
pared to the yeast of beer, and the ovum to the saccharine solu-
tion. The former being in a state of chemical movement, would
induce in the second a series of modifications, commencing with
the segmentation of the vitellus up to the formation of the embryo.
After all, this would only be to place the phenomenon of genera-
tion upon the same footing as that of digestion. In fact, whether
we call the substances actively in operation in digestion, ptyaline,
pepsine, pancreatine, or diastase of the saliva, of the stomach,
pancreas, &c., we are not the less obliged to recur to the force
of contact in order to account for their action. Bischoff’s ex-
planation was not very satisfactory, as long as it was believed
that the semen only came in contact with the membranes of the
ovum. But now that we know that the spermatozoa penetrate
into the interior of the ovum, either through the micropyle or
otherwise, and that when there they are in a state of chemical
movement (the fatty metamorphosis of Meissner), this theory is
far from losing probability. Nevertheless it is still nothing but
a theory, convenient it is true, but impossible to demonstrate.
That organized beings may be the products of a simple fermenta-
tion is possible, but we shall only attach positive credence to it
when we obtain palpable proofs of its truth. The force of contact,
again, is itself really nothimg but the expression of the facts, and
not an explanation; so that by Bischoff’s theory the difficulty
is only removed a step backwards. We must leave the question
in doubt, impressed as we are with the feeling that great pre-
caution is required in applying purely chemical explanations in
such cases as the present, not merely to organic, but to organized
bodies. The existence of the micropyle and the penetration of
the spermatozoids into the ovules of organized beings are im-
portant discoveries ; but by these only a corner of the veil has
been raised, and the veiled image of Isis still leaves us many
mysteries to be revealed. Thus we believe we must for once

Mr. S. P. Woodward on the genus Scissurella. 401

sympathise with Keber, by repeating with him in conclusion the
words of the great embryologist Von Baer :—

« The future still reserves rewards for more than one observer ;
but the palm will only belong to him who shall be fortunate
enough in regard to the forces which preside in the formation of
the animal body to determine their place amongst the general
forces which govern the system of the world. The tree from
which the cradle of this man will be made, has not yet germi-
nated in the forest.”

XXX VI.— Another Note on Scissurella.
By S. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

Wuew a naturalist thinks he has discovered an error in your
pages, he is bound in courtesy to communicate his suspicions to
the author—rather than the editer—that he may have an oppor-
tunity of putting himself right. I am compelled for once to
depart from this practice, because I have protested in vain
against the publication of the mistake.

The distribution of Mr. Jeffreys’ Mediterranean shells was
entrusted to Mr. R. Damon of Weymouth, who kindly sent me
examples of Scissurella elegans. In these specimens I observed,
and pointed out to Mr. Jeffreys, the conversion of the fissure into
a foramen when the shell became adult; a circumstance which,
like the operculum, had escaped his observation. I proposed, in
accordance with modern practice, to give a subgeneric name to
the species exhibiting this character ; but on referring to Philippi,
and Sowerby (Zool. Journ. 1824), | found it was already known,
and existed in the species which Sowerby regarded as typical.

I was, therefore, rather astonished when Mr. Jeffreys told me,
some time after, that he had written an article for the ‘ Annals,’
adopting the notion I had discarded, and seeking to justify it
by the testimony of persons unacquainted with the facts of the
case. I urged him to refer to D’Orbigny’s original paper in the
Memoirs of the Natural History Society of Paris for 1823, but
he declined taking the trouble, adding that I could do it.

In this Memoir the genus Scissurel/a was first described, and
illustrated by large figures. The first and second species,
S. levigata and costata, were found living on sea-weed; the
others, S. decussata and elegans, were obtained from the newest
tertiary sands of Castel Arquato, in the Plaisantin. In the year
1844, M. Philippi figured two other recent species, S. plicata

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 26

402 Mr. 8S. P. Woodward on the fossil genus Conoteuthis.

and striatula, which are considered identical with D’Orbigny’s
S. costata and elegans. I believe the whole six are varieties of
one species ; and at all events the type of Mr. Jeffreys’ new genus
is a typical Scissurella. There is some difficulty about the spe-
cies called elatior and concinna in Sowerby’s ‘ Genera of Shells,’
but they are probably synonymous with some of the varieties
before described : there is no species of Scissurella in the “ Cal-
caire grossier,” nor any extinct species known, as I told Mr. Jef-
freys before he published his article.

If the genus Scissurella was incompletely described by M.
D’Orbigny in 1823, it was certainly made good by Mr. G.
Sowerby in 1824; and my friend Mr. Henry Adams, to whom
I have submitted the question, quite agrees with me, that we
have no alternative but to regard Mr. Jeffreys’ new genus as an
exact synonym of Scissurella.

Should it prove that in the British Scissurella crispata, and
some others, the slit is never closed, Mr. Jeffreys may reimburse
himself by proposing a new name for this section. It is true
that Philippi, Adams, and M‘Coy have adopted Montfort’s name
Anatomus, but without sufficient reason; for the “ Anatomus
Indicus” is represented like a Skenea, or Valvata spirorbis, and
the slit is in the ower margin of the lip: it may be the fry of a
Nucleobranch, or altogether apocryphal.

The name Pleurotomaria (Defrance, 1821) has better claims,
and a species is really found in the Paris basin; but it is a large
pearly shell, and I think Prof. Forbes was right in hesitating to
associate with it the little translucent Scissurella.

S. P. Woopwarp.
Barnsbury, April 1856.

XXXVII.—On the Occurrence of the Fossil Genus Conoteuthis,
D?’Orb., in England. By 8. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

Tue rich collection of Mr. Bowerbank contains a specimen of
Conoteuthis, obtained by himself from the Gault of East-ware
Bay, Folkestone. It is an oblique, chambered cone, curved
rather suddenly near the apex, and measures 6 lines in dia-
meter by the same in height. The dorsal side is 8 lines in
length, and has a slight ridge towards which the lines of growth
are curved, and become longitudinal, showing that when perfect
there was a projecting process on this side. The septa have
simple margins, and the last eight occupy a space of four lines ;
the apex is not solid.

The type of this genus, C. Dupinianus, D’Orb., occurs in the
Lower Greensand (Aptien) of France ; it is of the same size, but

an

On the Development of the Freshwater Sponges. 403

slenderer, and less curved than the English specimen. It has a
ventral siphuncle like the Belemnite, and is supposed to have
been attached to a style more than 6 inches in length, like the
appendix to the pen of many Calamaries.

The plate illustrating Conoteuthis is wanting in most copies
of the ‘ Paléontologie Frangaise,’ but occurs in the ‘ Mollusques
Vivans et Fossiles’ of the same author, and one of the figures is
copied in my Manual, pl. 2. f. 9.

XXXVIII.—On the Development of the Freshwater Sponges.
By N. Lizperxktian*.

Tue structures hitherto recognized as belonging to the fresh-
water Sponges are the following :—The skeleton, consisting of
siliceous needles of various forms; the gelatinous substance ;
the so-called gemmules, which are furnished with a pore, and
are either surrounded by a smooth shell, or by a ring of amphi-
disks+; moveable bodies occurring at certain periods of the
year, and effecting the propagation of the sponges: according
to Hogg, these move by an endosmotic process; according to
Laurent, by cilia. Grant has described similar bodies in the
marine sponges, ciliated in front, but not behind; Quekett was
unable to confirm this observation, and gives a totally different
account of the propagation. Huxley has described spermatozoa
in Tethya, and Carter in Spongilla.

The following observations have been made almost exclusively
upon specimens of Spongilla fluviatilis, which I examined almost
daily in the fresh state during two summers and a winter. They
are very common in the river Spree at Berlin, especially upon
old wooden posts, and at the bottom of the water.

Skeleton and Gelatinous Substance.—The siliceous spicula have
been frequently described, both in their common and unusual
forms (see Dujardin’s work upon the Infusoria, and Ehren-
berg’s ‘ Mikrogeologie’). | Meyen states that their ends are
connected together by a delicate colourless siliceous mass. I
have found this formation, especially in dead sponges, upon
which however gemmules and young sponges are often situated ;
but the connecting material is not silica, for it is destroyed by a
red heat, the needles and amphidisks being left. The needles
are usually so arranged that several form a rod, the apex of
which is applied to the apex of similar rods at an obtuse angle.

* From Miiller’s Archiv, 1856, i.

+ The term Amphidiscus was applied by Ehrenberg to a supposed genus
of Infusoria, consisting of bacillar spicules of sponges with discoidal ends.

—Eb.
26*

404 M.N. Lieberkiihn on the Development of

These rows of rods project slightly outwards beyond the surface
of the sponge, and are further connected with each other by
groups of needles. The distance they are apart from each
other is easily recognized in a branched sponge which has
been kept out of the water for a short time; the apices of the
rods project strikingly, and render the surface of the sponge
spinous. Lach projecting point is seen under the microscope to
consist of a bundle of several needles.

The gelatinous substance has been examined most accurately
by Dujardin. Small portions exhibit under the microscope
Ameeba-like movements; but whether these are vital phzno-
mena, as supposed by Dujardin, or are connected with decay, is
unknown. Other portions were furnished upon part of their
surface with long cilia, by means of which they rapidly changed |
their position, at the same time emitting processes from the por-
tion free from cilia, and again retracting them, just like Amoebe.
The ciliated portions were not found in winter, but appeared in
the spring; in the winter, only those exhibiting the Amceba-like
movements were present. These portions, which are always
obtained by spreading living Spongille upon an object-glass,
are not, however, amorphous masses, as represented by Dujardin,
but frequently exhibit distinct structures having the form of a
cell: this is especially observed in winter, when the granular
matter is not so abundant. When the Amceba-like movements
cease in one of these masses, a nucleus and a nucleolus become
visible; and at this time, not merely a part of the gelatinous
mass consists of them, but the entire sponge.

I have never succeeded in displaying the cell-membrane itself ;
hence the use of the term ‘cell’ is not at present justifiable, being
used for the sake of brevity. Sometimes the nucleus with its
nucleolus is found isolated between other uninjured cells, espe-
cially when the sponge is not perfectly fresh. The cells are
zzo5 mech in diameter, the nucleus 7,455, the nucleolus g955-
Frequently the nucleolus only is visible in the cells, and some-
times not even this, the interior of the globule being then filled
with green or colourless granules. Frequently also the cells
do not attain the above magnitude. In some cases I found
structures containing within them foreign bodies, such as Dia-
tomacez ; in other respects these exactly resembled the sponge-
cells, containing also a similar nucleolus; a contractile vesicle
was absent ; they emitted and retracted processes, and were pos-
sibly true Amcebe, in which often no trace of a contractile vesicle
can be detected. True Amcebe with contractile vesicles are not
rare In sponges.

The Spongillz generally abound with infusorial life, especially
in winter. 1 found, in the course of last winter, large numbers

the Freshwater Sponges. 405

of Paramecium Aurelia, Paramecium Colpoda, Chilodon cucullulus ;
several species of Trachelius, especially Trachelius ovum ; less
frequently the various forms of Amphileptus, especially Amphi-
leptus Anser 1th of an inch in diameter, with a bacillar coat to
the cesophagus, resembling Prorodon, which was also present ;
moreover, Lozxodes bursaria, several species of Bursaria and
Ophryoglena. Of the Oxytrichina were found principally Sty-
lonichia, Urostyla, and Euplotes.

The Gemmules.—The living sponges are often situated not
directly upon wood, stones, or other objects, but separated”
from them by a peculiar dark brown earthy mass, often several
inches thick. This consists principally of the remains of the
dead sponge, empty shells of gemmules with their amphidisks,
various siliceous needles and decayed gelatinous substance ; some-
times it contains brown gemmules, the contents of which are sus-
ceptible of development. In many the developing power of the
contents is extinct, and they consist merely of extremely slender
acicular crystals and a detritus-like mass; the crystals are too
minute to allow of the determination of their shape, yet the
angles are perfectly distinct in some of them. In a few instances
the dead and broad sponge retained exactly the form and colour
of the living, but the microscope showed that the cells were
absent: between these acicular skeletons gemmules were also
present. The dead branched sponges, which exist mostly at
the bottom of the water, are frequently so densely covered with
gemmules as to appear grey or greenish; the points of the
needles then project beyond the gemmules; these again are
often entirely covered by new sponge-formations, and are not
visible until the sponge is broken. In the lowest layers of the
living broad sponge, which bound the dead layers, large numbers
of shining white gemmules are sometimes found ; they resemble
in generai the ordinary brown gemmules; their shell is very
firm, and when pressed offers considerable resistance; but the
amphidisks are remarkably distinct. Their contents consist
of the well-known globular masses, composed of smaller or
larger fat-like granules and albuminous matter,—are of about
the size of the largest sponge-cells, and when pressed are easily
broken up. Other gemmules found here are distinguished by
a very soft transparent shell, which is immediately burst, even
when the glass-cover is carefully laid upon the object; their
amphidisks are also very distinct, but the globular masses con-
tained within them do not break up very easily. When a piece
of one of these sponges containing the above-described forma-
tions is dissected under water with fine needles, isolated whitish
ill-defined globular pieces, of about the size of the gemmules,
are usually detected, with the following properties. Even under

406 M.N. Lieberkiihn on the Development of

a low magnifying power, two different layers of the substance
are distinguishable,—the uppermost possessing a low refractive
power, about equal to that of the ordimary sponge-cells, the
mner globular mass being highly refractive, almost like aggre-
gations of fat. When these are compressed by a glass-cover,
they become resolved into two kinds of cell-formations, both of
which are of about the size of the sponge-cells. The innermost,
which belongs to that portion which refracts the light most
strongly, adhere firmly together, and consist of a sarcoid mass,
in which tolerably large fat-like granules are densely interspersed.
When isolated, they exhibit motions resembling those of the
sponge-cells ; they emit processes into which the granules enter,
and again retract them. When forming a larger aggregation,
this resembles a lump of fat which begins to fuse, and emits
the liquid in separate striz im all directions. When suitable
pressure is made upon the mass, the original separate pieces are
distinguishable, but of the most variable forms. I was unable
to find in them the delicate transparent coat which surrounds
the white gemmules above described. In its place was found
only a layer of firmly cohering cell-like globules, some of which
resembled the sponge-cells in the arrangement of the granules
and the nucleolus, whilst the others enclosed amphidisks. Some
of the enclosed amphidisks had exactly the same form as those
usually surrounding the gemmules; each bounding by the peri-
phery of its disk a circular portion of the interior of the shell of
the globule, which it encloses. In others the two disks were
not present, but a slender rod with slightly capitate ends existed
in the interior of the cell-like formation ; im others again, a row
of extremely slender sete radiated at right angles from the knob
of the rod. If these sete were broader and the stalk thicker,
the form would be that of the ordinary amphidisk. The outlines
of the cellular body furnished with an amphidisk are as sharp
and distinct as in the sponge-cells, but I could not find a
nucleus in them ; sometimes they contained some fat-granules.
Among the white gemmules were some with amphidisks enclosed
in vesicles situated upon their transparent envelope together
with free amphidisks. There can be no doubt that the pre-
viously described bodies are imperfectly developed gemmules.
Sometimes firmly connected whitish aggregations of sponge-
cells are found with them, of the same size and of a spheroidal
form. They are also obtained on dissecting a suitable portion
of sponge; but usually the cells separate in this operation.

I am not acquainted with similar facts in the case of the
sponges with smooth gemmules; neither have I hitherto met
with the smooth gemmules and those surrounded with amphi-
disks simultaneously in the same sponge. Both forms occur at

the Freshwater Sponges. 407

all times of the year. The branched sponges living at the
bottom of the river Spree have hitherto only contained smooth
gemmules. In the broad sponge which grows upon boards and
posts, both forms were met with, but not in the same piece.
The ordinary contents of the gemmules have already been ac-
curately described by Meyen (Miiller’s Archiv, 1839, p. 83),
where it is shown that the amphidisks are constituents of the
gemmules. In several specimens, the globular arrangement was
not present; the finer granules exhibiting molecular motion
being present in great numbers.

In regard to the destiny of the gemmules, Meyen supposed
that a polyp-like animal was developed in them, and escaped
from the pore. Grant had previously stated, that in the marine
sponges, at certain times of the year, infusorial beings, ciliated
at the anterior end of the body, are produced; these subse-
quently becoming fixed, and forming sponges.

In the freshwater sponges, Grant did not find the gemmules
exhibiting motion, nor were cilia present. Dujardin mentions
two forms of reproductive bodies in the freshwater sponges,—
the gemmules and the ciliated bodies found by Laurent. John-
ston states, that at certain times of the year the gemmules
separate from the general mass of the sponges; that they are
then furnished with locomotive organs, like Infusoria, with which
they might easily be confounded. The results of the observa-
tions of Hogg and Carter have already been published in the
‘Annals.’ Carter found no trace of swarm-spores. The course
of development described by him by no means, however, ex-
cludes the possibility of his having overlooked them. But the
observation that insular groups of germs occur, the contents of
which are gradually converted into the variously shaped cells, is
correct.

During the month of June of the present and last year, I
have frequently observed ciliated swarm-spores of the freshwater
sponges; and a number of circumstances prove that they are
integral components of the sponges.

That the entire gemmule is converted into the swarm-spore,
as supposed by some observers, is incompatible with the facts to
be presently described. The shell of the gemmule and the
cortical substance of the swarm-spores are totally different in
their properties. Very frequently empty shells of the gemmules
are met with; and nothing is opposed to Meyen’s supposition,
that their inhabitants escape from the pore.

The Swarm-spores.—I first detected these after leaving recent
sponges for some hours in a glass full of river-water. They are
visible even to the naked eye, being about = inch in length,
and about = in their broadest diameter. They are oval, and

408 M.N. Lieberkithn on the Development of

usually somewhat more pointed at one end, like a hen’s egg.
The smaller forms are not half so large, just as similar variations
exist in the size of the gemmules. In most specimens, without
the microscope, a transparent hemispherical space may be di-
stinguished in the anterior, and a shining white one at the pos-
terior part of the body ; the distinction of anterior and posterior
being based upon their position when swimming, which takes
place at about the same rate as in Trachelius ovum. They swim
in all directions: sometimes at the surface of the water, next
towards the bottom, gliding along this, and then rising towards
the surface again; sometimes in straight lines, at others forming
a circle. When two of them meet, they often swim for some
minutes around each other, subsequently going apart ; frequently
they remain motionless for a time, and then start off again. If
touched when at rest, they swim away. They remained in this
state for one or two days, when they went to the bottom of the
vessel, where they adhered and began to decay. In but few
instances, notwithstanding numerous experiments, have I suc-
ceeded in inducing their development. After the above time,
the substance of the bodies becomes expanded into a delicate
layer, in which a structureless mass with the fine siliceous needles
is soon all that can be distinguished: the experiments succeeded
when spring-water was applied. On the 20th day I remarked
that the spots formed by the spores had become larger. Ex-
amination showed the presence of the constituents of young
sponges, viz. moveable cells, smaller and larger needles, and some
germ-granules. The movements are effected by cilia regularly
spread over the entire body. They are of about the same
length as those of the Turbellaria, but more slender. But what
distinguishes them at once from the ciliary apparatus of all
known Infusoria, and from that of the Turbellaria, so accurately
examined by Schultze, is a kind of epithelial layer upon which
they are situated. This consists of a single layer of spherical
cells, about 755 inch in diameter. The cells are not so crowded
as to flatten each other, but they are mostly in contact. I have
not as yet detected a nucleus or nucleolus in them, but they
usually contain some highly refractive granules.

On watching a swarm-spore under the microscope, part of the
epithelial layer is not unfrequently seen to separate from some
part of the body,—eight or ten connected cells often becoming
detached and set in motion in the liquid by their cilia. Each
cell has a single cilium, and never more than one. In a few not
perfectly fresh swarm-spores, the surface was divided into several
circular and irregular spaces, which under a low magnifying
power appeared like large cells, but under a high power be-
came resolved into groups of the above-described small cells,

the Freshwater Sponges. 409

On dissecting larger portions of sponges, within which swarm-
spores exist, the latter are easily lacerated, and fragments only
of them become separated for examination, in which the ciliary
motion continues active. Dujardin was not aware of the origin
of these portions when he described the movements of the
sponges. It sometimes happens also, that the spermatozoa-
like bodies, hereafter described, adhere to a smooth piece of
sponge, which exhibits the Amceba-like movements, and that
they carry it about with them in the liquid. These bodies were
also unknown to Dujardin. 1am unacquainted with the other
Eperiie forms of the sponges which Dujardin calls Monad-
ike.

Beneath the epithelial layer the cortical substance is situated,
the thickness of which is considerable in comparison with the
cellular layer—it is visible even to the naked eye. Even under
a high magnifying power, no definite structure could be detected
in it. It forms a gelatinous mass, in which here and there
some granules of fat are scattered, without regular arrangement.
When isolated portions of sponge are separated by dissection,
so that they are unconnected with the cilia, they exhibit the
same locomotive phenomena as the sponge-cells themselves.

Next to the cortical substance comes the medullary portion,
which fills the interior of the spore as a spheroidal mass. Even
under a low magnifying power, this is seen to form a bod
distinct from the cortical layer. The diameter of this spheroid
at its broadest part is about =4, inch; but it varies in about the
same degree as the swarm-spore itself. Its surface consists of a
thinner mucoid layer, and the interior is the same portion of the
swarm-spore, which exhibits great varieties in different specimens,
whilst the remainder is nearly constant. The larger and most
anterior portion of the spheroid in the swarm-spores examined
early in June formed a pulpy mass, with fine scattered granules ;
the posterior part of the spheroid exhibited larger and smaller
fat-like granules, forming with sarcoid matter larger and smaller
globules, which, when kept for some time in water, became con-
fluent. Many of them contained a very highly refractive body,
which sometimes almost entirely filled the gelatinous globule;
sometimes these bodies were found without any gelatinous enve-
lope, and were of about half the size of an ordinary sponge-
cell. The above-described contents give rise to the white ap-
pearance, visible with the naked eye, in the posterior part of the
swarm-spore. The entire spheroid, both the transparent and
the white portions, contains extremely small siliceous needles,
often of exactly the same shape as the adult spicula. The
smallest are of a barely measurable breadth, but about 1,5 inch

in length; the larger being about =, inch broad, and +4, and

410 M. N. Lieberkiihn on the Development of

more long. The larger are either smooth or furnished with
minute spine-like processes. The latter form is also not un-
common among the fully developed siliceous needles ; and some
Spongille contain these exclusively. The spicules in the swarm-
spores are arranged without definite order. The constant presence
of the siliceous needles in the swarm-spores formed the first
indication of their origin from the Spongille. I found the
swarm-spores both in the broad and in the branched sponge, in
that with smooth gemmules as also in those with amphidisks.

Differences in the contents of the Swarm-spores.—These consist
principally in the greater or less number of the germ-granules.
The mature germ-granules are usually spherical, rarely lenti-
cular. Sometimes two of them are relatively so placed, that one
extends hke a shell over the greater part of the other; such
watch-glass-shaped bodies also occur separately, and may also
be empty shells. The germ-granules attain the diameter of -355
inch, but some of them are much smaller. A very highly refract-
ive shell and contents are distinguishable in them. In those
occurring in the swarm-spores, the latter are not so distinct as
in many of those which are free, and which will be noticed pre-
sently. Sometimes they contrast strongly with the shell, and
form an ill-defined gelatinous globule; im many germ-granules
they cannot be directly perceived. Notwithstanding their simple
form, the germ-granules are so characteristic, that they cannot
be mistaken for any other objects. At first sight they might
be considered as large fat-globules; but the difference is soon
made manifest when they are strongly compressed and burst. The
number of these germ-granules is so great in many swarm-spores,
that, with the minute siliceous needles and the albuminous
matter, they almost exclusively make up the medullary mass of
the swarm-spores ; some being free within it, others aggregated
in twos and threes with fatty granules and albuminous matter.
These swarm-spores are distinguishable with the naked eye, the
highly refractive portion occupying the greater part of their
interior, and sometimes forming a perfect spheroid. The above-
described form of swarm-spore also appears to contain a white
globule, when the anterior part of the spore is directed down-
wards and the posterior part upwards; but the real state of
things is discovered when it swims in the usual manner. It
sometimes happened that one of these aggregations of germ-
granules with its siliceous needles escaped completely from the
swarm-spore when its envelope was burst by pressure; it was
of a spherical form, and surrounded by a mucoid, structureless,
and readily crushed coat.

The aggregations of germ-granules, of a spherical form, exist
free, im vast numbers, in all parts of Spongille, but especially at

the Freshwater Sponges. 411

the base. In the same parts I have also found ciliated swarm-
spores; they lie completely in the mass of the living sponge,
but can seldom be separated from it uninjured. Empty shells
of gemmules are not found in these parts. The swarm-spores,
however, attach themselves firmly to the empty siliceous skele-
tons; when detached, they swim about as usual. The aggre-
gated germ-granules seldom contain the small, smooth, and
spinous spicula in their interior; but these are often found in
their immediate neighbourhood. The mucous envelope is some-.
times separable, by evacuating the contents with gentle pressure ;
but it is structureless. The size of the aggregations of germ-
granules varies from ;!; to =, inch. The germ-granules are either
uniformly diffused through the entire substance, or are arranged
in spherical heaps, and mixed with fatty globules and mucous
matter. Many of them exhibit a distinct gelatinous globule,
which sometimes contains small fatty granules, at others also a
nucleus-like body.

We may here recur to Carter’s investigations. As far as I
can conclude from his descriptions, the insular groups of germs,
which, according to Carter, pass into the variously shaped cells,
are my aggregations of germ-granules. But the statement of
this observer, that these escape directly from the gemmules, is
essentially different from my view. Were we to suppose that
Carter had directly observed this occurrence, and that it was
not simply based upon supposition, and that the swarm-spores
were absent in the sponges examined by him, the difference
between the developments of such nearly allied formations would
be so great, that it could scarcely occur. In some instances I
saw pieces of sponge, the aggregations of germ-granules of
which had no longer the definite form, but appeared to be
undergoing decomposition. The mucous envelope was also
absent, the separate granules being scattered around them.

Moreover, at the period at which all the above-described bodies
are present, large masses of sponge are always met with which
contain no trace of them. ven in one and the same locality,
we find near together Spongille containing large numbers of
gemmules, swarm-spores, and aggregations of germ-granules,
and others in which none of these are present.

Immature forms of the gelatinous substance and of the spicula.
—As early as June, white spots about the size of one or several
of the aggregations of germ-granules are perceptible on various
parts of the sponge, some of which are well defined, whilst others
are confluent with the surrounding parts. They are sometimes
also found upon other bodies at the bottom of the water, as
upon shells of the Mollusca, the exuvize of the larve of the
Phryganide, upon straws, stones, and other similar objects upon

412 On the Development of the Freshwater Sponges.

which sponges grow. ‘Their microscopic constituents are,—
germ-granules of the above-described form and size, which con-
tain either a finely granular globule distinctly contrasted with
the enclosing shell, or a cell-like body containing a low refracting
body resembling the nucleolus of the sponge-cells; germ-gra-
nules, which protrude a sarcoid substance from some part of their
surface,and this is continued within the germ-granule, the outline
of the portion situated outside being continuous with that lying
within ; large and small ordinary sponge-cells, some containing
a distinct nucleolus, whilst others merely form an aggregation of
fine granules and sarcoid substance, exhibiting the Ameeba-like
movement ; variously formed small and large siliceous needles,
some resembling the smooth and tuberculated forms met with
within the swarm-spores and the aggregations of germ-granules,
others being larger, but not so large as the fully developed ones.
It is uncertain whether these spicula are developed from the
germ-granules ; some of them agree in size with these; they
are either spherical, drawn out into fine points at the ends, or
spindle-shaped, and usually tubercular; they are easily recog-
nized by the refractive power peculiar to siliceous spicula, but in
the smallest specimens even this character becomes uncertain.
Whether the above-described reproductive bodies of sponges are
the only ones which occur, or whether sponge-cells also propagate
by spontaneous division, is unknown.

A comparison of Sponges with allied bodies may be met with
in J. Miiller’s memoir upon Thalassicolla, Collosphara, and
Acanthometra*.

The Spermatozoa-like bodies.—\n June of the last and the
present years, large numbers of moving corpuscles were not
unfrequently seen on dissecting sponges, which were readily
distinguishable from those giving rise to the movements of the
swarm-spores; for in the former the filament is much longer
and thicker, and the head much smaller. When swarming, their
heads are usually directed towards each other, and their move-
ments greatly resemble those of ordinary spermatozoa. They are
seldom met with in the locality where they are developed. They
are formed in globules enveloped by a transparent structureless
membrane, and surrounded by sponge-cells. The globules are
about 51, inch in diameter. They are seen to move to and fro
within the globules until these burst, when they swim away in
large or small groups, the filament constantly vibrating to and
fro. To determine their import as spermatozoa, I endeavoured
to observe their entrance into the pore of the gemmule, as per-
haps forming the micropyle, but in vain.

* Monatsbericht der Berliner Akademie, April 1855.

Prof. S. Lovén on the Development of the Chitons. 413

As already mentioned, Carter has observed peculiar bodies
in sponges, which he regards as spermatozoa. These agree in
no respect with the above; they are much larger, and are fur-
nished with a contractile head, whilst the far smaller head of
the above-described spermatozoa never exhibits contractions. I
have found bodies during the winter in the sponges exactly
resembling Carter’s figures ; these I can only regard as large
and small specimens of Trachelius trichophorus, the occurrence of
which in sponges Carter does not mention ; more rarely I found
a kind of Monad, probably identical with Dujardin’s Cercomonas
acuminata ; this differs, however, importantly from all the com-
ponents of sponges, in the presence of a contractile vesicle. On
the other hand, the spermatozoa which Huxley has figured as
those of Tethya closely resemble those of the Spongille; but
Huxley has said nothing about either their origin or their power
of motion.

-

XXXIX.—On the Development of the Chitons.
By Prof. S. Loven *.

Wuen on a visit to our Western Skerries three years ago, I had
an opportunity of observing the development of Chiton margi-
natus, Pennant (C. cinereus, Linn., according to Forbes and
Hanley).

Some individuals of this species, which were kept in confine-
ment, laid their eggs, loosely united in clusters of from seven to
sixteen, upon small stones. Hach egg was furnished with an
envelope, which being folded, and as it were vesicular, was of
considerable thickness, amounting to about half the total radius.
All the stages of segmentation were already passed, and the
envelope contained a well-formed moving embryo (fig. 1).

The embryo, 0°18 mill. in length, exactly of an oval form, and
without any trace of shell, is divided by a circular indentation
into two nearly equal parts; and close to this indentation are
attached the cirri, by means of which the movements of the
embryo are effected. In the middie of the upper part there is
a tuft of very fine filaments, which scarcely exhibit any move-
ments. The lower half exhibits two dark points, one on each
side close to the indentation; these are the eyes, of which how-
ever only one is usually very distinct. The general form of the
animal is somewhat variable, the lower part sometimes giving
rise to a tapering process. The young ones, when freed, swim

* Translated from Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhand-
lingar, 1855, p. 169.

‘

414 Prof. S. Lovén on the Development of the Chitons.

round the clusters of eggs; their form is more elongated than
when enclosed within the egg; the fore-part exhibits not hmg
but fine cilia, which probably existed previously, and the tuft of
filaments is extended at full length and occasionally vibrated,
although but slowly. There is nothing as yet to indicate the
Chiton; but the posterior part of the animal now begins to grow
more rapidly than the anterior (figs. 2, 3), which becomes more
conical ; and the lower part is specially characterized by the
separation of the back of the mantle by means of two furrows and
its division into joints, of which seven are distinguishable, and
through which some close granulations make their appearance as

Development of (Chiton) Leptochiton cinereus.

Fig. 1. Fig. 3.

Fig. 1. Embryo in the egg.

Fig. 2. Dorsal view of young Chiton, showing the commencement of the
divisions.

Fig. 3. Lateral view of the same.

Fig. 4. Dorsal view of young Chiton further advanced, with the seven irre-
gular plates deposited in the segments.

Fig. 5. The same from beneath, showing the foot, with the eyes on the sides
of the head.

Fig. 6. Dorsal view of a still older Chiton.

the first rudiments of the shell. The anterior part is sprinkled
with pointed tubercles, which are also seen on the margins of the
mantle. The animal bends itself frequently ; it is still quite soft,
and can only swim ; but soon after this it begins to crawl (fig. 2).
By the circular indentation of the mantle on the under side,

Prof. 8. Lovén on the Development of the Chitons. 415

its margin separates from the foot, each lamina remaining free.
The eyes are seen more distinctly than before to be situated on
the ventral side, but they are also indistinetly visible from above
(fig. 2). The joints of the mantle become more distinctly sepa-
rated, and its margin more closely set with points. The an-
terior, more conical part is still rather large and covered with
small pointed tubercles, which however are principally on the
upper surface. As yet I could observe no traces of the oral aper-
ture, and the animal was still seen sometimes swimming and some-
times crawling. In the meantime, the first layerof the shell-valves
was formed on the back (fig. 4), in the shape of narrow bands with
irregular margins, of which, as yet, I only observed seven ; the
three or four anterior ones being nearly equal in length, whilst
the posterior diminished rapidly. At this period the cirri dis-
appear. Thus they are wanting in the form shown in fig. 5.

But now a considerable change takes place. We observe that
the conical anterior part of the animal is no longer to be seen,
nor the tuft of filaments which it has hitherto borne. In place
of this the head, with its oral opening, is perfectly developed,
and above it the curved folds which are also found in the mature
animal. The eyes are situated on the sides upon distinct pro-
tuberances, and consist of pigment-spots and lenses. The foot
has somewhat increased, but has not yet attained its full size in
proportion to the head. No trace of the branchize is yet visible,
but many approximated cells may be observed in the place which
they are to occupy. The mantle has advanced over the head,
and one of the shells may already be seen in front of the eyes.
This advancement of the mantle is distinctly shown in fig. 6.
In this there are still only seven distinct shells, and in front of
the most anterior of these is a plane surface studded with
pointed tubercles; this is all that remains of the conical an-
terior part of the embryo. This plane surface is gradually much
diminished, at the same time that the eighth shell is produced
behind the seventh.

If the formation of the shells be examined more closely, it
appears in the first place, that, with the exception of the eighth,
they are formed almost simultaneously at the commencement ;
that is to say, the anterior shells are at first of a proportionate
size when compared with the posterior ones, which they do not
afterwards retain. Thus, in fig. 4, the first is a transverse arch
of equal length with the second and third. But this proportion
has already changed in fig. 6, and it alters still more subse-
quently. The first does not occupy the same breadth on the
animal as the three following ones, and thus the oval becomes
more distinct, as now the posterior shells increase in breadth.

416 Prof. 8. Lovén on the Development of the Chitons.

The anterior shells are earlier in acquiring their form than the
posterior ; thus the foremost will have assumed its crescent
shape before the posterior is scarcely formed.

In the second place, we find that the shells first make their
appearance in the form of narrow plates with irregular waved
edges, and increase both in breadth and thickness by the depo-
sition of new and somewhat larger plates beneath those first
formed. But fig. 6 shows that each shell soon acquires two
deep notches (zncisure laterales, Midd.), one on each side of
the anterior margin. When the new lamine are deposited by
the mantle, these notches are gradually closed when viewed
from above, and only a mark on its inner part is left; but it is
more than probable that by this mode of growth the lower |
surface of the shell, which is applied against the accustomed
surface of the mantle, ought to present a pitted furrow directed
forwards and outwards (sutura lateralis porosa, Midd.). It also
appears that the artzculamentum of Middendorff is first formed.
I saw no distinct indications of a tegmentum. It would seem
moreover that, at least in Chiton marginatus, the shells are
not united by four arfzculi, and still less is there any support
for the opinion that the posterior valve is the true shell, ana-
logous to that of Patella, and that the anterior ones are laid
over this.

As regards the edges of the mantle, I have only to observe
that its pointed tubercles appeared quite irregularly, as they
were seldom present over the whole surface, but only in
patches.

Nothing could be ascertained with regard to the internal
anatomy, from the want of transparency of the external parts.

If we compare this development with that of other Mollusca,
it is evident that the circle of cirri, by means of which the
animal moves in its first or swimming stage, corresponds with
the cirri of the velum in the young of other Gasteropoda and of
the Acephala. But in Chiton the velum is not developed into a
broad, extensible sail. Instead of this, another part has acquired
a considerable thickness, namely, the anterior conical portion
having the tuft of filaments. This is exactly what I call the
“ pyriform body ” which bears the “ flagellum” in the marine
Acephala.

The velum disappears in many Mollusks, so as to appear only
as buccal tentacula or labial palpi. Perhaps a vestige of it is
to be found in the fold of skin which surrounds the head in
Chiton.

Prof. A. Henfrey on Cell-development in Plants. 417

XL.—On Cell-development in Plants.
By Prof. Arraur Henrrey, F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, April 18, 1856.
In a recent Part of the ‘Transactions of the Microscopical
Society of London’ appeared a paper entitled “On the Formation
and Development of the Vegetable Cell,’ by Mr. Wenham
(Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science, January 1856), a
well-known microscopist. This essay, contaiming internal evi-
dence of the author’s want of familiarity with the subject treated,
tended to revive the long-exploded hypothesis that vegetable
cells originate as bubbles or vacuoles in a formless ‘ plasma,’
into which cavities the true cell-contents penetrate after the
formation of the cell. The paper would not have required any
notice at the hands of physiological botanists, had it not been
endorsed in some degree by the late President of the Microscopic
Society in his Anniversary Address (Quarterly Journal, April
1856). The deservedly high authority of Dr. Carpenter as a
physiologist renders it necessary that a protest should be entered
by some one having practical experience in these matters. 1
have no hesitation in saying that Mr. Wenham’s observations
are faulty, consequently his conclusions useless. The objects
selected for observation were unfavourable, and not favourable as
he imagined; for young leaves of most flowering plants, in the
stages figured by him, are not flat plates, but cones, or at all
events solids having more than one thickness of cells in all three
dimensions ; therefore the view is confused by one layer lying
behind another. The young leaves of most Mosses or Liver-
worts, the prothallia of Ferns, and similar structures composed
of a single flat layer of cells, exhibit the phenomena much more
clearly ; but even in the young leaves of Anacharis, the applica-
tion of dilute sulphuric acid and solution of iodine suffices to
render the structures clearly distinguishable as quite different
from what is represented in Mr. Wenham’s drawings. The
appearances presented by the protoplasmic structures in such
nascent tissue are familiar to most of those who have practically
studied these questions, so that it is merely necessary for me to
state, from my own experience, that the objects observed by
Mr. Wenham really offer no exception to the general rule, that
the primary cell-wall is formed on the outside of the mass of
protoplasm (primordial utricle, protoplast, primordial cell, por-
tion of cell-contents, or whatever we may choose to call it), which
is to form the active nitrogenous contents of the future cell.
I am, &c., yours truly,
ArtuuUR Henrrey.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 27

418 Bibliographical Notices.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A Monograph of the British Hieracia.
By James Bacxuovss, Jun. 8vo, York, 1856.

