eae pica’ eed ae a tyne ie an, £2 oe y i Ati bat eed cee an {st (ao ) THE ANNALS” «& AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, INCLUDING ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY. (BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS ’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND CHARLESWORTH 'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, ) CONDUCTED BY PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Eso., LS, CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Ese., M.A., F.BS., F.LS.,F.G.S., JOHN EDWARD GRAY, PbD., PRS PLS, V.P.Z.S. &e., AND WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.LS. 30 o” VOL, XI.—THIRD SERIES. LONDON: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS. SOLD BY LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS}; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS: LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH: HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN. 1863. **Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini; _ €x ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet. ' Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper zstimata; a veré eruditis et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”— LINNZvs. i * Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent toutes ses opérations.” BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767. Sieg ha sR) ee pie in y's) wie A Ne SY VAs wers Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs That press with nimble step the mountain thyme And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed, But scatter round ten thousand forms minute Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles, -._-Whete peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread, ee The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne, ~All, all to us unlock their secret stores And pay their cheerful tribute. J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818. / CONTENTS OF VOL. XI. [THIRD SERIES.] NUMBER LXI. Pes I. Notes on the Hydroida. By Prof. ALLMAN secccccossessecseeeree Lb II. On the Raphides of British Plants. By Gzorez GuLLivErR, F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology to the Royal College of Surgeons .........ss00+ dbdsadandadsde dace coue@bedans Be AS A III. On the proposed Change i in Name of Gracula pectoralis. By ALFRED R. WALLACE ....cccceceesssocecees Sdeases@lliesec.ccoccdsoescees ceeees LO IV. Descriptions of Five new Genera of Mollusca. By Henry _ and ARTHUR ADAMS eecssscesessseesessseresceneesensecs ansaneesaode eccesere, 18 V. On new Species of Snakes in the Collection of the British Mu- seum. By Aubert GinTHER, M.A., M.D., Ph.D. (Plate IIL.)...... 20 VI. On new Species of Batrachians from Australia. By ALBERT See, MLA. MLD, PhD. | CPlate-EV.) on. .i0.. 0s esececsescceestee 26 VII. Descriptions of newly discovered Spiders captured in Rio Janeiro by John Gray, Esq., and the Rev. Hamlet Clark. By JoHn TPIAMORCWTA LL, F128, cccccooes scence = ERR a aes 29 VII. On some new British Hydroids. By the Rev. THomas Sa RSRESESMET te) Premed Seach a, 6 ee erm nae pie aeenicig wee 45 IX. On the Transformations of the Porcellane. By Dr. Fritz Meni, Of Desterro. (Plate Ly geste. cccsccccsscecsscccncscensecece Pe Y § New Books :—The Student’s Manual of Geology, by J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.—The Coal-fields of Great Britain: their History, Structure, and Resources; with Notices of the Coal-fields of other parts of the World, by Edward Hull, B.A. ............ 51—55 Proceedings of the Zoological Society ............sssceessseeeceeees 55—71 Use of the Weights and Measures of the Metric System in Scientific Pursuits; The Unicorn of the Ancients, by Dr. A. E. Brehm... 71, 72 iv CONTENTS. NUMBER LXITI. Page X. Observations on some of the Fossil Fishes of Dura Den. By ROBERT WADE Be, CEO LI.) esessocccescecsssatvassacctevsenca sie Singvesl- 99 XI. On Indian Species of Land-Shells belonging to the Genera Helix, Linn., and Nanina, Gray. By W.T. Buanrorp, A.R.S.M., F.G.S. Pee cerccereceeeceseereeseeseseeesccneseees COecn ees eeeescccece eeesceesece eoosee 81 XII. Characters of new Land-Shells of the Genera Helix, Clausilia, and Spiraxis, from the Andamans, Moulmein, Northern India, and Ceylonja By W: H. Benson, Enq. ......000.scccescseesssosgi Eaasveccsens » Oe XIII. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W. K. ParkKER, M. Micr. Soc., and T. R. JoNES, F.G.S. ...ccccsccscccesseese IL XIV. On the Genera and Species of Recent Brachiopods found in the Seas of Japan. By ARTHUR ADAMS, F.L.S. &. ...scereeeereeeene 98 XV. A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Tenie. By Lupwica STIEDA . s-csscsoesess Pov sgh peaiete nos: anbssoeqevensocuntas Gan ecUsasdemeaionsee + 101 XVI. Remarks on some Coal-measure Crustacea belonging to the Genus Belinurus, Konig; with Descriptions of two new Species from Queen’s County, Ireland. By Wiutiam HeEuuier Baty, F.G.S. RN 2) cals 0 ccs PO UME cg neo so cevcecsccnsecesesed@hindacssocecseens 107 XVII. On new Species of Fishes from Victoria, South Australia. By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER «+e...0000 signs eee kscoceall See » 114 New Books :—The Flora of Essex, by G. 8. Gibson, F.L.S.—A Ma- nual of European Butterflies, by W. F. Kirby......... soooee 117—122 Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society ......... 122—148 Pliocene Fossil Fauna of the Niobrara River, in Nebraska, by Joseph Leidy, M.D.; On a remarkable Form of Rotation in the Pith- cells of Saururus cernuus, by George C. Schaeffer, M.D.; Appli- cation of Magenta Dye in Microscopical Investigations; Ona new Phyllodactylus from Guayaquil, by W. Peters ......... 148—152 NUMBER LAXIIIL. XVIII. Observations on the British Tunicata, with Descriptions of several new Species. By JosHua ALDER. (Plate VII.) ............ 153 XIX. On the Composition ofthe Head, and on the Number of Abdominal Segments, in Insects. By Dr. H. Scuaum of Berlin. CRE EY dicts pecccsecccconscocsesccconccecesusassocessesansseseunasesbesnsesaves 173 XX. Note on the Colouring Matter of the Red Sea. By H. J. Arar se FTN. Shas dilniinldehsinnicins inllee dais aids ddahiods sBenheea RUS erty ae 182 Ce ee en ee ee ee a —— ll CONTENTS, v | Page XXI. On the Contractile Tissue of Plants. By Prof. Ferpinanp CoHN POSSESS ORE TE SRO TE OME Hee TOT ee HR Oe PPP SET OT ORD CORE HT COREE ESS 188 XXII. On the Japanese Species of Siphonalia, a proposed new Genus of Gasteropodous Mollusca. By Arruur Apams, F.LS. &e. 202 XXIII. On the Higher Subdivisions in the Classification of Mam- mals. By JAMES D. DANA...sse...soreeeseneretsensenees eevedeases eeceeeees 207 XXIV. Diagnostic Notices of new Canarian Coleoptera. By T. VERNON WOLLASTON, M.A., F.L.S. ..0...ccccccccececceccscese eaacceaes sae; Dit New Book :—Qutlines of Botany, designed for Schools and Colleges, by J. H. Balfour, M.D., Prof. of Botany in the University of Edinburgh ......-+:+-+++ slic sthalaa pennies tap +—nshe vlnts ananppeiie cabipeds ae k Proceedings of the Zoological Society ....0-scerssaes-srsccersssesee 222—228 Notice of a Flycatcher new to the Fauna of Great Britain, by G. R. Gray; On the Development, Structure, and Functions of the Tissues of the Anther, by A. Chatin; Ona new Pteropus from New Holland, by W. Peters ....c.ceccsccecessesessececcesecece 228—232 NUMBER LXIV. XXV. On the Classification of the Brachyura, and on the Homo- logies of the Antennary Joints in Decapod Crustacea. By Wm. eemereon, MD. - ..0.2....00.00000502. ablvapulduvaaeelvasibnent weeesditstehea oes a XXVI. Notes on rare and little-known Fishes taken at Madeira. No. Il. By James Yate Jonnson, Cor. Mem. Z.S. ...........000 237 XXVIII. On Ephedra. By Joun Mizrs, F.RS., F.L.S. &e. ... 248 XXVIII. On the Raphides of Isnardia. By Prof. GuLLiver ... 263 XXIX. On some new Genera and Species of Umboniide from the Seas of Japan. By ArrHur Apams, F.L.S. Xe. ......00..000 SUES 264 XXX. Notice of the Occurrence of a rare Cetacean (Lagenorhyn- chus albirostris, Gray) at the Mouth of the Dee. By THomas J. RNIN isin cans.scsscnsesessi OS A ot OPER sion sgesnbopbecaunag MENG XXXI. On the Geographical Distribution and Varieties of the Honey-Bee, with Remarks upon the Exotic Honey-Bees of the Old World. By Dr. A. GERSTACKER -.....seceeceeescseceeee Oecececercccvesens 270 XXXII. On some Species of Tree-Snakes (Ahetulla). By Dr. PRIMI CRUNTHE Dore canons coscassenceycassounece abana tnd soaiguiap nines tipbcale 283 XXXIII. On an Undescribed Indigenous Form of Ameba. By G. C. Wauuicu, M.D., F.L.S, &c. (Plate VILL.) ...00-.-..e00e eoeees 287 V1 CONTENTS. Page New Books :—The Land and Freshwater Mollusks indigenous to, or naturalized in, the British Isles, by Lovell Reeve, F.L.S.—Geo- logical Observations in South Australia; principally in the Dis- trict south-east of Adelaide, by the Rev. Julian Edmund Woods, F.G.S. &c.—Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. VOR: AXIVs POG. LOMCOS © acne rye... cooccenstueMMmbers seu savace 291—296 Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society ......... 297—308 On Chlamyphorus, by Dr. Burmeister; On the Action of Magenta upon Vegetable Tissue, by J. G. Lynde, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. ; Capture of the Ringed Seal (Phoca fetida), by Dr. J. E. Gray; On the Nature of the Gas produced from the Decomposition of Carbonic Acid by Leaves exposed to the Light, by M. Boussin- gault ; On a new Species of Ophiura (O. Normani) found on the Coast of Northumberland and Durham, by George Hodge 308—312 NUMBER LXV. XXXIV. A Novel Instance of the Production of Fermentation by the Presence of Infusoria capable of existing without free Oxygen and deprived of all Access of Atmospheric Air. By M. L. Pasteour...... 313 XXXV. Characters of new Land-Shells from the Andaman Islands, Burmah, and Ceylon; and of the Animal of Sophina. By W. H. RNB CR: Sone wocnsysbacesevansceppasersarvescesssveneeeea sob bediesemnneriee 318 XXXVI. On Natural and Artificial Section in some Chetopod — Aanelids. .. By W Oc MINOR. poy scsoscnsvernse's anvest seengomneeeipansesab tes 323 XXXVII. On the Geographical Distribution and Varieties of the Honey-Bee, with Remarks upon the Exotic Honey-Bees of the Old Nrond.- By DR. A. GERSTACKER 2. ....cc0...cccossecoecssenshanesaressbons 333 XXXVIII. On Microstelma and Onoba, two Forms of Rissoid Gasteropods; with Notices of new Species of the latter from Japan. By ARTHUR ADAMS, FLL.S.i&6. 3. sis.issiesecnccdscccbscseccscessasovossenade 347 XXXIX. On the Genera and Species of Lacunide found in Japan. Me ARTHUR ADAMS, FILS. S06. 0... .ccctassicescsecscnuscties deakeaeatans 350 XL. On the Structure of the Valves of Pleurosigma and other Diatoms. By G.C. Wauuicn, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. &e. ,...,.+-000, 351 XLI. Further Observations on an undescribed indigenous Amoeba, with Notices on remarkable forms of Actinophrys and Difflugia. By G. C. Wauuicn, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. &c. (Plate [X.) ..........0000. 365 New Book:—On the Geology and Natural History of the Upper . eS ee ee aE eS ae a er —— ss —— as a... ss Se = Se a CONTENTS. vu ; Pare Missouri: being the substance of a Report made to Lieut. G. K. Warren, T.E.U.S.A., by Dr. F. V. Hayden, &c. &c. ........-000--- 371 Proceedings of the Zoological Society ......-sssesssssseeeeeeeeeeee 380—389 ‘The Land and Freshwater Mollusks of the British Isles;? On the true Nature of Pleurodyctium problematicum, by Carl Rominger, M.D.; Piedmontese Plants; Obituary Notice—William Groves DN cn cad aaa dc kes Ventag tas 0 kad vacpiveseexcudauteuteseces eee 389—392 - NUMBER LXVI. XLII. On the Capitelle and their Position in the System of the Annelida. By Epwarp GruBE......... back canpeanadssvenkecnnies Prasat 393 XLIII. Remarks on the Vessels of the Latex, the Vasa propria, and the Receptacles of the elaborated Juices of Plants. By M. IIIIEIISUIS 5.55... 0ssc,ths of an inch; length of the cephalo- thorax ;; breadth 4,; breadth of the abdomen ,};; length of an anterior leg 33; length of a leg of the third pair 74. The eyes are seated on black spots on the anterior part of the cephalothorax; the four intermediate ones form a square, the two anterior ones, which are placed on a prominence, being rather the largest and darkest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are seated obliquely on a tubercle, and are near to each other, but not in contact. The cephalothorax is compressed. before, rounded on the sides, sparingly clothed with whitish hairs, convex, glossy, and has an indentation in the medial line ; the falees are powerful, conical, convex in front, vertical, and armed with a few teeth on the inner surface. These parts have a brownish-red colour, a brown band extending along the middle, and another, of the same hue, above each lateral margin of the former. The maxille are short, straight, and enlarged and rounded at the extremity; and the lip is semicircular, but some- what pointed at the apex. These organs are of a dark brown colour, their extremities having a yellowish-white hue. The sternum is heart-shaped, with small eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs, and has a reddish-brown hue, with a tinge of yellow in the medial line. The legs are long, provided with hairs and spines, and have a brownish-yellow hue, the extremity of the joints being tinged with brown ; the first pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is the shortest ; the tarsi are terminated by claws of the usual number and structure. The palpi resemble the legs in colour, and have a curved pectinated claw at their extremity. The abdomen is oviform, moderately hairy, convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalothorax and slightly beyond the spinners ; the upper part is of a yellowish-brown co- lour; a yellowish-white medial band, whose sinuous margins are finely bordered with black, tapers from the anterior to the captured in Rio Janeiro. 37 posterior extremity, and comprises a pale brown dentated band, tinged with dull yellow in the medial line; a series of minute oblong black spots, bordered externally with yellowish-white, extends along each side of the medial band; and the sides, which are marked with numerous longitudinal black streaks, have a yellowish-white band extending along their upper part ; the colour of the under part is brownish-black ; there is a pale yellowish-white band on each side, whose posterior extremity is enlarged, and a spot of the same hue occurs on each side of the dark brown inferior pair of spinners; the sexual organs, which are well developed, and of a dark red-brown colour, have a strong process connected with their anterior margin, which is directed downwards, slightly curved backwards, and is hollowed at its extremity. Epeira scitula, Length of the female ith of an inch; length of the cephalo- thorax ;4,; breadth j,; breadth of the abdomen ,; length of a posterior leg }; length of a leg of the third pair 4. The legs are slender, provided with hairs, and have a yellowish- brown hue, with black annuli ; the fourth pair is the longest, then the first, and the third pair is the shortest ; the tarsi are termi- nated by claws of the usual number and structure. The palpi _ resemble the legs in colour, and have a curved slightly pectinated claw at their extremity. The cephalothorax is compressed be- fore, rounded in front and on the sides, thinly clothed with short hairs, convex, glossy, and has an indentation in the medial line ; the falces are powerful, conical, vertical, convex at the base in front, and armed with teeth on the inner surface. These parts have a brownish-red hue, the falces being soot-coloured at the extremity. The maxille are short, straight, and enlarged and rounded at the extremity ; the lip is semicircular, but somewhat pointed at the apex; and the sternum is heart-shaped, with small eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs. These parts are of a red-brown colour; the lip is the brownest, and obscure brown lines converge from the margins of the sternum to its centre. The eyes are seated on black spots on the anterior part of the cephalothorax ; the four intermediate ones are placed on a pro- minence, and form a square, those of the posterior pair being the largest of the eight ; the eyes of each lateral pair are seated obliquely on a small tubercle, and are near to each other, but not in contact. The abdomen is somewhat oviform, terminating in a conical protuberance situated high above the spinners; it is thinly clothed with hairs, convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalothorax ; it is of a yellowish-olive colour, with a few black spots distributed irregularly; a yellowish-white 38 Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered Spiders band, comprising several longitudinal and transverse dark- coloured streaks, tapers from the anterior extremity of the upper part to the posterior conical protuberance; a yellowish-white band extends along the upper part of each side, and a line of the same hue passes from each red-brown branchial operculum nearly to the spinners, which are of a dark brown colour, and have at their base yellowish-white spots on the sides and under- neath ; the sexual organs are highly developed, prominent, of a dark brown colour, slightly tinged with red, and have in con- nexion with their anterior margin a short, somewhat pointed process, hollowed on the outer side, which is directed obliquely downwards and backwards. « This species differs remarkably from the more typical forms of its congeners in having the posterior legs the longest, The genus Epeira, as at present characterized, requires amending with regard to the relative length of the legs, which is now known to vary in different species. Genus Piectrana, Walck. Plectana tricuspidata. Length of the female 3th of an inch; length of the cephalo- thorax !,; breadth .,; breadth of the abdomen +%,; length of a posterior leg ;3.; length of a leg of the third pair 3. The cephalothorax, which is nearly concealed by the project- ing abdomen, is slightly compressed before, rounded on the sides, depressed in the posterior and convex in the cephalic re- gion ; the falces are small, conical, and vertical; the maxille are short, straight, powerful, and greatly enlarged and rounded at the extremity ; the lip is semicircular, and the sternum is heart- shaped; the legs are short and sparingly provided with hairs ; the fourth pair is the longest, then the first, and the third pair is the shortest; the palpi are short and slender. These parts are glossy and of a. dark brown colour, tinged with red, the cephalothorax being the darkest, and the palpi and sternum much the palest. The eyes are situated on the anterior part of the cephalothorax, and are nearly equal in size; the four inter- mediate ones almost form a square, but the two posterior eyes are rather wider apart than the anterior ones, which are seated on a tubercle and are prominent; those of each lateral pair are _ placed obliquely on a tubercle, and are nearly in contact. The abdomen is triangular, with its vertex directed backwards; its integument is corneous and glossy, and a long acute spine pro- jects obliquely upwards from each angle of the upper part, that at the vertex being rather the longest; it is depressed above, convex underneath, where the spinners are situated, and has’ OE LT Set captured in Rio Janeiro. 89 ‘several deep furrows on the sides and posterior part ; the colour of the upper part is dull yellow, the spines having a reddish tint, which is darkest at their point; a fine ramified dark brown -line extends along the middle, on each side of the anterior part of which three parallel, minute, dark brown depressions are dis- posed longitudinally ; four similar depressions extend in a row along the posterior part of each side, which is obscurely reticu- lated throughout its entire length with fine dark lines; the under part has a brownish-black hue ; a dull yellow spot occurs on each side of its anterior extremity, near the cephalothorax, and a space of a similar colour surrounds the prominent black rim which encircles the spinners, except at its posterior part, from which a brownish-black band extends along the under side of the long spine at the vertex of the triangle formed by the ab- domen, where it terminates in a point; the sexual organs have a brownish-black hue, and that of the branchial opercula is reddish-brown. Genus Gaena, Koch. Galena zonata. Galena zonata, Koch, Die Arachn., Band xii. p. 105, tab. 419. fig. 1032, Epeira galena, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt., tom. iv. p. 562. Length of the female 1th of an inch; length of the cephalo- thorax 1; breadth +,; breadth of the abdomen 3; length of an anterior leg 3; length of a leg of the third pair 74. The legs are very long, the first and second pairs in particular, and are provided with hairs and spines; on the anterior side of the tibize and metatarsi of the first and second pairs a series of long, prominent, slightly curved spines occurs, and in each of the rather wide intervals by which they are separated a row of shorter curved spines is situated, which gradually increase in length as they extend down the limb; the femora, genua, extre- ’ mity of the tibie, metatarsi, and tarsi of the first and second srt are of a reddish-brown colour, the metatarsi and tarsi ing the palest, and the tibie, with the exception of their ex- tremity, have a dull yellow hue; the third and fourth pairs are slender, and of a dull yellow colour; a fine reddish-brown line extends along the upper surface of the anterior part of the fe- mora. and the entire length of the tibie of both pairs, and one of the same hue passes along the superior surface of the meta- tarsi of the fourth pair; each tarsus is terminated by three claws ; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is inflected near its base. The palpi are slender, and have a curved pectinated claw at their extremity ; they are of a dull yellow colour, the cubital joint being the palest, and have a fine reddish-brown line extending along the upper part 40 Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered Spiders of the humeral and radial joints. The cephalothorax is long, compressed before, rounded on the sides, gibbous in the middle, glossy, and has a small circular indentation in-the medial line; the colour of the anterior part is red-brown, diminishing gra- dually in breadth towards the medial indentation, near which it terminates in a point; the sides are tinged with the same hue, and the colour of the remaining portion is yellow-brown. The falces are long, conical, vertical, and armed with a curved fang and some long and very fine teeth near the extremity, on the inner surface; the maxille are straight, except at the extremity, which is somewhat enlarged, obliquely truncated on the inner side, and curved upon the lip; the lip is large, longer than broad, and rounded at the apex. These parts are of a red-brown colour, the extremity of the maxille and lip having a yellow- brown hue. The sternum is heart-shaped, and of a pale reddish- brown colour, with a transverse dark red-brown line between the coxze of the second pair of legs. The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax, and are unequal in size; the two anterior eyes of the four intermediate ones are the largest of the eight, are seated on a prominent tubercle, and are wider apart than the two posterior ones, and those of each lateral pair, which are the smallest, are placed obliquely on a minute tubercle, and are contiguous. The. abdomen is short, broad, thinly clothed with hairs, convex above, and projects over the base of the ce- phalothorax ; the upper part is of a pale-yellow colour, finely reticulated with reddish-brown ; on each side of the anterior part there is a conspicuous, oval, yellowish-white spot bordered with reddish-brown ; to these spots succeed four pale, narrow, trans- verse, bands bordered by fine reddish-brown lines which are confluent in the medial line; and a large triangular reddish- brown spot, having its vertex directed forwards, and comprising near its base a small spot of a dull yellowish hue, is situated immediately above the spinners; at the extremity of the under | part there is a large, reddish-brown, and somewhat crescent- shaped mark whose extremities extend to the sides ; the sexual organs are rather prominent, and of a dark reddish-brown co- lolour, with a longitudinal yellowish-brown septum in the middle. The male differs from the female in several particulars : it is smaller, the cephalothorax.is shorter, and, with the falces and sternum, is of a pale dull-yellow. colour; a transverse red-brown line occurs on its gibbosity, and there is a fine line of the same hue across the sternum, between the coxe of the second pair of legs. The maxille and lip have a yellowish-brown hue. The colours of the abdomen are paler in the male than in the female, but the design formed by their distribution is the same in both captured in Rio Janeiro. 41 sexes. The palpi are remarkably long, measuring 2 inch, very slender, and of a yellowish-brown colour, the radial joint being the brownest; this joint greatly exceeds the cubital in length, and is somewhat enlarged at its extremity, which is supplied with several long and fine spines; the digital joint is short and of an irregular figure ; the extremity is depressed, with a trans- verse, curved, dark red-brown rib underneath, terminating in a protuberance on the outer side, and is much broader than the base, which is convex and hairy externally, concave within, and comprises the palpal organs ; these organs are highly deve- loped, prominent, and consist of a red-brown spiral process, whose pointed termination is black, and has some pale yellowish- brown membrane contiguous to it. The collection of Araneidea made in Rio Janeiro by Measrs. Gray and Clark contained three adult females and one male of this handsome and remarkable spider, which appears to be most nearly allied to the Epetride by its organization; but I am not able to state in what degree its habits and economy tend to establish this relation of affinity. An imperfect description and figure of the male have been given by M. Koch from a specimen in the museum at Berlin, probably the only one then known to arachnologists; but he ~ has fallen into the error of supposing it to be indigenous to Africa. Walckenaer has evidently made his brief description of this species from Koch’s figure of the male. Genus TetTracnatua, Latr. Tetragnatha splendens. Length of the female 54 ths of an inch ; length of the cephalo- thorax ; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen ,/,; length of an anterior leg ;/,; length of a leg of the third pair 4. The eyes, which are seated on black spots, and are nearly equal in size, are disposed in two transverse rows on the anterior part of the cephalothorax; the four intermediate ones form a trapezoid whose anterior side is rather the shortest, and those of each lateral pair are placed on a small tubercle and are nearly in contact. The cephalothorax is compressed before, rounded on the sides, truncated in front, moderately convex, glossy, with slight furrows on the sides converging towards a large indenta- tion in the medial line; the falces are short, strong, conical, vertical, and armed with a few teeth on the inner surface; the sternum is heart-shaped; the legs are long, slender, and pro- vided with hairs and fine spines; the first pair is the longest, then the second, and the third pair is much the shortest; each tarsus is terminated by claws of the usual number and structure; 42 Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered Spiders the palpi are slender, and have a curved slightly pectinated claw at their extremity. These parts are of a dull yellow colour, the metatarsal and tarsal joints of the legs and the digital joint of the palpi being tinged with brown. The maxille are slightly divergent, and increase in breadth from the base to the extre- mity, which is somewhat angular on the outer side; and the lip is semicircular. These organs are of a red-brown colour. The ‘abdomen is subcylindrical, sparingly clothed with short hairs, ‘and projects a little over the base of the cephalothorax; the upper part and sides have a bright silvery lustre, with a slight golden tinge, which is deepest on the latter, and a dark brown ‘ramified band extends along the middle of the former; the pos- terior extremity, which projects considerably beyond the spinners, has a yellowish-brown colour, and comprises two parallel spots of a silvery lustre placed transversely; the under part has a yellowish-brown hue, with minute spots and a somewhat semi- circular transverse band of a silvery lustre with a slight golden tinge ; the sexual organs are small, and of a dark reddish-brown colour, with a yellowish-brown longitudinal septum in the mid- dle; and the branchial opercula have a dull yellow hue. Tetragnatha formosa. Length of the female }th of an inch; length of the cephalo- thorax 4, ; breadth +; ; breadth of the abdomen ;/;; length of an anterior leg $; length of a leg of the third pair 7y. ; The abdomen is robust, subcylindrical, very prominent at the anterior extremity, and projects greatly over the base of the cephalothorax ; the upper and sides have a bright silvery lustre, the latter having a slight golden tinge ; along the middle of the former a black band extends, which is crossed near its anterior extremity by a strongly curved brownish-black line, within whose curvature there is a short transverse line of the same hue; on each side of the medial band a shorter parallel black band occurs; these bands, which commence near the ex- tremities of the curved line, are connected anteriorly by a trans- verse black line, and laterally by four oblique lines of the same hue, disposed in pairs and inclined towards each other; on each side there are two longitudinal brownish-black bands, the supe- rior one of which is connected at its posterior extremity with the lateral band of the upper part by a black bar; the posterior extremity of the abdomen is black, and comprises eight silvery spots disposed in pairs, which diminish in size as they approach the spinners, towards which they converge; the under part is of a brown colour, with minute spots, a short streak directed back- wards from the posterior margin of each branchial operculum, and a somewhat semicircular band, of a silvery lustre, with a Te as ee Oa tlie EE Oe ee ee OS ee re Ne eres ve captured in Rio Janeiro, =» 43 slight golden tinge; the space comprised within the semicircle and the spinners has a brown-black hue, and a minute silvery spot occurs on each side of the latter, at their base ; the sexual organs are moderately developed, with a longitudinal septum in the middle, and are of a dark reddish-brown colour, that of the branchial opercula being yellow-brown. The cephalothorax is compressed before, rounded on the sides, truncated in front, slightly convex, glossy, with furrows on the sides, converging towards a large indentation in the medial line; it is of a dull yellow colour, the lateral margins and a small cruciform spot in the medial indentation having a brown hue. The falces are short, powerful, conical, vertical, armed with a few teeth on the inner surface, and of a dull yellow colour, tinged with brown towards the outer side, and of a dark brown hue at the extremity. The maxille are divergent, and increase in breadth from the base to the extremity, which is angular on the outer side ; and the lip is semicircular and prominent at its apex. These organs have a brown-black hue. The sternum is heart-shaped, with small oo on the sides, opposite to the legs, and is of a red- rown colour. The legs are long, slender, provided with hairs and are of a dull yellow colour; the joints have a dark brown hue at the extremity, and the metatarsi and tarsi are tinged. with brown ; the first pair is the longest, then the second, and the third pair is much the shortest ; the tarsi are terminated by claws of the usual number and structure. The palpi are slender, and have a curved slightly pectinated claw at their extremity; po resemble the legs in colour, but the joints are not marked with dark brown at the extremity. The eyes are seated on black spots, and are disposed in two transverse rows on the anterior part of the cephalothorax; the four intermediate ones form a trapezoid whose anterior side is rather the shortest, and those of each lateral pair are placed on a small tubercle, and are nearly in contact; the two anterior eyes of the trapezoid are somewhat the largest and darkest of the eight. - This and the-preceding species of Tefragnatha belong to M. Walckenaer’s second family of the genus, the Coadunate, and bear a marked resemblance to certain spiders of the genus Nephila. Tribe Senoculina. Family DyspERip2. Genus Dyspera, Latr. Dysdera crassipalpus. Length of the male gths of an inch; length of the cephalo- 44 Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered Spiders. thorax 4; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen +; length of an anterior leg 7’,; length of a leg of the third pair 2. The cephalothorax is large, oval, glossy, moderately convex, with slight furrows on the sides converging towards a small indentation in the medial line, and is of a dark brown colour tingedwith red. The eyes are nearly equal in size, and are grouped on the anterior part of the cephalothorax in the form of a small oval open in front; the two intermediate ones are near to each other, and those of each lateral pair are seated obliquely on a tubercle, and are almost in contact. The falces are small, coni- cal, rather prominent, and are armed with a short curved fang at the extremity, but have no teeth on the inner surface ; the maxille are straight, greatly dilated at the base, where the palpi — are inserted, and somewhat enlarged at the extremity, which is rounded on the outer side; the lip is long and truncated at the apex; the sternum, which has an oval form, is narrower at its anterior than at its posterior extremity, and has small promi- nences on the sides, opposite to the legs. These parts have a red-brown hue, the sternum and the base of the lip bemg much the darkest. The legs are robust, provided with hairs and with sessile spines on the inferior surface of the tibize and metatarsi of all except those of the posterior pair, and are of a yellowish- brown colour ; the first pair is the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three claws ; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is small and inflected near its base. The palpi are strong and of a yellowish-white colour, with the exception of the axillary joint, which has a red-brown hue; the radial is very much larger than the cubital joint, and has the appearance of being swollen; the digital joint is short, oval, convex and hairy externally, and the palpal organs are connected with its inferior surface by a short pedicle; these organs are highly developed, and somewhat resemble Rupert’s drops in form, being sub- globose at the base and terminating in a long curved process gradually tapering to a point ; they are of a pale red-brown co- lour, with a transverse yellowish-white band extending from the base of the subglobose part to its extremity. The abdomen is short, oviform, convex above, thinly clothed with fine hairs, and of a dull olive-green hue; a large semicircular mark at its ante- rior extremity, from which a fusiform band, bifid at its termina- tion, extends along the middle of the upper part rather more than a third of its length, and a series of short transverse curved bars between this band and the spinners are of a dark puce- colour; an oblong spot of the same hue is directed forwards from each side of the spinners, which have a pale yellowish- brown tint ; the branchial opercula and tracheal stigmata are of eae a a ee eR Sa eee eA ee ee ee ee ee Pee — Rev. T. Hincks on new British Hydroids. 45 a pale dull yellow colour; an obscure line of the same hue ex- tends from each of the latter nearly to the spinners, where the two meet, and between the former a reddish-brown protuberance is situated. VIIT.—On some new British Hydroids. By the Rev. Tuomas Hincxs, B.A. [Plate IX. vol. x. figs. 3, 4.] Fam. Tubulariade. Genus Arracty.is, Strethill Wright. A. margarica, n. sp. Pi. IX. fig. 4. Polypary a network of delicate anastomosing tubes, from which rise at intervals small chitinous cups, somewhat funnel- shaped, which invest the base of the polypes and of the gono- phores. Polypes white, scattered, slightly retractile; the body elongate, expanding towards the upper extremity, which is encircled by a verticil of about twenty-four muricate tentacles, alternately erect and depressed. Half of them are furnished near the base with a prominent cluster of large bean-shaped thread-cells, which projects outwards as a pearly boss or tubercle. This gem-like setting round the tentacular ring gives a very beautiful and distinctive appearance to the species. Gonophores produced on the creeping stem, close to a polype, either singly or in pairs, of large size, pedunculate, the pedicle tapering to- wards the point of attachment, and=sheathed at the base in a chitinous tube, sub-globular, crowned by a kind of lid (PI. IX. fig. 4 6), which seems to be cast off as development proceeds. From the bottom of the sporosac, which occupies the whole interior of the gonophore, rise four branched processes, of an orange-colour (representatives of the gastrovascular canals), which, as it were, embrace the ova. The latter are produced in great numbers (300 in a single gonophore), and exhibit a very distinct vesicle and spot. Hatitat. Ilfracombe ; abundant on Flustra foliacea, and on this only, from about 10 fathoms, In this very singular and: beautiful species, the character which at once attracts attention is the series of projecting bosses round the base of the tentacular ring. When examined with the microscope, these are seen to consist of a number of elongate bean-shaped thread-cells (fig. 4), which are piled together so as to form silvery-white prominences on the lower side of the tentacles. They occur, I believe, only on the alternate arms, and constitute a unique garniture. 46 Rey. T. Hincks on new British Hydroids. The polypes, with their numerous tentacles, of moderate length, surrounding a large and expanded oral disk, bear some resemblance to a full-blown flower. When withdrawn, the arms bend inwards. : The gonophores, which are produced on the creeping stolon (fig. 4e), rise, as the polypes do, from within a cup-like extension of the polypary. They are supported on a peduncle of some length, and, when fully developed, exceed the polypes consider- ably in size. I have not succeeded in making out all the details of the structure, nor in tracing the whole course of development. The sac which immediately contains the ova is enclosed in a more or less transparent envelope, which, at a certain stage, exhibits at the summit the appearance of a ribbed covering or lid. I conjecture that this lid is cast off, and that the outer envelope: sloughs away, leaving the inner sac free for the discharge of the generative products, From the base of the sporosac proceed four much-branched vessels, terminating near the top of it in blind extremities, and immediately enclosing the ova, which fill with a dense mass the interior of the cavity, I have counted about 300, which had been pressed out of a single gonophore. The ovum consists of a cream-coloured granular substance, the germinal vesicle showing as a depression, and the spot as a circle with a raised rim. I could detect no trace of a manubrium, nor did I witness the liberation of the reproductive elements. The outer envelope of the gonophore is filled with the long bean-shaped thread-cells, which are also present in amazing numbers in the ectoderm of the coenosare. All the known members of the genus Aéractylis ave propa- gated by means of free gonozooids, with the exception of A. are- nosa and the present species. Fam. Campanulariade. Genus Laomepra, Lamouroux. L. fragilis, n. sp. Pl. IX. fig. 3. Polypary very minute and delicate. Stem flexuose, giving off a branch at every flexure, which is annulated and tapers up- wards, terminating in a much elongated and very narrow cell, with an even rim. The stem exhibits three or four rings (often very indistinct) above the origin of each branch. Height about 3 inch. Habitat. In pools on the lower ledges of the Capstone, Ilfra- combe, forming miniature groves on the under side of stones. This species is smaller and more delicate in habit even than Dr. F, Miiller on the Transformations of the Porcellane. 47. the L. neglecta of Alder, and is as graceful in form as it is fairy- like in size. The markedly flexuose character of the stem, the great length and narrowness of the cells, the plain margin, and the Lilliputian size, are the distinctive points. IX.—On the Transformations of the Porcellanz. By Dr. Fritz Mixer, of Desterro*. [Plate I.] For two years I have been acquainted with a Zoéa which is distinguished from its allies by the want of the dorsal spine and the unusual length of the straightly extended frontal horn; but it is only a few months since I found it to be the offspring of the same Porcellana whose extraordinary parasites I described in my recent memoirst. In the mean time I met with oppor- tunities of examining the young brood of two other Porcellanide. One of these is a smaller Porcellana with a nearly circular carapace, which occurs rarely on rocks amongst Polypes and Polyzoa; the other (Pl. I. figs. 1-3) lives parasitically upon some species of Starfishes, and differs so much from the true Por- eellane in its whole appearance, in its claws, and especially in the shortness of the external antennz, that I regard it as the representative of a peculiar genus, and call it Porcellina stelli- colat. As these Porcellana-larve agree in all essential characters with the Zoéa-form’ of the young Crabs, I leave their detailed de- scription for a larger work on the young state of the Crabs, for which I have long been collecting materials, and confine myself at present to a superficial description of their structure. The carapace is of an oval form, and covers not only the upper part and sides of the anterior unsegmented part of the body, but also the first five segments of the abdomen. From its anterior margin issues a straight spine or horn, which is as much as five times the length of the carapace (three times in the smaller Porcellana). Two similar spines extend straight back- wards from the hinder margin of the carapace ; these are usually parallel, but sometimes divergent in Porcellina; in the smaller Porcellana (fig. 10), in which they attain only two-thirds the length of the carapace, they are slightly bent downwards at the apex, and bear, near their origin, a considerable spine directed ee by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1862, p- : T See Annals, July and August 1862, ft Another Porcellana (P. Creplinii, n. sp.) is still more singular in its mode of life ; it resides in pairs in the tube of Chetopterus pergamentaceus, 48 Dr. F. Miiller on the Transformations of the Porcellane. obliquely forwards and downwards ; in the common Porcellana they are beset beneath with an entire series of small spines, and exceed the carapace in length; in Porcellina they attain more than three times the length of the carapace. Thus, in the latter species, the carapace of the newly-hatched young, with its pro- cesses, is twice as long as that of the mother. Besides this remarkable carapace, the only structure which differs remarkably from other young Crabs is that of the last segment, which is dilated into a fin. It is well known that the last segment of the larve of Crabs is extended on each side into a horn, often of considerable size, and that in the emargination between these horns, three short plumose bristles usually stand on each side. In the Porcellane the lateral horns are replaced by inconspicuous spines, and the middle part projects so far between them that the whole tail acquires nearly a rhomboid form. In Porcellina this is particularly elongated, more than twice as long as broad. On each of the two posterior sides of the rhombus there are five long plumose bristles. (An inter- mediate form, but approaching most closely to the Porcellane, is presented by the tail of the young Paguri.) In all other respects, in the structure of the eyes, antenne, mouth, and feet, the young Porcellane agree entirely with the young Crabs, and exhibit no greater difference from them than the latter do among themselves. In both, the anterior antenne (PI. I. fig. 5 a) are not jointed, and have a strong nervous knot in the vicinity of their apex, from which, besides a few minute bristles, two (three in Porcel- lina) longer peculiar filaments issue. These are of uniform thickness, or rarely a little tapering ; they terminate in a rounded extremity, and are further distinguished from other bristles hy their very delicate outline and dull turbidity. The same fila- ments, however, recur on the anterior antenn of young Bopy- ride (they are especially distinct in Entonites cancrorum, n. sp.) and Cirripedes ; im the latter they spring singly from a minute basal joint close to the eye. The posterior antenne (fig. 5 6) in Porcellina stellicola already exhibit a great resemblance to those of the mature animal (fig.2) —the same inflated basal joint with the well-known opening of. the still problematical sensorial organ, the same acutely trian- gular second joint, from the outside and upper part of which issues, in the one case, a multiarticulate flagellum, and in the other a simple spine-like process. The same pieces occur in the same form in the other species*. * In the Zoéa of a small Xantho, the outer antennee (fig. 11) attain the length of the frontal horn, and the future flagellum is so small as to be almost imperceptible, Dr. F. Miiller on the Transformations of the Porcellane. 49 The parts of the mouth (fig. 5) consist of a very large upper lip (c), of two strong sharply toothed mandibles, apparently without palpi (d), of a bipartite lower lip (e), and two pairs of maxille (f, 7). The anterior maxilla (fig.8) is split up into three, and the posterior one (fig. 9) into five leaves armed with strong bristles, which are partially denticulated or feathered ; the latter also bears on the outside a larger membranous plate, which is produced posteriorly into a finger-like process ; the process bears — one, and the plate itself anteriorly and at the margin six, plu- mose bristles. This plate is bent upwards, and is in constant motion between the body and the carapace. The two pairs of natatory feet consist of a strong cylindrical basal joint and two terminal rami; the inner ramus, which the animal is fond of extending forward, has four joints, and the outer one, which is usually turned outwards and upwards, two, less distinctly separated. At the extremity of the outer ramus stand four long plumose sete; a single plumose seta is at the end of the third joint of the inner ramus of the last pair, and there are simple bristles on all the joints of the inner ramus of both pairs. Behind the origin of the natatory feet commences the six- jointed abdomen, which bears no appendages; this separates from the carapace a little behind the middle of its upper part. The stomach is somewhat dilated, and already exhibits (at least in Porcellina) longitudinal ridges beset with bristles; close to it on each side there are two hepatic ceca directed forwards, and two others directed backwards ; the intestine has a straight course, and opens a little before the-middle of the caudal seg- ment. The heart, situated at the posterior end of the thorax (in young Crabs under the origin of the dorsal spine), appears to be already formed exactly as in the mature animal, and to give off the same vessels. The anterior single vessel may be readily traced almost to the apex of the frontal horn, to the upper wall of which it is applied. Blood-corpuscles are exceedingly few in the first days (but this does not apply to all Zoée). In each abdominal segment there is a ganglion of consider- able size, united to its neighbours by two separate cords; in the anterior part of the animal I could not quite clearly make out the nervous system in its connexions. If it be easy to procure in abundance the earliest stages of the most various Crustacea, it is all the more difficult to obtain a clue to their ultimate fate. Although the Porcellane are among the most generally distributed of Crustacea, I only once (in December of last year) met with an older larva (PI. I.figs. 6,7). At the spot where I found it, neither Porcellina stellicola nor Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xi. 4 50 Dr. F. Miiller on the Transformations of the Porcellane. Porcellana Creplinii lived; but the larvee of the common and of the smaller Porcellane are distinguishable at the first glance by the posterior processes of the carapace ; and thus this larva may without hesitation be referred to the former species, from the earliest form of which it differs only by having twelve (instead of ten) setee on the caudal segment, and by the presence of a pair of short inarticulate appendages on each of the four pre- ceding segments. This siugle larva was, fortunately, uncom- monly instructive, inasmuch as, being near its change of skin, it already showed the new limbs, with variable distinctness, within the old ones. The new external antenne had a multiarticulate flagellum ; feet with large chele; and other members, which could not be completely made out, were situated behind the natatory feet ; and within the caudal segment was a fan-shaped fin (fig. 7). Hence, although the larva itself approaches closely to the earliest stage, the animal issuing from the next change of skin could scarcely differ essentially from the mature Porcellana. So far my observations adapted for a preliminary communi- cation. Their results may be summed up in a few short pro- positions :— The Zoéa-form of the Crabs is completely destitute of the five pairs of true feet, and even of the segments bearing these. The natatory feet of the Zoéa become the foot-jaws of the Crab. The Porcellane are Crabs which have remained stationary at the Megalops-stage*. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fig. 1. Porcellina stellicola, n. g. and sp.; magnified 5 diameters. Fig. 2. Its external antenna; magn. 25 diam. Fig. 3. Fifth pair of feet of the male; magn. 45 diam. Fig. 4. Its youngest Zoéa-form, from above; magn. 15 diam. Fig. 5. Cephalic portion of the preceding, from below ; magn. 90 diam. : a, anterior, and 4, posterior antenne; ¢, upper lip; d, mandible; e, lower lip; f, first, and g, second pair of maxille. Fig. 6. Older Zoéa-form of the common Porcellana of Santa Catharina ; magn. 6 diam. Fig. 7. Caudal extremity of the preceding; magn. 45 diam. In its in- terior is seen the fan-like caudal fin of the next state. Figs. 8 & 9. First and second maxille of the youngest Zoéa-form of the common Porcellana. Fig. 10. Posterior process of the carapace of the youngest Zoéa-form of a smaller Porcellana. Fig. 11. External antenna of the youngest Zoéa-form of a small Xantho : ' g, flagellum. * Milne-Edwards even places Megalops and Porcellana in the same family. 2 5 - Py ? Pt tg é oes zs ie 51 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. The Student’s Manual of Geology. By J. Beete Juxes, M.A., F.R.S. New Edition. 1862. Tue order of the subjects in this Manual is well adapted to the requirements of the student. Firstly, we have the facts and princi- ples respecting the internal structure of rocks, their mineral compo- sition, texture, and other characters, such as may be recognized by the aid of hand-specimens in the cabinet. This is the Lithological division of the work. Under “ Petrology” the author arranges the study of rock-masses, their strata and joints, and the mutual relations of rocks ; this has reference to field-geology. Fossils, their relation to living forms, and the distribution of life in time and space, are next brought forward as Paleontology. The history of the forma- tion of the crust of the globe, with the chronological classification of rocks and fossils, forms the fourth and last division. Each class of subjects above indicated is systematically and care- fully treated, and the requirements of the student are kept well in view. The chemical and mineralogical chapters, however, are not intended to supersede special manuals on mineralogy. The chapters on the formation of rocks, chemical, igneous, and aqueous, contain much instructive matter, carefully arranged and digested from the special works of Cotta, Durocher, Naumann, and others. But the author’s genuine geological experience and personal acquaintance with rocks of every kind enable him, in this as in other divisions of the work, to present good and well-arranged material for the student. There are few works (excepting perhaps Prof. Phillips’s Manual) that treat so well of stratification and the nature of joints and cleavage as this work ; and in this case also we have the advantage of the author’s wide experience in the field: The paleontological portion taken together with the concluding division, that relating to geo- logical classification, is of itself a manual of much value; and these chapters are the better on account of the diagrams, illustrative of the geological order of the formations, being really sections, and the figures of the fossils being newly and carefully selected by an ex- perienced palzeontologist. Indeed, throughout his work Mr. Jukes has availed himself (with full acknowledgments) of the friendly help of his colleagues in the Geological Survey and the Museum of Irish Industry, with the best results. The ‘Manual’ is greatly improved in this second edition: the author has been able to work up more closely to his original conception of what geological students now-a- days require, and he has made those corrections which former over- sight and the continual advance of geological observation have made uisite. The relations of granite both to metamorphic and to unaltered strata have careful consideration in this Manual, and, when compared with the teaching of older works, have a certain freshness of treat- ment which is pleasant to find, and is redolent of truth as far as observed facts go. Possibly, however, sufficient credit is not given to the views of Naumann and Scrope on the original plasticity of 4* 52 Bibhographical Notices. some of the gneissic rocks associated with granite. The true rela- tionship of granite, trap-rocks, and lava is another important point prominently brought forward. The “form of ground,” or modifi- cation of the surface, has also had much attention from the author, who has just recently produced a masterly essay on the origin of the great valley-systems of the South of Ireland, which he considers to have been mainly produced by atmospheric agencies. A large portion of the book is devoted to paleeontological subjects (pp. 373-710) ; and the treatment of this branch of the science, which is not one of the author’s “ specialties,’ and is itself far from perfection, allows of critical animadversion to a greater extent than any of the other chapters. Of the very numerous errors in the orthography, especially of the technical terms, the author has cor- rected many; we do not propose to point out any of the others, excepting ‘‘ Emmonds,” a mis-spelling for Emmons, at pp. 438, 457, &c., and especially “Guep,” disguising the good Viennese geologist Suess (p.555). Mr. Jukes is usually careful to mention his autho- rities and sources of information, and the discoverers of facts and originators of good theories ; we regret, however, to see the omission, no doubt inadvertent, of Hislop’s name in connexion with the coal- bearing beds of Central India (p. 533), and of Harkness when the Permian age of the Ichnites of Corncockle Muir are referred to (p. 546). The chapter on the Triassic or New Red Sandstone Period will require careful revision in a new edition of the Manual ; for the reptilian Placodus is enumerated among the Fishes (page 548), and the Microlestes of Stuttgart is kept in the Keuper, though stated in the same page (541) to have been found in an osseous breccia equivalent (as is well known) to the infra-liassic Bone-bed of England, which is duly assigned to the Rheetic Series at page 555. Not only the Microlestes, but the other osseous remains from these bone-beds, English and German, are reckoned as truly Triassic; and at pages 555 and 560, the mistaken position of Microlestes is repeated, and said to be in the Keuper. Dr. Plie- ninger found his specimens in the bone-bed above the Keuper; and Mr. C. Moore found his in a cleft of the Mountain-lime- stone filled with drifted material derived from the limestone, the Rheetic bone-bed, and the Oolite. Paleeontology (to say nothing of paleeobotany) now finds work for very many separate naturalists, taking up their attention, more or less fully, by this or that class of animal, recent and fossil; and it is impossible for one man to construct a correct Paleontological Manual : the latest English Manual of Paleontology proves our statement. Let Mr. Jukes, therefore, in his next edition of his Manual, get the combined assistance of his many paleontological friends to critically examine his lists of fossils ; otherwise he may almost despair of ever effecting more than a patchwork of chronological geology. In the other parts of the Manual there are still a few things to be noticed. At p. 174, flint and chert are said to be derived “ probably from animals ;” certainly it should be animals and plants, if not plants alone. At pp. 166 and 175, certain limestones are said to be oad ese Ue ae i Ni a el ee eR TS Me UVR IR aR OTE ea ct OT me a nM TNR) OC ON Nelte he = Sie HME MRE oa? Bibliographical Notices. 53 “saccharine ;”” the sugar-character of the rock being more readily izable by the sight than the taste, we think the accepted term “saccharoid”’ better in every respect. Lastly, we believe that, by referring to some of the “ Explanations of Maps and Sections,” of the Geological Survey, relating to Wilts and Oxfordshire, Mr. Jukes will find that his proposed term “ Inlier” (p. 201) has already been invented by some of his colleagues as a good and useful word for valleys-of-elevation and such like. Few of the foregoing remarks at all affect the intrinsic value of the ‘Student’s Manual of Geology.’ It is a good work, already enhanced by careful emendations and by the detersive process of being re-edited by an author who has truth alone in view whilst striving to serve the rising generation in mastering the intricate history of the globe,—a task becoming more and more necessary for the young, from the exigencies of the period, and more and more wef to man in every part of the globe. An Appendix “On Geological Surveying,” of considerable value, and a full Index, which is also glossarial, complete the work. We think that a careful pruning of the theoretical portions, and condensa- tion of some descriptive parts, will be required to balance the addi- tional information that the author must have accumulated, however soon a new edition of this really serviceable Manual is called for. The Coal-fields of Great Britain: their History, Structure, and Resources. With Notices of the Coal-fields of other parts of the World. By Epvwarp Hutt, B.A. With Map and Illustrations. Second Edition, 1861. The history of coal-mining affords an interesting chapter at the commencement of this little volume. Possibly used by the abori- gines, coal seems to have been worked in Britain by the Romans, and was certainly in household use among the Saxons, and has con- tinued to be an article of commerce, with a gradually increasing consumption, until the quantity now annually raised from the British area alone is nearly 80,000,000 tons. The difficulties in arriving at exact information as to the quantity of coal raised in Great Britain and Ireland are being mastered by the energy of the Mining Record Office ; and an approach to an exact knowledge of the extent and thickness of the available coal-seams is being gradually made by the Geological Survey,—the labours of previous as well as contemporary geologists, and the willing co-operation of coal-owners and practical coal-workers, aiding these researches to a very great extent. To put together in a tangible form the results of the elaborate coal-statistics already made, and to define with anything like accuracy the coal- areas, so that the scientifie geologist might have a useful work of reference, and the public be supplied with a compendious and read- able treatise, was a laudable and somewhat difficult undertaking. Mr. E. Hull, one of the Geological Surveyors, and hence personally acquainted with the real character and condition of some of the English coal-fields, boldly took in hand the large and important 54 Bibliographical Notices. subject of coal-resources, and has treated it very satisfactorily, bring- ing to the task good geological knowledge and conscientious exacti- tude. - The second edition of this work has quickly followed on the first, with additional information, partly derived from the experience of others (chiefly colleagues in the Geological Survey), and partly elaborated by the author. The probable duration of our coal-supply is, of course, a most in- teresting point of inquiry, and has been the subject of innumerable treatises and newspaper articles. Mr. Hull, on careful consideration of known facts, states that possibly, if the increase of coal-consump- tion continue to enlarge in future years in the same ratio that it has of late progressed, our coal will barely last for 325 years; but he adds that various causes may interfere with this rapidly progressing ratio, some, however, accelerating rather than diminishing it. To the naturalist a wide field of research is opened by the working of the coal-measures and the associated strata. The fossils, as the paleontologist knows, are numerous and highly interesting. Besides the plants, some are terrestrial, and many are referable to genera that now inhabit the sea; others have apparently such close rela- tionship to some existing fluviatile and estuarine animals that many strata in the old Carboniferous Formation have been regarded as having been formed in brackish, if not fresh, water. The wholly marine condition, however, of the coal-beds is at present recognized by several authoritative geologists ; and nowhere perhaps is this view better supported than in H. D. Rogers’s great work on the Geology of Pennsylvania. Mr. Binney, too, and Mr. Salter have their own facts and arguments in support of the theory that coal-jungles grew in shallow seas. The combination, however, of sea, estuary, lagoon, and river in the formation of coal, on an oscillating sea-board, is succinctly stated in Mr. Hull’s chapters (II. & III.) on the Formation of Coal; but the possibly freshwater or brackish character of some of the Mollusks found in certain beds (Anthracomya, Anthracosia, &c.) is perhaps allowed to lapse too readily. The presence of Estheria (whose existing species have freshwater habitats) in the Coal-formation, as lately announced in the ‘ Neues Jahrbuch,’ 1861, may also be found to influence opinions on this subject. The fossil flora of the Coal is still imperfectly known. Geinitz, of Dresden, has produced a work on the Carboniferous plants of Saxony, which may well serve as a model for British paleeobotanists. Exact observation on the relative distribution of the fossil plants and other organisms, hitherto collected far too indiscriminately to serve the purpose of exact geology, has already been insisted upon by Mr. Salter and others. Many a good specimen of reptile, fish, crusta- cean, mollusk, &c., has been stored, described, and figured, without its position in the coal-measures having been noted with sufficient exactness; and it has therefore proved of about as much use to the geologist as a medal of unknown origin could be to a numismatist. The physical structure of the Coal-fields is a life-study for any geologist, The Geological Surveyors of Great Britain and Ireland Zoological Society. 55 are steadily adding to the stock of knowledge on this subject, and their maps, sections, and explanations are diffusing correct informa- tion. They can work but slowly, however; and much can be done by others : and of this the valuable and lucid memoir by Mr.Marcus Scott, recently published in the Geological Society’s Journal, on the unconformability of the Upper and the Lower Coal-measures of Coalbrook Dale, is a striking example. The study of coal and the coal-measures has been greatly ad- vanced by Mr. Hull’s treatise; for the subject is therein carefully and clearly presented in its many different aspects, with much light derived from his own and others’ experience ; and his map and sec- tions bring to the eye much valuable practical and theoretical in- formation, in which the results of Mr. Hull’s own labours have a conspicuous and most worthy standing*. Doubtless further editions of the work before us will be called for. The increasing interest shown by the public in geology, and the direct interest we all feel in the coal-supply, will induce the author to still further improve his work with amendments of condensed information. Even now, few books are more worthy to bear the motto “scientia et utilitas.” PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. May 27, 1862.—Prof. Huxley, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair. On a New Species or CHLAMYDERA, OR BoweErR-Birp. By Joun Gow p, Esa., F.R.S., etc. I am indebted to the researches of F. T. Gregory, Esq., the West Australian explorer, for a knowledge-of a new species of this group of birds, which are rendered remarkable by their habit of construct- ing bowers or playing-places. It was collected by Mr. Gregory in North-western Australia, and is doubtless the species which con- structs the bowers described by Captain (now Sir George) Grey in the first volume of his ‘ Travels,’ pp. 196 and 245, where he states that, on gaining the summit of one of the sandstone ranges forming the watershed of the streams flowing into the Glenelg and Prince Re- gent’s Rivers, “we fell in with a very remarkable nest, or what appeared to me to be such. We had previously seen several of them, and they had always afforded us food for conjecture as to the agent and purpose of such singular structures.” This “ very curious sort of nest, which was frequently found by myself and other individuals of the party, not only along the sea-shore, but in some instances at a distance of six or seven miles from it, I once conceived must have belonged to a Kangaroo-rat, until Mr. Gould informed me that it is * Mr. Hull’s elaboration of the probable limits of the Carboniferous deposits in England, and of the distribution of the sandstones, clays, and limestones of that formation, is published, with a map, in the ‘ Journal of the Geological Society,’ No. 70, May 1862. 56 Zoological Society :— the run or playing-ground of the bird he has named Chlamydera nuchalis. These nests were formed of dead grass and parts of bushes, sunk a slight depth into two parallel furrows in sandy soil, and then nicely arched above. But the most remarkable fact connected with them was, that they were always full of broken shells, large heaps of which protruded from each extremity of the nest ; these were in- variably sea-shells. In one instance, in the nest the most remote from the sea that we discovered, one of the men of the party found, and brought to me, the stone of some fruit which had evidently been rolled in the sea. These stones he found lying in a heap in the nest ; and they are now in my possession.” The specimen sent to me by Mr. Gregory bears a very general resemblance to the Chlamydera maculata, being spotted all over like that species; but it differs in the guttations of the upper surface being of a larger size and much more distinct, in the abdomen being buff, and in the shafts of the primaries being straw-yellow. In all probability, the specimen is a female, since there is no trace of the beautiful lilaceous nuchal mark seen in the males only of Chlamy- dera maculata and C. nuchalis. Of this well-defined group there are now known three very distinct species, viz., the C. maculata, of the east coast; the C. nuchalis, which frequents the northern parts ; and the C. guttata, of the north-western provinces of Australia. CHLAMYDERA GUTTATA, Gould. General tint of the upper surface and wings deep-brownish black, with a spot of rich buff at the tip of each feather, those of the head and nape being very small, while those on the body and wings are of large size, accordant, in fact, with the increased size of the feathers ; the spots on the tips of the greater wing-coverts are not so round as those on the back; the primaries are very pale brown, fading into white on the basal portion of their inner webs, which is yellow on the under surface ; their shafts straw-yellow ; tail-feathers pale brown, with buff shafts and white tips; throat-feathers brown at the base, with an arrowhead-shaped mark of pale buff at the tip of each, the buff tips becoming much larger on the chest ; centre of the abdomen ale buff; flanks, thighs, and under tail-coverts buff, barred with fight brown ; bill black ; gape rich yellow; feet apparently very dark olive. Total length 114 inches; bill 1}; wing 6; tail 43; tarsi 14. Hab. North-western Australia. Remark.—The primaries of the specimen described are much worn ; they are doubtless tipped with white in fresh-moulted specimens. June 10, 1862.—Professor Busk, F.R.S., in the Chair. On some New Anp Rare Birps rrom New Guinea. By Atrrep Russet WALLACE. The birds now brought before the Society were collected by my assistant, Mr. Allen, on his last voyage. They comprise several in- teresting species, hitherto only known by specimens in the French : 4 a if i- a ee ee Eg Se Oe SP ak eae deal Se ee aT a ata De ap OnE Sg a ee Co Te i pe ee ee ey ee Mr. A. R. Wallace on Birds from New Guinea. 57 or Dutch collections, and now, I believe, for the first time exhibited in England, viz. :— Nasiterna pygmea, Q. & G. Remarkable as being the smallest of the Psittaci, and for its curious, rigid, spined tail. Tanysiptera nympha, G. R. Gray. This specimen decides the locality of this interesting and beautiful bird to be the N. W. penin- sula of New Guinea, in the interior. Peltops Blainvillii, Garn. This rare bird also inhabits the island of Mysol, where a single specimen was obtained by Herr Rosenberg. Mine came from the N.W. of New Guinea. Eupetes cerulescens, Temm. This bird and the last seem quite out of place in New Guinea, as we must pass over all the Moluccas and Celebes to find their nearest allies in Borneo, Java, and Su- matra. Ptilorhynchus buccoides, Mill. HMierococcyz leucolophus, Mill. Campephaga melas, Mill. Besides these, adult specimens of the fine Talegalla Cuvieri were also obtained, and Mr. Allen’s collection also comprises five new species of great interest—a Pigeon, a Kingfisher, a Parrot, and two Passeres, of which the descriptions follow. 1, CorIPHILUS RUBRONOTATUS. Above dark green; beneath yellow green; a large spot on the forehead, sides of the breast, and under wing-coverts bright red; a spot on the upper tail-coverts dull red ; ear-coverts deep blue ; wings and tail as in C. placentis. Bill and cere carmine-red ; feet pale red. Total length 93 in. ; wing 3,3; in. Allied to C. placentis, but smaller, and wants the red face and blue rump which distinguish that species, as well as the yellow- tinged crown, which is replaced by a red spot. Hab. Salwatty, and the N.W. extremity of New Guinea.! 2. HaLcyon NIGROCYANEA. Back, and sides of the head and neck, deep black ; throat, lower part of the breast, and belly white; forehead and crown deep blue, margined from the eyes round the nape with lighter blue; a band across the breast, the shoulders, and wing-coverts deep blue; quills dusky black, margined with blue to near the tips; middle of the back narrowly white, shading into blue, which becomes dark on the tail-coverts ; tail deep blue, inner margins of the feathers and be- neath black ; under tail-coverts black, tipped with blue ; sides of the breast and flanks black ; under wing-coverts black, with a white central band. Bill black, pale in the centre beneath ; feet black. Total length 9 in. ; wing 32 in. The young bird has slightly rufous lores, and the pectoral band rufous mingled with black and blue. Hab. N.W. peninsula of New Guinea. 3. Toporsis Grayt. Beneath bluish white, almost white on the throat; head light- 58 Zoological Society :— greenish blue, the centre of the crown dusky; a black spot on the ear-coverts extending towards the nape; back dusky, the feathers margined with greenish blue; wings dusky, the. quills margined with rufous olive, shoulder-coverts margined with greenish blue ; tail dusky olive, with a minute whitish spot at the tips of the feathers ; ; thighs rufous-tipped. Bill bank feet dusky. Total length 52 in. ; wing 2} in. ; bill from gape 8, in. The bill in this species is nearly as broad as in Macherirhynchus. I have named this interesting bird after Mr. George Robert Gray, who has described the other species of this genus sent home by me. Hab. N.W. peninsula of New Guinea: Mountains of Sorong. 4. GRACULA PECTORALIS. Black, the feathers broadly margined with metallic green and purple; plumes of the neck and breast decomposed, and of a rich orange-buff colour, as are also the vent, rump, and upper tail-coverts ; on the nape a collar of whitish buff reaching round to the orange of the throat; under tail-coverts cream-white, tinged with orange at the base; a white band across the wings towards the tips. Iris yellow ; bill and feet pale yellow. Total length 10in.; wing 53 in. The young bird has the breast and belly black, uniformly mar- gined with light orange. This species differs from the rest of the genus in having neither wattles nor naked skin on the face, but in general structure and co- loration closely resembles the other species. Hab. N,W. peninsula of New Guinea: Sorong. 5. PT1LONOPUS HUMERALIS. Very near P. tozonus, G. R. Gray, but a little larger, and at once distinguished by the violet-grey patch on the shoulder haying its lower half deep purple; the tail also wants the grey apical band of that species, which is replaced by a subapical narrow one, only visi- ble on the lateral feathers and beneath. The wing-coverts are all of a rich violet grey, margined with green. Chin ashy; the rest as in P.iozonus. Bill greenish, tipped with bright yellow, base above red and swollen; feet purple-red. Total length 83 in.; wing 47 in. Hab. = aa and the adjacent coast of New Guinea. DescrIPTIONS OF some New GENERA AND SPECIES OF FISHES OBTAINED AT MaperraA. By JAmEes YATE JOHNSON, Corr. Memo. Z. S. Order MALACOPTERYGII APODES, Cuv. Sect. PHANEROMYCTERES, Kaup. Fam. Mur2&nip&. PsEUDOMURZENA, gen. nov. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united ; no pectoral fins; gill-open- Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Fishes from Madeira. 59 ings lateral; no teeth on the mesial line of the palate; in the jaws uniserial serrate teeth, having a tubercle at the posterior base. This genus differs from Murena in having no teeth on the mesial line, and in the form of the jaw-teeth. PsEUDOMURZENA MADERENSIS, Sp. nN. Body anguilliform, attenuating backwards from the nape, which is deep and thick. Skin soft, thick, scaleless. Colour a yellowish brown, darker on the head; the anterior fourth of the body marked with undulating lines, or narrow bands, of deeper brown, which are arranged longitudinally before the gill-openings, and transversely behind them, the change of direction being gradual. The head is gibbous behind the small eyes, which are oval, covered with skin, and placed over the middle of the upper jaw. The snout is obtuse and rounded; the throat swollen. The posterior nostrils are small, with slightly raised borders, and are placed a little in front of the vertical through the middle of the eye. The anterior nostrils issue in free tubes, which do not quite reach to the tip of the snout. The jaws are of moderate length and subequal; the lips moderately thick ; the inside of the mouth fuscous. The teeth are “” uniserial, rather stout, pointed, conico-compressed, with serrate edges, and a tubercle at the posterior base. They are slightly curved backwards, and are longer in front than behind. In the upper jaw there are about 16; in the lower jaw from 24 to 34. No teeth on the mesial line or on the vomer. Rictus moderate. No barbel. Gill-openings small, round, placed at the sides of the body about the middle of the height. No pectorals or visible lateral line. The dorsal fin commences at the nape, in front of the gill-openings, and is con- tinuous with the caudal and the anal fins ; it is higher behind than in front. The vent is in the hinder half of the body, and about 1,th of the total length behind the middle. The anal fin commences within a short distance of the vent ; it is very low in front, where it is cloaked by thick skin, and where there is a furrow at each side of and parallel with its base; further behind, there are two parallel furrows. The tail is compressed, the fin narrow and rounded. All the fins are covered with a thick skin. Although several specimens of this Eel have been obtained (some of which have been sent to the British Museum), it must still be con- sidered as a rare fish. In colouring it resembles Thyrsoidea unicolor, Kaup, from which it differs generically in the uniserial dentition. The following measurements were taken from a specimen having a total length of 403 inches, with a depth, near the gill-openings, of 34 inches :— Inches I A a hak sites l ko ck uw ¢ + 4 254, Gill-openings, distance from snout.......... 5 Vent, distance from snout ................ 222 Dorsal fin, distance from snout ............ 4} In another specimen, 36} inches long, the longer axis of the eye 60 Zoological Society :— measured +3; inch, and the longest teeth were less than }th of an inch in length. The rictus was 1,5; inch in depth. THYRSOIDEA ATLANTICA, Sp. 0. Anguilliform, compressed; attenuate both ways from middle of body. Skin smooth, scaleless, white, with one dusky oval blotch on one side of body, and two or three such blotches on the other side, unsymmetrically placed. The longer axis of these blotches is from one-third to one-half an inch across. On the fins near the posterior extremity of the body are several similar blotches. A single specimen of this Eel has occurred, the dimensions of which are embodied in this description. Total length 23 inches; depth 1,54; inch, taken about an inch in advance of the vent. ; Head compressed, rising behind the eyes; depth through head and swollen throat, 1,4; inch. Eyes covered with skin, placed a little in advance of the middle of the upper jaw, rather less than one-fifth of an inch in diameter. Hinder nostril-tubes shorter than anterior, placed a little in front of the vertical from the anterior orbit of eye. Front nostril-tubes reaching a little beyond lip. Mouth cleft rather more than an inch deep. Jaws rather slender, somewhat curved, and not capable of shutting closely on account of the length of the front teeth and the curvature of the jaws. Lower jaw a little longer than the upper, without a barbel. Teeth in both jaws slender, pointed, somewhat compressed, curving backwards. In the upper jaw there are-two rows at each side, those of the inner row being longer. A row of seven teeth along the middle of the palate. The longest teeth in the jaw are rather more than one-fifth of an inch in length. In the lower jaw there is a single row at each side ; in front there appear to be two rows. Gill-clefts ;4, mch long, narrow, placed about the middle of the sides, a little posterior to commence- ment of dorsal fin, and 24 inches from snout. The dorsal fin com- mences at the nape, 2;), inches from snout, is lower in front than behind, and unites with the caudal fin, like the anal fin, without a break. Vent about 9 inches from tip of mandible, in anterior half of body. Anal fin commences near vent, and is very low at first. All the fins are covered with skin like that of the body. The specimen was taken in the sea near Madeira, in the month of June 1859, and has been deposited in the British Museum. Fam. SyNAPHOBRANCHID. SyNAPHOBRANC HUS, gen. nov. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united. Pectoral fins present. Gill- openings in close proximity on the under side of the body, having a single external aperture, with an internal dividing membrane. Branchiz four. A row of acute teeth in each jaw, with an external band of minute teeth. Teeth on the vomer and on the mesial line of the palate. Scales on the skin. This genus forms the type of a new family of Malacopterygian * 4 : : Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Fishes from Madeira. 61 Apodals, which differs from all previously established families, except the Symbranchide, in having the gill-openings close together on the ventral aspect ; and from the Symbranchide it is distinguished by the presence of fins. Moreover, from the Murenide it is separated by the possession of pectoral fins, and from the Congride by the ion of scales and by the vent being before the commencement of the dorsal fin. SyNAPHOBRANCHUS KavpPlil, sp. n. illiform, compressed, attenuate in both directions from the neighbourhood of the vent; of a dull brown colour, darker on the belly. The skin contains small oval scales, set obliquely and at right angles to each other. The head is subcompressed, depressed, and flat above ; it exhibits no gibbosity, nor is the throat swollen. The eye is covered with skin; it is of moderate size, and placed at the side of the head, over the middle of the oral cleft, three diameters distant from the tip of the snout. The posterior nostril is in front of the eye and has a raised border. The anterior nostril has a short tube, which does not quite reach to the lip, and is attached in front to the snout, the orifice being directed forwards. Rictus deep. The jaws are narrow, pointed, sub- equal, and without barbels. The lips are cartilaginous, especially the upper lip, which forms a conical snout, projecting much beyond the jaw. There are teeth in both jaws, consisting of an inner row of short, slender, conical, pointed, closely-set teeth, with an exterior band of scobinate teeth, which become reduced to a single row in front. On the vomer is a group of from nine to fifteen conical teeth, the first two or three of which are short, the others rather longer than those in the jaw. On the mesial line of the palate there is a row of minute, sharp teeth curving backwards ; and-the pharyngeals are armed with scobinate bands of teeth. The inside of the mouth is black, as well as the tongue, which is small, toothless, and free at the tip. The gill-openings are side by side on the ventral aspect of the body, in advance of the pectoral fins; they are separated by a membrane placed inside a single external aperture. The dorsal fin commences behind the vent, a little posterior to the commencement of the second third of the total length, and joins the caudal, like the anal fin, without a break. It is higher behind, but is throughout much lower than the anal; the greater part of it is covered with a scaly skin, as is also the greater part of the anal fin. The pectoral fins are well developed, pointed, and situate a little behind the gill-openings, below the middle of the height. The ventral fins are wanting. The vent is in the first third of the total length. The anal fin commences 62 Zoological Society :— just behind the vent ; it is considerably higher about the middle and behind than in front. The caudal is rounded. The lateral line is distinctly marked; it falls gently from the shoulder, but for the greater part of its length is straight along the middle of the body. The air-bladder is long, being more than one-third of the length of the body. The food found in the stomachs of dissected specimens consisted of the remains of fishes and crustaceans. The peritoneal lining is of a dark blue colour. Dedicated to Dr. Kaup of Darmstadt, who has well studied this order of fishes. Specimens have been sent to the British Museum. The following figures give the dimensions in inches of one of the larger examples :— Total length... 2.2.2.0 .6 5 cece ee ee ee cece ence ee wees 32 Depth in the neighbourhood of the vent .............. 3 RURDOER ONT OL bee ee eee ESAs S ete Ce et eee 1,4; Distance from snout to pectoral PR ee wes bree rae 4t from snout to vertical of vent ...............- 93 from snout to vertical of commencement of dorsal ig Pye nhineter, WaT he es cee cp aes ae eee Mictns) depth ho eset... RAO 5c ow het Sa anes 24 o WH GC DOCK: Sates an, veces ip tet Cee pene es > Length of bone of upper jaw 2. os ibaa .. 28 OE Wi Operas sis sas y save a eee es Ko OF wertonl Fo. eos. to ccs cabs cee ee 13 Width of base of pectoral, nearly ..................-. $ Length of rays at middle of anal ...................- Le op rays of pandal. oss oO eee oo) Order ANACANTHINI, Mill. Fam. GAapIp&. LamoneMa, Giinther, MS, The genus Lemonema, established by Dr. A. Giinther on a Me- diterranean fish hitherto assigned to Phycis, is distinguished from the latter genus by the shortness of the base of the first dorsal fin, and by the rounded outline of the patch of vomerine teeth. A full diagnosis of the genus will appear in the forthcoming fourth volume of the ‘Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum.’ . Az. V.1/5.. L. lat. 68. _ The third to sixth dorsal spines are the longest, half as long as the head; the second anal spine longer and stronger than the third. Yellowish, marbled with brown. Moreton Bay. Description.—This species is similar to Cenéropogon australis, from which it will be readily distinguished by the shorter third dorsal spine, which in C.. australis is two-thirds as long as the head. The height of the body is contained thrice and a half in the total length ; the length of the head thrice and a quarter. Head slightly com- pressed, with deep grooves along the interorbital space, which is concave and much narrower than the orbit; there is a slight groove behind the orbits, across the occiput. Snout shorter than the eye, the diameter of which is scarcely more than one-third of the length of the head. Cleft of the mouth slightly oblique, of moderate width, the maxillary extending beyond the front margin of the orbit ; jaws equal in length anteriorly. Each turbinal bone with an obtuse spine superiorly; preeorbital spine strong ; preeoperculum with five spines, the upper of which is the longest; operculum with two ridges; spines on the occiput small and obtuse. Head naked, without cu- taneous appendages ; vomerine teeth in a narrow angular band. The dorsal fin commences immediately behind the occiput, its spines are of moderate length and strength; the third to the sixth are the longest, half as long as the head; the following decrease in length, the last, again, being a little longer than the penultimate ; the soft dorsal rather more elevated than the spinous, short, the length of its base being contained thrice and a fifth in that of the spinous aS ae ee ee ee ee SE ae a ee ee Re, Dr. A. Giinther on new Reptiles and Fishes. 137 dorsal. Caudal fin scaleless, rounded, contained four times and two- thirds in the total length. The anal commences opposite the four- teenth dorsal spine; its second spine is the longest, contained twice and two-thirds in the length of the head. The pectoral has the rays branched, and extends nearly as far backwards as the ventral, which is composed of a strong spine and five soft rays; the region round the base of the pectoral and ventral fins is naked, covered with soft skin. The gill-membranes are scarcely united below the throat. There is a distinct cleft behind the fourth gill*. Length of the specimen, 3 inches. CaTOPRA SIAMENSIS. D. 2. A.3. L. lat. 27. L. transy. 2. The height of the body is contained twice and a third in the total length. Cheek with six series of scales, the lower of which covers the preopercular limb. Body with eight dark cross bands; scales on the nape with some minute whitish dots; the outer edge of the ventral white. Siam. Description.—The height of the body is contained twice and a third in the total length, the length of the head thrice and a third; — head as high as long. Snout rather shorter than the eye, the dia- meter of which is one-fourth of the length of the head, and equal to the width of the interorbital space. The lower jaw is scarcely longer than the upper, and the maxillary extends slightly beyond the ante- rior margin of the orbit. Two nostrils remote from each other, both very small. Preeorbital and angle of the przeoperculum slightly ser- rated ; opercles, throat, and isthmus éntirely scaly. The dorsal fin commences above the end of the operculum, and terminates close by the caudal ; its spines are very strong, and can be received in a groove ; the fifth, sixth, and seventh are the longest, not quite half as long as the head ; the last spine is shorter than the penultimate ; the soft dorsal is elevated and scaly at the base. The second anal spine is exceedingly strong, rather stronger and longer than the third, and not quite half as long as the head ; the soft anal is similar to the soft dorsal. Caudal fin rounded, slightly produced, one-fourth of the total length ; its basal half is scaly. Pectoral rather narrow, as long as the head without snout. The ventral is inserted immediately behind the base of the pectoral; it has a strong spine, and extends to the vent. Scales minutely ciliated ; the upper part of the lateral line termi- nates below the last dorsal rays, the lower commences above the third anal spine. Gill-membranes united below the throat, not attached to the * I have been induced by that circumstance to re-examine C. australis, and. have found a very small opening behind the fourth gill; so that the presence of such a narrow cleft is to be introduced into the diagnosis of the genus Centro- pogon (Catal. Fish. ii. p. 128). Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xi. 10 138 Zoological Society :— isthmus, sealy. Four gills, a slit behind the fourth ; pseudobranchize none. The jaws, vomer, palatines, and upper and lower pharyngeals are armed with bands of small villiform teeth. Very remarkable are two large, ovate, dentigerous plates, one at the roof, the other at the bot- tom of the mouth, in front of the pharyngeals; these plates are slightly concave in the middle, pavimentated with molar-like teeth, and have evidently the same function as the pharyngeal dentigerous plates of the true Pharyngognathi. Total length 52 lines. When I composed the generic characters of the genus Catopra from Bleeker’s accounts, I had not seen a specimen of these fishes, and I described their peculiar dentition in very indistinct terms. The teeth ought to be described thus :—Villiform teeth in the jaws and on the vomer and palatine bones; a large patch of molar-like teeth on the preesphenoid and on the basihyal. . CATOPRA TETRACANTHUS. D. 7%. Alt. L. lat. 26. L. transv. 3/9. 8 The height of the body is nearly one-third of the total length. Cheek with four series of scales, the lower preeopercular limb being naked. Coloration uniform ? East Indies. Description.—The height of the body is nearly one-third of the total length, the length of the head two-sevenths ; head a little longer than high. The length of the snout equals the diameter of the eye, which is contained thrice and two-thirds in the length of the head. The width of the interorbital space is considerably less than that of the orbit. The lower jaw is scarcely longer than the upper, and the maxillary extends slightly beyond the anterior margin of the orbit. Two nostrils remote from each other, the anterior minute. Pre- orbital and angle of the preeoperculum slightly serrated ; opercles, throat, and isthmus entirely scaly. The dorsal fin commences above the root of the pectoral, and terminates at a short distance from the caudal ; its spines are of moderate strength, those in the middle being the longest, a little more than one-third of the length of the head ; the last spine is a little longer than the penultimate ; the soft dorsal is somewhat elevated and not scaly. The three posterior anal spines are nearly of equal length and strength, two-fifths of the length of the head. Caudal rounded, scaly at the base, one-fourth of the total length. Scales minutely ciliated. The jaws, vomer, palatines, and upper and lower pharyngeals are armed with bands of small, villiform teeth, the jaws having a pair of small canine-like teeth anteriorly. The roof and the bottom of the cavity of the mouth have an elongate band of granular teeth, the lower not being confluent into one plate. The coloration appears to have been uniform. Two specimens, 54 lines long, were transferred from the collection of the East India Company to the British Museum. vee Tee Se eee ee ee Se ee ee Ge ila ila al Dr. A. Giinther on new Reptiles and Fishes. 1389 PsEUDOCHROMIS PERSPICILLATUS. D.=. A. =. L. lat. 45. 25 14° Reddish-olive (in spirits), with a chestnut-brown band running from the extremity of the upper jaw through the middle of the eye to the middle of the base of the dorsal fin; the band is very dark and slender anteriorly, gradually becoming lighter and broader poste- riorly. China. Desecription.—The height of the body equals the length of the head, and is contained thrice and a third in the total (without caudal). Head longer than high; cleft of the mouth oblique, with the jaws subequal anteriorly, and with the maxillary extending to behind the vertical from the front margin of the orbit. Snout a little longer than the orbit, the diameter of which is one-fourth of the length of the head. The width of the interorbital space, which is scaly, is less than that of the orbit. The lower jaw with two, the upper with three pairs of canine teeth. Scales on the cheek in six series. Caudal fin subtruncated, with an upper and lower ray produced into a filament. Several specimens are in the collection of the British Museum ; one of the largest is 42 lines long. AMBLYOPUS SAGITTA. 6 1 D. x As The height of the body is one-twelfth of the total length ; vertical fins united; caudal very long, arrow-shaped ; teeth small, in a single series ; eyes rudimentary. California. Description.—Body elongate, compressed, covered with small, im- bricate, cycloid scales, which become larger posteriorly. Head elon- gate, subquadrangular, one-seventh of the total length (with the caudal), and two-thirds of the distance between the vent and the base of the ventral fin. Teeth very small, subhorizontal, in a single series. Cleft of the mouth oblique, rather wide, the maxillary extending to behind the eye; lower jaw prominent; eye very small. Ventral fins confluent ; caudal arrow-shaped, nearly one-fifth of the total. Pectoral as long as the ventral, and half as long as the head. Upper parts grey, lateral and lower silvery ; an ovate grey spot before each dorsal ray ; caudal grey. Four specimens of this fish have been procured for the British Museum. The largest of them is 93 inches long. This is the most aberrant form of the genus Amélyopus ; although closely allied to 4. Broussonetii, it differs in its more feeble dentition and in its larger scales. 4. Broussonetii has 11/16 vertebre, A. sa- gitta 11/20. If the genus Gobioides of Lacépéde be adopted, another oF be created for 4. sagitta, and the sections may be arranged as ollows :— 10* 140 Zoological Society :— AmBtyopus, Gthr. A. Teeth in a band, with an outer series of stronger ones. * More than twenty-five soft dorsal rays: Amblyopus, C. & V. East Indies. ** Less than twenty soft dorsal rays: Gobioides, Lacép. Peru and Guayaquil. B. Teeth in a single series: T'yntlastes. California. DescrIPTIONs OF SOME New Corats From MapEIRA. By James Yare Jounson, Cor. Mem. ZS. Fam. AcanrHocoraiab&, J. E. Gray. ACANTHOGORGIA ATLANTICA, sp. n. Since the occurrence of a specimen of Acanthogorgia Grayi, of which I laid a description before the Society last year (Ann. Nat. Hist. 1862, ix. 75), another form of the genus has been discovered. This was brought up from deep water at Madeira, having become entangled in a fisherman’s line. As there are obvious distinctions from the two other species of this genus, I shall venture to describe it as new. It is of a dark-brown colour, and is very sparingly branched in one plane. The base spreads out in thin branching sheets amongst small shells and fragments of stone which adhere to it. The stem and branches, with their closely packed cells, are cylindrical, the former not much thicker than the latter. The branches are rounded at their extremities. The cells are short, cylindrical, sessile, and so crowded on all sides of the stem that they conceal it from view ; whilst in the two other species of this genus the cells are widely separated, and the bark is seen between them. When the polypi- dom is dry, a brown, slender, horny axis, without spinule, stands distinct from the bark, as in the other species. This axis, when soft- ened and submitted under pressure to the microscope, is seen to consist of fibres bearing a general similarity to those composing the axis of Antipathes. Round the orifice of each cell project large spicula, and smaller spicula strengthen the sides of the cells and the bark. The spicula are intermediate in character between those of A. hirsuta and A. Grayi, being less slender than those of the first species, and less stout than those of the second. ‘The great spicula round the mouth of the cell have their exposed portions spinulose or tuberculated (not smooth as in J. hirsuta) ; their bases are branched (as in A. Grayi), and they are much less marked with the tubercles which roughen the bases of the last-named species so remarkably. This species is distinguishable from the other two by the greater crowding of the cells, by the cells themselves being sessile and being therefore less prominent, by the paucity of the ramifications, and by the differences in the spicula already pointed out. In habit it is very distinct. The specimen (which is now in the British Museum) has a height Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Corals from Madeira. 141 142 Zoological Society :-- of 13 inches, and its branches have a spread of about 11 inches. The stem, with its cells, has a diameter of 375; of an inch, and the branches with their cells are only reduced to two-thirds of that dia- meter. Near the base are the stumps of two branches which have been broken off. Above, on one side, are two simple branches, and on the other a single forking branch. These three branches are placed not far apart near the middle of the main stem. It ought to have been mentioned, with reference to the woodcuts of 4. Grayi and A. hirsuta (Ann. Nat. Hist. 1862, ix. 75,76), that the figures are considerably larger than the natural size. DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODCUTS. Acanthogorgia atlantica. Fig. 1. Outline of the entire specimen, on a reduced scale. Fig. 2. Portion of a branch, enlarged. Fig. 3. A cell more highly enlarged. Fig. 4. A spiculum from the edge of a cell. Fig. 5. A spiculum from the side of a cell. Acanthogorgia Grayt. Fig. 6. Outline of a portion of the coral, on a reduced scale. Fig. 7. A branch, enlarged, for comparison with fig. 2. Figs. 8, 9. Spicula from the edge and side of a cell. Acanthogorgia hirsuta. Figs. 10, 11. Spicula from the edge and side of a cell. Fam. STYLASTERID&. ALLOPORA MADERENSIS, Sp. n. Opake white. Much and closely branching nearly in one plane, the branches becoming gradually of less diameter, and sometimes anastomosing. They zigzag from cell to cell; and the surface is finely reticulato-striate, but is without any tubercles. The cells are oblong, sessile, and always placed transversely to the branch, upon one face of the plane. The terminating cells, with their pedicels, are trumpet-shaped, but with oblong mouths, which are much wider than the stalk below. The margin of each cell is elegantly notched with from twelve to sixteen notches, with laminze between. The dimensions of the single specimen that has occurred (now in the British Museum) were 3} inches high and 2} inches across. The base had been broken away, and the thickest part of the remain- ing stem was 1th of an inch in diameter. The longer axis of the terminal cells measured the twentieth of an inch. The specimen was brought up by a long fishing-line on the coast of Madeira. Two examples of that curious patelliform shell the Pedicularia sicula were found seated on the branches. With re- spect to this circumstance, I may mention that Mr. 8. P. Woodward has shown me a coral from the coast of Sicily, belonging to a totally distinct genus, with Pedicularie upon it; and in the Coral Room at the British Museum there is another coral with the same shell still adhering to it. a x “ er nee tae al ean Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on new Species of Corals. 143 - The present form, though at the first glance t seems to have a general resemblance to 4. fabelliformis, is quite distinct from that species, having the cells much larger and transversely oblong, not round. Moreover, the zigzag character of the branches is much more marked. It may, however, be worth inquiry whether it may not be the A. infundibulifera of Lamarck. A. maderensis appears to show that the genera Stylaster and Al- Allopora maderensis. Fig. 1. A branch, with its ramuli, of the natural size. Fig. 2. A ramulus magnified. Fig. 3. A cell more highly magnified. lopora ought to be united ; for though there are no “ petites pointes ”” or “tubercules vésiculaires”’ upon this coral (M. Milne-Edwards giving this as one of the characters of Stylaster), yet the gemma- tion is alternate and distichal—the same writer saying of A/lopora that its gemmation is “‘ tout-a-fait irréguliére.” DescripTion or Two New Species or CorRALS BELONGING To THE GENUS FLABELLUM. By E. W. H. Hotpsworrs, F.LS., etc. 1. FLABELLUM CAMPANULATUM. Compressed, campanulate; borders straight or slightly convex ; without spines. Base usually terminating in a small pedicel, some- times irregularly compressed. Superior margin slightly arched. Cell deep and narrow. Border of lamelle entire, sloping inwards from the apex for about one-third of their length, thence continuing straight to the bottom of the cell. Columella indistinct. Five prin- cipal lamellz in half an inch. Height 14 lines; breadth 16 lines ; proportion of axes 7 : 16. Specimens in the British Museum are rather longer in proportion than those in my possession ; but the variation is not very great. Had. Philippines. 144 Zoological Society :— This coral is very neat and symmetrical, and can hardly be con- founded with any other species. 2. FLABELLUM NOBILE. Much compressed throughout, elongated. Borders rather con- cave, with four or five root-like appendages more or less distant from the base, but closely united throughout their length to the lower half of the coral. These appendages spring from and are continuous with the transverse epithecal ridges which mark the successive periods of increase in the coral, and, although now intimately united to the main stem, are evidently of extraneous growth, corresponding in origin and nature with the ordinary form of spines, but taking a downward direction to increase the basal area. Upper margin of the coral slightly arched. Cell very deep and narrow. Margin of lamellee entire, and gradually curving from apex to base, at which point opposite series of the» larger plates almost unite. No colu- mella perceptible. Four principal lamellee in half an inch. The two specimens which have furnished the above description are of different ages. The smaller and more perfect example is at- tached to the upper margin of the flat side of the larger one, and has grown in nearly the same vertical direction. It measures 2 inches 6 lines in height, and 1 inch 10 lines in greatest breadth. The older example is 2 inches 6 lines in the long diameter, and 1 inch 3 lines in the short. The base of this specimen is imperfect ; so that the original length of the coral cannot be certainly ascertained. This species is intermediate between the genera Flabellum and Rhizotrochus, having the usual compressed shape of the former, with a partial development of the radiciform appendages of the latter re- markable genus. The peculiar situation of the smaller specimen is perhaps worthy of notice, as being one in which the supplemental props are especially useful in aiding the attenuated base to support the long and heavy coral. A similar tendency to parasitic growth, or rather adhesion to another individual of its own species, may be observed in Milne-Edwards’s figure of the type-specimen of Rhzzo- trochus*. The species now under consideration should, I think, be placed in the genus Flabellum, although differing in some of its cha- racters from most of the typical forms ; and as it is the largest mem- ber of the genus, I propose to call it nodile. The precise habitat of this coral is unknown. It was brought to this country by the late Sir Everard Home ; and as that gentleman’s collections were principally made in the neighbourhood of Australia and New Zealand, these corals were probably obtained from the same part of the world. The specimens are now in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. * Milne-Edwards et J. Haime, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 3¢ sér. t. ix. p. 282, pl. 8. f. 16, 848. Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on Caryophyllia clavus. 145 On THE OccURRENCE OF CARYOPHYLLIA CLAVUS ON THE Coasts oF BRITAIN, WITH SOME REMARKS ON THE CiRCUM- STANCES AFFECTING THE DISTRIBUTION OF CORALS AROUND THE BritisH Isuanps. By E. W. H. Hotpsworrs, F.L.S., F.Z.S., ETC. By the kindness of the Rev. Thomas Hincks of Leeds, I have re- cently been enabled to examine some specimens of coral which had been forwarded to him from Shetland, and from Loch Fyne on the east coast of Scotland. They prove to be new to Britain, and are iden- tical with the Caryophyllia clavus of the Mediterranean, first described as a fossil by Scacchi in 1833, and figured and described from recent specimens under the name of Cyathina turbinata by Philippi in his ‘Catalogue of Sicilian Mollusca,’ published in 1836. Several ex- amples of this coral have been obtained from deep water in the above- mentioned localities ; and an examination of characteristic specimens of different ages has enabled me also to identify with this species two small and much-worn corals which, in June 1857, were dredged from a depth of 60 fathoms, about forty miles west of Scilly, by Mr. 8. P. Woodward of the British Museum, and kindly placed in my hands a short time ago by that gentleman. This species of Caryophyllia may be readily distinguished from its near ally, our common C. Smithii, by its conical form and finel pointed base, as well as by the thinness of its walls and lamelle. The general character of the polype, as described by Philippi*, agrees with that of C. Smithii; the integuments, however, are said to be excessively delicate and transparent, so that the borders of the lamellz can be seen through them. The body is of an orange-colour, and the capitate tentacles whitish with metallic-green reflections. The coral is frequently attached to a tube of Ditrupa, or the shell of some deep-water univalve, or, in some cases, is entirely free. In the British Museum are several specimens of this coral which were brought from Sicily. These are all attached to a species of Turri- tella. The occurrence of this second species of Caryophyllia in three distinct localities on our coasts entitles it to a place among our British corals ; and further investigation will probably show it to be generally distributed in the deep water along our western shores. It may not be uninteresting to inquire here into the distribution of corals around the British Islands, and to trace, as far as possible, the cause of their frequenting only particular lines of coast. The existence of the coral-polype in our seas is mainly dependent on the warmth and purity of the water. A tolerably high tempera- ture is undoubtedly one of the most necessary conditions for the well- being of the delicate polypes whose calcareous lamellated skeletons constitute the true stony corals. Only within the Tropics do we meet with those vast reefs and extensive accumulations of coral-growth which form so characteristic a feature of the seas in those warm lati- tudes. The surface-water there becomes heated by the direct influ- * Arch. fiir Naturgesch. t. i. p. 42, 1842. 146 Zoological Society :— ence of the sun, and, in those regions, few coral-polypes carry on their ceaseless work at a greater depth than 30 fathoms, thence building upward to the lowest tide-mark. As we come towards more temperate regions, the species diminish both in size and number ; simple forms become proportionately more numerous, and their ba- thymetrical range is greatly increased. The waters of north-western Europe might be expected generally to be too much within the influence of Polar temperature to be fitted for coral-life, even in its simplest form; yet in our own seas, and extending far into the Arctic Ocean, are found some few species vying with the productions of the Tropics in brilliancy of colouring and delicacy of structure. Here, however, we have a peculiar and extraneous source of warmth in the Gulf Stream, whose waters, now becoming widely diffused, but still retaining some portion of their original excessive temperature and motion, exercise a sensible influ- ence on the coast-productions of the western side of the British islands. The course of the current in the neighbourhood of our shores is marked sparingly, but distinctly, by the presence of eight or ten species of living coral. The long list of habitats recorded by Mr. Gosse in his valuable ‘ Actinologia Britannica’ has been of great use to me in tracing the range of our native species; and although many parts of the coast have been but little worked, enough has been done to furnish a tolerably clear outline of the distribution of the coralligenous polypes. From the writings of Maury and others, it appears that the Guif Stream is divided by the British Islands; one portion going south- ward to the Bay of Biscay, the other and main body of the current sweeping away to the north by the Orkneys and Shetland. The entrance of the English Channel and the Irish Sea would thus be under the most direct influence of the warm current ; and it is in these waters we find corals most abundant. Devonshire and Cornwall are extremely rich in these productions ; and, including Weymouth Bay (the only recognized locality for Hoplangia durotriz), the south- western promontory of England can boast of five out of the eight undoubted British species. They consist of two Caryophyllia, one Sphenotrochus, Balanophyllia, and Hoplangia. Of these species, Guernsey produces two. Caryophyllia Smithii, the commonest species in the West of England, where it is found close to low-tide mark, — ranges along the eastern and northern coasts of Ireland and the West of Scotland as far as Shetland, gradually increasing its depth of water as it proceeds north. It has also been met with on the western coast of Ireland; but very little has been done as yet in exploring the Atlantic sea-board of that island. Among the Hebrides and Orkneys, the fine branching coral Oculina prolifera has on rare occasions been met with, but only in deep water. Two species of Ca- ryophyllia and the large scarlet Ulocyathus arcticus have been ob- tained in 80 or 90 fathoms near Shetland ; the last-mentioned coral has also been taken by Sars at a depth of nearly 200 fathoms near the North Cape. Three other little corals have been dredged in the Moray Frith, and placed by Mr. Gosse in the genus Paracyathus of SSL RE pet ae Se ee ee Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on the Distribution of Corals. 147 Milne-Edwards. The specimens, however, are so young and imper- fect that it is difficult to determine their specific characters. If we now turn to the eastern side of Great Britain, and inquire whence come the waters of the German Ocean, we find them to be mainly of Polar origin, brought from the far north by the great surface-current which washes all the Norwegian and our own eastern coasts. To this must be added the comparatively fresh water which pours through the Sound, loaded with all the drainage of the Baltic. How does this cold and impure water affect the production of corals ? Its influence is not less marked than that of the warmer western current. Through the entire length of the North Sea, from the north-eastern point of Scotland to near the Isle of Wight, I have been unable to ascertain that a single specimen of coral has ever been taken. That line of coast is also very deficient in Actinie; and of the few that are found there, most are of the commonest spe- cies. This cold water from the north, however, also skirts the western coast of Scotland and Ireland ; but it is only as a narrow superficial current ; and when corals are found in its neighbourhood, they are only in the deep water of the great Atlantic stream, which, still re- taining some of its excess of saline matter, sinks deeper and deeper as it meets the fresher and lighter, although colder, water from the north. Thus, as has been observed, all the northern corals are found in deep water, even the same species which on the Devonshire coast is abundant at low-water mark. The late Edward Forbes, in his - ‘Natural History of the European Seas,’ remarks that the charac- teristic fauna of the “ Arctic province”’ is only to be observed in the littoral regions, and the animals from deep water are all of them southern forms. What has been pointed out as to the causes of the particular dis- tribution of the British corals, namely; the effect of warm and cold currents, equally applies to the formation of coral-reefs within the Tropics. A comparison of Maury’s Chart of the “Sea-drift”’ with Darwin’s Map of the Distribution of Coral-reefs would lead one to suppose they had been prepared by the same hand. I will men- tion two remarkable cases as illustrations. A well-known barrier- reef extends some hundreds of miles along the north-east coast of Australia; its southern limit is near Moreton Bay ; and a reference to Maury’s Chart shows this to be the precise point at which a cold cur- rent from the South Pole meets the warm equatorial current from the east. Again, it appears somewhat remarkable that along the whole western coast of North and South America no vestige of coral has been found. Mr. H. Cuming informs me that he has dredged in vain for specimens of these characteristic tropical productions in the Bay of Panama and at the Galapagos; but the chart shows that cold currents from the north and south sweep the whole western coasts of America, meeting at the Equator, and then turning away into the Pacific, where, under a vertical sun, the water soon becomes warm enough for the growth of the various coral-reefs scattered about in that ocean. Fresh water and sediment of any kind being present act as fatal barriers to the growth of coral; and to these 148 Miscellaneous. causes may generally be traced gaps in reefs, and waste places of limited extent in those seas which especially abound in corals. Dana has recognized the effect of warm and cold currents in the general distribution of corals throughout the warmer seas; and the fact of the same influences being at work, and easily recognized, in the waters surrounding the British Islands appears sufficiently interest- ing to justify me in bringing the subject before this Society. MISCELLANEOUS. Pliocene Fossil Fauna of the Niobrara River, in Nebraska. By Josep Lerpy, M.D. Tue researches of Dr. Leidy upon the Lower Miocene Fauna of the Mauvaises Terres are well known through his important memoir on the “Ancient Fauna of Nebraska,’ published in vol. vi. of the ‘Smithsonian Contributions.’ But the results of the geological survey, by Dr. F. V. Hayden, of the Pliocene deposits along the Valley of the Niobrara are less generally known. We have hitherto deferred noticing them, in the expectation that a detailed memoir, with illustrations, would have appeared on the subject by Dr. Leidy, as in the case of the Nebraska fauna above referred to; but as that has not yet taken place, a brief account of the results may be of interest. The following is a list of the fossil Mammalia discovered in the Pliocene beds of the Nebraska, as determined by Dr. Leidy :— RUMINANTIA. Hippeton Sip eee Merycodus necatus, Leid. eid. ec neg ; Megalomeryx niobrahensis, Leid. | Merychippus insignis, Leid. Procamelus occidentalis, Leid. —— mirabilis, Leid. —— gracilis, Leid. Equus excelsus, Leid. robustus, Leid. (Protohippus) perditus, Leid. Merychyus elegans, Leid. RopENTIA. cones, eet Hystrix (Hystricops) venustus, Leid. C seine Wacken Leid Castor (Eucastor) tostus, Leid. MULTUNGULA. CARNIVORA. : . Leptarctus primus, Leid. Rhinoceros crassus, Leid. Pp p be : J Mastodon (Tetraloph.)mirifiens, Leid. o's iy 3. anecepacton, ii Elephas (Eueleph.) imperator, Leid. Canis eves, Eel SoLIDUNGULA. temerarius, Leid. Hipparion (Hippotherium) occiden- vafer, Leid. tale, Leid. —— epicyon, Leid. The first point of general interest in the above list is the entire absence of Edentate forms in the Niobrara fauna. The same ob- servation applies to the Miocene fauna of the “ Mauvaises Terres,” while Megatherium, Megalonyx, and Mylodon occur extensively in the United States ; and the leading characteristic of the fossil fauna i Ne ee eT a ee ee ee ee Miscellaneous. 149 of the Pampean deposits of South America is the abundance and variety of the Edentata. a The next most remarkable feature in the Niobrara fauna is its marvellous richness in Solidungula, both genera and species. Making allowance for doubles emplois, consequent upon the imperfection of the materials, there will still remain a very large number of Equine forms. The valley of the Missouri River, near the Rocky Mountains, appears to have been the head-quarters of the Horses, during the Pliocene period, very much after the manner in which India was the head-quarters of the Proboscidea during the Miocene period. Ac- cording to Dr. Leidy’s determinations, it supported not less than four generic or subgeneric types of Equus, namely, Hipparion, 2 sp. ; Merychippus, 2 sp.; Protohippus, 1 sp.; Equus, 1 sp.; and it is further to be borne in mind that the subjacent Upper Miocene de- posits of the same region have yielded two Anchitheroid forms,— A. (Hypohippus) affinis and A. (Parahippus) cognatus ; while the wer Miocenes of the “ Mauvaises Terres” contain Anchitherium Bairdi, Leid. The post-Pliocene deposits of the littoral and central States S.E. of the Mississippi have, in addition, furnished fossil remnants which Dr. Leidy refers to Hipparion venustum, Leid., Equus complicatus, Leid., and E. fraternus, Leid., the last two re- presenting the post-Pliocene fossil species of Europe. The whole make up a series of twelve North-American species, Anchitheroid Hippotherian, and Equine proper. One statement is so unexpected that we quote it in the words of the author. Dr. Leidy observed that, “‘ among all the Mammalian re- mains brought by Dr. Hayden from the Niobrara River, none were more remarkable than those which he now exhibited. They belong to an Equine animal which has the puny teeth of Anchitherium and the permanent teeth of Equus. In both these genera the per- manent and deciduous teeth are alike; but the new genus in early life is an Anchitherium, and later in life a true Horse.” The form in question appears to be Merychippus mirabilis, Leid. The results yielded by the Niobrara fossil Pachydermata are equally unexpected. Rhinoceros crassus, Leid., is described as a species “which appears to have had almost the same size and formula of dentition as the recent Indian Rhinoceros.” In Mastodon mirificus, belonging to the group Tetralophodon, “the form of the jaw is like that of the existing Elephant of India ; a single tooth, the last molar, occupies each side of it, and resembles the corresponding one of M. angustidens of Europe or of M. Sivalensis of the Sivalik Hills of India.” Elephas imperator, Leid., was a colossal species, charac- terized by molars nearly five inches broad, with unusually thick plates, there being only eight bands of wear within a space of seven inches,—a character which at once distinguishes this species “en the Mammoth of the United States, Elephas Americanus of iB Dr. Leidy’s determinations will probably undergo considerable modification before their final adoption by paleontologists ; but the single fact of an American Rhinoceros, in Pliocene deposits, approach- 150 Miscellaneous. ing the characters of the existing Indian species is of weighty import in the geographical distribution of Mammalia. Dr. Leidy, in his general remarks upon the characteristics of the Niobrara fauna, observes that ‘‘One of the most remarkable circum- stances, in relation with this extinct fauna, is that it is more nearly allied to the present recent one of the old world than to that of our own continent. From a comparison of our recent fauna and flora with that of the eastern continent, the deduction has been made, that the western continent is the older of the two, geologically speak- ing; whereas the Niobrara fauna would indicate just the reverse relationship of age. A number of similar instances show that totally different faunze and floree may be cotemporaneous, and do not neces- sarily indicate different periods of existence.” Dr. Leidy’s enumeration and brief description of the genera and species (op. cit. pp. 20-29) is not in exact accordance with the tabular list given by Dr. Hayden, indicating their stratigraphical position (op. cit. p. 157). The Ruminant forms Procamelus robustus and P. gracilis, and the carnivorous Leptarctus primus, included by the latter, are omitted by the former. The list given above is founded on Dr. Hayden’s enumeration, as being the later in date of publica- tion, and probably embracing additional materials.