We have much pleasure in announcing the publication of this
book, which cannot fail to attract considerable attention. The au-
thor has spent several years in obtaining the requisite information,
in collecting multitudes of specimens, and in cultivating most of the
supposed species. He has been in active correspondence with those
botanists in this country and on the European continent who are
known to have carefully studied this difficult genus.

It is with great satisfaction that we perceive the modest manner
in which Mr. Backhouse introduces his book to its readers. He
does not pretend to have produced a perfect monograph, but hopes
that what he has done may “form a nucleus round which further
knowledge may be collected.”’ He thinks it not unlikely that some
of his species may ultimately be proved to be only varieties, and
that some of his varieties may be considered as species by future
botanists, and very reasonably hopes to obtain that indulgence and
excuse for errors of the kind which every real searcher after truth
has a right to expect. Let his views be examined in the spirit in
which they are published, and the author is manifestly ready to
submit cheerfully to the result.

We have some slight personal knowledge of the care with which
Mr. Backhouse has examined all the poimts treated upon in this
book, and have considerable confidence in the soundness of the
opinions formed by him. We know that he has not spared time
nor labour in the acquisition and arrangement of his materials.

It will probably astonish some of our older readers to find that
there seem to be 33 distinct species of Hieracium inhabiting the
United Kingdom, and still more, that 11 of these are supposed to
be new. The wonder will be lessened by remembering that the
only really elaborate work upon the genus is the ‘Symbole Hiera-
ciarum ’ of Fries; also, that until after the publication of that work,
very little addition had been made to the knowledge of our native
species since the appearance of Smith’s ‘English Flora ;’ most
collectors, and even some botanists, being satisfied if they could force
any plant discovered, to conform itself to some one or other of
Smith’s species. This habit was not confined to such difficult genera
as Hieracium, but applied to the whole native flora. It is probable
that such a compliment has seldom or never been paid to any other
book treating upon natural history. That it was well deserved
originally we do not deny; but we do assert, that after a few years
this habit became most detrimental to the advancement of science.
Its bad effects have hardly disappeared, aud even now the know-
ledge of the native botany of Britain can scarcely take a position
of equality with that attained in several other European countries.

But we must return to the consideration of Mr. Backhouse’s book.

Probably the most elaborate and novel part of it is that which

-

Bibliographical Notices. 419

treats upon the species allied to H. alpinum, H. nigrescens and H.
pallidum. He has shown, we think satisfactorily, that the ZZ.
alpinum of all our Floras includes several well-marked species.
Similarly he states, that several new species occur in each of the
other groups represented by the above-named plants; and also, that
some of the names hitherto used in our books (and even in the
above-mentioned great work of Fries) are erroneous.

From his position at York, and various engagements, the author
has not been enabled to elucidate the synonymy as much as we could
have desired ; neither has he studied some of the Herbaria that we
should have recommended to his notice. He has however been
supplied with large accurately named collections by Professors Fries,
Blytt and Grenier, and has thus had sufficient materials for the
determination of the plants described in the ‘Symbol’ and the
‘Flore de France,’ where the French species are described with great
skill. He also appears to have had the free use of the large collec-
tions of Professors Arnott and Balfour and that of our colleague
Mr. Babington.

We think that he has made a good use of these opportunities and
therefore cordially reeommend his book to our readers.

A Rearrangement of the Nomenclature and Synonymy of those
species of British Coleoptera which are comprised under the
sections Geodephaga, Hydradephaga, and part of Philhydrida,
being the first portion of a general British Catalogue. By
J. F. Dawson, LL.B., and Hamier Ciarx, M.A. London,
8vo. 1856. Post free for 12 stamps, on application to the
Rey. H. Clark, All Saints, Northampton.

In the shape of a small pamphlet of ten printed pages, and under
the above promising though somewhat indefinite title, we have re-
ceived the first instalment of what will certainly be a welcome boon
to the collector of British Coleoptera. For years the want of some
list of these insects, which, with the Lepidoptera, engross nearly the
whole attention of our native entomologists, has been severely felt ;
the imperfections of the ‘ Manual of British Beetles,’ by the late
James Francis Stephens, and of the lists of British insects published
by that author and by Mr. Curtis, becoming every year more manifest.
Under these circumstances the value of the present undertaking, by
authors so well known as careful Coleopterists, must be evident to every
entomologist, and we trust that the sale of the present part, of which
more than half consists of the nomenclature of the Geodephaga so
recently and admirably worked out by Mr. Dawson, may be such as
to induce them to continue their enterprise. A certain number of
these lists are printed on one side, so as to serve as labels for the
cabinet, and the synonyms given appear to be confined to such
names as have been quoted by British authors.

27*

420 Royal Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

February 7, 1856.—Colonel Sabine, R.A., V.P. and Treasurer, in
the Chair.

“On the Vitality of the Ova of the Salmonidee of different Ages ;
in a Letter addressed to Charles Darwin, Esq., M.A., V.P.R.S. &c.”’
By John Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. and Edinb. &e.

My pear Sir,—In a letter which I had the honour to address to
you last year ‘‘On the Ova of the Salmon in relation to the distri-
bution of Species,’ I have expressed the hope that some of the
results of observations therein described may aid in solving the
question as to the period, the age, at which the impregnated ova of
fish are most retentive of life, and consequently are in the state best
fitted for transport without loss of life.

Joining with you in considering the subject in need of and deser-
ving further inquiry, I have taken the earliest opportunity that has
offered of resuming it. The experiments which I have made, and
which I shall now describe, have been more limited than I could
have wished, having been confined to the ova of the Charr, as I was
not able to obtain the ova of the Salmon or any of its congeners in a
fit state for the trials required.

The ova of the Charr which have been the subject of my experi-
ments, were from living fish brought to me from the river Brathay,
a tributary of Windermere, on the 9th of November. They were ob-
tained by the pressure of the hand on the abdomen of the females
under water, and immediately after their expulsion a portion of liquid
milt, procured in the same way from a male, was mixed with them
for the purpose of impregnation.

The ova thus treated, 654 in number, procured from two fish,
were transferred, after little more than an hour, to a shallow glazed
earthenware pan, of a circular form, about a foot in diameter, with-
out gravel, the water in which, afterwards, was changed daily once,
and once only. The vessel was kept in a room of a temperature
fluctuating from about 55° Fahr. when highest, to about 40° when
lowest. The water used was well-water of considerable purity, and
before used it was allowed to acquire the temperature of the room.

Two modes occurred to me as likely to afford the means of testing
the vital power of the ova, or their power of endurance without loss
of vitality ; viz. one by subjecting them for a limited time to a tem-
perature raised above the ordinary temperature ; the other, by having
them conveyed to a considerable distance.

For the trials first proposed, the ova were put into a thin glass
vessel half-full of water, which was placed in a water-bath and heated
to the temperature desired.

The first experiment was made on ova taken from the general stock
one day after their expulsion. Six, for two hours, were exposed to
a temperature varying from 79° to 80° of Fahr. The result was,

Dr. Davy on the Vitality of the Ova of the Salmonide. 421

that they became opaque in the course of twenty-four hours, all but
one, and that, some days after, underwent the same change, denoting
loss of vitality.

The second experiment was made on the 10th of November. Six
ova were similarly exposed for two hours to a temperature rising
gradually from 70° to 78°; the result was similar: on the following
day they were all found opaque.

The third experiment was made on the 11th of November. The
same number of eggs were exposed for an hour to a temperature
falling from 70° to 69°. Two shortly became opaque ; four retained
their transparency during a month, though in reality dead, which
was denoted by their bearing no marks of development when seen
under the microscope, those ova which retained their vitality being
at that time well advanced.

The fourth experiment was made on the Ist of December ; the ova,
the same number, were exposed to a temperature rising from 75° to
78° for an hour and twenty-two minutes. Three became opaque,
other three retained their transparency and vitality, and in due time
were hatched, the first on the 3lst of December, the last on the 7th
of January.

The fifth experiment was made on the 13th of December. Six ova
were exposed for an hour and twenty-five minutes to a temperature
falling from 82°, which it was at the beginning, to 78°, which it was
at the end. Two became opaque; in these no marks of progress
could be seen of development, thus indicating that they were dead at
the time of trial. Four remained transparent; in these, under the
microscope, embryo-fish were seen with an active circulation of the
blood-corpuscles. One of them was hatched on the 31st of Decem-
ber; one, the last, on the 6th of January.

The sixth experiment was made on the 20th of December, on six
ova, containing living embryos. They were exposed for an hour and
twenty-eight minutes to a temperature of about 98°, and this during
the whole time. When taken out, they had not lost their trans-
parency, but in each the heart’s action was arrested, and death was
the result : they all sooner or later became opaque, from the common
cause, the imbibition of water.

The seventh experiment was made on the 21st of December, on six
ova, in which the circulation was distinct in the feetal fish. After
an exposure for an hour and five minutes to a temperature of 70°
rising to 82°, in five, on cooling, the circulation was found active ;
in one, stopped, which was dead; two were hatched on the 5th of
January ; three, the remainder, on the 7th of the same month.

The eighth experiment was made on the 23rd of December, on six
ova, each containing a living foetus. They were exposed to a tem-
perature falling from 84° to 82° during an hour and twenty minutes.
Examined after the water had cooled, in one, the circulation was seen
pretty distinct ; in two, very feeble; in three, the blood-corpuscles
appeared to be stagnant. Examined on the following day, the cir-
culation was seen active in all. One was hatched on the 5th of
January, the other five in the two following days.

422 Royal Society :—

The ninth experiment was made on the 24th of December. Six ova
were exposed for two hours and four minutes toa temperature falling
from 72° to 70°. Examined a quarter of an hour after, and before
the water was cold, the circulation was found vigorous in all. One
was hatched on the 2nd of January, the remainder between the 5th
and 8th.

The tenth experiment, and the last of its kind that I have to
describe, was made on the 2nd of January. Six ova, in each of which
the circulation was distinct, were exposed for four hours to a tem-
perature varying from 70° to 72°—the greater part of the time 72°.
Examined immediately on being taken out, the circulation was seen
uninterrupted in three, arrested in the other three. In three-quarters
of an hour, when the water had cooled nearly to the temperature of
the room, 55°, the circulation was found to be renewed in the latter.
In the interval, one of the former was hatched, and a vigorous fish
produced ; on the following morning four more had come forth, and
in the one remaining egg the fcetal circulation was vigorous ; it was
hatched on the 4th of January.

I beg now to pass to the other series of experiments referred to,
those in which trial of the vitality of the ova was made by sending
them to a distance. The method was briefly the following. The
ova were lightly packed in wet wool contained in a tin-plate box per-
forated in its bottom to admit air, and covered with a wooden cover
that had been soaked in water, with the intent of preserving moisture.
The box was wrapped in tow, loosely covered with oiled paper, and
the whole, in an envelope of common writing-paper, was well secured
by a binding of thread. Thus prepared, the ova were sent by post
to Penzance, in Cornwall, a distance exceeding 500 miles, with the
request that they should be sent back by return of post unopened.

The first experiment was made on the 9th of November. The number
of ova sent was thirty, taken from the common stock without selec-
tion. They were received on their return on the 14th of the same
month. On taking them out, all were found transparent ; but, with
the exception of one, all became opaque on being put into water,
and that one, after a few days, also underwent the same change.

The second experiment was made on the 14th of November. Twenty
ova then sent were returned on the 18th. All became opaque on
being put into water.

The third experiment was made on the Ist of December. Twenty
ova then sent were returned on the 5th. Put into water, eleven
became opaque within a minute; most of these were slightly shrivelled.
After three hours, two more became opaque. After forty-eight hours,
four only remained transparent ; in these, under the microscope, the
circulation was found active in two; in the other two it could not be
detected. One was hatched on the 31st of December, the other died
before hatching.

The fourth experiment was made on the 13th of December.
Twenty-two ova then sent came back on the 17th. During the
interval there was a severe frost ; the thermometer here in the open
air was constantly below the freezing-poimt, and it would appear to

Dr. Davy on the Vitality of the Ova of the Salmonide. 423

have been much the same throughout England. When examined,
eleven of the ova immediately became opaque on immersion in water.
In the other eleven there was no loss of transparency, and in these,
under the microscope, the circulation was found active. Those
which had become opaque were placed in a pretty strong solution of
common salt, by which their transparency was restored, the saline
solution dissolving the coagulum. Now examined, no traces of
development could be detected under the microscope in any one of
them,—showing that they had been dead before they were sent away.

On the following day, the 18th of December, the eleven transpa-
rent ova were repacked, and again sent the same distance. They
came back on the 22nd; they retained then their transparency ;
placed in water, a feeble circulation was to be seen in two under the
microscope ; in nine the blood-corpuscles had ceased to flow; these
became opaque. Of the two in which the circulation was perceptible,
one was hatched on the 28th of December; the young fish in the
other died, it would appear, in the act of breaking the membrane, its
head, on the 29th, having been found protruding, but the heart’s
action stopped.

The fifth experiment was made on the 26th of December. Ten
ova, in which the circulation was active, and the fcetus in each well
advanced, were sent off on the day mentioned, and returned on the
3lst. The weather, during the whole time, was mild, the frost
having ceased. When opened, the ova were all found hatched, and
the young fish dead, as might have been expected. When put into
water, not one of them showed any signs of remaining vitality; they
were all examined under the microscope.

The sixth and last experiment was made on the 6th of January.
Six ova, in each of which the circulation was vigorous, were put into
a glass tube of one cubic inch and a half capacity, with water to the
height of about 1°4 cubic inch, the remaining space, after closure by
a cork, being filled with air. The intention was to try the effects of
conveyance to a distance on these ova in water with a small quantity
of air. Owing to a mistake, they were not forwarded. Examined
on the following day, five ova were found hatched, the young fish
dead; in the one ovum remaining unhatched, the foetus was alive,
the circulation active ; on the 9th it burst its shell; the young fish
was vigorous.

As I could not with any certainty determine, at the time the ex-
periments were commenced, what eggs were impregnated and alive,
and what were not, I had at the beginning thirty ova taken indis-
criminately from the common stock, and put apart in a glass vessel,
the water in which was also changed daily. Of this number, seven
were found in progress of development on the 14th of December, or
23 per cent.; the rest had become opaque. One of the seven was
hatched on the 3lst of December, the others in succession, the last
on the 8th of January.

Further to arrive at a proximate average of the proportion of im-
pregnated and unimpregnated ova, or living and dead, on the 14th

424 . Zoological Society :—

of December, when in the living ova the circulation was distinct
under the microscope, and the embryos were visible even to the
unaided eye, I examined the whole number then remaining, viz. 405,
thus reduced, owing to 67 having been removed, one after another
having become opaque, and 152 having been taken out for the pur-
pose of experiments. Of these 405 remaining, 138 were found alive,
each containing a well-formed embryo, and 267, though still trans-
parent, without life, no marks of organization being to be seen in
them, either with the naked eye or under the microscope. Hence,
irrespective of the 152 experimented on, the proportion of living to
dead on the 14th of December would appear to be as 138 to 364,
or about 25 per cent. And, with the exception of two which died
after the 14th, all those then alive were hatched, the first on the
31st of the same month, the last on the 9th of January.

What are the conclusions to be drawn from these results? From
those of the first series of experiments, may it not be considered as
proved that the power of resisting an undue increase of temperature
is possessed in a higher degree by the ova in an advanced than in an
early stage of development,—the degree probably being in the ratio
of the age? From those of the second series, is it not as manifest
that the power of bearing distant transport, and of retaining life in
moist air, is in like degree increasing with age? And from both,
may not the general conclusion be drawn, that the strength of vi-
tality of the impregnated ovum, or its power of resisting agencies
unfavourable to its life, gradually increases with age and the progress
of foetal development? And as the Charr is one of the most delicate
of the family of fishes to which it belongs, may it not further be
inferred, with tolerable confidence, that the ova of the other and
more hardy species of the Salmonidee, were they similarly experi-
mented upon, would afford like results, confirmatory of those ob-
tained last year in some trials on the ova of the Salmon, and men-
tioned in my former letter to you?

The practical application of these results, and of the conclusions
deducible from them, is obvious, and need not at present be dwelt
upon.

I am, my dear Sir, yours very truly,
Joun Davy.

Lesketh How, Ambleside,
January 10, 1856.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
January 9, 1855.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Novice oF THE HoRNS OF AN UNRECORDED SPECIES OF PRONG
Horn (ANTILOCAPRA), IN THE COLLECTION OF THE DERBY
Museum, Liverpoo.u. By Dr. Jonn Epwarp Gray, F.R.S.,
VP 2.8. ETC.

Some years ago the late Earl of Derby showed me a pair of horns
attached together by the skin of the forehead, which he had then

Dr. J. E, Gray on a new species of Antilocapra. 425

recently received ; and more lately, Mr. Moore, the Keeper of the
Derby Museum, submitted these horns to my examination, requesting
my opinion on them. At his request I bring a short notice of them
before the Society, in hopes to obtain further information respecting
them, and a specimen of the animal itself, should it prove to be a
distinct species of the anomalous American Antelope. The horns are
most probably from America ; but this is not certaim, as the special
locality has not been recorded, nor the person from whom they were
obtained.

The colour, substance, and texture of the hair on the skin of the
forehead attached to the horns, exactly resembles that of the Cabrit or
Prong-horn (Antilocapra Americana, Gray, Cat. Mam. B.M. p. 117),
and if it were not for the very peculiar form of these horns, I should
have been inclined to have considered them as only the deformed

horns of that animal ; but both the horns are alike and have the same

. peculiarities, which is not usual in malformations; under these cir-
cumstances it appears better to regard them provisionally as belonging
to a distinct species, to be established or erased from the list as farther
knowledge may decide.

There can be no doubt of the position of the horns, as a part
of the upper surface of the orbit is to be observed, with the remains
of the eyelids and eyebrows at the base of the left horn.

a

. Fig. 1. Antilocapra Americana. Fig. 2. Antilocapra anteflexa.
ANTILOCAPRA ANTEFLEXA,

The horns compressed, dark brown, rugose, rounded and curved
and arched behind, compressed in front, becoming more so as they
reach the supra-medial frontal process. The apex subtrigonal,
evidently compressed and angularly bent forwards rather above the
compressed frontal process, with a deep furrow rather on the inner
side of the middle of the hinder upper part of the bend; the inner
edge of the recurved tip is rounded, the outer compressed, rather

4.26 Zoological Society :—

produced and sharp-edged ; the extreme tip is roundish, tapering, with
a white end. ‘They are considerably larger than the horns of the
usual species.

In the Cabrit or Antilocapra Americana, the horns are thick,
rounded on each edge and produced into a compressed submedial
frontal process, which is gradually bent towards the inner side. The
tips of the horns are rounded, becoming nearly cylindrical, and
are gradually and regularly arched backwards and inwards with a
bluntish extreme end.

The horns of the genus are peculiar for being lined internally with
a close velvety coat of short hair, directed towards the tip of the
cavity; and the whole outer surface of the horn appears to be formed
of agglutinated hair, some separate hairs being seen on the surface.

The peculiarity in the internal structure of the substance of the
horns of this genus shows, like the branched external form, a simi-
larity to the horns of the Deer; the hairy horn being the analogue
of the deciduous velvet of the Deer, and the permanent hairy coat of
the Giraffe. The ring of hair round the base of the outer surface is
to be observed equally developed in the horn from Lord Derby’s
Collection and in that of the common Prongbuck.

March 27, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Note ON THE SIXTEEN Species OF TEXAN Birnps* NAMED
BY Mr. Grraup oF New York, 1n 1841. By Puitip LuTLey
Scuater, M.A.

1. Icrerus Aupusonn, Giraud (no plate), is Psarocolius mela-
nocephalus, Wagl. Isis, 1829, p. 750. A good figure and interesting
account of this fine species is given by Mr. Cassin in his new work
on the birds of California, Texas, Oregon, Xe. pt. 5. p. 137. pl. xxi.

2. Muscicapa TEXENsIsS, Giraud, pl. 1. This seems very like
Elenia cayennensis (Linn.), (which is included by Mr. Swainson
in his Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico,) though rather larger in size.

3. Muscricapa LAwreENCEII, Giraud, pl. 2. fig. 1.
4. Muscicapa FULVIFRONS, Giraud, pl. 2. fig. 2.

5. Sytvia Hatsett, Giraud, pl. 3. fig. 1. This and the two pre-
ceding species I do not recognise.

6. Muscrcapa Deruamit, Giraud, pl. 3. fig. 2, is Muscicapa vul-
nerata, Wagl. Isis, 1831, p. 520; Setophaga vulnerata, Bp. Consp.
p: 313.

7. Muscicapa Beuxt, Giraud, pl. 4. fig. 1. This bird I believe
to be Sylvia chrysophrys, Licht. in Mus. Berol. ; Myiodioctes chrys-
ophrys, Licht. Nomencl. p. 32; Basileuterus chrysophrys, Bp. Consp.

* Descriptions of sixteen new species of North American birds, collected in
Texas, 1838, described in the ‘ Annals of the New York Lyceum of Nat. Hist.’ by
Jacob P. Giraud, Jun.—New York, 1841, 1 vol. fol.

Oe

a

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of Birds. 427

p- 314. But Mr. Giraud’s name has many years’ precedence, and it
will therefore stand as Basileuterus Belli (Giraud).

8. Parus Levcortts, Giraud, pl. 4. fig. 2, is without doubt Seto-
phaga rubra, Sw. Phil. Mag. 1827, p. 368, and has other prior
synonyms.

9. Frincinua TexeNsts, Giraud, pl. 5. fig. 1, is Chrysomitris
mexicana (Sw.); Carduelis mexicana, Sw. Phil. Mag. 1827, p. 435.

10. Prpra GaLertcuLata, Giraud, pl. 5. fig. 2= Fuphonia ele-
gantissima (Bp.) ; Pipra elegantissima, Bp. Pr. Z.S. 1837, p. 112,
and has other synonyms.

11. Muscrcapa Levucomus, Giraud, pl. 6. fig. 1, is Setophaga
picta, Sw. Zool. Ill. n.s. pl. 3.

12, Muscricapa Brastert, Giraud, pl. 6. fig. 2, seems to be the
same as Basileuterus culicivorus, Bp. Consp. p. 313; Sylvia culici-
vora, Licht. in Mus. Berol., which in that case must be called Basi-
leuterus Brasieri (Giraud).

13. Muscicapa ruBRIFRONS, Giraud, pl. 7. fig. 1. This very
pretty bird is named in Bonaparte’s Consp. p. 312, Cardellina amicta,
Dubus ; and a reference is given to that author’s ‘ Esquisses Orni-
thologiques,’ 1850, t. 25, which, unless I am much mistaken, is
still unpublished. Be that as it may, Mr. Giraud’s name has many
years’ priority, and the bird will stand as Cardellina rubrifrons
(Giraud).

14. Syivra oxtvacea, Giraud, pl. 7. fig. 2, is Sylvia teniata, Du-
bus, Bull. Ac. Brux. xiv. part 2. p. 104; Rev. Zool. 1848, p. 245.
Mr. Giraud’s name has the priority.

15. CerTHIA ALBIFRONS, Giraud, pl. 8, is Salpinctes mexicanus,
Bp. Consp. p. 224; Thryothorus mewicanus, Sw. Zool. Ill. n.s. pl. 11.

16. ALaupa minor, Giraud (no plate), is an Ofocorys, probably
the same as Wagler’s dlauda chrysolema, Isis, 1831, p. 530;
Otocorys chrysolema, Bp. Consp. p. 246. But there is much con-
fusion at present among the American, as among the Old-World
species of this genus.

I have thought it worth while to give the previous list of the
Texan birds described by Mr. Giraud, and some remarks on their
synonymy, as his book appears to be very little known on this side
of the Atlantic. The only copy I have seen is that in the Society’s
Library, to which it was presented by the author. It will be observed
that by far the greater portion of the species have been also noticed
by European naturalists, though in some cases subsequently to Mr.
Giraud’s publication of them.

428 Zoological Society :—

On A New Species OF THE Genus ToprrRostRUM OF LEssoN.
By Puruie Lutrvtey Scuater, M.A.

ToODIROSTRUM NIGRICEPS.

T. supra flavo-olivaceum: alis caudaque nigris ; rectricibus et re-
migibus primariis stricte, secondariis autem et alarum tectricibus
latius flavescente limbatis : pileo cum nucha et capitis lateribus
nigris: subtus flavum; gutture et ecrisso albis: rostro pedi-
busque nigris.

Long. tota 3°4, alee 1°5, caudze 1°1.

Hab. Santa Martha in Nov. Grenada.

De Lafresnaye has given an account of the species of this peculiar
South American genus of Tyrants in the ‘Revue Zoologique’ for
1846, p. 360. Bonaparte in his ‘ Conspectus’ has rather extended
the list; but his 4th and 5th species from Desmarest seem rather
doubtful, and the Muscicapa diops of Temminck is, I believe, quite
incorrectly stated to be identical with Hartlaub’s Todirostrum grana-
dense, and does not belong to this genus. There is also little doubt
that Todus melanocephalus, Spix, is the same as Todus cinereus,
Linn., and the first and third species of the Conspectus are therefore
coequal. The latest additions to this genus are :—

1. T. ruficeps, Kp. in these Proceedings, 1851, p. 52=T. multi-
color, Strickl. Cont. Orn. 1852, pl. 85. fig. 2.—(Todirostrum pecto-
rale, Kp.of the same page does not differ from Hartlaub’s granadense.)

2. T. chrysocrotaphum, Strick]. Cont. Orn. 1850, p. 48. pl. 49.
3. T. striaticolle, Lafr. Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1853, p. 58.
4. T. fumifrons, Hartl. Journ. f. Orn. 1853, p. 35; and

5. T. rufilatum, Hartl. 1. ec. 1855, p. 98.

The present elegant species I cannot identify with any of those
previously described. It is a typical Todirostrum, and may be placed
near 7’. cinereum, the type of the genus, from which it is easily
distinguished by its pure black head, yellowish-clive back, and white
throat. I obtained the only example of it I have yet seen from the
MM. Verreaux, by whom it was received along with many other
rare and valuable species from Santa Martha, on the north coast of
New Grenada.

Mr. Gould has specimens of the Todirostrum spiciferum, Lafr.,
from Chamicurros in North-east Peru. This species, with its largely-
developed crest, quite reminds one of the Muscivora regia (Gm.).

April 10, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Descriptions oF E1gut New Species or Birps FROM
SoutH AMERICA.
By Joun Goutp, Esa., F.R.S. etc.
Before describing the following birds, all of which are in my own
collection, I would remark, that I have submitted them to the in-
spection of Mr. P. L. Sclater, who has paid much attention to South

Mr. J. Gould on new species of Birds from South America. 429

American birds, and who pronounces them new to science ; I there-
fore embrace the earliest opportunity of placing them upon record.

1. CAMPYLORHYNCHUS Hypostictus, Gould.

General hue of the upper surface brown, the feathers edged with
greyish-brown, producing a somewhat spotted appearance ; from
above each eye, down the side of the neck, an obscure streak of
buffy-white ; upper tail-coverts dark brown, fringed with reddish-
brown; along the margins of the primaries a series of dark brown
dots on a light brown ground; tail brown, with lighter edges dotted
with dark brown like the primaries; under surface greyish-white,
with a streak of light brown down the centre of each feather, small
on the throat, gradually increasing on the abdomen, and assuming
the form of bars on the flanks; under tail-coverts buff, barred with
dark brown; irides red ; bill light horn-colour; feet olive-brown.

Total length, 8} inches; bill, 1; wing, 3}; tail, 32; tarsi, 1.

Hab. River Ucayali in Peru.

Remark.—This species is very closely allied to C. scolopaceus,
Spix, but differs in being of a rather larger size, in having a some-
what more curved bill, a more uniformly coloured back, and in the
greater number and larger size of the brown markings of the under
surface, which, moreover, extend on to the upper part of the neck
and throat.

2. CHAM#ZA NOBILIS, Gould.

Head very dark brown suffused with rufous ; upper surface, wings
and tail-coverts rich reddish or saffron-brown ; tail reddish-brown,
crossed by a broad black band near the end, and slightly tipped with
buffy-white on the centre feathers, and much more conspicuously
on the lateral ones; lores fawn-colour; under surface white, the
feathers of the breast broadly, and those of the centre of the abdo-
men narrowly bordered on the sides with brownish-black; on the
flanks the latter hue increases to such an extent as to leave only a
lanceolate stripe of the white down the centre of each feather ; under
tail-coverts buff, speckled with brown; above each eye a narrow
streak of buff commencing a little in advance of the centre of the
eye, and extending downwards as low as the nape; irides brown ;
bill black ; feet reddish-brown.

Total length, 94 inches; bill, 14; wing, 43; tail, 22; tarsi, 12.

Hab. Chamicurros, on the eastern side of Peru.

Remark.—This is the largest and perhaps the finest species of the
genus : its legs and feet are very powerful, its bill thick and strong,
its tail very short and rounded, its wings concave, and its plumage
offers that silkiness to the touch which is so characteristic of the
members of the genus Chame@za, of which it forms in every sense a
typical example.

3. FoORMICARIUS NIGRIFRONS, Gould.

Band across the forehead black ; crown, occiput and nape deep
chestnut ; upper surface and wings rich brown; central primaries

4.30 Zoological Society :—

edged at the base with yellowish-brown; base of the imner web of
the primaries and secondaries golden, showing conspicuously on the
under surface, but not perceptible on the upper; the outer covert at
the shoulder with a streak of ochreous-yellow along the margin of
its outer web ; tail brown at the base, gradually deepening into black
at the tip; throat, neck and breast sooty-black; abdomen and
under tail-coverts fuliginous-brown, assuming an olive tint on the
flanks ; irides brown; bill black ; feet dark brown.

Total length, 7 inches; bill, 2; wing, 38; tail, 2}; tarsi, 14.

Hab. Chamicurros, on the eastern side of Peru.

Remark.—About the same size and nearly allied to F. Cayennensis,
but may be at once distinguished from that species by the bar of
black on the forehead.

4. FORMICARIUS ERYTHROPTERUS, Gould.

Head, upper and under surface and the tail black ; feathers of the
shoulders and mantle fringed with grey, giving it a scale-like appear-
ance ; those of the back fringed im a similar manner, but so nar-
rowly as to be scarcely apparent; tail-coverts black, edged with
rusty-red ; extreme edge of the shoulder white ; wing-coverts black,
tipped with dark rust-red, forming first a narrow bar of red, and
then a broad one of black; primaries rusty-red, largely tipped with
black ; secondaries rusty-red at the base, then black and tipped with
rusty-red, the extent of the red increasing as the feathers approach
the body ; orbits naked and apparently red; bill black ; feet fleshy-
brown.

Total length, 62 inches; bill, 3; wing, 35; tail, 25; tarsi, 3.

Hab. Interior of Demerara.

Remark.—This is a very fine species. The specimen above de-
scribed, which is the only one I have seen, is in my own collection.

5. SCHISTOCHLAMYS SPECULIGERA, Gould.

Head, neck, breast, back, wings and tail black ; base of the third,
fourth and succeeding primaries white, forming a small conspicuous
patch in the centre of the wing; lower part of the back, rump and
upper tail-coverts grey; under surface of the wing, abdomen and
under tail-coverts white; flanks grey, with a few black feathers
interspersed on the sides of the chest ; irides red; bill, legs and
feet greenish.

Total length, 63 inches; bill, 3; wing, 3; tail, 3; tarsi, 7.

Hab. River Ucayali in Peru.

6. THaAMNopHILus Corvinus, Gould.

The entire plumage deep black with the exception of the shoulders,
on which is a broad mark of white ; bill black ; feet dark olive.

Total length, 7 inches; bill, 1}; wing, 33; tail, 23; tarsi, 12.

Hab. River Ucayali in Peru.

7. THAMNOPHILUS MELANURUS, Gould.

Male.—Crown and sides of the head, crest, back, lesser wing-
coverts and tail, black ; the wing-coverts tipped with white; re-

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 431

mainder of the wing blackish-brown ; throat and all the under surface
white ; bill black, becoming lighter at the base ; feet olive-brown.

Total length, 83 inches ; bill, 1}; wing, 3}; tail, 34; tarsi, 1}.

Female.—Crown of the head, crest, upper surface of the body,
wings and tail, chestnut ; throat and chest white, passing into the
mingled grey and sandy-red of the flanks; feathers clothing the
thighs rusty-red tipped with white ; bill blackish-brown ; feet olive-
brown.

Hab. River Ucayali in Peru; I have also received examples from
Bogota. I must remark, however, that the specimens from the latter
locality are somewhat smaller than those from Peru.

8. THAMNOPHILUS HYPERYTHRUS, Gould.

Crown and sides of the head, all the upper surface and tail, slaty-
black ; wings brownish-black, with a spot of white at the tip of each
of the coverts, forming three semicircular rows across the wing ;
chin, breast and abdomen rich dark chestnut-red, gradually blend-
ing on the flanks and vent inte the dark hue of the upper surface ;
bill black ; feet olive-brown.

Total length, 7 inches; bill, 1 ; wing, 33; tail, 23; tarsi, 1.

Hab. Chamicurros in Peru.

Remark.—I believe the above to be the description of a female.

Nores ON THE HAsiTs OF somrE INDIAN Birps.
By Lieut. Burcess. Parr IX.

Genus ARDEA.
Subgenus Eeretra (Swainson).

Arpea CasoGa. CatrLe Heron.

This active little Heron is abundant in the Deccan, and, as its
name implies, is a constant attendant on cattle, running about amongst
them, and picking off the flies that settle on them. I give the fol-
lowing from my note-book on their habits:—‘*'Towards the end of
November I observed a number of the common small White Heron
feeding near some cattle, and the same day twenty or thirty others,
and there were probably more feeding in fields of the toor plant ;
they appeared to be pickmg up food from the ground, and were in
constant motion, frequently taking short flights from one part of
the field to the other. I observed the same birds next morning
sitting on a banian tree within the walls of a village ; they quite
whitened the top of the tree with their numbers.

** 1st May, 1848.—Observed that the small White Heron has at
this season of the year the fawn-coloured neck, and also that the
long feathers falling over the breast are fawn-coloured.

12th May.—Saw numbers of the small White Heron feeding
amongst the sheep and along the grass plain at Khoonthephi.

** 18th May.—Observed a flock of fifty-nine small White Herons
in a ploughed field picking up the worms and insects brought out by
last night’s heavy rain ; several of them were without the fawn-colour
on the neck, head and breast.’’

4.32 Zoological Society :—

“8th May, 1849.—Saw five or six of the small White Heron feed-
ing amongst cattle. They keep close to the animals whilst feeding,
and I saw one evidently picking the flies off a bullock ; all these had
more or less of the buff-colour on the neck. It is extremely amusing
to observe these birds chasing flies, their long neck stretched out as
they follow every turn and twist of the fly, which is seized imme-
diately it has settled.”

The Cattle Heron breeds during the month of April, building in
tall trees. The nest is composed of sticks, and contains four eggs of
a pale greenish-blue colour, 1,8; m. in length by 1,3, in. in width.
I obtained eleven eggs from one tree on which there were twenty
nests. Ido not know if it has been satisfactorily determined whe-
ther both sexes assume the buff head and neck during the breeding
season.

Subgenus NycTicorax.

ArpvEA Nycticorax. Nicut Heron.

Is a tolerably common bird in the Upper Deccan, but from its
habit of roosting during the day in thick lofty trees, which it leaves
for the streams after dusk, is not often observed. Its harsh grating
cry is heard in the early dawn as it returns to its hiding-places. I
made several attempts to obtain its nest and eggs, but without suc-
cess, neither could I learn its time of breeding ; however, I shot
a young bird on 3rd December, with some down remaining on its
head, which circumstance leads me to believe that they do not breed
at the same time as others of the Heron tribe. Dr. Jerdon says,
“it breeds on palm and other trees, many nests together.” The
Night Heron of England, identical I believe with that of India,
“builds in trees,” says Mr. Yarrell, ‘and lays four pale greenish-
blue eggs, rather more than 2 in. in length by 14 in. in breadth.”

Genus PLATALEA.

PLATALEA LEUCORODIA. WHITE SPOONBILL.

I have seen flocks of these birds on the river Godavery, and occa-
sionally on the smaller streams. They breed during the month of
April, building in tall trees on the border of a stream. I append
a note on the subject: —“18th April, 1848. Found the White
Spoonbill breeding in a peepul tree beside a stream. The nest was
not, like those of the species of Tantalus and Iéis, built on the top
of the tree, but on the outside branches, about two-thirds from
the ground ; it was composed of sticks, and appeared small for so
large a bird. It contained four eggs of a white colour, spotted with
pale red, of much the same size as those of the Tantalus leucoce-
phalus.’ The egg is 2,8, in. in length, by rather more than 1,5 in.
in breadth. The gizzard of the male bird, which I shot rising from
the nest whence the eggs were taken, was of a strong and rough tex-
ture, much like that of a fowl; it contained some bright yellow sub-
stance, a few small stones, a seed, and a few small particles of grass.
Although the Spoonbill does not build its nest in the same situation

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 433

as the Tantalus or Ibis, 1 quite agree with Dr. Jerdon that the
Spoonbill shows more aftinity to the Ibis than to the Herons, from
the size and colouring of its eggs ; and I believe that the more the
study of oology is taken up, the more clearly will it be shown that birds
may be nearly as well classed by the number and colour of their
eggs and their mode of nidification, as by their external form and
internal organization. The egg is white, with a belt of light red
spots at the larger end.

Genus Crconta (Briss.).

CIcONIA LEUCOCEPHALA (Jerdon). WurrrE-NECKED STORK.

I have but seldom met with this handsomely-marked bird, but I
was fortunate enough to find it in its breeding haunts, and to secure
its eggs. On the 7th March 1850, I found a pair of these Storks
breeding in rather a low peepul tree; the nest was composed of
sticks, and contained four white eggs, nearly 2,5, in. in -length,
by nearly 1,9 in. in breadth. On the same tree a Black Vulture
(Vultur ponticerianus) had also built its nest, containing one egg.
In February I found young birds ; when hatched, the beak and bare
skin of the face are of a dull greenish-black, irides brown ; the body
is covered with light brownish fawn-coloured down, legs and feet
dull brownish-orange. On one tree were two nests, each containing
two young. The nests were composed of sticks, and built near the
top of the tree, ‘a tall Indian fig, the stem of which was partly within
the walls of a village. These birds, I was informed, breed in the
same tree every year.

Genus TanTAwus (L.).

TANTALUS LEUCOCEPHALUS. PELICAN Isis.

The Pelican Ibis, as it is called by Dr. Jerdon, is a common bird
in the Deccan, frequenting rivers and tanks, and feeding, I believe,
chiefly on fish. Its large size renders it remarkable, particularly
during the breeding season, when the back and scapulars attain
their particularly rich rosy tint. These birds are social, feeding in
flocks. I was told by the natives of a village close to a tank fre-
quented by them, and close to one of their breeding places, that
when they fish in the tank they walk in the shallow water in line,
driving the fish before them. In another village, about ten miles
from the Godavery River, where there are a great number of large
banian trees both outside and inside the walls, I found a commu-
nity of these birds, which had built their nests on them, probably
to the number of fifty. The trees inside the walls were as thickly
covered with nests as those outside, and the birds, which appeared
docile and tame, did not mind the noise of the people passing beneath
them. At the time that I visited the village, the young birds were
all well fledged, and most of them able to fly. The village people
informed me that the old birds move off to the river in the very
early dawn, and having caught a sufficient supply for their young,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii.

434: Zoological Society :—

return about eight or nine o’clock. A second expedition is made
durmg the afternoon. Some idea of the quantity of fish caught by
these birds may be gathered from what the people told me, that
quantities of fine fish were dropped by the old birds when feeding
their young, and were eaten by them. A young bird of this spe-
cies which I shot in Scinde, disgorged a large quantity of small
eels. This Ibis breeds during the month of February. The nest
is composed of small sticks, and is placed at the top of the trees.
If there are many on the same tree, they are placed pretty close
together. They lay three or four eggs, of a dull opake white,
nearly 2,5 in. in length, by rather more than 1,8; in. in width.
The voung birds are “able to fly by the month of May. I kept a
young bird which had dropped from the nest and broken its wing in
my earden for three or four months. It was most gentle and quiet,
occasionally only snapping its strong beak at any person it did not
like. Ina short time it recognized the person who fed it, and when-
ever he made his appearance it would walk towards him, uttering a
piteous cry, flapping its long wings and bowing its head towards
him. It was a most ludicrous sight, which many came to see. It
was fed on fresh fish, and would not touch any that were at all
tainted. Another young bird which I also kept, would devour the
bodies of birds brought in for stuffing, and did not appear at all par-
ticular as to the quality of its food. The stomach of an old bird
contained a grassy substance, the remains of fish, and what appeared
to be the claw of a small crab. I give a description of a young bird
taken on 20th April. The beak dark lead-brown, darkest at the
base, which is very thick ; the skin on the face and forehead the
same blackish lead-colour ; the feathers on the head brownish-grey ;
the feathers on the neck of an ashy-brown, mixed with down.
Shoulders ashy, with light brown edges ; scapulars much the same,
with much lighter ash edges ; the centres of the feathers darkest in
colour; lesser wing-coverts brownish-black, with an ashy tinge and
light ashy edges; larger coverts dark greyish-black; outer webs
tipped with ietiely nal colour, and imner webs tinged witha the same
colour on the edges. Tertials much the same colour as the greater
coverts, but tinged with rose-colour. Primaries and secondaries
black, with green reflections; back beautiful pale rose-colour ; upper
tail-coverts dusky grey ; tail-feathers twelve, black, with bright green
reflections. The breast, belly and sides covered with beautiful white
down, interspersed on the breast with some dark ash-grey feathers,
and on the sides with white, tinged with delicate rose-colour; the
whole of the back is also covered with beautiful down. This bird
was evidently a nestling, the first feathers having scarcely grown
enough to cover the body.

Genus Ists.
[sts pAPILLoSA (Temm.). Warty-HEADED I[BIs.

This Ibis is more common than the Black-headed, and is fond of
open places, as well as the sandy shores of the larger streams and
rivers. They are seen in flocks in the open country, picking up in-

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of Birds. 435

sects; the stomach of one which I shot contained nothing but the
héails, legs, and wing-cases of locusts; that of a second was full of
large grasshoppers, and a lizard ; that of a third was filled with the
chrysalides ? of butterflies. At the approach of evening the Warty
Ibis retires to thick trees to roost, uttering its loud and discordant
ery. It breeds during the months of F ebruar y, March, April, May
and June, laying as many as three, and probably four eggs, of a pale
bluish-white, slightly streaked and spotted with pale brown, 2,4, in.

in length, by nearly 15%, in. in width. I found the nest of this This
built on the top of a peepul tree (a species of Banian), and containing
three young birds, in the month of March.

April 24, 1855.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

ON SOME NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN SPECIES OF BIRDS IN THE
Dersy Museum at LiverpPoou.
By Putuie Luriey Scuater, M.A.

The zoological collection of the late Earl of Derby, now at Liver-
pool, contains one of the largest and finest series of birds at present
in existence, many of the examples being valuable not only for their
rarity, but also as types of species described long ago by Latham in
his ‘ General History’ and other works, and which are hardly to be
recognized without examination of the original specimens.

Mr. Thomas Moore, the present Curator, is busily engaged in
arranging this mass of materials, and affords every facility to those
who are anxious to inspect any of the objects committed to his care.
Among the birds I have had an opportunity of examining there
during a recent short visit are the following, which I venture to
characterize as new.

1. CoNIROSTRUM FERRUGINEIVENTRE, Sclater.

C. cerulescenti-schistaceum, pileo et alis caudaque intus nigri-
cantibus : superciliis latis et elongatis albis: subtus intense
Serrugineum aut ferrugineo-rufum.

Long. tota 4:9, alee 2°75, caudee 2-0.

Hab. in Bolivia.

This is a typical Conirostrum, and quite distinct, I think, from

any species hitherto described. The members of this genus with
which I am at present acquainted are—

1. ConrrostRuM CINEREUM (Lafr. and d’Orb.); D’Orb. Voy.
Ois. pl. 59. fig. 1. From Tacna in Peru and Sicasica in Bolivia.

2. ConrrostRUM RUFUM, Lafr. Mag. de Zool. 1843. Daenis
rufo-cinerea, Bp. Atti 6 Riun. Se. It. 1845, p. 404, et Consp.
p- 401. From Bogota.

3. ConrrostRuM sitticoLor, Lafr, Rey. Zool. 1840, p. 102.
_C. bicolor, Less.; Gray’s Gen. pl. 34. From Bogota.

4. ConrrostRuM aLpirrons, Lafr. R. Z. 1842, p. 301; Mag.
de Zool. 1843, Ois. t. 35 (from which, I believe, C. atrocyaneum,
28%

436 Zoological Society :—

Lafr. R. Z. 1848, p. 9, and C. ceruleifrons, Lafr. R. Z. 1842, p.302,
only differ in age or sex). T'rom Bogota.

Conirostrum superciliosum of Hartlaub, R. Z. 1844, p. 215, and
Bp. Consp. p. 402. sp. 5, is a true Sylvicola of Swainson, the same
as Parula mexicana, Bp. Consp. p. 310, and has of course nothing
to do with these birds.

The only other species that have been referred to this genus, as
far as I am aware, are Conirostrum ornatum, Townshend, Ann. Lye.
New York, 1851, p. 112, pl. 5. fig. 1, from Texas (the same as
Agithalus flaviceps of Sundeval, according to Dr. Hartlaub), and the
C. fuscum and colombianum of Lesson, Descr. d. Mamm. et Ois.
pp- 273 and 274, none of which I have as yet recognized.

2. SYNALLAXIS ERYTHROTHORAX, Sclater.

S. fuscus, olivaceo-tinctus, capite obscuriore: gutture nigro-
cinereo: alis extus, nisi parte apicali, tectricibus subalaribus
et vitta lata pectorali rufo-castaneis: ventre medio cineras-
cente, lateribus brunnescenti-olivaceis : cauda brunnea: rostro
nigro: pedibus brunneis.

Long. tota 5°3, alee 2°3, caudee 2°5.

Hab. in America Centrali; Coban et Honduras.

Of this Synallaxis, which seems different from all other members
of the genus that I am acquainted with, there is a specimen in the
Derby Museum procured at Coban by Delattre in 1843. The
British Museum contains an example from Honduras, and I have a
single skin in my own collection purchased in Paris, which I believe
to be from the same locality. The occurrence of species of this
group north of the Isthmus of Panama seems hitherto unnoticed,
except by the Prince Charles Bonaparte, in a list of a Guatimala
collection of birds in the Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1837, p. 118, in which
he includes the Synallaxis cinerascens of Temminck (Pl. Col. 227.
fig. 3). But the characters there given do not at all agree with
Temminck’s bird, and would seem more applicable to the present
species. Besides, the true Synallaxis cinerascens is said to be from
Brazil, and is not likely to occur also in Guatimala.

In my specimen of the present species the throat is slightly speckled
with whitish.

3. RAMPHOCZENUS CINEREIVENTRIS, Sclater.

R. olivaceo-brunneus ; capitis lateribus rufis, spatio postoculari
nigro: alis extus brunnescentibus : gutture albo, nigro-cineras-
cente striato: abdomine cinerascente, medialiter albescentiore,
lateraliter autem olivascentiore: cauda nigricanti-fusca : rostri
mandibula superiore nigrescente, hujus autem apice et mandi-
bula inferiore albidis.

Long. tota 4:0, alee 2°0, caude 1°3.

Hab. in rep. Novee Grenade, Pasto.

A third species of this peculiar genus, beautifully intermediate in
colouring as in locality between the Ramphocenus melanurus of
Brazil and the rufiventris of Central America. When I say a third
species, I am perhaps doing an injustice to M. Lesson, who has

any

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of Birds. 437

already described a third and a fourth. But I have never seen the
Ramphoceni trinitatis* and viridist+, and indeed they are hardly
likely to be recognized again from such meagre descriptions.

The Ramphocenus cinereiventris, of which there is only one
example in the Derby Museum, was procured at Pasto, in the
mountains of New Grenada, by the indefatigable Delattre. It is a
rather shorter-billed bird than the other two to which I have com-
pared it. Like R. rufiventris, it has the sides of the head rufous,
but differs in showing a well-marked postocular spot. It is also
striated on the throat like that species, but has no tinge of rufous on
the abdomen, which is darkish cinereous. The tail of the specimen,
I regret to say, is not quite perfect, but there is no appearance of the
white markings which are the distinguishing characteristic of the
Guatimalan bird.

The Derby Museum contains examples of R. rufiventris from
Coban and Panama, and also specimens of R. melanurus. The latter
species appears to extend from the Amazon, where Mr. Wallace
collected specimens in the neighbourhood of Para, to South Brazil,
where Prince Maximilian of Neuwied notices its occurrence under
the name of Troglodytes gladiator, Beit. iii. p. 751.

4, CypHORINUS ALBIGULARIS, Sclater.

C. intense rufo-brunneus: alis extus obsolete nigro-fasciolatis ;
cauda nigra, brunneo fasciata: capitis lateribus nigris; super-
ciliis posticis et gutture toto pure albis: abdomine crissoque
nigris, fasciis minutis albidis transvittatis: rostro nigro, tomis
pallidis : pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 5°75, alee 2°7, caudze 2°1.

Hab. in Isthmo Panama.

This fine large typical Cyphorinus, distinguishable by its pure white
throat and dark closely-banded under plumage, is also due to the
researches of M. Delattre, by whom it was brought from the Isthmus
of Panama. The only species I can find which resembles it in some
degree is Cyphorinus leucostictus,Cab. Orn. Notiz. in Wiegm. Archive
1844, p. 206; Schomb. Reise, i. p. 673. sp. 37, from Mexico and
Guiana; but that would appear to be a much smaller bird, and has
the under parts from the chin to the belly white, with the sides
aud crissum reddish-brown.

Among the rare types in the Derby Museum is Mr. Eyton’s
Dendrexetastes capitoides (Cont. Orn. 1851, p. 76). This does not
seem to me different from M. de Lafresnaye’s Dendrocolaptes tem-
mincki (Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1851, p. 154. pl. 4), named about
the same time, but I think the latter term has a slight precedence
in point of date, and the bird will therefore stand as Dendrexetastes
temmincki, if thought worthy of continuing to rank as a separate
genus. The Derby Museum specimen is, to judge by its make, de-
cidedly a Cayenne skin. The Dendrocolaptes temmincki in the Ley-
den Museum is said to be from Bogota.

* Lesson, Rev. Zool. 1839, p. 42. R. pileo rufo: dorso et alis brunneo-rufis ;

corpore infra niveo, lateribus griseis
+ Lesson, Traité d’Orn. p. 377. Vert-olivdtre en dessus, jaune en dessous !

438 Linnean Society :-—

Upon examining Dr. Kaup’s Psaris fraseri, of the Proc. Zool. Soc.
1851, p.47, I found it the same as Tityra albitorques, Du Bus,
Bull. Ac. Brux. 1847, xiv. pt. 2. p.104; and his Psaris parinus,
ib. p. 48, seems to me very closely allied to, if not identical with,
Pachyramphus atricapillus (Gm.), Pl. Enl. 687. fig. 1.

I can also confirm what Dr. Hartlaub has said in Wiegmann’s
Archiv, 1854, that Todirostrum pectorale, Kp., of the same paper
is T. granadense, Hartl., T. ruficeps, Kp.=T. multicolor, Strickl.,
and Setophaga flammea, Kp. = S. intermedia, Hartl.*R. Z. 1853,
p- 5. Butin the two latter cases Dr. Kaup’s names were first given,
though from the long delay in publishing the Proceedings the others
were first published.

When criticising other writers, it is proper also to mention my own
mistakes ; and I take this opportunity therefore of stating, that my
Tenioptera striaticollis of the Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 193 (of which
the Derby Museum contains examples), has been long ago named
and figured in D’Orbigny’s Voyage as Tyrannus rufiventris, p. 312.
pl. 32. fig. 2.

LINNZAN SOCIETY.

March 4, 1856.—The President in the Chair.
The following papers were read :—

1. “Note on some Larvee voided by Children,” by Mr. E. New-
man.

2. “Notice on the occurrence of Sepia beserialis in Cornwall,” by
J. Couch, Esq. ;

3. “A Memoir on the Development of the Ovule of Santalum
album, with some Remarks on the Phenomena of Impregnation in
Plants generally,” by Prof. Henfrey.

The observations detailed in this memoir were undertaken with the
object of confirming Mr. Henfrey’s views on this subject, as detailed in
the 21st volume of the Society’s Transactions, which views coincide
generally with those of Amici, Von Mohl, Miiller, Hofmeister, and
Tulasne, and are in opposition to those of Schleiden and Schacht. Even
among the disciples of Amici, however, a certain degree of discrepancy
exists in regard to the origin of the germinal vesicle, as to whether it
exists before, or is formed after fecundation. Hofmeister says before.
Tulasne states that he never could find it anterior to the fertilization ;
though, he adds, ‘‘this delicate question no longer (1849) possesses
all the interest which was accorded to it by MM. Mirbel and Bron-
gniart, and more recently by Mr. Henfrey. It is true the existence
of the embryonary vesicle at a period anterior to the arrival of the
pollen-tube would, if placed beyond doubt, prove invincibly that this
vesicle could not owe its origin to the latter organ: even now that
the error of the pollinists is no longer uncertain, the question seems
worthy. of attention, especially on account of the theoretical conse- -
quences involved.”” Confidently as Tulasne expressed himself as to
the origin of the germinal vesicle independently of the apex of the
pollen-tube, this very point is most warmly contested by Schacht.

Prof. Henfrey on the Phenomena of Impregnation in Plants. 439

Notwithstanding a tolerably positive opinion, derived from a number
of cases in which the end of the pollen-tube and the germinal vesicle
were seen together, but distinct, in one preparation, the objects are
so delicate, and the causes producing obscurity so diffieult to guard
against, that Mr. Henfrey cannot but think the demonstration of the
pre-existence of the germinal vesicle in the embryo-sac must be
considered the most important fact that can be brought forward in
opposition to the views of Schleiden. As remarked by Tulasne, it
has great philosophical importance in reference to the speculations
as to the source of the vitality of the new being; and it is no less
important for the establishment of the relations of the processes of
embryogeny in the various classes of plants, and of the analogy which
these present to phanomena attending the reproduction of animals.
The details of Mr. Henfrey’s researches were given with great exact-
ness, and were illustrated by many excellent sketches. The memoir
was chiefly occupied in describing the course of development of the
ovule of oue plant, in which the complete series of observations have
been repeated many times. Other fragmentary corroborative re-
searches being set aside, the facts detailed, though not now brought
forward for the first time, were offered as supplementary, partly con-
firmatory, partly emendatory, of the memoirs on the same subject by
the late Mr. Griffith. ‘The investigation itself,’ Mr. Henfrey re-
marked, “had derived a melancholy interest from the materials
having been furnished by the late lamented Dr. Stocks.”

After describing many of his microscopic examinations, Mr. Hen-
frey continues, ‘‘I have directed my utmost efforts to the accurate
observation of the ends of the embryo-sacs with the pollen-tubes
adherent. They are tolerably easily extracted with needles under a
low doublet. I have examined at least five-and-twenty, and have
applied every means to make the structures clear. .... The end of
the pollen-tube adheres so firmly to the end of the embryo-sac, that it
cannot be torn away ina really fertilized ovule. My decided opinion
is that Griffith was in error in stating that the pollen penetrates into
the embryo-sac ; I believe that it only applies itself firmly against it,
over the point where the line of division exists between the two coagula
lying in the apex of the embryo-sac. But I incline to believe that
a phzenomenon analogous to conjugation takes place. Moreover, very
soon after the pollen-tube becomes adherent, the pre-existing proto-
plasmic globule acquires a proper coat of cell-membrane, becomes
a real cell, the germinal vesicle from which the suspeysor is developed.
I think the contents of the pollen-tube, after it becomes adherent to
the summit of the embryo-sac, pass into the latter, reach the germ-
globule, and determine its conversion into a cell. .... The facts
relating to the germination of the Fucaceze and Confervee described
by Thuret and Cohn, together with those brought forward in this
paper, tend to prove that the process of impregnation in plants con-
sists in the absolute admixture of the protoplasmic substance of two
cells (‘ male’ and ‘female’), of which the female (or germinal)
substance or body always pre-exists in the form of a nucleus, or ‘ pro-
toplast,’ while the male (or spermatic) substance exists in the form
of a granulose fluid. In the flowering plants the spermatic fluid is

440 Geological Society.

conveyed directly into the embryo-sae by the channel of the pollen-
tube ; a similar process appears to exist in the conjugation of some
of the lower Algze ; in other cases the spermatic fluid is conveyed
from organs situated at a distance from the parent-cell of the germinal
vesicle by the agency of the locomotive structures (spermatozoids)
developed in the spermatic cells, bathed in and discharged with their
contents, and themselves composed of the nitrogenous protoplasmic
matter of cell-contents.”” A series of thirty-six clever microscopic
figures was given in illustration of the memoir.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
February 20, 1856.—D. Sharpe, Esq., President, in the Chair.

“On the Affinities of the great extinct Bird (Gastornis parisi-
ensis, Hébert) from the lower Eocene near Paris.”” By Prof. Owen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. Owen communicated the results of his comparisons of the
fossil tibia of the Gastornis parisiensis, Hébert,—a large bird from
the lower Eocene deposits at Meudon near Paris—with the tibiz of
known recent and fossil birds.

The tibia of the Gastornis presents the same median position of
the supra-tendinal bridge as in the Albatross and the lamellirostral
web-footed birds; but, as the same position of the bridge occurs in
the Notornis, the Gallinule, the Raven, and some accipitrine birds,
that character is not conclusive of the affinities of the Gastornis to
the Palmipeds; and it is further invalidated by a difference in the
aspect of the plane of the lower outlet of the bridge. In the Alba-
tross (Diomedea) and the Lamellirostres, the foramen or outlet looks
directly forwards; its plane is vertical. In the oblique aspect of
that outlet, the Gastornis more resembles the large Waders (Gralle)
and the Dinornis tribe. Amongst the Gallinacee, the Turkey (Me-
leagris) nearly resembles the Gastornis in the position of the bridge ;
and more nearly resembles it than does the Albatross or the Swan in
the low tuberosity external to the bridge above the base of the outer
condyle, as well as in the shallow groove dividing that tuberosity
from the bridge. The depression on the fore-part of the tibia above
the distal condyles, if natural to the Gastornis, is a structure not
precisely repeated in any of the Gralle. In the Ciconia Argala the
anterior interspace of the condyles forms a cavity, bounded above by
the tubercle and ridge developed from the bridge, and by the oblique
converging upper borders of the condyles below. ‘The canal of the
bridge opens below into the concavity. In the Grus Antigone the
lower border of the outlet of the bridge defines, with a tubercle ex-
ternal to it, the shallow supracondyloid cavity; but there is no
definite fossa, like that in the Gastornis.

In the Notornis, the breadth of the lower end of the tibia a little
exceeds the depth or fore-and-aft diameter of the condyles. The
supra-tendinal bridge is of moderate breadth, is transverse, and median
in position; its lower outlet looks forward just above the wide and
shallow intercondyloid space. The extinct Aplornis chiefly differs
from the Nofornis in the less median position of the bridge, and in

)

Miscellaneous. 441

the more shallow canal leading to it. In the Dinornis, the breadth
and depth of the condyles are equal; the outer condyle is the broad-
est, the inner one is the most prominent ; their articular surfaces
are so continuous as to leave no space answering to the intercondy-
loid space in the Aptornis, Notornis, &c. The bridge is situated
nearer the inner side of the bone, is subtransverse, rather narrow,
with a widely elliptical lower outlet opening above the inner condyle.

The Gastornis was a bird of the size of the Ostrich, but with more
bulky proportions, and in that respect more resembling the Dinornis :
it appears to have had nearer affinities with the wading order, and
therein, perhaps, to the Rallide; but the moditications of its tibia
indicate a genus of birds distinct from all previously known genera.

“Description of some Mammalian Fossils from the Red Crag of
Suffolk.” By Prof. Owen, F.R.S., F.G.S.

The fossils described in this paper were referred by the author to the
following genera and species :—Rhinoceros, a species nearly allied to,
if not identical with, RA. Schleiermacheri, Kaup; from crag-pits at
Wolverston, Sutton, and Felixstow, Suffolk. Tapirus priscus, Kaup ;
from Sutton. Sus paleocherus, Kiup; from Sutton. Sus antiquus,
Kaup; from Ramsholt, Suffolk. Equus: two species, one appa-
rently Eq. plicidens, Owen; from Bawdsey, Suffolk. Cervus dicra-
nocerus, Kaup; from Ipswich and Sutton. Cervus megaceros, from
Felixstow. Ursus, sp. indet., less than Ur. speleus. Canis, appa-
rently C. Lupus. Felix pardoides, Owen; from Newbourn, Suffolk.
Mastodon longirostris, Kaup; from Sutton, Felixstow, and Ipswich.
Ziphius longirostris, Cuv. (Dioplodon Becanii, Gervais) ; Hoplocetus
crassidens, Gervais; Balenodon affinis, Bal. definita, Bal. gibbosa,
Bal. emarginata, Owen; and remains of species of Delphinus, of the
size of the Grampus.

The conclusion which the author deduced from the large propor-
tion of miocene forms of mammalia, and the very great numerical
superiority of individual fossil specimens from the Red Crag refer-
able to miocene species, and from the admixture of these fossils with
a few eocene and pleistocene species, was that the Red Crag was the
débris of former tertiary strata of different periods, and, in a great
proportion, of the miocene period.

MISCELLANEOUS.
The British Museum—its Catalogues and accessions in Zoology.

“Tr is with great pleasure,” said the Prince Charles Bonaparte, in
presenting the Academy of Sciences of Paris with a copy of Dr. Gray’s
recent ‘ Catalogue of the Tortoises,’ “‘it is with great pleasure that I
lay before you this new work on the Chelonian Reptiles, because it
is a true model of what the catalogues of great museums ought to be,
taking the science at its standing point, and furnishing figures of new
or doubtful species and of such as have been ill represented. In
one word, it is a work worthy of its author, of the national establish-

442 Miscellaneous.

ment in which he presides over the Zoological Department, and,
above all, of the Administrators or ‘Trustees’ under whose charge
it is. These enlightened statesmen, raised above low intrigues and
personal considerations, although imbued with a spirit of order and
strict economy, know how to avoid parsimony when the advancement
of science is in question. Of this, the publication of this fine book
by order of these ‘ Trustees’ is a fresh proof, and the thanks of the
scientific world are due to them for it.”

If there be any class of men to whom the old proverb, that “a
prephet is without honour in his own country,” may be more especially
applied, it is undoubtedly to our British zoologists ; for while plain
Brown, Jones, and Robmson may bawl themselves hoarse without
finding a hearer, the moment Professor Schafskopf or Herr von
Windbeutel makes his appearance he is greeted with unanimous
applause; every opinion he puts forward is treasured up as so much
gospel; and although here and there a thorough John Bull may be
found to stand up for the merits of his countrymen, most of us are
as little inclined to abate one jot of our exclusive faith in foreign
scientific literature, as was mine ‘host of the Garter’ to suspect the
honesty of his German customers. Under these circumstances it is
very gratifying to find that the continental savans themselves by no
means treat the labours of our British zoologists with contempt, and
we have thought it worth while to quote the above passage from
Prince Charles Bonaparte’s oration, as it serves to show the estimation
in which one of a long series of works, but little known to many of
our readers, is held by one who is certainly no mean authority in
such matters.

The books here referred to are the Catalogues of the Zoological
Collections i the British Museum, which have now been appearing
in constantly increasing numbers for a period of twelve or thirteen
years. The value of their contents has also partaken of this progress ;
for instead of the “ Lists,’ containing merely the names of the species
existing in the national collection, with a few of the most important
synonyms, which constituted the earlier volumes, those recently
published generally include all the described species of the group on
which they treat, accompanied by a full synonymy and descriptions
of the new species; whilst in many cases the characters of all the
species, and those of the genera and other groups are given. This
applies especially to the Catalogues prepared by Dr. Gray himself,
which embrace a portion of the Mammalia (the Cetacea, Pinnipedia,
and Ruminantia), the whole of the Reptiles with the exception of
the Colubrine Snakes, and the Cartilaginous Fishes ; but some of Mr.
Walker’s and Mr. Smith’s recent Entomological Catalogues present
the same feature. Many of them also are accompanied by plates
illustrative of the characters of the new genera, or, as in Dr. Gray’s
Catalogues of Mammalia, of all the genera ; and it is with a view to
the more effective illustration of the subjects that these books have
lately cast off the form of unpretending duodecimos, in which they
originally appeared, and come out boldly as quartos. Such is the
‘Catalogue of Chelonian Reptiles’ referred to by Prince Bonaparte

Miscellaneous. 443

in the above extract, which is illustrated by some admirable plates of
Tortoises by Mr.G. H. Ford; and such is also the excellent Catalogue
of the Papilionide not long since brought out by Mr. G. R. Gray,
which contains coloured figures of the new species described, We
must therefore echo His Imperial Highness’s expression of thankful-
ness to the Trustees for placing within our reach, at a moderate price,
such a mass of valuable zoological literature.

In connexion with this subject we may also call attention to the
vast additions which have been made to the zoological collections in
the Museum in the course of the last twenty years, but especially
since 1840, as shown in the following table, derived from the Parlia-
mentary returns, as this more than anything will serve to show, not
only the energy displayed in the conduct of the Department, but
also the abundance of materials at the disposal of the authors of the
different catalogues to enable them to render their works as perfect
as possible :—

Additions made to the Zoological Collections in the British Museum
during the years 1836 to 1855 inclusive.

Vertebrata. ee g ieeat Total.
1836. 302 1,755 248 2,305
1837. | 1923 933 | 4,779 | 6,935
1838. | 1088 1,807 803 3,698
1839. | 1019 7049 1,558 9.626
1840. 654 12,371 8,164 21.976
1841. | 1936 3.744 11,345 16,238
1842. | 2740 5,125 10,877 18,742
1843. | 4503 10,221 6,150 20,874
1844. | 3517 19,191 10,200 32,908
1845. | 5842 8.868 2.688 17,398
1846. | 4535 10,181 3.960 18,678
1847. | 2396 6,337. | 5,524 14.266
1848. | 2717 11,566 | 3,661 17.944
1849. | 1608 5,011 3.559 10,178
1850. | 2251 260 | 3,827 13,338
1851. | 2889 9.438 | 8415 20,742
1852. | 2303 8,237 | 5,724 16,264
1853,.| 1979 | 105,406 | 5,015 112,400
1854. 903 9,663 | 13,847 24.413
1855. | 4865 15,173 | 4,340 24.378

422,301

Note on the Development of the Lampreys.
By M. Scuutrze.

The author has examined the development of the ova of Petromyzon
Planeri, which occurs commonly in a small brook near Berlin. The
ova were artificially impregnated. The mature ova are white and

ae

—— ee i ee ee ee ee

wwe

ai ae

4.44, Miscellaneous.

opake ; they possess a viscous, temporary outer envelope, and a finer
delicate chorion (membrane coquilliére of Vogt). The latter is finely
punctured, and appears to be pierced by minute tubes, as in other
fishes. The vitellus is furnished with an extremely delicate vitelline
membrane. No micropyle could be discovered.

The segmentation of the vitellus commences six hours after im-
pregnation. It implicates the whole of the yelk, and differs in this
respect from that which occurs in other fishes, in which only a small
portion of the vitellus (formative vitellus) undergoes this transforma-
tion. The segmentation of the vitellus in the Lampreys is exactly
the same as in the Frogs, and the vitelline membrane furnishes very
delicate envelopes for the segments, which are true cells.

The two first furrows are perpendicular, whilst the third is trans-
verse, separating the egg into upper and lower portions. The seg-
mentation goes on much more rapidly in the upper half, so that
when the segmentation is complete (two days after fecundation), the
cells contained in it are much smaller than those in the lower portion.
During this period a large cavity is formed in the interior of the egg,
but situated almost entirely in the upper part, which it dilates mto a
thin vesicle, whilst its bottom is formed by the large cells of the
lower part of the egg. As in the eggs of the Frogs, this cavity
disappears during the further development, and its purpose is not
known.

The first changes which take place after segmentation consist in
the increase of the upper part, which grows over the lower and
covers it,—not equally on all parts of the circumference, but only on
one side, by a margin in the form of a high ridge. At the side of
the latter and beneath it, a hollow is formed in the lower part of the
egg, corresponding to the anus in the eggs of the Frog. This is the
entrance to a second cavity, the primitive alimentary cavity, which
is developed during the diminution of the cavity of segmentation ; it
subsequently becomes the anus of the Lamprey, and is therefore the
first portion of the fish to make its appearance. No trace of vibratile
cilia is distinguishable on the surface of the egg, which does not
exhibit any rotatory movement like that which distinguishes the eggs
of the Frog. On the fifth day, dorsal ridges, like those of the Batra-
chia, make their appearance, and the dorsal furrow which is situated
between them soon closes above ; the extremity of the head now rises
distinctly, whilst the anus constantly becomes smaller, but never dis-
appears entirely. In the meantime the primitive alimentary cavity
extends up to the extremity of the head of the embryo, whilst it dis-
appears gradually in the neighbourhood of the anus, from the
approximation of the large cells of the lower portion of the yelk, by
which it was enclosed. In this way the primitive alimentary cavity,
which never exhibits vibratile cilia in its interior, becomes the pha-
ryngeal, and subsequently the branchial cavity. At this time also
the chorda dorsalis and the heart make their appearance ; the latter
only makes sixteen pulsations in a minute. On the sides of the
chorda dorsalis appear parts which become the lateral muscles
(vertebral divisions of Vogt) ; above it are the commencements of the

Miscellaneous. 445

spinal cord and the cerebellum, the latter only forming a clavate
inflation of the former, as in Amphiovus.

On the fourteenth day the young Lampreys, 14 line in length,
languid, white and opaque, quit the egg; they are incapable of
rising from the bottom of the vessel. In the inflated extremity of
the hinder part of the body are the large cells formed by the seg-
mentation of the lower half of the vitellus; they are filled with the
elements of the yelk, and do not entirely disappear for three or four
weeks after exclusion. During this period the young fishes take no
nourishment.

After leaving the egg, the branchial apertures are formed suc-
cessively by wrinklings of the skin, which attain the number of
seven on each side, and become constantly deeper until they reach
the pharyngeal cavity. At the same time another wrinkle of the
skin produces the mouth; and above the anterior extremity of
the chorda dorsalis, between the skin and the cerebellum, there
appears a spot of black pigment, which constitutes the eye. This is
formed in the manner of the eye in the Invertebrata. Behind the
eye, and near the brain, a large clear cell becomes filled with cal-
careous granules; this is the auditory vesicle, with the otolithes.
The heart divides distinctly into ventricle and auricle, and the peri-
pheric portion of the vascular system is developed. Behind the
heart some large yellowish cells form the liver.

At the bottom of the branchial apertures the branchial filaments
spring from the partitions ; they are never furnished with vibratile
cilia. The cartilaginous branchial arches commence their develop-
ment from the chorda dorsalis, and passing beneath the skin of the
partitions soon meet beneath, forming a branchial skeleton exactly
like that of the mature Lamprey. Beneath the branchial cavity the
branchial artery is produced, and between this and the skin a long
oval gland, composed of small granulated cells, is formed. It is
situated in a cavity with soft walls, which it fits exactly, and its
surface is covered with vibratile cilia. The author regards it as a
thymus gland, but it does not exist in the mature fish.

Round the mouth are formed the upper and lower lips, and two
lateral flaps united with the upper lip. The young animal becomes
more and more transparent ; but in several parts of its body, espe-
cially over the artery and vein beneath the chorda dorsalis, cells of
black pigment are deposited in a stellate form. Here also numerous
adipose cells are developed, from which some small papillee arise
above the heart and liver ; these are directed towards the abdominal
side, and oscillate freely ; they also bear on their surface a longi-
tudinal range of cilia. The author doubts whether they are the first
rudiments of the kidneys or of the Wolffian body, as he subsequently
saw the formation of a tortuous canal further back, but still above
the liver, which presented no oscillations, and which perhaps would
become the Wolffian body, discovered in other fishes not long since
by M. Reichert. When the membranes of the intestine are deve-
loped, and the residue of the vitelline mass is consumed, a vibratile
epithelium is seen in the posterior portion of the digestive tube.

4.46 Miscellaneous.

This is at four weeks after exclusion, and it is only then that the
young Lampreys take some nourishment from the mud in which
they delight to bury themselves. Some cartilages also now make
their appearance at the anterior extremity of the echorda dorsalis ;
these are the foundations of the basilar cartilage of the cranium.
The eyes are still deeply immersed in the skin, but the auditory
vesicles are enlarged and the number of otolithes increased. A
single olfactory organ, a small cavity covered with a vibratile
epithelium, is situated in front of the brain, and receives a short,
thick, olfactory nerve. It is remarkable, that four weeks after ex-
clusion there was no trace of peripheric nerves, either in the head

or body, although the spinal cord is very thick.—Comptes Rendus,
Feb. 18, 1856, p. 336. -

CLAUSILIA MORTILLETI.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Cheltenham, March 30, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—My attention was only very lately directed to a
note from Herr Adolf Schmidt, of Aschersleben, in your ‘ Annals’
for January last, mentioning the occurrence of Clausilia Mortillets,
Dumt., near Cheltenham.

In the autumn of last year I found a Clausilia in this neighbour-
hood, which I at first suspected might be Clausilia Rolphit, a species
I have always hoped to find in this county. I sent three specimens to
the British Museum, with the statement, that if not C. Rolphii, with
which I was not acquainted, and the figure and description of which
differ widely from each other and from the species itself in Turton’s
‘Manual,’ it was probably C/. Mortilleti, Dumt. I subsequently
sent two examples of the same to Herr A. Schmidt, from whom I
had previously received continental shells, with the note, that if it
was not a very ventricose variety of Clausilia rugosa, it was probably
Clausilia Mortillets.

In this neighbourhood the species is extremely local. I found it
in company with dzeca tridens, among nettles and long grass, in a
damp and shaded locality, and did not procure more than a dozen
examples altogether. It is not a very well marked species; but, in
addition to structural points of difference, its “habit” is unlike that
of C. rugosa.

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

CHARLES PRENTICE.

On a supposed New Species of the Genus Equus.
By M.1. Georrroy Satnt-Hivarre.

The Empress of the French has recently received as a present
from the Viceroy of Egypt, and presented to the Menagerie of the
Jardin des Plantes, two specimens of an Equine animal, which M.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire considers to be a new species. It belongs to

Meteorological Observations. 447

the section of the great genus Lquus of which Dr. Gray has formed
his genus Asinus. It is most nearly allied to the Djiggetai (Lquus
(Asinus) Hemionus), but differs from that species in the smaller size
and better shape of the head, its shorter ears, and its tail partially
covered with long hairs. It thus appears to be intermediate between
the Djiggetai and the Horse, for which reason M. Saint-Hilaire pro-
poses to name it Hquus hemippus. Its colour is the same as that of
the Djiggetai, and, like that species, it has a blackish mane and dor-
sal line. It is supposed to be a native of the deserts of Syria between
Palmyra and Bagdad.—Comptes Rendus, Dec. 31, 1855, p. 1214.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR MARCH 1856.

Chiswick.—March 1. Cloudy: fine. 2. Cloudy: slight rain. 3,4. Cloudy and
cold. 5. Overcast. 6. Cloudy and cold: fine. 7. Cloudy: fine. 8. Fine: slight
rain. 9. Cloudy. 10. Foggy: fine. 11. Foggy: hazy: frosty at night. 12.
Clear and frosty : cloudy and windy. 13. Cold and dry. 14. Excessively cold
wind : clear, cold and dry. 15. Cloudy. 16. Slight haze: heavy rain at night.
17. Hazy. 18. Hazy: fine rain. 19, 20. Hazy: overcast. 21. Hazy: cloudy.
22. Overcast: fine. 23. Hazy: fine: clear. 24, 25. Hazy and cold. 26. Cloudy
and cold. 27. Clear: fine: frosty. 28. Cloudy and cold. 29. Dry cold haze:
aed at night. 30. Slight haze: fine: sharp frost. 31. Slight haze: very fine:

‘osty.