—Proc. Acad. Nat. Science of Philadelphia, 1858. On a remarkable Form of Rotation in the Pith-cells of Saururus cernuus. By Grorce C. Scuarrrer, M.D. Wuite examining the intimate structure of various plants, I dis- covered, in the year 1854, a peculiar motion in some of the pith-cells of Saururus cernuus, which was so different from anything before described that it seemed to be quite abnormal. Continued observa- tion for eight years has shown however that, for this plant at least, the phenomenon is constant, while an equally long-continued ex- amination of the writers on such subjects has proved that no record of this appearance has ever been made. As a mere microscopical curiosity the fact might be deemed worthy of notice; but the remarkable similarity to a motion which has been considered as invariably connected with a distinct and peculiar vegetable function - seems to render its record needful for the true advancement of vegetable physiology. The Saururus cernuus, like many other aquatic or marsh plants, has a pith the cells of which are not in complete juxtaposition, but separated in part by vertical air-passages which are as regularly built around by the cells as a chimney is by its bricks, with this difference, however, that the cells are arranged directly one above another, and do not “ break joint”’ as the bricks would in any properly constructed chimney: no fault in Nature’s workmanship, we should remark, since the pith is a mere filling in, surrounded by a much denser and more solidly built structure. The cells in which the above-mentioned motion occurs are not those from which the party-walls of each air-passage diverge, but Lg oe ne Soe ee eee oe ae a _ 3 wi es ees “tiled dani) Hl ea ee ee en Miscellaneous. 151 those forming the middle of the wall between any two contiguous channels ; they seem to be smaller and younger cells than the others. In all ordinary cases of cyclosis the motion is along the walls of the cell, coming and going in paths which are, for the time at least, permanent. But in the Saururus the granules lie in the centre of the cells above described, and their motion is of a quite different character. To those familiar with microscopic observations, we may best describe this motion as perfectly identical with that seen in the so-called vesicles in the ends of Closterium, which has been aptly styled ‘‘swarming” by the English and Germans. The granules are quite minute, rounded in form, and rather unequal in size. Sometimes a cell is seen in which all motion has ceased; in such ceases the granules are always closely crowded together in the centre of the cell. The time during which this motion continues is quite remarkable. Specimens of the plant kept for several days in water never fail to show it; while the proper pith-cells of all parts of the plant, even of the blanched portions of the stem growing beneath the mud, seem equally active. Indeed, no form of cyclosis, of which this is un- doubtedly one, is so easily demonstrated. The nature of the granules, however, is not so readily determined ; for they do not show the starch-reaction with tincture of iodine, neither are they coloured as proteine-compounds (and such I had at _ first supposed them to be) would be under this reagent. There is, however, a remarkable difficulty, common also to many others, in applying chemical tests to sections of this plant ; and this consists in the rapid discoloration of the specimens, owing to the presence of tannic acid, which acts upon the iron of the cutting instrument. It is quite certain, however, that the granules are neither starch nor proteine ; whether they are the so-called aleurone I am unable to say. To those familiar with the microscopic examination of freshwater algee, this “ swarming,’ apart from the best-known case of the Closterium, must be quite familiar ; but such motions have always been considered as in some way connected with sexual reproduction. In the case in question, however, nothing of the kind can possibly occur ; for the Saururus is, beyond a doubt, not only a pheenoga- mous, but even a dicotyledonous plant, closely allied to the Pepper family. The cells in which this motion is seen are evidently smaller and younger than those in their immediate vicinity. Sometimes, indeed, two vertical rows of small cells show the same motion. The phenomenon in question would therefore merely indicate active cell- multiplication, and not plant-reproduction, to which similar appear- ances have always been referred. With a somewhat extensive experience I am able to say that nothing of the kind has before been observed in phzenogamous plants; yet it must be admitted that one single instance among them is sufficient to invalidate the inferences formerly drawn from alge, as to the true meaning of this peculiar kind of motion. Iam more earnestly disposed to insist upon this apparently ex- ceptional case, because it confirms views long held and taught by 152 Miscellaneous. myself as to the purely physico-chemical interpretation of most of the phenomena of vegetable life.—Silliman’s Journal for Nov. 1862. Washington, D. C., September, 1862. Application of Magenta Dye in Microscopical Investigations. At a recent meeting of the Microscopical Section of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, Dr. Roberts called atten- tion to the aid that might be received in the examination of the struc- ture of animal and vegetable tissue by the use of colouring materials. Magenta is peculiarly adapted for this purpose, in consequence of its solubility in simple water and its inert chemical character. The nuclear structures of animal cells are deeply.tinted by magenta; and by its use the nuclei of the pale blood-corpuscles, of pus-globules, of the renal and hepatic cells, and of all epithelial structures are brought out in great beauty, tinted of a bright carbuncle-red. The red blood-disks are tinted of a faint rose-colour, and a darker red speck, not hitherto noticed, is to be observed on the periphery of the cor- puscle ; it undergoes some changes when treated with tannin and sub- sequently with caustic potash, but this point is still under investigation. On a new Phyllodactylus from Guayaquil. By W. Prrers. Phyllodactylus Reissii, n. sp. P. tuberculorum dorsalium seriebus quatuordecim, granulis occipitis miuoribus quam sincipitis, scutello infralabiali primo mentali paulo minore ; griseus, transversim nigro maculatus. This species approaches very closely to Phyllodactylus tubercu- losus of Wiegmann, from California, but differs from it in that, 1. the tubercles of the back, which are also triangular and keeled, stand in regular, not alternating, series; the interspace between these longi- tudinal series in the middle of the body is always greater than the tubercles themselves: 2. the occipital region does not, as in that species, exhibit roundish granules, larger than those upon the snout and between the eyes, but is covered by very small granules of uni- form size: and, 3. the mentale lies almost entirely between the first dilated pair of infralabialia, whilst in both specimens of P. tubercu- losus the first infralabiale is not broader than the following one, and two large, roundish, polygonal swbmentalia bound the posterior half of the mentale. In this new species, behind the mentale and be- tween the first pair of infralabialia, there is a pair of small roundish scales, followed by a third small, median, round scale. In colour the two species appear to agree. The colour is grey, with irregular black spots, which, in a young specimen, form bowed transverse bands on the neck, and broad half-rings on the tail. This species was discovered in the vicinity of Guayaquil, by the Prussian Consul, M. Carl Reiss, who has collected other remarkable reptiles in that locality. It is known by the Spanish name of * Salamanquesa.’—Monatsber. der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, November 1862. THE ANNALS MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7 [THIRD SERIES. ] No. 63. MARCH 1863. XVIII.—Observations on the British Tunicata, with Descriptions of several new Species. By JosHus ALDER. [Plate VII.] Auraoven much has been done towards the investigation of our: marine zoology of late years, few British naturalists have paid - any attention to the Tunicata. The unattractive appearance of many of the species, and the difficulty of finding characters to distinguish them, have probably deterred zoologists from under- taking the task. The first objection undoubtedly holds good with respect to most of the simple“Ascidians ; but many of the compound species are eminently beautiful and attractive, though the difficulty of discriminating these is even greater than in the more simple forms. Whatever be the cause, it is certain that the study of the British Ascidians has been very much neglected. The interesting account of this class given by Professor Edward Forbes in the ‘ History of British Mollusca’ is, however, an ex- ception to the general neglect; and had that distinguished na- turalist lived to fulfil his intention of writing, in conjunction with Prof. Goodsir, a monograph of the British Tunicata, such a work would undoubtedly have left little further to desire. The lamented death of Prof. Forbes has, however, prevented this project being carried out. For several years I have incidentally paid a little attention to this tribe, and, having lately had occasion to investigate the sub- ject more closely, I purpose in the present communication to describe such new species as have come under my notice since the publication of the ‘ British Mollusca,’ as well as to illustrate some obscure forms that have previously been imperfectly under- Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Voi. xi. ll 154 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. Ascidia pustulosa, n. sp. Body ovate, rugose, horn-coloured, adhering towards the base. Apertures sessile, strongly tuberculated or echinated, reddish ; the anal one terminal, the branchial nearly one-third down the side. Test rather thick, semitransparent, coriaceous, covered with irregular-sized warty or pustulose. tubercles, principally on the upper or left side*; these generally bear smaller tubercles or echinations on their surface: the lower or recumbent side is nearly smooth. Manile yellowish, blotched with red, especially towards the apertures, and sprinkled with opake white. Tenta- cular filaments few.and stout. Branchial sac with rather small papille: ventral plait smooth. Length about 3 inches. I dredged a single specimen of this new species in Fowey Harbour, Cornwall, in the summer of 1847 ; and two specimens, now in the Edinburgh Museum, were got in Lamlash Bay by Prof. Allman. It is readily distinguished from A. mentula by its pustulose tubercles, as well as by its more ovate form. Ascidia obliqua, n. sp. Body transversely ovate, light horn-coloured?, rather rugose when old, but not tuberculated, nearly smooth when young ; attached diagonally at the base and partially at the side, leaning over towards the dorsal aspect. Apertures not far apart, conical, with longitudinal grooves corresponding to the angles of the lobes; the branchial aperture not quite terminal, the anal median: ocelli inconspicuous. Zest rather thin, transparent, sometimes a good deal covered with zoophytes. Tentacular fila- ments slender. Branchial sac with large subclavate papille: ventral plait transversely ribbed. Length about two inches. Three examples of this Ascidian in different stages of growth were dredged by my friend the Rey. A. M. Norman in 40 to 50 fathoms water, off the Outer Haaf, Shetland. he largest of these measured a little above two inches. A somewhat larger specimen was sent to me from Sweden by Prof. Lovén, with the name of Ascidia mentula attached. It has probably hitherto been overlooked as a variety of that species, but it is perfectly distinct : the form is more ovate, the transverse diameter being generally * Some difference of opinion exists with regard to the positions of the organs in the Ascidians. I here follow the view adopted by Savigny, Huxley, and others, who consider the side on which the anal aperture is situated to be ventral, and the opposite side dorsal. The right side, on this view, is that on which the viscera are placed. In the Ascidie proper the animal always adheres more or less by the right side, thus affording protection to these organs. M. Milne-Edwards considers the vent to be placed on the dorsal aspect: the names of right and left side are con- sequently, in his nomenclature, reversed. Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. 155 a little the broader ; the test is very much thinner, and attached obliquely at the base ; the apertures are more distinctly grooved and less distant ; and the branchial sac has not the intermediate papillz, nor is it reflected upwards as in A. mentula. It appears to be a northern species. _ The longitudinal strands of the branchial meshes in this species are very tender, and are often found broken in spirit specimens, and contracted towards the papille, giving the latter the appearance of being tricuspidate. Ascidia rudis, n. sp. - Body oblong or ovate, rather irregular, depressed, greenish, attached Jargely by the side. Apertures distant, the branchial terminal, the anal generally about halfway down: ocelli red, reniform. Test thick, coriaceous, coarse, wrinkled, and ve slightly tuberculated, sometimes nearly smooth. Mantle bluish- green, with a yellowish tinge towards the upper part; the aper- tures distinctly tubular; the anal tube often much extended, and entering into a sheath in the substance of the test. Tenta- cular filaments few and slender. Branchial sac green, with stout papillz at the intersections of the meshes, and frequently with . intermediate ones on the longitudinal strands: ventral plait transversely ribbed. Length about 24 inches. Several specimens were obtained by Mr. Norman, at low- water mark, near the Whalsey Lighthouse, Outer Skerries, Shet- land, in company with a large variety of A. depressa, to which externally it bears some resemblance; but it has a much closer affinity with A. mentula, and has probably hitherto been taken for a variety of that species. There are, however, sufficient grounds to consider it distinct. A. rudis never reaches the size of A. mentula, and is of a different colour; it is much more largely attached, and bears small, distant tubercles.’ The tubular form of the anal orifice in the mantle, too, is characteristic, though this is not conspicuous outside, the tube being imbedded in the thickening of the test, and the external aperture varying in position in proportion to its length. In a variety from Hastings, which I owe to the kindness of Mrs. Blackett, the tube is very much elongated within the test, and opens at a very short distance from the branchial aperture. Usually, however, it is situated about halfway down, pretty near to the position it occupies in the mantle. Ascidia plebeia, n. sp. Body oblong, slightly scabrous, attached for nearly its whole length, greenish. Branchial aperture terminal, produced, conical; anal aperture about two-thirds down, slightly raised : ocelli small, 11* 156 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. red. Test thin,- transparent, roughish with small papille, and: slightly covered with fragments of shell and sand, especially to-. wards the attached part. Mantle yellowish green. Tentacular. filaments numerous and stout. Branchial sac with papille at the intersections of the meshes, and occasional small inter- mediate ones on the longitudinal strands: ventral plait plicated. Length about two inches. Examples of this species were dredged on the Outer Haaf, Shetland, by the Rev. A. M. Norman and J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq. I have also met with one or two Ascidie from the coasts of Northumberland and Durham, which I am inclined to refer to the same. It has affinities with A. aculeata and A. depressa. From the first it may be known by its more elongated form, its more prominent apertures, and by the papille of the test being smaller, fewer, and not echinated ; from the latter by its thinner test and less area of attachment, as well as by the absence of the thickened margin or disk that divides the upper from the under surface in that species ; from both it may be distinguished by the fragments of shells with which it is more or less covered. Ascidia aculeata, n. sp. Body ovate, depressed, greenish, more or less attached by the side to sea-weeds or zoophytes. Apertures nearly sessile, acu- leated, the branchial terminal, the anal about one-third down the side. Test thin, transparent, greenish or nearly colourless, - covered with aculeated tubercles most prominent on the upper or left side. Mantle greenish, transparent, showing the reticu- lations of the branchial sac and sigmoid intestine. Tentacular filaments small. Branchial sac with moderate-sized papille at the intersections; the stomata elliptical: ventral plait smooth. Length an inch to an inch and a half. I first met with this species, many years ago, in Torbay. It has since been found at Bantry Bay and Guernsey, by Mr. Nor-. man, and by Dr. W. B. Carpenter in Lamlash Bay, Arran. It is usually attached to sea-weeds, and appears to inhabit shallow water. This species comes nearest to A. depressa, but is less depressed, less largely attached, and without the marginal disk dividing the upper from the under surface; the test is more uniformly thin, and has stronger and more sharply pointed tubercles. The, apertures are also less distant. The tubercles are frequently compound, bearing several aculeations. This is probably the “ Ascidia mammillaris, Delle Chiaje” of Thompson’s ‘ Natural - History of Ireland, but, I think, not of Delle Chiaje, judging ‘rom his figure. 2 5 e ; i : | : : ; 2 i PE Ee OI eee Bev eae ae eae TN ns Min tee a » Rar Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata.” I57 Ascidia pulchella, n. sp. Body elongate, cylindrical, reddish, pale yellow or hyaline white, attached by a rounded base, and capable of great retrac- tion. Apertures tubular, terminal; the branchial much the longer, nearly one-third the length of the body, and continuous in outline with it; the anal aperture about half as long as the branchial, and a little narrower, projecting diagonally; both orifices with bright crimson ocelli. A deeply impressed line runs from between the terminal tubes to nearly the base of the body. Test soft, smooth, hyaline, and transparent. Mantle yellowish, passing to red above, or sometimes colourless, with longitudinal muscular bands, narrower than in A. intestinalis. Tentacular filaments stout. Branchial sac with rather broad papille: ventral line with long filaments. Length an inch, or a little upwards. Procured at Fowey Harbour by Mr. Peach, from whom I have drawings. The Rev. T. Hincks has also obtained it in Saleombe Estuary, and has favoured me with his manuscript notes and a pencil sketch. The description of the internal parts is taken from specimens dredged by the Rev.A.M. Norman in Guernsey. This pretty Ascidia belongs to the section of the genus which Savigny has called “ Phallusie Cione,’”’ and which constitute the genus Ciona of Fleming. They are distinguished by having the viscera extended below the branchial sac, and by the softness and flexibility of the test, the upper part of which can be with- drawn within the lower, concealing the orifices. This species comes very near to A. intestinalis, but may be distinguished from it by its smaller size and its much more elongated and unequal tubular orifices, as well as by the colour, which is never tinged with green as in that species, but is generally more or less marked with red, though it is occasionally colourless. The longitudinal bands of the mantle are much narrower than in A. intestinalis. The figure given in Blainville’s ‘ Malacologie’ under the latter name seems to be taken from an individual of this species. Ascidia parallelogramma, Miiller. This lovely Ascidian is distinguished from all its congeners by several interesting characters which may perhaps be considered sufficient to raise it to the rank of a separate genus. It agrees with the genus Ascidia, as at present characterized, in having the apertures divided into the same number of segments (8 and 6), in having the test united to the mantle at the orifices oe and in having the branchial sac with papilla and without folds. All the true Ascidie with which we are acquainted, how- ever, are attached more or less by the right side, on which are 158 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. placed the viscera; the smaller branchial meshes, moreover, are rectilmear., In the present species the animal is attached by the base, near which the viscera are placed, but on the left side. There is another peculiarity attending this species, namely, that the flexure of the intestine is in a contrary direction to what is usual in the genus. The intestine, after leaving the stomach, usually rises upwards on the right side of the branchial sac, and, afterwards bending downwards, forms a sigmoid curve, rising again towards the anal orifice. In this species the intestine, after leaving the stomach, bends immediately downwards on the left side, and, running along the base, rises towards the anal orifice*, It will be seen from these details that A. parallelo- gramma is a true sinistral species. But the chief peculiarity of this interesting Ascidian is in the meshes of the branchial sac, which are beautifully convoluted in a spiral direction on a flat sur- face (PI. VII. figs.1& 2). From the centre of each spiral, smaller bands radiate to the circumference, which serve to hold the spiral vessels in their places. This delicate and complicated system of vessels is traversed by larger longitudinal vessels, which are on a different plane, and internal in position to the other portions of the sac, to which they are united by broad transverse vessels, that rise to them in a kind of loop, the apex of which forms the papilla. The spiral vessels are thus set in a square frame, the only part that is visible until a high magnifier is applied. This is perhaps the reason why this beautiful struc- ture has hitherto escaped observation, as the species is pretty enerally diffused, and from its beauty usually attracts attention. his species also differs from the other Ascidie in having the anal tube much the longer—a character only to be observed in the living animal. A variety of it is the Ascidia virginea of Forbes, but not of Miiller. The Phallusia Turcica of Savigny is a sinistral species, having a flexure of the intestine in the same direction as this; but the branchial sac, though peculiar, has the meshes rectilinear, and not convoluted. Genus Moteuta, Forbes. The Molgula of Forbes was founded on external characters only, the principal one being the number of segments in the apertures—a character which has been taken by common con- sent for generic distinction in this tribe, and, though of little physiological importance, generally carries with it others of greater functional value, so that the genera founded upon it have usually been found to be natural. This has fortunately been the case with the present genus, the internal characters * Both flexures are dorsal, but in different directions. 4 = ‘ ; q 7 a | e Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. 159 fully bearing out the propriety of its separation from the allied genera Ascidia and Cynthia, between which it is somewhat in- termediate, and though more nearly allied to the latter, yet at the same time possessing characters distinct from beth. Where external characters can be found to distinguish genera and spe- cies, it is always desirable that they should be adopted in descrip- tion, though, of course, the whole structure of the animal must be studied in order to assign it its proper place in a natural arrangement. To any one conversant with the Tunicata, it must be obvious that external characters are often insufficient to de- termine the species, or sometimes even the genus, of many of the simple Ascidians. Internal characters must therefore be resorted to; and of these the structure of the branchial sac and the tentacular filaments are not only of most importance, but of most easy access for examination. The branchial sac of Molgula is very peculiar, the meshes being convoluted in an irregular manner, differing from any other with which I am acquainted. I propose, therefore, to re-define Molgula in the following manner : Animal generally free, or only slightly attached by glandular hairs. Test thin and membranous, often covered with sand or fragments of shells, very slightly attached to the mantle except at the two apertures. Branchial aperture 6-lobed, anal 4-lobed ; ocelli inconspicuous or none. Tentacular filaments branched, Branchial sac with longitudinal folds ; the meshes more or less convoluted, without papille. Ovaries on both sides of the body, that on the right situated outside the flexure of the intestine. Stomach and intestine lateral and dextral, the latter bending upwards as in Ascidia, but with the flexure more compressed. Molgula socialis, n. sp. Body ovate, covered with fine sand, adhering by a small base. Apertures terminal, approximated, rather small, tubercular. Test greenish, thin, soft, covered with longish, unbranched, rather rugged, glandular hairs. Mantle greenish, soft. Tenta- cular filaments large, much branched, tripimnate. Branchial sac with six folds on each side, the meshes irregular and imperfectly convoluted. Height about half an inch. Densely gregarious. For a knowledge of this species I am indebted to Dr. Bower- bank, who obtained it from the fishermen at Hastings. The specimens were attached to Pecten maximus, from the Diamond trawling-ground, about twelve miles from that place. Unlike the other species of this genus, which are generally solitary, this Molgula is associated in dense masses, firmly ad- hering to each other, and so closely as often to press the sides mto a square or hexagonal form. The tentacular filaments are in proportion to the animal, and beautifully arborescent- 160 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. I am now acquainted with seven British species of this genus; including the Ascidia conchilega of Miller (which is a Molgula) and the following species, whose internal characters, however, show a considerable departure from the type of the genus. Molgula arenosa, Alder & Hancock. Body globular, hyaline, unattached, closely covered with sand; excepting generally a bright smooth area on one side. Apertures nearly terminal, approximated, not much produced, conical or. slightly tubular, retractile, set in a small circumscribed area with a raised rim, appearing like a slit when contracted. Test soft, glossy, transparent, and colourless, with delicate slender hairs, sometimes a little branched. Mantle very thin, soft, and transparent, showing the viscera very distinctly through. Ten- tacular filaments bipinnate, beautifully spotted with bright opake ‘see -Branchial sac with six longitudinal bands on each side, etween which are six rows of conical eminences formed of a double: spiral coil of delicate vessels meeting at the apex, and giving the sac a festooned appearance (PI. VII. figs. 3 & 4). There are also transverse bands. Ovaries double, that on the right side lying within the loop of the intestine. Diameter half to three-quarters of an inch. This species was described in the Transactions of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Club (vol. i. p. 197), and is also the Molgula tubu- losa of Forbes in the ‘ British Mollusca, who referred it (we think erroneously) to the Ascidia tubularis of Rathke in ‘ Zoo- logia Danica.’ It is probable, however, that he may have in- cluded more than one species under this name, as there are several sand-coloured Ascidians that are with difficulty distin- guished on a superficial examination. His description belongs to M. arenosa, but the figure represents the tubes much longer and more cylindrical than the usual form. Externally WM. arenosa does not materially differ from the other Molgule, and it has the apertures divided into the same number of segments; but the branchial sac presents very marked cha- racters in the beautiful spiral cones of which it is composed, and in the absence of regular folds. Besides the spiral vessels of the cones, others, less conspicuous, but of equal, if not greater width, pass downwards from the apex to the circumference. The whole structure is extremely delicate, and its fragility renders it diffi- cult to preserve it entire for examination. A further difference between this and the other Molgule is observable in the position of the right ovary, which is situated within, and not outside, the intestinal loop. The Cynthia Dione of Savigny has a branchial sac of a struc- ture apparently similar to this, and, were it not for its four-cleft Fe ee ee Oe ae Oe Te ae Oe ee ee ee seen am Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. 161 apertures fringed with small filaments, might have belonged to the same genus. The right ovary in that species is placed out- side the intestinal flexure. Ascidia parallelogramma on the one hand and Molgula arenosa on the other, form two links in the chain of affinities uniting Ascidia and Cynthia, while each at the same time possesses characters peculiar to itself. Genus Cynruia, Savigny. Savigny has divided Cynthia into four sections, which he names Cynthie simplices, C. Cesire, C. Styele, and C. Pandocie. The first and third of these only are represented in the British fauna, unless the second (containing one species only, C. Dione) may be considered congeneric with the Molgula arenosa already described. The fourth section * agrees in all respects with the third, excepting in the position of the ovary, which is confined to the right side of the body. The genus Dendrodoa of M‘Leay also possesses similar characters, but with ovaries on the left side only. The form and position of the ovaries are very variable in the genus Cynthia, and, though affording good specific distinc- tions, can scarcely be considered of generic value. Cynthia squamulosa, n. sp. Body ovate or subglobose, of a pinkish hue, tinged with lilac, attached by a broad base. Apertures a little apart, rather large and conical, but not much produced ; the branchial one terminal, the anal nearly so; each margined and rayed with violet. Test tough, smooth or slightly mammillated, covered with small scaly plates marked with concentric lines. Tentacular filaments slen- der, simply pinnate. Branchial sac with six folds on each side. Ovaries forming a double, linear, perpendicular series on each side, with a fimbriated mass of sperm-cells(?) between. Dia- meter about half an inch. This species, which I first met with in Guernsey, in 1853, where several specimens occurred on oysters dredged in about fifteen fathoms, has since been sent me from Lulworth Cove by my friend Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys. It appears to be a southern form. Cynthia rosea, n. sp. Body cylindrical, short, nearly as broad as high, adhering to shells by a tolerably broad base. Apertures on large mammille, yellowish, with four double stripes of red, and covered with mi- * The Pandocia conchilega of Dr. Fleming (Brit. Anim. p. 463), the mye character of which appears to be taken from this section of Savigny’s hia, is probably referred to it by some ‘mistake. 162 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. nute, crystalline, pointed spicula. Test thick, tough, opake, smooth, rose-coloured, closely adhering to the mantle. Mantle flesh-coloured, opake. Tentacular filaments large, bipinnate. Branchial sac with seven deep folds on each side ; ventral plait smooth, undulated above. Length about half an inch. A single specimen of this beautiful Cynthia was procured by Dr. Bowerbank from the Diamond trawling-ground near Hastings. In some of its characters it approaches the C. microcosmus of Savigny, which Prof. Milne-Edwards informs me is distinct from the C. microcosmus of Cuvier; but its smooth test, without corrugations, and the absence of any parasitic growth over the surface, forbid our referring it to that species. The small cry- stalline spicula surrounding the apertures are very curious and peculiar. Cynthia echinata, Miller. Prof. E. Forbes has referred this species by mistake to Ascidia, and the apertures in his figure (Brit. Moll. vol.i. pl. c. fig. 4) are erroneously represented with six and eight lobes. They are both decidedly quadrate. The branchial sac has six folds on each side, and the smaller meshes have the peculiarity of being transverse instead of longitudinal as in the other species. The tentacular filaments are branched. Cynthia mammillaris, Pallas. The Ascidia mammillaris of Pallas does not appear to have been recognized by later naturalists. A Cynthia sent me by Mr. Spence Bate from Plymouth, by Mr. Jeffreys from Lulworth Cove, and by Dr. Bowerbank from Hastings, must, I think, be referred to this species, found “on submarine rocks in Corn- wall” by Gertner nearly a hundred years ago. It is very irre- gular in form, generally transversely ovate, deeply wrinkled, and strongly lobated. The test is tough, thick, and of a dirty yel- lowish colour, generally covered with small Zoophytes and other parasites, and with stones and fragments of shells adhering near the base. The apertures are not far apart, and rayed with red internally : the tentacular filaments are linear ; and the branchial sac has four folds on each side. It therefore belongs, like the majority of our British species, to the third section of Savigny. It appears to be not uncommon on the south coast of England, and may perhaps be the species alluded to by Forbes under the head of C. microcosmus, to which in external appearance it bears some resemblance. Cynthia sulcatula, n. sp. Body subcylindrical when extended, hemispherical when con- tracted, attached by a broad base. Apertures terminal, on long Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. 163 tubes (about one-third the length of the body), approximated at the base, and nearly disappearing on contraction; they are margined with a red line, or entirely crimson. Test dark red- dish brown, rough with longitudinal and transverse furrows, giving the surface a beaded appearance. Mantle bright crimson or scarlet. Tentacular filaments lmear. Branchial sae with four folds on each side. Ovaries scarlet, disposed in spherical masses over the inner surface of the mantle. Length half to three- quarters of an inch. This species is found on C. tuberosa, and on the roots of Laminarie at Cullercoats. Mr. George Hodge has also sent it me from Seaham Harbour. The approximated tubular apertures, regularly furrowed sur- face, and great contractility distinguish this species from the young of C. tuberosa; the character of the surface likewise di- stinguishes it from C. coriacea and C. granulata, to which it is more nearly allied. In a contracted state, the test becomes much corrugated, and the apertures then appear large and four-cleft. Cynthia granulata, n. sp. Body cylindrical when extended, nearly hemispherical when contracted, reddish, adhering at the base. Apertures terminal, slightly tubular, approximated; reddish, with a dark red line round the margin. Test tough, finely shagreened or granulated, but appearing nearly smooth to the naked eye, yellowish or brownish red. Mantle crimson above, passing to orange or ellow below. Tentacular filaments lear. Branchial sae with our folds on each side. Length about half an inch. This species appears to be pretty widely distributed on the British coast. I have met with it on shells or on other Ascidie, from moderately deep water, on the coasts of Northumberland and Durham, as well as at Guernsey and the Isle of Man. Mr. Jeffreys has also got it at Lulworth Cove. This Cynthia somewhat resembles the last, and is occasionally associated with it on the test of C. tuberosa. It may, however, be at once distinguished by the shagreening of the test, which is best seen when the surface is dry, it then appearing covered with minute shining facets. C. granulata may also be distin- guished from C. sulcatula by its shorter tubes and smaller aper- tures. Cynthia comata, Alder. Cynthia ampulla, Forbes & Hanl. Brit. Moll. vol. i. p.40; Alder & Hane. in Tynes. Club Trans. vol. i. p. 197. A more careful examination of this species, and a comparison of it with the original description and figure of Baster, convince 164 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. me that it has been erroneously referred to his Ascidium (the Ascidia ampulla of Bruguiére). That species is described to be thickly covered with minute hairs hooked at the points, and has the tubes granulated or shagreened, in neither of which cha- racters does the present species agree with it: nor does Baster’s Ascidium appear to be coated with sand—a character so remark- able in C. comata, from the depth to which it is generally co- vered. This arises from the great length of the glandular hairs, and is especially the case in old individuals, where the hairs are much branched and become thickened at the base, giving the test a peculiar appearance when the sand is removed. This and the following species belong to the Glandula of Stimpson*, a genus separated from Cynthia on account of the individuals being unattached. As this character, however, is not corroborated by any structural difference, and is also found in some species of other genera, we have not thought it desirable to give it generic rank. Cynthia glacialis, Sars. Body orbicular or ovate, a little compressed, unattached, and entirely covered with sand and fragments of shells. 4pertures approximated and slightly tubular when expanded, inconspicuous when withdrawn, of a dull, semitransparent white. Test smooth, whitish, soft and rather thin, a little wrinkled towards the apertures, apparently without hairs, the shelly fragments ad- hering directly to the skin. Mantle transparent and nearly co- lourless. Tentacular filaments simple, linear. Branchial sac with four folds on each side. Ovaries in parallel cylindrical masses, extending transversely, about four on each side. Diameter rather more than half an inch. Two specimens were obtained from the fishing-boats at Craster, Northumberland, by Mr. J. Stanger, in 1860; and it has since been dredged on the northern part of the same coast. Believing this species to be undescribed, I had proposed for it the name of C. vestita, under which appellation its discovery was announced by Mr. Stanger in the ‘ Transactions of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club’ (vol. iv. p. 835). I have since found that Prof. Sars had previously met with it on the coast of Nor- way, and had published a notice of it under the name of Glandula glacialis (Forhandl. 1 Vidensk. Selsk. i Christiania for 1858). Cynthia opalina, un. sp. Body transversely ovate, strongly but irregularly mammillated, opaline white, attached by a broad base. Apertures not far apart, rather large; the branchial one placed not far from the * Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History for June 1852. a 7 7 a = Ee aye PRIN AS ONT a Te ee ol les Dees subhy ee Le Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. 165 anterior end.. Test thick, smooth, white, semitransparent, ad- hering strongly to the mantle throughout. Mantle opake white, with one or two blotches of red near the apertures. Tentacular Jilaments linear (?). Branchial sac with four folds on each side (?); ventral line smooth, inconspicuous. Breadth three-quarters of an inch; height one-third less, rising a little towards the ante-~ rior end. A single specimen of this pretty species was obtained by Dr. Bowerbank from the Diamond fishing-ground, near Hastings. As the internal parts were partially decomposed, their character. could not be very satisfactorily made out. We know of no other Cynthia, however, with which it can be confounded. In its opaline and mammillated test it somewhat resembles a miniature Ascidia mammillata; but, besides its generic difference, it like- wise differs in form, and in the more numerous and smaller mamunille. Cynthia violacea, n. sp. Body very much depressed or nearly flat, transversely ovate or rounded in outline, and adhering by a broad expanded base. Test slightly hispid, and completely covered with small grains of sand. Apertures on rather long and slender tubes of a violet ' colour, set very little apart, and nearly equally distant from both ends. Diameter a quarter of an inch. Two specimens occurred to me on an old shell of Pecten mazi- mus among the rocks on Mrs. Hughes’s Island, Menai Straits, in 1852. Although, from its minuteness and delicacy, the internal parts of this species could not be examined, there can be little doubt of its distinctness from any other described Cynthia. The grains of sand adhere so closely that they can scarcely be removed without tearing the test, which is very thin. Cynthia grossularia, Van Beneden. The Ascidia rustica figured and described by Miiller in ‘ Zoo- logia Danica’ contains two, if not three species, supposed by him to be different stages of growth of one and the same animal. Continental authors have (and, I think, rightly) considered the largest or adult form to be the Ascidia rustica of Linneus, agreeing with his description “corpus oblongum, subcylindricum, brunneum.” The supposed youngest form of Miiller is un- doubtedly distinct, and is the species which English authors have hitherto called Cynthia rustica. Having ascertained, how- ever, from specimens sent me by the accomplished author, that Prof. Van Beneden’s Cynthia grossularia is identical with our 166 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. British form, I do not hesitate to adopt his name. It appears also to be the Cynthia gutta of Stimpson. The true Ascidia rustica has not yet been met with in this country; but I have lately found, in the collection of the late Mr.Wm. Thompson, of Belfast, a Cynthia from Killery Bay, on the west coast of Ireland, which appears to be the second form figured by Miiller, and which is probably also distinct from the C. rustica. It is nearly spherical, with a thin delicately wrinkled test, and is about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Cynthia grossularia is an extremely variable species, changing its appearance so much in different situations and under different circumstances, that we have sometimes been induced to think that more than one species might be included in it. When growing singly, it is rather depressed, and the test spreads into a thin membrane round the base; but, in sheltered situations, as under shelving rocks, the individuals accumulate in compact masses, so closely packed as to allow of growth only upwards, and adhering very firmly to each other at the sides. The young in such cases often attach themselves to the surface of the parent, so as, at first sight, to appear as if budding from it. In the more free state, likewise, the spreading bases of several indi- viduals sometimes come into contact and unite; but, on careful inspection, the line of union can generally be detected. The test, viewed as a transparent object under the microscope, always shows transverse anastomosing corrugations ; but it often appears smooth to the naked eye, especially in the young state. Cynthia glomerata, n. sp. Body ovate or subglobose, smooth, cherry-red, the individuals crowded into closely adherent clusters. Apertures rather small, not far apart, very slightly prominent, quadrate, but sometimes appearing as a simple slit when closed. Test tough, rather shining, smooth, or sometimes very slightly wrinkled in old in- dividuals, closely adherent to the mantle. Manile bright crim- son. Tentacular filaments slender. Branchial sac red, with one large fold, and a smaller one on the left side, and two or three obscure ones on the right: the largest folds are near the ventral plait, which is smooth. Ovaries disposed in small crimson pel- lets over the inside of the mantle. Height from a quarter to nearly half an inch. This interesting species was found cast up, after a storm, at Wick, by Mr. C. W. Peach. It differs from most of its con- geners in the smoothness of its test and the little prominence of its apertures, which are generally level with the surface when closed. The beautiful group from which the description is taken, St ph baie Ms Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. 167 kindly forwarded to me by Mr. Peach, consists of a globular mass of individuals of all ages and sizes, piled upon each other so as to resemble a large fruit of the Rubus tribe. The extra- neous substance to which they are attached is so completel covered as not to be discernible; and the individuals themselves adhere so closely that, at first sight, they appear to form one compound animal. That this is not the case, however, may be seen by a more minute inspection, when the line of junction between each can generally be detected, and, with a little care, an individual may be detached entire, showing no point of organic junction with the rest. The young fix themselves on all parts of the older ones, and in the spaces between them, so that, in process of time, a globular mass such as here described is the result. Genus Tuyxactum, Victor Carus. “Common base a broad fleshy structure supporting closely- set individuals; outer tunic coriaceous; both orifices with four lobes ; abdomen as long as the thorax.” Dr. T. Victor Carus thus characterizes a genus established by him in the ‘Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society’ (vol. iu. - p- 266) for the reception of an Ascidian found in the Scilly Islands. The connexion of the individuals of this genus by a solid fleshy base has induced the learned author to include it in the family Clavelinide. It has, however, a much closer affinity with the Ascidiade, especially with the two small gregarious species of Cynthia just described. Dr. Carus considers that this genus is propagated by gemmation as well as by ova. Further observations are desirable on this point. Thylacium Normani, n. sp. Body subclavate, rounded above and contracted a little below, reddish, firmly fixed in groups to a common fleshy base. Ayper- tures rather large and prominent, set considerably apart at the upper end, quadrate, or nearly circular when expanded, some- times appearing as a single slit when closed. Test strongly wrinkled or subtuberculated, rather smoother near the apertures, Tentacular filaments linear, very slender. Branchial sac with two or three (?) folds on each side. Height about two-tenths of an inch. Mr. Norman, to whom I am indebted for the knowledge of this species, found it studding the roof and sides of the cele- brated Gouliot Caves, Isle of Sark. It is much smaller than the T. Sylvani of Carus, of a different form, and appears to spread more horizontally. 168 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. Thylacium variegatum, n. sp.? Body (in each individual) transversely ovate, depressed, doridi- form, shaded with flesh-colour and red. Apertures not much apart on the upper surface, the branchial rather nearer the end. Test slightly wrinkled, or nearly smooth, generally red towards the anterior, and paler towards the opposite end, with a paler raised circle round each aperture, that of the branchial largest, and radiated with red. Tentacular filaments linear, stout. Branchial sac with folds. The individuals are connected by a membranous expansion at the base, of a paler colour. Length (transverse) of individuals about one-eighth of an inch. Diameter of the general mass one-half to three-quarters of an inch. One or two specimens of this curious species were kindly sent me by Mr. Jeffreys, along with other Ascidians, from Lulworth Cove. Iam much inclined to believe that this is the true Di- stomus variolosus of Gertner, judging from the figures copied in Blainville’s ‘ Manuel de Malacologie,’ which greatly resemble our Ascidian, the only material difference being that the aper- tures are represented six-cleft. On turning to Gertner’s de- scription, quoted in Savigny’s ‘ Mémoire,’ p. 38, we find it to agree even more closely with this species. The individuals (verruce seu tubercula) are “ ovalia et ex croceo rubra,’ and the apertures are surrounded by a swollen margin with six rays, “quasi in tot discissus fuerit dentes.”” If we may understand this to apply to the coloured markings, giving the apertures the ap- pearance as if cut into six segments, the description agrees with what is seen in the branchial aperture of the Lulworth-Cove specimens, which have the paler area surrounding it often di- vided into rays like the leaves of a flower; these rays are fre- quently six, though the aperture, which is small and inconspi- cuous when closed, is obscurely quadrate. Should this conjec- ture prove correct, Gertner’s Distomus has been entirely mis- understood by Savigny, as the present species has no relation- ship with the genus Distoma of the latter, founded upon the. species he has so well described under the name of D. rubrum. Further investigation, however, is necessary; and the suggestion is now thrown out to induce naturalists who may meet with this Ascidian in a living state to examine it more carefully. The specimens sent by Mr. Jeffreys are parasitical upon the test of Cynthia mammillaris, another lost species of Gertner which has been already alluded to. I lately received from Mr. George Hodge specimens of a Thy- lacium that may possibly be identical with this, though rather larger and of a deeper red. They were found on the fronds of Laminaria digitata cast ashore at the Island of Herm. CFL eT TT ra, if 2 4 Pp TE ee ee Ee Mee TT eR eS ey ee a c q Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. 169 Diazona Hebridica, Forbes & Goodsir. Syntethys Hebridicus, Forbes & Goods. in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xx. _ p. 307; Forbes & Hanl. Brit. Moll. vol. iv. p. 244. That the Syntethys Hebridicus of Forbes and Goodsir is really a Diazona will be obvious to any one who has the opportunity of carefully investigating its characters, one or two of which appear to have escaped the observation of the distinguished na- turalists who first described it. The division of the apertures into six lobes is very difficult to make out, except in well-pre- served specimens; and the elongated and pedunculated form of the abdomen is a character varying exceedingly according to the degree of contraction in which the animal is seen. I was so fortunate as to dredge large masses of this remarkable Asci- dian at Guernsey in 1853, and had the opportunity of examining it in a living state, when it was at once recognized as.the Syn- tethys Hebridicus of Forbes and Goodsir ; but on placing speci- mens in spirits, the apple-green colour of the living animals began to change into a delicate violet, and the whole put on the appearance of Diazona violacea of Savigny. This author, whose anatomical details are admirable, has failed to give a good general | representation of the animal, from having had access only to spirit specimens. His generic and specific names are in conse- quence somewhat of misnomers, as the flattening of the surface, from the individuals falling from the centre in dying, gives more of a circular arrangement than really exists in nature. The change of colour has already been remarked upon. The question arises, therefore, whether Diazona violacea and Syn- tethys Hebridicus are not one and the same animal. The only difference I can find is that the papille of the branchial sac in the latter are stout and obtuse, very different from the slender, pointed form represented by Savigny; I have therefore deter- mined to consider them distinct until further observations decide the point. Prof. Goodsir has kindly supplied me with a portion of a specimen from the original habitat, and, I believe, comcides in the view of its generic relation here taken. I am also in- debted for specimens to Mr. M‘Andrew. Its vitreous transparency and the opake white lines of the thorax give this remarkable species very much the appearance of a huge group of Claveling cemented together at the base. Poiyclinum succineum, nu. sp. Common body subglobose, a little depressed, very transparent, amber-coloured, attached by a broad base, the surface slightly lobated. Individuals disposed over the surface without apparent order, forming numerous systems, each with a prominent funnel- Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xi. 12 170 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. shaped common exeretory orifice, of great transparency. Branchial apertures six-rayed. Thorax cylindrical, occupying more than one-third of the length of the body. Abdomen rounded, simple ; postabdomen about the same length as the thorax, slightly pedunculated, and ending in a point below. Diameter of the mass about three-quarters of an inch. _ This species was dredged by Mr. Norman on the haddock- ground about six miles north of the Whalsey Lighthouse, Shet- land. It is remarkable on account of its great delicacy and the transparent funnel-shaped excretory orifices, which rise consider- ably above the surface. Polyclinum cerebriforme, x. sp. Common body transversely ovate; depressed, pretty largely at- tached, yellowish, the surface corrugated into folds like those of the surface of the brain. Individuals irregularly disposed over the surface ; systems few; the excretory orifices rather small, circu- lar, with the margin very slightly produced. Longest diameter of the mass three-quarters of an inch; shortest, about half an inch. ; This is another of the species for which I am indebted to my friend Mr. Norman, who procured two specimens, between tide- marks, on the south side of Bantry Bay, in October 1858. It is distinguished from Polyclinum aurantium by the folds of the surface, as well as by its smaller and more circular common apertures. The character of the individuals could not be satis- factorily made out. Amarecium pomum, Sars. Amaroucium pomum, Sars in Nyt Magaz. for Naturv. vol. vii. p. 155. Common body globose, subcartilaginous, yellowish-grey, sessile, attached by a spreading base. Individuals straw-coloured, rather large, set in numerous regular systems of from six to twelve, in. single series, round a prominent central orifice with a lobed margin ; the lobes corresponding to the number of individuals. Thoraz yellow, pellucid. Branchial sac with ten to eighteen rows of stigmata. Abdomen shorter than the thorax, oval; stomach brownish-yellow, areolated: postabdomen long, cylindrical, acu- minated below. Diameter of mass various. Length of indivi- duals nearly half an inch. A specimen of this fine species was sent to me by Mr. Mac- donald, of Elgin, obtained from deep water in the Moray Firth. It was much smaller than the Norwegian specimens described by Prof. Sars, the mass not measuring more than an inch and a quarter in diameter; but the agreement of its characters in a ———-—- * |. |? ees Ee ee OS Se A OE Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. i7i other respects leaves little doubt of its identity with his species. The size of the mass is always variable, depending upon the age and other circumstances. Amarecium pomum comes very near to the A. Nordmanni of Milne-Edwards; but it differs in colour, in the size of the individuals, and in the greater length of the postabdomen. Amarecium papillosum, un. sp. Common body depressed, sessile, yellowish fawn-coloured. In- dividuals prominent, rising into distinct papille over the surface, and forming numerous, irregular, close-set, ill-defined systems, set round wide common orifices. Branchial aperture with six obtuse lobes. Thorax brownish fawn-coloured. Abdomen rather darker: postabdomen longish, cylindrical. Diameter of mass about an inch; height about one-third as much. Two specimens of this Amarecium were obtained by dredging in shallow water, Menai Straits, in 1852. Sidnyum turbinatum, Savigny. A compound Ascidian sent by Dr. Leach to Savigny, from the — English coast, is described under this name by the latter, in a short Appendix to his Mémoire. Two different species have been referred to it by British authors, but, I think, erroneously. Dr. Fleming found what he was “inclined to consider” the S. turbinatum on the rocks of the Isle of May. His description in ‘British Animals’ is compounded of the characters of Savigny’s genus combined with those of his own recent specimen. What we consider to be Dr. Fleming’s species is not uncommon on the eastern coast. Prof. Edward Forbes, again, has described another species as the Sidnyum turbinatum of Savigny, and has altered the generic character to suit it. It is only necessary, however, to pay a little attention to Savigny’s description to be conyinced that our distinguished English naturalist was under a mistake, and that his species, which is composed of short, cylindrical, truncated masses, nearly as broad below as above, the individuals of which have a branchial aperture of eight rays and a broad postabdomen (see Brit. Moll. pl. s. f.2), cannot be the animal described by Savigny with a turbinated common body, contracted below, the indjviduals having a branchial aper- ture with six rays, and a pedunculated postabdomen, dilated and filiform (mince comme un fil) ; besides which, Forbes’s spe- cies has a common excretory orifice (mentioned only as a depres- sion in the description), removing it to a different section from Savigny’s Sidnyum, which, like Aplidium, is without this cha- racter. Add to which, the individuals of Sidnyum are arranged in narrow ellipses radiating from the centre to the cireumference, 12% 172 Mr. J. Alder on the British Tunicata. like the plates of a Madrepore, while Forbes’s species has the individuals arranged circularly round the common centre. Both the species described by British authors belong to the genus (or subgenus*) Parascidia of Milne-Kdwards, which has been sepa- rated from Amarecium on account of having eight lobes to the branchial aperture, none of the other genera of compound Tunica- ries having more than six. I propose naming these two species Parascidia Flemingii and P. Forbesti. The Sidnyum turbinatum remains yet to be recognized. Parascidia flabellata, n. sp. Common body elongate, lobulated, transparent, consisting be- low of a very much produced peduncle, which is divided above into several oblong branches, variously lobed, forming a some- what fan-shaped expansion at the free end; many orange masses or spots in the interior give an orange hue to the whole. Indi- viduals elongate. Branchial apertures eight-lobed, tinged with orange. Postabdomen longish, linear, and rather thin. The whole mass is prettily and minutely speckled with orange. The above account of a very interesting little Parascidia is extracted from the Rev.T. Hincks’s manuscript notes of Tunicata obtained in Salcombe Bay in 1848, kindly placed at my disposal. Mr. Hincks met with this species hanging about a Ced/ularia in little orange transparent tufts. There can be no doubt of its distinctness from any species yet described. Distoma vitreum, Sars. Distomum vitreum, Sars in Nyt Mag. for Naturv. vol. vi. p. 154. Christiania, 1851. Common body greyish-white, hyaline, subcartilaginous, clavate or fusiform, adhering by a narrow base. Individuals white or yellowish, irregularly disposed. Branchicl and anal apertures each with six blunt ilobes. Abdomen ovate-oblong, united to the thorax by a thickish peduncle; the stomach brownish and lon- gitudinally plicated. Length of mass a quarter to half an inch. A cluster of specimens of different sizes (mostly young), ad- hering to the stem of a Zoophyte, was dredged by Mr. Norman in the Channel Islands. Botrylloides sparsa, n. Sp. Common body rather thick, encrusting, semitransparent, of a yellowish-brown colour. Individuals rather small, yellowish- brown, thickly sprinkled with dark brown spots, with a circle of * Prof. Milne-Edwards makes both Amarecium and Parascidia sub- genera of Polyclinum, 1 prefer considering them genera, Dr. H. Schaum on the Head and Segments in Insects. 173 sulphur-yellow round the branchial orifice, continuous with a stripe or blotch of the same colour above ; they are arranged in short, ill-defined, branching systems, with the common orifices indistinct. Diameter of mass two to two and a half inches. I met with this species on the under side of stones within tide-marks, St. Peter’s Port, Guernsey, in 1853. This and the following species have the individuals more minute than is usual in the genus. Botrylloides pusilla, u. sp. Common body encrusting, semitransparent, orange-flesh-co- loured, with yellow marginal tubes. Individuals small, bright orange-scarlet, consisting of a minute sprinkling of scarlet on a yellow ground ; there is a yellow spot behind the branchial aper- ture, and the anal aperture is also yellow; the individuals are set in crowded double or treble rows, forming ill-defined systems. Branchial sac with ten rows of stigmata. Diameter of mass nearly two inches. Length of individuals half a line. A single specimen of this beautiful and very distinct Botryl- loides was got on the under side of a stone at Grand Havre, Guernsey, in 1853. Figures of most of the species here described, along with others not previously or hitherto imperfectly figured, will be given in an illustrated Catalogue of British Tunicata, now pre- paring for the British Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. Fig. 1. A portion of the branchial sac of Ascidia parallelogramma, highly magnified. Fig. 2. Two spiral coils of the same, more highly magnified. Fig. 3. A small portion of the branchial sac of Molgula arenosa, showing the cones in profile. Fig. 4. Two of the cones seen in front. XIX.—On the Composition of the Head, and on the Number of Abdominal Seymenis, in Insects. By Dr. H. Scuaum. [Plate VI.] As the opinion has lately gained much ground among the com- parative anatomists of England, chiefly through the embryo- logical researches of Prof. Huxley, that the head of the Arthro- poda is made up of a number of segments, I desire to draw attention to some facts which seem to militate against this view. Prof. Huxley * admits, with regard to the greatest number of * “On the Agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis,” Trans. Linn. Soc. xxii. p. 229 &e. ese 174 | Dr, H, Schaum on the Composition of the Head, — appendages attached to the head in any case (in Crustacea), six segments composing the head of Arthropoda,—the first bear- ing the eyes, the second and third the two pair of antenne, and the fourth, fifth, and sixth the three pairs of maxille (the third of which is soldered to the lower lip in insects). For insects, he reduces the number to five, as they have never more than one pair of antenne. In seeking for some arguments against this conclusion, I may be allowed to start, not from the head provided with the greatest number of appendages, but from the head of insects,—first, be- cause the statement that a pair of appendages is the exponent of a separate segment may be considered as a petitio principii by one who desires to disprove it; and secondly, because it is only in insects that the head is a section of the body into which nothing but the head itself enters, In Crustacea, either a part of the thorax (as in Isopoda) or the whole thorax (as in Deca- poda) is intimately united with the head into one portion; and in Arachnida there is no proper head at all. In the head of insects we have five pairs of appendages, if we admit, from the analogy of the moveable eyes in the Podoph- thalmous Crustacea, that the sessile eyes are appendages com- parable to the antennz and maxille. As it is proved, by the second and third thoracic segments bearing wings and legs at the same time, that the same segment may he provided with a pair of both tergal and ventral appendages, we might at first conclude that the eyes and antenne are the tergal appendages of the same segments which bear maxille as their sternal ones. The number of the segments of the head would thus be reduced to three, which is, indeed, a conclusion admitted by some ento- mologists*. But Prof. Huxley has been led, by his observations on the development of Aphis, to the conclusion that both eyes and antenne are also sternal, and not tergal appendages, With regard to these observations, I cannot refrain from men- tioning that scarcely any object could be chosen which offers a - greater difficulty to the observer for seizing clearly this fact than Aphis; for the Aphides not only leave the egg in a com- paratively perfect state, undergoing afterwards scarcely any metamorphosis, but they have also the front and even the vertex bent downwards, so as to be visible on the underside of the head. How is it to be decided, in such an embryo, which is the sternal _ and which the tergal part of the two segments, which, according * The labrum is considered by some entomologists, as by Brullé (Ann. des Se. Nat. 1844, p. 345), as representing also a pair of soldered maxille lying above the mandibles: this analogy is, however, completely rejected by Prof. Huxley, on the ground that the labrum is developed in the medial line of the body (J. c. p. 232. 9). Blas wild ET ES ET ee A ae TE ee ae eae ee EE Cee ae EY and on the Number of Abdominal Segments, in Insects. 175 to Prof. Huxley, are situated before the mouth? We get no in- formation from the author, as the terga of these segments are not traced by him. But leaving the point whether the eyes and antenne are ter- gal or sternal appendages in Aphis, sufficient proof can be given that it is inaccurate to state that a pair of appendages is always dependent upon a separate segment. It is a general law, that insects leave the egg with the full number of their segments, and that no segment is ever added during the metamorphosis, though some of the abdominal ones may disappear externally in the perfect state. A great number of larve, however, leave the egg completely blind, and even destitute of antenne, with a head on which no trace whatever of a division into subsegments can be discovered. How, in this case, can the subsequently deve- loped eyes (which are here certainly tergal, and not sternal ap- pendages) be considered as appendages of a proper segment which has never existed? And how are the ocelli to be accounted for, which, like the wings, make their appearance first in the perfect state, but which cannot, like the wings, be referred to a proper pre-existing segment ? The abdominal segments of Julide, provided with a double - pair of legs, furnish us with another proof that the same seg- ment may bear more than one pair even of ventral appendages. To dispose of this proof it is usually asserted that there are two segments united into one; but not a single observation on the production of these segments during the growth of the animal has been made which supports that theory. On the contrary, I conclude, from Newport’s observations and figures, that the new segments which are added to the abdomen appear always from the first with two pairs of legs, and never show a division into two. If, therefore, the number of appendages is not a just test of the number of segments entering into a part, we have to inquire what are the requisites of a segment, when we undertake to settle the question whether the head is made up of one or of several segments, It will meet with no opposition when, in the first instance, we require that a segment must be marked by a trans- verse line of demarcation on the integument of the animal, at least in an early stage of its development. Another requisite of asegment is, that it must constitute a ring composed of a dorsal and a ventral arcus, A segment requires, further, normally, a set of proper muscles and a ganglion. A ganglion need not be traced m each segment of the perfect insect, where a number of Segments are united to a greater section of the body (thorax or abdomen) ; but in the larva, with homonomous segments, the nervous system forms regularly a chain of ganglia corresponding 176 = Dr. H. Schaum on the Composition of the Head, to the segments. We find no trace of subsegments on the in- tegument of the headin any stage of the development ; we find no sets of different muscles, and never more than one ganglion infracwsophageum in the head. Are we not therefore entitled to draw from these facts the conclusion that the head of insects constitutes but a single segment, especially since we may trace in many Coleoptera a dorsal and a ventral arcus of it, united in two deep lines corresponding to sutures on the jugulum? It is certainly a segment more complicated than the others; but should we not expect this, since it contains the ganglion supra- cesophageum, the principal organs of the senses, and the mouth*? Applying the same views to the Crustacea, we are not entitled to admit there, any more than in the Insecta, different segments of the head for the different appendages,—not even in Squilla, where the eyes and interior antenne are inserted, it is true, on a separate plate, though a plate which is not analogous to a true segment Tf. Keeping in view the requisites of a segment, we may also arrive at a positive and satisfactory result as to the normal num- ber of segments composing the abdomen of insects, which has also been a subject of discussion in the memoir of Prof. Huxley on the development of Aphis. This result is, that in no case does the number of abdominal segments exceed nine. In insects which undergo a complete metamorphosis, this is satisfactorily proved by the fact that no larva has more than thirteen seg- ments {,—the first being the head, the three following consti- tuting the thorax, and the last nine the abdomen. Newport (Todd’s Cyclopedia) and Westwood (Introd. to the Modern Classif. of Insects, i. p. 194, and i. p. 240) speak, indeed, of a fourteenth segment of the body in the larve of aculeate Hy- menoptera and of the Scarabeide, in lke manner as some lepidopterologists speak of a fourteenth (anal) segment of cater- pillars; but it has long ago been proved by Erichson and Stein § that this supposed tenth segment of the abdomen is nothing. but the externally protruded anus, analogous to the anal proleg of the larve of many Coleoptera (which no one ever thought of considerirg a segment). As the number of segments does not increase after the larva has escaped from the egg, we cannot have more{ than nine segments in any insect undergoing a * T may also mention that those who admit several segments have never undertaken to state the position which the ganglion suprawsophageum oc~ cupies with regard to these segments. + Erichson, Entomographien. Berlin, 1840, p. 17. + Some larva, as those of Dytiscide and Hydrophilide, have, however, but twelve (eight being abdominal). § Vergleichende Anatomie der Insecten, i. p. 23, not. 4, and on the Number of Abdominal Segmenis, in Insects. 177 complete metamorphosis. These nine segments are, however, but seldom conspicuous in the perfect insects of this division, and only their dorsal half-segments : the number of ventral half- segments is always less than that of the dorsal ones, although both half-segments are equally developed in the /arva. Of the dorsal half-segments, the last, or even the last two, often disap- pear at the apex of the abdomen, being retracted within its cavity during the pupa state; of the ventral half-segments, not only the last or the last two are retracted at the apex during the transformation to the perfect state, but also the first, and often the first and second, disappear externally at the base of the ab- domen, being usually pushed inwards so as to form a kind of phragma between the thorax and abdomen. The first conspi- cuous ventral arcus in the perfect insect is, therefore, not the one corresponding to the first, but the ventral arcus correspond- ing to the second or third dorsal arcus*. In this way it is to be explained how the number of visible ventral half-segments in perfect insects is often reduced to five, six, or seven, while the number of the dorsal ones amounts to seven, eight, or nine. In counting the latter, we have always to begin with the one which bears the pair of large spiracles, so characteristic already, — for the first abdominal segment, in the larva, however intimate the union of that half-segment with the metathorax may be. It is, for instance, so intimate in the Staphylinide, that even Erich- son, neglecting the stigmata, considered it for some time as a part of their metathorax+. It is still more intimate in the Hy- menoptera aculeata, where the first Segment is severed from the rest of the abdomen by a more or less deep incision, and is immoveably applied to the metathorax—constituting that part which is called by MacLeay, Newport, and Westwood the post- sentellum of the metathorax ft. * Erichson, Archiv, 1848, ii. p. 61. + Erichson, Archiv, 1845, ii. pp. 80,81; Stein, Vergleichende Anatomie d. Ins. p. 11. { That the so-called postscutellum of the metathorax in Hymenoptera aculeata is in reality the first dorsal abdominal segment, as contended by Audouin and Latreille, is not only proved by the size and position of its stigmata, corresponding to those of the first abdominal segment of the larva (while the metathorax has nowhere any stigmata), but also by the changes which take place in the segments during the pupa state. It is the sizth segment of the larva (second abdominal) which forms the petiolus, by which what seems to be the whole abdomen is attached to the thoracic por- tion, the fifth (first abdominal) applying itself intimately during these changes to the metathorax (Cf. the figures of Ratzeburg, copied by West- wood, Introd. ii. fig. 86.4 & 5). The three parts of the body, so conspi- cuous in the Wasp, do not, therefore, as generally believed, exactly corre- spond to the head, thorax, and abdomen; but the first to the head, the second to the thorax + first abdominal segment, the third to the abdomen — the first segment. 178 . Dr. H.Schaum on the Composition of the Head, When we determine the number of abdominal segments in those insects undergoing an incomplete metamorphosis*, we cannot start from the simpler organization of the larva; but we have here, as in the other section, a safe guide in the stigmata. With the exception of the last, all the dorsal half-segments of the abdomen are provided with a pair of spiracles in the soft mem- brane which connects them with the ventral half-segments ; and the first is usually remarkable from its large size and its position on the back of the abdomen. Beginning with the arcus bearing those stigmata, we count on the back of the abdomen, in both sexes of Locusta, ten parts, which at first sight appear to be segments ; but, on a closer examination, we are led to the con- elusion that the tenth part (called Jamina supraanalis by ortho- pterologists) is not to be considered as a segment. ‘The first eight dorsal half-segments are easily identified by their stigmata (Pl. VI. fig. 1. 1-8); the ninth has no stigmata, and is differently shaped in both sexes (figs. 1. & 11.9), but is still united by a con- nective membrane to the last ventral half-segment, while the tenth (figs. 1. & 11. c), provided on its under side with a pair of styli (d), and also differently shaped in both sexes, is not con- nected by a membrane to the ventral segments. The number of the latter amounts to eight in the male, and to seven in the fe- male}, the last being differently shaped in both sexes, and bearing in the male another pair of styli (fig. 1.e). With the last of these (eighth in the male, seventh in the female), called Jamina sub- genitalis by orthopterologists, the ninth dorsal half-segment forms the apex of the abdomen and an involucrum both for the anus and the sexual organs, the dorsal arcus (9) being the bearer of the anus, and the ventral arcus (8 or 7) that of the sexual organs (figs. 1.& 11.,—the position of the rectum in the abdomen * With regard to the movements which some Neuroptera undergoing a complete metamorphosis perform as pup, it has lately been denied by some entomologists that a distinct limit could be traced between a com- plete and incomplete metamorphosis when they approach the end of this period: in denying this, however, they lose sight of a fundamental differ- ence in the organization of the pupa, which does not even admit the pos- sibility of a passage. In the true pupa, the skin shuts both the mouth and anus, so that no food can be taken and no feces be discharged; whilst in the pseudo-pupa of the hemimetabolous insects the mouth and anus are n, as in the larva and in the perfect insect. + The posterior part of the metasternum (PI. VI. fig. 1. M, coloured blue), expanded between the posterior cox, might easily be taken for the first ventral segment, as it is separated from the anterior part of the metaster- num by a deeply impressed line, by which the number of ventral segments would be raised to nine in the male and to eight in the female. That it is, however, in reality a part of the metasternum can be ascertained when we compare it with the corresponding part in Pachytylus (fig. 111.) and Forfiewla (fig. v.), where there can be no doubt as to its nature. eae ere eT eee Ne and on the Number of Abdominal Segments, in Insects. 179 being indicated in fig. 11. by a double series of red, that of the vagina by a double series of blue points), The ninth dorsal segment is thus proved to be the last of the whole body; the tenth part (c) is nothing but a plate which covers the anus, as the upper lip covers the mouth, and can as little as the latter, or the anal proleg of a larva, be considered as a segment, In Pachytylus migratorius, also, we count nine dorsal segments in both sexes, eight ventral segments in the male (fig. m1.), and seven in the female (fig,1v.). The ninth dorsal segment is, in both sexes, apparently divided by a transverse impressed line into two; nevertheless in reality it is simple (figs. 11. B 9 & rv. a 9) ; the lamina supraanalis (c) and the styli(d) are analogous to the same parts in Locusta. In the male, the last ventral segment has also on each side a transverse impressed line (fig. 111, B 8), which might, as in the last dorsal segment, be considered (but erroneously) as indicating the demarcation of two segments; the last (seventh) ventral segment of the female (fig.1v. B) is without any trace of such a line. The ninth dorsal and the last ventral half-segment, forming the apex of the abdomen (figs. 111,B &ry.a), involve, as in Locusta, the upper (9) the anus, shut by the /amina supraanalis(c), the lower (fig. 111.8 8, fig.1v.47) the sexual organs, which open in the female (fig. tv. 4) between the four parts consti- tuting the ovipositor (fig. rv. a 0) (as in Locusta, between the four lamine of the sword, fig. 11. 0), and which are separated in this case from the anus by a transverse septum (fig. 1v. a d, where the position of the rectum is, as in Locusta, indicated by a double series of red, and the position of the-vagina by a double series of blue points*). * M. Lacaze Duthiers states, in his memoir on the female genital appa- ratus of insects (Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1833, vol. xix.), that in Neuroptera, sip. gp and Hemiptera, three segments (somites) intervene between the a, which is said to open between the eighth and ninth abdominal segments and the anus, said to be situated on the eleventh segment. I have not been able to confirm these statements. In Hemiptera, in accord- ance with the observations of Fieber (the best monographer of this order), I never find more than eight dorsal segments. In the Neuroptera with complete metamorphosis, there cannot be more than nine segments, as the larve have but nine. In Orthoptera, where the anus and vulva open be- tween the last dorsal and last ventral arcus, forming an involucrum (the ninth dorsal and the seventh ventral where that number is greatest), I see nowhere even the possibility of counting eleven segments, except in Acridia (Pachytylus), if there the ninth dorsal segment be counted as double and the /amina supraanalis as a segment, while the transverse septum (Pl. VI. fig. rv. d) is considered as a venitral half-segment. As to the view of M. Lacaze Duthiers, that the various female genital organs, such as sting, borer, ovipositor, &c. (the analogous composition of which in Hymen- optera had already been proved by Prof.Westwood), are the result of modi- fications of the ninth abdominal segment, I doubt much whether observa- tions on the changes of that segment during the pupa state will confirm this 180 Dr. H. Schaum on the Composition of the Head, In the male of Forficula gigantea, and allied species, there are also nine dorsal segments (PI. VI. fig. v. 1-9), a lamina supra- analis (c), which attains here a great size, a pair of forceps ana- logous to the style (d), and eight ventral segments ; while in the female there are but seven dorsal and six ventral segments con- spicuous externally. The lamina supraanalis has in this case been counted by Prof. Westwood, in a paper on the external anatomy of Forficula (Trans. Ent. Soc. i. p. 157, pl. 16. fig. 6), as the ninth dorsal segment of the male, because he erroneously considered the first abdominal segment (fig. v. 1 & fig. v1.1) as a part of the metathorax (m), believing that it might thus be proved that in Forficula at least the metathorax is provided with a pair of spiracles (which is, however, nowhere the case). There can be no doubt as to the nature of the part in the apterous genus Chelidura corresponding to this in the Forficule. It fills there the posterior sinus of the metathorax, being quite separated from the latter, and covered at its sides by the produced angles of it, beneath which the stigmata of the first segment are concealed. In all these insects, as in all those undergoing a complete metamorphosis, the number of ventral half-segments is less than that of the dorsal ones, being eight in the male and seven in the female of both Locusta and Pachytylus, and being also eight in the male of Forficula*; and it is, as in the holometabolous insects, the first dorsal arcus which has no corresponding ventral arcus. There remains, however, one group of insects in which, ac- cording to the general opinion, ten segments of the abdomen, both the dorsal and ventral half-segments, are fully developed, view, which, however, could only be proved in that way. Observations on the pupz of Coleoptera led Erichson to the conclusion that the horny parts of the genital organs are not modifications of the last segments, but are developed independently of them (Erichson, Archiv, 1848, ii. p. 62), In trying to prove his thesis by the composition of those organs in perfect insects, M. Lacaze Duthiers starts from a theoretical axiom, that each seg- ment of insects is normally composed of six parts—three tergal ones (one tergum and two epimera) and three sternal ones (one sternum and two episterna),—and that it bears a pair of tergal and sternal appendages, called by him “‘tergorhabdites ” and “sternorhabdites.” He then refers the parts composing the genital organs to the tergum or epimera, or sternum or episterna, or tergorhabdites or sternorhabdites of the ninth abdominal seg- ment. It is, however, only in the wing-bearing segments that six parts can be really distinguished, and that tergal appendages exist ; and here the epimera are sternal, and not tergal parts, like the pieces designated by M. Lacaze Duthiers the epimera of the ninth segment. * By a mistake which I cannot explain, Prof. Westwood, in his paper on Forficula (1. ¢. pl. 16. fig. 6), figures the metasternum (PI. VI. fig. v. m), to which the posterior legs are attached, as the first ventral segment of the abdomen, and thus enumerates nine ventral segments. a A i ll ai ee il Rr en a hee : “ , and on the Number of Abdominal Segments, in Insects. 181 and in which the tenth bears the anal appendages—namely, the Libellule. In these insects what is generally counted as the first abdominal segment is, however, a posterior part of the meta- thorax—separated, it is true, by a deep incision and a softer membrane capable of some extension*, but not by a complete articulation, from the anterior portion of it. There are two reasons which seem to settle this point beyond doubt. In the first place, this apparent segment is destitute of spiracles, the first of the seven conspicuous pairs of spiracles lying in the con- nective membrane of the dorsal and ventral arcus of the apparently second segment}. A first abdominal segment destitute of spira- cles is without any analogy in the Insecta, while, on the con- trary, it is a characteristic feature of the metathorax that it never has spiracles. A second argument in favour of this opinion is, that the apparently first segment is developed, during the meta- morphosis of Libellula, in proportion to the growth of the wings. In the young larva we count only nine abdominal segments, of which the ninth bears the anal plates; in a larva of moderate size which has already undergone some moultings, and where the future wings appear on the back of the thoracic segments, that part begins to show itself; even in the pseudopupa, previous to its last transformation, it is still but little developed ; and it is only in the perfect insect that it completely assumes the shape of an abdominal segment. The metathorax there attains an unusual development, but a development quite im proportion to the posterior wings, which are, in the Lidellule, of even a larger size than the anterior ones, and which are moved during flight by a system of proper muscles ; while in other orders, as, for instance, m Hymenoptera, they are moved by the same system of muscles as the anterior ones, being connected to them, during flight, by the hooks of their anterior margin. According to this view, the penis of the Libellule is situated, not on the second, as usually stated, but on the first ventral segment; and the outlets of the generative organs are, in both sexes, on the eighth, and not on the ninth, ventral segment— those of the male in the middle, those of the female at the base of it. In this group the posterior part of the eighth and the whole ninth ventral segment intervene between the vulva and the anus, the latter occupying, as usual, the end of the ninth segment, which bears the anal appendages; and in this group, also, the nine ventral half-segments are all developed. Having thus ascertained that in insects the abdomen is as * A similar soft membrane exists between the anterior and posterior portions of the mesothorax (scutellum and postscutellum) in the Hymeno- pterous genus Eupelmus. T Hagen, Stett. Entom, Zeit. 1853, p, 319. 182 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Colouring Matter of the Red Sea. well defined as is the thorax by the number of segments which compose it, we may certainly take the three divisions of the body, as they are constituted in insects, as the standard to which the segments of the higher Crustacea are to be referred, if we desire to settle what are their cephalic, thoracic, and abdominal seg- ments. We will not state, then, that the thorax of Arthropoda is normally composed of seven segments. In Isopoda and Am- phipoda, where the part usually called the thorax is divided into seven leg-bearing segments, the segment corresponding to the ‘prothorax of insects has completely disappeared, its legs being added to the head in the shape of a lower lip with palpi; the first and second of the seven leg-bearing segments are analogous to the meso- and metathorax, and the five others, as well as the segments of the so-called abdomen, to abdominal segments,— the abdomen being here, as in all higher Crustacea, composed of a greater number of segments than in insects, and divided into an anterior (pectoral) and posterior (caudal) portion*. To the five segments constituting the pectoral part of the abdomen in Isopoda the five leg-bearing segments of Decapoda are ana- logous, whose thoracic segments are all united to the head (their legs constituting the three pair of accessory masticatory organs) and whose pectoral portion also enters into the part usually ealled the cephalothorax +. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. Fig. 1. Locusta viridissima, $ , seen sideways. Fig. u. The same, 2 ; apex of abdomen. Fig. 111. A. Pachytylus migratorius, g , seen from beneath, Fig. 111. 8. Terminal segments of the male of Pachytylus migratorius, seen sideways. Fig. tv. a. Pachytylus migratorius, ? ; last abdominal segments, seen side- ways. Fig. iv. B. The same, seen from betieath. Fig. v. Forficula gigantea, 3 ; abdomen seen sideways. Fig. vi. Forficula gigantea; metathorax (m) and first two abdominal seg- ments. XX.—Note on the Colouring Matter of the Red Sea. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &e. To those who have sought for all that has been published on the colouring matter of the Red Sea, it will be well known that the excellent memoirs on this subject by M. C. Montagne in 1844, and M.C. Dareste in 1855 (both in the ‘Ann. des Se. Nat.,’ the former in sér. 3 (Bot.) t. ii. p. 331, and the latter in * Erichson, Entomographien, PP. 14-16. + Brandt, Medic. Zoolog. ii. p. 58; Erichson, J. ¢. p. 19, aN Re Pe ee ee Pe ee ee Ce ee ee ae TT ay ee ee ee eS Mr. H. J. Carter on the Colouring Matter of the Red Sea. 183 sér, 4 (Zool.) t. iii. p. 179), are the most elaborate. But to Ehrenberg is due the merit of having first described (in 1826) the nature of the organism from which this colouring matter is derived. He found it in the Bay of Tor itself, pronounced it to be an Oscillatoria, and called it Trichodesmium erythreum, which Montagne has advisedly changed to 7. Ehrenbergii. No one who has read Montagne’s memoir, and seen his illustration together with the organism itself, can doubt that the chief source of the red colour of the Red Sea is owing to the presence of this little Oscillatoria. Nor can any one doubt, who who has read M. Dareste’s memoir, that this is not the only organism which colours the sea red in different parts of the world. It was to confirm the observations of the latter, as well as to record the fact itself, that I wrote the paper in these ‘ Annals” for 1858 (vol. i. p. 258), entitled “‘ On the Red Colouring Matter of the Sea on the Shores of the Island of Bombay,” wherein it is shown that this colour depends on the presence of a Peridi- nium (P. sanguineum, Cart.) in innumerable quantities, in which the chlorophyll at first is green, then becomes yellow, and lastly red, when the latter, mixing with the oil-globules generated pari passu in the cell, gives rise together to greater opacity, and thus reflecting more strongly, makes the presence of the Peri- dinia more evident, and causes the sea in which they are contained rapidly and almost suddenly to become of a vermilion or minium- red colour ; after which, the Peridinium falls to the bottom and thus disappears, as if this were the termination of a cycle in its existence. It was not, however (although I had formerly spent many months on the coasts of Arabia), until returning to England in June 1862, on board the Peninsular and Oriental Company’s steamer ‘ Malta,’ that I had an opportunity of seeing the colour of the Red Sea which is produced by Trichodesmium Ehrenbergit —a circumstance to which I should not have alluded, had not Montagne appended to his memoir certain queries which, in part, I can answer, at the same time that, with much diffidence, I offer a few remarks on Montagne’s generic characters of this organism, which are repeated by Kiitzing in his ‘ Species Algarum.’ Commencing, then, with a short account of my own experience of Trichodesmium Ehrenbergit in the Red Sea, I would observe that, on the 3lst of May 1862, when approaching Aden, we passed through large areas of a yellowish-brown oily-looking scum on the surface of the sea, and that on the 2nd of June, when off the Arabian side of the first islands sighted in the lower part of the Red Sea after leaving Aden, it again appeared, 184 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Colouring Matter of the Red Sea. and we frequently passed through large areas of it, sometimes continuously for many miles, until we arrived. off Jubal, or the last island in the upper part of the Red Sea, when, from a calm, we steamed into a strong northerly breeze accompanied by heavy sea, and saw no more of it. Once only I saw a portion of bril- liant red and one of intense green together, in the midst of the ellow. ; The odour which came from this scum was like that of putrid chlorophyll, well known to those who have had much to do with the filamentous Alge, both marine and freshwater, but more familiarly, to those who have not had this experience, by that which comes from water in which green vegetables have been boiled,—and hence very disagreeable. I drew up some of this scum in a bottle, and found it to be composed of little short-cut bundles of filaments like Oscillatoria; for I had only a Coddington lens with me for their observation ; and on showing them to Mr. Latimer Clark, the well-known Superintendent for laymg down the telegraph-cable through the Red Sea, &c., to Kurrachee, who was on board, Mr. Clark stated that he had observed the same phenomenon in the Sea of Oman, where he had examined the filaments of the little bundles with a microscope, and had found them to be “beaded,” to use his expression, ‘ with rounded extremities.” On arriving in England, I had no time for examining micro- scopically the specimens which I had obtained, and which had been preserved in an equal quantity of alcohol added to the sea- water in which they had been taken, till January (1863), when I found the little bundles, which were still just visible to the unassisted eye, and like so much fine “ sawdust” (to which they have been aptly and commonly compared by previous observers who have seen them without knowing what they really were), varying in point of measurement, although, on the average, per- haps about 4, inch long by 3,5 broad, containing about twenty- five to sixty filaments, each of which is about 54, inch long by ztoo broad, their cells, which of course are so many disks, being sometimes thinner, sometimes thicker, than the breadth of the filament, with rounded cells terminately at the extremities where entire, but square when the latter have been broken off from the filament. The bundles bore no evidence of an invest- ing sheath, but of the filaments being held together by mucus secreted from them generally. Further into this description I need not enter, except to state that the cell was a true Oscillatorial one, charged with a few granules suspended in its protoplasm, and that I saw nothing like sporidification. The colour of the bundles to the unassisted eye was still faint ee eee te ee ee ee ATS te ee Mr. H.J. Carter on the Colouring Matter of the Red Sea. 185 yellowish ; but the filaments, under the microscope, were faintly reen. : Of the questions proposed by Montagne (op. cit. p. 355), the second calls for more information on the size of the bundles. This has been supplied above, so far as my observation extends. _ The third question calls for information respecting the pre- sence of Trichodesmium in the Sea of Oman, &c., as bearing upon the origin of the name “ Erythrean Sea,” applied by Herodotus to all the seas washing the shores of Arabia. I have already stated that I saw the scum in the Gulf of Aden, also that Mr. Latimer Clark had seen it in the Sea of Oman; and the following extract from the late Dr. Buist’s observa- tions on the “ Luminous aud Coloured Appearances in the Sea” (Proceedings of the Bombay Geographical Society for 1855, p- 120) will show that it exists in the upper part of the Indian Ocean. The account from which this is taken was communi- eated to Dr. Buist by Dr. Haines, as witnessed on board the * Maria Soames,’ in lat. 21° N. and long. 42° E., and it stands thus :— “In May 1840, when one-third across from Aden to Bombay, the aspect of the sea suddenly changed upon us, and at once - seemed as if oil had been poured upon its surface. It was still as a mill-pond, and of a brownish, soapy hue. The water, on being examined, was full of little fibrils, like horsehair cut across, in lengths of the tenth of an inch or so. A wine-glass full of it contained hundreds of them.... We sailed through them for about five hours; so thatthey probably extended over a surface of 500 miles.” The occurrence, then, of Trichodesmium Ehrenbergii in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Indian Ocean, and the Sea of Oman is so far substantiated; and as the yellow colour in all instances probably passes into red, we have apparently the ex- planation of the whole of these seas having been called by the Greeks “Erythrean.” I have not, however, heard whether it has been seen in the Persian Gulf. Further, we learn from M. Dareste’s memoir (op. cit. p. 208) that Joao de Castro, in July 1841, when off Cape Fartak, which is about the middle of the south-east coast of Arabia, found the sea so red that it appeared as if it had been coloured with bul- locks’ blood. In my own experience of the Sea of Oman and the whole shore-sea of the south-east coast of Arabia from Muscat to Aden, where, under its survey, I passed all the months of the years 1844-45 and of 1845-46, with the exception of those of the stormy monsoon, viz. June, July, August, and September, the presence of the scum above described never, to my knowledge, Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xi. 13 186 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Colouring Matter of the Red Sea. was once observed. I am therefore inclined to infer that it is chiefly confined to the sea some distance off shore. Yet Ehren- berg, in 1823, saw the Bay of Tor covered with it, even up to the sands. Lastly, I would advert, but, as before stated, with much diffi- dence, to that part of the generic characters of Trichodesmium Ehrenbergii in which we find the expression “ prime rubro-san- guinea, tandem virides,”’ first used by Montagne (/. ¢. p. 346), and then repeated by Kiitzing in his ‘ Species Algarum,’ because the facts connected with the accounts given of those who have seen the scum formed by Trichodesmium, together with my own experience of Alge generally, lead me to the opposite conclu- sion, viz. that Trichodesmium is at first green, and subsequently becomes red. It is true that its chief colour in the Bay of Tor, when seen by Ehrenberg, was red; it was red, like “red sawdust,” when seen by M. E. Dupont in the Red Sea (ap. Montagne, /. ¢.) : but, on the other hand, what I saw in the Gulf of Aden and in the Red Sea, together with what Mr. Latimer Clark saw in the Sea of Oman, and Dr. Haines, as above stated, in the Indian Ocean, was nearly all of a yellow oily colour; and this is the appearance that I have heard generally assigned to it by those who have been in the habit of traversing the seas mentioned. Next to the yellow colour, red is the most prevalent, and green least of all. Some of that seen by Ehrenberg was in- tensely green ; this was the case also with the green portion that I saw with the red above noticed; while Ehrenberg saw other portions of a less green colour. So much for what has been stated respecting the colours under which Trichodesmium has appeared. We come now to the usual course presented by other Alge in arriving at a red colour. If we take the Peridinium which colours the sea red on the shores of the island of Bombay, we shall find, as above stated, that it is at first green, then yellowish, and lastly red. In the green stage, the contents of the cell are so thin and watery that they easily allow the light to traverse them, and thus the Peridinium passes unobserved; but as they become inspissated, oil-globules generated, and the chlorophyll changed first to yellow and lastly to red, these contents become more opake; and thus the Peridinium, by reflecting much more light than it did at first, comes rapidly into notice, and by its numbers gives a general red colour to that part of the sea in which it may be present. The same is frequently, indeed com- monly, the course with Euglena in freshwater ponds. The little Protococeus which colours the salt red in the salt-pans of the Island of Bombay, is green in the active period of its existence, Mr. H. J. Carter on the Colouring Matter of the Red Séa. 187 but becomes red, and settles down into the “ still form” of the same colour ; while the common green Protococcus of the fresh- water tanks loses its red spot in the still form, and gains it again in the active or reproducing period of its existence. So red Euglene often become green ; but the usual course appears to be for the green to appear first. The red colour also appears to herald the termination of ‘some period in the existence of the species. Thus the Peri- dinitum above mentioned, after becoming red, loses its cilia, assumes the still form, and sinks to the bottom. The same is the case with the Protucoccus of the salt-pans of Bombay; but instead of adhering to the salt, it seeks out and settles upon the erystals of carbonate of lime that are among those of the salt. The chlorophyll changes from green to red also in some of the resting spores of the confervoid Algz, as in Spheroplea* and in Protococcus pluvialis, where also in both it becomes green again on germination, which led Cohn to state that the green colour is connected with “ vegetation ” or the early part of the existence of the individual, and the red with “ fructification ” or the ter- mination}. So that, altogether, the passage of the colour from green to red in the filament seems to be more likely than the - opposite, Thus, as the evidence regarding Trichodesmium in the seas above mentioned is more, if anything, in favour of its yellow than its red colour, and that it is also sometimes green, while, in the com- mon course, where Algz present red and green colours in their respective cycles of existence the latter appears first, and the Peridimum above mentioned passes from green to yellow and then to red, &c., it seems not unreasonable to infer that Tricho- desmium Ehrenbergii does the same, and that, therefore, so much of Montagne’s generic characters of Trichodesmium Ehren- bergii as relate to its colour (viz. that it is “at first red and at length green”’) should be reversed. If it were desirable to adduce evidence of the faint green colour which Trichodesmium probably presents in the first stage of its existence, from the observation, too, of probably the same organism in other parts of the world, one might cite those of Péron, who likens it to “ poussiére grisatre,’ and of Darwin, who compares it to “cut hay,” &c. (op. cit.); but it seems better for this argument not to go beyond the seas washing the shores of Arabia. To what the “intense green,” under which this organism sometimes presents itself in the Red Sea, owes its production I am ignorant, unless it be indicative of sporidification, which, * Cohn, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 4¢ sér. t. vy. p- 187. + Ray Soe. Vol, for 1853, p. 519, 13% 188 Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. from what I think that I have seen in Oscillatoria princeps, seems to take place in this family, not from the conjugation of its cells, but from the division of their contents into zoospores. Much therefore remains to complete the history of this little plant ; and this, unfortunately, can only be obtained by watching it long and narrowly in its proper habitat. XXI.—On the Contractile Tissue of Plants. By Prof. Ferpinanp Conn*, Pror. Coun commences his interesting essay by remarking that, though modern discovery has rendered the boundary-line obscure between the animal and the vegetable kingdoms, with respect to the lowest organisms in each, yet the differential characters between the higher forms of each subkingdom remain sufficiently well marked. Nevertheless the phenomena of irritability and of movement in parts of many higher plants bear a general re- semblance to those presented by the tissues of the higher classes of animals, though their active cause has been attributed to mechanical forces in connexion with structural peculiarities. Cohn addresses himself to the question whether these mechanical hypotheses are sufficient and satisfactory, or whether the move- ments and irritability of plants are not referable to structures homologous with those concerned in their production and mani- festation in animals. To solve this interesting question, Cohn appeals to observa- tions made by himself and by a talented pupil, M. Krabsch, who was induced by the Professor to repeat, in the first instance, the old experiments of Treviranus and Morren on the irritability of the filaments of Centaurea, as a prelude to new researches. Kohlreuter established the fact of the irritability of the stamens of Scolymus hispanicus, Serratula arvensis, Cynara scolymus, and C. cardunculus, Onopordum arabicum, Centaurea moschata, C. mgra, C. spinosa, and C. ragusina, Cineraria, Scabiosa glasti- folia, S. benedicta, 8. eriophora, and S. salmantica, Buphthalmium maritimum, Cichorium intybus, and C. endivia, and Hieracium sabaudum. Sowerby noticed the contractility of the anthers in Centaurea Isnardi, and L. C. Trevtranus made a particular study of the movements of the filaments of Centaurea pulchella, whilst Morren did the same for those of the Centaurea ruthenica. Krabsch especially studied the movements of the anthers of Centaurea macrocephala. * Translated, in abstract, from the ‘Abhandlungen der Schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir vaterlindische Cultur,’ Heft i. 1861, by J.T, Arlidge, M.B. & A.B. (Lond.). - ETE a Le ee Oe OE Ra TY re Oe eee ee ee ee ee es Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 189 To witness the phenomena of motion and irritability in the stamens, it is only necessary to isolate a floret, as of Centaurea, and to cut away one-half of the corolla im such a manner as to expose the stamens, from their point of attachment, their whole length. After a period of rest of a few minutes, the filaments, which have hitherto been straight and in close apposition with the central style, are seen to curve themselves outwards, leaving, however, their terminal anthers still closely applied to the upper part of the style. This bending proceeds until it reaches its maximum, when each filament stands out in a half-circle from the style. On now touching a filament with a needle, they all, so to speak, collapse and resume their vertical direction and close apposition with the style. Bearing in mind the fact that the filaments are fixed at their two extremities (at the upper by the anthers, which are immoveable, and at the lower by their insertion into the receptacle of the floret), it becomes evident that, to produce the remarkable curvature they exhibit, they must undergo considerable elongation. Indeed, the degree of curvature does not represent the whole amount of elongation ; for the filaments necessarily affect the length of the anthers by | the tension exercised upon them. The extent to which they pull upon the anthers may be demonstrated by cutting across one or more of them, when the lower half becomes drawn apart from the upper, and thrust upwards above the line of section. The maximum of this movement of the cut filament is stated to be half a millimétre. The movements of the filaments in two species of Centaurea (viz. C. macrocephala and C. americana) were carefully measured by means of the micrometer, due regard being given to the tem- perature, time of day, and other conditions likely to influence the phenomenon. These measurements are given in detail; but it is unnecessary to copy them here, and we shall content our- selves by stating the general results of Cohn’s inquiries. 1. The touching of a filament of Centaurea is at once followed by shortening, which, in its extent, bears a direct relation to the intensity of the irritation produced. 2. The irritated filament undergoes shortening in its entire length. All other parts of the flower seem incapable of a similar process. 8. The shortening commences from the moment of contact, and proceeds rapidly (though not so much so as to appear in- stantaneous) until it attains its maximum. A sudden act of irritation, as with a needle, induces the most complete contraction. 4. Hence it also follows that the impulse to shortening is transmitted from the point irritated to both ends of the filament, or from one end to the other. 190 = Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 5. The degree of shortening varies according to the age of the stamens, the temperature, and other influences which exalt or reduce their irritability, as, for instance, the integrity of the flower, and the condition of the other filaments when irritation is applied to one of their number. 6. The medium degree of shortening, in thirty-one measure- ments, was rather above twelve-thousandths of a Viennese line, or about one-eighth of the length of the filaments. Thus, a fila- ment which, when extended, is12 millimétres in length, shortens, when touched, to 10°5 mill. This estimate is within the truth; for the whole amount of contraction cannot be measured. 7. Immediately after the shortening has attained its maxi- mum, elongation commences, and proceeds much more rapidl at first than subsequently. The curve, consequently, is mue more abrupt at first, and of a larger arc afterwards. The same law obtains in the case of muscle after irritation. 8. The interval between the maximum contraction and the maximum extension varies in length : the medium time is about ten minutes; but in some instances only six, and in others fif- teen, minutes elapse. The irritability depends greatly on the age of the flower : it is greatest when the style has not yet fully extended itself beyond the yet closed anthers encircling it; and it is lost when the style has reached its maximum length and the anther-cells are divergent, although the corolla do not then show the least sign of withering. It therefore follows that the period at which the stigma can be impregnated is subsequent to the loss of irritability on the part of the stamens. 9. By repeated irritation, a maximum contraction may be ob- tained and kept up for some time. Whether the irritability of the organ undergoes diminution, and may be eventually de- stroyed by long repeated excitation, is not determined. The de- cision of this question is theoretically of much moment ; for if such decrease and loss occur, then the phenomenon of fatigue, as witnessed in muscular fibre, ranks also as a property of the irritable substance of plants. To solve the question, an appeal may be made to other plants exhibiting irritability, such as the Berberis, Mimosa, Drosera, and Dionea; and in the two last- named examples experiment has positively shown that too often repeated contact paralyzes the irritability of their leaves. 10. By prolonged irritation of the stamens, their subsequent extension is found to decrease progressively, both in degree and in the rapidity with which it occurs. 11. The capacity of shortening themselves, even irrespectively of the irritation of an external excitant, continues in the fila- ments for a considerable time, though it gradually declines. 12. At first sight it might be supposed that the shortening BAITED ee ae ee pels Ba a a i a Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 191 of the filaments independently of the operation of external ex- citants is a consequence of the drying up of their tissue ; but such is not the case. - 18, 14. On the contrary, this shortening is a consequence of an active process of contraction. That it does not depend on desiccation of the organs, Cohn proved by contriving in some experiments to keep them moist, and in others to immerse the whole sexual apparatus in water. In the former series the = of contractility remained, whilst in the latter their capa- ility of rapidly shortening themselves on the application of an excitant was almost instantaneously lost, though, after a time, it gradually revived, 15. From these experiments it was undeniably established that the filaments have their maximum length at the epoch of their highest irritability, and that subsequently they con- tinuously and gradually contract, and also that this phenome- non is not dependent on the hygroscopic conditions of the parts. These facts necessarily imply that a direct relation subsists be- twixt the contractility of the filaments, the loss of their irritability, and the gradual death of their tissue. To demonstrate this, Cohn subjected the prepared sexual apparatus of a floret to ether, with the view of destroying its vitality by the vapour, when he found that the filaments shortened themselves greatly, whilst the style remained unchanged. To obviate the desiccating effects of the ether-vapour on the tissue in this experiment, he introduced water so as to keep the parts moist. - 16. Mechanical contact is not the only excitant to active con- traction, but electricity is so likewise, and acts powerfully when the current is transmitted through the sexual apparatus. More- over, when the current is strong, the shortening is not succeeded, as after ordinary stimulation of the filaments, by elongation ; on the contrary, their irritability is destroyed, and they remain shortened. Parallel phenomena have been noted by Schlacht and Pfluger in the leaves of Mimosa pudica when an induction- current traverses them; and by Nasse in the stamens of Ber- beris. The effects of a continued constant current Cohn has not yet been able to determine. 17. From the observations made, it is presumable that the lasting and permanent shortening of the filaments, with loss of irritability, is a symptom of its extinction, whether produced rapidly by ether-vapour, by water, or by strong electrical action, or whether it happens spontaneously and gradually. The short- ening also appears in all cases, under similar circumstances, to advance at a constant minimum rate, whatever may be the cause of the extinction of irritability. The proximate active agent in the process of shortening is the 192 Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. elasticity of the cell-tissue, or the property to which a structure owes its permanence of form and its capability of renewing that form after disturbance from any cause. Moreover, the elastic powers of the stamens differ, as in muscle, under different cir- cumstances. In the irritable stage the elasticity is great, but the extensibility small; and on the contrary, when the irritability is lost, the elasticity is decreased, and the filaments can then be readily extended. Still the elasticity remains so far as to assert its power by shortening the filaments when the extending force is removed ; and this holds true even after their vitality has ceased. 18. We may probably arrive at a better apprehension of the phenomena detailed by endeavouring to discover in what tissues the contracting and the extending forces of the irritable stamens reside. The filaments of Centaurea are composed of very deli- cate cells, mostly somewhat longer than broad. Their softness or delicacy is so great that they are easily crushed by the glass cover in a microscopical examination. They are cellulose in chemical composition, and covered by an epidermis consisting of still larger though very delicate cells, three to four times as long as broad. Their outline is gently undulating, and their proto- plasm is thick and coarsely granular; externally they give off conical-cylindrical hairs from over the septa between adjoining cells, so that these hairs are themselves divided by the longitu- dinal septa, being, as it were, prolonged into them. A cuticle encloses both the epidermic ‘or epithelial cells and the hairs growing from them. In the interior of each filament is a bun- dle of spiral vessels with prosenchyma-cells and air-passages. The question is, whether the cellular structure possesses, as a whole, the extending and contractile power, or whether the several tissues distinguishable have different and special functions. Microscopic examination can afford no positive answer to this question ; but the following deductions may be made :— a. The contraction proceeds in the cell-structure at large. If not, contraction would involve folds or wrinkles at parts; and such are not discoverable. ’ 4.: On the other hand, the vascular bundle in the centre exhibits no activity in the process of con- traction; for in a contracted filament the vessels are not in a state of tension, but wavy. c. The stretching of the different parts varies in degree'greatly ; for when a filament is slit longi- tudinally, it curves itself: spirally, and so that the cut surface occupies the convex side. This shows that the tissues nearest the epidermis undergo greater shortening. Morren has made the remark that the centre of motile stamens possesses contrac- tile power, and that the superficial epidermis and cuticle consti- tute the elastic portion; but Cohn inclines to the opinion that Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 198 the entire parenchyma possesses the properties of extensibility and contractility, together with those of contractility and elasti- city; but he would not deny that probably the different layers of cells partake of these properties in various degrees. 19. Another question is, supposing contractility to reside in the cells, whether the cell-membranes or their contents are the active agents in its manifestation. Dutrochet’s hypothesis of endosmose as the cause of plant-movements has given place to the hypothesis of Hofmeister; and Cohn is disposed to believe that the primordial layer or the proteme contents are endowed with contractility, and that the enclosing cellulose membrane gives the required elasticity to cells. 20. It is, again, necessary to determine whether the changes in form of contractile cells are exclusively effected by the shorten- ing of the long diameter which may be actually recognized, Cohn can give no decisive opinion on this matter, but presumes that the decrease in length must be followed by an increase in the width of the cells. But, even after the solution of these questions, the problem would remain unsolved, On what histo- logical qualities and relations does the circumstance depend, that cells should by irritation undergo a change of form, and, — whilst contracting in one dimension, expand in another? But the same difficulty prevails with regard to animal contractile tissue on these physiological points. 