Mean temperature of the month ..........sssesceesecesseescceene 38°95
Mean temperature of March 1855 | .........0<s..0ssecescopeesass 37 *61
Mean temperature of March for the last thirty years ......... 42 °09
Average amount of rain in March —.........seseeeseesevees veesee 1°344 inch.

Boston.—March 1, 2. Cloudy. 3. Cloudy: rainr.m. 4,5. Cloudy. 6. Cloudy:
rain A.M. 7—9. Fine. 10. Cloudy. 11. Cloudy: snow a.m. 12, 13. Cloudy.
14. Fine. 15. Cloudy. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain a.m.andp.m. 18. Cloudy:
rain P.M. 19. Cloudy: rain a.m. 20. Cloudy. 21. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m.
22—26. Cloudy. 27. Fine. 28. Cloudy. 29—31. Fine.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—March 1. Cloudy A.m.: fine, drizzle p.m. 2. Drizzle
A.M.: fine, cloudy p.m, 3. Damp a.m.: fine, clear p.m. 4. Showers, fine A.M.:
fine, cloudy p.m. 5. Damp a.Mm.: fine,; aurora p.m. 6. Drops A.m.: fine p.m.
7. Fog a.m. and p.m. 8. Showers a.m.: fine, aurora p.M. 9. Showers a.M.:
cloudy p.m. 10. Frost a.m.: clear, frost p.m. 11, 12. Snow-showers a.m. and
P.M. 13. Snow, frost a.m. : clear, frostr.m. 14. Clear, frost a.m. : very clear P.M.
15. Bright a.m.: very clear, aurora p.m. 16. Clear a.m.: very clear p.m. 17.
Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 18. Cloudy a.m.and p.m. 19. Bright a.m. : cloudy
p.M. 20, 21. Cloudy, fine a.m. and p.m. 22. Bright, fine a.m.: clear, fine p.m.
23, 24. Cloudy a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 25. Cloudy a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 26.
Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 27. Bright a.m.: clear, aurorap.M. 28. Cloudy
A.M.: very clear, fine p.m. 29. Clear a.m.: very clear, fine p.m. 30. Cloudy
A.M.: very Clear, fine, aurora P.M. 31. Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m.

Mean temperature of March for previous twenty-nine years... 40°40
Mean temperature of this month .......ccscsssscscscescesesercves 40 *39
Mean temperature of March 1855 —.........-..00.. Ke acaeceK 36 °61
Average quantity of rain in March for fifteen previous years . 2°60 inches.

This month has been unprecedentedly dry, the rain being only about one-eighth
of the average for March, and less than that of any month during my observations,
except April 1852, when it was only*1l of an inch. Rain feli only on eight days.

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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 102. JUNE 1856.

XLI.—On the British Diastylide.,
By C. Srence Bare, F.L.S.

[With three Plates. |

Tue first recorded specimen of the anomalous group of Crus- —

tacea which forms the subject of the present memcir, was that
figured by Col. Montagu in the ‘Transactions of the Linnean
Society,’ vol. ix., as Cancer scorpioides. He there describes it as
a mutilated specimen, and the only one which he had observed,
The head or forepart he believed to have been wanting, and thus
accounted for his inability to detect the eyes or antenne. But
still, from the general appearance of the creature, he thought it
entitled to a place amongst the Cancri,—which term appears to
be with him synonymous with Crustacea, exclusive of the, lsopoda
and the Entomostraca,—and that it bore a near relation to Cancer
esca of Gmelin. -

Say, in the lst volume of the ‘Transactions of the Phila-
delphia Philosophical Society,’ describes a Crustacean under the
name of Diastylis, which he affirms to be of the same genus as the
Cancer scorpivides of Montagu and the Cancer esca of Gmelin.

In the 13th volume of the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’
Dr. Milne-Edwards has described another specimen, under the
name of Cuma Audouinii ; but this he afterwards, in his ‘ Histoire
des Crustacés,’ qualified with a doubt as to whether it might not
be the immature form of some known Decapod.

This last opinion has been recently supported by the assertion
of Professor Agassiz to Mr. Dana, that the Cume were the larve of
certain Macroura. Consequently the most recent and one of the
most important works on the subject, Mr. Dana’s great work on
Crustacea, contains the following passage :—“ But according to

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 29

450 Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide.

recent observations by Prof. Agassiz, communicated by him to
the author, the Cume are in part, if not always, the young or
immature forms of certain Macroura, as Alpheus, Palemon, and
Hippolyte. This distinguished observer has actually obtained
Cume from the eggs of Crangon septemspinosus, Palemon vul-
garis, and Hippolyte aculeata.”

A communication made by so eminent a man is like the
sound of a trumpet, the voice of which extends to the farthest
limits of the earth, and long is the time ere its echo shall cease
to be repeated.

Agassiz says that he has “ actually obtained Cume from the
eggs of Macroura.’ This strong assertion by so great a man
will require the clearest evidence that careful investigation can
produce in order to demonstrate its error and to elucidate the
truth, that the Cume are adult animals perfect in themselves, and
that they belong to the suborder Stomapoda among Crustacea,
in which they form a family of themselves, the Diastylide.

I have chosen this name from the earliest given to a genus of
the family, which appears moreover to be the type of the group ;
also as considering the term Diastylis to be more significant im
relation to the form of the animal than either of the other
generic names in the family.

Kroyer, in his illustrations to the ‘ Voyages en Scandinavie,’ &e.,
has figur ed several species most carefully and most corr ectly, i in
accordance with the usual practice of that eminent carcinologist.
More recently Mr. Goodsir, m the Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal for 1843 (in a paper which has been reprinted in full in
Bell’s ‘ British Crustacea’), has described all the known British
forms, and with the exception of Kroyer, whose work Mr. Goodsir
appears not to have been aware of, has entered more fully into
the subject than any previous author. He has recognized their
true character as animals in their adult condition, and considers
that they should be ranged with the lower forms of Macroura,
and between them and the Stomapoda. With this, Prof. Bell in
his ‘ British Crustacea’ entirely agrees, and has included these
anomalous forms of Sessile-eyed Crustacea amongst the Podoph-
thalma.

Sir James Dalyell, in his fine work on the ‘ Rare Animals of
Scotland,’ has figured one or more species, without adding much,
we believe, to the knowledge of either the structure or habits of
the animals.

The first step will therefore be to describe the separate parts
of the dismembered animal ; and although this to a certain extent
has been done by Kroyer, yet his great work is in the hands of
so few, that it will scarcely be deemed a work of supererogation
even to repeat some that he has well displayed, and by this

Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide. 451

means we shall be enabled homologically to consider the relation
which their several parts hold to the same respectively in the
larvae of the Decapoda, and demonstrate not only that the Cume
are not the young of certain Macroura, but that they are animals
complete in their development and capable of the production
of others of their own form.

That the Diastylide are a depauperized family, there can, I
think, be no doubt; yet it is one of those forms in creation
which assist to destroy the popular theory of authors, of a gradual
rise in the gradation of animal existence ; for though in elassifi-
cation we place them among the higher types, yet there can be
little doubt that im organized perfection they are less complete
than those of animals below them in the natural scale of ar-
rangement. ;

Genus DIAstTyYLiIs.

Diastylis, Say, Trans. Phil. Soc. Philad, vol. i.
Alauna, Goodsir, Edin. New Phil. Journ. (1843).
Cuma, Kroyer (Voyages en Scand. &c.).

Carapace with the lateral angles developed anteriorly, and
meeting without uniting in front of the eye and antennal seg-
ments, and produced anteriorly in the form of a rostrum. Eyes
confluent, and situated as a single organ on the top. Five seg-
ments of the thorax exposed behind the carapace. Upper an-
tenna short, scarcely reaching to the anterior margin of the
carapace. Lower antenna longer than the upper. First five
abdominal segments without appendages, except the two anterior
in the male only. The sixth furnished with a pair of members
terminating with double stylets. The ¢e/son* produced into a
long styliform process.

Diastylis Rathkii. Pl. XIII.

Cuma Rathkii, Kroyer.
Alauna rostrata, Goodsir.

The genus Bodotria is perhaps the highest form in the family ;
but since my opportunity of dissection has been more complete
on the Alauna of Goodsir, which I believe to be of the same
genus as Diastylis of Say, I shall take this latter as the type
of the whole family, and under their respective heads trace the
generic or specific differences in the group.

The first character in the general appearance of one of these
animals that strikes the observer is that of its being a muti-
lated creature,—an idea present to the mind of Montagn when

* From ré\gov, extremity. The centre tail-piece in Crustacea generally 5
the twenty-first segment in the homologies,
29%

452 Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide.

he described and figured in the ‘ Linnean Transactions’ the ani-
mal in the collection at the British Museum. From the reduced
form of the members generally, many appear, on a careless exa-
mination, to be wanting; hence it is that both Say and Montagu
mistook the character of their respective species.

Taking each of the segments in succession, we observe that
that which supports the first pair of appendages in Crustacea
is strongly marked as an independent segment, both in Squilla
among the Stomapoda, and Palinurus among the Decapoda ;
and that in the Decapoda when the segment itself is absent,
the eyes are still borne on projecting peduncles ; but in the whole
of this group not only is the segment absent, but the peduncles
themselves are wanting; and the eyes not only lose their podoph-
thalmic character, but the two are so closely assuciated as to
appear, as they probably are, but a single organ, and to general
observation fixed in the centre of the carapace, in which ano-
malous position they have been described by those who have
discovered the organ, except Kroyer.

The second segment, or that which supports the first or in-
ternal pair of antennze, is closely associated with the third, or
that which bears the second or external pair of antennz ; the two
segments united together are attached to the next succeeding
by the posterior margin only, which is somewhat broader than
the anterior, the centre of which is slightly advanced, as if to
cover the organ of vision. The fourth segment, or that which
supports the mandibles, is developed posteriorly to the pre-
ceding, to which it is united by the entire width of the anterior
segment, but only at its posterior margin, for the lateral edges,
unlike what is found in the perfect Macroura, are free. The
lateral processes or wings of the mandibular segment extend
considerably forward on each side of the segments which bear
the antenne, and meet without uniting in front of the same.
This segment forms nearly the whole of the carapace, and sur-
rounds the anterior segments, which appear as a central patch
on the dorsal surface.

The carapace is developed from the same segments as in the
perfect Macroura, but in this tribe covers only the first two or
three instead of all the segments of the thorax ;—obedient to a
law which I think has been made out in a previous paper (see
Ann. Nat. Hist. July 1855), that the anterior portion of the
carapace lessens in importance in relation to the posterior, and
that the whole decreases as the animal descends in the scale of
nervous centralization. Consequently the great buckler, which
in the Brachyura and Macroura protects the whole of the thoracic
portion of the animal, extends its defence only over the two an-
terior segments ; the last five are seen posterior to the carapace,

Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide. 453.

and, unlike the same segments in the higher forms, have the
dorsal portion complete, and each is developed into a perfect
ring to which the respective thoracic legs are attached.

The seven succeeding segments belong to the abdomen, and
are unfurnished with appendages, except the penultimate, which
is supplied with a pair of double-branched stylets, from which
peculiarity of form Say derived his generic name for the Ame-
rican species. In the male however the first two segments are
each supplied with a pair of short, stout, styliform appendages,
which are probably intremittent organs, since they homologize
with those which are known as such in the higher forms. The
last segment is developed into a caudal style, the edges of which
are furnished with short spinules: near the centre of this articu-
lation debouches the alimentary canal.

The upper or interior antenna is short and pyriform, appa-
rently consisting of a peduncle, which is formed of a single seg-
ment and a short filamentary appendage of four articulations,
each being furnished with a long ciliated hair (Pl. XIII. fig. 4 a).
The whole organ does not extend beyond the rostrum-like pro-
jection of the carapace.

The lower or exterior antenna is considerably longer than
the upper, and consists of a peduncle formed of a single joint
and a filamentary appendage, the first two articulations of which
probably homologize with the second and third joints of the
peduncle in the antenna of the true Macroura, since that which
we call the peduncle in this, evidently homologizes with the first,
or first and second, for the olfactory organ is distinctly dis-
cernible in the middle of the segment (Pl. XIII. fig. 5 a), which
is considerably broader than the next succeeding; we there-
fore think it convenient to describe it as the peduncle, and the
slighter continuation as the terminal filament, rather than accord-
ing to what may or may not be homologically true. The first
joint of the filament is nearly as long as the peduncle, and the
second considerably lenger, whereas the four terminal are ex-
tremely short, each successively shorter than the preceding ; the
last is tipped with a slight brush of cilia, and reaches consider-
ably in advance of the most anterior extremity of the animal.

The mandibles are the next succeeding pairs of appendages,
and are very powerful organs, not developed upon the type of
the Decapoda, but furnished with a molar tubercle and a comb-
like row of teeth or haus as found among the Amphipoda, pos-
sessing however a long osseous tendon as in the Macroura, and
therefore forming a type intermediate between the two extremes,
and probably belonging to the Stomapoda (Pl. XIII. fig. 6).

The ent are thin foliaceous plates intermediate in their

454. Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide.

form between the higher and the lower types (PI. XIII. figs. 7, 8).
The maxilliped (fig. 10) partakes more essentially of the higher
type than that of the lower forms ; it is pediform, and consists of
a stout basal joint supporting five terminal smaller ones, the last
of which ends in an extremely fine point; three large plumose
hairs are given off from the penultimate and antepenultimate
articulations. To this pair of limbs are attached the branchial
appendages, which consist on each side of eight or nine secondary
saccular ceeca, connected with a common membranous chamber
iu which the blood circulates for its perfect aération.

The two gnathopoda (or second and third maxillipeds) are
developed upon the true type of the Macroura; the anterior
(fig. 11) does not possess the secondary palpi, whereas the pos-
terior (fig. 12) does, and moreover is developed so as to become
the closing operculum to the mouth. The basal joint is long
and broad, and its internal margin is fringed with a row of hairs,
which answers to a corresponding row of teeth-like prominences
in the true Macroura, where they perform the part of an efficient
biting apparatus ; the upper extremity of the joint extends on
the outer side, slantingiy forwards, and is crowned with hairs.
The five terminal articulations are short and unimportant, the
whole not equalling the first joint in length. This pair of limbs,
together with the preceding, is attached each to one of the first
two rings of the thorax, the sternal portion and lateral walls of
which are alone developed.

The next succeeding pair of feet are those which homologize
with the great cheliform limbs of the Decapoda (fig. 13); they
are the most powerfully formed organs which the animal pos-
sesses, are considerably longer than any of the others, and reach
anteriorly beyond the extreme limits of the antenne. Each is
formed of an anteriorly curved basal joint, three succeeding
posteriorly curved articulations, the three together equalling in
length the preceding, and two others which appear to be more
freely jointed than any of the preceding, and which together
equal in length the basal articulation. The basal segment is
ciliated upon the convex or posterior margin, the three suc-
ceeding are furnished with long plumose cilia upon the anterior
margin, and the terminal one has long simple hairs upon the
posterior margin only. Arising from the coxa, which in the whole
family is closely associated and probably anchylosed with the
segment. of the body, is the palpe (of M.-Edwards’s earlier
writings, the exognathe of his later),—a secondary appendage to
the legs peculiar to the Stomapoda; it consists of a single arti-
culation, and a terminal ciliated stalk or filament (tige) equalling
in length about half that of the true leg.

Mr. ©. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide, 455

The next sueceeding pair of limbs (fig. 14) homologize with
the (so-called) second pair of thoracic legs in the Macroura,
Each agrees closely in character with the preceding, but differs
in details by the increased size of the cox, the shortness of the
joints succeeding the basal, and the very great length of the
penultimate articulation of the legs: like the two preceding sets
of limbs, it is furnished with a palpe or secondary appendage.
Moreover, in the female a scale-like appendage, the fouet of
Milne-Edwards, is attached to this, the one preceding and the
next succeeding pairs of legs, forming by their mutual overlapping
the incubatory pouch, in which the egg is nourished, and the
embryo cherished, and the larva carried until it assumes the form
of the adult animal, when it leaves the parent to seek its exist-
ence as a self-providing animal.

The three next succeeding homologize with the three pos-
terior pairs of legs in the Decapoda, and are developed in one
form (fig. 15). The first joint or cova appears not to be so closely
associated with the segment of the body as those belonging to the
anterior legs. The second joint is long, the third short, the
fourth long, and the two next intermediate; the last joint ap-
pears to be represented by a stout jointed hair.

Appendages are attached to the two next succeeding segments
of the body, in the male only, these being the first two segments
of the abdomen; they must therefore homologize with the
styliform processes in the males of the Decapoda which are
known to be intromittent organs, and probably answer the same
purpose in these creatures.

The three succeeding segments are unfurnished with append-
ages in both sexes; but the next, the penultimate, supports a
pair of a form peculiar to the family. They consist each of a
long basal joint, armed with a single row of spinules upon the
inner margin, and a pair of unequal terminal styliform processes
slightly frmged with cilia. This pair of appendages, with the
pointed terminal segment or ¢e/son, form the caudal appendage
or tail of the animal.

The general structure of the integumentary tissues is slight :
the cell-character of the original formation is readily apparent
beneath the microscope, with a few granules of lime deposited in
each. The colour of the animal is stated by Mr. Harry Goodsir,
who took them in the Frith of Forth, as of a beautiful bright
straw colour inclining to yellow. I have never seen any alive,
but have received specimens from the Moray Frith from a
highly esteemed correspondent, the Rev. Geo. Gordon ; also from
St. Ives, where it has been dredged by my friend Geo. Barlee,
Esq., who also dredged a single specimen with mature larvee off
the Isle of Arran. From Falmouth I have received it from my

456 Mr.C.Spence Bate on the British Diastylide.

friend W. Webster, Esq., and have taken it myself from the
refuse of the trawlers in the neighbourhood of Plymouth.

Genus Cuma.
Cancer, Montagu.
Cuma, Edwards, Ann. Se. Nat.; Goodsir, Edin. New Phil. Journ.
1843; Kroyer, Voyages en Scand.

Carapace with the lateral angles meeting in front of the con-
fluent eye and the antennal segments, but not produced ante-
riorly into a rostrum-like projection. The lower anterior margin
not generally receding. Four segments of the thorax complete,
and exposed behind the carapace. The upper antenne “ single-
jointed and scalelike ” (Goodsir) ; the lower short and unimport-
ant, reaching not far in advance of the carapace. Abdomen
without appendages to the five anterior segments, sixth with
double branched stylets, seventh or ¢e/son absent.

Cuma scorpioides. Pl. XIV. fig. 11.

Cancer scorpioides, Montagu, Linn. Trans. vol. ix.

Cuma Audouinii, Edwards, Ann. Se. Nat. ; Goodsir, Edin. New Phil.
Journ. 1843.

— Kdwardsii, Goodsir, Edin. New Phil. Journ. 1843.

This animal has been described by Edwards and Goodsir. I
have received but a single specimen, and that taken in the
Moray Frith by the Rev. Geo. Gordon, from which the present
drawing was made *. Mr. Goodsir was more fortunate, having
captured many, some carrying spawn. He has imagined that
there were two species among them, but I am inclined to think
that neither his figures nor his descriptions support this conclu-
sion, and I believe them to have been mere varieties of the species
described in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ vol. xiu., by
Dr. Milne-Edwards, and that the whole, as also the one from
which my own figure has been taken, are identical with the
species found by Montagu and figured by him in the Linnean
Society’s ‘ Transactions,’ and still preserved in his collection in
the British Museum.

Upper antenne “rhomboidal” (Goodsir) ; lower very short,
terminating but a little im advance of the carapace. The lateral
angles of the carapace meeting in front of the antennal segments,
but not culminating to a rostrum-like projection. A lateral ridge
extends on either side from the posterior margin nearly to a level
with the eye. Eyes confluent, and apparently a smgle organ.
Thoracic feet furnished with a palpe. Telson rudimentary.

-* Not wishing to destrov the only specimen that I have seen, I am not
enabled to examine the animal by dissection; therefore my description is
taken from the perfect creature. ;

Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide. 457

The whole animal (says Goodsir) is of a fine straw colour with
a delicate tinge of pink, which is brighter in certain lights.

Cuma Edwardsii. Pl. XIV. fig. tv.
Cuma Edwardsii, Kroyer, Voyages en Scand.

Carapace covering only two segments of the thorax, leaving
the five posterior ones exposed as complete rings in themselves.
The carapace is marked on the lateral margins as if it were
divided into segments ; its anterior portion extends in front of
the antennal segments, the anterior inferior angle receding.
The lower antenna exposed considerably in advance of the cara-
pace. The two anterior thoracic legs succeeding the gnathopoda
are extremely long, the three posterior extremely short, and all ex-
cept the posterior furnished with a palpe or secondary appendage.
The segments of the thorax lie very compact, and resemble a
continuation of the carapace ; those of the abdomen are naked,
except the penultimate, which is furnished with a pair of limbs
common in form to the tribe. Ze/son rudimentary.

Having seen but a single specimen, for which I am indebted
to Professor Williamson, who obtained it from Weymouth and
kindly sent it to me, I am not enabled to speak so positively
as one could wish, but I am much inclined to believe that it
should represent a separate genus. All the Cume exhibit but four
segments posterior to the carapace, whereas this species exposes
five; it is less compressed at the sides, the anterior form of the
carapace is more pointed, and the antenna appears longer, but
the importance of these relative parts can only be distinctly
appreciated by dissection and a proper examination of the details.

It is evidently the same species as the one figured in Kroyer’s
great work, and until further opportunity occurs of examining
its structure, it must still be retained in the genus assigned to
it by its discoverer.

Evupora, n.g.
Differs from Cuma in having the upper antenna obsolete*.

Eudora truncatula, wihi. Pl. XIV. fig. 1.

The lateral angles of the carapace meet im front of the antennal
segments and are somewhat raised above them. The inferior

* My own inclination is to unite this genus with Cuma, and Venilia with
Bodotria, to which in general form they respectively agree. But Mr. Goodsir,
who has dissected many of the genus Cuma, distinctly affirms the upper
antenna to be present, whereas in Bodotria he is as positive that the
lower is “ quite obsolete ;””—facts so distinctly at variance with my own
experience of the closely allied forms of Eudora and Venilia, that l am
compelled, in deference to so careful an investigator, to place, the new
species in separate genera.

458 Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide.

anterior edge is considerably produced, and gives a truncated
character to the appearance of the animal. The margin is ser-
rated, anteriorly more prominently so.

The upper antenna is wanting; the lower (fig. 5) is very
short, and consists of a peduncle of three joints and a filamentary
terminal appendage, the first segment of which is long and the
rest extremely small and fine.

Mandible furnished with a prominent molar tubercle, but not
supplied with hair-like spmules between it and the incisive
margin. ‘The first gnathopod (fig. 11) is pediform; the second
(fig. 12) also, but the basal articulation is broadly developed
anteriorly, so as to fulfil the office of an operculum ; the internal
margin is convex and furnished with strong hairs ; the external
margin is concave posteriorly, and extends at the anterior corner
into a long, firm, ciliated spine ; a second spine of the same cha-
racter is situated on the anterior margin between the former and
the terminal joints of the appendage, which consists of four small
segments supplied with a few plumose cilia. This pair of limbs
is furnished with a palpe, or secondary appendage, consisting of
a single-jointed peduncle and a terminal filamentary appendage
supplied with a brush of cilia. The next succeeding pair of legs
(fig. 13), the homologues of the large claw-feet of the Decapoda,
are extremely long, reaching considerably in advance of the an-
terior margin of the animal; each of them consists of a long
basal joint, denticulated with four or five strong spmes upon the
convex or inferior margin, followed by a short joint and three
terminal long ones: this as well as the three succeeding legs are
furnished with a palpe similar in formation to that of the pre-
ceding pair.

The four next succeeding pairs of legs (figs. 14, 15, 16, 17)
are similarly formed, except that they gradually diminish in
size posteriorly, the last being considerably the smallest, and
moreover unfurnished with a pape. In the female the two anterior
pairs of these last four are furnished with fowets, or scale-like
appendages which overlap each other and carry the ova and the
larvee.

I have received four or five specimens of this species, which
were dredged by W. Webster, Esq., in Plymouth Sound, some-
what within the Breakwater; some of them having eggs in the
incubatory pouch.

Genus Hatta, n. g.
Cuma, Goodsir.

Carapace clongate, compressed, covering the thorax, except
the three posterior segments. The four posterior legs of the

Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastyhidee. 459

thorax without a palpe. Telson rudimentary. Upper antenna
prominent, lower membranaceous.

Halia trispinosa. P\. XIV. fig. v.

Cuma trispinosa, Goodsir.

The carapace is long and much compressed, the lateral angles
meeting in front of the antennal segments, and projecting for-
wards into a rostrum-like point. Half-way between the eye and
the posterior margin of the carapace are two (three, Goodsir)
small teeth or spines, from which the specific name is derived,
The superior antenna consists of a single-jointed peduncle and
a terminal filament, the first two segments of which are half
the length of the whole organ; the remainder are minute and
furnished with cilia. The lower antenna consists of a peduncle
formed of two minute articulations, calcareous in structure and
furnished with plumose cilia, and a terminal filament of a mem-
branous structure, soft and flexible in its character, the anterior
portion of which exhibits an appearance of rudimentary articu-
lations, and the organ generally bears a strong resemblance to
that of the embryo Crustacean.

The mandible (fig. 6) is furnished with a very prominent
molar tubercle and a secondary incisive denticle, as well as a
row of intermediate spinous hairs more or less furnished with
cilia. The maxille (figs. 7,8) are foliaceous, and resemble those
described in Diastylis.

The maxilliped (fig. 10) consists of a long and stout basal
joint, followed by a second, rather shorter and less robust, fur-
nished on the inner margin with minute denticles, and termi-
nated by two minute articulations well supplied with cilia, This
pair of members carries the branchiz.

The first gnathopod (fig. 11) is pediform, consisting of a long
basal joint and four or five terminal smaller ones.

The second gnathopod (fig. 12) is also pediform, but deve-
loped so as to fulfil the office of an operculum. The basal joint
is long, and the external anterior margin is prominent and fur-
nished with a number of hairs; the second joint is similarly
formed, but short ; the three terminal ones are unimportant. The
member is furnished with a palpe consisting of a basal joint and
a terminal filament.

The next succeeding leg (Pl. XV. v. fig. 13), which is homo-
logous with the large cheliform organ in the Decapoda, consists
ct a long basal joint (the rest except the palpe in our speci-
mens were broken off).

The four succeeding pairs closely resemble each other, and
are each respectively formed of a long basal joint and four or five

460 Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide.

terminal shorter ones. None of these are furnished with a palpe,
or secondary appendage. They are moderately covered with
cilia, most of which are of a peculiar form, very long and slight
(15 a), with a smaller, short stout hair at the base. ‘The longer
one is very straight, and through two-thirds of its length pos-
sesses what appears to be an internal spiral.

The penultimate segment of the abdomen is furnished on each
side with a member consisting of a long basal joint and a pair of
terminal styliform appendages, each of which is double-jointed ;
the outer one being frmged on the inner side only with plu-
mose cilia, the mner one with corresponding serrated spinules.
The termination of the alimentary canal is seen to debouche in the
rudimentary ¢e/son (or terminal joint of the animal).

We have received this species through the kindness of the
Rev. Geo. Gordon, who took it in the Moray Frith. Mr. Goodsir
took a single species in the Frith of Forth.

Genus Boporria, Goodsir, Edin. New Phil. Journ. 1843.

Bodotria arenosa, Goodsir*. Pl. XV. fig. v1.

First, second, third, fourth and fifth segments of the abdomen
each armed with a pair of bifurcate finlets. The two terminal
scales of the caudal styles are single-jointed. The superior
antenne are quite obsolete ; the inferior pair are of considerable
length, and are terminated by means of two long spines.

Genus VENILIA, n. g.

Carapace with the lateral angles meeting in front of the
antennal segments. Both pairs of antenne well developed.
Five of the posterior segments of the thorax exposed. ach of
the five anterior abdominal segments carries a pair of swimming
feet ; the penultimate is furnished with a pair of appendages of
the form common to the family. Telson rudimentary.

Venilia gracilis, mihi. PI. XV. fig. vit.

Carapace long and narrow, the lateral angles meeting in front
of the antennal segments, and projecting anteriorly into a
rostrum-like point. The superior antenna well developed, and
reaching much beyond the anterior margin of the carapace.
The inferior antenna consisting of a peduncle formed of three
(or more) articulations, the last of which is longest, and an
extremely long and delicate terminal filamentary appendage,

* For this ‘description, together with the figure, I am indebted to
Mr. Goodsir’s paper, to which ‘[ must refer the reader for a more Spence
account,

Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide. 461

equalling about half the length of the entire animal. The third
thoracic leg, the homologue of the claw in the Decapods, is very
long, reaching to the anterior margin of the carapace ; the four
succeeding are much shorter, being scarcely longer than the
basal joint of the preceding. None of them appear to be
furnished with a palpe.

The abdomen is well developed, and partakes of the character
of the higher types in the way in which the lateral edges overlap
the sides and seem to protect the delicate appendages beneath,
which consist, to each segment, of a pair of organs formed each
of a basal joint and a pair of flexible scale-like appendages.

The appendages of the sixth or penultimate segment resemble
those of the preceding species. The telson is rudimentary.

This very elegant species was taken in the Moray Frith by the
Rey. Geo. Gordon, among several specimens of Halia trispinosa.

Having examined all the forms of the family that I have met
with, or believe to have been discovered as British, and the struc-
ture of those of which I could obtain more than a single specimen,
it will be necessary that 1 should compare them with the larvee
of the Decapoda Macroura, since Agassiz’ assertion that he has
taken Cume from Hippolyte, &c., is so very positive. All the
species mentioned by Agassiz are American—it will therefore
be difficult for persons on this side of the Atlantic to procure
their evidence from the same; but I think an examination of
one of the same genus will be quite sufficient, particularly as all
the Diastylide that have been examined in this paper are British ;
consequently, if they are the young of any of the Decapoda
Macroura, as asserted by Agassiz, they must be those of British
forms. The larva which I have chosen as being the nearest to
those mentioned in Dana’s work, is that of Hippolyte varians,
of which I have given a careful figure in Pl. XV. fig. virr. It
was obtained direct from the parent,—therefore in the same
manner that Agassiz obtained his Cume.

The carapace, furnished with a distinct rostrum, is broad, and
not laterally compressed ; it reaches back to the commencement
of the abdomen, which consists of but three segments, the ter-
minal one being dilated at the extremity into a fish-tail form,
having seven unequal spines on each division.

The eyes are large, situated laterally at the anterior portion of
the carapace, and extend on each side beyond the margin ; they
can scarcely be ranked among the sessile forms of the organ, as
typified among the Edriophthalma.

The anterior antenna (PI. XV. fig. 2) has at least two segments
to the peduncle, and two terminal short filaments (the number
belonging to the genus in the adult form). The posterior
antenna (Pl. XV. fig. 3) consists of a peduncle with two seg-

462 Mr. C, Spence Bate on the British Diastylidee.

ments, to the first of which is attached a scale-like appendage,
the extremity of which is frmged with cilia, and to the second
a terminal filament scarcely so long as those belonging to the
anterior organ.

The mandibles and maxille are distinctly visible; and Mr.
Darwin, who dissected the specimen from which the figure
accompanying this paper is taken, found the mandibles and two
pairs of maxille*, after which follow six pairs of appendages,
all of which are united at the base in pairs, so that they repre-
sent three sets of hmbs. The basal articulation of the anterior
organ is furnished with three strong spines, which are directed
anteriorly. That of each of the two posterior members has
but a single spine. Each separate appendage consists of from
two to three articulations, furnished with four or five strong
hairs.

The abdomen is unfurnished with appendages, but at the
posterior limit of the first segment are two cells with a coloured
nucleus.

In this immature state of a known decapod Crustacean, we
perceive the organs that are present possess the character of the
adult animal in an embryonic form. ‘The eyes are placed at the
lateral margins of the carapace, ready to be elevated on foot-
stalks. The superior antenna has a peduncle, with two out of
three of the normal articulations, and differs in no other feature
but size from the perfected organ of the adult Crustacea. The
inferior antenna bears also a near resemblance to the adult form,
except in the incomplete number of the articulations in the
peduncle. The moveable scale peculiar to the Macroura is
distinctly seen, and the terminal filament differs from that of
the adult only in being very short, and the three double pairs of
leg-like appendages are the immature forms of the maxillipeds
in the adult Crustacea. The rest of the appendages are yet in
embryo. The length of the entire animal is the sixteenth
of an inch; and as it increases in size, other limbs are developed
upon the type of those which they ultimately assume in the
adult form, becoming more and more complete as the creature
progresses in age and growth.

But in the Diastylide we find that there is a material dif-
ference. The carapace, instead of being broad and flat as in
the larva of the Macroura, is laterally compressed ; and although,
as in Diastylis, there is the appearance of a rostrum, yet it is
the result, as shown in the description of the animal, of a
monstrous development of the lateral angles of the mandi-
bular section of the carapace,—a circumstance which gives a
peculiar and eccentric feature to the whole family, that of the

* Cirripedia, vol. ii. p. 107, note Tf.

Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylidee. 463

posterior portion of the carapace surrounding the anterior,
which consequently appears to be situated in the middle mstead
of at the anterior extremity of the carapace, and its importance
is so lessened in degree as to impoverish the character of the
appendages which it supports. Thus the eyes, instead of beg
efficient organs, supported upon peduncles, are so reduced in
size and converged together as not to be distinguishable from a
single organ ; a circumstance which, together with the known
habits of the animal, induces me to believe that they are sub-
terranean Crustacea, living chiefly in muddy and sandy soils.

The antenne are peculiar, sometimes one or other being rudi-
mentary or obsolete, but never, as far as I know, developed upon
the type of those of the Macroura.

Again, the mandibles are developed upon a type so decided
in their character, that their form alone would be sufficient to
demonstrate that they do not belong to the true Macroura; each
organ being furnished with a molar tubercle similar to that of
the Amphipoda, and not supplied with a flagellum. The maxille
are developed upon the type of the Stomapoda rather than the
Amphipoda. This is equally correct with regard to the maxilli-
peds and the five succeeding pairs of appendages.

The abdomen consists of seven segments, which, with the
exception of the penultimate, are generally destitute of append-
ages, although in the genera Bodotria and Venilia they are
attached to every segment, and the whole animal assumes, in each
of these two genera, a character more normal in its condition.

Thus it will be seen, that the segments are developed as in
the adult animal; and the appendages also, I think, possess a
similar signification. But should these not be admitted as suf-
ficient evidences of the maturity of the animals, they can further
be supported by the fact recorded by Mr. Goodsir, that he had
taken the female Cuma with “ spawn,’’—a circumstance that I
have corroborated by obtaining a C. truncatula with ova in the
pouch, and also a specimen of Diastylis Rathkii with larve fully
developed in the same position. This latter specimen was taken
by G. Barlee, Esq., in the Isle of Arran.

The female has attached to two pairs of legs four plates, ana-
logous to those found in the Amphipoda, which overlap each
other, and form a pouch in which the ova and the undeveloped
larvee are protected during incubation.

The larva quits the pouch in a form resembling the parent—
at least so near, that, with the assistance of a most efficient
microscope, I have failed to distinguish any difference. Those
in the pouch at the same time were of two sizes, as if it contained
the young of separate ages, or distinct broods.

The male in Diastylis, if not in the other genera, is capable

———

464 Mr. C. Spence Bate on the British Diastylide.

of being recognized by the two pairs of short styliform processes
attached to the two anterior segments of the abdomen, analogous
to those of the higher types of Crustacea.

Having traced the forms of the Diastylide and compared
the same with that of the larva of a Macroura-form Decapod,
and having, moreover, shown that the former are in a con-
dition to continue their species, I think I am in a position to
assume that they are Crustacea of adult forms, and that, con- 3
sequently, they are not the young of any of the Decapoda, and
that they form several genera in a family essentially character-
istic. It now becomes necessary to see where, among Crustacea,
this family should be placed, and the comparison of the dissected
animal with that of others may lead to an approximation of the
truth.

The carapace is developed upon the type of the Podophthalma,
whereas the eyes are sessile; but im some of the Macroura, as
in Athanas and Alpheus, the peduncles are rudimentary : there-
fore it is but legitimate to assume that the organs are formed
upon the same type, but rudimentary in character, in the Dia-
stylide,—reduced to this form by the subterranean (?) habits of
the animal and the eccentric development of the carapace from
the normal form.

The antennz are generally more or less abortive, and all are
typically below the Macroura; although in some species, as in
Diastylis, there may be observed in the lower antenna an organ
which can only homologize with the olfactory organ of the
Decapoda (fig. 5 a).

The mandibles are developed upon the type of those of the
Amphipoda rather than upon those of the Macroura or the
Stomapoda, although they assimilate to the latter somewhat in
the development of the internal lever-like process for the attach-
ment of muscles. The maxille and posterior members all ap-
proximate the Stomapod type, as exemplified in the Myside,
whereas the abdominal segments, except in Bodotria and the
closely allied genus Venilia, are mostly wanting.

Taking these several distinctions into consideration, there can,
I think, be little doubt, —

lst. That the animals are adult Crustacea.

Qnd. That they belong to the suborder Stomapoda.

3rd. In that suborder they rank after the Myside, that is,
they hold the lowest position known among the Stomapoda; but
that they indubitably belong to that suborder,—not to the sub-
order Decapoda Macroura, as suggested by Goodsir, and repeated
with doubt in the ‘ British Crustacea.’

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new species of Sphierium. 465

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIII. XIV. & XV,

[The numbers attached to the details of figures 1. 11. and v. indicate the
same parts throughout. |

PLATE XIII.
Fig. 1. Diastylis Rathkii.

2. Carapace seen from above ; showing the manner in which the
lateral angles, a, a, meet, without uniting, in front of the an-
tennal segments, b.

. Carapace seen from beneath, with the gnathopoda in position.

a. Upper antenna, attached to the earapace, seen from below.

Lower antenna; a. olfactory organ.

- Mandible.

7 & 8. Maxille.

10. Maxilliped; a. branchial sac.

11 & 12, Ist and 2nd gnathopoda (2nd and 3rd maxillipeds).

13 & 14. Two anterior pairs of thoracic legs.

15, 16 & 17. The three posterior pairs ; a. hairs.