21. On comparing together the several observations adduced, two interpretations are possible. In the filament of Centaurea two properties exist in a state of antagonism—-viz. elasticity, a physical property independent of vitality, and seated in the cell- wall, and an expansive power, associated with living action, and probably referable to the cell-contents (the primordial lamina). So long as the living filament retains its irritability, the property of expansion predominates, and the filaments are consequently extended and curved, and most so when they are exempt from irritation, though still in a considerable degree after having been temporarily shortened in consequence of irritation. Again, as the expansive energy declines with the vitality of the filaments, the elasticity comes more and more into play, and causes a pro- gressive shortening of those organs. Irritation acts in a certain measure as a momentary and partial death, and paralyzes the expansive power ; and when the vitality of the stamens actually vanishes, elasticity assumes the entire sway, and gives rise to a maximum degree of shortening. Thus, according to this in- terpretation, the shortening of the cells after an external irrita- tion is peculiarly a passive phenomenon; and the active power is displayed in their extension during life in general, and par- ticularly during the period of elongation. 194 Prof. F.Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 22. Another interpretation offers itself when the above ob- servations are viewed in comparison with those made respecting the contractile tissue in animals; and although, in the higher animals, contractility is found in association with highly organ- ized muscular fibre and nerve-tissue, yet, in the lowest animal organisms, contractility and irritability exist even without the formation of distingt cells, as in the sarcode of Hydra, of Amebe, &c. ; consequently these properties as exhibited in plants become more correctly comparable with such similar endowments in the animal kingdom. The comparison of vegetable contractile tissue with true muscular structure can, indeed, be only by way of analogy, and not of homology. 23. The greatest analogy obtains between the smooth organic museles of animals and the contractile tissue of plants. The effect of contraction on muscle is to shorten and thicken it: this effect is speedy, but the subsequent elongation more gra- dual; this latter likewise proceeds in a curvilinear manner, similar to what may be seen in the contractile filament of the plants. However, the contraction of muscular tissue exceeds in extent that witnessed in the contractile substance of the plant. Again, in muscle, contractility is opposed to elasticity; for, like the filament, muscular fibre is endowed with a small amount of elasticity. The degree of elasticity of muscle is smaller, and the extensibility greater, in the contracted than in the extended condition ; and, though not demonstrated, it appears probable that the contracted filaments are more readily and largely ex- tensible than the outstretched ones. Further experiments are needed to decide whether the elastic property of the contractile filaments in all cases follows the same laws as Weber has clearly proved to exist in muscles. The most powerful excitant of muscle is electricity, by the medium, however, of the nerves. Its operation is nevertheless similar in the case of the motile filaments. Mechanical con- tact operates alike in the two structures, and affects the entire length of the contractile organ. But, besides electricity, there are several other stimulants of muscular energy, such as warm and cold water, vegetable poisons, prussic acid, ether, and chlo- roform, not yet experimented upon in the case of the stamens of Centaurea, but which, judging from their action on Mimosa pudica, may be presumed to react on their irritability much as they do on that of muscles. 24, With the facts now advanced, the differences subsisting between the motory phenomena of contractile filaments and of muscular fibre may be examined and compared. Now, the ex- tended condition is considered to represent the passive and normal state of muscle,.and its contraction an active condition PES, NN ee ee ee Ee EN ee Ney ae ee Se Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 195 opposed to the natural elasticity of its tissue. On the contrary, in the filaments of the plant, elasticity seems to act as the shortening agent, and to represent the passive condition, whilst extension or elongation appears to be a state of activity. A difference such as this implies in the active causes in operation in the contractile parts of plants and animals is, however, not probable. Indeed, presuming the physiology of museular action, as generally taught, to be correct, we may still assume that the eontraction of the filaments, like that in muscle, is a sequel to the operation of an active force—of contractility—which has been suspended in consequence of irritation, and also associated, as is true of muscle at the moment of its activity, with a change in the elasticity of the tissues. 25. We should be in a better position towards understanding the true relations between the contractility of plant- and of ani- mal tissue did we rightly comprehend the remarkable contrae- tion which the withered filaments undergo. So far as concerns the fact itself, it appears not to be without analogies in the animal kingdom, among the lowest classes endowed with con- tractile parenchyma. For instance, in Amcebee and Foramini- © fera, the contractile processes are retracted on the application of an excitant, and also on the approach of death, and the whole animal shrinks into a smaller compass. So it is in Vorticella and in Stentor, and also in Hydra. Such analogy is more ob- scure in the muscles of the higher animals ; yet Cohn believes that the rigidity after death is a fact of the same class. 26. It is improbable that contractility as exhibited in the stamens of Centaurea should be an isolated phenomenon in the vegetable kingdom. On the contrary, a very large number of facts are on record respecting many plants, parallel in kind to those detailed. The peculiar phenomena attributed to vegetable “irritability” are of this order: such are the movements of the stamens of Berberis, Cactus, Cistus, &c., of the anthers of Ges- neracez and of the Stylidez, of the labella of some Orchidez, of the leaves of many Leguminose, Oxalidacee, Droseracee, &c., of the climbing stems and tendrils of many climbing plants and - ereepers—all more or less affected by external excitants, electri- eal, chemical, and mechanical, To the same category belong also those phenomena described as the sleep of plants (regulated by and dependent upon the intensity of light), the movements of all younger parts of plants towards the light, and those changes in form, lately remarked by Hofmeister, in all young shoots and leaves, which become curved by mechanical shaking. 27. It has been generally assumed that these phenomena of ir- ritability in plants have nothing in common with those witnessed in animals, but are to be explained by the action of some me- 196 = Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. chanical forces. Hofmeister’s researches have sct aside the hypothesis of Dutrochet, of endosmotic force called into play by excitants ; but the theory advanced in its place, that the move- ments are not dependent on shortening, but on an augmented expansion or turgescence as the effect of excitation, cannot itself be maintained. In this hypothesis, the pith, as being very full of sap, is assumed to take the most important part in producing the movements—an assumption which Cohn shows, from @ priorz considerations, to be untenable. Moreover, the positive fact above advanced, of the occurrence of shortening when a part is irritated, stands in direct opposition to this general hypothesis of Hofmeister; for, without doubt, the movements of the young shoots are of a similar nature to those of the stamens exhibited in Centaurea. 28. Cohn has, from the researches entered into, arrived at the conviction that the accepted dogmas of physiology are erro- neous in ascribing sensation and motion to animals as charac- teristics—a conviction further strengthened by all the newly observed facts relative to the lowest grades of animal life, and the distinctions existing between animals and plants. Sensation in the higher animals is linked with sensory perception or sensi- bility, and with a medium of connexion between the sensorium and surface in the system of nerves; but in the lowest animals this complex apparatus is absent, and the whole tissue responds to impressions from without, these latter operating by the exist- ence of what is called “irritability,” or of a degraded sort of sensation. This low form of sensation must be also attributed to plants ; for these organisms exhibit it in a threefold manner : 1st, by the property of receiving impressions from without, 2. e. by irritability; 2ndly, by the property of responding to such impressions by internal movements and by changes in form, i. e. by contractility; and 3rdly, by the power of propagating these impressions from their point of contact to the tissues and parts around, which are themselves, as a result, thrown into action, i.e. by diffusibility of impressions. The action of excitants in developing irritability and calling forth movements is not simply and directly dependent on their mechanical, physical, or chemical characters, but the organized tissue has an organic modifying power upon them, and the irritation gives rise to internal move- ments resulting in change of form, the suspension of elasticity, or the production of heat, &c. This organic power is the vis nervosa of Haller. 29. When an act of irritation is propagated within the tissue, this again is dependent on an internal motor power, called into activity by the external impression, without which the internal movements necessary to diffusion could not take place. Thus, eS st ae, ee ee oe ie a ee a ae ee Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 197 when a nerve is mechanically, chemically, or electrically injured, and the muscles in relation with it are thrown into activity, this happens not by transmission of the mechanical or other force, but by the calling forth of a motor nerve-force which propagates itself along the nerves. On applying flame to a leaflet in the compound leaf of Mimosa pudica, it is not only that particular leaflet that is affected (for if so, it might be fairly attributable to the direct effect of the heat); but all the other leaflets, and the entire leaf, including its attachment to the stem, are similarly affected, and collapse ; and what is more, the direction of the propagation of the impulse varies according to the point at which it impinges. Indeed, it is impossible to reduce these movements to the level of mecha- nical results ; and the same holds true when electrical is substi- tuted for mechanical force. All such facts and considerations concur in proving that the propagation of external excitation in Mimosa proceeds in the same mode as in animals; and there is little doubt that the vascular bundles constitute the special tissue adapted for this object, and that the phenomena of contractility depend upon a muscular tissue. Though not so perfectly, these properties are also displayed in Dionea, Drosera, and the stamens of Centaurea. The filaments of the last named contract themselves in their entire length when only one point is touched; and the act of contraction manifests itself by undulatory movements, just as in organic muscle. This fact is best shown by preparing the flower of Centaurea so that the filaments are left by themselves, attached below, but set free above by having the anthers dissevered from them. This done, the filaments curve themselves gently out- wards, and look like the arms of a Hydra extended. In this state any one of the filaments may be irritated (as by the point of a needle), with the effect of inducing a series of movements ; these at first being a bending of the fibre towards the side on which it is touched, followed by curvature to the opposite side, and, lastly, by undulatory movements along its entire length. On irritating the five filaments on different aspects, they are bent about in various directions, curving over and crossing one another. So far, however, as observation has extended, it would seem that in Centaurea, Dionea, and Drosera the power of conduction of external impressions is not located in any one tissue, but equally partaken by all, as is seen in the instance of those lowest animals that are destitute of definite nervous and muscular tissue. 30. On now collecting the facts that energetic movements 198 ~— Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Planis. as the result of irritation are seldom observed in the vegetable kingdom, but that the anatomical structure of irritable tissues presents no appreciable characteristic peculiarities not seen in other vegetable tissue, and that the suceptibility to the excita- tion of light, as well as to that of mechanical and probably of electrical impulse, is possessed by all young vigorous tissues ; and further, on comparing these phenomena with those of ani- mal irritability, the conclusion forces itself upon us, that the faculty of responding to external irritation by internal move- ments and changes of form belongs to cells as such, and holds good as well in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom. To be irritable, to change its normal form as a result of excitation, and to revert to it after a while by its inherent elasticity, are charac- teristics of the living cell. In plants, these properties are met with only when the vital processes are in full activity, and there« fore are particularly noticed during the period of flowering, when those processes are at their maximum. And here it may be remarked that the stamens, in which irritability is more fre- quently noticed, are the only organs in which an elevation of temperature, measureable by the thermometer, occurs, although doubtless a certain degree of heat is generated in all plant-cells by the chemical processes going on within them. So soofi as the processes of life in an organ begin to fail in power, so soon also does their irritability decline, so far, at least, as its external manifestations are concerned. These circumstances suggest a reason for the rarity of the phenomena of irritability and contractility existing in any con- siderable degree in plant-cells; but they furnish no ground for concluding that irritable tissues possess properties not to be found in other vegetable tissues; on the contrary, it is to be supposed that similar properties belong to all, but exist in an intensified degree, and for a certain epoch, in those parts where their results arrest observation. There is a difficulty in believing that, in possessing the faculties of sensation and motion, the animal kingdom, including its lowest and most simple repre- sentatives, partakes of vital endowments entirely denied to plants for the sole reason of their being plants. There is a physiological differentiation in the organs and cells of the higher animals, which progressively declines as we descend the scale of animal life; and we find in the lower grades of ani- mals the same tissue, and this, too, in a less elaborated form, carrying on functions which, in the higher, are shared in by two or more highly organized special structures. The same holds good in a higher degree with respect to plants, in which, as @ rule, one and the same cell performs all the functions necessary to life, though in some cases certain cells are constituted into yt ee oa i a Te. ee | a ee ee ee ey Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 199 a homogeneous tissue for the more special (but by no means the exclusive) performance of one or other of those functions. The hypothesis now contended for is, that plant-cells possess irrita- bility and contractility as do animals, though in a much less complete manner, and without the mechanism of the specially devised tissues—muscle and nerve. And whoever will deny to plants the property of responding by movements to the act of irritation because they possess neither muscles nor nerves, by similar reasoning should deny their capability of taking up nourishment because they have neither mouth nor stomach, or their power to circulate the sap because they have no heart, or their faculty of respiration because they are destitute both of lungs and gills. In short, the plant has, by the medium of the simple cell alone, to accomplish all that is effected in the higher animals by different organs in a more complete and efficient manner. : 31. In the foregoing discussion, Cohn has contented himself by assigning to vegetable tissue the property of irritability and the power of responding to irritation, or the function of con- tractility ; and he would leave to a more imaginative dissertation the task of claiming for plants the possession of localized sensa- tion, of consciousness, and of volition—properties which, in his apprehension, are absent also in the lowest forms of animal existence. ; : If sensation, as manifested in animals, could be predicated of tissues which respond by movements to external irritation and in consequence of it, no difficulty would be found in proving its existence in the vegetable kingdom, and particularly by reference to the influence of light upon the green parts of plants, the leaves and stems, in the production of correlative movements. 32. The movements of the contractile filaments of Centaurea must be acknowledged as having a special purpose when the process of fructification in this plant and its allies is studied. The anthers in Cynaree reach maturity before the stigma. When the apex of the style has as yet not advanced in length beyond the surrounding ring of anthers, the pollen already dis- tends, and exudes from, the cavities of the anthers. If at this period, when the irritability of the filaments is at its maximum, the floret be touched, the filaments are immediately shortened, and the anthers, as a consequence, are simultaneously retracted; a quantity of lumpy pollen is at the same time seen to be ex- truded from the apices of the anthers. However, this pollen is not in a condition to fructify the stigma, in consequence of the peculiar disposition of hairs upon the nodule supporting the fissured apex, which prevent the passage upwards of the pollen to the yet closed stigma-orifice ; and it is not until after the 200 Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. filaments have lost their irritability that the stigma and pollen are mutually fitted for the process of fructification. This extru- sion of pollen on primary contact has, upon such grounds, been designated * pollution” by Meyer. From the above facts, it follows that the several florets in the flower of Centaurea, although they have their anthers and stigma in immediate contact, are nevertheless incapable of self-fructification, are only apparently hermaphrodite, and, in point of fact, dichogamie. It is further remarkable that the pollen-grains remain united’ in lumps, and therefore less diffusible in the currents of air as dust ; and consequently the fructification, in these as in many other plants, is effected by the agency of insects. When an insect alights on a flower of Centawrea, it produces by its con- tact a retraction of the irritable filament and anther, and at the same moment a discharge of pollen from the apex of the latter, which adheres to the legs of the insect, and serves to fructify, not the stigma of that particular floret, which as yet is, in fact, unfit for the process, but the female organ of some other floret, arrived at maturity, in the same or, it may be, in some other flower. The researches of K6hlreuter and others prove that this process prevails throughout the entire family of Cynarez, and affords an explanation of the frequency of bastard forms in this section of the Composit, and particularly in the genus Cirsiwn. Conrad Sprengel has pointed out that the sexual organs in Carduus nutans do not simultaneously reach maturity, and that therefore the florets are dichogamic. K6hlreuter also states that the fila- ments in Cichorium intybus and Hieracium sabaudum are equally irritable with those of Centaurea; and the frequency of bastard forms in the Hieracez renders it probable that their florets are also dichogamic. The same condition is moreover presumable in the ease of other plants with syngenetic stamens, particularly in that of the Campanulacez, Lobeliaceze, Violacese, &c. Kohlreuter has likewise announced the fact of the irritability of the filaments in Cactez and Cistinez ; and those of the former tribe offer themselves as peculiarly adapted to further researches on this matter, and particularly with relation to the effects of electricity on the contractile tissue of plants. The physiology of contractile tissues is still in its infancy; but we anticipate that its more profound investigation will only supply additional evidence in favour of the proposition which we believe is the starting- point for general physiology and the science of development, viz., that the principle of life, both in the animal and vegetable kingdom, is one and the same, multifariously diversified by dif- ferent gradations in organization, and that all vital phenomena of living organisms are referable to the life of the cell, ae ee = “a SEE ES Prof. F. Cohn on the Contractile Tissue of Plants. 201 33. The following is a summary of the foregoing researches on the stamens of Centaurea :— - 1. The stamens shorten themselves, on mechanical contact, instantaneously throughout their length. This holds true, also, when only one point is touched, and also of all parts of those organs. The contraction amounts to one-seventh of their length, and, in certain conditions, to one-fourth. Simultaneously with their contraction, the stamens also become thicker. 2. After the shortening has attained its maximum, the fila- ments begin to extend themselves, and to acquire a curved con- dition similar to what occurs in an irritated muscle. After the lapse of ten minutes, they regain their former length. 3. Other excitants, especially a current of electricity trans- mitted through the filaments, produce immediate contraction. 4. The irritability of the filaments vanishes spontaneously after a while—in the living flower, about the time when the segments of the style expand themselves and the-stigma is in a condition for fertilization. But, coeval with these changes, the stamens become progressively shorter, and, when completely de- prived of their irritability, are only one-half the length they were when in the full possession of that property. 5. This persistent shortening, which must not be confounded with contraction resulting transiently from previous irritation, is a symptom of death, not a hygroscopic phenomenon. At the same time it is induced much more rapidly when the irritability of the stamens is destroyed by the vapour of ether, by immersion in water, or by strong electric discharges. 6. The shortening in death is chiefly an effect of elasticity, which, in the irritable filaments, is subordinate to an expansive power; but, in the dead or withered state, the antagonism of this latter is withdrawn, and the filaments become shortened to one-half their length, and are highly elastic, like threads of india- rubber. 7. The property of shortening resides in the parenchyma of the stamens, which presents no especial difference from ordinary cell-structure ; and the vascular bundle is at least passive during contraction. 8. The foregoing, along with other similar researches, go to demonstrate that the cell-tissue of the filaments of Centaurea ‘possesses irritability (in the sense used by Haller) and likewise an innate motor power, both these properties resembling in all essential points their like as found in the contractile and irri- table parts of animals. This analogy does not imply the exist- ence of muscles and associated nerves, as found in the higher animals, where a physiological differentiation of tissues prevails in order to qualify for the performance of functions of the highest Ann. § Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xi. 14 202 Mr. A. Adams on the Japanese Species of Siphonalia, order, but points much more precisely to the irritable and contrac- tile tissue of the lowest animals, which possess neither muscles nor nerves. _ 9. As it is, on the one hand, most improbable that these con- ditions should obtain in the tissue of the filaments of Centaurea as a solitary instance, so, on the other, it is much more credible that similar properties (motory phenomena consequent on irrita- tion) prevail throughout the vegetable kingdom. That this is so, is exemplified in all those movements which have a recog- nized object, as those of the young parts of all plants towards the light, and in the curved motions of such parts induced by mechanical and electrical contact; and the conclusion is inevitable, that irritability and contractility, or, in other words, the faculty of undergoing changes in form or outline in response to external excitation, are not restricted to the animal kingdom, but, like assimilation, respiration, the distribution of nutritive juices, de- velopment, &c., are the vital endowments of the cell simply as such, and are manifested in plant-tissue only exceptionally with less distinct energy by reason of a simpler organization and weaker vital power. 10. Teleologically considered, the irritability of filaments 1s subservient to the production of movements in the Cynaree and the florets of probably all the other Composite, in connexion with dichogamic fertilization, as the frequency of bastard forms in Cirsium and Hieracium indicates. In this process insects constitute the principal agents, causing by their contact the contraction of the stamens and the consequent extrusion of pollen from the anthers, and then carrying the pollen so dis- charged to other florets, the stigmas of which are (unlike the organ of the floret, with its highly irritable stamens, which has furnished the fertilizing powder) in a condition to receive it. XXII.—On the Japanese Species of Siphonalia, a proposed new Genus of Gasteropodous Mollusca. By Artuur Apams, F.L.S. &e. Genus SrpHonaris, A. Adams, Testa ovato-fusiformis, plerumque variegata, non epidermide in- duta; anfractu ultimo ventricoso, plerumque nodoso-plicato, Aper- tura antice in canalem curtum recurvatum desinens. _ Most of the typical species comprising this group have been described by Lovell Reeve in his Monograph of Buccinum. They are, B. cassidarieforme, Rve., B. lineatum, Kien., B. signum, Rve., B. modificatum, RKve., B. spadiceum, Rve., B. fusoides, Rve., B. hinnulus, Ad. & Rve. Their operculum, however, is fusoid, . a proposed new Genus of Gasteropodous Mollusca, 203 and their shells more nearly resemble those of Neptunea than of Buccinum. They appear to be principally from China and Southern Japan, while the species of Neptunea are chiefly northern shells, and are numerous in the northern parts of Japan and Manchuria. The species of Siphonalia are commonly variegated and destitute of epidermis, and are thin ventricose shells; while the species of Cantharus and Cuma, which some- what resemble them in form, are dense solid shells, and are covered with a thick brown epidermis. 1. Siphonalia cassidarieformis, Reeve. Buccinum cassidarieforme, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 11. Hab. O-Sima; Simoda. 2. Siphonalia signum, Reeve. Buccinum signum, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 6. Hab. O-Sima; Hakodadi. 3. Siphonalia trochulus, Reeve. Buccinum trochulus, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 7. Hab, O-Sima. 4, Siphonalia fusoides, Reeve. Buccinum fusoides, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 9. Hab. Satanomosaki; Tsu-Sima. 5. Siphonalia fuscolineata, Pease. Neptunea fuscolineata, Pease, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860. Hab. Mino-Sima. 6. Siphonalia modificata, Reeve. Buccinum modificatum, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 67. Hab, Kuro-Sima; 56 fathoms. Fatsijeu; 29 fathoms. 7. Stphonalia spadicea, Reeve. Buccinum spadiceum, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 64. Hab. Mino-Sima; 63 fathoms. ' 8. Siphonalia hinnulus, Adams & Reeve. : Buccinum hinnulus, Ad. & Rye. Moll. Voy. Sam. pl. 7. f. 10 a, b. Hab. Tsusaki; 35 fathoms. Tatiyama. 9. Siphonalia commoda, A. Adams. S. testa acuminato-ovata, sordide alba, epidermide tenui fugacea obtecta; spira aperturam vix squante, conica; anfractibus 7, planis, in medio subangulatis, obsolete nodoso-plicatis, transversim tis; liris majoribus albidis, minoribus fuscis, alternantibus ; 14* 204 Mr, A. Adams on the Japanese Species of Siphonalia, interstitiis longitudinalibus crebre striatis ; apertura oblongo-ovata,, intus alba ; labio leevi, canali aperto, mediocri, reflexo; labro intus levi, margine crenulato. Hab. Tsaulian. A very neatly-formed and modest-coloured shell, differing from every species with which I have compared it. 10. Stphonalia corrugata, A. Adams. S. testa acuminato-ovata; spira brevi, acuta; anfractibus 6, planis, longitudinaliter rugoso-plicatis, plicis in medio anfractuum nodu- losis, transversim liratis; liris rugulosis, griseis cum albidis alter- nantibus, antice validioribus et distantioribus; anfractu ultimo mag- no, plicis antice obsoletis ; apertura ovata, canali brevi, recurvato ; labio leevi, calloso ; labro intus lirato, margine albo. Hab. Kino-O-Sima. A grey species, with transverse white lines alternating with brown ones. It somewhat resembles S. trochulus, Reeve ; but in that species the whorls are rugosely plicate. 11. Siphonalia conspersa, A. Adams. S. testa acuminato-ovata; spira brevi, conica, lutescente, castaneo variegata et rufo-fusco conspersa; anfractibus 6, longitudinaliter plicatis, plicis postice nodulosis, in anfractu ultimo antice obso- letis, transversim liratis, liris validis, equalibus; apertura ovata ; labio leevi, calloso, incrassato, canali brevi, valde recurvo ; labro intus sulcato. Hab. Japan. Coll. Cuming. A very pretty species, resembling in form S. cassidarieformis, Reeve, but with very different colouring and sculpture. 12. Siphonalia concinna, A. Adams. S. testa ovato-conica ; spira elata, quam apertura breviore, fulva, fasciis duabus latis transversis albidis ornata; anfractibus 6, levibus, in medio angulatis, longitudinaliter plicatis, plicis distantibus, postice nodulosis, in anfractu ultimo obsoletis; anfractu ultimo antice transversim sulcato; apertura ovata; labio leevi, tenui, canali brevi, valde reflexo ; labro intus leevi. Hab. Kuro-Sima. A neatly-painted species, with smooth and. nodosely plicate whorls, 13. Stphonalia ornata, A. Adams. S. testa ovato-fusiformi; spira conica, quam apertura breviore, fulva, lineis transversis rubris (in anfractu ultimo septem) ornata; an- fractibus 6, planis, serie nodulorum in medio instructis, longitudi- naliter striatis, transversim liratis; apertura ovata; labio cragso, + 4 ai SSS SS eS a Se gee ee ee ee a ee eo + en ae eee ioe ae eee a proposed new Genus of Gasteropodous Mollusca. 205 --ealloso, canali subproducto, ad sinistram inclinato, valde recurvo ; labro intus valde lirato. Hab. Japan. . Coll. Cuming. An elegant lineated species, with a series of conspicuous no- dules in the middle of the whorls. 14. Siphonalia filosa, A. Adams. S. testa ovato-fusiformi; spira elata, acuta, aperturam eequante, pal- lide fulva, lineis transversis filiformibus aurantiacis ornata ; anfrac- tibus 8, convexis, longitudinaliter plicatis, plicis rotundis, vix no- dulosis, in anfractu ultimo obsoletis, transversim liratis, liris con- fertis, equalibus ; apertura ovata; labio callo levi instructo, ca- nali mediocri, ad sinistram inclinato, recurvato ; labro intus levi. Hab. China Sea; 14 fathoms. Coll. Cuming. A slightly plicate subfusiform species, with the whorls adorned with orange thread-like lines. 15. Siphonalia ligata, A. Adams. S. testa acuminato-ovata ; spira conica, quam apertura breviore, alba, lineis filiformibus pallide aurantiacis distantibus ornata;anfractibus - 6, planatis, postice angulatis, longitudinaliter subplicatis, trans- versim valde liratis, liris ad plicas nodulosis, elevatis, distantibus, regularibus ; apertura ovata; labio tenui, simplici, canali brevi, lato, vix recurvato; labro postice angulato. Hab. Japan. Coll. Cuming. A delicate white species, adorned with elevated pale orange transverse lines, and most nearly resembling S. Jineata, Kiener. 16. Siphonalia grisea, A. Adams. S. testa acuminato-ovali, cinerea aut grisea; anfractibus 6, planis, oblique nodoso-plicatis, transversim valde liratis ; liris eequalibus, planis, interstitiis profunde exaratis ; anfractu ultimo magno, serie nodulorum ad peripheriam instructo ; apertura ovata, canali brevi, aperto, recurvato ; labio vix calloso; labro intus lirato. Hab. Simidsu. . An ashy-grey species, with a series of nodules in the middle of the last whorl. 17. Siphonalia colus, A. Adams. S. testa ovato-fusiformi, pallide fusca ; spira elata, aperturam zequante; anfractibus 8, convexis, pestice excavatis, longitudinaliter obtusim plicatis, plicis rotundis, transversim liratis; liris confertis, fili- formibus, subzequalibus ; apertura ovata, canali elongato, aperto, subrecurvato ; labio levi; labro intus sulcato. Hab. Mino-Sima; 63 fathoms. An elegant fusiform species, with the whorls finely lirate, and 206 Mr. A. Adams on the Japanese Species of Siphonalia. with the siphonal canal produced anteriorly into a somewhat long recurved beak. : 18. Siphonalia acuminata, A. Adams. S. testa ovato-fusiformi, pallide fulva aut alba, hic et illic rufo tincta; spira acuminata, quam apertura longiore ; anfractibus 9, convexis, postice excavatis, longitudinaliter plicatis, plicis rotundis, regularibus, subconfertis, transversim striatis, in medio anfractuum biliratis, liris ad plicas nodulosis ; anfractu ultimo liris 6 instructo; apertura rotundato-ovata, canali subproducto, tortuoso, vix re- curvo. Hab. Gotto; 48 fathoms. A light brown acuminate species, with the whorls nodosely plicate, and with the siphonal canal rather produced and tor- tuous. 19. Siphonalia pyramis, A. Adams. S. testa pyramidato-fusiformi, pallide fusca ; spira elata; anfractibus 7, subimbricatis, planis, longitudinaliter plicatis, transversim liratis, liris confertis, eequalibus, ad plicas subnodulosis ; apertura ovata, canali brevi, tortuoso, recurvo ; labio levi; labro intus sulcato. Hab. Satanomosaki; 55 fathoms, A somewhat pyramidal species, with an elevated conical spire, subimbricate whorls, and a short, tortuous siphonal canal. 20. Siphonalia munda, A. Adams, S. testa ovato-fusiformi, pallide fulva, hic et illic fusco tincta, maculis subquadratis rufo-fuscis, in serie unica dispositis, in medio anfrac- ~ tuum ornata; spira producta, quam apertura longiore ; anfracti- bus 9, convexis, postice excavatis, longitudinaliter nodoso-plicatis, transversim crebre liratis, liris confertis, regularibus, sequalibus ; apertura ovato-oblonga, canali subproducto, tortuoso ; labio leevi, simplici. Hab. Kuro-Sima; 35 fathoms. A neat, fusiform, fulvous species, with a series of subquadrate red-brown blotches in the middle of the whorls. 21. Stphonalia nodulosa, A. Adams. S. testa ovato-fusiformi; spira acuminata, aperturam sequante, pal- lide fusca; anfractibus 7, convexis, postice subexcavatis, longitu- dinaliter valde plicatis, plicis distantibus, antice et postice obso- letis, transversim liratis, liris confertis, regularibus; apertura ovata; labio leevi, canali mediocri, tortuoso; labro in medio recto, postice rotundato-angulato, Hab. Mino-Sima; 63 fathoms. A somewhat fusiform species, with strongly nodulous plicate whorls, Colour uniform pale brown. ee ee Se ee ee ee -Prof. J. D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. 207 XXIII.—On the higher Subdivisions in the Classification of Mammals. By James D. Dana*. THE precise position of Man in the system of Mammals has long been, and still remains, a subject of discussion. There are those who regard him as too remote from all other species of the class to be subject to ordinary principles of classification. But zoologists generally place him either in an independent order (or subclass, if the highest divisions be subclasses) or else at the head of the order containing the Quadrumana. Science, in searching out the system in nature, leaves psychical or intellectual quali- ties out of view; and this is right. It is also safe; for these immaterial characteristics have, in all cases, a material or struc- tural expression ; and when this expression is apprehended, and its true importance fully admitted, classification will not fail of its duty in recognizing the distinctions they indicate. _ Cuvier, in distinguishing Man as of the order Bimana, and the Monkeys of the order Quadrumana, did not bring out to view any profound difference between the groups. The relations of the two are so close that Man, on this ground alone, would be far from certain of his separate place. No reason can be derived - from the study of other departments of the Mammals, or of the animal kingdom, for considering the having of two hands a mark of superior rank to the having of four. : Prof. Owen, in his recent classification of Mammals +, makes the characteristics of the brain the basis of the several grand divisions. But, as he admits, the distinctions fail in many cases of corresponding to the groups laid down; and although the brain of Man (his group Archencephala) differs in some striking points from that of the Quadrumana, yet no study of the brain alone would suggest the real distinction between the groups, or prove that Man was not coordinal with the Monkeys. In fact, the nervous system is a very unsafe basis of classification below the highest grade of subdivisions—that into subkingdoms. The same subkingdom may contain species with, and without, a di- stinct nervous system, and a class or order may present very wide diversities as to its form and development, for the reason that the system or plan of structure in species is far more authoritative in classification than the condition of the nervous system, The fitness of the parts of the body of Man for intellectual uses, and his erect position, have been considered zoological * From the American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xxxv. Jan. 1863. Communicated by the Author. + Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, for Feb. 17 and April 21, 1857. aun 208 = Prof. J.D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. characteristics of eminent importance, separating him from other Mammals. But even these qualities, although admitted to be of real weight, are not, to many zoologists, unquestionable or authoritative evidence on this point. But while the structural distinctions mentioned may fail to establish Man’s independent ordinal rank, there is a character- istic that appears to be decisive, one which has that deep founda- tion in zoological science required to give it prominence and authority. The criterion referred to is this—that while all other Mam- mals have both the anterior and posterior limbs organs of loco- motion, in Man the anterior are transferred from the locomotive to the cephalic series. They serve the purposes of the head, and are not for locomotion. The cephalization of the body—that is, the subordination of its members and structure to head-uses— so variously exemplified in the animal kingdom, here reaches its extreme limit. Man, in this, stands alone among Mammals. The author has shown elsewhere* that this cephalization is a fundamental principle, as respects grade, in zoological life. “He has not only illustrated the fact that concentration of the anterior extremity of the body and abbreviation of its posterior portion is a mark of elevation, but, further than this, that the transfer of the anterior members of the thorax to the cephalic series is the founda- tion of rank among the orders of Crustaceans. In the highest order of this class, that of the Decapods (containing crabs, lobsters, shrimps, &c.), nine pairs of organs out of the fourteen pertaining to the head and thorax belong to the head—that is, to the senses and the mouth. In the second order, that of the Tetradecapods, there are only seven pairs of organs, out of the fourteen, thus devoted to the head, two of the pairs which are mouth-organs in the Decapods being true legs in the Tetra- decapods. In the third or lowest order, that of the Entomos- tracans, there are only siz, five, or four pairs of cephalic organs; and, besides, these in most species are partly pediform, even the mandibles having often a long foot-like branch or extremity, and the antenne being sometimes, also, organs of prehension or locomotion. Two of the laws bearing on grade, under this system of ce- phalization or decephalization, have been stated—its connexion with (1) a concentration of the anterior extremity and abbrevia- tion of the posterior extremity, and the reverse, and with (2) a * See his Report on Crustacea, the chapter on Classification, p. 1395 ; also Silliman’s Journal, vol. xxii. p. 14, 1856, where the principles ex- plained in this paper are illustrated by many examples, and with direct reference to the general subject of classification, oe Oe oh ld Prof. J.D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. 209 transfer of thoracic members to the cephalic series, and the re- verse. There is a third law which should be mentioned to ex- plain the relations of the Entomostracans to the other orders, namely, (3) that a decline in grade, after the laxness and elonga- tion of the anterior and posterior extremities have reached their limit, is further exhibited by a degradation of the body, and especially of its extremities. In the step down from the Decapods to the Tetradecapods, there is an illustration of this principle in the eyes of the latter being imbedded in the head instead of being pedicellate. In the Entomostracans (1) the elongated abdomen is destitute of all but one or two of the normal pairs of members, not through a system of abbreviation, as exhibited in crabs, but a system of degradation; and in some species all the normal members are wanting, and even the abdomen itself is nearly obsolete. Again, (2) the two posterior pairs of thoracic legs are wanting in the species, and sometimes more than two pairs. Again, (3) at the anterior extremity, one pair of antennz is often obsolete, and sometimes the second pair nearly or even quite so. The Limulus, though so. large an animal, has the abdomen reduced to a straight spine, and the antennz to a small pair of pincer legs, while all the mouth-organs are true legs—the whole structure indicating the extreme of degradation. In the order of Decapods having nine as the normal number of pairs of cephalic organs, the species of the highest group have these organs compacted within the least space consistent with the structure of the type; in those a grade lower, the posterior pair is a little more remote from the others, and begins to be some- what pediform ; a grade lower, this pair is really pediform, or nearly like the other feet ; and still lower, two or three pairs are pediform. Still lower in the series of Decapods (the Schizopods), there are examples under the principle of degradation above ex- plained—(1) in the absence of two or three pairs of the posterior thoracic appendages, (2) in the absence or obsolescence of the abdominal appendages, (3) in the Schizopod character of the feet. These Decapods, thus degraded, approximate to the Ento- mostracans, although true Decapods in type of structure. Thus the principle is exemplified within the limits of a single order, as well as in the range of orders. This connexion of cephalization with rise of rank is also illus- trated abundantly in embryonic development. It is one of the fundamental principles in living nature*, * In his ‘ Manual of Geology,’ just published, the writer, speaking of the ancient Ganoids, has preferred to use the term vertebrated tails rather than 210 ~=—- Prof. J. D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals, When, then, in a group like that of Mammals, in which two is the prevailing number of pairs of locomotive organs, there is a transfer of the anterior of these two from the locomotive to the cephalic series, there is evidence, in this exalted cephalization of the system, of a distinction of the very highest significance. Moreover, it is of the more eminent value that it occurs in a class in which the number of locomotive members is so nearly a constant number. It places Man apart from the whole series of Mammals, and does it on the basis of a character which is fundamentally a criterion of grade. This extreme cephalization of the system is, in fact, that material or structural expression of the dominance of mind in the being, which meets the desire both of the natural and intellectual philosopher. This cephalization of the human system has been recognized by Carus, but not in its connexion with a deep-rooted structural law pervading the animal kingdom. It is the comprehensive- ness of the law which gives the special fact its great weight, Aristotle, in his three groups of Mammals, the Dipoda or two- footed, the Tetrapoda or four-footed, and the Apoda or footless species, expresses distinctions according with this law. The term Dipoda, as applied to Man, is far better and more philosophical than Bimana. The erect form of the structure in Man, although less authori- tative in classification, is a concomitant expression of this cepha- lization ; for the body is thus placed directly beneath the brain or the subordinating power, and no part of the structure is either anterior or posterior to it. Two feet for locomotion is the smallest possible number in an animal. Cephalic concentration and posterior abbreviation are at their maximum. The charac- ters of the brain distinguishing the Archencephala (Man) in Prof. Owen’s system, so far as based on its general form or the relative position of its parts, flow from the erect form. Man’s title to a position by himself, separate from the other Mammals in classification, appears hence to be fixed on struc- tural as well as psychical grounds. heterocercal, because this characteristic of a prolonged vertebral column is a mark of inferiority of grade, on the principle explained; and the disap- pearance of it, in the Mesozoic era, was an instance of that abbreviation of the posterior extremity connected with a rise in grade. It is well exempli- fied also, as Agassiz has made known, in the development of the modern Ganoid, the young having a vertebrated upper lobe of the tail, which is lost before reaching the adult size. Another reason for using the term vertebrated is, that in some of the ancient Ganoids with vertebrated tails the vertebral prolongation is central in the tail, and the form is therefore not at all heterocercal. : aha Prof.J.D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. 211 The other Mammals are either true viviparous species, or semt- arous. The latter, including the Marsupials and Monotremes, con- stitute a natural group, as usually so regarded, the most funda- mental characteristic of which—the immaturity of the young at birth, by which they are related to oviparous Vertebrates— suggests the name Odficoids. The viviparous species are variously arranged by different zoologists*. Prof. Owen, basing his subdivisions largely, as has been stated, on the characters of the brain, makes the two groups Gyrencephala and Lissencephala, the former so named from having, in general, the surface of the brain convoluted, and the latter from its being, with some exceptions, smooth. The Gyrencephala include, in Prof. Owen’s system, three groups :—lI. the Unguiculata (consisting, as presented by him, of the orders 1, Quadrumana, 2, Carnivora) ; II. the Ungulata (1, Artiodactyla or Ruminantia; 2, Perissodactyla or Solidungu- lata and Multungulata, 3, Proboscidia, 4, Toxodontia) ; III. the Mutilata (1, Sirenia, 2, Cetacea). The Lissencephala comprise four orders, arranged by him as follows: (1) Bruta or Edentata (Sloth, &c:), (2) Cheiroptera or Bats, (3) Insectivora (Mole, © Hedgehog, &c.), (4) Rodentia. Although the characteristics of the brain do not set forth satisfactorily the distinctions between the Gyrencephala and -Lissencephala, the groups themselves (first laid down with the limits here assigned, as Prof. Owen states, by Jourdan) appear to be founded in nature. In the arrangement of the groups under these two divisions, however, the system proposed below widely differs from the above. The Crustaceans have here also afforded the writer the prin- ciples of classification on which he rests his conclusionst+. The orders among Crustaceans are based not only on a dif- -ference of structure and cephalization, but also on a difference * See Professor Owen’s memoir already referred to, for an account of different earlier systems of the classification of Mammals. + Principles are none the less important because indicated among these lower Articulates. The turns of a closed spiral are easily mistaken for ‘circles, as was long the case with those of flowers in plants; but if the spire be drawn out long, it then exhibits its true characters, and may dis- play details that are otherwise undiscoverable. The class of Crustaceans is an example of a type of structure thus drawn out, its species ranging from the microscopic memberless Rotifer to the highest crabs; and the genera are distributed, so to speak, at distant intervals along the course of the series, since they are comparatively few in number. Fundamental _principles in zoological science are therefore exhibited in this class ona magnified scale, easily perceived and understood. 212 ~=—- Prof. J.D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. in the normal magnitude of the life-system. The Decapods are built on a life-system of large size as to plan-as compared with that of the Tetradecapods. Deducing the relative size from the mean dimensions of the active species under the two types, the ratio is nearly as 4:1. (See the papers of the author already referred to.) Moreover, while thus distinct, the subdivisions of the two orders form parallel series,—the Brachyurans, Anomou- rans and Macrourans running a close parallel with the Isopods, Anisopods and Amphipods; for the Isopods are literally Bra- chyural Tetradecapods, and the Amphipods Macroural*, The life-system in the Entomostracans is on a still smaller lan. Among the viviparous Mammals (exclusive of Man) the first group differs from the second on this same principle—the fact of a larger and more powerful type of structure or life-system. This fact stands out boldly to view on comparing active species of each—the orang-outang with the largest bat, the tiger with any Insectivore, the horse or elk with any Rodent, a Cetacean with any Edentate. The species of the second division are rela- tively small and feeble animals; and if they are sometimes of great bulk, as some ancient sloths, it is an example, though natural to the species, of vegetative overgrowth ; for the bodies of the sloths, great and small, are, in fact, too bulky to be wielded well by the small life-system within. | Adopting this view as presenting the true basis for the sub- division of the viviparous Mammals, the two groups are sig- nificantly designated (1) Megasthenes (from peyas, great, and aGevos, strength), and (2) Microsthenes (from pxpos, small, and aGevos). Judging of the mean size of the life-system in the two divisions from their more active as well.as powerful species, the lineal ratio is not far from 4:1, as between the Decapods and Tetradecapods. The orders in these two groups, the Megasthenes and Micro- sthenes, have throughout a precise parallelism. The Bats or Chiropters in the latter represent the Monkeys or Quadrumanes in the former, these orders having such close relations that they are made to follow one another in Cuvier’s system; the Insecti- vores represent the Carnivores ; the Rodents represent the Herbi- vores ; and the Brutes or Edentates the Mutilates, * The parallelism is complete; for the Amphipods differ from the Iso- ods just as the Macrourans from the Brachyurans, in having a larger and Nae compacted head, looser and larger mouth-organs, longer segments to the body, and an elongated foot-bearing abdomen—all points of inferior concentration and cephalization. a a Prof. J.D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. 213 The classification indicated is then as follows :— I. Arcuontia (vel Drropa)—Maw (alone). II. MreGastHeEna. Ill. MicrostHena. 1. Quadrumana. 1. Cheiroptera. 2. Carnivora. 2. Insectivora. 3. Herbivora. | 3. Rodentia. 4, Mutilata. i 4. Bruta (Edentata). IV. OdricorpEa. 1. Marsupialia. 2. Monotremata. It is interesting to observe, also, that the four orders of Mega- sthenes rise in grade, from the 4th to the 1st, on the principles of cephalization stated ; and this affords other evidence, superadded to that of higher importance based on difference in type of structure, as to the naturalness of these subdivisions. The spe- cies of the 4th (the Mutilates) are characterized by a degrada- tion and partial obsolescence of the limbs, by the body being massively prolonged behind, by a large part of the elongated vertebral column being used for locomotion, by the form and the low grade of structure of the head, and by the teeth, always of extreme simplicity of form, in most species of one set only, in some excessively multiplied in number, in others all wanting— peculiarities indicating a very low degree of cephalization, and even a degradation of the anterior as well as posterior extremity. Those of the 3rd (the Herbivores) by a more abbreviated body, by the two pairs of limbs being complete, but serving only for locomotion, by an elongated head. Those of the 2nd (the Carnivores) by the limbs being still more perfect, and serving, the anterior especially, for grasping, by the head being shorter and more compacted and, in general, more complete in the series of teeth. Those of the Ist (the Quadrumanes) by the anterior limbs serving still more perfectly as hands, by the cephalic extremity being further shortened, also by the mamme being pectoral, as in Man. There is, in the series of orders, an advance by stages towards that acme of cephalization, Man. Among the Microsthenes, the rise in rank on this principle is no less apparent. It is well seen between the lowest (the Brutes) and the others. These have posteriorly a remarkably lax verte- bral column, but two or three of the vertebre being soldered together to form the sacrum. The cephalic extremity exhibits, not only a low grade of cephalic concentration, as shown in the larger number of cervical vertebra in some species, the excessive num- ber of teeth in some species, the characters of the skull, but also a marked example of cephalic degradation in the jaws, in 214 Mr. T.V. Wollaston on new Canarian Coleoptera. the very few teeth in most species and their total absence in some, in the inferior character of the teeth and the growth of but one set—in all of which characteristics, as well as their bulky bodies, there is a close parallelism with the Mutilates, the lowest of the Megasthenes. XXIV.—Diagnostic Notices of New Canarian Coleoptera. By T. Vernon Wo ttaston, M.A., F.L.S. Havine been occupied for some time past in preparing a Cata- logue of the Coleoptera of the Canarian Archipelago, and being unavoidably delayed in the completion of it, the following dia- gnoses of a few of the new forms which have long been described at considerable length in my manuscript, and many of which are now widely distributed in European collections, may serve to secure the priority of the names which I have imposed upon them. ; Fam. Carabide. Genus Mrrastetvs, Goebel. 1. Metabletus inequalis. M. eneus, distincte alutaceus, sat nitidus; prothorace cordato ; elytris plus minus inzequalibus, distincte striatis, utroque foveis 2 magnis notato; antennis femoribusque nigro-piceis, illis ad basin, tibiis tarsisque plus minus piceo-fuscis. Long. corp. lin. 14-12. Habitat in Canaria, Teneriffa, Gomera et Palma, preesertim in syl- vaticis degens. Genus Tarvs, Clairv. 2. Tarus zargoides. 7’. subnitidus, fusco-piceus, pilis mollibus erectis brevissimis sat dense vestitus ; capite prothoraceque dense et profunde scabroso- punctatis, hoc cordato angulis ipsis posticis paulo exstantibus ; elytris ovalibus, subconvexis et undulato-ineequalibus, profunde (sed subirregulariter) punctato-striatis, interstitiis minute punctu- latis, limbo vix rufescentiore ; antennis palpisque testaceis, pedibus pallido-testaceis. Long. corp. lin. 24-23. Habitat in sylvaticis montosis Teneriffe, sub lapidibus rarissimus. Genus Masorgvs, Dej. 3. Masoreus arenicola. M. nigro-piceus, distincte (oculo armato) alutaceus; prothorace transverso, subconvexo, postice in medio plus minus conspicue transversim impresso sed vix rugato, canalicula centrali haud pro- La een Pe ea ee ee ee Mr. T. V. Wollaston on new Canarian Coleoptera. 215. * funda necnon antice et postice plus minus sub-obsoleta ; elytris leviter subcrenato-striatis, ad basin plus minus distincte rufescen- tioribus ; antennis, palpis pedibusque piceo-testaceis ; unguiculis leviter denticulatis. Long. corp. lin. 2-24. Habitat in arenosis:maritimis (plus minus salinis) Lanzarote et Fuerteventuree, tempore hiberno et vernali, hinc inde vulgaris. Genus Amara, Bon. (Subgenus Lr1ocyemis, Zimm.) 4, Amara versuta. A. breviter ovata, nigro-picea, seneo-micans, convexa; prothorace brevi, transverso, ad latera marginato et equaliter rotundato, basi vix punctato (interdum impunctato) sed utrinque foveis 2 (interna sc. majore longiore, sed externa parva, minus profunda, subrotun- data) notato, postice in medio transversim impresso ; elytris paulo dilutioribus (fusco-piceis), crenato-striatis ; antennis, palpis pedi- busque testaceis. Long. corp. lin. 2-24. Habitat Lanzarotam et Fuerteventuram, sub lapidibus, passim. Genus Cratoenatuts, Dej. 5. Cratognathus solitarius. C. ater, subcylindrico-oblongus; capite magno; prothorace sub- quadrato, postice vix angustiore, basi utrinque fovea sat profunda punctata impresso ; elytris oblongis, profunde crenato-striatis, in- terstitio septimo ad apicem ipsissimum punctulis circa 2-4 (inter- dum indistinctis confusis) notato ; antennis, palpis tarsisque rufo- ferrugineis, femoribus tibiisque piceis. Long. corp. lin. 43-5: Habitat Lanzarotam et Fuerteventuram, sub lapidibus in locis inter- mediis et editioribus sat vulgaris. 6. Cratognathus fortunatus. C. piceus, oblongus ; capite magno ; prothorace subquadrato, postice subrecte angustiore, basi utrinque vix punctulato vix impresso ; elytris subovato-oblongis, striatis, interstitio septimo ad apicem punctis circa 2~4 notato; labro rufo-piceo; antennis, palpis pedi- busque rufo-ferrugineis. Long. corp. lin. 5-52. Habitat montes Canariz Grandis, in pineto quodam regionis ** Tata- jana”’ dictze mense Aprili a.p. 1858 sat copiose repertus. 7. Cratognathus micans. C. preecedenti similis, sed paulo minor, in utroque sexu fere sequaliter nitidus ; prothorace_ad latera paulo magis sinuato; elytris antice 216 = =Mr.T. V. Wollaston on new Canarian Coleoptera. paulo magis truncatis (ergo vix brevioribus), interstitii septimi punctis obsoletis ; pedibus paulo pallidioribus. . Long. corp. lin. 44-5. Habitat in Teneriffa et Gomera, hinc inde haud infrequens. Genus Trecuus, Clairy. 8. Trechus flavolimbatus. 7’. niger, nitidus; prothorace transverso-subquadrato, postice paulo angustiore, angulis ipsissimis posticis minutissime prominulis, basi utrinque leviter foveolato ; elytris oblongo-ovalibus, subdepressis, limbo plus minus flavo-testaceo, striatis (striis vix subcrenatis, exterioribus obsoletis); antennis nigro-fuscescentibus, ad basin rufo- testaceis ; pedibus pallido-testaceis, tibiis plus minus obscurioribus. Long. corp. lin. 14-13. Trechus flavolimbatus, Schaum, in litt. Habitat in Canaria, Teneriffa, Gomera, Palma, et Hierro, vulgaris. Genus Periteprus, Schaum. 9. Perileptus nigritulus. P. omnino P. areolato similis, sed vix major minusque nitidus (oculo fortissime armato grossius, preesertim in elytris, alutaceus), paulo magis pubescens; capite postice dilute rufescentiore ; elytris (limbo postico pallido excepto) totis nigris, paulo magis parallelis, interstitiis vix minus convexis; antennis paulo longioribus, robus- tioribus. Long. corp. lin. 1-11. Habitat Teneriffam, inter lapillos per marginem paludis cujusdam _parvee prope urbem Sanctee Crucis sitze copiose deprehensus. Fam. Dytiscide. Genus Hatretvs, Lat. 10. Haliplus suffusus. H. oblongus; capite nigro-piceo, latiusculo, punctato; prothorace testaceo, antice, postice in medio, necnon in disco nigrescente, basi lato (elytrorum basin paulo superante), ad latera oblique sub- recto, in medio profunde punctato, postice utrinque linea curvata abbreviata notato; elytris testaceis (preesertim pone discum), nigro suffusis, antice subparallelis, punctato-striatis, interstitiis parce punctatis ; antennis pedibusque testaceis. Long. corp. lin. 14-13. Habitat in aquis Canarice et Gomeree, hine inde parum vulgaris. Fam. Anisotomida. Genus Antsotoma, III. 1]. Anisotoma canariensis. -A, ovalis, convexa, nitida, nigro- vel fusco-picea ; capite prothoraceque ae. eee ee Be re as a ES ee rN AR NAS Ret ek Tere = Mr. T. V. Wollaston on new Canarian Coleoptera. 217 sat distincte punctatis ; elytris versus basin paulo rufescentioribus, sat profunde punctato-striatis, interstitiis punctulatis ; antennis ad basin pedibusque piceo-ferrugineis, femoribus muticis. Mas tibiis posterioribus distinctius arcuatis. Long. corp. lin. 1. Habitat in Canaria et Hierro, rarissima. Fam. Nitidulide. Genus Bracuyprerus, Kugel. 12. Brachypterus velatus. B. oblongo-ovatus, subconvexus, viridescenti-niger, nitidus, grosse flavescenti-cinereo pubescens, dense punctatus; prothorace ad la- tera subzequaliter rotundato, angulis posticis obtusis ; scutello ob- tuse triangulari ; antennis pedibusque rufo-testaceis, illarum clava tarsorumque apicibus ipsissimis nigrescentibus. Long. corp. lin. 3-1. Habitat in Lanzarota, Canaria, Teneriffa et Hierro, super folia Urtice urentis, L., parum vulgaris. Fam. Cucujide. Genus Sytvanvs, Lat. (Subgenus ARraruitus, Redt.) 13. Silvanus nubigena. S. angusto-elongatus, subconvexus, fusco-niger, dense flavescenti- cinereo pubescens; capite prothoraceque rugose punctatis, hoc zequali, angusto, subcylindrico, postice vix angustiore, ad latera subrecto ac distincte crenulato, angulis ipsis posticis obtusis sed argute determinatis, penicillatis; elytris rugose et dense seriatim punctatis, versus humeros interdum paulo fuscescentioribus ; fe- moribus piceis ; antennis, tibiis tarsisque piceo-ferrugineis. Long. corp. lin. 1-13. Habitat in aridis excelsis Teneriffe, inter lapillos ramulosque emor- tuos sub arbusculis Spartii nubigene humi jacentibus, velocissime currens, necnon fere ad 9000' s. m. ascendens. Fam. Cryptophagide. Genus CrypropHacus, Herbst. 14. Cryptophagus hesperius. C. fusiformi-oblongus, rufo-ferrugineus, pube brevi albida parce ves- titus; prothorace profunde et dense punctato, postice angustato, is anticis ampliatis, ad latera denticulis acutis cirea 4—5 ar- mato ; elytris subfusiformibus, sat dense punctatis ; antennis pedi- busque longiusculis, graciusculis, vix pallidioribus. Long. corp. lin. 2-3. Habitat in sylvaticis subsylvaticisque Canarize, Teneriffe, Gomere, Palmee, et Hierro, v is. Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xi. 15 218 Mr. T.V. Wollaston on new Canarian Coleoptera. Fam. Dermestide. Genus TrLopzs, Redt. 15. Telopes multifasciatus. T. ovalis, niger, nigrescente pubescens; prothorace utrinque et in maculis 2 posticis elytrisque in fasciis 3, necnon ad apicem, pallido pilosis ; antennis nigris, ad basin picescentibus, articulo ultimo (in utroque sexu) parvo; pedibus piceis, tarsis vix pallidioribus. Mas. Antennarum clava paulo longiore, articulis penultimo et antepenultimo leviter elongatis. Fem. Antennarum clava paulo breviore, articulis penultimo et antepenultimo terminali vix (singulatim) majoribus. Long. corp. lin. 14-12. Habitat Canariam Grandem, ad flores varios tempore vernali frequens. 16. Telopes fasciatus. T. breviter ovalis, niger, nigrescente pubescens ; prothorace utrinque et in maculis 2 posticis elytrisque in fasciis 2 (postica subevanes- cente), necnon mox ante apicem, pallido pilosis ; antennis nigris, ad basin picescentibus ; pedibus piceis, tarsis vix pallidioribus. Mas. Antennarum clava paulo longiore, articulo ultimo leviter elongato. Foem. Antennarum clava paulo breviore, articulis tribus inter se subeequalibus. Long. corp. lin. 14—vix 1}. Habitat in floribus Teneriffee, Gomeree et Palmee, tempore vernali frequens. Fam. Elaterida. Genus Coprostetuus, Woll. 17. Coptostethus brunneipennis. C. elongatus, niger vel fusco-niger, elytris plus minus brunneis, fulvo pubescens ; prothorace elongato, basi paulo angustato; ely- tris pube suberecta tenui vestitis, sat profunde crenato-striatis, interstitiis subconvexis ; antennis pedibusque elongatis, testaceis. Long. corp. lin. 22-33. Habitat in Teneriffa, Palma et Hierro, sub lapidibus, passim. Fam. Curculionide. Genus Nanopuyes, Schon. 18. Nanophyes lunulatus. N. ovatus, pallido-testaceus, flavescenti-albido pubescens; elytris profunde subpunctato-striatis, fascia media parva subluniformi utrinque valde abbreviata (interdum per suturam fracta), necnon in interstitio quinto seepe maculis (una vel duabus) parvis, nigro ornatis. Long. corp. lin. 3-7. Habitat Canariam Grandem, in foliis arbuscularum Tamaricis gal- lice per margines rivuli ad Mogan crescentium deprehensus. aaa ae Ce ee ee eS pes = a = 3 ¥ Mr. T. V. Wollaston on new Canarian Coleoptera. 219 Genus Acattgs, Schon. 19. Acalles verrucosus. A. lateraliter compressus, supra valde arcuatus, squamis nigrescenti- bus densissime tectus et dilutioribus irroratus ; prothorace postice paulo angustato, ad latera late albido squamoso, ante medium setoso 4-tuberculato ; elytris postice paulo coarctatis sed ibidem decurvis, nodulis plurimis setosis instructis, argute striato-punc- tatis, mox pone medium macula parva obluniformi utrinque valde abbreviata albido ornatis: pedibus tarsorumque articulo 1™° elongatis, tibiarum squamis erectis elongatis. Long. corp. lin. 24-3. Habitat in elevatis sylvaticis Teneriffze et Palmee, rarissimus. Genus Ecutnopera, Woll. 20. Echinodera crenata. E. squamis fuscis nigrescentibusque dense variegata et cinereis plus minus maculata, setis longiusculis suberectis obsita ; prothorace profunde et dense punctato, setis apicalibus vix longioribus ; ely- tris elongato-ovatis, ad humeros vix oblique truncatis, sat profunde crenato-striatis, pone medium macula magna obluniformi (antice et postice plus minus nigro terminata), necnon nebula (plus minus - magna, suffusa) versus humeros, cinereo ornatis. Long. corp. lin. 13-2. Habitat in montibus editioribus Teneriffe, sub lapidibus inter 6000! et 9000’ s. m., ultra regiones sylvaticas, occurrens. Genus Atiantis, Woll. 21. Atlantis angustuia. A. angustulo-subcylindrica, atra, subnitida, subtiliter pubescens pilis- que elongatis erectis in elytris obsita ; rostro crassiusculo, punctato, oculis rotundatis, prominentibus ; prothorace convexo, per basin ipsissimam subsinuato et distincte marginato, sat profunde sub- tuguloso-punctato punctulisque minutis intermediis valde distinctis parum crebre irrorato ; elytris subcylindricis, profunde punctato- striatis ; antennis tarsisque piceis ; femoribus tibiisque nigris. Long. corp. lin. 3-4}. Habitat Canariam Grandem, sub lapidibus in inferioribus et inter- mediis late diffusa. Genus Laparocervs, Schon. 22. Laparocerus excavatus. L. niger, nitidus, fere calvus; prothorace convexo, minutissime, dense et levissime punctulato punctisque majoribus sed vix pro- fundis parce notato, fere simplici; elytris basi subbisinuato-trun- eatis, callo humerali valde incrassato, profunde punctato-striatis, interstitiis minutissime transversim substriguloso-rugatis et punctis remote obsitis ; antennis rufo-ferrugineis, pedibus rufo-piceis. 15* 220 = =Mr. T. V. Wollaston on new Canarian Coleoptera. Mas sepius nitidior, tibiis anticis intus versus apicem profunde excavatis, posticis fortiter sed parce serratis. Long. corp. lin. 4-54. Habitat in montibus sylvaticis Teneriffe, preesertim inter muscos et lichenes ad truncos arborum crescentes. 23. Laparocerus crassifrons. L. niger vel piceo-niger, parum nitidus, plus minus dense et grosse submetallico-squamoso tessellatus ; capite convexo, crasso, rostro crasso subtriangulari grosse denseque punctato et profunde canali- culato ; prothorace convexo, punctato punctulisque minutis inter- mediis dense irrorato ; elytris oblongo-subovalibus, punctato-stri- atis, interstitiis vix punctulatis et pilis brevibus suberectis remotis preesertim postice obsitis ; antennis rufo-ferrugineis ; pedibus rufo- piceis. Long. corp. lin. 33-5. Habitat sub lapidibus scoriisque in regionibus Teneriffe valde ele- vatis, usque ad 8000! s. m. ascendens. 24. Laparocerus inequalis. L, enescenti-niger, nitidus, parce submetallico-squamoso tessellatus pilisque plus minus elongatis erectis fulvescentibus preesertim in elytris parce obsitus; prothorace parvo, angusto, subcylindrico- conico, sat grosse punctato punctulisque minutissimis intermediis dense irrorato ; elytris latiusculis, subquadrato-oblongis, punctato- striatis, interstitiis alternis valde tuberculato-inzequalibus, tuber- culis paulo fulvescenti-squamoso fasciculatis ; antennis, tibiis tar- sisque ferrugineis, femoribus ferrugineo-piceis. Long. corp. lin. 3-4. Habitat Teneriffam sylvaticam, in lauretis editioribus supra Tagana- nam captus. 25. Laparocerus ellipticus. L. ferrugineus, subnitidus, dense sericeo-metallico-squamoso tessel- latus pilisque elongatis suberectis postice obsitus; rostro crasso, oculis magnis; prothorace parvo, angusto, ruguloso-subalutaceo, parce et leviter punctato, basi subemarginato; elytris ovato-ellip- ticis, basi conjunctim trisinuatis, leviter punctato-striatis, inter- stitiis alternis plus minus leete tessellatis. Long. corp. lin. 4-5. Habitat in sylvaticis excelsis Teneriffee et Palmee, vel inter muscos lichenesque ad truncos arborum crescentes, vel sub cortice laxo latitans. Genus Srrongs, Germ. 26. Sitones punctiger. - §. oblongus, squamis griseis cinereisque variegatus et setis piliformi- bus demissis obsitus; capite prothoraceque profunde rugoso- punctatis, illo postice punctis duobus cinereis ornato, oculis ob- longis rotundatis valde prominentibus, hoc ad latera pallidiore Bibliographical Notice. 221 . rotundato, linea media et punctis 2 vel 3 utrinque annexis pal- | lidioribus ornato ; elytris cylindricis, per suturam obscure albidis, interstitiis alternis lete fulvo nigroque tessellatis; antennis ad basin pedibusque (squamosis) clarioribus. 4 Long. corp. lin. 23-3. Habitat Lanzarotam et Fuerteventuram, sub lapidibus in aridis are- nosis et calcariis degens. , 27. Sitones setiger. S. oblongus, squamis griseis ineequaliter vestitus ; capite prothorace- que densissime et profunde rugoso-punctatis, illo oculis oblongo- rotundatis prominentibus, hoc subcylindrico, intra apicem (sub- elevatum) constricto, ad utrumque latus linea paulo albidiore ornato; elytris profunde punctato-striatis, vel obscure variegatis (interstitiis alternis obsolete tessellatis) vel dense fusco aut ochraceo- fusco squamosis, seepius versus latera squamis albidioribus obscure plagiatis, interstitiis setosis (setis nigrescentibus sed in interstitiis alternis setis albidioribus distantibus commixtis); antennis brevi- bus pedibusque rufo-ferrugineis, capitulo femoribusque obscu- rioribus. Long. corp. lin. 13-2. Habitat in aridis insularum Canariensium, in Palma sola hactenus © haud detectus. ST ee eee i al BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE. Outlines of Botany, designed for Schools and Colleges. By J. H. Batrour, M.D. &c., Prof. of Botany in the University of Edin- burgh. 12mo, pp. 712. Black, Edinburgh, 1562. Tue title of this book shows the intention of its author in the pre- sent republication of the article “‘ Botany”’ from the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica.’ We are sorry to add that we look upon it as a mistake to think that the book is well fitted for schools and colleges; for we presume that here “colleges” is simply a synonym of “schools.” It does not differ sufficiently from the same author’s valuable books en- titled ‘ Manual’ and ‘Class Book’ to be suited to the inferior class of teaching usually, and perhaps necessarily, given in those places. It seems to us far too hard, much too long, and not sufficiently autho- ritative for young scholars. In short, it is too good for its purpose. If Dr. Balfour had allowed this treatise to continue in the position for which it was written, and to which it is well fitted, and had prepared a small—very much smaller—book containing the elements of botany in simple language, he would have done more service to science. Such simple elements should be written as by a master stating his determinations, and usually omitting all notice of the opinions of others (which are to be found properly in the larger Class-books and Introductions), leaving out most of the chemistry as unintelligible to the young student, and omitting the greater part of the technicalities relating to the Natural Orders, but inserting in ae Ep epee cen a eee Sa eae ra a A | , 222 Zoological Society :— their place an outline of the natural arrangement adopted by De Candolle and most modern systematic writers. - We think that 150 pages devoted to this latter part of the science is almost alto- gether out of place in a book “intended to give the important facts of botanical science as briefly and popularly as possible.” But we must not be misunderstood. This is an excellent book, and well fitted to follow a ‘brief and popular” primary volume, such as Henfrey’s ‘ Rudiments.’ It will even, we suspect, supersede Balfour’s ‘ Manual’ in many places where that has been usually em- ployed: this is a misfortune; for the ‘Manual’ is far better fitted for the more advanced student than are these ‘ Outlines.’ PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. June 24, 1862.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., F.L.S., in the Chair. DescCRIPTION OF CrROCODILUS FRONTATUS, A New Croco- DILE FROM Oxtp CaLaBaR River, West Arrica. By ANDREW Murray, Assist. Secretary, Royat Horricut- TURAL SOCIETY. CROCODILUS FRONTATUS, NOV. sp. Head broad and deep, much broader than in C. vulgaris, very flat on the vertex, and with the margins of the flat portion slightly raised ; the lateral margins very slightly curved ; the suture inside of the lateral margin placed at rather more than a fourth of the breadth of the vertex from its side. This suture is not throughout parallel to the lateral margin; it is nearly so for about two-thirds of its Fig. 1. posterior length ; towards the front it bends a little outwards. Fig. 1 shows the form of the sutures in this species, while fig. 2 shows their form in C. vulgaris, and fig. 3 in C. leptorhynchus. The ver- Mr. A. Murray on a new Species of Crocodile. 223 tex in the two last, although flattened, is not so depressed, but is slightly rounded, so as to be somewhat higher at the middle than at Fig. 2. Fig. 3. the margin. The colour in C. frontatus is yellowish with blackish spots, instead of brown with blackish spots, as in C. vulgaris and C. leptorhynchus. The muzzle is shorter than in either of the others, deeper, and the front rises higher above it; the nostrils are more 224 Zoological Society :— prominent and turned up. Both the head and the lower jaw are deeper than in C. vulgaris and C. leptorhynchus. (See fig. 4, which represents the head of C. frontatus seen in profile, and figs. 5 and 6, which respectively represent the profiles of the head of C. vulgaris and C. leptorhynchus.) The disposition of the scuta or plates along Fig. 6. the nose or muzzle is different in each species. Fig. 7 shows them in C. frontatus ; fig. 8, in C. vulgaris; and fig. 9, in C. leptorhyn- chus. It will be seen that the arrangement in C. frontatus is much nearer that in C. vulgaris than that in C. leptorhynchus, which is upon e as: a totally different plan, the middle space in it being free from scuta, soft, and smooth, with transverse wrinkles or lines, while in the other two the space is covered with scuta, those in the middle being trans- verse. The commencement of these transverse scuta between the eyes is also different. Mr. A. Murray on a new Species of Crocodile. 225 The scuta on the nape of the neck are differently proportioned and placed in all three; and here the arrangement in C. frontatus bears most affinity to that of C. leptorhynchus, instead of to that of C. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. a Pe Te. eT ee vulgaris. Fig. 10 shows this arrangement in C. frontatus ; fig. 11, in C. vulgaris; and fig. 12, in C. leptorhynchus. In C. frontatus Fig. 10. and C. leptorhynchus the four large scuta are of a subquadrate form ; | in C. vulgaris they are irregularly subhexagonal. In the latter, not | only these but also the scuta generally are flat, with a longitudinal raised line or carina. In C. leptorhynchus, those in the neighbour- 226 Zoological Society :-— hood of the four larger scuta bear a projecting oblong umbo; and C. frontatus has this developed in a manner still more marked. hig. Li, Fig, 12, The same character prevails in the rest of the scuta. In all three species there are six rows of large scuta down the back, varying in width, diminishing to four rows in the lumbar region. In C. vulgaris these scuta are flat, with only a slightly raised longitudinal line or carina. In C. leptorhynchus this carina is much more raised, so as to form regular crests. In C. frontatus some of them have an oblong umbo, others a crest, and others only a raised line: the affinity in this respect is greater with C. leptorhynchus than C. vulgaris. It is the same with regard to the crest down the tail. In all three the rows of dorsal scuta down the back become only four in number after passing the hind legs, forming four raised lines, two on each side of the spine; the inner crests or lines on each side then gra- dually approximate (in C. vulgaris forming a narrow channel) and thin off and become obliterated. The outer crest on each side, at about the seventh or eighth joint behind the hind legs, becomes broader and spreads out into a flat plate or leaf turned out horizon- tally on each side. There are about seven joints in which this flat table-shaped position of the scuta occurs, and about the same number prevails in all three. As this disposition, however, does not com- mence suddenly at any particular joint, but proceeds by gradations out of the crest on the back, the number may be modified according to the degree at which the observer reckons the horizontal leaf to commence. The size of these scuta is proportionally larger in C. frontatus and C. leptorhynchus than in C. vulgaris. These hori- zontal thin scuta extend one on each side for a certain distance ; and then all at once the double row ceases, and is replaced by a series of single erect scuta running down the top of the tail. In my specimens the number of joints before this single crest commences, reckoning from immediately behind the hind legs, is as follows :— 2S ESS TERE aE eatee cae Rae aunty ae eer ee 18 SG ONG 5 oa kias wig oes ah mom ene 17 i ON She wh icin ats ols pas cece 13 Fee en ea a ee ee ee ee Foal Sli aa wer aay “hae eae bat Mr. A. D. Bartlett on the Habits and Affinities of the Kagu. 227 And the number of erect terminal joints is— er, wungGres 2.55. SR eee UA ete oe 26 Wr. LODLOPRYRCRUS . oy dana we Gb ce vd wot des 19 sey 7 Mies of Pink ik Pa ee ee reat & The colouring of C. frontatus is much nearer that of C. lepto- rhynchus than C. vulgaris. The latter is coloured pale ashy brown, blotched irregularly with dark brown. The other two have the dark blotches distributed in transverse bands,—C. frontatus having every alternate two rows of transverse scuta pale and dark—a disposition followed in C. leptorhynchus, but not so regularly. Total length of my specimen, 21 inches; total length of head, from tip of snout to back of under jaw, 33 inches ; breadth of head, 13 inch; length of muzzle to front of eye, 1} inch; length of eye, nearly 1 inch; height of head, 2 inches; length of body, from occi- ut to back of hind legs, 8 inches; total length of tail, 12 inches ; Tength of tail to commencement of single crest, 54 inches; length of the part of it with single crest, 73 inches. On the whole, this new species seems to combine many of the characters both of C. vulgaris and C. leptorhynchus. In its head it is nearest to C. vulgaris; in its colouring, scuta, and tail to C. lep- torhynchus. I owe this specimen to the kindness of the Rev. W. C. Thomson, the accomplished missionary at Old Calabar. He wrote me word long before I received it that there was another species of Crocodile in the Old Calabar besides the two generally known, that it was ex- tremely scarce, but that he would endeavour to procure a specimen forme. He did so, and sent me the individual from which this de- scription is taken, alive. It reached Liverpool in good health, but, most unfortunately, was drowned on the railway on its passage to Edinburgh. The gentleman who was kind enough to charge himself with it thought it would not live unless brought in water, and he put it in a foot-pail half full of water. The water was too deep to allow the poor animal to rest on the bottom of the pail and stretch up its head for breath; and when the jolting of the railway com- menced, it was kept in a constant state of submersion. The con- sequence which might have been anticipated ensued, and my Croco- dile arrived dead. There is no doubt that it is a good species, half- way between C. vulgaris and C. leptorhynchus. Nore on THE Hasits AND AFFINITIES OF THE KaGu (Rurnocuetus yupatus). By A. D. Barrier. At the first sight of this bird, one is struck with its resemblance to several different genera, and at once calls to mind Eurypyga, Edi- enemus, Cariama, Psophia, Nycticorar, and Scopus: one and all appear more or less represented in its singular combination of cha- racters. The actions and movements of the Kagu are generally quick and lively, so opposite to the slow and chameleon-like movements of the true Herons that one can hardly suspect it to be an Ardeine bird. 228 Zoological Society. This, however, it doubtless will prove to be, but so modified and adapted to a different kind of diet and mode of life, that its real affi- nities are difficult to recognize. With its crest erect, and wings spread out, the Kagu runs or skips about, sometimes pursuing and driving before him all the birds that are confined with him in the same aviary [among these are several Blue Waterhens (Porphyrio)], evidently enjoying the fun of seeing them frightened ; at other times he will seize the end of his wing or tail and run round, holding it in his bill: from a piece of paper or dry leaf he derives amusement by tossing it about and running after it. During his frolic he will thrust his bill into the ground and spread out his wings, kick his legs in the air, and then tumble about as if ina fit. At other times he appears intent upon catching worms: he steps slowly, his neck close to his body, his crest flat on his back, all his feathers smooth and close ; he raises one foot, and with two or three gentle strokes he paws the ground, swiftly he darts his bill into the earth and draws forth a worm, a sudden shake and it is swallowed; again he runs ; stopping suddenly, he makes another dart ; and thus he continues to capture this kind of food. With respect to feeding, this bird differs much from the Heron family, seeking out, in every hole and corner, worms, snails, and other living things, whenever they are not in motion: as soon as a snail is found, he breaks its shell by repeated knocks upon the ground, and after shaking the fragments of the broken shell off, the animal is swallowed. In no instance, however, that I have observed, does this bird eat bread, seed, or any kind of vegetable, but he strictly confines himself to in- sects and other animal substances. The skeleton and internal anatomy of the Kagu being entirely un- known to me, I can only form an opinion of the affinities of this bird by its external characters, habits, &c.; and I find that the re- markable powder-down tufts, which are well developed in all the Ar- deines, are carried to a greater extent in this bird; for above and around the wings, on the breast beneath the wings, and on the back and belly, this structure exists, and the enormous quantity of the white powder given off is surprising. I have seen the bird enter the small pond and attempt to wash; and upon dipping partly under water, the whole surface of the water was covered with a white film, like French chalk. The strong resemblance between this bird and Zury- pyg4, even in the markings upon the wing- and tail-feathers, the mode of spreading out the wings, and other resemblances, convince me that I am right in considering the Kagu to be more closely allied to Eurypyga than to any other bird that has come within my notice. MISCELLANEOUS. Notice of a Flycatcher new to the Fauna of Great Britain. By G. R, Gray. AN imperfect specimen of a bird in flesh has been received from G. A. Copeland, Esq., of Carneythenack House, Constantine, near Miscellaneous. 229 Falmouth, who informed me that it was shot, while resting on the house, on Saturday the 24th of January last. Its imperfectness, Mr. Copeland tells me, was occasioned by mice having carried off the head. The rest of the bird, however, was in a sufficient state of completeness for me to prove its identity with the Red-breasted Fly- catcher, Muscicapa (Erythrosterna) parva, Bechst. I believe this example is the first of that species which has been obtained in this country. I have therefore thought that a notice of the capture of so remarkable an insectorial bird at this season of the year might interest some of the readers of the ‘Annals, and have therefore sent it for insertion. On the Development, Structure, and Functions of the Tissues of the Anther. By A. Cuatin. The successive investigations of Mirbel, Meyen, and Purkinje have furnished the following data :— The anther is divided at first into four and afterwards into two cells (Mirbel). The anther has its valves formed of two membranes, first distin- guished by Mirbel, and denominated exothecium and endothecium by Purkinje. The endothecium, or internal membrane, is formed of cells called fibrous by Purkinje, lobate by Mirbel, filamentous by A. DeCan- dolle. The filamentous cells are only produced towards the moment of dehiscence (Mirbel). The whole of the subepidermic tissue is converted into filamentous cells. ‘ The conversion of the simple utricles into filamentous cells is so rapid that the moment of its taking place cannot be perceived (Mirbel). There is a relation between the form of the cells of the endo- thecium and the natural families (Purkinje). These cells are the agent of dehiscence. The vessels of the filament often pass into the connective (Mirbel); they never penetrate there, but run through the whole filament (A. Richard). It may be added that the observations of M. Duchartre show that the cells may be localized towards the line of dehiscence. I. Development of the Tissues of the Anther.—The author’s ob- servations, like those of M. Duchartre, confirm the following results of Mirbel’s investigations :—Each of the two lobes of the anther is at first'a homogeneous cellular mass; subsequently the utricles of the middle of each half-lobe acquire a special development : these are the pollinic utricles, which disappear after the grains of pollen are produced in their interior. His observations also agree generally with Mirbel’s upon this point : towards the period of dehiscence, the partition of the cells disappears. He has, however, seen numerous cases in which, by the 230 Miscellaneous. persistence of this septum, the anther continues quadricellular. In this case, usually (Lycopersicon, Tradescantia, &c.), two half-valves rest by their commissure upon the septum, which, after their dehis- cence, becomes contracted or destroyed; and at this moment it might be supposed that the separation or destruction of the septum preceded, instead of following, the dehiscence. A second type is furnished by Achmea, in which each of the four loculi splits in its median line. A third type of quadricellular anthers is presented in Passiflora, Scabiosa, Schaueria, &c.: in these the subdivision of each lobe is maintained until the dehiscence ; but this is less by the septa, which are too short, than by the contiguous valves reflected and applied against each other. On the question whether all the subepidermic utricles become changed into filamentous cells (as would appear to be the case from the statements of Mirbel, Meyen, and Purkinje), the author says that, by tracing the development of the tissues of the anther in Tradescantia, it is distinctly seen that of two layers of utricles situ- ated beneath the epidermis, only one (the outer) is converted into filamentous cells, whilst the inner layer is destroyed. This tissue within the endothecium of Purkinje was perceived in the young anther by Mirbel and Meyen, who paid no further attention to it. It is more distinct still in Passiflora, where its utricles, which alone are tinted yellow, papilliform, and radiate, are already distinct at the appearance of the pollinic utricles, and are developed parallelly to these and the pollen, but disappear a little after the production of the filaments in the utricles of the middle zone. In Tradescantia and Passifiora, as in most plants observed by the author, the internal tissue is not tranformed ; it is destroyed after a transitory existence. In other plants also it is not transformed, but persists until the dehiscence of the anther (Canna, Colchicum, Pedi- cularis, &c.); and this persistence is general (?) in the anthers which are destitute of filamentous cells (Pyrola, Melastoma, &c.). The tissue indicated as being more interior than the membrane called endothecium, and as lining the cavity of the cells, is not only characterized by its position and evolution, but also frequently by the form, consistence, and coloration of its utricles. It is as distinct from the endothecium of Purkinje as the latter from the exothecium, and is, in fact, a third membrane, which must hence- forward be included in the general structure of the anther. This third membrane, from its position, will be the true endothecium, the membrane so named by Purkinje becoming the mesothecium ; and thus the anther, at least when young, consists, not of two, but of three membranes. Nevertheless, at the approach of dehiscence, these membranes may be reduced to one in the anthers of some spe- cies (Calendula, &c.) ; and in some plants even the young anthers only contain two layers of utricles. With regard to the conversion of the simple utricles into filamen- tous cells, the author states that, although rapid, it may be followed, and usually commences in the anther at its point of attachment and at its line of dehiscence. eae aie ae Miscellaneous. 231 _ The exothecium is at first confounded with the other membranes in the homogeneous mass of primordial cellular tissues, and may re- main for a long time, or even always, in an indistinct state; most commonly, however, it gradually acquires its characters; its utricles, which rise in papille, or even in hairs on some parts, sometimes acquire an extraordinary development. The cuticle itself may form a thick crust, which assists in limiting the phenomenon of dehis- cence. tt Lastly, as with the production of the filamentous cells and the destruction of the third membrane, it is at the approach of the dehiscence of the anther that the abnormal development, or even the destruction, of the outer membrane takes place.—Comptes Rendus, Dec. 22, 1862, p. 911. . On a New Pteropus from New Holland. By W. Perers. P. scapulatus, nu. sp.; auriculis elongatis, patagio anali ad coccygem coarctato; facie ex fusco canescente, mento fusco, torque collari tufo-ferrugineo ; macula scapulari utrinque ochraceo-flavida ; dorso fusco-ferrugineo, obsolete fusco maculato ; pectore ventreque fusco- ferrugineis, lateribus dilutioribus ; fasciculo pilorum suprahumerali vellereque patagiali humeri et antibrachii fulvis. Long. tota 0°230 metre ; cap. 0°065 ; auric. 0-030 ; antibrachii 0-137 ; dig. 1.0°053; dig. 2.0°098; dig. 3. 0°265; dig. 5. 0°182; tibize 0-065; patag. analis medii 0-003. Hab. Promontorium York, Nove Hollandiz. The present species nearly approaches Pteropus medius in size, and is very easily distinguished from all other species by the two humeral spots, and also by the golden-yellow colour of the abundant woolly hair on the ventral side of the wing-membranes, which appears near the lumbar region, on the humeral membrane, and near the fore- arm almost to its end. The ears are about one-half longer than the distance between the eyes and the apex of the muzzle. The upper incisors are of nearly equal size, and stand at equal distances apart ; the lower ones, on the contrary, stand in pairs, and the inner one on each side is scarcely one-third of the size of the outer one, which, however, is much smaller than the upper ones. The upper canines are slender and pointed, furnished with a broad furrow in front, and about one-half longer than the lower ones. The first upper false molar is not larger than the outer lower incisor, it stands near the canine, and is separated by a great space from the second caniniform false molar. The third true molar is small, as also the molars in general, the series of the three true and the hindermost false molar measuring 0-011 metre, and the entire dental series to the anterior margin of the upper incisor teeth only 0°020. The anterior lower false molar, which agrees pretty nearly in size with the hindermost lower true molar, stands scarcely the half of its diameter from the canine, but nearly twice its diameter from the following caniniform false molar. The length of 232 Miscelianeous. the dental series, composed of the three true and two false molars, amounts to 0°0125 metre, and of the whole lower series of teeth 0°020. The hair of the body is dense and lies smooth, and extends, gradually becoming shorter, as far as the first third of the forearm ; and on the hinder extremities, externally, to one-, and internally to scarcely two- thirds of the shank. The hair of the coccygeal region is softer and entirely covers the middle of the membrane, which is here very narrow. The hair of the ventral surface is softer and more undu- lating; the upper arm and thigh are here more sparingly clothed with hair, and a long woolly clothing of the wing-membranes appears at the sides of the lumbar region, on the humeral membrane, and below the forearm nearly to itsend. The teats are situated, as always in the genus Pteropus s. str., in the axilla; and in the lumbar region the wing-membranes approach each other within about 0°025 metre. The colour of the face is blackish brown, mixed with grey ; on the forehead and crown the hairs are dark brown, with ochreous tips or subapical rings of the same colour. The chin is blackish-brown. The entire neck is reddish-brown, somewhat darker on the nape. The back is dark rusty-brown, and this colour extends between and round the two yellow humeral spots up to the middle of the nape. The forepart of the back, below the two humeral spots, as also the region of the upper arm, is sprinkled with grey; both here and on the lower part of the back there are faint blackish-brown spots, which, on the lumbar region, stand in about six or seven irregular transverse rows. The breast and belly are dark rusty brown, the former darker than the latter; the sides, especially before the teats, appear much lighter and paler. The woolly hair of the ventral side of the wing-membrane near the loins, and before and behind the arms, and also a tuft of hair above and in front of the insertion of the wings are of a fine yellow. The narrow margin of the femoral mem- brane is free on the ventral side, and not covered with hairs. The description is from the skin of a full-grown female specimen recently obtained by the Museum from Mr. Frank. A second new species, Pteropus chrysauchen, from the Island of Batjan, has been obtained by the Museum from the same naturalist. It has much resemblance to P. Alecto, Temm., the brownish-black head, back, and belly being sprinkled with grey, the anal membrane very narrow in the middle, and the woolly hair on the lower surface of the wing-membranes blackish-brown. It is distinguished by its narrower ears, by the greater approximation (0°036 metre) of the wing-membranes on the back, and by the pale ochreous mark which not only occupies the whole nape, but descends upon the sides of the neck, and extends upwards between the ears to the vertex. The dor- sal surface of the arms and the whole of the shanks are naked. Total length of the skin of an old female 0°28 metre; head 0:080; ear 0:026; forearm 0°175; thumb 0:079; second finger 0-125; third finger 0°325; tibia 0:080.—Monatsber. der Berl. Ahad. der Wiss. August 1862, p. 574. THE ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. [THIRD SERIES. ] No. 64. APRIL 1863. XXV.—On the Classification of the Brachyura, and on the Homo- logies of the Antennary Joints in Decapod Crustacea. By Wa. Srimeson, M.D.* Dr. Srraut has recently been making some carcinological in- vestigations +t, which have led him to propose a new classification of the higher Crustacea. He considers the characters of the - external antenne, particularly of their second joint (basicerite) of paramount importance, and would divide the suborder Bra- chyura, in accordance with these characters, into four groups, namely, Orbata, with the first two joints of the antenna only present, the rest wanting, as in Acanthocyclus. Liberata, with the basicerite free, as in Oncinopus. Incuneata, with the basicerite wedged in between the ptery- gostomium and the epistome, as in Cancer. Perfusa, with the basicerite completely united with the neigh- bouring parts, as in Stenorhynchus. These differences are certainly of great importance, and have not generally received sufficient attention from carcinologists ; but they can scarcely be used for the primary subdivisions, as they are not coincident with characters of still higher value. By their use we should be required to dismember well-marked groups—to separate, for instance, Macrocheira from the Maioids, and Gecarcinus from the Ocypodoids; while strange approxi- mations would occur, as of Oncinopus with Myctyris. Experience has long since shown us that it is impossible to group animals upon the variations of a single organ. _ Some of Dr. Strahl’s conclusions are so surprising that they * From Silliman’s American Journal for January, 1863. + Monatsbericht der Konig]. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1861; Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 299. Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xi. 16 234 Dr. W. Stimpson on the Classification of the Brachyura, may well require the closest scrutiny before acceptation. For example, he says, “The Leucosie I consider to include only Dana’s Leucosidea, with Dorippe and Aithusa. I separate the Calappide and Matutide from them, and unite them with the Parthenopine rejected from the Ozyrhyncha.” This combination is justified “ by the agreement in the situation of the afferent canal of the branchial cavity and of the male sexual organs,” &c. But the Calappide are entirely removed from the Parthenopine in the structure of the mouth-parts; the buccal cavity is nar- rowed anteriorly so that the efferent branchial ciinels termi- nate at the middle instead of the sides of the endostome, and are covered by the indurated summits of the lacinize of the first pair of maxillipeds (tritocheirognathites). Like the Leuco- sidea they are oxystomatous, as Milne-Edwards has shown. They, ‘ndeed, differ from these latter in the situation of the efferent canals, and should therefore be separated as a distinct group; but they should no more be united to the Parthenopine than should the Dorippide, which Dr. Strahl would unite with the Leucosidea, although these are far more nearly allied to the Calappide, not having the afferent canal covered by the exognath of the outer maxillipeds, which is the case in all Leucosidea. Again, Dr. Strahl remarks, “The genus Grapsus, limited by the rejection of Leptograpsus, Metopograpsus, &c., and repre- sented by the species Pharaonis, strigosus, Webbit, &c., must be removed not only out of the Grapsoidea, but even entirely out of the Brachyura, because the structure of the external an- tennee differs completely from that which prevails amongst the Brachyura. Grapsus, for instance, has no operculum at the base of the external antenne, but a perforated tubercle, as in the Macrura, and must therefore at least be placed among the Anomura.” Here we would have Leptograpsus variegatus and Grapsus strigosus, for instance—forms so closely allied that they are placed in one and the same genus by so skilful a naturalist as Dana—separated so widely from each other that the latter species is placed among the Anomura! Let us examine fresh or wet specimens to ascertain whether Grapsus in reality has, at the base of the antennz, a structure so essentially differing from that found in ordinary Brachyura. Dried specimens are too commonly used in these investigations, and are very apt to lead to error. The “operculum” spoken of above is the coxal joint (coxocerite) of the external antenne, which is moveable in all crabs, even where the next (basicerite) is not. In a Maia, for example, this coxal joint may be raised a little, so that the mem- branous areola* which occupies its postero-interior surface may * The so-called tympanum. It is very doubtful whether the auditory organ is ever here situated. Kroyer has demonstrated (Kongl. Danske and on the Homologies of the Antennary Joints in Decapoda. 235 be partially seen. In Leptograpsus this areola is more exposed, encroaching somewhat upon the margin or outer surface of the coxal joint, or, in other words, this joint is kept permanently a little raised. In Grapsus the coxal joint (here the “ perforated tubercle ” of Strahl) is still more evolved, and its sides are folded in, giving it a globular form, and contracting the areola, which is thus placed in a slit, and becomes almost wholly external. The different form of the coxocerite in Grapsus is therefore the result of a simple modification, not of structural importance. In Dromia the coxal joint is also slit at one side, but the areola is on the inner surface. This joint in Dromia is not “so shrunken that only the tubercle remains.” It is far larger in - proportion than is usual in the higher Crustacea. Dr. Strahl says that “if we imagine the slit in the tubercle of Dromia carried out to one side, so that here the peripheral margin is completely separated, we have the operculum of the Brachyura in its perfect form.” But this prolongation of the slit would cut the coxal joint in two, which is not the case in the “ operculum;” for this “ operculum ” is truly the homologue of the coxocerite of Dromia and Homarus in its entirety, as may be seen by com- - parison with this part in Pi/umnus, for instance, where the basi- cerite is not soldered to the contiguous parts as is usual in Cancroids, but is free and articulated directly with the “ oper- culum” in the same manner as it is with the coxal joint in the other two genera named. Pilumnus, we may remark incident- ally, would be classed with Parthenope by the character of its antenne. Dr. Strahl proposes new names for the first two joints of the external antennz : the first (coxocerite) he would call intercalare ; the second (basicerite) armiger, while the third (ischiocerite) he calls the first jot of the antennz, which is certainly liable to mislead. Prof. Milne-Edwards, who has done so much towards elucidating the homologies of these joints, has given to them the names in brackets, which are more appropriate ; for there is undoubtedly a perfect correspondence between them and the joints of the maxillz or feet. I believe it possible to carry the homology even further than the celebrated French zoologist has done, and that the antenna in question, like a foot or maxilliped, consists normally of seven joints. In the embryo of Hippolyte, as figured by Kroyer*, there are five distinct jomts beyond the basicerite, which would make seven in all. Moreover, they can be demonstrated in the adult Squilla, Azius, and Pagurus, and Vidensk. Selskabs Skrifter, 1856, iv. 288) that a far more complicated auditory apparatus exists at the base of the internal antennz. * Monog. Fremst. af Hippolyte’s Nordiske Arter, &c. tab. vi. f, 121, 16% 236 Dr. W. Stimpson on the Classification of the Brachyura. particularly well in Homarus, where the parts aré more distinct from their large size. The “peduncle” of the antenna in the Lobster is considered by Milne-Edwards to consist of five joints; but a sixth is indicated at the base of the penult, on the lower side of the member. Here there is a small triangular piece, articulating with the second and third jomts as well as the penult, perfectly mobile, and dependent upon no one of these joints more than another. An additional evidence that this piece is the representative of a distinct joint is furnished by the fact that the articulations of the two proximate joints are in the same plane, and not, as should be the case were they normally contiguous, in planes perpendicular to each other. To complete the number (seven) of joints, we have the flagellum, which cor- responds to the dactylos or terminal joint of the thoracic mem- bers. This homology is rendered probable by the occurrence, in the remarkable Hippidean genus Mastigopus*, discovered by ‘me in the Chinese seas, of a multiarticulate dactylus to the chelipeds perfectly similar to the flagelliform terminal appendage of an antenna. The squamiform appendix of the antenna is attached to the second joint, and is homologous to the exopod of the feet, or the exognath of the maxillipeds, which has the same position. It is called scaphocerite by Milne-Edwards, but would be more ap- propriately named exocerite, a term indicating its relations with greater exactness, and corresponding in construction with that of its homologues, This appendage is normally two-jointed, as is seen in the embryo Homarus and in the adult Squilla; its basal joint is obsolete or coalesced with the terminal squamiform joint in adult Macrura and Anomura, while in Brachyura the entire appendage disappears with perfect development. ‘The little basal joint of the exocerite in the embryo Homarus is mistaken for the “ armiger” (basicerite) by Dr. Strahl, who considers the large joint which supports both branches of the antenna as the “intercalare”’ (coxocerite), on the ground that in the adult the third joint is articulated with both the coxocerite and the basi- cerite. But this is so only in appearance: if the antenna in a fresh Lobster or Cray-fish be bent outward, it will be seen that the posterior condyle of the third joint articulates with the basi- cerite alone. The basicerite, in the embryo Decapod, is far from being the trifling joint seen at: the base of the scale-like append- age, but is, in fact, that large; supporting joint which is the first to make its appearance, and which often reaches, with its exo- cerite, a large size before any trace of other joints, either coxal or terminal, can be perceived. In the figures accompanying the * Proc. Acad. Nat, Se. Philad, December 1858. Not the Mastigopus of Lenckart, which is a Sergestes, On rare and little-known Fishes from Madeira. 237 valuable observations of Mr. C. Spence Bate*, this character of the basicerite is well shown in representations of the Zoea of Carcinus menas. Here we have the joint in question very large, armed with a long spine on one side and the exocerite on the other, while the rest of the antenna is in a rudimentary condi- tion, and there is no coxocerite visible. This latter joint, with its areola, makes its appearance at a later date, at the base of the basicerite. The large comparative size of the exocerite in the embryo is in accordance with what we observe in the gradations of adult Crustacea. Those lowest in the series have generally the external branch of their members most developed ; as we rise in the scale, we observe the inner branch becoming more and more developed, while the outer branch is reduced, and may disappear entirely. Compare, for example, the thoracic feet of some Schizopods with those of the Caridea and Brachyura. ; XX VI.—WNotes on rare and litile-known Fishes taken at Madeira. By James Yate Jounson, Cor. Mem. Z.8. No. III. Fam. Pleuronectide. Solea oculata, Risso. U, Go. As Ole: Petes Vets OC NS. Left side white ; right side a pale brown, marbled with deeper brown. On the anterior part of the body are five large patches of very dark brown. The tail is also of this colour, and the patch is divided from the paler colour of the body by a series of six yellow spots. The most noticeable markings on the right side of the body consist of four round or oval dark-brown, almost black spots, each surrounded by a ring of small bright yellow spots. These are arranged in two pairs, the members of each pair being placed over against each other at the base of the dorsal and anal fins respectively. A line drawn from one spot of the first pair to the other would divide the fish into two nearly equal portions. All the fins are edged with white. At the base of the caudal fin there is a narrow band of pale brown ; the rest of the fin is a darker brown. The irides of the eyes are bright greenish-blue, surrounded by a ring of gold. The length of the head, compared with the total length, is as 1 to 54; the height, to the total length, is as 1 to 3. There are numerous soft papille in the neighbourhood of the * Phil. Trans, 1858, pl. xl. f. B 3, &e. 238 _ Mr. J. ¥. Johnson on rare and little-known mouth on the left side of the body, and this side of the body is rough with ciliated scales. Both jaws are set with minute teeth, but only on the left side. The dorsal fin commences in front of the eyes, is rounded behind, and is distinct from the caudal, which latter is slightly rounded. The anal fin does not join the caudal, but terminates over against the end of the dorsal. On both these fins a series of small roughly ciliated scales extends along each ray. Both are coloured pale brown, with dark brown spots forming irregular lines. The left pectoral fin is shorter than the right in the pro- portion of 2 to 3. Between the opercle and the caudal fin 70 scales were counted, and in the height about 44, The lateral line is straight through- out. A single example of this species has occurred, which was taken in the month of February. It had a length of 5% inches, and a height of 2 inches. The right pectoral fin was # inch long. The fish took fifty inspirations per minute. This Mediterranean species has been taken at the Canaries, and has been described by M. Valenciennes in Webb and Berthelot’s ‘ Hist. Nat. des Canaries.’ That naturalist assigns 50 rays to the dorsal fin; but this may possibly be a mistake of the printer; and he says that he found 50 rays in the anal fin, 8 rays in the pectoral fin, and 5 in the ventral fin. He counted only 60 scales along the flank. Rhombus cristatus, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soe. iii. p- 15. D.94. P,10. V.6. A. 74.°°'C. 27, Elliptico-oblong, sole-like; the right side white, the left side a palish sepia-brown, faintly marbled with deeper brown. The height of the body to the total length is as 1 to 24, and the head to the total length is as 1 to 44. The oval eyes are close together, being only separated by a simple crest. The hinder one is distant by about its own longer axis from the snout. The iris next the mesial line of the body is spotted with white, is much wider than on the outer side, and makes an angular projection upon the pupil. There are minute pointed ¢eeth on both sides of both jaws; and I can only detect one row of each, although Mr. Lowe says, “ dentibus in maxilla superiore. uniseriatis, in inferiore anguste scobinatis.” The dorsal fin commences, on the right side of the body, in front of the eyes, and extends almost to the caudal fin. Some of the rays at its fore end are produced (in the specimen the second, third, fifth, and sixth), and these rays are free for much of their length. The pointed pectoral fins are small, that on the Fishes taken at Madeira. 239 left side being longer. They are inserted below the middle of the height. The first ray is very short. The left ventral fin commences much before the right fin, whilst it extends quite as far back. They are inserted in front of the pectoral fins, and are both short. The anal fin commences immediately behind the vent, gradually decreases in height backwards, and termi- nates opposite the end of the dorsal. The caudal fin is pointed, and is about as long as the longer pectoral. The scales are rather large, and have their free edges pecti- nate. The /ateral line forms an arch over the root of the pectoral fin, and is then straight along the middle of the body to the base of the caudal fin. Its scales are about 62 in number; the scales in the height are about 33, the number above being equal to the number below the lateral line at the middle of the fish. This rare fish, of which only one example has occurred (taken in the month of February, is easily distinguished from the much eommoner Rhombus maderensis, Lowe, by its elongate sole-like form, the approximate eyes, the produced rays at the fore end of the dorsal fin, and the absence of pale annular markings on the coloured side of the body. inches. UME UI on so ass om cee os nh aes 5,5, MONET OEE co io og ge ve a ge ances 2 “ye ens Cee hee AE org 13; Maye, BTONtee REI 8 eee eee ek tb Dorsal, length of 2nd and 3rd rays ...... 1 Pectorals, length of left fin_..........-. 1 is distance from snout .......... 1 Ventrals, length of left fin.............. te SSE ig 88 NAAR ici cee is a9 MAS OF DONO: «5.55.0 ce Si wee et et ti Order ACANTHOPTERYGII, Cuv. Fam. Triglide. Scorpena ustulata, Lowe,= Sc. scrofa, Linn. There lately came into my hands three specimens of a Scor- pena which seem to prove that the fishes from which Mr. Lowe sketched a new species, that of Sc. ustulata (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 36, and Trans. Zool. Soc. iii. p. 2), were merely young specimens of Sc. scrofa, a common fish at Madeira. As it is of much importance that all false species should be expunged from our books, I will state the facts that have led me to conclude that Se. ustulata falls into this category. All three specimens have the occipital depression which Dr. Giinther has pointed out as specially distinguishing the artificial 240 My. J. Y. Johnson on rare and little-known genus Scorpena from that of Sebastes; and there can be no hesitation in ascribing all three to the same-species, whatever that may be. The longest has a total length of 7,8, inches, and a height of 2} inches. The head measures 22 inches in length, the eye ? inch in diameter. The distance from eye to eye is z; inch. ‘The pectoral and ventral fins are respectively 13 and 13 inch long. These dimensions correspond closely with those given from Mr. Lowe’s notes in Dr. Giinther’s ‘Catalogue of Acanthopterygian Fishes,’ vol. 11. p. 112. The second specimen is 6,5, inches long, and the third 64 inches. The diagnosis of Sc. ustulata given in the Catalogue, and there stated to have been drawn up from Mr. Lowe’s manu- script notes, is this :— €, 12 3 D. 9g. Avg. (I. lat. 24). Vert. 10/14. “The height of the body is 32 in the total length, the length of the head nearly three times. The head is scaleless, but the cheeks and opercles are pustulate or granulated. The length of the snout is one-fourth that of the head, the width of the space between the orbits one-seventh or one-eighth. Space between the orbits deeply concave (groove on the crown of the head as in Sc. scrofa) ; orbital tentacles none or small. The fourth dorsal spine is the longest ; the anal spines as in Se. scrofa (the second the longest). A black blotch between the sixth and ninth dorsal spines ; an irregular chestnut-brown and blackish mark behind the eye, extending principally over the opercle.” Now, turning to my. three specimens, I find that in the two anal-fin formula is in‘all 2. ‘The head is scaleless, and destitute of skinny appendages, except a tag at the posterior margin of the anterior nostril, such as is seen in Sc. scrofa. The top of the head, the cheeks, and opercles are without scales, and di- stinctly pustulate or granulate. The muzzle is very short, broad, and obtuse, extending only once the diameter of the eye before it, as is stated with reference to Sc. ustulata. The length of the muzzle is one-fourth that of the head, whilst the width of the space between the eyes, which is deeply concave, is not quite one-sixth the length of the head. In the largest specimen, the fourth dorsal spine is the longest; in the second specimen, the anterior dorsal spines have been broken; but in the third speci- men the third, fourth, and fifth spines are of the same length, as nearly as may be. Comparing the length of the head and the height with the total length, the proportions in my speci- mens are— Fishes taken at Madeira. 241 Ae eect B. C. Head in length 2°83 3 3 Height in length 3°77 3°55 3°6. Mr. Lowe having stated that in Se. ustulata the lateral line consists of 24: scales, each marked with a little tooth or point, Dr. Giinther remarked that he had evidently counted the small scales only by which the lateral line itself is constituted ; but it was to be presumed that, if the transverse series of scales had been counted, their number would be nearly the same as in Se. scrofa, t. e. from 40 to 46. Now, in my specimens, the scales furnished with a projecting duct (evidently the “little point or tooth”) are 24 in number, whilst the rows of scales abutting on the lateral line are about 45. In regard to colour, the throat and belly are of a rich pinky red; the body reddish-brown; with dark spots and pale dap- plings; the dorsal, pectoral, and caudal fins are washed with orange and sprinkled with black spots, the ventral and anal fins being nearly immaculate. In the largest specimen there is a faint dark blotch between the eighth and ninth spines of the dorsal. In the second specimen, there is a well-marked dark . blotch between the eighth and ninth spines, and another similar blotch between the ninth and tenth spines. In the third speci- men, there is a large continuous deep black blotch extending from near the seventh spine to beyond the tenth. It is evident that there is considerable irregularity in the position and inten- sity of the black blotch on the dorsal fin. In other respects, the colours, as I have described them, agree sufficiently nearly with those assigned by Mr. Lowe to the species Sc. ustulata. But then he has stated that “the great peculiarity of that spe- cies is an irregular chestnut-brown and blackish mark behind the eye, extending principally over the opercle.” » Of this mark I perceive not the slightest trace in any one of my specimens. Looking, however, at the variations of colour which Mr. Lowe has himself pointed out, it may well be doubted whether any reliance can be placed upon this mark as a criterion of species. After considermg the facts here stated, I venture to think that ichthyologists will conclude that the supposed species Scorpena ustulata must be erased, on the ground that the fishes upon which it was founded were merely forms of Scorpena scrofa. Fam. Scombridz. Echeneis brachyptera, Lowe, Giinther’s Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. ii. 378. An example of this species, 12 inches in length, had a sucto- 242 Mr. J. Y. Johnson on rare and little-known rial disk of 16 pairs of lamin. The length of this disk, com- pared with the total length, was as 1 to 33; and the width of the body between the pectoral fins, compared with the total length, was as 1 to 7-15. The lower jaw was rounded and longer than the upper, which was angular, the premaxillaries forming a somewhat obtuse angle with each other. The tongue was rough at the middle with small teeth. The caudal fin was truncate. The dorsal fin had 28 rays, the anal 23; they termi- nate in the same vertical, short of the caudal fin. The colour was a uniform brown, with a slight trace of a white edge to the anal fin at the anterior end. The pectoral fins had rounded apices. The lateral line was straight, save for a slight rise and fall above the pectoral fins. The following are the measurements of the principal parts in inches :— Width of body between pectorals............ 18 Dorsal, lenpth:of hase® 6. 6056.63 is Sadao 33 »» distance from tip of snout............ 