18. Appendages of the two anterior pairs of abdominal segments
m the male.

19. Caudal segments and appendages.

20. Section of shell.

21. Gizzard-like structure of stomach.

DOB oo

Piate XIV.
Fig. 1. Cuma scorpioides.
Fig. 111. Eudora truncatula.
Fig. tv. Cuma Edwardsii.
Fig. v. Halia trispinosa.
PLaTE XV.

Fig. v. Halia trispinosa continued.
Fig. v1. Bodotria arenosa (after Goodsir).
Fig. v1. Venilia gracilis.
Fig. vit. Larva of Hippolyte varians.
1. Eyes.
2. Upper antenna.
3. Lewer antenna.
4. Pair of larval feet (the first maxilliped of adult).
5. One of the two next pair.

XLIT.—Deseription of a new species of Spherium found near
London. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., P.B.S. &e.

TuEse shells were first brought to me at the British Museum
by an intelligent collector, Mr. John Rowse of Brownlow Street,
Endell Street. He discovered them on the 17th of May, im the
Grand Junction Canal near Kensal Green, and the following day
most kindly furnished me with several living specimens for
examination. They are not abundant in the locality named.

They are decidedly distinct from any of our British specimens,
but bear a very great resemblance to Cyclas rhomboidea of Say,
found in the rivers of North America.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 30

466 Mr. P.L. Sclater on new Birds from South America.

We have unfortunately only a single specimen of this species
in the British Museum, which was sent from the Ohio by
Mr. Anthony. This example only differs from the specimens
found by Mr. Rowse in the front side beimg rather attenuated
and produced, while in the British specimens this part of the
shell is regularly rounded; but I have no means of ascertaining
whether this is the usual state of the species, or only an acci-
dental variation in the individual we possess, and one can scarcely
believe, without better proof, that the same species should be
found in Europe and the United States ; therefore I shall for the
present consider it as distinct.

The species is intermediate in size and form between Spherium
rivicola and S. corneum.

Spherium pallidum.

Shell oblong, pale whitish yellow on the circumference,
slightly concentrically striated, rounded before,
rounded and rather truncated behind ; sides rather
swollen, evenly convex ; the cardinal edge rather
produced, nearly straight, and slightly compressed
on each side the umbo ; the umbo regularly convex, S. pallidum.
rather in front of the middle of the shell, sometimes slightly
crumpled.

The foot very large; the siphons elongate, united nearly to
the tip ; the apices conical, the upper the smallest.

The young are compressed, rather rounded, gradually be-
coming more gibbous and elongated as they increase in size.

Inhabits Grand Junction Canal near Kensal Green.

The largest specimens are $+ of an inch long, 34 high, and
2; thick. The average-sized specimens are } inch long, { thick,
and high.

The livmg specimens emitted when in confinement several
young shells about 1 line long.

May 20, 1856.

XLIIL.—Descriptions of eight new species of Birds from South
America. By Puitie Luriey Scrater, M.A., F.Z.S. &e.

1. SYNALLAXIS CASTANEA.

S. brunnescenti-castanea unicolor : plaga magna gutturali nigra :
loris obscuris: mento fulvescenti-albido: remigibus intus ni-
gricantibus : cauda unicolore castanea longissima ; rectricibus
tantum octo et harum una utrinque extima brevissima.

Long. tota 5:5 ; ale 2°3; caude 4:1 poll. Angl.

Hab. in vic. urbis Caraccas in Venezuelaa—Mus. Brit., Paris.

There are several specimens of this fine Syna//azis in the Bri-

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new Birds from South America. 467

tish Museum, where it first attracted my notice. The beautiful
series of birds recently transmitted by M. Levraud, the French
Consul at Caraccas, to the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris (which I have lately had the opportunity of inspecting
through the courtesy of the Directors of that establishment),
contains a single example of the same bird, which has enabled
me to assure myself of its locality.

This is one of the species of this form that shows the greatest
‘ rapprochement’ towards Sylviorthorhynchus, the tail being com-
posed of eight rectrices only, and the outer pair of these being
abnormally small.

Dig.ossopis, gen. noy.

Diglossopis, genus novum Diglosse proximum, et rostro simili
sed productiore ; mandibulz superioris apice non uncinata sed
supra mandibulam inferiorem fortiter incurva: hac autem rec-
tissima, acutissima, nec seorsum curvata: alis modicis, remi-
gibus tertia et quarta longissimis, secunda quintam zquante
et primam paulo superante: cauda modica quadrata: pedibus
Diglosse assimilibus.

4
2. DIGLossopis CARULESCENS.

D. cerulescenti-cinerea fere unicolor, subtus in ventre dilutior :
alis caudaque intus nigricantibus: loris et rostri ambitu ob-
scuris: rostro nigro: pedibus brunneis.

Long. tota 6°0; ale 2°9; caudz 2:3 poll. Angl.

Hab. in vic. urbis Caraccas in Venezuela.

Mus. Bremensi et Parisiensi.

Dr. Hartlaub first pointed out this curious bird to me when I
was on a visit to Bremen in 1854 and inspecting the well-ordered
collection of birds in the museum of that city. The single spe-
cimen there is without indication of locality, and I was conse-
quently unwilling to describe it. I never met with this species
again until quite lately among the before-mentioned series of
birds sent to Paris by M. Levraud from Caraccas.

I think there is no doubt that it ought to form the type of
a new genus of Diglossine.

3. DiGLossa INDIGOTICA.
Diglossa indigotica, J. & E. Verreaux, MS.
D. indigotico-czerulea unicolor : loris nigris: alis caudaque nigris
cerulescenti-viridi limbatis: rostro et pedibus nigris.
Long. tota 4°3; ale 2°2; caude 1-4 poll. Angl.
Hab. in rep. Equatoriana.
MM. J. & E. Verreaux have kindly supplied me with a spe-

cimen of this beautiful Dig/ossa as yet undescribed, and for
30%

468 Mr. P.L. Sclater on new Birds from South America.

which I retain their MS. name. It must be placed next to
D. personata, a common species in Bogota collections, from
which it may be distinguished by its smaller size, want of the
black face, and the dark velvety purple hue of the blue colouring.

4 ANABATES INFUSCATUS.

A, supra fumoso-brunneus, capitis pennis medialiter vix palli-
dioribus : tectricibus caude superioribus et cauda tota intense
ferrugineis: subtus sordide albus; crisso autem rufescente,
abdomine cinerascente, paululum tincto: tectricibus alarum
inferioribus ochracescenti-rufis: rostro uigricanti-brunneo ;
mandibula inferiore flavescente: pedibus brunneis.

Long. tota 7°5 ; ale 3°6; caudz 3-0 poll. Angl.

Hab. in Peruvia Orientali.

Obs. Affinis Anabate leucophthalmo, sed supra et subtus multo
minus rufescens.

5. ANABATES LINEATICEPS.

A. supra fumigato-brunneus, capite nigricantiore : capitis, inter-
scapulii et tectricufr alarum pennarum scapis pallide ochra-
cescenti-albis, lineas longitudinales formantibus : alis cauda-
que clare ferrugineo-rufis: primariorum parte mediali nigra,
interna cum tectricibus subalaribus pallide cimnamomea : cor-
pore subtus albo, cinnamomeo tincto: cervice antica strils qui-
busdam parvulis nigris irregulariter perfusa: rostro recto,
mandibulz superioris apice uncinata, colore flavido, culmine
nigro: pedibus fuscis.

Long. tota 7°5; ale 3°6; caude 3:0 poll. Angl.

Hab. in Peruv. Orientali.

These two Anabate are from a large collection received by
MM. Verreaux of Paris from the Upper branches of the Peruvian
Amazon in 1854.

6. MyYIADESTES VENEZUELENSIS.

M. supra chocolatino-brunnea: capite antico et laterali cine-
rascentioribus : loris nigris: subtus saturate schistacea, abdo-
mine medio albescentiore, hypochondriis brunnescentibus :
remigum nigricantium basi interiore alba, exteriore fulves-
cente, vittam pallidam trans alarem formante ; harum quoque
marginibus exterioribus versus apices pallide fulvis: cauda
nigricante: rectricis une utrinque extime dimidio apicali
interno albo: secunda quoque et tertia (sed hac multo minus)
albo terminatis : rostri brunnei basi flava: pedibus pallidis.

Long. tota 6°7; ale 3°4; caudz 3:0 poll. Angl.

Hab. in vic. urbis Caraccas in Venezuela.—Mus. Parisiensi.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new Birds from South America, 469

There is an example of this apparently undescribed Myiadestes
in the collection lately sent to Paris by M. Levraud from Ca-
raccas. It is of the same form as M. obscurus (Lafr.) from
Guatimala and S. Mexico.

The only birds likely to belong to this form hitherto known
as inhabitants of South America are Ptilogonys griseiventer and
P. leucotis described in Tschudi’s ‘ Fauna Peruana.’

I may mention that the latter bird is quite distinct specifically
from Hypothymis leucogonys, Licht. (Cichlopsis leucogonys, Cab.),
with which it has been united by Prince Bonaparte in his ‘ Con-
spectus,’ though they may perhaps be referable to the same
genus.

7. PrrpREOLA MELANOLZEMA.

P. clare viridis: capite toto cum gula et pectore saturatissime
nigro-viridibus, vix a nigro distinguendis : tenia angusta hance
colorem undique nisi in nucha marginante cum ventre medio
crissoque flavis, ventre laterali flavo variegato: alis caudaque
nigris viridi extus limbatis ; tectricibus alarum majoribus flavo,
secundariis autem dorso proximis et -rectricibus albo termi-
natis: tectricibus subalaribus flavescenti-albidis: rostro pedi-
busque rubris.

? viridis, sicut mas, sed non cucullata, abdomine flayo variegato,
medialiter pure flavo: alis caudaque sicut in mari coloratis.

Long. tota 7°8; ale 3°6; caude 3:1 poll. Angl.

Hab. in Venezuela, Caraccas.

Mus. Heineano, Parisiensi, P. L. 8S. &e.

This is the Venezuelan representative of P. riefferi, so com-
mon in Bogota collections, from which it may be distinguished
by its larger size, much darker head and throat, and the brighter
edging of the wing-coverts.

I am now acquainted with seven species strictly referable to
this beautiful form of Cotingine: viz. (1) viridis (d’Orb.)—a
female of a species of which { have not yet seen the male—ex
Bolivia; (2) riefferi ex Bogota; (3) melanolema; (4) auret-
pectus ex Bogota et Venezuela ; (5) elegans (Tschudi) ex Peruv.—
usually united to aureipectus, but quite distinct ; (6) formosa ex
Venezuela ; (7) sclateri ex rep. Equatoriana.

8. CHIROXIPHIA REGINA.

Pipra regina, Natt. in Mus. Vindob.

C. nigra, dorso ceruleo: crista in medio pileo flava.
Hab. Borba, Rio Madeira in imp. Brasil.
Obs. Similis C. pareole sed crista flava nee rubra.

There are three examples of this Manakin in the Imperial

470 =Mr.J.G. Jeffreys on Scissurella and Schismope.

Museum at Vienna, brought by the celebrated traveller and
naturalist Natterer from the vicinity of Borba on the Rio
Madeira, and numbered 833 of his collection. The bird closely
resembles the well-known C. pareola, but has the crest yellow.
Natterer’s notes upon this species are: ‘ From the underwood,
rather near the ground ; solitary.”

I believe it has never yet been published.

XLIV.—On Scissurella and Schismope.
By J. Gwyn Jurrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

AutnovucH I knew that naturalists were, like poets, a “genus
irritabile,” I confess that I was not quite prepared for Mr. Wood-
ward’s attack on me in your last Number.

He says that, because he thinks he has discovered an error,
and had protested in vain against it, he was bound to publish.
I beg leave to dispute the conclusion, if not the whole of the
premises.

When I showed Mr. Woodward specimens of the Scissurella
striatula of Philippi (which I had much pleasure in presenting
him with), he called my attention to the conversion of the fissure
into a foramen when the shell became adult. We then referred
to Sowerby and Philippi; and I went to the Library of the
British Museum and consulted D’Orbigny’s Memoir. Mr.
Woodward having informed me that he did not intend to publish
on the subject, I did so, and mentioned in the March number
of the ‘Annals’ that he had pomted out to me the pecuharity
in question, and at the same time I cited D’Orbigny’s Memoir.

About a fortnight afterwards, in consequence of Mr. Clark
having expressed his opinion that Scisswrella was synonymous
or identical with Trochus, I made the further communication
which appeared in the ‘ Annals’ for last month ; and I then went
fully into the matter, being backed by the undeniable authority
of Dr. Gray. This, Mr. Woodward calls seeking to justify my
position by the “testimony of persons unacquainted with the
facts of the case”? !

Mr. Woodward admitted to me that he had never previously
seen any species of Scissurella except S. crispata; and as he does
not state that he has since seen any other, his belief that certain
species which were described and figured by D’Orbigny, Sowerby
and Philippi (eight in number) are varieties of one and the same
species, I leave to the judgment of your readers.

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Orang-Utan or Mias of Borneo. 471

The well-known accuracy of the late Mr. Sowerby makes it
needless to do more than repeat his statement, that the species
which he called elatior and concinna were found in the “ Calcaire
grossier.”” Whether those species, or the S. decussata and ele-
gans of D’Orbigny, are extinct, is another question, with which
Mr. Woodward is probably not more familiar.

If Mr. Woodward would take the trouble of reading again
my paper in the ‘ Annals’ for April, he will, or ought to, be con-
vinced that his remarks as to the separation of Schismope from
Scissurella were unnecessary and uncalled for, because D’Orbigny
and Sowerby evidently took their characters. of what they re-
garded as the same genus from different and uncongeneric
species.

My reason for wishing Mr. Woodward, instead of myself, in
the first instance, to refer to D’Orbigny, was simply that he, and
not I, might have the credit (if any) of making this separation.
{ am therefore sorry that he should have put such a strange
construction upon our conversation.

I never heard of any “ protest” from Mr. Woodward until I
saw his letter in print.

Yours obediently.
J. Gwyn JErrreys.

Montagu Square, London, 21st May 1856.

P.S. Since writing the above, Professor King has reminded
me that in his “ Monograph of the Permian Fossils of England ”
(pp. 213 and 214), he satisfactorily made out Scissurella to be |
the same as Pleurotomaria, and that Mr. Morris, in his “ Mono-
graph of the Mollusca from the Great Oolite,” follows him in
that view. It can hardly be said that these naturalists are also
“unacquainted” with the subject, so far as regards the palzon-
tological part of it. Professor King quite approves of the sepa-
ration of Schismope from Scissurella, although he suspects the
former may approach too closely to Deslongchamp’s genus T7o-
chotoma.

XLV.— On the Orang-Utan or Mias of Borneo.
By Atrrep R. WaALace.

HavING spent nine months in a district where the Mias is most
abundant, and having devoted much time and attention to the
subject, I wish to give some account of my observations and
collections, and particularly to record their bearing on the
question of how many species are yet known from Borneo,

I have altogether examined the bodies of seventeen freshly
killed Orangs, all but one shot by myself. Of eleyen of these

472 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Orang-Utan or Mias of Borneo.

I have preserved the skins, either in spirits or dried. Of seven I
have perfect skeletons, and of the remainder the skulls; and of
all, the sex, colour and other external peculiarities were accurately
noted at the time, as well as all the principal dimensions. I
have besides two other skeletons and two skulls, the sex and
external characters of which are determined on the authority of
Europeans or natives who saw them when freshly killed. Of
this extensive series sixteen are fully adult, and their skulls are
therefore strictly comparable with each other, nine of them being
males and seven females. They were moreover all obtained im
a very limited tract of country watered by the same small river
and of very uniform physical features. We may therefore as-
sume, unless the contrary can be supported by the very strongest
evidence, that the male and female specimens are sexes of the
same species, whether they be one or more.

The males procured by me may be divided into two groups,
differmg considerably both in the external characters and in
those of the cranium. The first and most abundant is the
large animal known among the natives as the “ Mias pappan”
or ‘‘ Mias chappan,” the latter name being used by the Dyaks
as well as that of “ Mias Zimb,’ while the former is, on the
authority of Sir James Brooke, a name applied to it by the
Malays. It is known by its large size and by the lateral expan-
sion of the face into fatty protuberances or ridges over the tem-
poral muscles, which have been mistermed callosities, as they are
perfectly soft, smooth and flexible. Five of this form measured by
me varied only from 4 feet 1 inch to 4 feet 2 inches in height
from the heel to the crown of the head, the girth of the body
from 3 feet to 3 feet 71 inches, and the extent of the outstretched
arms from 7 feet 2 inches to 7 feet 8 inches; the width of the
face from 10 to 134 inches. The colour and length of the hair
varied in different individuals and in different parts of the same
individual ; some possessed a rudimentary nail on the great toe,
others none at all, but they otherwise present no external dif-
ferences on which to establish even varieties of a species. Yet
when we examine the crania of these individuals we find remark-
able differences of form, proportion and dimension, no two being
exactly alike. The slope of the profile and the projection of the
muzzle, together with the size of the cranium, offer differences
as decided as those existing between the most strongly marked
forms of the Caucasian and African crania in the human species.
The orbits vary in width and height, the cranial ridge is either
single or double, either much or little developed, and the zygo-
matic aperture varies considerably in size. This variation in the
proportions of the crania enables us satisfactorily to explain the
marked difference presented by the single-crested and double-

Mr. A, R. Wallace on the Orang-Utan or Mias of Borneo. 473

crested skulls, which have been thought to prove the existence
of two large species of Orang. The external surface of the skull
varies considerably in size, as do also the zygomatic aperture
and the temporal muscle ; but they bear no necessary relation to
each other, a small muscle often existing with a large cranial
surface and vice versd. Now those skulls which have the largest
and strongest jaws and the widest zygomatic aperture, have the
muscles so large that they meet on the crown of the skull and
deposit the bony ridge which separates them, and which is
highest im that which has the smallest cranial surface. In those
which combine a large surface with comparatively weak jaws and
small zygomatic aperture, the muscles on each side do not ex-
tend to the crown, a space of from | to 2 inches remaining be-
tween them, and along their margins small ridges are formed.
Intermediate forms are found in which the ridges meet only in
the hinder portion of the skull. The form and size of the ridges
are therefore independent of age, being sometimes more strongly
developed in the less-aged animal. Professor Temminck states
that the series of skulls in the Leyden Museum shows the same
result.

Sir James Brooke first noticed these differences in the ridges,
and finding that the Dyaks affirmed that two large species of
Orang existed, very naturally concluded that they respectively
belonged to them. Mr. Blyth of Caleutta has adopted this
view, considering that the animal possessing the double-crested
skull has the large cheek-excrescences, while that with the single-
erested skull is deprived of them; but my specimens, as well as
the series at Leyden, show that these various forms of skull
belong to one and the same species of animal, in which view
Sir James Brooke, after an examination of my specimens, perfectly
coincides. I may here mention, that Mr. Blyth has since written
to Si J. Brooke acknowledging the receipt of some skeletons
from Sarawak, and stating that he has found a new species
among them distinguished by its shorter and more robust limbs
and slightly projecting jaws. The great amount of variation,
however, which exists in these respects among animals whose
external characters are identical, would show that it is not pos-
sible to establish a new species on such grounds from a single
specimen. Asan instance of the extreme variation which occurs
in the skull of the fully adult male Orang with cheek-excres-
cences, I may mention that the width between the orbits exter-
nally is only 4 inches in one specimen and fully 5 in another,
while the two animals did not differ 1 inch in their total height.

The second form of male Orang which I have procured differs
so remarkably from the first, that it seems well entitled to be
considered a distinct species. The two fully adult specimens

474 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Orang-Utan or Mias of Borneo.

which I obtained were respectively 3 ft. 84 in. and 3 ft. 94 in.
in height, 6 ft. 6 in. in extent of arms, and about 2 ft. 6 in. in
girth of body. They possessed no signs of the cheek-excres-
cences, but in other respects resembled the larger kinds. The
skull is smaller and weaker, and the zygomatic arches narrower
than in the large species; it has no bony crest, but two faint
ridges from 1? inch to 2 inches apart, exactly as in the Simia
Morio of Prof. Owen, figured in the ‘ Transactions of the Zoolo-
gical Society.’ The teeth however are in proportion to the skull,
of immense size, equalling, and in one case surpassing, those of
the larger animals : the molars extending further backward, and
the incisors and canines being set closely together, room is
found for them in a much smaller jaw. The great canine teeth
are quite as large as in most specimens of the larger animal,
and of exactly the same form. These animals the Dyaks called
“ Mias Kassu.”

The adult females, five in number, examined by me exhibit a
remarkable uniformity among themselves, and a striking differ-
ence compared with the large males. In size they vary only from
3 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. 7 in. in height, from 2 ft. 4 in. to 2 ft. 61 in.
in girth below the arms, and from 5 ft. 9 in. to 6 ft. 54 in. in
extent of arms. None possess any cheek-excrescences, some
have and some want the nail on the great toe, the colour varies
considerably, but the external characters are in general remark-
ably similar to those of the smaller males before mentioned,
from which they only differ in a stature from 12 in. to 3 inches
lower. Their crania are either equal to or slightly less than
those of the small males; but their teeth differ remarkably from
those of all the males, in the canines being comparatively small,
and of the peculiar subtruncated form, dilated at the base, which
is represented in the plate of Simia Morio before alluded to.
With that plate most of these crania exactly agree ; I presume
therefore that it represents a female specimen, and that the
peculiar form of canine tooth is characteristic of the female sex.
The question then remains, to which of the two forms of male
animal are these the females. From a careful examination
of my specimens I am induced to consider that most of
those, the crania of which equal in size those of the small.
males, may be referred to the larger species, while one or two,
slightly smaller in all their dimensions, but remarkable for
having the two middle incisors in the upper jaw larger than in
the other specimens, may be considered as the females of the
smaller species, the male of which has also those teeth larger
than in the animals which possess huge crested skulls and cheek-
excrescences. These smaller females so exactly correspond with
Prof. Owen’s figure, that there is no doubt of their belonging to

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Orang-Utan or Mias of Borneo. 475

the same species, the adult male of which will, I believe, now be
made known for the first time. The skms of the two small
males and of the females, now on their way to England, in spirits,
will, when strictly compared, serve to determine accurately the
characters of the two species of Bornean Orang, Simia Satyrus
and S. Morio.

The Dyaks of N.-Western Borneo, however, have names for
three species of Mias, although I could never find any one who
could determine them with precision. All the animals with
large cheek-excrescences form the “ Mias chappan,” but they
declare that females are also found of the same form. Authen-
ticated female specimens, however, with cheek-excrescences do
‘not exist in Europe, and if they ever do occur, seem far too rare in
proportion to the males to be any other than an accidental
variety m which the one sex has assumed characters generally
confined to the other. All Orangs of smaller size and without
cheek-excrescences are called by the Dyaks Mias Kassu, and my
small males and females are undoubtedly of this kind; but these
people have asserted that every female I shot was a Mias Kassu,
so that [am rather inclined to think that they have regarded
the larger males as distinct species from the smaller and differ-
ently formed females. In one case however they said that a
female was a Mias chappan, though it possessed no cheek-excres-
cences, nor differed from the other females except in having the
skin of the throat rather more loose and inflated than usual,—a
character generally very prominent in the large males. The
third kind they call the Mias rambi, and they say it equals the
“chappan” in size, but has no cheek-excrescences and very
long hair. This seems very rare, and is probably one of the
large species in which the excrescences have been little or not at
all developed. One of my females they asserted with hesitation
to be a “rambi,” but I could not perceive that it in any way
differed from the others except in a much paler colour than
usual,

The conclusions therefore at which I have arrived are as
follows :—

1. That two species of Orang have been ascertained to exist in
Borneo.

2. The differences between them are well marked in the males,
but much less distinct in the females.

3. That all the females are characterized by the small-sized
skull without prominent ridges and by their subtruncated dilated
canine teeth.

4. The males of both species possess large conical canines.

5. That the form, size and proportions of the crania, and the
size and position of the teeth, vary in each individual to such an

476 Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

extent, that these variations alone cannot be taken to mark
distinct species.

Most of these conclusions are fully supported by Prof. Tem-
minck, from an examination of the very extensive series of spe-
cimens in the Leyden Museum, though, from not possessing
specimens of the smaller male, he was unable to detect any spe-
cific difference in the females.

Prof. Owen, in his admirable papers published in the ‘ Trans-
actions of the Zoological Society, has described the apparent
confusion in the position of the second set of teeth in the jaws
of the young animal, and observes that it seems wonderful that
they should all fall into their proper places in the adult, without
those irregularities which are so frequent in Man. My spe-
cimens however prove that such irregularities are very frequent,
as more than one-half of my crania exhibit them in a greater or
less degree. In two cases a sixth molar tooth occurs on one or
both sides of the jaw; the incisors are often unsymmetrical and
the whole jaw is frequently oblique, in one case so much so, that
while the upper canine closes inside the lower on one side of the
jaw, it is outside on the other.

A striking peculiarity, not, I believe, hitherto noticed, exists m
the mamme of the female, which are scarcely perceptible even
when giving suck. In two specimens which I| shot with their
infant young, the nipples rose from a breast not more developed
than in the male animal.

The preceding observations might have been very much ex-
tended, but the object has been merely to give some account of
the writer’s observations and collections, believing that no defi-
nite and certain conclusions can be arrived at without a compa-
rison of his materials with those which already exist in England
and at Leyden, a comparison which he looks forward to making
on his return.

Sarawak, Dec. 1855.

XLVI.—On Prof. Huxley’s attempted Refutation of Cuvier’s
Laws of Correlation, in the Reconstruction of extinct Verte-
brate Forms. By H. Fauconer, M.D., F.R.S. &e.

Tue printed Proceedings of the Royal Institution contain a full
abstract of the principal part of an evening lecture, delivered by
Prof. Huxley, on the 15th February last, ‘On Natural History,
as Knowledge, Discipline, and Power,” authenticated with his
initials, and thus leaving no doubts as to the authorship. _ It
contains some statements which are so remarkable,—emanating

in the Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms. 477

from one who is at the same time a Professor of Physiology, and
an officer on the paleontological staff of the Museum of Econo-
mic Geology,—as to require some notice.

The temptations of a popular lecture are notoriously so great,
to produce effect imstead of merely giving instruction, and to
heighten sober fact with a little gilding, that a considerable
allowance is usually extended to discourses addressed to large
mixed audiences. If the banquet is plain, to go down well, it
requires some strong seasoning. But there is a limit to this
kind of consideration ; and when a man of science, of recognized
standing, assails generally admitted principles and established
reputations, in a discourse of this nature, which comes before the
world in the permanent form of publication, it is no longer en-
titled to imdulgence, but becomes a fair subject of legitimate
criticism.

Nearly three-fourths of Mr. Huxley’s abstract are devoted to
the first head, viz. Natural History regarded as knowledge, the
leading feature of which is an attempt to refute the principle
propounded by Cuvier, that the laws of correlation which pre-
side over the organization of animals, guided him in his recon-
struction of extinct forms. It is to this part of the lecture that
the remarks now offered have reference.

By the common verdict of mankind, George Cuvier has been
considered one of the most successful investigators of natural
knowledge, in all time. His principal claim for this rank rests
upon his having been the founder and architect of philosophical
paleontology. He not only laid the first stone, but he con-
structed, and covered over, the edifice. What has been accom-
plished by his successors, has been merely to fill up, and embel-
lish the details of the interior; this much he left to them as an
express legacy. The general results of his researches, and the
principles upon which they were conducted, were set forth in
the “ Discours préliminaire,” which, taking due account of the
state of knowledge at the time, and the wide scope of the argu-
ment, has hitherto been held up as a model of exhaustive philo-
sophical inquiry, conveyed in a strain of chastened didactic
eloquence, such as has not yet been surpassed im the literature
of natural history.

That in some important respects Cuvier was behind the pro-
gress of zoological science in his day, is undeniable ; as also that
he arrived at some wrong palontological conclusions. This is
not to be wondered at ; the real marvel being, that in achieving
so much in a new field, he erred so little. But Mr. Huxley
assails him on very different and much higher grounds. “The
prince of modern naturalists,” it is alleged, “did not himself
understand the methods by which he arrived at his great re-

478 Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

sults.” “His master-mind misconceived its own processes.”
“Whatever Cuvier himself may say, or others repeat, it seems
quite clear that the principle of his restorations was noZ that of
the physiological correlation or coadaptation of organs.”

Such strong assertion should he well supported; for, besides
the attack upon Cuvier and his followers, the very foundations
of paleontology, as they have hitherto been understood, are as-
sailed. Let us now see whether soundly or otherwise. Mr. Hux-
ley, after showimg up the pretensions and shortcomings of the
alleged philosophical principle, supplies the blank with a substi-
tute of his own, namely, “ A law of the invariable coimecidence of
certain organic peculiarities established by induction ;” or, in
other words (when the definition and illustrative cases are ana-
lysed), empirical observation. In order to put the case fairly,
and guard against the risk of misapprehension, a long extract
must be made :—

x * x “Is this utilitarian adaptation to a benevolent pur-
pose, the chief, or even the leading feature of that great shadow,
or, we should more rightly say, of that vast archetype of the
human mind, which everywhere looms upon us through nature?
The reply of natural history is clearly in the negative. She
tells us that utilitarian adaptation to purpose is not the greatest
principle worked out in nature, and that its value, even as an
instrument of research, has been enormously overrated.

“ How is it then, that uot only in popular works, but m the
writings of men of deservedly high authority, we find the oppo-
site dogma—that the principle of adaptation of means to ends is
the great instrument of research in natural history—enunciated
as an axiom? If we trace out the doctrine to its fountam-head,
we shall find that it was primarily put forth by Cuvier, the prince
of modern naturalists. Is it to be supposed then that Cuvier
did not himself understand the methods by which he arrived at
his great results ? that his master-mind misconceived its own
processes? This conclusion appears to be not a little presump-
tuous ; but if the following arguments be justly reasoned out, it
is correct :—

“ In the famous ‘ Discours sur les Révolutions de la Surface
du Globe,’ after speaking of the difficulties in the way of the
restoration of vertebrate fossils, Cuvier goes on to say :—

“« Happily, comparative anatomy possesses a principle whose
just development is sufficient to dissipate all difficulties ; it is
that of the correlation of forms in organized beings, by means
of which every kind of organized being might, strictly speaking,
be recognized, by a fragment of any of its parts.

«Every organized being constitutes a whole, a single and
complete system, whose parts mutually correspond and concur,

in the Reconstruction of extinet Vertebrate Forms. 479

by their reciprocal reaction to the same definitive end. None of
these parts can be changed without affecting the others; and
consequently each taken separately indicates and gives all the
rest.’

* After this, Cuvier gives his well-known examples of the
correlation of the parts of a Carnivore, too long for extract, and
of which therefore his summation merely will be given :—

“<n a word, the form of the tooth involves that of the con-
dyle; that of the shoulder-blade ; that of the claws: just as the
equation of a curve involves all its properties. And just as by
taking each property separately, and making it the base of a
separate equation, we should obtain both the ordinary equation
and all other properties whatsoever which it possesses; so, in
the same way, the claw, the scapula, the condyle, the femur, and
all the other bones taken separately, will give the tooth, or
one another; and by commencing with any one, he who had a
rational conception of the laws of the organic ceconomy, could
reconstruct the whole animal.’

‘Thus far Cuvier ; and thus far, and no further, it seems that
the compilers, and copiers, and popularizers, and id genus omne,
proceed in the study of him. And so it is handed down from
book to book, that all Cuvier’s restorations of extinct animals
were effected by means of the principle of the physiological
correlation of organs.

“‘ Now let us examine this principle ; taking, in the first place,
one of Cuvier’s own arguments and analysing it; and in the
second place, bringing other considerations to bear.

“ Cuvier says—‘ It is readily intelligible that Ungulate animals
must all be herbivorous, since they possess no means of seizing
a prey (1). We see very easily also, that the only use of their
fore-feet being to support their bodies, they have no need of so
strongly formed a shoulder; whence follows the absence of
elavicles (2) and acromion, and the narrowness of the scapula.
No longer having any need to turn their fore-arm, the radius
will be united with the ulna, or at least articulated by a gingly-
mus and not arthrodially with the humerus (3). Their herbi-
vorous diet will require teeth with flat crowns to bruise up
the grain and herbage; these crowns must needs be unequal,
and to this end enamel must alternate with bony matter (4) :
such a kind of crown requiring horizontal movements for tritu-
ration, the condyle of the jaw must not form so close a hinge as
in the Carnivora; it must be flattened; and this entails a cor-
respondingly flattened temporal facet. The temporal fossa which
will have to receive only a small temporal muscle will be shallow
and narrow (5).?

“The various propositions are here marked with numbers, to

480 Dr. Faleoner on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

avoid repetition ; and it is easy to show that not one is really
based on a necessary physiological law :-—

“(1.) Why should not ungulate animals be carrion-feeders ?
or even, if living animals were their prey, surely a horse could
run down and destroy other animals with at least as much ease
as a wolf,

(2, 3.) But what purpose, save support, is subserved by the
fore-legs of the Dog and Wolf? how large are their clavicles?
how much power have they of rotating the fore-arm? (4,5.) The
Sloth is purely herbivorous, but its teeth present no trace of any
such alternation of substance.

“Again, what difference exists in structure of tooth, in the
shape of the condyle of the jaw, and in that of the temporal fossa,
between the herbivorous and carnivorous Bears? If Bears were
only known to exist in the fossil state, would any anatomist
venture to conclude from the skull and teeth alone, that the
white bear is naturally carnivorous, while the brown bear is
naturally frugivorous? Assuredly not ; and thus, in the case of
Cuvier’s own selection, we see that his arguments are absolutely
devoid of conclusive force.”

Our first remark is, where and by whom has the principle of
the “utilitarian* adaptation to purpose” been used as an instru-
ment of research ? Mr. Huxley avers that its value as such has
been enormously overrated! If so, by whom has it been ever
used ? From the prevalence of adaptations and mechanisms in
nature, suited to the production of certain ends, we reason up
to the agency of an all-wise, powerful and benevolent Designer.
But the inference is a product, not an instrument of the research ;
and to call it the latter, is simply a misuse of terms.

The same objection applies to what Mr. Huxley designates
as “the opposite dogma—that the principle of adaptation of
means to ends is the great instrument of research in natural
history.” The generalization in this case also is a result, not an
instrument, of the research.

Mr. Huxley contrasts the two as opposite dogmas. Wherein,
we would ask, lies the opposition? Hot and cold, dry and moist,
sweet and sour, are in ordinary language opposites; and in
medicine, theorists speak of the opposite dogmas of the humoral
and mechanical, the chemical and vital pathologies. ‘They are
obviously opposed, because the one is inconsistent with, and of a
contrary nature to, the other. But there is nothing of lke
opposition and incompatibility in the two dogmas or principles
as enunciated by Mr. Huxley. So far from such being the case,
the first is merely a more advanced stage of the second. In the

* The employment of the term in this sense is by Mr. Huxley.

in the Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms. 4841

one, we satisfy ourselves by observation of the necessary cor-
relation of the parts to effect a common end; in the other, we
speculate from these premises, as to whether or no they furnish
proofs of a Supreme Designer. We may stop short at the former
stage without going further; but we cannot arrive at the second
without having gone through the first. The two principles,
therefore, have never been employed as instruments of research
in natural history, nor are they, in their nature, opposites.

In disquisitions of this kind, precision of thought and expres-
sion is so essential, that it seemed necessary to clear the ground
of these preliminary objections, before coming to the gist of Mr.
Huxley’s argument, namely, that the law of reciprocal relation
between the organs of animals is not the principle which guided
Cuvier in his reconstruction of extinct forms.

Mr. Huxley first takes the beautiful illustration given by
Cuvier, of the correlation of the parts in a Carnivore, quoting the
summary ; and he attempts to refute it by asking, “ What differ-
ence exists in the structure of tooth, in the shape of the condyle
of the jaw, and in that of the temporal fossa, between the herbi-
vorous and carnivorous Bears? If Bears were only known to
exist in the fossil state, would any anatomist venture to conclude,
from the skull and teeth alone, that the white bear is naturally
carnivorous, while the brown bear is naturally frugivorous ?
Assuredly not ; and thus im the case of Cuvier’s own selection,
we see that his arguments are absolutely devoid of conclusive
force.”

Can it be believed, after this, that the case in question is not
that of Cuvier’s selection? But such is really the fact. In
stating the proposition to be demonstrated, Cuvier puts it thus:
* If the intestines of an animal are organized so as only to digest
flesh, and the fiesh fresh,” then these correlative conditions are
involved, viz.: its Jaws must be constructed to devour a prey ;
its claws to seize and tear it asunder ; its teeth to cut it up and
divide it; its organs of motion to pursue and catch it ; its organs
of sense to recognize it at a distance; and it must also be
endowed with the instinct to conceal itself and lay toils for its
victims. “ Such will be the conditions of the carnivorous habit ;
eyery animal destined for such habit will infallibly have them in
combination, for its race could not subsist without them.” But
the Bears have not their “intestines organized only to digest
fresh flesh ;”’ nor their claws to seize a prey and tear it asunder ;
nor their teeth only to cut up and divide it; nor their organs of
motion to pursue and catch it; nor have they the instinct to
conceal themselves and entrap it. What was obviously in
Cuvier’s mind was, a pure typical digitigrade carnivore like
the Tiger, which rigidly fulfils the terms of the proposition, and

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 31

482 © Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

every one of the conditions set forth as involved in it. The
Bears are heavy cumbrous animals; their teeth are not purely
carnivorous, but mixed*; their feet are plantigrade; and their
habit of diet, when they are regarded in the mass, is omnivorous.
We have known the same species, a brown bear, to browse on
young grass like an ox; to devour the flesh of a slaughtered
deer left in the forest; and to kill and eat a tame pheasant that
came within its reach. Nature has given mixed teeth, and a
mixed organization throughout, to match the mixed habits of
the genus. Technically they are ranked, in some classifications,
as among the Carnivora; but competent naturalists divide the
order of Fere into three groups, excluding the Bears and their
allies, under the designation of Plantigrada, from the Carnivora,
which comprise the digitigrade Dogs, Cats, Hyzenas, &e. How
then is Mr. Huxley warranted in asserting, that the Bears were
“the case of Cuvier’s own selection”? In every demonstration
of a subject, and in ordinary instruction, we select the simplest
problems; and having mastered them, we next proceed to the
more complicated or mixed. Cuvier took the pure and simple
case: Mr. Huxley fixes upon him the mixed.