62 Povtarala, length oss cs e's bdie paw oe a bebed 13 OMIA OBER oi 84 2:50 acing hea n ee 1i Vent, distance from tip of mandible.......... 6 Anal, length of W086 v5. scsnis > enue ea tnee ae oe Caudal, NOMLUS . y 455 s6.05. 62 2000 a0 ss: cena 3¢ TiVG, SOORCP OXIB soe va ce ce we ne ow epee gmeen ae », distance from tip of snout.............. 155 Suctorial disk, length ............ccscecee SiG re Wie s sss CU Ee Ue cccsccee 155 Cubiceps gracilis, Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p.82; Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. ii. 389. Navarchus sulcatus, Filippi e your: a Acad. Torino, ser. 2. tom. xviii. p- 187. 1 3 e Dui, 5" A. 3° P.24 V.15. C.v.9+8.v. M.B. 6. Elongate, fusiform, compressed. Dark purplish-grey, nearly black on the back, the belly leaden-grey, the fins grey. Clothed with moderately large cycloid scales, of which the exposed part is diamond-shaped. ‘There is a furrow along the side at the mid- dle of the height, and halfway between this and the line of the belly there is another furrow not so long as the upper one. The lateral line is distinct from these, and is placed high up, following the curve of the back, and being straight along the tail. At the sides of the head it is forked, the branches meeting at the suprascapula. In addition to the straight longitudinal furrows already mentioned, the sides of the body are marked with transverse undulating parallel furrows, which at the middle 2 ye ee oe Por eee ee ery Saad yok Adele abn aoe = Fishes taken at Madeira. . 243 of the height are convex towards the head. Of these, 27 were counted between the opercle and the end of the dorsal fin. The height compared with the total length is as 1 to 53; the head compared with the total length is as 1 to43. The vertex, opercles, and mandible of the unarmed head are scaly, Between the eyes it is slightly arched, and there is a low ridge along the nape and vertex, extending from the dorsal fin to the neighbour- hood of the eyes. The short truncate snout is somewhat swollen at the sides, and there is a triangular depression at each side in the space between the eye, the upper jaw, and the snout. The round eye does not reach to the profile, and its diameter com- pared with the head is as 1 to43. It is distant about a dia- meter from the snout, whilst the thickness of the head from eye to eye is rather more. The nostrils are some distance from the eye, and there are two small round openings into each sac. The nasal region is marked by some conspicuous mucus-pores. The mouth is small, the rictus being less than the width at the angle of the jaws. The lower jaw shuts inside the upper; the maxil- lary scarcely reaches back to the vertical from the anterior border of the eye. When the mouth is closed, both the pre- maxillary and the maxillary are covered by the broad thin bone behind them. The upper side of the mouth is formed entirely of the premaxillary, which, like the lower jaw, carries a single row of minute sharp feeth. These are set close together, and are rather longer in front. There is a large oval patch of minute teeth on the roof of the mouth behind the vomer, which is also armed with teeth, but there are none on the edge of the pala- tines. The fore part of the tongue is thin and dilated, and the hinder part is armed with a patch of teeth. The mouth, as well as the inside of the gill-covers, is black. Pseudobranchie are present. The rakers of the first pair of free gills have small spines on their inner sides. There is a sinus at the posterior edge of the opercle ; and the edge of the interopercle is minutely denticulate. The lower border of the preopercle is striate, but the edge is simple. - The dorsal fin, which commences over the roots of the pectoral fins, has no’ free spines before it. Its anterior portion consists of twelve spines, but it is so deeply cleft between the eleventh and twelfth spines as to be almost formed into two fins. The spinous portion is triangular, and higher, though shorter, than the rest. The spines are weak; the first very short, half the length of the second. The longest spine is the fourth; the eleventh is very small; and the twelfth is attached to the soft portion of the fin, and almost equal to the ninth. The soft portion is angular, and rather produced behind, the base being scaly. The pointed pectoral fins are much longer than the 244, Mr. J. Y. Johnson on rare and little-known ventral fins, reaching back to the commencement of the anal fin. The ventral fins are inserted under the posterior angle of the roots of the pectoral fins, and fold back into an abdominal groove. They reach about halfway from their roots to the vent, which is placed a little before the middle of the total length, The spine is less than half the length of the next ray; the se- cond branched ray is the longest. ‘The anal fin commences close to the vent, under the fourth branched ray of the dorsal, the shape of which it copies, and opposite to the end of which it terminates. It is higher anteriorly, and it is angular and some- what produced behind. Its three spines are short, and the base of the fin is scaly. There are no finlets behind either the dorsal or anal fins. The tail is longer than high, and its fin is deeply furcate, without scales. The scales of the unarmed Jateral line are about 60; and there are 20 or 21 scales in the height of the body, of which only four are above the lateral line. Two. specimens of this rare fish have been obtained, both taken in the month of January. There was only a difference of 2 inch between their respective lengths. The larger was an adult female containing ova. Filippi and Verany have described the species, from Medi- terranean examples, under the name of Navarchus sulcatus; but they have certainly committed a mistake in stating that there is a furrow on the body above the lateral line, and another below it. That line, as already described, is high up, and has two furrows below it, the upper one of which has obviously been taken by them for the lateral line. This explanation renders it still more probable that there is no specific distinction between Cubiceps gracilis and C. capensis, Smith, as Dr. Giinther has suggested in his Catalogue. The following are the dimensions of the principal parts of the larger example :— inches. Total length . orrenr iy Length to base of caudal ......... ‘viving seaiied 65 Height in the apatags mane pyr ee eT BS Whines oe ce rae pie ccs ohn 8 cae en BAMA 3b .d oso 65 9, AES tn bans Rone 2a oe it Be Sites ws ap see os bess mouth closed ei. eee 355 Rove, diameter ii ..004 eG ES ee 1,5 Eyes, distance apart (5... eels eiee 1335 Nostrils, distance apart ic:.ic:sie's scsinwuals olek Mouth, when open, 1,8; by............0005 iP Premaxillary, length of pedicel ............ 255 Dorsal, length of base of spinous portion .... 2 3 A re soft portion.,..... o> ae oy, _ xength of third spine ..... +4 ..0s 0s 1 Pectorals, length iso. 6 s'sa coe cy wee sees 13 = distance behind anterior marginofeye 2;%; Venteala, length 42.505 0005, 2a ad ene pee 3 ADE tongth oe PEO AA ee 35°y 3) height posteriorly 0 5.5 5. So eg 1,5 Tail, height at middle .i 2.3.00. ue Soe Pin Caudal; tength sy s% cis. ue sales 155 soit? SOPMMa Taal vlad +e 65 Lowe ee 375 XXVII.—On Ephedra. By Joun Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S. &e. [Continued from vol. x. p. 140.] Tue long interval that has clapsed since the appearance of the former part of this paper demands a word in explanation. When that portion was ready for the press, I was charged by the Go- vernment of Brazil with duties arising out of the International Exhibition, which required my undivided attention for many months; and it is only now that I am able to complete the fol- lowing description of all the South-American species of Ephedra known to me. In the mean time Dr. Hooker’s memoir on Welwitschia has appeared in the Linnean Transactions, which renders it incum- bent on me to reconsider my former views concerning Ephedra. That memoir will claim attention from every botanist, not only for the careful description of the structure of this remarkable plant, but for the admirable manner in which the elaborate details of its analyses are illustrated; and it is fortunate for science that Dr. Hooker had at his command ample materials for the investigation. For the present purpose it will be necessary to refer only to such points in that memoir as may relate to Ephedra. In the absence of the smallest information concerning the female flower and the ovary of Ephedra, and with the knowledge ry: ee ee ee ee ee las ee ee iba! UG ES Fe ee a ey ces ee ee Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. 249 that in Gnetum the male and female flowers are found in distinct whorls on the same node, I had suggested the possibility that in Ephedra both sexes might prove to be developed in the same common spikelet, in which the male flowers in the lower whorls had fallen away before the female flowers became developed in the terminal whorl—a supposition rendered more probable by the fact that male and fructiferous spikelets are sometimes found on the same plant. But the changes shown in the gradual development of the ovary and fruit of Welwitschia render the above supposition improbable; and by analogy we may now form a tolerable conjecture of the nature of the female flower in Ephedra. From these data we may infer that the two ovaria developed in the terminal pair of involucels are deficient of a corolla—a circumstance which sometimes occurs in Euphor- biacee, where the male flowers are provided with both calyx and corolla, while the ovary is destitute of any floral envelope. The application of the term “cone” to the flowering heads of Welwitschia and Ephedra is calculated to mislead many persons in regard to the affinity of the Gnetacee; for they bear little analogy to the cones of the Conifere. They are more properly spikelets, because they bear regular petaloid sessile flowers along a common axis, much after the manner of a spike of Plantago ; and they offer more claims to this category than the spikelets of Myrica, the aments of Betula, or the spicated inflorescence of many other genera. The structure of the male flowers_and the mode of inflores- cence in Welwitschia present a striking resemblance to those in Ephedra, both showing an advanced state of floral development. Dr. Hooker considers the ovule in the female flower to be deficient of any carpellary covering, and therefore gymnospermous; but the circumstances he has demonstrated tend rather to evince that it is enveloped in a distinct carpel. The important fact of the existence of hermaphrodite or polygamous flowers in this family serves to throw much light on this point. It is shown in pl. 6. fig. 14 that Welwitschia (besides its floral envelopes) pre- sents a monadelphous ring of regularly formed stamens sur- rounding an ovary constituted in the usual manner of angio- spermous plants—that is to say, with a simple style and stigma surmounting an oblong 1-celled carpel containing a single erect ovule, thus exhibiting a floral development and pointing to a position in the system far higher than the gymnospermous orders of Conifere and Cycadacee. But the ovule of the herma- phrodite flower is always sterile, and it is only in such flowers as are deficient of corolla and stamens that embryo-sacs are formed in the ovule which admit of its fertilization ; and here it is seen that the style becomes so far depressed that the stigma Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xi. 17 250 Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. remains sessile on the summit of the carpel, leaving the small apical pervious aperture constantly found in the fruits of Wel- witschia and its congeners. This depression of a pervious stigma I have shown to exist in several other instances. The entire development imparts a truly angiospermous character to the Gnetacee, notwithstanding the pervious aperture in the carpel, while the peculiar mode of fertilization, as Dr. Hooker seems to indicate, is analogous to some instances in Santalacee and Lo- ranthacee. I long ago pointed out the existence of vascular threads in the viscous cap which crowns the seed in Loranthus (Struthanthus), the nature of which I did not then understand, but which may perhaps be analogous to the development shown in Welwitschia. The involucels in Ephedra, even in a young state, resemble those of Welwitschia in this particular—that the margins are simply reticulated and petaloid, while the central discoid portion is formed of three easily separable lamine, the external plates being simply reticulated and epidermoid, while the inner lamina consists of numerous closely disposed spicular fibres shaped like those shown in Welwitschia; these are imbedded in paren- chyma, as well as two conspicuous distant and parallel nervures which consist of bundles of ordinary spiral vessels. The bilabiate perigonium in Ephedra is quite reticulated and petaloid, and exhibits no trace of any similar fibres or vessels. Its achenium bears all the usual features resulting from the growth of a regular carpel: it is thick and coriaceous, containing within its somewhat fleshy mesoderm a number of long hair-like threads of pellucid woody fibres, nearly of its entire length ; there is no resemblance in this structure to the perianth of the male flowers. Dr. Hooker, however, considers the similar peri- carp of Welwitschia to be the growth of a perianth surrounding a gymnospermous ovule deficient of any true carpellary covering —a conclusion apparently formed upon hypothetical grounds. T have to make an essential correction in regard to the tubillus: from recent examinations of the seeds of Ephedra dumosa (in which the seminal integuments are somewhat thicker) and of immature seeds of EH. Americana, lately obtained, it is seen that the tubillus is expanded below, like an inverted funnel, quite free from the apical gland, which it surrounds, and is continuous with the outer integument, of which it is a simple extension. In the cases previously observed, this dilated portion was so ex- tremely delicate, and adhered so closely to the gland, that the tubillus seemed to rise out of it. The fact, as above stated, is now beyond all doubt. I have again examined carefully the suspensor in Ephedra, but can discover no trace of those embryo-sac-bearing filaments Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. 251 which are found in Gnetum and Welwitschia. The tubillus, as above stated, is a prolongation of the outer integument ; the red fleshy gland is attached to and closes the mouth of the inner integument. To a small point in the centre of this gland is attached the white cylindrical-and tubular suspensor, hemi- spherical at its apex, the lower extremity of which descends upon and adheres firmly to the upper part of the albumen, thus forming a kind of white cap upon it for a quarter of its length. This suspensor is capable of considerable extension; and when cut open along one side and examined under the microscope, it is found to consist of a loose mass of condensed and extremely fine flocculent tissue, confusedly huddled together like paper- pulp, without the slightest trace of any of the coiled filaments seen in Welwitschia and Gnetum, or any vessels whatever. The albuminous mass is just the length of the embryo, and does not extend over the summit of the radicle, which is quite naked within the hollow cylinder, but it disappears gradually, and becomes lost in the flocculent substance of the suspensor, be- coming at last so far attenuated as to disappear in the form of separate granular cells. From these facts we may infer that this suspensor is only a portion of the amniotic body which has not been obliterated, or in which albuminous grains have not been deposited—a condition of development clearly indicated by the acute sagacity of the late Mr. Robert Brown*. We ought not, therefore, to attach much importance either to the mere circumstance of a suspensor as a proof of the close alliance of the Gnetacee with the Conifere and Cycadacee, seeing that it is always diversified in the several genera, and different from that structure in those families—or to the occasional pre- sence of filaments bearing sterile embryo-sacs, for these never occur in Ephedra, and not always in Gnetum—or to the exist- ence of disciform dotted vessels in the wood, for they are found only in Gnetum. These are only partial coincidences, and con- sequently of little value in comparison with the strong evidence showing a far more advanced perfection of floral structure in the Gnetacee, and pointing to a much higher position in the system. Other analogies remain to be discovered before this point can be * “Tn other cases the albumen is formed by the deposition of granulated matter in the cells of the nucleus. In some of these cases, the membrane of the amnios seems to be persistent, forming, even in the ripe seed, a proper coat for the embryo, the original attachment of whose radicle to the apex of this coat may also continue.” (Gen. Rem. p. 57.) This view applies as well to the origin of the vitellus in many seeds as to the peculiar development existing in Ephedra; and it is probable that future researches may show the existence of an analogous development in other cases, and may lead to a knowledge of the true affinities of the Gnetacee, which we have yet to learn, 17* 252 Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. safely determined. I may here mention that all the details of structure which I have observed will be minutely shown in the drawings of the various analyses intended to illustrate the genus Ephedra. From the circumstances above stated, it is requisite to correct the former diagnosis of Ephedra, as far as regards the female plants, in the following manner :— Flores 2 ignoti (forsan achlamydei). Achenia 2, distincta, rarius abortu solitaria, summo spice amentiformis (ei d similis) affixa, involucellis omnino vel semi-obtecta, oblonga, subtri- gona, plano-convexa, collateralia, erecta. Pericarpium siccum, coriaceum (mesocarpio fibrillifero), glaberrimum, indehiscens, apice.glanduleformi pro tubilli transitu pervium, uniloculare. Semen unicum, basi affixum, loculo paulo brevius, apicem versus attenuatum ; integumenia 2, simplicia, ab imo usque ad medium coalita, dehine superne libera et distincta; ezte- rius tenuiter membranaceum, apice subito longe contractum et in ¢ubillum persistentem tubulosum per foramen pericarpil prolatum et spe longe exsertum attenuatum ; inferius cras- sius, opacum, corrugato-plicatum, apice glandula subglobosa majuscula carnosa clausum; hilum cum chalaza basali con- fusum, substipitatum ; raphe nulla; albumen oblongum, sub- compressum, obpyriforme, carnosulum, embryo equilongum, apice suspensum ; suspensor brevis, cylindricus, opacus, floccu- losus, ad imum glandule integumenti affixus, et ad partem superiorem albuminis arcte adherens ; embryo carnosus albu- mine equilongus et dimidio angustior; cotyledones lineari- oblongze, semiteretes, parallelim collaterales (commissura spice axin spectans), radicula iis equiiata et wquilonga, supera, subcompressa, gradatim ad apicem obtusum angustata. Ephedra Chilensis, n. sp.;—ramis ramulisque oppositis, vali- diusculis, pallide viridulis, granuloso-striatellis, internodiis — longiusculis vel mediocribus, axillis valde nodosis; foliis ru- dimentariis, oppositis, crassiusculis, margine tenuibus, imo in vaginam membranaceam serius ruptam connatis, laciniis li- neari-acutis ; ramis floriferis axillaribus, brevibus vel brevis- simis, apice spicellas 1-2-3 sessiles gerentibus; spicellis ovatis vel oblongis, ex involucellis per paria 6, decussatim op- positis et imbricatis; involucellis ovatis, obtusis, per paria imo connatis: floribus ¢ in involucellis solitariis, hinc decus- satim oppositis, perigonio incluso; antheris 6, in columna subsessilibus et exsertis: fl. 2 pedunculo in axillis solitario, elongato, supra medium 2-bracteolato, spicella solitaria termi- nato, involucellis per paria 5 imo nexis; acheniis 2, termina- Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. 253 libus, inclusis.—Chile, Prov. Valparaiso, v. v. in variis locis ; v. s. in herb. Hook. et Mus. Brit. (Cuming, n. 372 ; Bridges). A low shrub, with numerous virgate constantly dividing branchlets, which are opposite in most of the nodes, more rarely 4, verticillate, from 1 to 14 lme m thickness, the internodes being 14 to 2 inches apart; the opposite leaflets, 2 to 3 lines long, are at first united for nearly their entire length into a membranaceous vaginant sheath, which afterwards becomes torn, by the swelling of the node, into two acute segments, coriaceous at base. The male inflorescence consists of one to four crowded spikelets upon a very short pedicel, thus forming almost glo- merated heads on each side of every node: each spikelet is 3 lmes long, 24 lines broad ; the petaloid perigonium in each involucel is turbinately tubular, compressed, delicately membranaceous, of an orange-yellow colour, 1 line long (thus somewhat exceeding the length of its involucel), its border consisting of two rounded concave, erect lobes, which are imbricated in estivation in the manner before described ; the exserted anthers are subglobose, of a bright yellow colour, opening by two pores in the apex. The female peduncle is 10 lines long, bearing spikelets in which the achenia were destroyed by insects*. 2. Ephedra bracteata, nob. Trav. 11. 531 ;—ramis erectis, ramulis ternatim verticillatis aut oppositis, tenuioribus, divaricatis, fusco-viridibus, minutissime granuloso-striatellis, internodiis longiusculis ; foliis oppositis, rarius ternis, imo in vaginam submembranaceam connatis, apicibus longissime et anguste linearibus ; inflorescentia ¢ et 2 interdum in eadem planta; spicellis ¢ 2-3 in quaque axilla subsessilibus, imo bracteatis, involneellis 1-floris, per paria 6-8 imo connatis decussatim imbricatis, perigonio involucello paulo longiore, flavido, peta- loideo, antheris 6 sessilibus longe exsertis ; spicelle 9 involu- cellis imbricatis, majoribus, coriaceis, marginellatis, achenia 2 collateraliter terminalia ultra medium velantibus.—Chile, Prov. Valparaiso et Coquimbo, v.v. ad Concon; v.s. in herd. Hook., Viiia de la Mar (¢ & 92 Bridges, No. 178), Vifia de la Mar (Anderson, anno 1830), Coquimbo (Harvey ¢). A shrub growing to the height of 2 to 5 feet, with the habit of the preceding, from which it differs by several marked cha- racters. The branches are more slender, darker, with internodes 1} inch apart ; the leaflets are opposite, sometiines ternate, 3 to 4 lines long, united at base into a vaginant tube 1 line in length, the segments being somewhat erect and linearly setaceous. The * A drawing of this species, with analytical details, will be given in the ‘Contributions to Botany,’ vol. ii. Plate 75 a. ’ 254 Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. male spikelets are 24 lines long, 14 line broad, formed of two sets of basal bracts and six or eight pairs of floriferous decussately imbricated involucels, united into as many vaginant sheaths at their bases; the perigonium of each solitary opposite flower is of a yellow colour, 1 line long, with a two-lobed erect border ; the staminal tube is 14 line long, supporting the subsessile sub- globose yellow anthers, which open by two pores in the apex. The fructiferous spikelet is 3 lines long, 2 lines broad, formed of four series of imbricated involucels void of flowers; they are coriaceous, 14 line long, 14 line broad, each united with the oppo- site one into a sheath at its base; the two terminal achenia, more than half invested by the superior involucels, are 2 lines long, 1} line broad, flat on the contiguous faces, and convex externally, of a somewhat glauco-fuscous colour, the summit being termi- nated by an obtuse perforated gland, through which the shortly exserted slender tubillus passes, which has a unilabiate termi- nation. The pedicel supporting the fructiferous spikelet, which in Bridges’s specimen is not fully grown, is 4 lines long, with a pair of bracteoles a short distance below: in Anderson’s speci- men the pedicel is 10 lines long, the bracteoles being at a dis- tance of 2 lines, and the spikelet is double the size of the former. It should be remarked that, in Bridges’s plant, a fructi- ferous spikelet is found on one of the lower branches of the same specimen the upper branches of which all bear male flowers *, 3. Ephedra monticola, n. sp.;—ramis oppositis, substrictis et suberectis, valde ramosis, striatis, brunneis, ramulis junioribus teneribus, imo in vaginam vix nexis ; pedunculis axillaribus in flor. ¢ subbrevibus vel brevissimis, spicellam unicam ovatam gerentibus; involucellis in paribus 83-5 decussatim imbricatis, ovatis, obtusis vel mucronulatis, subcoriaceis, margine mem- branaceo cinctis et floribus totidem includentibus ; perigonio petaloideo, vix longiore ; columna staminifera 2-plo longiore ; antheris 5-7, ovalibus, subsessilibus: spicellis fructiferis soli- tariis, ovatis, pedunculo ramuliformi 2-bracteolato suffultis ; acheniis 2, in involucellis supremis absconditis.—Chile, Cor- dillera de los Andes, utroque latere; v. s. in herb. Hook. (3 et 2 Bridges, No. 1210). A shrub, from its very elevated locality, probably of low growth, with more erect and more slender branches than the preceding species, from which it differs in its general appearance, in its much smaller bractiform leaflets, and in its achenia being hidden by the last pair of involucels. Its branchlets are oppo- site, but sometimes two superimposed grow out of each axil: these are floriferous, nearly } line in diam., with internodes 9 to * This species will be figured in the same work, Plate 75 B. a TTT Pe Oe ee Se ee a es ee ‘ i | Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. 255 11 lines apart. The peduncles are axillary, 1 to 2 lines long, with a pair of bracteoles supporting them at their origin; and they bear a solitary male spikelet, which is ovate, 23 to 3 lines long, bracteated at base, with four pairs of imbricated involucels briefly conjoined at their base into a sheath, subcoriaceous and 1 line long ; perigonium somewhat longer than its own involucel; staminiferous column twice its length, bearing 5-7 sessile yel- low anthers opening by two pores in their apex. The fructi- ferous spikelets are on a distinct specimen: here the peduncle is 1 inch long, 2-bracteolate a little above the middle, bearing a solitary oval spikelet 3 lines long, 2 lines broad; involucels broadly ovate, gradually diminishing towards their summits, coriaceous, with a narrow membranaceous border; two erect achenia 14 line long, elliptic, plano-convex, perforated at the apex, with no portion of the tubillus exserted*. 4. Ephedra Andina, Popp. ; Meyer, Mem. Acad, Petrop. v. 78; —caulibus plurimis subhumifusis, ramis ramulisque ramosis- simis adscendentibus, singulis ad pedem vaginatim foliosis, flexuosis, nodosis, subarticulatis, internodiis subbreyibus, vi- ridiusculis, granuloso-striatellis ; foliis minimis, oppositis, co- _ riaceis, acutis, imo vaginatim nexis, lobis in junioribus subu- lato-acuminatis, mucronulatis, serius distinctis; spicellis ¢ axillaribus, breviter pedunculatis, solitariis vel binis glomeratis, basi 2-bracteolatis ; involucellis per paria 6 decussatim oppo- sitis et imbricatis, imo vaginatis, obovatis, primum submem- branaceis et flavescentibus, serius subcoriaceis et membranaceo- marginatis ; perigonio petaloideo, limbo 2-lobo; columna staminifera longe exserta, antheras 5-6 sessiles apice 2-porosas gerente: spicellis fructiferis axillaribus, solitariis, longe pe- dunculatis; pedunculo in medio 2-bracteolato; involucellis majoribus, magis coriaceis; acheniis 2, collateralibus, termi- nalibus, glaucis, striatellis, imvolucello paulo longioribus, apice perforatis; tubillo breviter exserto, apice inequaliter fisso aut lacerato.—In Andibus Chilensibus; ». s. in herb. meo et Hooker., 3 Cordillera de Maule (Germain) ; in herb. Hooker., 2 Chile australis (Dr. Philippi). In the memoir above cited, Meyer has confounded together (but with some doubt) all the Chilean species of Ephedra. The above-described plant, from the provinces south of the River Maule, the region visited by Péppig, has been selected as the type of EL. Andina, Pépp. It is a well-marked species. The foregoing diagnosis, drawn wholly from it, should be substituted for the more general character assigned by Meyer. It seems to be avery bushy plant, its lower branches hanging on the ground, * A figure of this plant will be seen in (Joc. cit.) Plate 76a. 256 Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. and its ramifications rising upwards. In Germain’s specimens, a cross section of its branches exhibits three or four distinet annular zones, showing a solid white wood with close medullary rays: these are 24 lines in diameter, and very flexuose ; its bark is thick and of a brownish colour, but in the younger branchlets of the last year’s growth it is of a yellowish green, the inter- nodes being 14 to 2 inches apart. The axillary branchlets or peduncles which bear the ¢ flowering spikelets are generally half a line, seldom 2 lines, in length; these spikelets are 2-24 lines long, with six pairs of imbricated involucels ; the perigo- nium is ? line long, and the staminal column, rising above it, becomes 14 line in length. The fructiferous spikelets, upon a distinct plant, supported by a peduncle 2 to 4 lines long, are 3 to 34 lines in length, and are formed of three pairs of imbricated involucels, with a pair of bracts upon the peduncle. The two terminal achenia, embraced by the last pair of involucels, which are somewhat shorter than them, and subscarious, are plano- convex, oblong, pointed towards the small perforated apex, where they are marked by a small yellowish glandular ring which I have considered to be the persistent sessile stigma; the exserted portion of the tubillus is barely a line long, and is irregularly lacerated and scarcely 2-lobed*. 5. Ephedra dumosa, nu. sp. ;—ramis arcuato-flexuosis, valde ra- mosis et intricatis, internodiis subbrevibus aut mediocriter distantibus ; ramulis divaricatis, striatellis, granuloso-scabri- dulis, rufescentibus vel fuscis; foliis oppositis, coriaceis, granuloso-striatulis, fusco-rubescentibus, imo in vaginam amplam brevem connexis, vix marginatis, apicibus breviter mucronato-acutis, vagina demum rupta linearibus: spicellis fructiferis solitariis, brevissime pedicellatis ; involucellis per paria imo nexis, imbricatis, ovatis, subcarnosis, rubescentibus, achenia omnino amplectentibus; acheniis nigris, nitidis, tu- billo breviter exserto, obsolete 2-lobo.—In Andibus Chilensi- bus, v. v..ad Cortaderas costa orientali; v. s. in herb. meo et Hook., Cuesta del Inca (Gillies). A low bushy shrub, which I found growing near the Ladera de las Cortaderas, on the eastern side of the Andes, and of which I still preserve the ripe fruits, though my specimen was lost. Dr. Gillies’s plant, from the eastern side of the Portillo Pass, is more dwarfish, and is without flower or fruit. The branchlets are opposite, the internodes being only 6 to 12 lines apart; the vaginant portion of the combined opposite leaflets is 5 line long and subcampanulate, the segments being of equal length, and * A representation of this species, with ample details, will be seen in the work before mentioned, Plate 76 B. St ee ee ee Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. 257 triangular. The fructiferous spikelets are solitary, 3 lines long, 2 lines in diameter; the involucels, broad and very fleshy, of a dull dark ruddy hue, quite conceal the two terminal achenia the latter are ovate, diminishing upwards, plano-convex, shining, unevenly striated, each obtuse at its acumination, where it is per- forated and surrounded by an apical annular gland ; the tubillus, rising through this, is very little exserted, and very briefly bifid, or rather lacerated into two very short, erect, concave, rounded, unequal lobes*. 6. Ephedra ochreata, nu. sp. ;—suffruticosa, ramis virgatis ramu- lisque validis adscendentibus, szepissime fusco-viridibus, stria- tellis, granuloso-scabridulis, epidermide facile rimosa, inter- nodiis remotiusculis; foliis 3-nis vel 4-nis, rigido-submem- branaceis, in vaginam longiusculam striatellam connexis, api- cibus subulatis, serius omnino disruptis, tunc liberis et reflexis: spicellis ¢ oppositis, 3-nis vel 4-nis, in axillis sessilibus et subglomeratis, oblongis, ad basin imbricato-bracteatis ; invo- lucellis in seriebus ternatis 6—9, imo nexis et decussatim al- ternantibus, ovatis, subcoriaceis, margine vix membranaceis, perigonio subquilongis; antheris 5-6, exsertis: spicellis - fructiferis 2—4, breviter pedicellatis, subverticillatis ; acheniis 2, oblongis, subacutis, ultra medium exsertis.—In Provinciis Argentinis, Travesia de Mendosa 2 mihi lecta; v. s. in herb. Hook. et Mus. Brit., § Patagones, Prov. Buenos Ayres (Twee- die), Bahia Blanca (Darwin), Port S. Elena (Capt. King), Bahia San Antonio. Var. striata ¢ et Mendosa (Gillies). A very distinct species, with long virgated and somewhat curving branches, which are striated, 1 to 2 lin. diam., the inter- nodes being 2 inches apart; the younger ones are somewhat fistulose, with a central pith, but the older branchlets are en- tirely woody ; four branchlets issue from a node, two being su- perposed in each opposite axil; or there are three verticillate branchlets at a joint ; the leaves are 4 lines long, seldom oppo- site, most frequently ternate, and united together as far as their middle into a sheath which loosely embraces the stem ; they are membranaceous, with a subulately acuminate apex terminating in a long cuspidate point proceeding from the excurrent nerve; four sessile male spikelets are placed verticillately round each node within the ruptured sheath, the leaves now becoming re- flexed and withered ; these spikelets are 2 lin. long, and 14 lin. broad ; each consists of three series of imbricated bracts at base, and nine other floriferous series closely imbricate and alternately * This plant, with analyses of its carpological structure, will be shown in Pl. 77 a. 258 Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. decussate, each series consisting of three involucels vaginatel united at base; the flowers, from twenty-five to thirty in re spikelet, are therefore ternately verticillate in each series. The perigonium is petaloid, of the usual form, of delicate reticulated texture, the areoles being generally disposed in longitudinal rows sometimes anastomosing with each other, each areole being isolated and replete with a coloured fluid; there is no vestige of any nervure or spicular cells as in Welwitschia. The involucels are similarly reticulated, but they finally become thickened, opake, and coriaceous, except round the margins; the coriaceous portion is constituted in the manner described in a preceding page (p. 250). The fructiferous spikelets, upon distinct but similar plants, are two to four in each node, 4 to 44 lines long, 2 lines broad, verticillately disposed, each upon a separate pedicel ; their involucels, in about five gradually decreasing imbricated pairs, are smooth, opake, subcoriaceous, with almost obsoletely membranaceous margins. The two terminal achenia, half in- vested by the last pair of involucels, are ovate, somewhat attenu- ating upwards, trigonous, with an obtuse pallid perforated sum- mit, the tubillus, with lacerated apex, being scarcely exserted*. The variety striata of Gillies possesses all the specific features ; but the branchlets are less than half the thickness, they are glandularly scabrid, of a pallid colour; the internodes in the male plant scarcely exceed an inch, while those of the fructiferous plants are 1 to 14 inch apart; the leaves, 2}—3 lines long, are united for above half their length into a 3-fid vaginant tube. There are about six smaller glomerated heads around each node. The fructiferous spikelets are 3 lines long, 2 lines broad, with three pairs of subcoriaceous involucels with scarious margins, the terminal pair enclosing two finely striated, opake, fuscous achenia. It may probably form a distinct species; but there is little that can be characterized. 7. Ephedra Americana, H. B. K. ii. 2; Rich. Conif. 31. tab. 29; Meyer, Mem. Acad. Petrop. v. 100 ;—ramulis graciliusculis, erectis, subflexuosis, striatellis, pallide virentibus, vix scabrel- lis; foliis oppositis, imo ad nodos in vaginam brevem nexis, lobis liberis longiusculis, linearibus, subulato-acuminatis, erecto-patulis, submembranaceis, glaberrimis, crebre striatellis, serius ruptis et divaricatis, linea transversali tune nexis: spi- cellis ¢ axillaribus, sessilibus, subglobosis, oppositis vel 4-ver- ticillatis; involucellis per paria 8-10, floriferis, imbricatis, valde concavis; perigonio paulo longiore, petaloideo ; columna * Ample details of structure, and a figure of the plant, will be given in Plate 77 B. ; aa" ta anaes Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. 259 - gstaminali 7-nervi; antheris 5-7, exsertis: spicellis fructiferis in quaque axilla solitariis vel binis, breviter pedicellatis ; in- volucellis majoribus, glauco-opacis, marginibus anguste mem- branaceis ; acheniis 2, terminalibus, subinclusis, apice calloso oratis.—In Peruvia; v. s. in herb. Mus. Brit., 3 et 2; in herb. Hook., 2 Chachapoyas (Mathews, 1838). Kunth describes this as a somewhat erect or repent shrub, very much branched ; the branchlets are slender, scarcely } line diam., with internodes 1 to 1} inch apart. The leaves are 3 to 5 lines long, 1 line broad, setaceously acute, of a reddish colour, and ultimately subreflexed. According to that botanist, the male and female flowers are found on the same plant, in the pro- portion of three of the former to one of the latter; but in the instances I have seen, the sexes are on different specimens. The male spikelets are solitary and sessile in each opposite axil ; they are 2 lines long, 14 line broad, with six or eight series of flori- ferous opposite involucels conjoined at base in alternating pairs, and three series of basal bracts; the involucels are suborbicu- lar, with a fleshy very concave centre and a simply reticulated margin, the central portion being formed of three separable lamine, as described in page 250. The perigonium is petaloid, simply reticulated, with spotted areolz, but without vessels of any kind. The fructiferous spikelets are elliptic, 3 lines long, 2 lines broad, supported on pedicels 1 line long. The mesocarp of the pericarp is filled with numerous very long, and apparently solid, filiform woody fibres imbedded in fleshy matter. Ina half-ripe state, the tubillus is distinctly seen to be continuous with the outer integument of the seed, a considerable space in- tervening between it and the gland, and between it and a long portion of the summit of the seed*, 8. Ephedra rupestris, Bth. Plant. Hartw. p. 253 ;—humilis, in- tricato-ramosissima ; ramulis rectiusculis vel arcuatis, fusco- opacis, valde striatis, granuloso-scabrellis, ad axillas paulo nodosis ; foliis oppositis, imo in vaginam brevem nexis, su- perne in lobos triangulares extus subcarinatos mucronatos terminatis, minute granulosis, coriaceis, hematicis: spicellis é axillaribus, solitariis vel binis, sessilibus ; involucellis oppo- ' sitis, imo nexis, 8—4-serialibus, imbricatis, carnosulis, fuscis, ‘ perigonio brevioribus; antheris circiter 5, sessilibus, longe exsertis: spicellis fructiferis in axillis solitariis, breviter pedi- cellatis; involucellis per paria 4-5, imbricatis, fuscis, carno- sulis, minute granulosis; acheniis 2, terminalibus, inclusis ; tubillo exserto, subtruncato, rubello.—Ecuador ; v. s. in herb, Hooker., 3 Monte Pelzhum, altit. 12,000 ped. (Jameson), * This plant, with full structural details, will be shown in Plate 78 a. 260 Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. Monte Cotopaxi, altit. 12,000 ped. (Jameson), Monte Anti- sana 2 (Hartwegg, No. 1394). ; Apparently a shrub of stunted growth, found in the fissures of rocks at a great elevation, the branchlets being 4 to 3 line thick, with internodes 5 to 7 lines apart; opposite leaflets 1 line Jong, which for half their length are united into a vaginant tube round each node, becoming afterwards more or less torn to their base. The male spikelets are 2 lines long, 1 line broad, with involucels and perigonium 3 line long; staminiferous column yellow, ? line long, bearing five clustered sessile anthers opening by two pores in the apex. The fructiferous spikelets are 2} lines long, 1} line diam.; the involucels are of a dark brassy metallic hue, with a finely granulated surface. The Ephedra humilis, Weddell (Ann. Se. Nat. sér. 3. xiii. 251), from Puno in Bolivia, does not appear to be specifically distinct from the above plant. The species is much allied to the Ephedra dumosa described in a preceding page. 9. Ephedra Tweediana, Visch., Meyer, Mem. Acad. Petrop. v. 99. tab. 9;—ramis ramulisque oppositis, ramosis, erectius- culis, teneribus, subvirgatis, pallidis, striatis, subgranulosis, imo vaginatis, ad axillas nodosas subarticulatis, internodiis subelongatis; foliis oppositis, aut rarius verticillatim ternis, distinctis, imo linea transversali nexis, basi concavis, superne hyalino-membranaceis, acuminatis, et in setam longissimam filiformem terminatis: spicellis ¢ in quaque axilla solitariis, vel 2-3-4 glomeratis, sessilibus, oblongis, acutis, basi 4-brac- teatis; involucellis per paria 4-5, imo nexis, decussatim im- bricatis, ovalibus, crassiusculis, margine membranaceis, peri- gonio subequilongis ; antheris seepius 3, interdum 4-5, sessi- libus, oblongis, vix exsertis: spicellis fructiferis similibus, sed 2-plo majoribus, brevissime pedicellatis ; involucellis ma- joribus et paulo crassioribus, pallidis, coriaceis, anguste mar- ginatis ; acheniis 2, navicularibus, pallide opacis, oblongis, gradatim angustioribus, apice obtuso perforatis, tubillo ex- serto, irregulariter lacerato.—In Provinciis Argentinis, v. v. Coro Corto (Prov. Mendosa) et Travesia de Mendosa, det 2 ‘(mihi lecta, anno 1826); v. s. in herb. Hooker., Travesia de Mendosa (sub &. Mendocensis) et in Pampas (sub titulo E. australis) (Gillies); Patagones (Carmen, Rio Negro) in Proy. Buenos Ayres, det? (Tweedie). This species appears to have a wide range over the extent of the Pampas, in localities which are more or less saline. It has a branching ligneous root, from which numerous slender stem- lets ascend, which throw off other occasional branchlets at the nodes, forming a shrub 1 or 2 feet in height, with somewhat ee See Oy ee ee ne ee ee ee ae ee ee ee ee A AO ee ee ee ee Tae ae ee er ye pi Wi, tL ca ei UL ao le Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. 261 longer branches which run along the ground or trail upon others for support. The opposite or verticillately disposed branches are slender, subflexuose, of a pale greenish colour, 2 to 1 line diameter, with internodes 1 to 12 inch apart; the nodes are somewhat swollen, often articulate, and embraced by the bases of the leaves, which form opposite cup-shaped cartila- ginous projections at each node, joined together by a transverse line; the leaflets are 3 lines long, subulate, suberect, with hya- line membranaceous margins, gradually diminishing into a long curved setaceous point. The male spikelets generally abound in the younger branchlets, where two or three are often crowded together in each axil; these are oblong, somewhat tapered, formed of about five pairs of decussately opposite involucels, each pair united at base into a short vaginant tube; the mvo- lucels are ovoid, slightly acute or obtuse, glaucescent, subfleshy, with a narrow membranaceous margin, each enclosing a petaloid perigonium of about their own length, which is campanulately tubular, compressed, and expanded into two broad rounded erect lobes, as long as the tube, imbricated in estivation; the stami- niferous column, scarcely exceeding the length of the perigonium, bears on its apex three to five crowded, erect, sessile anthers, which are 2-celled and open by two pores in the apex. In the specimen from Patagones, the number of anthers is constantly three, which number occurs in the other localities, but only oc- casionally. The fructiferous spikelets are on different specimens, and vary only from those of the male flowers in being generally solitary upon a very short pedicel in each axil, and are about double their size, being 3 lines long, 2 lines broad, gradually narrowing upwards, with about six pairs of involucels, the three upper pairs being the largest, and all barren except the last pair, which embraces ? of the length of the two terminal achenia; these involucels are greenish, and ultimately brown, 2 lines long, 14 line broad, and pointed: the achenia are fuscous brown, opake, broadest at base, gradually attenuated upwards, flat in- side, with a somewhat sharp margin, rounded and carinated on the opposite face, their section being somewhat trigonous, 3 lines long, 13 line broad, the small obtuse apex being glandular and perforated ; the tubillus is exserted, and irregularly lacerated, not disciform as Meyer has stated, although he figures it as I have described it*. 10. Ephedra scandens, n. sp. ;—scandens, vage ramosa ; ramis strictis, ramulis junioribus floriferis sepe 4-12 verticillatis ex quoque nodo, gracilibus, subflexuosis, pallidis, striatellis, fere * A representation of this species, with structural details, will be seen in Plate 78 B. 262 Mr. J. Miers on Ephedra. levibus, internodiis longiusculis, ad nodos subarticulatis ; foliis in axillis oppositis, imo inter se nexis et vaginatis, lobis brevibus, obtusis, membranaceis, serius disruptis et liberis : spicellis ¢ in quaque axilla 1-2-3 glomerulatis, sphericis, ca- pitulum globosum simulantibus ; involucellis rotundatis, con- cavis, fusco-rubentibus, subcarnosulis; ramulis floriferis de- mum elongatis: spicellis fructiferis 1 ad 3 ex quaque axilla, longe pedicellatis ; acheniis semiinclusis—In Provincia Uru- guay; v.s. in herb, Hook., Banda Oriental (Tweedie, Baird), Parana et Entre Rios (Gibert, Nos. 9 et 75). Tweedie describes this species as climbing to the tops of the loftiest trees of the forest; and Baird saysit is used by the natives for dyeing a fine scarlet colour. The branchlets are slender, of a pallid green, not more than } to 2 line diameter, with inter- nodes 13 to 2 inches apart. ‘The leaves are very small and membranaceous, not exceeding 1 line in length. The male spikelets, generally about six, are crowded together in a capitate form around each node ; the spikelets are subglobose, 1 to 14 line diam., composed of about five pairs of closely imbricated invo- lucels, which are rounded above, and concave, somewhat fleshy, of a dark ruddy colour, and opake ; the perigonium, of the same size, is of a reddish hue, beyond which six to eight bright yellow sessile anthers are exserted. The fructiferous spikelets, on distinct specimens, are usually solitary in each axil; each spikelet is supported on a very slender pedicel, 2 to 3 lines in length, which is deflected; it is acutely elliptic, 8 lines long, including the two terminal achenia, which are half-enclosed within the last pair of involucels; the involucels are in three imbricating pairs, with two pairs of bracts at base; they are ob- long, rather obtuse, of a greenish-brown colour, becoming some- what reddish, with a very narrow white margin: the achenia are acuminately oblong, trigonous, 3 lines long, 14 line broad, granularly striated, of a dark ruddy brown, with a somewhat 3-lobed white gland in the apex, which is perforated for the passage of the tubillus, this being scarcely exserted and lace- rated at its apex*. 11. Ephedra frustillata, n. sp.;—nana, ramosissima; ramis ramulisque iterum ramosis, brevissimis, oppositis, vel spe 4-natim verticillatis, sulcatis, granuloso-asperatis, rufo-auran- tiacis, singulis imo vaginatis; foliis axillaribus, oppositis, ' parvis, ovatis, concavis, rubescentibus, crassiusculis, margine vix marginatis, primum usque ad medium in vaginam 2-den- tatam connexis, serius disruptis: spicellis ¢ in apice ramu- lorum ultimorum solitariis, sessilibus, subovatis ; involucellis * This species will be shown in Plate 79 a. wae ti ae ee Tell ‘ Prof. G. Guiliver on the Raphides of Isnardia. 263 paria 4—6, decussatim oppositis, et basi nexis, erebre im- ricatis; perigonio 2-labiato, involucello 2-plo longiore, la- biis adpressis, rotundatis ; antheris 5, globosis, in columnam exsertam crebriter sessilibus.— Patagonia ; v. s. in herb. Hook. et Mus. Brit., Port Desire (Darwin). A stunted shrub, apparently not more than 4 inches in height, with a repent caudex, out of which the somewhat ascendent branches originate, which immediately divide themselves at every half-inch distance into verticillated ramifications round each axil, the ultimate ones being floriferous, with a pair of short vaginant bractiform leaflets round each node, and a similar sti- puloid sheath round the base of each ramification. They are all of a dull reddish orange-colour. The male spikelets are ovate, 2 lines long*. XXVIII.—On the Raphides of Isnardia. By Prof. GuLiiver. Havine, through the kindness of Mr. W. H. Baxter, of the Oxford Botanic Garden, received a fragment of a few leaves of an old dried specimen of Isnardia palustris, I have examined it, and find that, like its congeners Epilobium, Cinothera, and Circea, it abounds in true raphides. They were easily detected, in the form of bundles, under a magnifying power of about one hundred and sixty, linear admeasurement, in bits of the leaf which had been macerated in water; and the needle-like crystals were also separately diffused through the water in which the leaf had been comminuted. This plant was the only one required to complete the series of observations on British Onagracee formerly made by me; and now it is certain that raphides are abundant and of similar shape in all our genera of this order. How well it is thus characterized may at once be seen by comparing a portion of Epilobium with a like part of Lythrum, when the profusion of raphides in the one plant and their absence in the other will plainly show the difference. This observation, in connexion with others given in the ‘An- nals’ for January last, pp. 13-15, would appear to warrant the following conclusions :— 1. Raphides form a regular part of the healthy, growing, or perfect structure of several plants—from the ovary to mature parts, as stem, leaves, sepals, and testa,—contrary to the state- ment of Schleiden that “crystals are rarely met with in cells in a full state of vitality.” 2. Crystals resulting merely from chemical changes connected * A representation of this plant will be given in Plate 79 B. 264 Mr. A. Adams on new Genera and Species of with decay in the stem, bark, and other parts belong to a different category. 3. Numerous species and orders of plants are nearly or quite devoid of raphides as a regular part of the growing and healthy structure. 4, Certain orders may be so readily distinguished from their near allies by raphides alone, and this even in minute fragments of the leaf and other healthy parts, whether in the fresh or dried state, in the absence, too, of the flower and fruit, that the fact should henceforth be comprised in the descriptive characters of our plants of those orders. 5. Onagraceee and Lemnacee have now been proved, as far as regards the British plants, to be such orders. 6. The common and abundant Willow-herbs and Duckweed, being thus very laboratories for the formation and collection of phosphate of lime, should be worthy of attention as valuable manure. Edenbridge, March 2, 1863. XXIX.—On some new Genera and Species of Umboniide from the Seas of Japan. By Artuur Apams, F.L.S. &c. MM. Lesson and Vatencrennes have made known Umbonium giganteum and U. costatum from Japan; and Gould has recently described U. superbum, found by Stimpson at Kagosima Bay. One species (U. moniliferum of Lamarck) is in estimation among the Japanese for the superior lime it furnishes; and the same species is sold in their shops, under the name of “ Aru,” for ornamental purposes, such as the manufacture of bracelets. U. vestiarium, L., so common in the north of China, is hardly met with in Japan, a few dead examples only having been detected by me at Tsaulian Harbour, which, although in the Sea of Japan, more properly belongs to the Korea. But although, very naturaily, the more conspicuous and bril- liant species have been brought by travellers to Europe, yet there remain still unknown many smaller and more obscure forms of the family, some of which I now propose briefly to elucidate. Genus Umponium, Link. 1. Umbonium vestiarium, Linn. Trochus vestiarius, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12. p. 1230. Rotella lineolata, Lamk.; Rot. rosea, Lamk. Hab. Tsaulian. ae ae a eee a Oe z 4 : 4 : 4 ¢ oa a = ye Umboniide from the Seas of Japan. 265 2. Umbonium giganteum, Lesson. Rotella gigantea, Less. lust. de Zool. pl. 17. Globulus giganteus, Phil. Rotella aucta, Sow. Hab. O-Sima. 3. Umbonium costatum, Valenc. Rotella costata, Val. Kien. Sp. Conch. viv. pl. 11. f. 5. Globulus costatus, Phil. Conch. Cab. pl. 7. f. 15. Hab. Simoda; Hakodadi; Tsu-Sima; Tsaulian. 4. Umbonium moniliferum, Lamk. Rotella monilifera, Lamk. Hist. des Ann, s. Vert. vol. vii. p. 8. Rotella javanica, Lamk. Globulus monilifer, Phil. Hab. Nagasaki; Simoda; Tatiyama; O-Sima; Tago. 5. Umbonium anguliferum, Phil. Globulus anguliferus, Phil. Conch. Cab. pl. 8. f. 3. Hab. Simoda. 6. Umbonium superbum, Gould. Rotella superba, Gould, Otia Conch. p. 156. Hab. Kagosima. Genus Microtuyca, A. Adams. Testa globoso-turbinata, late umbilicata, subporcellana, longitudi- naliter rugoso-plicata; suturis canaliculatis; anfractibus ad suturas crenulatis. Apertura semicircularis, “peritremate continuo; labio incrassato, arcuato ; labro margine incrassato ; umbilico crenulato. 1. Microthyca crenellifera, A. Adams. Isanda crenellifera, A. Adams, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862. Hab. Gotto Islands, 71 fathoms; Seto-Uchi, 17 fathoms. In this curious little form, which I referred to Jsanda (not having the type of that genus to compare with it), the peritreme is continuous, and the outer lip thickened—characters which prevent its being referred to any existing genus. Genus Umsonetta, A. Adams. Testa globoso-conoidea, solida, porcellana, polita, anguste umbili- cata. Apertura subquadrata; labio rectiusculo, antice dilatato ; umbilico angusto, margine crenulato-rugoso. 1. Umbonella murrea, Reeve. Turbo murreus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. sp. 54. Isanda maculosa, A. Adams, Aun. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862. Hab. Gotto Islands; 71 fathoms. Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xi. 18 266 Mr. A. Adams on new Genera and Species of This genus is founded on a small, turbinate, porcellanous shell, which I described under the name of Jsanda maculosa. There is, however, a figure in Reeve’s Monograph of Turbo which seems to represent the same shell, and is called 7. mur- reus. The nearest genus appears to be Chrysostoma of Swainson; but in that the aperture is circular, and the axis is imperforate. Genus Ernatia, H. & A. Adams. 1, Ethalia perspicua, A. Adams. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1861. Hab. Kino-O-Sima; Takano-Sima. 2. Ethalia sobrina, A. Adams. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1861. Hab, Akasi, 17 fathoms; Tsu-Sima, 25 fathoms. 3. Ethalia candida, A. Adams. Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862. Hab. Gotto Islands, 71 fathoms. 4. Ethalia polita, A. Adams. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862. Hab. Gotto Islands, 71 fathoms. 5. Ethalia omphalotropis, A. Adams. E. testa ovato-discoidali, alba, levi, nitida, semidiaphana; spira ela- tiuscula ; anfractibus 34, convexis, rapide accrescentibus, suturis impressis; anfractu ultimo ad peripheriam rotundato ; umbilico aperto, margine valde carinato; apertura subcirculari; labio callo parvo umbilicum partim tegente. Hab. Yobuko, 17 fathoms. This species has a peculiar sharp keel surrounding the umbi- licus. Like all the other examples of the genus, it is entirely devoid of coloured markings. 6. Kthalia nitida, A. Adams. E. testa helicoidea, tenui, semiopaca, levi, nitida, sordide alba; an- fractibus 24, convexis, ultimo antice subdilatato, ad peripheriam rotundato ; apertura subcirculari; labio in medio indentato, sub- calloso, peritremate in angulo postico producto. Hab. Yobuko, 14 fathoms. A thin helicoid species, with the whorls smooth and polished, and the inner lip callous and indented, but not emitting a callus sufficiently large to cover or conceal the umbilicus, The peri- ; : q ee Te 7 eh eee Umboniide from the Seas of Japan. 267 stome is produced into an angle, which ascends on the last whorl. Genus Te1nostoma, A. Adams. 1. Teinostoma concentricum, A. Adams. T. testa orbiculato-ovata, superne convexa, alba, solida, semiopaca, sulcis concentricis confertis concinne insculpta, lineisque incrementi radiantibus subtilissime decussata ; anfractibus rapide crescentibus, ultimo dilatato, ascendente, alios involyente vix usque ad apicem, peripheria rotundata, basi convexo; umbilico callo convexo levi omnino obtecto ; apertura subcirculari, antice vix producta. Hab. O-Sima; Takano-Sima. A solid, convex species, with the surface finely concentrically grooved—a peculiarity which distinguishes it from any of the species already known. 2. Teinostoma radiatum, A. Adams. -T. testa orbiculata, depressa, superne convexiuscula, basi subplana, semiopaca, alba, lineis incrementi radiantibus conspicue ornata ; umbilico callo excavato angulato obtecto; anfractibus subito crescentibus, ultimo alios involvente usque ad apicem; apertura ~ _ depressa, antice producta. Hab. O-Sima. This species is distinguished by its depressed form and the conspicuous radiating lines which proceed from the axis towards the periphery. The callus covering the umbilicus presents a sharp angular excavated edge near the inner lip. 3. Teinostoma lucidum, A. Adams. T. testa oblique ovata, depressa, superne convexa, inferne planiuscula, alba, levi, pellucida, striolis incrementi obsolete radiata; umbi- lico callo plano subcirculari opaco obtecto; anfractibus rapide erescentibus, ultimo ascendente, alios involvente usque ad apicem ; _ apertura subhorizontali, depressa, antice producta. Hab. Simoda. This species differs from the others already described in being smooth and pellucid; the last whorl is also considerably more dilated anteriorly. — Genus Catcrorina, A. Adams. Testa neritiniformis, oblonga, depressa; spira parva; anfractibus rapide accrescentibus; regione umbilicali callosa. Apertura semi- circularis, intus non margaritacea; labio callo magno-lato obtecto, postice umbilicum tegente ; margine antico recto, simplici. This little genus is established on a shell I found at Tanabe, and which I believe to be the same as the Neritina pusilla of 18* 268 Mr. T. J. Moore on the Occurrence of C. B. Adams. It seems to be most nearly allied to Teinostoma, with which my brother and myself have placed it in our ‘Genera,’ Calceolina pusilla, C. B. Adams. Neritina pusilla, C. B. Adams, Conch. Contrib. p. 112. Teinostoma anomalum, H. & A. Adams, ‘Genera of Recent Mollusca,’ vol. i. p. 123. Teinost. pusillum, Append. p. 615. C. testa albida, subopaca, superficie rugulis incrementi confertissimis striata ; sutura valde impressa; anfractu ultimo depresso, magno, ad peripheriam compresso. Hab. Tanabe, in shell-sand. XXX.