Let us now take the case as put by Mr. Huxley, and suppose
that the brown and white bears were only met with in the fossil
state; but with the proviso of the other living species being
known to us as at present. The comparative anatomist would,
we believe, be led to mfer that the polar bear had been more car-
nivorous than the brown bear, and the latter more of a vegetable
feeder than the former. The polar bear differs more from all
the other bears in the form of the skull, than these do from one
another; and the differences are all in the direction of a more
earnassial type. In proof that this is not a rash or unguarded
assertion, it can be shown that comparative anatomists have not
hesitated, in the cases of certain extinct fossil bears, to form
conclusions as to their habits of diet upon the osteological evi-
dence. Thus: “ From the greater proportional size and more
complicated tubercular surface of the posterior molar teeth, espe-
cially in the upper jaw, and from the greater complication on
the crown of the smallest persistent molar in the lower jaw, one
might be led to suppose that the Ursus speleus fed more on
vegetables than the grisly bear does” (Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm.
p- 101). The evidence furnished by the skull confirms this
guarded inference: it deviates widely in form from that of the
polar bear. Again: “The above remarkable modification of
the crowns of the molar teeth of the lower jaw, indicates this
great extinct bear (of the Sewalik Hills) to have been more car-

* Their molar teeth generally manifest in both jaws a tubereulate
grinding surface. Owen, Odontog. vol. i. p. 501.

tn the Reconstruction of extinet Vertebrate Forms. 483

nassial than the Ursus speleus, or any of its existing congeners”
(Owen, Odontography, vol. i. p. 501). The same conclusion
had been previously arrived at by the original describers of this
species, from the combined indications of the skull and teeth*.
Here then are two fossil bears, the one of which is inferred to
have been more of a vegetable feeder, and the other more car-
nivorous, from characters of correlation presented by their skulls
and teeth ;—being practical refutations of the assertion made by
Mr. Huxley. It is true that the legitimacy of the deductions
may be questioned or denied: all that can be said in reply is,
that if the propositions, positive and negative, are considered
according to the degree of their respective probability, the verdict
of every competent judge will be in favour of the former. Of
more than this, a case of the kind does not admit.

Mr. Huxley next takes in hand the opposite case of the Un-
gulate Herbivora, as put by Cuvier. They present the simplest
and most unmixed types of the strictly vegetable feeders, and
their organization is modified throughout, in a series of adapta-
tions in contrast with those presented by the Digitigrade Carni-
vora, and in necessary correlation with each other (1. e. necessary
in the sense of being demonstrable in such a way that the con-
trary involves an absurdity and is inconceivable). We will take
Mr. Huxley’s objections in the order suggested by the analysis.
Cuvier states that: “Their herbivorous habit will require teeth
with flat crowns to bruise up the grain and herbage; this crown
must needs be unequal, and to this end enamel must alternate
with the bony materials.” Mr. Huxley attempts to refute the
generality of the proposition by the case of the Sloth. He says,
“The Sloth is purely herbivorous, but its teeth present no trace
of any such alternation of substance.” It will be shown in the
sequel, that they do present such alternation ; but the first re-
mark that is suggested is, that in an argument where there is
an express specification of the premises, it is inadmissible to
adduce a case that does not come within the terms. Cuvier
specifies the Ungulata (including the Pachydermata, Solidungula,
and Ruminantia) : Mr. Huxley meets him with the Sloth, which,
although herbivorous, does not belong to either, but to the order
Bruta, comprismg animals very different in their habits and
organization from the Ungulata. The mass of the species in
the one order is constructed for extreme speed, to escape from
their predaceous enemies ; while the progression of the mass in
the other is extremely slow, but strictly in unison with their
habits and wants. Instead of presenting a narrow scapula, with
no acromion and no clavicle (conditions expressly specified by

* Asiatic Researches, vol. xix. p. 200.

31*

484 Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

Cuvier), the Sloth has a very broad scapula, an enormously pro-
longed acromion, and a clavicle. A portion of the functions of
its fore-arm is modified after the plan presented by the Tiger,
instead of that of the Ungulata. The habits of the Sloth, although
herbivorous, required it, and the necessity under the law of cor-
relation worked out the means*. The detailed demonstration
would be tedious ; but it is wholly unnecessary, as every com-
parative anatomist is familiarly acquainted with it, and probably
no one better than Mr. Huxley. So far as the applicability of
this objection to the case in pomt is concerned, it is clearly of a
still more exceptionable character than that of the Bears contra
the typical Carnivora.

But the special force of Mr. Huxley’s objection hes in the
absence of enamel from the teeth of the herbivorous Sloth.
The adduction of the instance is ingenious; yet the objection in
reality is more specious than valid. The molars of the Sloth
consist of an irregular cylinder of soft and open-grained ivory
(vascular dentine of Owen), which is so permeated by vascular
or medullary canals, that it has been compared structurally to
the teeth of certain fishes; this central mass is encased in a
shell of compact hard ivory (unvascular dentine of Owen),
closely resembling (it is said) that of the human tooth+; and
outside of this shell there is a layer of cement harder than the
central mass, but softer than the shell of ivory. The cement by
use wears away, so as “ to form a bevelled edge,” while the cen-
tral mass becomes depressed, the edge of the shell projecting
between them. The crown thus presents three alternate mate-
rials of unequal hardness, resulting in an unequally worn surface,
being the very end to be attained, in the case put by Cuvier ;
the only difference being, that in the Sloth a shell of hard ivory
is substituted for the ordinary shell of hard enamel. And so
exactly does this shell, to the naked eye, simulate the appearance
of enamel, that Cuvier and every other naturalist down to 1837
described it either as being enamel or analogous to it. Enamel
is equally absent from the teeth of the whole of the Megatheroid

* «Toutes ces choses se déduisent Pune de l’autre selon leur plus ou
moins de généralité, et de maniére que les unes sont essentielles et exclu-
sivement propres aux animaux a sabot, et que les autres, quoique égale-
ment nécessaires dans ces animaux, ne leur seront pas exclusives, mais
pourront se retrouver dans d’autres animauz, ot le reste des conditions per-
mettra encore celles-la.”” (Cuvier, Discours prélim. p. 50, 4to edit.) Alter
the words “ animaux 4 sabot ” mto “ animaux carnivores,” and the clause
in italies is applicable to the fore-arm of the Sloths. It were easy to show,
that the construction of the Sloths, so far from weakening the evidence as
to the law of necessary correlation, does, in fact, furnish the strongest
arguments in favour of it.

_ t Owen, Odontography, vol. 1. p. 330.

in the Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms. 485

Edentata, as from the Sloths. But so little do the united in-
stances furnish a case of means inadequate to the end, that Clift,
in 1836, supplied Buckland with a drawing of the teeth of Me-
gatherium in opposition, in which the hard shell is figured and
described as enamel, and the harder parts of the reversed teeth
are shown to be brought in contact with the softer, in such a
manner, that mastication is performed and maintained by a series
of wedges “like the alternate ridges on the rollers of a crush-
ing-mill,” and accompanied by a property, the perfection of all
machinery, namely, that of maintaining itself perpetually in
perfect order by the act of performing its work*.

Enamel, therefore, although structurally absent, is functionally
present in the substituted shell of hard ivory. The force of Mr.
Huxley’s objection is thus narrowed to the use in the Sloth of
a material different from the ordinary one. Does this furnish
any good argument against the law of correlation? In physics
analogous cases of substitution are met with; for instance, in
Mitscherlich’s isomorphous salts, wherein certain bases may be
substituted indifferently, but the combinations will always result
in the same function, i.e. crystallize in the same geometrical
form. No one has on this account doubted the constancy of the
laws of crystallization. In predaceous birds, the teeth and jaws
of the Carnivora are replaced by the mandibles and hooked
bill; but the claw of the Eagle is, notwithstanding, as much in
correlation with the bill, as the retractile claw with the scissorial
carnassial tooth in the Tiger, the types of construction being
different.

Mr. Huxley’s next objection is startling. He asks: “ Why
should not ungulate animals be carrion-feeders? or even, if
living animals were their prey, surely a horse could run down
and destroy other animals with at least as much ease as a wolf.”
There are certain Ungulata which do sometimes eat flesh and
earrion. The Hog is an example. Cases have been asserted on
respectable evidence of its even having eaten young children.
But the molar teeth, unlike those of the typical Ungulata, are
tubercular or mammillated, not flat, and they differ otherwise.
“ Among the extinct aberrant forms” (in the Suide). “ the
Hippohyus presents almost a ruminant pattern of the grinding
surface, while the Chwropotamus manifests in its whole dentition
a close resemblance to the plantigrade Carnivora.” ** Nothing
as yet is known of the incisors of the Che@ropotamus ; the rest of
the dentition closely resembles that of the Peccari; but the pre-
molars are more simple, and the canines, by their size, shape
and direction, and the lower jaw by the backward prolongation
of its angle, alike manifest a marked approximation to the

* Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise, p. 148.

486 Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

Ferine type. The occasional carnivorous properties of the
common Hog are well known, and they correspond with the
minor degree of resemblance which this existing Pachyderm
presents to the same type*.” On the other hand, “ The essen-
tial characteristic of the dentition of the true Bears is the
development, in the lower jaw, of the true molar teeth to their
typical number in the placental Mammalia, and their general
manifestation, in both jaws, of a tuberculate grinding surface+.”
In other words, the Hog and some of its allies, in certain respects,
diverge in their structure from the ungulate towards the car-
nivorous type; while conversely, the Bears similarly diverge
from the carnivorous type towards the Ungulata; the result
being the same,—that is, regarded in the mass, they become
omnivorous. But the exceptions, so far from being inconsistent
with the law of correlation, furnish fine illustrations of the
manner in which its details are carried out, in contrasted cases
of mixed types.

But as regards the pure herbivorous Ungulata—say the Horse
—with flat grinding teeth when in full wear, the fitting reply
to the first part of Mr. Huxley’s query would be—Why should
not a pair of millstones serve as well to cut up broad cloth as a
pair of scissors? The typical Ungulata have their molars con-
structed on the grinding principle,—the Carnivora on the scis-
sorial; and both physicists and naturalists know, upon a very
wide induction, that the antecedents and consequents in these
cases are not reciprocals. As to the second part of the query,
the teeth and correlative organs tell us that the speed of the
Horse is to enable him to run away from his predaceous and
other enemies—not to run down, seize, and destroy other animals.
Nature, like a thrifty housewife, has endowed him with organs
of locomotion suited to his wants, and not gone beyond them.

The last objection raised by Mr. Huxley is, “ What purpose,
save support, is subserved by the fore-legs of the Dog and Wolf ?
how large are their clavicles? how much power have they of
rotating the fore-arm?” Every one has seen a dog gnawing a
bone. If there is flesh or gristle on it, his paws (¢.e. the pre-
hensile function of the combined clavicle, scapula, and fore-arm)
enable him to place the object in the most favourable position
for his jaws to act. If it is flat, like a blade-bone, he can raise
it edgewise and so on; being selective acts of manipulation,
which are impossible to the Horse with his less artificially en-
dowed fore-arm. All thisis familiar and elementary knowledge;
the only marvel is, that one should have to adduce the facts at
the present day in such an argument.

* Owen, Odontography, vol. i. p. 562. 7 Ibid. p. 501.

in the Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms. 487

Mr. Huxley then brings certain other considerations to bear,
Taking the case of a crustacean fossil impression, he shows that
the restoration of the extinct form is founded on the invariable
concurrence of the peculiar many-ringed body and jointed limbs,
with a certain form of the jaws, and certain relations of the
muscles, neryous system, and other internal organs, to the exo-
skeleton. He adds, “For any physiological necessity to the
contrary, the creature might have had its mouth, nervous system
and internal organs arranged like those of a fish.” The general
statement is quite correct, but the corollary is a manifest fallacy;
for if, in the adduced instance, the creature had had its mouth,
nervous system and internal organs arranged like those of a fish,
it would have ceased to be a crustacean and have become a fish.
Mr. Huxley, with the skeleton of a hawk before him, might as
well say that, for any physiological necessity to the contrary, that
creature might have its jaws with teeth, and its internal organs
arranged, like those of a tiger. Nature has formed living beings
upon certain types, which constitute the basis of methodical
nomenclature, and the correlation of part to part, and organ to
organ, is adjusted in subordination to those types.

The fallacy involved in his next instance is still more obyious:
“If we turn to the botanist, and inquire how he restores fossil
plants from their fragments, he will say at once, that he knows
nothing of physiological necessities and correlations. Give him
a fragment of wood, and he will unhesitatingly tell yon what
kind of a plant it belonged to; but it will be fruitless to ask him
what physiological necessity combines e.g. peculiarly dotted
vessels with fruit in the shape of a cone and naked ovules, for
he knows of none. Nevertheless his restorations stand on the
same logical basis as those of the zoologist.

“ Therefore, whatever Cuvier himself may say, or others may
repeat, it seems quite clear that the principle of his restorations
was not that of the physiological correlation or coadaptation of
organs. And if it were necessary to appeal to any authority
save facts and reason, our first witness would be Cuvier himself,
who in ayery remarkable passage two or three pages further
on (‘Discours, pp. 184, 185) implheitly surrenders his own
principle,”

Now, plants have only organic or vegetative life, limited to
nutrition and reproduction. But animals, besides this organic,
have sensorial life superadded. Supposing a question were
raised as to the reality of sensorial life, what would be thought
of the naturalist who would turn to the botanist. and. say,
“ Your plants assuredly have not got sensation, perception, and
voluntary motion, therefore animals are not likely to have
them”? The argument drawn by Mr. Huxley from instances

488 Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

of empirical relation in the vegetable kingdom against there
being necessary or reciprocal relation in the higher classes of
the. animal kingdom, if it means anything, 1s ‘exactly of this
character. The truth being, that in both plants and animals
there are two kinds of relation between the constituent parts or
organs: the one empirical, of which we know the invariable
constancy, although, so far as our present knowledge goes, we
cannot show the,, reason; the other reciprocal, of which we
equally know the constancy, and at the same time can demon-
strate the necessity. Physiology takes cognizance of both ; and
as a general expression of the phenomena it may be stated,
that the necessary relations are more numerous and obviously
manifested in the ratio of the higher organization of the living
form. Hence the paramount importance of the principle of
reciprocal relation as a guide in mammalian paleontology.

So far as regards the terms above quoted, in which the
supposed refutation of the Cuvierian principle is summed up,
rarely in the history of science has confident assertion been put
forward, in so grave a case, upon a more erroneous and unsub-
stantial foundation. Later paleontologists are brushed aside
with still hghter consideration. They are les moutons que suivent
“the compilers, and copiers, and popularizers, and td genus
omne.” It is some consolation to this pecus ignobile to reflect,
that Professor Owen has been among theirnumber. Mr. Huxley
holds him up in the s quel, as furnishing a bright example (of
which more anon) of empirical deduction; but it must be ad-
mitted, that the Hunterian Professor’s numerous works, and
reiterated avowals, somewhat compromise him as a rational cor-
relationist *.

Let us now consider what was the method actually followed
by Cuvier in the determination and restoration of extinct fossil
forms. He first examined, through every organic detail, a vast
number of livmg forms, derived from every class and order of
the Vertebrata, with infinite labour and assiduity, during thirty
years. In the spirit of pure induction, he ascended from the
ageregate of the particular observations to general conclusions ;
namely, that certain laws of correlation invariably preside over
the organization of animals. He found that these laws were
classifiable under two heads: Ist, what he called rational (i.e.
general) laws, wherein the correlation is demonstrable as being
necessary and reciprocal throughout the parts, just as the form
of a piston must be a reciprocal of the cylinder in which it

* Mr. Owen flies his hawk at a more ambitious quarry in original re-
search; but it is not too much to expect that he may on some occasion
record his protest against Mammalian Paleontology being asserted to rest
merely on empirical correlation, in a pithy foot-note.

in the Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms. 489

works ; 2nd, empirical laws, where the constancy of the correla-
tion is invariable, but the cause is not manifested ; such as that
‘Ruminants alone should have cloven feet and horns on their
frontals, concurrently with certain peculiarities in their teeth :
thus establishing a harmony—constant, yet wholly mexplicable
— between remote organs apparently unconnected ; or, to use
the detinition of Mr. Huxley, “the invariable coincidence of
certain organic peculiarities established by induction.”

Having thus arrived at the general conclusions from observa-
tion on living animals, Cuvier, in the spirit of the same induc-
tive philosophy, then applied the inverse process of deduction
to the fossil remains: i.e. from the ascertained general, he rea-
soned down to the unknown particular, and thus attained those
wonderful results, which have been well characterized by a great
living writer as being “among those rare monuments of human
genius and labour of which each department of exertion can
scarcely ever furnish more than one, eminent therefore above
all the efforts made in the same kind*.”” Throughout his great
work there is that continual alternate use of the inductive and
deductive method, which, Herschel remarks, is essential to the
successful process of scientific inquiry. The case of all others
to which he most proudly referred, was the determination of the
Kocene Opossum of the Paris basin. The crushed skeleton of a
minute quadruped was found in a slab of gypsum, and Cuvier
employed the following process of analysis for its identification :

1. The teeth, and skeleton throughout, indicated a mammifer.

2. The elevation of the coronoid apophysis above the condyle,
and the form of the acute posterior angle of the lower jaw, in-
dicated a predaceous animal.

8. The general construction of the skeleton excluded the
Cheiroptera.

4.. The elevation of the condyle above the horizontal line of
the teeth eliminated the ordinary Carnivora, such as Dogs, Cats,
Martens, &e.; but was consistent with placental Insectivora,
such as the Mole and Hedgehog, and likewise with Opossums
and other marsupials.

5. The molar teeth also were consistent with both placental
and implacental Insectivora.

6. The height and width of the coronoid apophysis, and the
peculiar inflection of the posterior angle of the lower jaw, elimi-
nated the placental Insectivora, leaving Didelphys and other
marsupials.

7. Special characters of the teeth excluded all the other mar-
supials except Didelphys and Dasyurus.

* Brougham, Dissert. vol. ii. p. 113.

490 Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

8. The number of the incisors excluded Dasyurus, leaving
only Didelphys.

9. The sum of all the characters throughout the skeleton,
and each of them taken separately, indicated Didelphys.

10. Therefore the fossil animal was a Didelphys, like the non-
prehensile tailed Opossums, which are now restricted to the
American continent.

If, in turn, we analyse the process, it is obvious that the
result was obtained, first by determining the class, and then
eliminating, by a series of successive steps, every differential
condition, down to a single residual form; and if we examine
the nature of the correlations upon which the successive steps
were founded, it will be seen that most of them were of the
necessary order, and but few of the empirical. Cuvier was con-
fident, upon the evidence, that the conclusion was sound: but
a crucial instance remained, by which to verify it. If the
extinct form was an Opossum, it must have had a marsupial
pouch, and to sustain the pouch, marsupial bones were neces-
sary. He summoned some competent friends to witness the
expected verification. A portion of gypsum was cleared away
from the slab by the graver, at a sacrifice of some of the ver-
tebre, and a pair of marsupial bones, concealed in the matrix,
were brought to light, resting in their natural position above
the edge of the pubis. Thus, after determining the class, the
first step in the further analytic deduction rested upon a rational
or necessary correlation, and so also did the last, crowning the
identification. When referring, afterwards, to this signal
triumph, the great anatomist quietly remarked: “Je laisse cet
article tel qu’il a paru d’abord, dans les annales du Muséum,
comme un monument, selon moi assez curieux, de la force des
lois zoologiques, et du parti que l’on peut en tirer.”

Let us next examine what the true principle is, according to
Mr. Huxley. It is not denied, that in paleontology, legitimate
consequences may be deduced from the laws of living form: on
the contrary, the whole science is admitted to be built on them.
But the process of restoration depends, “not on the physiological
correlation or coadaptation of organs ;” but, “ first, on the validity
of a law of the invariable coincidence of certain organi¢ pecus
liarities established by induction; secondly, on the accuracy of
the logical process of deduction from this law.”’ Now, the ability
to demonstrate a proposition, or to infer a legitimate deduction,
may be a measure of the capacity of the individual, but it is no
criterion of the abstract truth of either. The second -clause
may therefore be struck out, as self-evident and superfluous,
The principle is thus limited to “ the invariable coincidence of
certain organic peculiarities.” This invariable comcidence may

inthe Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms. 491

be, as has been shown above, either empirical or necessary.
Cuvier, like a true interpreter of nature, employed both indif-
ferently in his restorations, according as they were presented to
him, and professed it. This important fact is nowhere recog-
nized by Mr. Huxley, who argues the case throughout as if
Cuvier had excluded the empirical and admitted only of neces-
sary correlations. He, on the other hand, denies any share to
the latter, and attributes the whole weight to the former. This
is also implied by the antithesis between ‘ physiological cor-
relation or coadaptation of organs” (Cuvier), and “ invariable
coincidence of organic peculiarities” (Huxley). The same is
manifested in the references to the sculptured pollen-grains, the
forms and colours of flowers, the relation between the dotted
vessels and naked ovula in the Gymnosperms, and the erusta-
eean illustration. They are all empirical, so far as science can
at present show. The special instance adduced is of the same
nature: ‘ Professor Owen’s determination of the famous Stones-
field mammal is a striking illustration of this” (7. e. of reason-
ing from the law, by the logical process). ‘A small jaw of a
peculiar shape was found, containing a great number of teeth,
some of which were imbedded by double fangs in the jaw. Now
these laws have been inductively established—

“(a.) That only Mammals have teeth imbedded im a double

sddketels add. 20100 Tots A, 2 RIGO at (empirical).
“(b.) That only Marsupials have teeth in so great a number
imbedded in so peculiarly formed a jaw ..... . (empirical).

“ By deduction from these laws to the case in question the
legitimate conclusion was arrived at, that the jaw belonged to
a Marsupial mammal.”

Mr. Huxley has been as unhappy in this instance as with the
Sloth, for it so happens, that the observed characters do not
bear out this asserted deduction. The Stonesfield mammal par
excellence is the genus Amphitherium, which shows the greatest
number of teeth (sixteen on either side of the lower jaw), while
it wants the peculiar marsupial inflection of the posterior an-
gular process, or, at least, does not exhibit it in a greater degree
than the placental Mole and Hedgehog. The balance of the
evidence therefore “ turns the scale in favour of its affinities to
the placental Insectivora*.” On the other hand, the second
Stonesfield genus discovered long afterwards, Phascolotherium,
has fewer teeth (only twelve on either side of the lower jaw),
while i¢ does exhibit the marsupial inflection of the angular
process. “ On reviewing, therefore, the whole of the osteological
evidence, it will be seen that we have every reason to presume
that the Amphitherium and Phascolotherium of Stonestield re-

* Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 61.

492 Dr. Falconer on Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation,

present both the Placental and Marsupial classes of Mammalia*
(z. 2. the former Placental, the latter Marsupial).

In all the sciences of observation, a great part of our know-
ledge, at an early stage, is, and must needs be, empirical. It is
the same in physics as in natural history. But the constant
effort of every philosophical mind is to extinguish the empirical
character of the phenomena, and bring them within the range
of a rational explanation. Every successful effort of this kind
is regarded as so much fertile land reclaimed from the sterile
domain of the ocean; and there is an irrepressible revulsion of
feeling on seeing the dykes breached for a fresh submergence.
In astronomy, Kepler’s laws of the planetary motions re-
mained for upwards of a century purely empirical; but at
length they were proved to be a necessary consequence of the
Newtonian system. Bode’s law of the progression of the mag-
nitudes of the planetary orbits still remaims empirical. In phy-
siology, animal heat, and the phenomena of sensation and
voluntary motion, remained for many ages purely empirical.
The most untiring application was devoted to them until the
problems were, in a greater or less degree, rationally solved.
The name of Charles Bell is imperishably connected with one of
these solutions; for mankind has invariably received with a
grateful triumph every instance where the demonstration of a
great principle has superseded empirical darkness ; and such
was the feeling with which it recognized Cuvier’s announcement
and demonstration of the zoological laws of reciprocal relation
as furnishing a guide in the reconstruction of extinct vertebrate
forms. It is a rare spectacle to see empiricism chosen by pre-
ference.

Considering the pre-eminent services of Cuvier and the esti-
mation in which they have hitherto been held, it might have
been expected that Professor Huxley, in placing himself in
collision with such an antagonist, would have taken every pains
to arrive at an accurate appreciation of the position which he
combated, and that he would have stated the case impartially ;
“modeste tamen et circumspecto judicio de tantis viris pro-
nuntiandum est.” But we fail to detect the indications of
either. The case is only put in part, and the lumimous ex-
position of the great anatomist is met by special pleadmg, and
technical or light objections, beside the real scope of the argu-
ment. The result is, that after the encounter the law of cor-
relation stands exactly as Cuvier found and left it,—inscribed by
nature in indelible characters on the organization of every living
and extinet vertebrate form, and wholly uninjured by its latest
assailant.

* Lyell, Manual, 5th edit. p. 313.

in the Reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms. 493

Throughout Mr. Huxley’s brochure there runs a strain of
extolment of what is empirical in natural history at the expense
of the rational. Let him be the great expounder of its esthetics,
if he likes,—every one will cheer him on. But he must beware
of attempting to put back the hand of the rational dial, for
every arm will be against him. The circulation of the blood
has been stoutly denied in Britain within the memory of thou-
sands now living. Strange events of this kind make their
appearance periodically in all the sciences. They are anachron-
isms, which startle by their unexpectedness, and then pass into
oblivion. How different were the aspirations of Cuvier! ‘ Avee
cette derniére précaution,” (7. e. le habitude de ne se rendre
qu’a lévidence, ou du moins de classer les propositions d’aprés
le dégré de leur probabilité) “il n’est aucune science que ne
puisse devenir presque géométrique: les chimistes ont prouvé
dans ces derniers temps pour la leur; et j’espére, que l’époque
n’est pas éloignée ou l’on en dira autant des anatomistes.”

One other remark is necessary. Although the principle of
correlation is borne out by a cumulative mass of evidence that is
irresistible, it must not, in practice, be pushed too far in pali-
ontology. There are numerous instances on record, in which,
in attempting to determine extinct forms from a single bone or
tooth, or from imperfect materials, very erroneous conclusions
have been arrived at; among others, even by Cuvier himself.
And since his time, the same lower jaw, presenting nearly the
whole series of teeth, has been referred, by different eminent
comparative anatomists, to a fish, a reptile, and a mammal!
When these cases are examined under the light of improved
knowledge, they furnish no grounds to weaken our confidence
in the constancy of the zoological laws of correlation ; but an
emphatic warning to interpret the evidence carefully, leaving no
part of it out, and to eschew hasty conclusions where it is
inadequate.

De Blainville, smarting under the sting of some signal mis-
interpretations committed by himself, unceasingly mveighed
against the sufficiency of a single fossil bone for the reconstruc-
tion of the form. At the present day, some molar teeth of a
fossil mammifer haye been met with in the Trias of Stuttgart.
The cast of one of them has been shown to one of the most
competent living authorities, who, it is stated, “is not able to
recognize its affinity with any mammalian type, recent or extinct,
known to him.” But when DMicrolestes antiquus is better
known, upon more copious materials, we may have every con-
fidence, judging from past experience, that its teeth will be
found to be in perfect harmony with the rest of its organization,
and amenable to the laws of zoological correlation.

494. Myr. W.H. Benson on new species of Paludomus.

XLVII.— Descriptions of three new species of Paludomus from
Burmah, and of some forms of Stenothyra (Nematura) from
Penang, Mergui, &c. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

Tuer forms first to be described belong to the genus Paludomus
proper of Swainson (recently deceased at New Zealand), who was
unacquainted with the Cingalese forms added by Reeve, and since
separated chiefly with reference to the opercula. This circum-
stance, and not the applicability of Reeve’s character, which is
far from expressing the true features of the operculum, properly
warrant Mr. E. Layard’s restriction of Swainson’s name to the
shells which present a close affinity to P. conica, Gray. Inva
paper contained in the Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1854, Mr. Layard
stated that, with the addition of the position of the nucleus in
the operculum, Reeve’s characters sufficiently describe it ; but,
even thus amended, the author has omitted the essential cha-
racter separating it from Paludina, as pointed out to him in a
communication dated in April 1852, when I accompanied the
information with the distinctive characters of the divisions
Tanalia, Gray, and Philopotamis, Lay., under the names of
Serenia and Heteropoma, and with figures of the opercula of the
three genera. The fact is that the nucleus of Paludomus proper,
unlike that of the similarly horny and concentrically striate
operculum of Paludina, is subspiral, and analogous to the testa-
ceous one of Bithinia. I had prepared a memoir on the subject,
with illustrations of the variations of the opercula in Paludomus
and the Melaniade, which has been partly anticipated by the
paper already before the public.

The genus Paludomus requires revision, especially with respect
to the unfigured species, which demand more strictly defined
characters. It will be found also that several species belong to
it, of which the affinity was unsuspected by the deseribers ;
among them Medania obesa, Philippi, which is really an inha-
bitant of the vicinity of Bombay, not of Australia, and which
may possibly be the same as P. parva, Layard ; then the Egyp-
tian Cyclostoma Bulimoides, Olivier, which has the true typical
operculum of Paludomus, and which is smgular in the genus
from presenting a perforated base; lastly, Melania lutosa of
Souleyet from the lower part of the Hooghly River near Cal-
eutta. Both Philippi and Souleyet notice the concentric stria-
tion of the operculum in the shells which they doubtfully referred
to Melania, overlooking however the structure of the nucleus.
In the Atlas to the ‘ Voyage of the Bonite,’ Souleyet gives a figure
of the animal, which curiously illustrates its affinity to both
Melania and Paludina.

The ungulate operculum of Tanalia, Gr., is analogous to that

Mr. W.H. Benson on new species of Paludomus. 495

of the marine genus Purpura, and the animal (of which I was,
in the early part of 1853, kindly furnished with an interesting
sketch by Mr. Frederick Layard of the Ceylon Civil Service)
fully bears out the separation of the shell. It may, indeed, be a
question whether Tanalia belongs to the Paludomide at all. On
the other hand, the subspiral operculum of Philopotamis, Lay.,
seems rather to indicate its place to be among the Melaniada,
from the spiral and subspiral types of which family it differs in
having the nucleus removed towards the right side of the base ;
the formation of the shell alone exhibiting a relation to the
Paludomide. The subspiral opercula of the American forms
Anculosa, Gyrostoma, and Amnicola, all point rather to the Mela-
niade than to Paludomus. Reeve, who was right in his conjec-
ture respecting the affinity of Melania obesa, Ph., to Paludomus,
has erred respecting that of M. Griineri, Ph., inasmuch as, ac-
cording to the assertion of Philippi, its operculum consists of six
spiral turns.

I may add the following characters of the restricted genus
from my inedited paper above referred to.

Patupomus, Swainson.

Testa plerumque imperforata, globoso-ovata, ovato-oblonga, vel
ovato-acuta, fere solida, glabra, spiraliter sulcata, vel lirata, inter-
dum spinuloso-costata, epidermide cornea induta ; apertura sub-
verticali, ovato-acuta, callo parietali munita, margine columellari
crasso, arcuato, basali integro, interdum subeffuso,

Operculo corneo, concavo; nucleo subspirali insulari, submediano,
ad sinistram sito, striis lamellatis concentricis partem majorem
disci usurpantibus, circumdato.

The genus occurs in Ceylon, Southern India, Gangetic India
to the eastward of a line drawn from Sikkim to the mouth of
the Hooghly, in the Burhampooter in Assam, and in the hill-
streams which flow into that river from the eastward, in Burmah,
and Sumatra.

I possess from North-eastern India, besides P. conica, Gray,
lutosa, Soul., Stephanus, nobis, and Paludinoides, Reeve, four
other species which I cannot, with any degree of certainty, refer
to published descriptions ; and from Southern India two species
in addition to P. obesa, Ph.

I may remark cursorily that Swainson’s name haying reference
to the dwelling-place of the genus in marshes, the specific names
ought to bear a feminine termination.

1. Paludomus labiosa, nobis, nu. s.

Testa ovato-globosa, leeviuscula, oblique tenuiter et obsolete spiraliter
striata, versus suturam 2-3-sulcata, luteo-olivacea, nigrescenti-

496 Mr. W.H. Benson on some forms of Stenothyra.

eastaneo fasciata, fasciis tribus latioribus ; spira brevi, apice eroso ;
anfractibus 2 superstitibus convexis, ultimo $ teste superante ;
apertura obliqua, ovata, superne acute angulata, fauce quadri-
fasciata, peristomate tenui, acuto, margine deatre superne declivi,
medio valde arcuato, columellari saipicnuentes dilatato-appresso, extus
fuscato, intus albido, compressiusculo ; callo parietali mediocri.
Operculo typico.

Long. 13, diam. 11 mill. Apert. 10 mill. longa, 7} lata.

Hab. in rivulis vallis Tenasserim. Teste W. Theobald.

2. Paludomus ornata, nobis, n.s.

Testa ovato-conica, solidiuscula, leeviuscula, striis remotis obsoletis
cincta, infra suturam marginatam bisulcata, luteo-olivacea, fasciis
4 fusco-castaneis, suturali angusta, secunda latissima, quarta in-
conspicua, ornata ; spira conica, apice eroso; anfractibus 4 super-
stitibus convexis, ultimo 2 testee vix superante; apertura vix ob-
liqua, ovata, fauce ceeruleo-albida, 4-fasciata, superne angulata,
angulo intus calloso; peristomate tenui, acuto, marginibus callo
albo junctis, columellari subrevoluto, angusto, albo. Opere. ?

Long. 18, diam. 13 mill. Apert. 13 mill. “longa, 8 lata.

Hab. in regno Burmanico. Teste W. Theobald.

3. Paludomus regulata, nobis, n.s.

Testa ovato-acuta, solidiuscula, regulatim distincte spiraliter sulcata,
interstitiis latis planatis, minutissime confertissimeque decussato-
striatis, sulcis 2-3 prope suturam latioribus profundioribus, pal-
lide lutea, fasciis sub quatuor, tertia latiori, ornata; spira elata,
conica, apice acuto ; anfractibus 6, convexiusculis, ultimo dimidium
testee vix superante; apertura verticali, ovata, superne angulata,
albida, intus 4-fasciata, peristomatis margine dextro recto acuto,
zetate intus vix incrassato-marginato, parietali calloso, columellari
versus basin subdilatato, appresso. perce. ut in sp. typ.

Long. 19-24, diam. 12-14 mill. Long. apert. majoris 13, lat. 9 mill.

Hab. ad Thyet-Myo Burmanorum. Detexit W. Theobald.

Genus Stenotuyra, Benson, Annals, Ser. 2. vol. xvi. p. 342.
Nematura, ejusdem, Journ. As. Soc. Cale. vol. v. p. 781.

1. Stenothyra cingulata, nobis, n. s.

Testa vix rimata, ovato-fusiformi, compressiuscula, nitida, lineis re-
motiusculis spiralibus, leviter impressis, puncticulatis cingulata,
translucente pallide cornea vel hyalina; spira elongata, ovato-
acuta, apice acuto, fulvescente, sutura profunda ; anfractibus 5,
superioribus convexis, ultimo ventre longiori convexiusculo, antice
descendente, subtus rotundato, 2 longitudinis testee equante ; aper-
tura vix obliqua, ovata, superne angulata, peristomate acutiusculo.
Operculo

Long. 5, diam. 3 mill.

Hab, ad insulam Penang. Detexit Dr. Theodore Cantor.

Mr. W.H, Benson on some forms of Stenothyra, 497

This shell was found by Dr. Cantor in company with St.
glabrata, A. Adams, but more rarely. Its narrower elongated
form distinguishes it from all previously described. species.
The seulpture has some resemblance to that of St. polita, Sow.,
and to that of the species next to be described.

2. Stenothyra monilifera, nobis, n. 8.

Testa subperforato-rimata, oblongo-ovata, compressiuscula, nitidi-
uscula, sulcis confertioribus, dense puncticulatis, spiralibus im-
pressa, fusco-cornea, fascia pallida supra mediam ornata, versus
apicem obtusulum hyalinum rubente, spira convexo-conica, sutura
profunda, canaliculata ; anfractibus 44 convexis, ultimo subsoluto,
} testee eequante, antice valde descendente, subtus rotundato, pe-
riomphalo subcompresso ; apertura obliqua diagonali, rotundato-
ovali, sulco profundiori ab anfractu penultimo divisa, peristomate
obtusulo, callo parietali superne solum conspicuo. Operculo cor-
neo-pellucido, apice ad dextram spectante.

Long. 43, diam. 3 mill.

Hab. ad Mergui Burmanorum. Teste W. Theobald.
Distinguished from the last by its form, more developed

sculpture, colour, want of polish, and peculiar umbilical rimation.

3. Stenothyra foveolata, nobis, n. s.

Testa vix rimata, ovato-acuta, spiraliter foveolato-striata, striis versus
basin confertissimis, spira conica, apice acuto, sutura mediocri ;
anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo ad ventrem planiusculo, 1
testee eequante, antice descendente, basi rotundato; apertura ob-
liqua, rotundato-ovata, peristomate obtuso, margine parietali sulco
mediocri ab anfractu ventrali separato. Operculo —— ?

Long. 5, diam. 3} mill.

Hab. in Gange fluvio, prope Sikrigali. Teste Capt. T. Hutton.

This shell has reached me in a weathered condition, so that
the colour and the normal condition of the surface cannot be
exactly described. Its form, however, and the pitted lines seem
to mark it as a distinct species. In form it resembles the small
St. puncticulata, A. Adams, from the Eastern Isles ; but in that
species the puncticulate lines are faint and distant, and not
closely set even towards the base, while a scarcely compressed
ridge runs down by the side of the slightly impressed rimation
and joins the columellar margin below it, a feature not found in
the Gangetie shell. Another Stenothyra resembling foveolata
in the characters of the aperture, and marked with delicately
punceticulate lines, was found with it, but, from the imperfection
of the spire, its identity with it cannot be safely declared. The
degree of closeness between the lines is about the same, and the
surface is of a pale horn-colour, as in some specimens of S/. Delta,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 32

498 Mr. W.H. Benson on some forms of Stenothyra.

like which also it presents a faint oblique striation. These
shells are important as showing the occurrence of the genus at
a distance of 300 miles from the sea, and 200 miles above the
extreme influence of the tides.

4. Stenothyra frustillum, nobis, n. s.

Testa vix rimata, minima, ovato-conoidea, politissima, sub lente obso-
letissime oblique striatula, albida, translucente, spira convexo-
conoidea, apice obtusulo, sutura leviter impressa; anfractibus 4
convexiusculis, ultimo ventricosiore, minime compresso, dimidium
testze non eequante, antice descendente, basi rotundata; apertura
subrotundata, marginibus peristomatis acutiusculis. Operc. 2

Long. 13, diam. | mill.

Haé. in Australia. Mus. Cuming.

5. Stenothyra strigilata, nobis, n. s.

Testa non rimata, oblongo-ovata, solidiuscula, nitidula, oblique obso-
lete striatula, creberrime spiraliter sulcata, lineis brevissimis ob-
liquis excavatis (punctorum loco) sulcos occupantibus, fusco-nigres-
cente ; spira ovato-conica, apice eroso, sutura impressa ; anfractibus
4 superstitibus convexiusculis, ultimo dimidium teste zequante,
antice valde descendente basi rotundata; apertura ovata, subver-
ticali, intus livide czerulescente, peritremate obtuso, margine pa-
rietali intus callo, superne subito desmente, munito, dextro intus
longitudinaliter suleo marginato. Operculo tenui translucente,
concaviusculo, corneo, intus costa albida marginato.

Long. 7, diam. 4 mill.

Hab. in TInsula Borneo. Mus. Cuming.

This is the largest known species of the genus, and is a fine
addition to it. The cross linear sculpture of the furrows is dif-
ferent in character from that of the several species which present
puncticulate or foveolate lines.

The operculum of Stenothyra bas a calcareous skeleton or
basis, covered internally and externally by a horny layer, which
led to its designation by myself in 1836, and A. Adams in 1851,
as horny. According to Philippi, Gray states it to be calcareous,
and, on fracture, it will be found to be brittle, and that in some
species it does not yield to the knife like a horny substance, the
calcareous matter being predominant ; while in other very thin
and pellucid opercula the horny part is in excess. On the whole,
this part may be considered rather as of a mixed character than
as either strictly calcareous or horny. The structure of the
operculum is subspiral, and more analogous to that of Assiminia
and Hydrobia than to that of Bathinia.

More extended characters of a few of the described species will

Mr. W. H. Benson on some forms of Stenothyra. 499

add to the information already possessed respecting this curious
httle genus. I shall begin with the typical species—

Stenothyra Delta, Benson.

Testa vix rimata, globoso-conica, leeviuscula, oblique exilissime striata,
striis obsoletis spiralibus minutissimis, versus basin remotioribus,
decussata, pallide fulva, albida, vel cornea translucente ; spira co-
nica, acuminata, apice subtili, sutura impressa submarginata ; an-
fractibus 53, superioribus convexis, sequentibus convexiusculis,
ultimo ventricoso, compresso, 2 testze aequante, antice descendente,
supra aperturam arcuatim striato, basi compresse rotundata ; aper-
tura obliqua, ovato-circulari, superne indentata, peristomatis mar-
gine dextro acutiusculo, columellari et basali expansiusculis, pa-
rietali intus callo inconspicuo superne truncato, munito, extus sulco
impresso marginato ; operculo corneo, limbo albido.

Long. 4-5, diam. 23-32 mill.

Hab. in locis lutosis fluvii Hooghly prope Calcutta Bengalensem,
satis copiose ; necnon in lacu salso prope Balliaghat, ligno natanti
adhzerentem ipse detexi.

Syn. Nematura Delta, Bens. Journ. As. Soc. 1836, vol. v. p. 781 ;
Sow. Charlesw. Mag. 1837, vol. i. p. 217.

I found it alive in both the places named ; also a dwarf variety
im an aqueduct, supplied by a steam-engine from the river, in
front of the Town Hall, at Calcutta.

Stenothyra glabrata, A. Adams.

Testa omnino imperforata, ovato-conica, leevissima, nitidissima, fusco-
cornea vel olivacea, spira conica, apice acutiusculo, sutura impressa,
submarginata ; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo ventricosiori,
latere sinistro szepius gibbosulo, antice descendente, 2 teste
zequante, basi rotundata; apertura obliqua, rotundato-ovata, su-
perne angulata, peristomate recto, obtuso, plerumque nigrescente.
Operculo typico, concaviusculo, fusco.

Long. 3-53, diam. 2-33 mill.

Hab. in paludibus Insule Penang. Detexit Dr. Theo. Cantor.

Syn. Nematura glabrata, A. Adams, Pr. Z. Soc. July 22, 1851;

et var. olivacea, ejusdem, loc. cit.

Nematura polita, Bens. MSS., nec Sow.

This shell, of which I have examined at least eighty speci-
mens, when divested of the reddish-brown earthy coating which
generally covers it, may be at once recognized, by its polish,
dark suite of colours, and freedom from sculpture and umbilical
rimation, independently of its form, which is more elongate than
the Gangetic species; also by the gibbosity of the left side of
the ventral volution, and the comparative absence of lateral

32*

x

500 Mr. W.H. Benson on some forms of Stenothyra.

compression. It varies much in size. It was communicated to
me by Dr. Cantor in 1842, and has been diffused under the MS.
name above quoted, both in England and on the Continent.
That name however was transferred, by some accident, to the
following shell, under the impression that it had been so named
by Sowerby. This circumstance may lead to some confusion,
but the very different characters of the two species will permit
of rectification on a cursory comparison.

Stenothyra polita, Sowerby.

Testa arcuato-rimata, ovato-pyramidata, levi, exilissime confertim
oblique striata, striis antice fortioribus, punctis (interdum elon-
gatulis) lineas remotas spirales interruptas efformantibus, fusco-
castanea vel castanea, spira elongato-conica, sutura impressa,
apice acuminato ; anfractibus 53, supremis valde convexis, ultimo
antice celeriter descendente, 2 testee equante, ventre majori pla-
nato, latere sinistro compresso, angulato, basi transverse cristato-
carinata, circa periomphalum compresso-cingulatum sulcis nonnullis,
peritrema transgredientibus, insculpta ; apertura vix obliqua, ovata,
superne leviter angulata, peristomate undique planato, callo parie-
tali mediocri pallido. Operculo concavo, albido, duriori, epidermide
fusco-castaneo induto.

Long. 63, diam. major 43, min. 3 mill.—Sp. mus. nost.

Hab. in paludibus Insulz Singapore. Detexit amicus Dr. J. F.Bacon.

Syn. Nematura polita, Sow. teste A. Adams, Pr. Z. 8. 1851.

Dr. Bacon sent me a single specimen from Singapore, from
the marshes of which island he procured many species of Auwrt-
culade, including some new shells lately described by Pfeiffer.
The specimen is more characteristic, and darker m colour than
the typical one transmitted by Mr. Cuming from his collection
for comparison. The species is easily known by its pinched
carinate base, form, and peculiar sculpture. On the back of
the shell the puncta are closer, and more disposed to form im-
pressed continuous lines than on the flattened front.

Stenothyra minima, Sow.,

Charlesworth’s Mag., April 1837, vol. 1. p. 217, fig. 22 b,
where this shell was very cursorily described as Nematura
minima, Sowerby, in the followmg terms :—

“ This is about one-fifteenth of an inch im length, and is trans-
lucent; it has asmooth polished surface and a small umbilicus,
and it is of a light brown colour.”

It was subsequently described by Mr. Arthur Adams in the
P. Z. S. July 1851, as follows, and was erroneously recorded as
N. minima, Benson :—

Mr. W.H. Benson on some forms of Stenothyra. 501

“N, testa parva, cornea, semipellucida, ovali; spira subpro-
ducta ; polita, fasciis rufis subobsoletis ornata; apertura orbi-
eulari, peritremate simplici. Mus. Cuming.”

A specimen is now before me from Mr. Cuming’s cabinet,
which presents the following characters :—

Testa breviter distincte rimata, ovato-conica, sub lente oblique stri-
atula, nitida, pellucida, albido-fulvescente ; spira conica, apice ob-
tuso, sutura late marginata; anfractibus 4 convexiusculis, ultimo
antice breviter descendente, ventre convexiusculo, latere sinistro
compresse angulato, basi rotundata; apertura verticali, subcirculari,
superne angulata, peritremate acuto. Opere. ?

Long. 2, diam. ] mill.

Sowerby says that many specimens were found in the collec-
tion of Mr. George Humphreys, in a box of minute shells which
he had marked, “ From the W.I.” No species has yet been
recognized in the western hemisphere, so that “Western India”
may possibly have been originally intended. An examination
of the other shells in the box might have thrown some light on
the question.

The shell cited by M. Albert Mousson, in his ‘ Moll. von
Java,’ as the Javanese representative of Quoy’s and Gaimard’s
Paludina ventricosa from Celebes, and which forms another
species of Stenothyra, may be distinguished from St. minima,
which it about equals in size, by its more ovate form and less
conic spire, by the greater descent of the last whorl anteriorly
above the aperture, by the lengthened sulcus which separates
the peristome from the body whorl, the deeper non-marginate
suture, the more tumid ventral part of the last whorl, the
absence of compression at the left side, and finally by its pale
horny colour and duller surface. I owe this fourm to the kind-
ness of M. Mousson.

Including St. puncticulata, A. Adams, P.Z.S. 1851, I have
now before me eleven good species of the genus from Mr.
Cuming’s and my own collection. Sowerby has figured (/oc. cit.)
a fossil species from Grignon. The Delta of the Irawadi, the
Siam and Anam rivers, the embouchures of streams in the
islands of the Eastern Archipelago, and the waters of Southern
India and Ceylon, ought to add materially to the list, when
properly explored for these minute and interesting shells.

Cheltenham, 5th June 1856.

502 Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Structure of Brachiopod Shells.

XLVIIL.—On the Minute Structure of certain Brachiopod Shells ;
and on Vegetable Cell-Formation. By Wixitam B. Car-
PENTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, University Hall, London, May 19, 1856.
Pror. Kine having introduced into his “ Notes on Permian
Fossils,” in the ‘ Annals’ for April last, certam comments upon
former statements made by me respecting the intimate structure
of the shells of Brachiopods, which must, if unnoticed, tend
to diminish the value attached to them by those who have hitherto
relied upon my assertions, | must beg you to admit the following
reply, which shall be as little personal as the tone taken by Prof.
King will permit me to make it.

In the ‘Annals’ for December 1848, I first published the
fact, which had been nearly a year previously communicated to
the Royal Society, that the shells of many Brachiopods are tra-
versed by large perforations, passing from one surface to the other,
the external oritices of which may be detected as minute puncta-
tions ; and I mentioned that this character presents itself in all
the recent Terebratule which I had examined, with the exception
of the 7. psittacea, which, as is now well known, has been since
separated as one of the two recent types of the genus Rhyncho-
nella. In the ‘ Reports of the British Association’ for 1844, I
entered much more fully into this pot, embodying the results
of more extended examinations into the structure of the shells
of fossil Brachiopoda, and giving thirteen figures of the minute
organization of recent and fossil shells of this group, drawn
under magnifying powers varying from 75 to 250 diameters, by
that very accurate microscopic draughtsman, Mr. S. W. Leonard.
Save for a want of perfection in the printing-process, these
figures could scarcely be surpassed at the present time.

In his ‘ Monograph of the Permian Fossils of England,’
published by the Paleontographical Society in 1850*, Prof.
King took upon himself, upon no other evidence than that of
the examination of the surfaces of various Brachiopods with a
Stanhope lens, to throw discredit upon my previous statements ;
asserting that punctures, though much more minute than those
in the Terebratulide, occur in every species of Rhynchonella which
had passed under his notice ; and adding, “T doubt their absence
in any Brachiopod whatever.”

* T am obliged to call attention to this date, which I take from the
title-page, for a reason which will presently appear. The work was issued
as the publication of the Pal. Soc. for 1849; but (according to the practice
of the Society) it was not delivered to the members until the followmg
year.

Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Structure of Brachiopod Shells. 503

Having been requested by Mr. Davidson to contribute a
Memoir on the intimate structure of the Shells of Brachiopoda
to his admirable Monograph of that group in course of publication
by the Paleontographical Society, I re-entered upon the in-
vestigation with no desire but that of contributing to the esta-
blishment of the truth ; and made microscopic sections of many
additional specimens, with which Mr. Davidson kindly supplied
me,—the total number of sections examined (nearly all of which
are preserved in my cabinet) being about three hundred. In the
course of this inquiry, the presence of perforations in Terebratu-
lide, and their absence in Rhynchonellide, was established as the
character of so large a number of species of both tribes, that I
thought myself justified in stating these as distinctive characters
of the shells of these two groups respectively. A remarkable
- confirmation of their validity, and an important lesson as to the
fallacy of superficial observations upon this point, were afforded
by the apparently-exceptional cases of Stringocephalus and Por-
ambonites. The former had been previously regarded as a non-
perforated genus, and had been associated on other grounds
with the Rhynchonellide ; examination of microscopic sections,
however, satisfied me that its shell was perforated; and the
letter in which I communicated to Mr. Davidson this at first
sight anomalous fact, was crossed by one from him to me, men-
tioning that he had been led by the researches of Prof. Suess to
consider the affinities of Stringocephalus as being rather with the
Terebratulide, and inquiring as to the presence or absence of
perforations ; so that both sets of characters came again into
complete harmony. The place of Porambonites being undoubtedly
among the Rhynchonellide, the existence of perforations (which
had been thought to be unmistakeably indicated by the very
regular punctations of the surface) was an apparent anomaly of
no small importance ; this, however, was at once removed by
the examination of microscopic sections of the shell, since it was
found to be as destitute of perforations as any true Rhynchonella.
The case of Trematis was one of the same kind, the punctations
being there also quite superficial ; constituting, in fact, a peculiar
kind of ‘ sculpture.’

I thought it right, in stating these and similar facts, to give
an emphatic warning against superficial observations upon this
point, and to express my surprise that Prof. King should have
ventured, upon such evidence, to affirm the universal existence of
perforations in the shells of Brachiopoda ; especially without
having examined one of the most common of the recent types of
the group, namely Rhynchonella psittacea, in which the absence
of perforations, as described and figured by me in 1844, can be
verified without the slightest difficulty. “To myself personally,”

504 Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Structure of Brachiopod Shells

I added, “it is a matter of entire indifference whether Prof. King
does or does not admit the correctness of my observations ; but
I would submit, that the interests of science are not very likely
to be promoted by this easy setting-aside of observations made
with every advantage of first-rate instruments and careful pre-
paration of specimens, in favour of glances with a hand-magnifier
at shells whose surfaces are peculiarly liable to present deceptive
appearances.”

As Prof. King made no reply to these observations at the
time they were published, I hoped that he acquiesced in their
justice, and that the question between us might be regarded
as settled. It now appears, however, that I was premature ;
since, after the lapse of two years, Prof. King returns to the
charge ; not so much, however, to maintain his former asser-
tions, as to justify himself for having discredited mine. He
now admits the non-existence of perforations in Rh. psittacea,
and, by implication, in other Rhynchonellide ; but he considers
the case of Rh. Geinitziana to be an unquestionable exception
to the universality of non-perforation in that genus,—both valves
of this species being ‘as distinctly and regularly perforated as
those of any Terebratulide.” By the kindness of Mr. Davidson,
I have had the opportunity of examining one of Prof. King’s
own specimens, as well as an authentic specimen of this species
which he has received from Baron von Schauroth; and I am
bound to admit that both these specimens bear out Prof. King’s
statement, so far as can be judged by external appearance. I
have not felt at liberty, however, to damage these specimens to
the extent necessary for determining the question whether the
superficial pittings extend through all the layers of the shell,
and are therefore the homologues of the perforations of Tere-
bratulide. Supposing, however, this should prove to be the
case, it would still have to be determined whether, in spite of
its external characters, this species be a true Rhynchonella, or
whether it should be separated as a sub-type of that genus,
which, like Spirifer, may contain both perforated and non-per-
forated species, or whether, like Stringocephalus, it should be
found to be more related in its internal structure, as well as in
the texture of its shell, to the Terebratulide.

The question of the accuracy of my observations on this pomt
is one quite distinct from that of the accuracy of my generaliza-
tions. I have given, in my Memoir, the evidence on which the
latter seemed to me to be at least provisionally established ; but
I myself remarked at its conclusion, on the necessity of a far
more extended examination of species than I had been myself
able to make, before these generalizations could be regarded as
established. I shall be, therefore, as ready as any one to with-

Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Structure of Brachiopod Shells. 505

draw them, when they shall be proved to have been premature ;
but until the structure of the species now in question shall have
been fully investigated, 1 must claim a suspension of the verdict.

Prof. King attempts to justify his scepticism as to my former
statement of the non-perforation of certain Brachiopods, on the
plea that “ fossilization had so obliterated the tissue of many
shells, as to render the detection of it an impossibility ; and it
was also conceived, that some shells were more prone than others
to become thus altered.’ This argument is, of course, quite
inapplicable to the case of Rh. psittacea, which I had described
as the type of the non-perforated group. Further, it will be
seen on reference to pars. 86 and 44 of my “ Report > for 1844,
that I distinctly recognized the existence of this metamorphic
action as obscuring the structure of certain shells of this group ;
and I have never spoken confidently about the presence or
absence of perforations, save where the intimate structure of the
shell was so perfectly preserved as to leave no possible doubt
about the matter. Where the place of the passages which exist
in Prof. King’s imagination is found to be occupied, not by fos-
silizing or metamorphic substance, but by the peculiarly charac-
teristic structure of the Brachiopod shell, I venture to affirm
that there can be “no mistake.”

The greater part of Prof. King’s note, however, seems in-
tended to turn the tables upon me, by showing that my original
account of that structure was so incorrect, as tested even by
my own subsequent description of it, that no confidence what-
ever was to be placed in it; and also, to claim for himself the
merit of setting me right. I shall not occupy your space by a
detailed justification of “myself as to this matter, but shall simply
draw attention to the following points.

In my original “ Report ” ‘T did not minutely describe the
peculiar microscopic appearances of these Brachiopod shells,
considering that my figures spoke for themselves; but the
special object of that ‘ Report” being to establish the organic
structure of Shell, I offered an interpretation of them (based on
the idea of plications in the shell-membrane), which at that
time seemed to me to be borne out by the facts I had ascer-
tained by the decalcification of recent shells and examination of
the organic residue. Subsequent examimation having led me to
doubt the validity: of this interpretation, I did not reproduce it
in my “ Memoir” of 1854, but confined myself to a description
of the appearances, which will be found to be accordant in all
essential particulars with my figures of 1844. As I never saw
the Memoir of Vicomte D’Archiae referred to by Prof. King, it
is not to that accomplished paleontologist that my abandonment
of my former heresy is attributable. And that Prof. King has

506 Dr. W.B. Carpenter on Vegetable Cell-formation.

no ground for charging me with adopting Ais corrections without
acknowledgment, will appear from the following quotation from
the article “ Shell,” which I contributed to the ‘ Cyclopedia of
Anatomy and Physiology’ (vol. iv. pp. 563, 564) :—“ When
thin sections are microscopically examined, they present a very
peculiar texture (shown in the figure), which might be referred
either to long flattened cells, or to plications in the shell-mem-
Drane. =e: on: The cells, if cells they be, must be excessively
flattened, and no vestige of them can be traced in the decalcified
shell; whilst, on the other hand, the membranous residuum does
not give any distinct indication of having been plicated with the
regularity necessary to produce such a remarkable appearance.”
Now this passage was written in 1848 or early in 1849, conse-
quently long before the publication of Prof. King’s Monograph.

I must trespass a little further upon your space, for the
purpose of requesting your readers to suspend their judgment
upon the question on which Prof. Henfrey has pronounced (in
your last Number, p. 417) a very positive opinion in opposition to
mine,—namely, the value to be attached to Mr. Wenham’s ob-
servations on the process of cell-development in plants. No one
has a higher estimate than myself of Prof. Henfrey’s acquire-
ments in vegetable physiology; but since I happen to know
that Mr. Wenham’s conclusions are borne out, as to certain
important particulars, by the testimony of other independent
observers, who will probably ere long make public the facts
they have witnessed, I venture to believe it possible that Prof.
Henfrey may be mistaken. What I considered to be the essen-
tial point in Mr. Wenham’s observations was this,—that a mass
of protoplasm may resolve itself mto cells by a process of vacuo-
lation in the parts which are to be the cell-cavities, and of con-
solidation in those which are to become the cell-walls, essentially
corresponding with that which takes place in the development
of a single cell from a “ gonidium ” or any other isolated particle
of protoplasm. That this doctrine does not agree with Prof.
Henfrey’s general ideas of the process of cell-formation, is no
more proof that it is wrong, than the denial of the sexual nature
of the antherozoids of Cryptogamia by Prof. Schleiden proved
that doctrine to be invalid. When Mr. Wenham’s observations
shall have been shown to be incorrect as to the essential point just
mentioned, I shall be quite ready to retract the “ endorsement ”
which I gave to them.

I am, Gentlemen,
Yours sincerely,
WixuiaM B. Carpenter.

Bibliographical Notices. 507

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

General Outline of the Organization of the Animal Kingdom, and
Manual of Comparative Anatomy. By Tuomas Rymer Jones,
F.R.S. Second edition. London, Van Voorst, 1855. S8vo.

On the Continent, and especially in Germany, every important fact
in the anatomy and development of animals is sure, in the course of
a year or two from its discovery, to find itself embodied, with its
consequences upon zoological classification, in one of the numerous
manuals of Zoology or Comparative Anatomy with which the press
of that country teems. Everything is thus brought within the reach
of the student, who, at the commencement of his course, has merely
to buy one of the most recent of these works, in order to place him-
self pretty nearly in possession of the actual state of the science.

To the English student, however, none of these advantages are
offered ; amongst the few books of this class and of any reputation,
the best was probably the first edition of the work which we have
now before us, and this, notwithstanding its undoubted merits, could
by no means be regarded, even at the time of its publication, as per-
fectly free from faults. These, the interval of fourteen years which
had elapsed since the book first made its appearance in the world, had
certainly not tended to diminish, and it was therefore with no small
satisfaction that we learnt that a new edition was forthcoming, as in it
we fondly hoped that the English student might at last obtain an idea
of the vast progress that has been made in Zoology within the last few
years, without the necessity of resorting to foreign literature for this
purpose.

In this hope, however, we regret to say we have been disappointed.
In his second edition Professor Rymer Jones clings with astonishing
pertinacity to the grouping adopted in his first, and if we are to take
his book as our standard, zoological classification has made but littie
progress since the days of Cuvier; for we cannot see that the division
of the Cuvierian Radiata into Acrita and Nematoneura, or the sub-
stitution of new names for the other three primary groups of that
author, constitutes any great step in advance.

Retaining his old primary divisions, it is but just to say, however,
that our author has sacrificed a little to the spirit of the times ; but
even where this is the case, he seems to be hampered by his prejudices
in favour of his former views :—thus he adopts the group of the Pro-
tozoa, but still places it as a class of his Acrita; and the different
sections into which these simple creatures are divided are mentioned
in such a manner that it is utterly impossible to understand what
comparative value the author attributes to them. Moreover he has
actually introduced amongst the Protozoa a description of the Sper-
matozoa, a somewhat unnecessary addition one would think, especially
as the author himself tells us that they are not independent organisms.
Another step in the right direction is the adoption of the Class of
Hydrozoa for the Hydroid polypes and Acalephs.

When we look into the remaining groups of the Acrita and Nema-

508 Bibliographical Notices.

toneura, we find that the contents of these two great sections are
positively identical with those of Cuvier’s Radiata. The Flat-worms
(Cestodea and Trematoda) are placed amongst the Acrita, and the
Round-worms amongst the Nematoneura, and the latter division also
contains the Bryozoa, Rotifera and Epizoa. The retention of the
latter in such a situation is certainly calculated to astonish one, con-
sidering how well established is the close resemblance, we might
almost say identity, between the young state of these anomalous para-
sites and the Entomostracous Crustacea; and we must confess that
we cannot understand why the class of Epizoa should be condemned
to figure so low in the scale of animal existences, whilst the epizootic
genus Nicothoé occupies an aristocratic position amongst the Crus-
tacea. Equally admissible is the position assigned to the Cirrho-
poda amongst the Heterogangliata (or Mollusca), in spite of the
positive demonstration that we possess of their Annulose nature ;—
indeed we can only impute the retention of this unfortunate group of
Crustaceans amongst such unsuitable neighbours, to some confusion
of ideas on the part of Professor Rymer Jones, as he actually figures
a complete Homogangliate nervous system as characteristic of the
Cirrhopods, and places them in his list of the Homogangliate (or
Annulose) Classes, at the end of his general chapter on Classification.
It would almost seem as though Professor Rymer Jones were of
opinion that the position of the Cirrhopoda in the Animal Kingdom
might as well be settled by the ingenious device of tossing up, pro-
posed, as we are told, by some truly American Statesman for the
adjustment of the little difficulties existing between this country and
the United States.

We should hardly have dwelt at such length upon these defects
in a work which notwithstanding them possesses a great claim to
consideration, but for the circumstance that the author leaves it to
be inferred by his reader that the system adopted in it is the system,
whilst he must be well aware that, so far from its being adopted by
the majority of zoologists and comparative anatomists, it furnishes
anything but a true picture of the generally received views of zoo-
logical classification. But the reader may seek in vain in the pages
of this thick volume for anything like an admission that a different
mode of arrangement is practicable, or for a confession that other
writers place particular groups in a position different from that as-
signed to them by Professor Jones,—the nearest approach to any-
thing of the kind consisting in references to resemblances between
the Epizoa and Rotifera and the Crustacea, and a statement re-
garding the Cirrhopoda, that ‘it will not be surprising, if, after
reading the details connected with their structure, some naturalists
should prefer to regard them as belonging to the Homogangliate
rather than to the Heterogangliate division.” We should think it by
no means surprising ; but we are rather surprised that, when he went
so far, our author could not tell his readers, that the conclusion at
which he more than half expected them to arrive was the one now
generally adopted by the first zoologists both at home and abroad,

It may be urged, that as Professor Rymer Jones’s work only pro-

Bibliographical Notices. 509

fesses to treat of the comparative anatomy of animals, the question
of classification is one of secondary importance as far as he is con-
cerned ; but this plea can hardly be admitted, inasmuch as a com-
parative anatomy must of necessity take a zoological classification
for its foundation, and the nearer the truth we can bring this, the
better will be our representation of the ‘‘ organization of the Animal
Kingdom.”

Notwithstanding the faults above referred to, Professor Rymer
Jones’s work will be found to contain a most valuable outline of the
structure and development of the different classes of animals, al-
though it is to be regretted that, in the consideration of the latter
portion of the subject, his unfortunate views of classification again
step in, and certainly prevent his giving that importance to the earlier
stages of some groups which they deserve, if indeed they have
not induced him rather to throw them into the background, as
matters of comparatively little consequence. The same circum-
stance of course prevents the reader from finding any reference in
the pages of this book to the doctrine of a retrograde metamorphosis,
which not only applies to such groups as the Epizoa and Cirrhopoda,
but is also adapted to throw much light upon the position in nature
of other anomalous animals, which have generally been puzzles to
zoologists. As a general rule, however, the information seems to
have been pretty carefully brought down to the present time, al-
though we notice several omissions of greater or less importance in
different parts of the work. One or two or these we may mention,
as we can hardly understand how Professor Rymer Jones could have
made them. Under the Cephalopodous Mollusca, we find not the
slightest reference to those curious spermatophora the Hectocotyli ;
and in his description of the bu/bus arteriosus in Fishes, our author
states that it is of a muscular nature, although Professor Miller
has shown that it is nothing of the kind in the ordinary fishes: and
in mentioning the existence of the numerous valves in the arterial
bulb of the Sharks, &c., he has taken not the least notice of the
occurrence of the same structure in the Ganoid Fishes, although it is
upon this character that the order Ganoidea now reposes. We can
hardly suppose that Professor Rymer Jones is in utter ignorance of
Miiller’s admirable paper upon the Ganoid Fishes, which has been
published about twelve years, and must attribute his omitting to take
any notice of it to its having in some way slipped from his memory.

However, with all these omissions ard an occasional misstatement of
minor importance, there can be no doubt that Professor Rymer Jones’s
volume contains an immense amount of valuable information, well put
together, and adorned with all that elegance of language for which
the author is particularly distinguished. As in his previous edition,
he commences with the lowest forms of animals and proceeds from
these upwards in the scale of existence to the Vertebrata, a mode of
arrangement which certainly has many advantages. The numerous
woodcuts with which the work is profusely illustrated are of the
highest excellence and very well printed, whilst the general utility of
the book is greatly increased by the admirable double index, con-

510 Zoological Society :—

sisting in fact of two separate tables of contents, one giving a list of
the subjects treated of in the order in which they occur in the sub-
sequent pages ; whilst the other or ‘‘ Physiological Index”’ takes the
different organs or their functions as the basis of its arrangement,
and furnishes references to the particular paragraphs in which their
nature in the various groups of animals is described, thus enabling
the reader to trace any one function or organ from its first appearance
to its full development.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
May 8, 1855.—G. R. Waterhouse, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. Gould exhibited a portion of a collection of birds formed by
Mr. Hauxwell in a district lyimg on the eastern side of the Peru-
vian Andes, in the neighbourhood of the River Ucayali, one of the
tributaries of the Upper Amazon. Mr. Gould observed, that the
exploration of this particular district had been one of the earliest
objects of his own ornithological ambition, but that until within the
last few years no naturalist had visited it. The splendid collection
sent by Mr. Hauxwell, of which the birds exhibited to the Meet-
ing formed a part, fully bore out the anticipations entertained by
Mr. Gould, that when explored it would prove one of the richest
and most interesting ornithological districts with which we are ac-
quainted.

Amongst the birds exhibited were some Cotingas, differing from
the ordinary species found in the lower countries of Brazil, and
remarkable from the splendour of their colouring, together with spe-
cies of Phanicercus, Rhamphocelus, &c., of the most dazzling bril-
liancy. As a contrast to these, Mr. Gould exhibited a series of dull-
coloured Thamnophili, also contained in this collection, and remarked
that this striking difference in the coloration of birds inhabiting the
same locality was due almost entirely to their different degrees of
exposure to the sun’s rays; the brilliantly coloured species being
inhabitants of the edges of the forests, where they fly about amongst
the highest branches of the trees, whilst the others form a group of
short-winged insectivorous birds, which inhabit the low scrub im the
heart of the dense humid jungle, where the sun’s rays can rarely,
if ever, penetrate.

Mr. Gould also remarked, that the colours of the more brilliant
species from the banks of the Ucayali, a district situated towards the
centre of the South American continent, were far more splendid than
those of the species representing them in countries nearer to the sea,
and from this circumstance he took occasion to observe that birds
from the central parts of continents were always more brilliantly
coloured than those inhabiting insular or maritime countries. This
rule applies equally to birds of the same species, the Tits of Central
Europe being far brighter in colour than British specimens. | Mr.

Mr. J. Gould on a new species of Ruticilla. 511

Gould had observed that the like difference existed between spe-
cimens of the same species inhabiting Van Diemen’s Land and the
continent of Australia. He attributed this principally to the greater
density and cloudiness of the atmosphere im islands, and countries
bordering the sea; and in further illustration of the influence of
light upon colour, he stated, that the dyers of this country are never
able to produce tints equal in brilliancy to those obtained by their
continental rivals, and that in England they never attempt to dye
scarlets in cloudy weather.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF RUTICILLA FROM
Erzeroum. By Joun Gou tp, F.R.S. etc.

RuTiciLLa ERYTHROPROCTA, Gould.

Forehead black; crown of the head clouded silvery-grey ; back,
shoulders, throat, chest, and the upper part of the abdomen, jet-
black ; lower part of the abdomen, upper and under tail-coverts dull
red; tail-feathers dull red, except the two middle ones, which are
brownish-black ; wings both above and beneath brownish-black ;
some of the secondaries slightly fringed with silvery-grey ; bill and
feet black.

Total length, 5} inches; bill, £; wing, 33; tail, 2%; tarsi, 2.

Hab. Erzeroum.

Remark.—Nearly allied to, and about the size of, R. Tithys ; but
differing from that species in the under surface of the shoulder being
darker, and the lower part of the abdomen being red instead of
greyish-white.

In my own collection.

NOTES ON THE Birps OF WESTERN INDIA.
By Lixur. BurGess.

Family Raturp&.
Genus Futica, L.
Fuuica atRA. Batp Coor.

I found some of these birds breeding on the Singwa tauk, situ-
ated about eighteen miles north of the station of Ahmednuggur, on
21st August, 1849. I obtained three eggs and three nestlings, which
were marked as follows: head, neck, breast and back covered with
bright orange-red, hair-like feathers ; beak crimson, tip white ; lower
part of the back dark lead-colour, nearly black; near the beak the
face was covered with bright scarlet pustules ; irides brown ; legs
and feet dark lead-colour. The young birds swam with surprising
rapidity. I was attracted at first by the unusual movements of the
old birds, who swam backwards and forwards with great swiftness at
some distance from the nest, showing great uneasiness, and when I
was handling their young appeared quite distracted.

The egg is rather more than 2,'; in. in length, by nearly 1,5, in.
in width, of a stone-colour, spotted with numberless small specks of
brown, and some larger spots of dark brown and grey.

512 Zoological Society :—

Family ScoLopacip2.
Genus ScoLopPax.
Subgenus Ruyncwxa (Cuyv.).

Rayncu#a picta (Gray). Painrep Snipe.

I quite think that the Painted Snipe breeds in the Deccan, or at
least some few of them, as I have had both male and female birds
sent to me in the middle of July, which were shot near Ahmednug-
gur. The female was in remarkably rich and beautiful plumage.
It is very probable that some breed annually in the rushy grounds
bordering the large tank at Singwa.

Subgenus ScoLopax.

ScoLopax NEMORICOLA. SouiTary Snipe of the Neilgherries.

Dr. Jerdon in his Catalogue says, “It is a rare visitant to the
Neilgherries during the cold season, and has not, as far as I am
aware, been killed elsewhere in the Peninsula.” I believe the Snipe
mentioned in the following note, which I made at Nassick, to be the
same bird :—

‘Solitary, or rather, a very large Snipe, shot at Nassick by Lieut.
Boddam of the Engineers : a very fine specimen; the plumage of a
very dark dim colour, and the tmts on the scapulars not very bright.
Shot 5th January, 1847.”

Family CHARADRIADE.

Genus CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS PLUVIALIS. GOLDEN PLover, L.

I have never met with this Plover in the Deccan, but shot them
on the sandy plains near Kurachee in Scinde. Dr. Jerdon says,
that it ‘‘is but rarely met with in the Peninsula. I have only seen
it on two or three occasions on the banks of large rivers on the table-
land, and on grass plains near the sea-coast, usually in small flocks
of five or six. I have seen specimens killed in the neighbourhood of
Madras in the breeding plumage, viz. with the whole under surface
of the body deep black. It therefore most probably breeds in this
country.”

CHARADRIUS MINOR, Wagl. Lesser Rincep PLover.

I believe the egg sent with this paper to be that of the Lesser
Ringed Plover; if so, this bird breeds in the Deccan in the month of
April, laying its eggs on sand-banks in the middle of the larger
rivers. ‘The ege forwarded was from a sand-bank in the river.
Bheema. These pretty little lively birds are common in the Deccan,
resorting to the beds of streams and sandy shallows and banks. of
rivers. They are difficult birds to shoot, being very restless, con-
tinually taking short flights, and running about with great activity
along the water’s edge ; their food consists of worms, small shells

Lieut. Burgess on the Birds of Western India. 518

and grass ; they lay as many as three eggs I believe; the eggs are
deposited on the bare sand The egg is rather more than 1/5 im. in
length, by 8;ths of an inch in width, of a rich stone colour, spotted
and streaked with grey and two shades of brown.

Genus VANELLUS.

VANELLUs BILOBUS (Gmel.). YeLLoOw Warritep Lapwinc.

I have had frequent opportunities of seeing this Lapwing on the
open bare plains which it frequents, and have obtained specimens,
but never to my knowledge succeeded in procuring its eggs, though
I have had the eggs of Plovers brought to me im numbers. Dr.
Jerdon says, “I found the eggs of this bird on one occasion on a
grass plain on the west coast in the month of September ; they were
of a light salmon colour with dusky spots, four in number, and laid
on a slight depression of the ground.” This Lapwing utters a
plaintive ery when on the wing; it feeds on small beetles, white
ants, &e., picking up small pieces of stone or crystal to assist the
action of the gizzard,

VaNneELLus Goensts (Lath.). Rep WatrLtep Larwine.

This common Lapwing is as partial to water as the last-mentioned
is to dry sandy plains; indeed I do not recollect ever to have seen it
at any distance from water. It is very common in the Deccan, and
may be easily recognized by its oft-repeated ery of—‘‘ Dick did you
do it—Dick, Dick did you do 7#.”” As soon as March has well set in
they pair, and the female commences laying; she generally chooses
the banks of rivers and small streams. On a sand-bank in the midst
of the river Bheema, one of the large rivers of the Deccan, I fell in
with the nest of this bird—if a small heap of dry gravel with a hollow
in it can be called a nest—it contained foureggs. During the breed-
ing season these birds, vociferous at all times, become doubly so,
acquainting every one with the fact that their nest is near. I have
had their eggs brought to me as late as 19th May. On the 27th
May a man brought me three young ones, apparently just released
from their imprisonment; their plumage was as follows :—TIrides
dark hazel ; wattles dark brown, nearly black; the whole body covered
with down, that on the head and neck brown with spots of black ;
the front of the neck, breast and belly white; a black streak runs
along the sides from the wing to the tail; on the nape of the neck
there was a black patch, and another cravat-shaped patch of black
on the fore part of the neck and throat; legs and feet dark lead
colour.

This Lapwing, like many of the Sandpipers, has a curious fashion
of elevating and throwing forward the head, much like the motion
of bowing. It is equally active by night as by day, filling the air
with its taunting cry of ‘‘ Did you do it.” If you should fire at and
miss one of them, he goes off with, and his companions fly round
you with the insulting cry of “ Did you do it;” or, as Dr. Jerdon
has it, “ Pity to do it.””. The food of this bird consists of grass and

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 33

514 Zoological Society :—

small insects; it also picks up small pieces of crystal to help di-
gestion. The egg varies much in size; one sent measures 15% in.
in length, by rather more than 1,7; in. in width, of a yellow stone
colour, spotted and dashed with grey and dark sepia.

Genus (Epicnemus (Cuv.).

CEDICNEMUS CREPITANS. THICK-KNEED PLOVER.

This bird is tolerably common amongst the stony hills and undu-
lating grounds of the Deccan. It is more active by night than by
day, at which time its plaintive call is heard. I had for some time
a young bird m my tent; during the day it used to remain quiet,
but when evening began to draw on its restlessness commenced, and
it used to run round and round the tent with great rapidity, uttering
a single sharp querulous note. The Thick-knee feeds on small
beetles and other insects, as also small particles of grass, taking
down small stones to help the action of the gizzard, whieh is of a
strong texture. They breed during the months of March and April,
laying two eggs varying in colour, 2 in. in length, by rather more
than 1,4, in. in width, of a stone colour, blotched and spotted with
dark sepia-brown, and a few under spots of dark grey. In some
eggs the blotches are more of an olive-brown.

CEDICNEMUS RECURVIROSTRIS (Swains.).

On the 5th April, 1849, I found two young birds of what I then
took to be the young of Qdic. crepitans, on a large sand-bank in
the middle of the river Bheema. At the same time I thought it a
very strange place for a bird found im dry stony places to breed in.
In March 1850, I shot a specimen of Gidienemus recurvirostris on
the same river, some distance higher up; I therefore think it most
probable that they were the young of Gdic. recurvirostris, and not
of (dic. crepitans. Had I, at the time I found them, known that
the former bird was to be found on that river, I should have exa-
mined carefully the shape of the bill. The testes in the male speci-
men shot in March were in a turgid state. I brought away the
young birds above mentioned ; one was much smaller than the other,
but much more active. They were both, if I remember right,
covered with a greyish down. For fear of their dying through not
getting proper food, I returned them to their sandy hollow the next
day. The gizzard of the full-grown bird contained the bones of some
small animal.

Genus TACHYDROMUS.

I believe the egg now exhibited to be that of the Courier Plover,
Tachydromus Asiaticus. Two of them were found in a field in a
slight hollow of the ground in the month of April. Of the breeding
of this bird Dr. Jerdon says—‘It breeds in the more retired spots
during the hot weather, laying three eggs of a pale greenish-yellow
colour, much blotched and spotted with black, and also with a few

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new or little-known Tanagers. 515

olive spots ; they are deposited in a slight hollow.” The Courier is
abundant on the plains of the Deccan, frequenting sandy bare spots
in flocks ; they have a peculiar habit of running for a distance at
great speed, then suddenly stopping and erecting the body, then
starting off as before.

Subgenus GLAREOLA.

GLAREOLA ORIENTALIS (Leach).

I came across this pretty little Pratincole when shooting on a
stony bank in the river Bheema. There were numbers of them
flying about like swallows, and as they mobbed me, I concluded
that they had nests, but though I made most diligent search could
not find any. I procured a pair of birds: the eggs in the ovaries
of the female were large: the crop of the female was filled to a great
size with a species of small black beetle. This occurred in the month
of March.

May 22, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW OR LITTLE-KNOWN TANAGERS.
By Paivip Lutvey Scuater, M.A.

1. ARREMON ERYTHRORHYNCQOUS, Sclater.

A, olivaceus : capite nigro; vitta mediali verticis, nucha cervi-
eisque lateribus cinereis; superciliis et corpore subtus albis :
torque gutturali angusta nigra: lateribus cinerascentibus :
campterio flavo: pedibus albis: rostro elongatiore, incurvo,
rubro.

Long. tota 5°8, ale 3-0, caudee 2°7.

Hab. in Nova Grenada, Bogota.

I have to thank Mr. Gould for allowing me to describe this new
Arremon, which is from his collection. It is closely allied to my
Arremon spectabilis (P. Z.8. 1854, p. 114. pl. 67) from Quixos,
but may be distinguished by its more lengthened incurved and brilliant
orange red-bill, and the yellow bend of the wing.

2. TACHYPHONUS XANTHOPYGIUvsS, Sclater.

Tachyphonus ranthopygius, Sclater, P.Z.S.1854, p.158.pl.69( 2).
Lanio auritus, DuBus, Bull. Ac. Brux. Feb. 1855 (¢ et 2).

3 niger: tergo favo: fascicula post-superciliari coccinea : carpo

summo dilute flavo: tectricibus subalaribus albis.

Long. tota 671, alee 3:5, caudze 2°5.

2 nigro-cinereus, subtus dilutior ; axillis et tectricibus subalaribus

albis ; tergo flavo.

Hab. in Nova Grenada, Bogota. :

I described the female of this fine Tanager at the meeting of this
Society on the 25th of July last year. M. Parzudaki of Paris has
lately received several examples of both sexes from Bogota. A pair
of these passed into the hands of the Vicomte DuBus, by whom
they were characterized as new in the Bulletins de l’ Académie Royale

33%

516 Zoological Society :—

de Belgique* for February last. A male bird from the same quarter
has been kindly entrusted to me for examination before being depo-
sited in the British Museum, where the female I originally named is
also to be found. I cannot agree with the Vicomte DuBus in con-
sidering this species a Lanio, but, after seemg the male, am the more
convinced that it is a true T'achyphonus.

3. TANAGRA NOTABILIS, Jardine.

T. flavo-olivacea : capite undique et mento nigris, macula nuchali
triangulari, a dorso linea nigra divisa, flava: alis nigris c@-
ruleo marginatis, tectricibus autem summis dorso concoloribus :
cauda nigra, margine vix cerulescente: subtus lete aurantio-
flava ; rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 7*2, alee 3:7, caudze 3:0.

Hab. in rep. Equatoriana.

Sir William Jardine has been so good as to lend me the types of
this and the following species of Tanagers for examination. They
were lately procured by Professor Jameson of Quito, during a botani-
eal excursion along the eastern range of Cordilleras to the north of
Quito, and are to be described with other rare birds, the product of
the same or similar expeditions, in the forthcoming number of the
new series of the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

The present bird is a most brilliant fourth of the little section
denominated Compsocoma by Cabanis, easily distinguished from the
others by its yellow-olive back, triangular nape-spot, black chin and
orange-yellow under-plumage, and may be therefore called Compso-
coma notabilis, if that name is used generically. The other three
species of this group are—(1) Compsocoma victorini, with its dark
olive back and elongated nape-stripe, which is common in collections
from Bogota ; (2) C. sumptuosa (Arch. du Musée Paris., vii. p. 379.
pl. 23), with the back black and uropygium olivascent, from Trans-
andean Ecuador—the same locality as the present—and Peru ; and
(3) C. flavinucha, a rare species mm collections, which seems confined
to Bolivia, where d’Orbigny discovered it on the eastern slope of the
Andes of the province of La Paz.

4. SALTATOR ARREMONOPS, Jardine.

S. rufo-brunneus, vlivaceo parum tinctus, pectore multo clariore

et rubescentiore: capite toto mentoque nigris ; vitta mediali
erticis et superciliari utrinque postice elongatis cum medio

ventre cinereis: alis intus et cauda nigricantibus: rostro et
pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 7°25, alee 3°2, caude 3°5.

Hab. in rep. Equatoriana.

This peculiar Tanager in style of plumage and general habit cor-

* The article is entitled “ Note sur quelques espéces inédites d’Oiseaux.’”’ The
Nemosia torguata therein described (sp. 10) is my Dacnis pulcherrima, Rey. et
Mag. de Zool. 1853, p. 480—(a true Daecnis to my mind) ; and, is not Vireosylvia
Srenata, DuBus, sp. 1, the same as V. altilogua, Vieill.—Cassin, Birds of Cal. pl. 37.
p. 221—and Phyllomanes mystacalis, Cab. Wiegm. Arch. 1844, p. 348?

Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on a new Sea Anemone. 5b7

responds most closely with the members of the genus Avremon, but
the bill is altogether abnormal, the upper mandible swelling in. the
middle and overlapping the under, as in the genus Lanio, though
not developed into a decided hook. But the bill is much shorter,
broader and deeper than in the last-named genus, and has more
general resemblance to that of some of the Sa/tatores. The wings
are very short, but the only skin sent belonging to a bird in moult,
the comparative length of the remiges cannot be determined.

DescripTion Or A New Sera ANEMONE.
By E. W. H. Hotpvsworrta, F.Z.S8.

The species now to be described must be separated from the true
Actinie, and may be well placed in the genus Scolanthus, which was
proposed by Mr. Gosse for the reception of an animal obtained by
him at Weymouth, and which presented the very distimetive cha-
racters of a perforated base, and the absence of a terminal adhesive
disk. A deseription of that species will be found in the ‘ Annals of
Natural History’ for the year 1853, p. 157. These points of differ-
ence are accompanied, as might be expected, by a variation in habits,
and the members of the genus will be found living buried in mud
or sand, into which they retire on being alarmed, their extraordi-
nary powers of inversion enabling them to hide at some little distance
below the surface.

ScOLANTHUS SPH £ZROIDES.

This species, which I found tolerably abundant at Seaford, near
Beachy Head, has, in expansion, the body lengthened and cylindrical,
regularly striated longitudinally with fine transverse markings, the
upper part sparingly covered with sucking-glands, not arranged in
any definite order. Disk flat and even, but little exceeding the dia-
meter of the body. Tentacula numerous, in three or four irregular
series, the inner one containing from nine to twelve; these are the
longest, and measure, when fully extended, about half an inch, or two-
thirds of the breadth of the disk; the outer row consists of from fifty
to sixty tentacula of the same slender tapering form as the inner
ones, but are one-third shorter, the other series being intermediate in
size and number. The body tapers a little posteriorly and terminates
with a rounded base, having a distinct central perforation. When
closely contracted, the two ends of the body are nearly alike, and the
animal assumes the appearance of a more or less flattened sphere or
bead, the resemblance to which is much increased by the presence
of the terminal orifices.

The colour of the body is a dirty-white, and the upper portion is
generally covered with particles of sand or mud adherent to the
sucking-glauds surrounding that part, and which help to conceal the
animal when contracted, as is found to be the case with Act. crassi-
corns, and probably other species under similar circumstances. The
mouth opens transversely, and from it very delicate white lines radiate

518 Zoological Society.

to the bases of the tentacula, interspersed with two or three shades of
brown in the form of stripes or spots: in some specimens a circle of
very pale spots with darker margins surrounds the mouth. The base
of each tentaculum is very dark and is surmounted by a broad band
of white or buff, the upper portion shading off to a clear pale pel-
lucid brown, on which are three narrow distinct white rings, their
breadth and the interspaces diminishing rapidly as they approach
the tip. These animals are capable of assuming a great variety of
shapes, and even when fully expanded sometimes elongate themselves
to the extent of 14 inch, or contract to little more than a j of an
inch. They feed readily in confinement ; but those that had buried
themselves in the sand appeared best able to secure their prey when
placed within reach, the others on the surface often tumbling over in
their endeavours to get the food into a proper position for swallow-
ing, from not having the support of the surrounding sand or mud
natural to them when buried. They were all found near low water-
mark, imbedded in the fine chalky mud which fills the crevices of the
rocks at Seaford, their expanded disks being just level with the surface,
but so nearly covered that only a faint star-like outline was visible ;
on being touched they instantly disappeared ; and so great was their
power of inversion and contraction, that on digging carefully, they
were generally found about 1} inch deep, and having that peculiar
bead-like form which has suggested the specific name of spheroides.
There was usually a depth of 6 or 7 inches of mud below them, so
that they could not have been fastened to the rock ; and since I have
had them at home, now nearly five weeks, they have not shown the
least inclination to attach themselves to the gravel, or glass sides of
the tank in which they are living; three of them have burrowed
into some sand on which they were placed, but the others remain on
the surface, and are but rarely contracted. Soft mud is probably
their natural habitat, being the most easily penetrated, and I could
find no traces of any of these animals in a considerable tract of sand
only a few yards from the locality whence these were obtained.

June 12, 1855.—W. Yarrell, Esq., in the Chair.

ON TWO NEw Species OF HuMMING Birps.
By Joun Goutp, F.R.S.

I bring before the notice of the Meeting two species of beautiful
Humming Birds, which I believe to be new to science: they belong
to that section of the T’rochilide to which the generic appellation of
. Heliothrix has been given; of this form only three species have
been previously characterized, namely H. auritus, H. auriculatus,
and H. Barroti. One of these new species, for which I propose the
specific name of purpureiceps, is nearly allied to H. Barroti, but
differs from that bird in having a much shorter bill, in the blue of
the head being of a paler purple, and in that hue not being confined
to the crown, but extending some distance down the nape of the

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 519

neck. This species was obtained from the districts near Popayan.
The second species, for which I propose the name of phainolema,
has several characters in common with 7. auritus and H. auricu-
latus ; it differs, however, from both those species in the beautiful
metallic-green colouring extending over the throat and front, as well
as the sides of the throat. The two species may be described as
follows :—

HELIOTHRIX PURPUREICEPS.

Male: Forehead, crown and nape beautiful purplish-blue ; upper
surface, upper tail-coverts, and upper and under wing-coverts beauti-
ful golden-green ; mark below the eye and ear-coyerts black, termi-
nating in a small blue tuft; below the black a streak of rich luminous
green; wings purplish-black ; central tail-feathers bluish-black ;
lateral tail-feathers, chin, throat, and under surface, pure white ; bill
black ; feet flesh-colour.

Total length, 44 inches; bill, $; wing, 23; tail, 1¢.

Hab. Popayan.

HELIOTHRIX PHAINOLZEMA.

Male: Head, upper surface, upper tail-coverts, upper and under
wing-coverts rich golden-green, very brilliant on the head; wings
purplish-black ; four central tail-feathers bluish-black ; lateral tail-
feathers snowy-white ; below and behind the eye a lengthened mark
of black, terminating in a violet-blue tuft ; chin, throat and sides of
the neck rich luminous green; breast and under surface pure white ;
bill black ; feet flesh-colour.

Total length, 43 inches ; bill, 1; wing, 23; tail, 14.

Hab. River Napo.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
March 1856.—Dr. Greville, Secretary, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “ Notes on the Flora of Perth,” by Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay.

«The most interesting plants of the district are probably Scheuch-
zeria palustris, Moneses grandiflora, Teucrium Chamedrys, and
Turritis glabra; but the following also are noteworthy: Corallo-
rhiza innata, Epipactis latifolia, Cephalanthera grandiflora and
C. ensifolia, Neottia Nidus-Avis, Paris quadrifolia, Erigeron alpi-
nus, Trientalis europea, Adoxa moschatellina, Leonurus Cardiaca,
Serophularia vernalis.”

2. “On the occurrence of Cladophora repens (J. Agardh) at
Malahide, Co. Dublin,” by A. C. Maingay.

From the specimen now shown, it appears that Mr. W. M‘Calla
found this plant in Ireland im 1841, and therefore that to him is due
the credit of having first collected it in this country, although he

520 Miscellaneous.

was ignorant at the time of its bemg a new species, and in conse-
quence communicated it to Professor Balfour under the name of
Conferva Brownii.

Dr. Harvey’s slight doubt as to the British form of Cladophora
repens being the same species with that described by J. Agardh is
entirely dispelled by these specimens from Ireland, in which the
articulations, although variable, are in general shorter than in the
Jersey specimens gathered by Miss Turner, and intermediate in size
between Agardh’s plant and that described by Harvey.

3. “ On the British species of Arctium,” by Charles C. Babington,
M.A., F.R.S. &e. (See p. 369.)

4. “Register of the Flowering of certain Plants in the Royal
Botanic Garden, from 14th Feb. till 13th March 1856, as compared
with the five previous years,’’ by Mr. M‘Nab.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Influence of the Soil on the Distribution of Plants. By
M. Srur. Communicated by Count MarscHau..

In a Memoir presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences of
Vienna, March 6, 1856, M. Stur, treating of the influence of the
soil on the distribution of plants, gave the results of the observations
made by himself in the Alpine region of Austria.

The soil on which plants live is either rocky or disintegrated.
The “rocky ”’ or solid soil is either of calcareous or of argillaceous
and siliceous nature. The “disintegrated” or detrital soil is com-
posed of fragments from the “rocky,” agglutinated by mineral
substances of tertiary origin; it contains therefore lime, silica, and
alumina, in more or less equal portions.

The rocky soil prevails in the higher elevations of the Alpine region ;
the detrital soil fills up the bottoms of the valleys and depressions.
The first corresponds to the continents surrounding the tertiary sea,
or to the islands emerging from it ; the second indicates the extension
of this sea itself, as formed by drift deposited on its bottom.

The nature of the roots is an essential condition for the thriving of
any plant on either of these soils. Species with annual fleshy, or with
compound fasciculated, roots, or with underground stems, can only
live on detrital soil ; those with woody roots, with numerous rami-
fications, are best fitted for the rocky soil.

A comparison of the flora of the higher calcareous region with the
mica-schist flora proves the plants of either of them, although equal
in size, to differ so materially from each other in shape, that it must

be admitted that the geological constitution of the soil has an influ.

ence on the vegetation covering its surface. 7
Alpine plants carried down by the streams into the plain increase
in size and grow more luxuriantly in their new station. Forest-trees

Miscellaneous. 521

shrink more and more in size and shape as they reach greater eleva-
tions. Both these facts bear witness to the influence of climatal
conditions on the development of vegetable life.

Cereals occur exclusively on the detrital soils of the lower region.
They follow the Alpine tertiary gravel in its variations of altitude ;
but are only able to produce a rich harvest where they grow on a
detrital soil composed of lime, alumina, and silica mixed in nearly
equal proportions. This same soil is likewise the most congenial to
the non-cultivated plants of the lower region. If this soil be mixed
with heterogeneous substances (as salts, on the sea-shore, on the
banks of saline lakes, on plains with saline efflorescence, or above
saliferous rocks), new genera and species, not occurring under ordi-
nary circumstances, make their appearance.

The pine (Pinus abies, L.) accommodates itself to every soil, and
therefore ranges from the lower to the upper region, marking the
limits between, and participating in both. Its vertical oscillations
correspond to those of the cereals, and to the distribution of detrital
soil accessible to atmospheric heat.

New vegetable forms, together with new rocks, make their appear-
ance in the higher rocky regions. Such are certain species peculiar
to the calcareous mica-schist, as Artemisia nana, Sand., Lomato-
gonium carinthiacum, Rehb., Gentiana prostrata, Waenke, Herni-
aria alpina, L., Braya alpina, Hoppe, &c.

Wherever a great variety of rocks near to, or interstratified with,
each other appear within a comparatively narrow space, the plants
pass from one of these soils to another, undergoing at the same time
frequent alterations of form; species nearly allied to each other are
peculiar to such spots, producing hybrid and intermediate forms.

The distribution of genera and species in the upper region answers
exactly to the geological constitution of the soil. Caleareous and
mica-schistese Alps have every one their peculiar flora. Near Win-
disch-Matzey and Heiligenblut the mica-schist and the calcareous
mica-schist floras appear side by side. At the “Tauern’’ of Rad-
stadt, where nearly all Alpine rocks are heaped together, the floras
of the calciferous rocks, of the mica-schist and of the calcareous mica-
schist appear simultaneously.

M. Stur appended to his memoir a catalogue of about 1000 species
of plants collected by him within the Alpine region, and arranged
according to their localities and to the geological constitution of
their native soil.

Note on the Freshwater Dolphins of South America.
By M. Pavur Gervais.

It has long been known that a peculiar species of Dolphin is an
inhabitant even of the upper parts and branches of the great river
Amazon, to the Indians living on the borders of which it is a creature
of no small importance. It was described by M. d’Orbigny as the
type of a new genus under the name of Inia boliviensis, by which
it has since been generally known; but it appears to have been

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi.

522 Meteorological Observations.

previously described by Spix and Martius under the name of Del-
phinus amazonicus, whilst, according to M. Paul Gervais, it is identical

with the D. Geoffrensis of De Blainyille, who however supposed his
specimen to come from Canada.

Besides the Inia Geoffrensis, M. Gervais states that the Amazon
and its tributaries possess two other species of Dolphin, both, ac-
cording to him, belonging to the restrieted genus Delphinus. The
will be described by him in the Zoological section of M. de Castelnan’s
Voyage in America, under the names of D. pallidus and D. fluviatilis.
— Comptes Rendus, 28th April 1856, p. 806.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR APRIL 1856.

Chiswick.—April 1, 2. Exceedingly fine. 3. Overcast: rain. 4. Densely
elouded : fine, with low white clouds. 5. Fine: cloudy. 6. Fine: frosty at night.
7. Fine: cloudy: rain. 8. Rain. 9. Cloudy: rain. 10. Rain. 11. Fine:
showery: rain at night. 12. Rain: cloudy and mild: fine. 13. Fine: cloudy:
hazy. 14. Fine: rain: boisterous, with rain at night. 15. Overcast: cold north-
east wind. 16. Fine, but cold: masses of white clouds. 17. Dusky white clouds:
fine: cloudy. 18. Overcast: fine: cloudy. 19. Overcast: densely clouded:
clear: frosty. 20. Fine: frosty at night. 21. Cloudless: very fine: hazy at
night. 22. Overcast: cloudy: frosty. 23. Slight haze: cloudy. 24. Uniform
haze: overcast: fine. 25. Foggy: very fine: rain. 26. Heavy rain: cloudy.

27. Rain. 28. Clear: fine: frosty. 29. Partially overcast: cloudy and cold.
30. Fine.

Mean temperature of the month ...........45 orate Soiree exe 46°48
Mean temperature of April 1855 ..........c.ceescecorecsecncececs 46 -08
Mean temperature of April for the last thirty years eCeceenee 47 13
Average amount of rain in April ............cecessecseceeaseeoees 1553 inch.

Boston.—April 1. Fine: rainp.M. 2. Cloudy. 3. Cloudy: rainr.m. 4. Cloudy.
5. Fine. 6. Cloudy: rainp.m. 7. Cloudy. 8. Cloudy: rainp.m. 9. Cloudy.
10. Cloudy: rain p.m. 11. Fine: rainp.m. 12. Rain a.m. and p.m. 13. Fine.
14. Cloudy. 15. Fine. 16—19. Cloudy. 20. Fine. 21—24. Cloudy. 25. Fine.
26. Rain a.m. and p.m. 27. Cloudy. 28. Cloudy: rain p.m. 29. Cloudy:
rain A.M. and p.m. 380. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—April 1—3. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 4. Cloudy,
drops A.M.: clear, aurora P.M. 5. Cloudy, drops a.m.: clearp.m. 6. Damp A.M. :
clearp.M. 7. Bright a.m.: dropsr.mM. 8—10. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 11. Showers,
cloudy a.M.: clear P.M. 12—14. Cloudy a.m.and p.m. 15. Cloudy a.m. : clear,
fine p.m. 16. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. _ 17. Showers, cloudy a.m.: cloudy P.M.
18. Showers, cloudy a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 19. Clear a.m.: drizzle p.m. 20—22.
Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 23. Clear a.m.: cloudy p.m. 24. Cloudy a.m.: cloudy,
fine p.m. 25. Cloudy, fine a.m.: cloudy, drops p.m. 26. Clear a.m.: hail-

showers P.M. 27. Hail-showers A.m.: sleet-showers P.M. 28. Sleet-showers a.M. ©

and p.m. 29. Sleet-showers a.M.: cloudy p.w. 30. Bright a.m. : cloudy p.m.

Mean temperature of April for previous twenty-nine years ... 43°47
Mean temperature of this month ......... douse doceecsccters sscone| 44°09
Mean temperature of April 1855 © ........cccceecesea seeesneansvees 43 -20
Average quantity of rain in April for fifteen previous years... 1°90 inch.

The drought is quite unprecedented, only °68 of rain having fallen for two months.

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seseesees] On, Lo. ‘ou | «an | “mu | Sor qa: ia Wl Yas £6.62 39.62 972.62 019,62 ££9.62 ‘of
to. |.9o. || gua] mu | an | ob | §cb rf | 9S 98.62 9L.6z 17.62 89.62 019.62 ‘62
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524

INDEX to VOL. XVII.

Acave AM ERICANA, on the flower-
ing of, 284.

Alge, unusual dearth of, 76.

Alyezeus, new species of, 225.

Amphiphora, on the conjugation of, 6.

Amphora, on the conjugation of, 1.

Anabates, new species of, 468.

Anaulus, notes on the genus, 342.

Animals, marine, on the geographical
distribution of, 165.

Ant, house, of Madeira, on the, 209,
322.

Anthracosia, on the fossil genus, 51 ;
new species of, 56.

Antilocapra, new species of, 424.

Araneidea, new species of, 233.

Arctium, on the British species of,
369.

Arremon, new species of, 515.

Assiminia, on the genus, 57.

Astropyga, new species of, 282.

Aulosteges, new species of, 262.

Babington, C. C., on some species of
Epilobium, 236, 311; on the Bni-
tish species of Arctium, 369.

Backhouse’s, J. jun., Monograph of
the British Hieracia, reviewed, 418.

Baker’s, J. G., Flowering Plants and
Ferns of Great Britain, reviewed,
199.

Barrett, L., on the animal of Scissu-
rella crispata, 206 ; on the Mollusca
observed between Drontheim and
the North Cape, 378.

Bate, C. S., on the British Diastylide,
449,

Beetles, on the blistering, of Monte-
video, 75.

Benson, W. H., on the genus Sca-
phula, 127; on Tanystoma tubi-
ferum, 129; on new forms of Cy-
ciostomacea, 225; on the genera
Tanystoma, Nematura and Anaulus,
342; on new species of Paludomus,
and on some forms of Stenothyra,
494:

Birds, new species of, 63, 77, 78, 428,

435, 466, 511, 515, 518; habits of
some Indian, 65, 200, 362, 431,
511; notes on some, 426, 510.

Blackwall, J., on new species of
Ayraneidea, 233.

Blyth, E., on the Indian species of
Shrews, 11.

Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society,
proceedings of the, 356.

Books, new:—De Konineck and Le
Hon’s Crinoides du Terrain carbo-
nifére de la Belgique, 58; T. R.
Jones’s Lecture on the Geological
History of Newbury, 60; Seemann’s
Popular History of Palms, 194;
Hooker’s Museum of Economic Bo-
tany, 196; Gosse’s Handbook to the
Marine Aquarium, 197; E. M. C.’s
Popular Geography of Plants, 198 ;
Baker’s Flowering Plants and Ferns
of Great Britain, 199 ; Stainton’s
History of the Tmeina, 272; Mon-
tagne’s Sylloge Generum Specie-
rumque Cryptogamicarum, 277 ;
Wollaston’s Insecta Maderensia,
348 ; Backhouse’s British Hieracia,
418; Dawson and Clark’s List of
British Coleoptera, 419; Rymer
Jones’s Outline of the Animal King-
dom, 507.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, pro-
ceedings of the, 74, 205, 283, 519.

Brachygalba, new species of, 72.

British Museum, Catalogues of the,
441.

Burgess, Lieut., on the habits of some
Indian birds, 65, 200, 362, 431,
511.

Campylorhynchus, new species of,
429

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., on the mmute
structure of certain Brachiopod
shells, and on vegetable cell-for-
mation, 502.

Carter, H. J., on the conjugation of
Cocconeis, Cymbella and Amphora,
with some remarks on Amphiphora

INDEX. 525

alata, 1; on the development of
gonidia from the cell-contents of
the Characeze, and on the circula-
tion of the mucus-substance of the
cell, 101; on the organization of
the Infusoria of the island of Bom-
bay, 356.

Cell-development in plants, 417, 502.

Chamzza, new species of, 429.

Characez, on the cell-contents of the,
101; circulation and tenacity of life
in the, 123.

Chiroxiphia, new species of, 469,

Chitons, on the development of the,
413.

Cidaris, new species of, 281.

Cladophora repens, on the occurrence
of, in Ireland, 519.

Claparéde, E., on the theory of the
fecundation of the ovum, 289, 390.

Clark, H., and J. F. Dawson’s List of
British Coleoptera, reviewed, 419.

Clark, W., on the genus Assiminia,
57 ; on Scissurella crispata, 269.

Clausilia, new British species of, 10,
446,

Cocconeis, on the conjugation of, 1.

Cocks, J., on an unusual dearth of
Algz, 76.

Conirostrum, new species of, 435.

Conoteuthis, occurrence of the fossil
genus, 402.

Courbon, A., on the blistering beetles
of Montevideo, 75.

Crossopus, new species of, 25.

Crustacea, on the geographical distri-
bution of, 42.

Culicivora, on the genus, 68.

Cuma, on the British species of, 456.

Cuvier’s laws of correlation, in the
reconstruction of extinct vertebrate
forms, remarks on, 476.

Cyclophorus, new species of, 228.

Cyclostomacea, new forms of, 225.

Cylichna, new species of, 188.

Cymbella, on the conjugation of, 1.

Cyphorinus, new species of, 437.

Cypselus, new species of, 286.

Dacnis, new species of, 62.

Dana, J. D., on the geographical dis-
tribution of Crustacea, 42.

Davy, Dr. J., on the vitality of the
ova in. the Salmonide, 420.

Dawson, J. F., and H. Clark’s List of
British Coleoptera, reviewed, 419.

Diastylide, on the British, 449.

Diastylis, British species of, 451.

Diatomacew, on the mode of repro-
duction of the, 1.

Diglossa, new species of, 467.

Diglossopis, description of the new
genus, 467.

Dolphins, on the freshwater, of South
America, 521.

Dredging on the Piedmontese coast,
155; between Drontheim and the
North Cape, 378.

Dufour, L., on the apparent absence
of a nervous system in the Ne-
moptera lusitanica, 366.

Duncan, Dr, P. M., on the pollen-
tube, 283. «

Echini, a0 the perforation of granite
by, 7

Echinida, arrangement of the families
of, 279.

[Embryogeny, researches in vegetable,
343.

Entomostraca, on paleozoic bivalved,
81.

Epilobium, on the species of, 236,311.

Equus, new species of, 446.

Eudora, description of the new genus,
457.

Eulimella, new species of, 186.

Eversmann, M., on some new species
of mammals and birds, 77.

Falconer, Dr. H., on Prof. Huxley’s
attempted refutation of Cuvier’s
laws of correlation, in the recon-
struction of extinct vertebrate
forms, 476.

Formicarius, new species of, 429.

Formicivora, new species of, 65.

Fossils, notes on Permian, 258, 333;
mammalian, 441.

Galbula, new species of, 70.

Garelia, new species of, 282.

Gasteropods, on the glands contained
in the respiratory cavity of branchi-
ferous and pulmoniferous, 247.

Gastornis parisiensis, on the affinities
of, 440.

Gebia deltura, on the occurrence of,
207.

Geological Society, proceedings of
the, 440

Gervais, P., on the freshwater Dol-
phins of South America, 521.

Gosse’s, P. H., Handbook to the
Marine Aquarium, reviewed, 197.

Gould, J., on the new genus Malaco-

526

cichla, 78; on some new South
American birds, 428, 510; on a
new species of Ruticilla, 511; on
some new Humming-birds, 518.

Gray’s, G. R., Genera and Subgenera
of Birds, notes on, 189.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the arrangement
of the Echinida, with descriptions
of new genera and species, 279;
on the genus Scissurella, 321; on
a new species of Antilocapra, 424 ;
on a new species of Sphzerium, 465.

Halia, description of the new genus,
458.

Heer, Prof. O., on the House-ant of
Madeira, 209, 322.

Heliothrix, new species of, 519.

Henfrey, Prof., on cell-development
in plants, 417 ; on the development
of the ovule of Santalum album,
438.

Holdsworth, E. W. H., on a new
species of Sea Anemone, 517.

Hon’s, H. le, Recherches sur les Cri-
noides du Terrain carbonifére de la
Belgique, reviewed, 58.

Hooker’s, Sir W. J., Museum of Eco-
nomic Botany, reviewed, 196.

Humming-birds, new species of, 518.

Huxley, Prof., on Cuvier’s laws of cor-
relation, in the reconstruction of
extinct vertebrate forms, 476.

Hydrocena, new species of, 231.

Hypocnemis, new species of, 64.

Infusoria of Bombay, on the organi-
zation of the, 356.

Insects, on the tracheal system of,
347.

Jeffreys, J. G., on the marine Tes-
tacea of the Piedmontese coast,
155, 271; on the genus Scissu-
rella, 319, 470.

Jeffreysia, new species of, 184.

Jones’s, T. Rupert, Lecture on the
Geological History of Newbury,
Berks, noticed, 60; on some new
species of Leperditia, 81.

Jones’s, T. Rymer, General Outline of
the Animal Kingdom, reviewed, 507.

King, Prof. W., on the fossil genus
Anthracosia, 51; on Pleurodictyum
problematicum, 131; notes on Per-
mian fossils, 258, 333.

Konineck’s, L. de, Crinoides du Ter-
rain carbonifeére de la Belgique, re-
viewed, 58.

INDEX.

Krohn, Dr. A., on the development
of Pelagia noctiluca, 285.

Lampreys, on the development of
the, 443.

Lanius, new species of, 78.

Lawson, G., on the structure of Vic-
toria regia, 74.

Leperditia, new species of, 81.

Leptopoma, new species of, 229.

Lieberkiihn, N., on the development
of the freshwater Sponges, 403.

Linnean Society, proceedings of the,
438.

Lister, J., on the flowering of Agave
americana, 284.

Lovén, Prof. S., on the development
of the Chitons, 413.

Lymneadz, on the structure of the
organs of breathing in the, 153.
M‘Andrew, R., on Mollusea observed
between Drontheim and the North

Cape, 378.

Malacocichla, on the new genus, 78.

Mammals, new species of, 77.

Megalomastoma, new species of, 229.

Meteorological observations, 79, 207,
287, 367, 447, 523.

Mias of Borneo, on the, 471.

Mollusca of the Piedmontese eoast,
on the, 271; observed between
Drontheim and the North Cape,
list of, 378.

Montagne’s, C., Sylloge Generum
Specierumque Cryptogamicarum,
reviewed, 277.

Myiadestes, new species of, 468.

Myrmeciza, new species of, 63.

Nematura, on the genus, 342.

Nemoptera lusitanica, on theapparent
absence of a nervous system m the,
366.

Neriéne, new species of, 233.

Newport, G., the late, monument to,
79.

Odostomia, new species of, 185.

(Ecophthora pusilla, on the habits of,
22).

Orang-utan, aceount of an infant, 386;
of Borneo, on the, 471.

Otopoma, new species of, 231.

Otostoma, new species of, 117.

Ovum, on the theory of the feeunda-
tion of the, 289, 390.

Owen, Prof., on the affinities of Gast-
ornis parisiensis, 440; on some
mammalian fossils, 441.

INDEX. 527

Paludomus, new species of, 494.

Pectimbranchiata, on the structure of
the organs of breathing in the, 28.

Pelagia noctiluca, on the development
of, 285.

Pipreola, new species of, 469.

Pithys, new species of, 65.

Plants, cell-deyelopment in, 417 ; on
impregnation in, 438; on the in-
fluence of the soil on the distribu-
tion of, 520.

Pleurodictyum problematicum, obser-
vations on, 131.

Polioptila, new species of, 68.

Pollen-tube, observations on the, 283.

Prentice, C., on the occurrence of
Clausilia Mortilleti, 446.

Productus, new species of, 261.

Pterocyclos, new species of, 227.

Pulmonifera, on the structure of the
organs of breathing in the, 142.

Pupina, new species of, 230.

Ramphoczenus, new species of, 436.

Reissig, Dr., on the mode in which
the Tachine escape from their
pupa-cases, 365.

Respiration, on the mechanism of
aquatic, in invertebrate animals, 28,
142, 247.

Rissoa, new species of, 182.

Beyak Society, proceedings of the,
420.

Ruticilla, new species of, 511.

Saint-Hilaire, G., on a supposed new
species of Equus, 446.

Salmonide, on the vitality of the ova
in the, 420.

Saltator, new species of, 516.

Santalum album, on the development
of the ovule of, 438.

Scaphander, new species of, 188.

Scaphula, new species of, 128.

Schismope, description of the genus,
321.

Schistochlamys, new species of, 430.

Schmidt, A., on a new species of
Clausilia, 10.

Schultze, M., on the development of
the Lampreys, 443.

Scissurella, on the genus, 319, 401,
470; new species of, 181.

Scissurella crispata, on the animal of,
206, 269.

Sclater, P. L., on new species of
Dacnis, and on the general arrange-
ment of the genus, 62; on new

species of birds, 63, 435, 466; on
the genus Culicivora, 68; on the
arrangement of the Galbulidz, 70 ;
ona new species of Swift, 286; on
some new species of Thamnophilus,
360; on some Texan birds, 426;
on anew species of the genus Todi-
rostrum, 428; on new species of
Tanagers, 515.

Scolanthus, new British species of,
517.

Seemann’s, Dr. B., History of Palms
and their Allies, reviewed, 194.

Shells, on the minute structure of
certain Brachiopod, 502.

Shrews, on the Indian species of, 11.

Sorex, new species of, 18.

Soriculus, new species of, 24.

SPB new British species of,
465.

Sponges, on the development of the
freshwater, 403.

Squilla Desmarestii, occurrence of,
206.

Stainton’s, H. T., History of the
Tineina, reviewed, 272.

Stenothyra, new species of, 496.

Strophalosia, new species of, 263.

Stur, M., on the influence of the soil
on the distribution of plants, 520.

Synallaxis, new species of, 436, 466.

Tachine, on the mode in which the,
escape from their pupa-cases, 365.

Tachyphonus, new species of, 515,

Tanagra, new species of, 515.

Tanystoma, on the new genus, 129,
342,

Testacea, marine, of the Piedmontese
coast, on the, 155, 271.

Thamnophilus, new species of, 360,
430.

Thompson, W., on the oceurrence of
Squilla Desmarestii and Gebia del-
tura, 206.

Todirostrum, new species of, 428.

Tomes, R. F., on the Indian species
of Shrews, 11.

Toreumatica, new species of, 283.

Trochus, new species of, 182.

Tulasne, M., researches in vegetable
embryogeny, 343.

Turritella, new species of, 184.

Urogalba, new species of, 71.

Valenciennes, M, on the perforation
of granite by Echini, 76.

Vanellus, new species of, 78.

—— SO ee

528

Venilia, description of the new genus,
460.

Vesperugo, new species of, 77.

Victoria regia, on the structure of, 74.

Walckenaéra, new British species of,
235.

Wallace, A. R., on an infant Orang-
utan, 386; on-the Orang-utan or
Mias of Borneo, 471.

Williams, Dr. T., on the mechanism
of aquatic respiration in inverte-

INDEX.

brate animals, 28, 142, 247 ; onthe
tracheal system of insects, 347.

Wollaston’s, T. V., Insecta Made-
rensia, reviewed, 348.

Woodward, S. P., on the genus Scis-
surella, 401; on the fossil genus
Conoteuthis, 402.

Zoological collections in the British
Museum, additions to the, 443.

Zoological Society, proceedings of the,
62, 200, 279, 360, 424, 510.

END OF THE SEVENTEENTH VOLUME.

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