—WNotice of the Occurrence of a rare Cetacean (Lageno- rhynchus albirostris, Gray) at the Mouth of the Dee. By Tuomas J. Moore. On the 29th of December last, at daybreak, a fresh wind blowing from W.S.W., and the tide being about quarter-ebb, a large Cetacean was discovered stranded at Little Hilbre, one of two closely contiguous islands at the mouth of the Dee. It was observed by Mr. Barnett, Inspector of Buoys, who resides on the larger island, and who had noticed others off the shore a few days previously. I had urged Mr. Barnett, on the occurrence of such creatures, to endeavour to secure examples for this Mu- seum ; and he was, in consequence, kind enough immediately to proceed to the mainland for a suitable conveyance, into which it was carefully removed and brought to Birkenhead Ferry, and thence across the Mersey to this building. The creature was still living, spasmodically breathing at irregular intervals; the body was warm to the hand; and tear-like moisture oozed from its eyes as it lay quiescent in the cart. I was desirous of giving it a fresh chance of life, and my first anxiety was to obtain a vessel large enough to form a bath for it. This I succeeded, after some delay, in securing; but, to my great mortification, the creature gave up the ghost (with con- siderable violence, too) at the very moment when we were pre- pared to remove him into it. It was then getting dark, and the poor animal had thus lived about eight hours out of water. It was a male; and upon endeavouring to make out the spe- cies, I was agreeably surprised.to find it approximate most nearly to the description of the White-beaked Bottle-nose (La- genorhynchus albirostris),.as given in Dr. Gray’s ‘Catalogue of Cetacea in the British Museum,’ p. 99, and in the ‘ Zoology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’ p. 35, the skull agreeing well with the figures in the latter work, pl. 11. ne ee ee ne a ee ee Ee ee ee a rare Cetacean at the Mouth of the Dee. 269 = I subsequently sent the skull to Dr. Gray for comparison ; and he confirmed my supposition of its being an individual of the species above named, namely, L. albirostris, which was founded upon a specimen taken at Great Yarmouth in October 1845, and recorded by Mr. Brightwell in the ‘Annals’ for 1846 (vol. xvii. p. 21, pl. 2), under the name of Delphinus tursio. This addition to our local fauna is a matter of considerable interest, as its place of capture comes within the range taken by Mr. Byerley in his “Fauna of Liverpool,” published in the ‘Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liver- pool,’ in 1854, and in which only two Cetaceans are recorded, namely, Phocena communis and Hyperoodon Butzkopf.. The general colour is a rich black. A long and narrow greyish streak extends on either side diagonally across the ribs; and a similar greyish hue occurs on each side of the dorsal ridge, extending nearly from the fluke to the tail. The beak white, irregularly blotched with blackish, the white extending slightly above the constriction of the beak. The under jaw and throat milk-white, which colour extends along the belly, but becomes rie clear as it approaches the vent. Its dimensions were as ollows :— feet. inches Total length from snout to cleft of tail.... 9 0 NE I 6c ie ons owe eo 4 a come 0 103 ENR oe okie ok ec ecie a cs +s 0 ; », of under jaw beyond the upper .. 0 t 7) wom snout to eye... 0... <'. 22 5. 1 i ps Ss to blow-hole ........ : ag - ‘a to commencement of | dorsal fluke ...... koe 8 | a me, to end of ditto ...... Roch re 6 to pectoral fin ...... £339 NIRA SRE iio dal o Win nde a pssha'e « . ae Deflection of cleft of tail from a line drawn NT MO CI oo eran ncn os iu ohne ee 0 + Girth in front of pectoral fin............ bee re pe @otear MUkE oc. ce Ls ee »» behind dorsal fluke .............. 4 °-3 The body becomes much attenuated towards the tail. Im- mediately in front of the dorsal fluke, the vertical and transverse diameters are nearly identical, the former being 314 inches, and the latter 303. Halfway between the end of the fluke and the commencement of the tail, the vertical diameter is 13 inches, and the transverse 6} ; and immediately before the commence- ment of it, the vertical diameter is 44 inches, and the transverse 24, or exactly one-half. 270. Dr. A. Gerstiicker on the Geographical Distribution ‘The dorsal fluke measures 24 inches along its convexity, and is 11 inches high. The pectoral fin, at its junction with the trunk, is 7 inches across, and its greatest length (diagonal) is 19 inches; measured round the curve, it is 21. The eye is $ inch long by 4 aninch. The orifice of the ear is 24 inches behind the eye in a slightly diagonal direction, and is less in diameter than a puncture by an ordinary pin. The transverse diameter of the blow-hole is 1? inch, and the longi- tudinal 1 inch, the points being directed forwards. The skin has been stuffed, though with much difficulty, owing to its want of tenacity ; and the contrast of colour is now almost imperceptible. The skeleton is in maceration, and will shortly be mounted. The dimensions of the skull are as follows :— inches. SOU OORUD ids shine sh ene cons sock ee 4} RUwty OF LOWER TOW Ss sc oo sys ocr om nee 153 MW Wha Mt OMY IES «cass coco uy ever concen wm Teeth 3 =; curved, and acute where not slightly worn. Free Public and Derby Museum, Liverpool, Feb. 17, 1863. XXXI.—On the Geographical Distribution and Varieties of the Honey-Bee, with Remarks upon the Exotic Honey-Bees of the Old World, By Dr, A. Gurstickrr*, Arter a few observations upon domestic animals in general, and the difficulty attending their identification with any existing wild species, the author remarks that the mutual relation of the various races of Honey-Bees is less subject to doubt, since, not- withstanding that they have been described as distinct species by various authors, they really present no distinctive specific characters. Nevertheless, as with the other domestic animals, the native country of the Honey-Bee is unknown, as may be seen from the opinions expressed by the various entomologists who have written upon this subject. Latreille says of the supposed species of Honey-Bees, “One (viz. Apis mellifica, Linn.), which is predominant and most generally cultivated, probably origi- nated in the north, also found in Barbary, &c.” +, and therefore * Abstract of a paper read to the eleventh ‘ Wander-Versammlung Deutscher Bienenwirthe,’ Potsdam, 1862. + Humboldt, Recueil d’Observations en Zoologie, p. 299, and Varieties of the Honey-Bee. 271 believes that our northern Bee, from which he distinguishes the Italian Bee (A. Ligustica, Spin.), is probably indigenous to the North of Europe. This view is supported by Brun in his article on “ Exotic Races of Bees”*, who regards the North of Africa as the southern limit of the Honey-Bee, and the centre of Europe as the centre of its existence. An opposite opinion was held by Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeaut, who says, “A native mae se of Greece, and perhaps also of Anatolia, it has been transported over the whole of Europe, Northern Africa, &c.” Kadent thinks “that the native country of our Honey-Bees is to be sought under the hot zones, and that they have been in- troduced into Europe with some trouble ;” and the latest writer on Bees, Von Berlepsch, regards this opinion as firmly esta- blished, saying §, ‘ Our Bee is demonstrably indigenous in the hot southern countries of the Old World, where an almost per- petually serene sky enables it to bustle about in balmy airs through the whole year, with very little interruption. But at a very early period human civilization carried it into northern localities; and here, in consequence of the roughness and cold- ness of the climate, it is often compelled to remain for from three to six months in its dwelling,—contrary to its nature; for — that so long a period of confinement is contrary to the mode of life originally impressed upon the Bee, opposed to its innate nature, is at once shown by the fact that it has no winter-sleep, like other allied insects indigenous to this country.” The grounds of these various opinions are easily discovered. Latreille, regarding the different races of Bees as distinct spe- cies, was evidently of opinion that each of these supposed spe- cies was indigenous in the country where it occurred; and Brun, following Latreille in considering the African Bees (Apis fasciata, Latr., from Egypt, Apis Adansonii, Latr., from Senegal, &c.) as distinct from Apis mellifica, Limn., erroneously placed the southern limit of the latter on the north coast of Africa. Lepelletier’s opinion is evidently derived from the direction of European civilization; Kaden abstains from all evidence in sup- port of his similar view ; whilst Von Berlepsch endeavours to maintain it only by analogies which will not bear examination. Because the Wasps and Hornets, of which only females survive the winter, pass this season in a torpid state, there is no reason that Bees should do the same. The Bee must pass the winter in society, because the continuance of its existence depends upon this ; hence it is impelled to lay up a supply of food against this * Bienenzeitung, 1858, p. 37, + Hist. Nat. des Hyménoptéres, i. p. 401. Tt Bienenzeitung, 1857, p- 214. § Die Bienen und die Bienenzucht : Miihlhausen, 1860, p. 461. 272 = Dr. A. Gerstacker on the Geographical Distribution period, and is also endowed with the physical property of over- coming the cold by the close approximatien of numerous indivi- duals. What countries are particularly meant by Von Berlepsch under the term “hot southern lands of the Old World” does not appear: if Italy be one of them, we have the evidence of Pliny * that in his time the Bees of Italy were quite inactive for sixty days, that they became more lively after the rising of Arcturus, but still fed for some time on their stores. Even if the expression be intended to refer to the tropical regions of Africa, the activity of the Bees would even here be interrupted, or at least much hindered, for several weeks, by the rainy season, which occurs twice in the year; so that the difference between their existence in southern and northern latitudes would consist solely in the different duration of the interruption of their activity. That such climatal or local differences in the mode of life of one and the same species are not necessarily to be ascribed to its artificial dispersion. is shown by many insects of all orders. But although the long interruption to the activity of the Bees in northern regions can furnish no sufficient reason for their not being indigenous there, on the other hand it is difficult to prove that they existed among us before the spread of civilization, however probable this may be; at any rate, the expression that the Bee has “ demonstrably ” been introduced here is certainly not justified. The author considers that we are still to regard this question of the origin of the Honey-Bee as in a state of complete uncertainty. . The solution of this question must be effected, if effected at all, by the examination of historical data, coupled with the investigation of the geographical distribution of the different varieties of the Bee, the latter acquiring increased value when the historical investigation leads only to negative results. If we cannot prove historically the transportation of the Bee from one country to another, neither have we the least certainty that no such transportation took place; and we can by no means rest contented with the assumption that the ancients never thought of the transportation of such an animal as the Bee; for we know that honey and wax were, among the ancients, indispensable articles, and also that in Egypt, Attica, and Italy the hives were carried from place to place, with the view of increasing their weight. That the common Bee was the animal described by the Greek and Roman authors under the names of pédAvcoa and Apis cannot be doubted, as (with the exception of the Bombi) this is the only social honey-gathering Bee found in the parts of the Eastern hemisphere known to the ancients, the * Hist. Nat. lib. xi. cap. 15; see also lib. xi. cap. 5. and Varieties of the Honey-Bee. 2738 Bees found in Italy and Egypt, in Greece and Asia Minor, being specifically identical with the Apis mellifica. The intimate connexion of the Bee with the mythology of the ancients, and especially with that of the Greeks, furnishes a certain proof of the high value put upon this insect by them, and at the same time demonstrates that it must have existed amongst them from time immemorial. Of all those natural products which the Greeks represented their deities as making use of in Olympus, or regarded as direct presents from the deities to mankind, we may be sure that they were not intro- duced from without at any determinable historical period. The origin of the Bee is carried back by Nicander of Colophon to the age of Saturn, in which, as is well known, the earth ‘‘ flowed with milk and honey.” By others it is brought into immediate con- nexion with the youngest dynasty of deities, as especially in the narrative of Euhemerus of Alexandria, according to whom, at the birth of Jupiter, the Curetes performed an armed dance, by the noise of which the Bees produced on the Island of Ceos by the hornets and the sun were attracted into Crete, and induced to feed the new-born god with honey, which they collected as | the dew of heaven. In gratitude for this, according to Diodorus, Jupiter afterwards gave them a bronze or golden-bronze colour ; that is, he gave them the colour of the noblest metal. Ovid applies a somewhat similar myth to Bacchus*. _ Whatever value these myths may possess as historical docu- ments, the customs founded upon them and continued for cen- turies and perhaps thousands of years, and the representations (such as sculptures and coins) which have come down to us, may be taken as evidence of them. Thus we have, in historical times, the Nephalia, in which honey was offered as one of the costliest sacrifices ; and figures of the Bee occur upon the coins of several Greek cities, and, amongst others, upon those of the Island of Ceos. From Homer we learn that the Bee, by its production of honey, was closely connected with daily life from a period of high antiquity; and, from the fact that Homer enters into such full details upon everything which appears somewhat out of the ordinary way, we may be sure that he would not have referred to honey so briefiy as he does+, if both it and the insect producing it had not been of every-day occurrence, but intro- duced shortly before his time. Against such an introduction, which could only have taken place from Asia Minor or Egypt, we have also Cicero’s statement that, in the time of Xerxes, the Attic honey of Mount Hymettus was celebrated even in Asia; and Xenophon’s narrative} of the poisoning of his soldiers by * Fasti, lib. iii. vv. 739-744, T See Iliad, xi. vy. 630, } Anabasis, lib. iv. cap. 8. 274 Dr. A. Gerstiicker on the Geographical Distribution honey “at Trebizond, where the people also had many bee- hives,” seems to show that the Greek general was astonished at finding Bees kept. by the barbarians. The antiquity of the culture of the Bee amongst the Greeks is shown not only by the laws of Solon, but also by an indirect reference in Hesiod, who, in verses 594, 595 of his Theogony, speaks of the “evil-doers,” the drones, which the bees nourish in their “ well-covered baskets,” thus showing most clearly his acquaintance with the culture of the Bee. Passing to Egypt, it is very remarkable that the Bee was either altogether omitted from the animal-worship of that coun- try, or, at least, played a subordinate part in it. The Bee is not mentioned in Prichard’s ‘ Analysis of the Egyptian Mythology.’ Nevertheless some antiquaries, amongst others, Keferstein*, are of opinion that in the name Apis, given to the sacred Bull of the Egyptians, the sacredness of the Bee is indirectly indicated. However this may be, we know from the Old Testament that honey was used in the heathen sacrifices of Egypt—a custom which probably arose from the notion that it was necessary to offer to the sacred Bull what came from the Bull, it being a wide-spread superstition amongst the ancients that Bees were produced from the decomposing carcases of oxen. The domes- tication of the Honey-Bee in Egypt appears, at any rate, to be as old as this sacrifice of honey; so that its introduction into that country appears less probable than into Greece. The em- ployment of the Nile by the Egyptians for obtaining an abun- dant harvest, which extends, as regards corn, to the most ancient periods, must have led to a similar proceeding in connexion with the cultivation of Bees. De Maillet+ states, with regard to the latter, that Bees are very numerous in Egypt, and that a custom introduced by the ancients of sowing saintfoin as soon as the waters of the Nile leave the land uncovered, and sending the Bees from all parts of Egypt into Upper Egypt at the commence- ment of the season of flowering of the saintfoin, is still prac- tised. The hives are packed in a pyramidal form upon tor specially adapted for their reception ; in these they are conveyed up the river to the part where the flowers are earliest, and then gradually brought down the stream, stopping every two or three miles. As Greek civilization is generally supposed to have been influenced by the older civilization of Egypt, we may suppose that the custom prevalent in Attica in the time of Solon, of sending the Bees into favourable localities, was derived from Egypt; and upon this we may even found a second assumption, namely, that the Bees themselves may have been transported * Oken’s Isis, 1837, pp. 866 et seq. + Deser, de l’Egypte, ed. Le Mascrier: La Haye, 1740, p. 117. ae ee ee and Varieties of the Honey-Bee. 275 from Egypt into Greece in prehistoric times. These suppositions can neither be confirmed nor refuted absolutely ; but, mdepen- dently of the high antiquity of the Bee in Greece, the difference between the Egyptian and Greek races of Bees is such that the one could hardly have been derived from the other. Among the Romans, according to Magerstedt*, the business of Bee-keeping occurs only at a comparatively late period; so that those who maintain the gradual transmission of the Honey- Bee from the south and east might here assume a transportal from Greece. This supposition may be supported by the fact that the Roman poets, such as Ovid and Virgil, in their myths place the origin of the Honey-Bee, not in Italy, but in Greece, which it might be concluded would not have been the case if the Bee had existed as long in Italy as in Greece. But such a conclusion is not admissible; for, just as the worship of the Romans accommodated itself to Greek views, and, indeed, based itself upon the Greek worship, so the myths and poetry of the Romans approached most closely to those of the Greeks. Nor does the late occurrence of Bee-keeping among the Romans furnish any support to the introduction of the Bee from Greece; for the constant wars of the Romans must have kept back all civilization even in Italy itself. It is, however, possible that the ment of Bees, like many other occupations, may have been taught to the Romans by the Greeks, and perhaps prac- tised chiefly by the latter. If, as Magerstedt’s investigations prove, there was no Bee-keeping in Italy before the end of the second Punic war, and its considerable extension only dates from the time of Varro (B.c. 116), it seems very probable that it was introduced amongst the Romans by the Greeks, as the subjugation of Greece occurred between these two dates. In favour of this is Pliny’s statement (lib. xi. cap. 9) that two Greeks, Aristomachus Solensis and Philiscus Thasius, busied themselves for a long time with observations upon Bees, and that the former did nothing for fifty-eight years but manage Bees. The occurrence of Bees simultaneously in the South of Europe, Western Asia, and Egypt may not appear improbable to those who are inclined to ascribe to the Bee a southern origin. The comparatively slight diversity of climate in the above-mentioned countries certainly renders possible its original existence in all of them ; and the opinions of authors differ essentially only on the one point, whether the Bee is indigenous to northern Jati- tudes, or has been acclimatized under them. This question can- not be historically decided with absolute certainty ; but it would ‘ae Bienenzucht der Vélker des Alterthums, insbesondere der Romer : 276 Dr. A. Gerstiacker on the Geographical Distribution almost appear that the Bee existed in Northern Germany either originally or at least before any known diréct intercourse of that region with Rome. Unfortunately, nothing is to be learnt upon this subject from Cesar or Tacitus ; but honey is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus*, a contemporary of Cesar and Augustus, as being employed among the Gauls in the preparation of a beverage. Shortly after the time of Diodorus, we find in Pliny statements which, as they indicate with some degree of certainty the existence of wild Bees in Germany, are of more consequence in the present investigation. Pliny mentions} a swarm of Bees which settled in the camp of Drusus just before the successful battle near Arbalo; and in another place {, when speaking of the goodness of honey from different districts, he describes a remarkably large honeycomb from Germany, which was 8 feet in length. That the Bees producing this swarm and honeycomb could have been introduced by the Romans is negatived by the shortness of the time elapsed since their access to Germany, and still more by the habits of the Romans themselves ; nor is any such introduction of Bees mentioned by Pliny, whilst his statements and those of Diodorus involuntarily show that the Romans, on their first acquaintance with Gaul and Germany, found the Bee already there. From the statements of Pytheas, quoted by Strabo§, indeed, it would appear that honey was known in Northern Germany (Thule) at a much earlier period, namely, in the time of Alexander the Great (s.c. 800). The position of Thule is doubtful; but Pytheas probably derived his information from merchants of Marseilles, who visited the shores of the Baltic in search of amber. The introduction of the Bee into these northern regions by voyagers, whether Phoenician or Massilian, although not impossible, is very improbable, from the character of those people and the difficulty of transport. Hence, weighing all the historical evidence, it seems more probable that the Bee is indigenous in Germany than that it has been intro- duced by civilization ; and this view is supported by a still more important circumstance, namely, the difference of our northern race of Bees from those of the southern and south-eastern parts of Europe and the bordering parts of Asia and Africa. Since the introduction of the Italian Bee into Germany, it has been sufficiently proved that, when it does not mix with the dark- coloured northern Bees, it remains perfectly constant in its cha- racters: consequently it would be quite impossible that, even after the lapse of many years, the unicolorous northern Bee should have been developed from the variegated Italian form. * Bibliothecee Historic lib. v. cap. 26. + Lib. xi, cap. 18. { Lib, xi. cap. 14. § Rerum Geographicarum lib. iv. § 5. and Varieties of the Honey-Bee. 277 The necessity of such a development cannot be denied if the Bee was introduced, in accordance with the spread of civilization, into Germany from Italy. It is true that the dark-coloured German form of Bee occurs in some parts of Italy, especially on the east coast of central Italy opposite to Dalmatia; but as these Bees are far less widely distributed in Italy, and even in ancient times were much less valued than the variegated Bees, and as the latter, being diffused over Liguria and Lombardy, would have been most likely to be transported into Germany, there seems to be the very smallest amount of probability that the dark yariety which occurs only sporadically in Italy should have been selected for transmission. The remarkable circumstance that, before the introduction of the variegated Italian race into North Germany, the two races were in contact in the region of the Alps, may furnish the best proof against the derivation of the dark from the light variety. Almost every- where in Southern Europe, the Bees either (as in the south of Spain) exhibit a nearly complete agreement in colour with the German form or (as in Dalmatia, Greece, and Asia Minor) the most gradual transitions from the German to the Italian race ; on the other hand, exactly where a transference might most readily be supposed, the differences of colour are most distinctly pre- served. Hence the introduction of the Bee into Germany might rather be supposed to have taken place from Greece or the south of Spain than from Italy; but we have no proof of any traffic between those countries in ancient times. Amongst the reasons which might be adduced in favour of the opinion that the Bee is not indigenous in Northern Europe, but introduced from the south, the first to be noticed is the great power of adaptation to external circumstances exhibited by the Honey-Bee where it is known to have been introduced, as in America, which renders the possibility of its southern origin and northern acclimatization indisputable ; and had the Bee confined itself within the limits of the warmer parts of America, this would have been evidence in favour of that view. But, from the state- ments of Barton, Josselyn, and others, it appears that the parts of America which have proved most favourable to the spread of the Bee, and in which it has even become wild, are those under the same isothermal lines as Northern Europe (Germany and Sweden), namely, the central and northern States, up to 47° N. lat., showing that it cannot be regarded as peculiarly a native of the south. — As a second reason for the southern origin of our Bees, it may be said that, in our northern regions, they are rarely, and in many places never, met with in a wild state, whilst this is com- monly the case in Southern Europe and also in Asia and Africa. 278 Dr. A. Gerstiicker on the Geographical Distribution This argument would be of force if our northern countries were still in the same condition of cultivation as the more southern parts of the Continent ; and we know from the Roman authors that, in ancient times, wild Bees occurred in the forests of Ger- many. As late as the year 1783, according to Kriinitz*, the pursuit of the wild Bees was still followed in Neumark, Pome- rania, Prussia, Lithuania, Courland, Livonia, Poland, &c., evi- dently because favourable localities still existed in those coun- tries. If it be urged that, notwithstanding the change produced by cultivation, the Bees, if really indigenous to the north, might still easily, like the Humble Bees and Wasps, find a sufficiency of suitable localities for their hives, as well as of nourishment, it may be replied, in the first place, that they do become wild, although not frequently, under favourable circumstances ; and in the second, that they are with us far more completely domes- ‘ticated than in southern regions. Hence there seems to be no evidence, either historical or from the present distribution of the varieties of Bees in the temperate parts of Europe, in favour of their introduction into the latter from warmer regions. The author next proceeds to the investigation of the geogra- phical distribution of the Honey-Bee beyond the boundaries of Europe. From the want of special knowledge on the part of travellers, it is often impossible to determine from their writings whether, in mentioning Bees, our Honey-Bee is intended; so that an examination of specimens frequently becomes necessary. It appears that our Honey-Bee does not occur, or, at least, has not been discovered as yet, in India and the Sunda Islands, but that over the whole of the rest of Asia, from the coast of Asia Minor to China, no other species except the Apis mellifica is found. The Honey-Bees mentioned in books of travels in India, Ceylon, &c., belong to species differing from the European Bee. In Africa, on the contrary, Apis mellifica occurs in all parts, but no other species which can be confounded with it ; a few small black species of Melipona from the Guinea coast, which also collect honey, differ so much from our Bee, both in size and colour, that an uninformed traveller would hardly regard them as Bees at all. For the full elucidation of the geographical distribution of the Honey-Bee in Asia the materials are but scanty. According to Loew’s personal observations, the Bee is everywhere domesti- cated, and at the same time very frequently found wild in trees, on the islands and continent of Asia Minor. Hight workers col- lected by him in Rhodes, and one from Ephesus, exhibit various * Oekonomische Encyklopiidie, 4. Theil, p. 418. ae ae eS ee ee a yh ee ee ese Te ee ee et he EN ee ee mn eee we and Varieties of the Honey-Bee. 279 colorations, directly uniting our northern Bee with the Italian race, and partly even show (by the pale scutellum) a tendency towards the Egyptian race. Of two specimens collected by Thirk, near Brussa in Asia Minor, one is dark-coloured and ap- proaches the Greek form; the other, again, which is consider- ably smaller and lighter in colour, resembles the Egyptian ; and it is evidently to Bees resembling this that the statement of Aristotle (Hist. Anim. v. 19) refers: ‘ In Pontus there are very light-coloured Bees, which make honey twice in the month.” This statement is repeated in nearly the same words by Pliny (Hist. Nat. xi. cap. 19). With the last-mentioned specimen, one collected by Pallas in the Caucasus also agrees. The occurrence of the Honey-Bee in Arabia and Syria is proved by five specimens collected in Syria and one in Arabia Felix by Ehrenberg; the latter agrees exactly with the Egyptian form ; and the others approach it very nearly, only differing in being a little larger. The Bee described by Brun (Bienenzeitung, 1858, p. 38) as occurring domesticated im Circassia and Persia is probably identical with ours, although, from want of speci- mens, this cannot be stated with certainty, as the light-coloured race of Bees occurs under a corresponding degree of latitude, but much further to the east, namely on the Himalaya; this is proved by a specimen taken there by Hoffmeister, which in all essential characters with those from Syria. Lastly, the extension of the Honey-Bee to the coasts of the Pacific is proved by a specimen from China, which cannot be distinguished from the Egyptian form except by the dark colour of all the hair on the vertex. This is the Apis cerana, Fabr. With regard to the northern extension of the Honey-Bee in Asia, the author cites an oral statement of Ehrenberg’s, that, during his journey through Siberia, he found Bees kept in hives near Riddersk, in the Altai Mountains, lat. 51° N., long. 86° E. The northern limit is still to be ascertained: it seems probable that the Bee does not exist in the high northern latitudes of Siberia, as it is not mentioned in Erichson’s catalogue of the Hymenoptera collected by Middendorf on the Boganida*. Admitting the difficulty of determining on historical grounds whether the Honey-Bee is’ indigenous in those parts of Asia where it is found, or whether it has been introduced from the west, the author indicates that the forms of Bees there oc- curring do not, at least, contradict the notion that they may have been artificially dispersed. With the exception of Asia Minor, where the Bees are evidently of a mixed race, we find, over an extent of more than five thousand miles from west to * Reise in den dussersten Norden und Osten Sibiriens, Zoologie, i, pp- 60 et seq. 280 Dr. A. Gersticker on the Geographical Distribution east, only one and the same form of Bee, showing in particular places only extremely slight and probably accidental variations, and resembling the Egyptian form so closely that it may without difficulty be regarded as originating therefrom. Nevertheless this resemblance does not necessarily indicate genealogical affi- nity, as many other European insects (and, indeed, many Mam- malia and birds) occur with a remarkably wide geographical range in Asia. In Africa very different conditions prevail with regard to the races of Bees. Some districts lying under nearly the same lati- tudes exhibit very different forms; whilst, on the other hand, different varieties as to colour occur intermixed in the same lo- calities. Thus in Algiers and Tangier, situated only about three hundred miles to the north of Egypt, there occurs a Bee perfectly identical in colour, hair, and size with that inhabiting North Germany; whilst in Egypt the form which is most distinguished from all others (Apis fasciata, Latr.) by its smaller size and light colour occurs, and apparently remains very con- stant in its characters. A form agreeing with the Egyptian in size and body-colouring, but differing in its darker hair, appears to be spread over the greater part of Central and Southern Africa, extending on the east coast from Abyssinia, through Mozambique and Caffraria, to the Cape of Good Hope, and oc- curring also on the west coast at the Senegal (Apis Adansonii, Lat.). It is very remarkable that at the Cape, together with this variegated form, all transitions to a nearly uniform dark one occur: the latter differ from the North German Bees only in smaller size—a peculiarity appertaining more or less to all the African Bees, with the exception of the Algerian. This uniformly dark form also occurs in Guinea together with a variety with light colour only on the anterior third of the abdo- men, described by Lepelletier as Apis nigritarum, and, lastly, in the Mauritius and Madagascar, where, according to Latreille, it is constant in its dark colour (Apis unicolor, Lat.). With regard to the diffusion of the Honey-Bee in Africa, the author cites the following statements from the writings of va- rious travellers. In Algiers, according to Lucas*, the form agreeing with the northern one is everywhere abundantly dis- tributed ; it is kept in hives by the natives, and especially by the Kabyles. With respect to Egypt, the statement of De Maillet has been already quoted (p. 274) with regard to the sending the hives on boats along the Nile in search of a good store of nourishment. Niebuhr describes the proceedings of the Egyp- tian bee-keepers in precisely similar terms ; whilst neither Ehren- berg nor Dr. Hartmann saw anything of the kind during their * Explor. Scient. de Algérie, Zool. iii. p. 141. -_ and Varieties of the Honey-Bee. 281 travels in Egypt. The two latter agree in stating that in the countries situated to the south of Egypt, namely Nubia, Abys- sinia, Sennaar, and Dongola, the keeping of Bees is certainly not extensively carried on, but that the honey and wax are taken when wanted from the wild Bees which build everywhere in abundance in clefts of rocks and hollow trees. On the other hand, Barth* mentions that he repeatedly met at least with a wild-bee keeping in the districts of Africa traversed by him. The first passage, relating to the neighbourhood of Kussada (between 12° and 13° N. lat., long. 8° E.), runs as follows :— “Vast Adansonie rose on every side with their immense naked branches, and also gave evidence of the industry of the inha- bitants; for beehives, consisting of hollowed branches, were fixed in the summits of the Kuka. For bee-keeping this region appeared to be peculiarly adapted; for the pasture-ground, spreading far around, was adorned with sweet-smelling shrubs, which furnished nourishing food for the industrious Bees.” In the second passage, describing the Mussgu-lands lying south- west of Lake Tchad, Barth mentions the same practice as pre- vailing in that district. Our information upon the occurrence of the Bee upon the west coast of Africa relates chiefly to Sene- gambia. Webb and Berthelot, indeed, mention the Honey-Bee as inhabiting the Canary Islands}; and as they call it Apis mellifica, without any further statement, ‘it may be concluded that it agrees with the northern variety. Of the light-coloured variety found in Senegambia, which he regarded as a distinct species, named Apis Adansonii, Tatreille says :—‘ Adanson found this insect on the Senegal, in the trunks of trees;” and Adanson himself (Voyage au Sénégal) reports as follows upon it:—“In the neighbourhood of Podor, I fully expected, every day about noon, to be visited by one, two, or more swarms of Bees, which made their way into the cabin and compelled me to leave the ship. This occurred from October to December at Podor ; probably in these three months the Bees quit the old hives in order to construct new ones: hives are then found of great size. Once I saw the roof of a negro hut, measuring six- teen square feet, which was entirely covered more than four fingers thick with inhabited combs. This is, it seems to me, a sufficient proof of the incredible quantity of such insects in this country. They build everywhere, but chiefly in the hollow trunks of old trees. This year they had built three large hives in our dwelling at Podor—one between the window-shutter and * Reisen und Entdeckungen in Nord- und Central-Afrika, ii. p. 105, and iii. p. 214. T Hist. Nat. des fles Canaries, ii. 2; Entom. p. $4. Ann. § Mag. N, Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xi. id 282 Dr. A. Gerstiicker on the Honey-Bee. the window, and two upon the flat floors of small closets.” Adanson adds that the honey of these Bees is peculiar, being always fluid, and resembling a brown syrup. Olivier * gives, from the MS. notes of Geoffroy de Villeneuve, son of the author of the ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Insectes de Paris,’ the following account of the Bees of Senegambia. In descending from Guisguis, according to that traveller, numerous trees are seen bearing beehives, which are well made with straw, and have only a very small opening. The negroes of this dis- trict collect the honey twice in the year. The first harvest is about the end of May, and is the richest ; the second takes place at the beginning of December. The occurrence of the Honey-Bee in the interior of South Africa is proved by Andersson and Livingstone. The former says t—“ Wild Bees very frequently build their nests in the gigantic edifices of the White Ants; in many years they are very numerous. The temper of these insects seems to be un- usually peaceable and patient; for I have never observed that the people, when robbing their nests, were stung by them. These nests are usually smoked first of all; but I have often convinced myself that the naked savages approach them without fear, and remove them without any precautions.” Livingstone’s account runs as follows :— Bee-keeping is practised in Londa; bee- hives are there found set upon trees in the most solitary woods. We often met waggons with large pieces of wax weighing from 80 to 100 pounds, and in every village such were offered to us for sale; but here (namely, on the Zambesi, 16° S. lat.) we never saw even a single beehive; the Bees were met with every- where in natural cavities in the Mopané-trees. In many parts of the Batoka country, Bees exist in great abundance; and Sekeletu’s tribute was often paid in large vessels of honey. I also saw a little wax in Quillimane, which was brought by the natives of this district.” The latter place is situated in Mozambique, which has already been indicated by the author as inhabited by Bees, from some specimens obtained there by Peters$. At the Oupe of Good Hope “our Honey-Bee” was observed by Frauenfeld (Verhandl. der Zool.-bot. Gesellsch. zu Wien, 1860, p. 85); and there is no doubt that it is this species which is referred to in the following statement of Lichtenstein’s, although he regards the Bee men- tioned by him as belonging to a distinct species. He says— * Enc. Méth., Insectes i., art. Abeille, p. 49. + Lake N’Gami, or Explorations and Discoveries, &c., p. 132. { Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, p. 614. § Peters, Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique, Zoologie, V., Insecten, p. 439, Dr. A. Giinther on some Species of Tree-Snakes. 288 ‘A peculiar species of Bee which inhabits these heights [near Lange Kloof] prepares the most beautiful honey from the flowers of the Brunia, and stores it in hollow trunks of trees and the clefts of the rocks. The honey is perfectly white ; and the waxen cells are so thin that during their collection they melt up with the honey, which may then be conveniently poured into a bottle. Its taste is so fine that I cannot imagine that of Hymettus to have been better. It is often collected and used instead of sugar by the colonists of Lange Kloof”*. Lastly, with regard to the dark Bee occurring in the eastern islands of Africa, namely Madagascar and the Mauritius, Latreille, who describes it as A. unicolor, speaks as follows + :—‘ The honey of this species has a greenish tinge when it is contained in the combs; its colour and excellence depend upon the diversity of the plants of those regions, and upon the temperature. The inhabitants of Mada- gascar have understood how to avail themselves of the industry of these insects; for we possess a memoir by M. dela Nux upon the form of the beehives which are in use there.” Lepelletier’s statement (Hist. Nat. Hyménoptéres, i. p. 403), that this Bee has been introduced into the Mauritius, is contradicted by — Grant’s assertion (Hist. of Mauritius, 1801, p. 67), that the Mauritian Bee, which produces very fine honey, is indigenous to the island. [To be continued. } XXXII.— On some Species of Tree-Snakes (Ahztulla). By Dr. Atbert GUNTHER. A. The Subgeneric Division PuitotHaMnvs, A. Smith. Tue whole of Tropical Africa is inhabited by a group of Tree- Snakes which are distinguished by a habit which is not exces- sively slender ; by a normally shaped head; by smooth scales; by posterior longer teeth, not separated from the others by an in- terval, and not grooved ; by a round pupil of the eye; and by a green coloration, almost always varied by the black skin be- tween the scales, and by white dots placed at the base of each scale. Species of this group have been named by Sir Andrew Smith Philothamnus, and three different kinds were distinguished by him—Ph. semivariegatus, Ph. albovariatus, Ph. natalensis. There can be no doubt that the second of these species is iden- tical with Dendrophis Chenonii, Reinhardt, or with Coluber irre- gularis, Leach, of which we have the typical specimens. At a later period, a similar Snake was described by Hallowell as Chlorophis heterodermus. * Reisen in siidlichen Afrika in den Jahren 1803 bis 1806, 1. Band, p. 355, + Annales du Muséum, v. p. 168. 19% 284 Dr. A. Giinther on some Species of Tree-Snakes. The species named were evidently most closely allied to one mother, and from the descriptions and figures alone it was almost impossible to find out which of the differences were of a really specific value ; hence, although, in the ‘ Catalogue of Colubrine Snakes’ (p. 152), I could not hesitate to refer Ph. al- bovariatus to its proper place as a synonym of A. irregularis, I withheld my opinion as to Ph. semivariegatus and Chlorophis heterodermus, of which I had seen no specimens, mistaking altogether the Ph. natalensis, which I have since recognized. M. A. Duméril was in a still more difficult position than myself when he published his paper, “ Reptiles et Poissons de Afrique Occidentale” (Archiv. Mus. t. x.), having for exami- nation only the A. irregularis in the collection of the Paris Museum. Therefore we can hardly be surprised to find that, in his opinion, the three species of Smith would be distinct from A. irregularis, whilst Chlorophis heterodermus would be only a synonym. In order to terminate this state of uncertainty, the attention of travellers and collectors has been directed to these Snakes ; and having brought together nearly 100 specimens, with the localities whence they were obtained well marked, I have come to the following conclusions :— 1. Coluber irregularis, Dendrophis Chenonii, and Philothamnus albovariatus are synonyms of the same species, which is the most common of all. 2. Philothamnus semivariegatus, Ph. natalensis, and Chlo- rophis heterodermus are distinct species. 3. Ahetulla hoplogaster and A. heterolepidota are two new species. 4, All these species are distinguished from one another by at least two characters, which are constantly combined with each other; the number and shape of the temporal shields is subject to some variation, not only within the limits of the same apnea but also on the two sides of the same individual. Synopsis of the Species. I. Ventral shields laterally keeled. A. Upper labials nine, three entering the orbit. a. Anal bifid; ventral shields 164-177.... A. irregularis. b. Anal entire; ventral shields 150- 157. . A. heteroderma. c. Ventral shields 207; trunk with black cross-bands anteriorly........+++00+ A, semivariegata. B. Upper labials eight (seven). a. Two labials enter the orbit; ventral RUIN yD LOWS is sha ein Sines wipcaiees 4 A. natalensis. b. Three labials enter the orbit; ventral WUPMME OS o 5s 86 wavs sve ck o's v5 oss A, heterolepidota. II. Ventral shields without a touke of lateral keels. PGC DPNG YS Cars 6 cen Meee Fee eh CC eehied A, hoplogaster. Dr. A. Giinther on some Species of Tree-Snakes. 285 Ahetulla irregularis. Coluber irregularis, Leach, in Bowdich, Ashantee, App. p. 494. Dendrophis Chenonii, Reinh., in Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Afh. x. 1843, p. 246, tab. 1. fig. 13, 14. Dendrophis (Philothamnus) albovariata, Smith, Illustr. Zool. South Afr., Rept. pl. 65, and pl. 64. fig. 3. Ventral shields with lateral keels ; upper labials nine, three of which enter the orbit; temporal shields generally 1+2; frequently one or two are broken up into two, or the two hinder ones are united ; in this case the temporal shields are generally not symmetrical on both sides. Anal bifid; ventral shields 164-167; subcaudals 108-126. Scales smooth, in fifteen rows, apparently with one apical groove. Teeth longest behind, in a continuous series. Green, skin between the scales black, each scale with a white spot on the basal half of its outer margin. Western coasts of Africa (Fantee, Gambia, MacCarthie Island) ; Cape Colony. Two young specimens, which we refer to this species, were sent by Consul J. Petherick from Central Africa, 500 miles south of Chartoum. Ahetulla heteroderma. Chlorophis heterodermus, Hallowell, Proc. Ac. Nat. Se. Philad. 1857, p. 52; Cope, ibid. 1860, p. 559. Ventral shields with lateral keels ; upper labials nine, three of which enter the orbit; temporal shields 2+2+2. Anal entire; ventral shields 150-157, subcaudals 83-92. Scales smooth, in fifteen rows, some with two apical grooves. Teeth longest behind, in a continuous series. Green, skin between the scales black ; each scale with a white spot on the basal half of its outer margin. We have received several specimens of this Snake from the Gold-coast. Ahetulla semivariegata. Dendrophis (Philothamnus)’semivariegata, Smith, Illustr. Zool. South Afr. pl. 59, 60, and pl. 64. fig. 1. Ventral shields with lateral keels; upper labials nine, three of which enter the orbit ; temporal shields in two rather irregular longitudinal series. Ventral shields 207 ; subcaudals 112. Scales smooth, in fifteen rows. Green anteriorly, yellowish posteriorly ; anterior part of the trunk with irregular, narrow, black trans- yerse bars. Cape Colony (Bushman Flat). Aheitulla natalensis. page (Philothamnus) natalensis, Smith, Ilustr. Zool. South Africa, pi- . Ventral shields with lateral keels; upper labials eight*, the * Eight specimens, examined by myself, have eight upper labials ; and 286. Dr. A. Giinther on some Species of Tree-Snakes.. fourth and fifth entering the orbit ; temporal shields 2+2+42; two are sometimes united into one. Anal bifid; ventral shields 151-168 ; subcaudals 114-126. Scales smooth, in fifteen rows, without apical groove. Teeth longest behind, in a continuous series. Green, skin between the scales black, each scale with a white spot on the basal half of its outer margin. Port Natal, and probably Cape Colony. Ahetulla heterolepidota. Ventral shields with very faint lateral keels; upper labials seven or eight, the third, fourth, and fifth, or the fourth, fifth, and sixth, entering the orbit ; one anteocular, two postoculars ; six of the lower labials are in contact with the chin-shields ; temporal shields 1+1. Ventral shields 187; anal bifid; sub- caudals 125. The scales are smooth, without groove, and with minute longitudinal striz (these striz are lost when the epi- dermis has gone off) ; they are arranged in fifteen series in the anterior half of the trunk, and in eleven in the posterior. The posterior maxillary teeth longest, in a subcontinuous series with the others. Head small; neck very slender; body and tail slender. Uniform greenish-olive. A single specimen, marked “ Africa,” has been purchased ; it is 26 inches long, the head measuring 3 in., the tail 83 in. Ahetulla hoplogaster. Ventral shields without any trace of lateral keels; upper labials eight, the fourth and fifth entering the orbit; one ante- ocular, two postoculars; six of the lower labials are in contact with the chin-shields; temporal shields 1+1. Ventral shields 150-156; anal bifid; subcaudals 94-105. The scales are smooth, without groove, arranged in fifteen series anteriorly, and in eleven posteriorly. The posterior maxillary teeth longest, in a continuous series with the others, Head rather small, body and tail moderately slender. Green, skin between the seales black, each scale with a white spot on the basal half of its outer margin. This Snake appears to be more common at Port Natal than A. natalensis. An adult specimen is 26 inches long, the head measuring 8 in., the tail 9 in. B. On a new South American Species of Ahztulla. Ahetulla nitida, Scales in fifteen rows, smooth, minutely striated, without this also is the number shown in the figure of the entire Snake contained in Sir A. Smith’s work. On the same plate, however, a separate drawing is given of the same specimen, showing nine opp labials: we cannot help thinking that this was an accidental variation of the normal number, that specimen having had eignt labials on one side, and nine on the other. - Dr. G. C. Wallich on an undescribed Form of Amceba. 287 apical groove. Head small, depressed, with the snout of mode- rate length, subtruncated in front ; rostral shield rather broader than high; loreal not quite twice as long as high; preorbital reaching to, or nearly reaching to, the vertical; two post- orbitals; nine upper labials, the fourth, fifth, and sixth of which enter the orbit; temporals 1+2+2; occipitals rounded, each with a larger rounded scale behind; six lower labials are in contact with the chin-shields. Eye rather large, with round pupil. Body very slender, compressed ; tail very long, angular. Ventral shields 165, angularly bent on each side, the central portion being not much broader than long; anal bifid; sub- caudals 153, The posterior maxillary tooth is the longest, not grooved, and is separated from the others by a short interspace, Above uniform metallic brownish-green, below greenish ; scales on the back narrowly edged with black ; one of the specimens has blackish dots on the crown of the head. No band either on the side of the head or of the body. This species would enter the subgenus Uromacer of Duméril and Bibron. The British Museum possesses two examples of this species, one from Demerara ; the origin of the other is not known. The - latter is 32 inches long, the head measuring 7 lines, and the tail 133 inches. XXXIII.—On an undescribed Indigenous Form of Ameeba. By G. C. Watticn, M.D., F.LS., &e. &e. [Plate VIII.] Tue occurrence of an undescribed variety of Ameba in the immediate vicinity of the metropolis is of interest both on its own account and from the indication it affords that the study of our indigenous Rhizopodal fauna is still unexhausted. - The variety in question was recently obtained, in considerable abundance, from the ponds on Hampstead Heath; and inasmuch as every specimen examined by me has presented the very singular cha- racters to which I am now about to draw attention, there is every reason to believe that these are normal, although perhaps not permanent in their nature. According to the descriptions of the commoner forms—as, for example, A. princeps, A. diffluens, or A. radiosa*—it would ap- that the sarcode substance is uniformly differentiated into “ endosare” and “‘ectosarc.” In other words, setting aside the elementary organs which may be said to be shadowed forth by the contractile vesicle, the nucleus, and the protoplasmic granular * It will, I think, eventually be found that all these are mere transitory phases of one and the same species, 288. Dr. G. C. Wallich on an undescribed . bodies, neither the outer layer of sarcode, nor the more viscid mass within, is endowed with a more advanced degree of developnient at one point than at another. And, in addition to this, the creature possesses the power of moving with equal facility in every direction, by means of pseudopodia projected indiscriminately from any portion of its surface. In the variety under notice (see Plate VIII.) this is not the case, inasmuch as one portion of the ectosarc exhibits a structure differing permanently from the remainder—being densely studded with minute papille which, in the quiescent state of the creature, are of nearly uniform aspect and size, and cause the surface upon which they occur to resemble the villous structure of mucous membrane in outward appearance. When the animal moves, these papill or villi vary in length, and now and then several coalesce so as to form processes more nearly approaching the ordinary pseudopodial character, although still of minute proportions. The villous patch, which occupies probably from soth to 75th of the entire superficies, appears frequently to be employed as a prehensile organ, the creature being enabled through its agency to secure for itself a continuous point @apput from which the rest of the body is pushed or flows onwards, almost invariably in an opposite direction to that in which the villous patch is itself situated. The true pseudopodia would seem never to be projected from this area; but should a retro- grade movement be about to take place, they are either thrown out from the adjacent portion of the ectosare, or the main mass of the organism flows altogether in a backward course, the villous patch remaining fixed until it once more assumes its position at the posterior part of the advancing mass. So powerful is the prehensile power referred to, that some of the papillze at times become stretched beyond their endurance and are torn asunder ; minute shreds being left adherent to the foreign bodies in the neighbourhood. Should the animal be subjected to pressure between the slide and glass cover, the | papille may occasionally be seen to adhere to the polished sur- faces, some relaxing their hold and taking up a position in advance, whilst those described as being stretched till they detach or break asunder are, in turn, moved onwards until they once more secure an attachment for themselves. On the other hand, the pseudopodial processes and the rest of the ectosare generally seem to exercise no prehensile power. In the one case the marginal layer is broken up into a delicate villous coat, the hyaline transparency of which is destroyed and replaced by a pale cream-coloured opacity ; in the other it is perfectly hyaline, clearly defined, and unbroken. I have only in a yery few instances been enabled to trace an influx of granu- Indigenous Form ef Amceba. 289 lar particles of endosare within such of the coalesced villi as, from their size, rendered observation practicable. As a general rule, the contractile vesicle and nucleus maintain a position close to the villous patch, even whilst the animal is moving—the former organ being in close proximity to it, and sometimes appearing to discharge itself, by the usual systolic action, at a spot within the villous surface. But now and then. both nucleus and contractile vesicle move slowly round with the mass of circulating particles. The villous area, however, retains its position in relation to the rest of the body. In some specimens the contractile vesicle presents an appear- ance of the most delicate reticulation, resembling that described as occurring on the external surface of Actinophrys, and depending probably on a similar cause, namely, the occurrence of a number of minute vacuoles. The contractile vesicles occasionally sub- divide into several smaller cavities, as constantly happens in other forms ; and these either coalesce prior to collapse, or they collapse separately. But no sinuses of the kind described by Carter in Paramecium aurelia and other Infusoria are discernible. Vacuoles are frequent, and in some cases of sufficient size to contain large diatoms. The nucleus consists of a pale grey-coloured spherical mass of granules, towards the centre of which may occasionally be de- tected a minute clear nucleolus. It is contained within a hya- line and somewhat elongated vesicular cavity, but never oc- cupies the entire area of the latter. Dilute alkaline and acid solutions cause the body at once to assume a more or less spherical shape, and the granular contents to close up into a central mass, leaving a broad hyaline border around the entire surface, as described by Auerbach in Ame@ba bilimbosa. But these reagents fail to render apparent anything like the double outline, indicative of a definite membranous envelope, alluded to by that author. It is worthy of note, however, that, under imperfect adjustment of focus or want of due care in illumination, the semblance of a double outline can be evoked. Some of the specimens of the Hampstead Ameba are of extra- ordinary dimensions, the largest attaming a diameter of no less than =;th of an inch. The villi, in their quiescent state, seem to be about ;~+,,th of an inch in average length. In a solitary example, the villous patch constituted a nearly circular brush-like tuft at the extremity of a cylindrical pedicle of hyaline sarcode; and at its centre was a minute vacuole- like space. I kept my eye on this specimen for nearly a quarter of an hour without perceiving this structure alter in anywise,— the prehensile power of the villi seeming to be either suspended 290. Dr. G.C. Wallich on an undescribed Form of Amceba. or destroyed, and both brush-like tuft and pedicle being dragged behind the Ameba during the entire period. Unfor- tunately the drying-up of the water on the slide put a stop to my observation at this point. With regard to the specific value of the characters of this form, I think it unadvisable at present to express a decided opinion. Several circumstances render it probable that it may be a transient phase in the life-history of the common Ameba. Amongst the principal of these I may mention having detected traces of a like villous structure in specimens obtained from other localities. But, whether the Hampstead form even- tually proves to be a distinct permanent type or otherwise, the characters referred to are of high interest as evincing a nearer approach, than any heretofore noted amongst the Rhizopods, to the structure of the ciliary legs of certain Infusoria, as, for example, of Plesconia or Kerona*. They also tend to confirm the view put forward by MM. Claparéde and Lachmann with reference to the “ reptant”’ nature of the motion of Ameba, and the consequent suggestion of Dr. Carpenter regarding the pro- bable differentiation of the ectosarc into a ventral and dorsal portion. According to present experience, “ reptation ” takes place in forms endowed with this more highly developed state of a portion of the ectosarc, whilst the motion is of a simple “rolling” or flowing kind in those forms in which the ectosare is uniformly developed at all points. The Hampstead form corresponds in every important parti- cular with one found by me in Lower Bengal in 1856, in which the villous portion of the ectosare constitutes a means of permanent attachment to foreign bodies such as Conferve or the like; and the animal appears to be normally sessile in its habitst. In conclusion, I may mention that a week has passed since the supply of these Amebe was obtained at Hampstead, and that they retain the characters above described in an unim~- paired degree to the hour at which I write. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIIL. [Figures 1 to 5 magnified about 400 diameters. | Fig. 1. Ameba in quiescent or nearly quiescent state: a, villous patch ; n, nucleus; c, contractile vesicle; v, vacuoles. * See Carter’s observations on these forms in the ‘Annals and Maga- zine of Natural History, 3rd series, vol. iii. p. 241 et seq. _ + This variety is figured in Part I. of my ‘North Atlantic Sea-Bed,’ pl. 4. figs. 13 & 14. { Each letter applies to the same portions of the structure in the several figures. The arrows indicate the direction in which the animal is supposed to be advancing. Peay a Bibliographical Notices. 291 Fig. 2. Showing the appearance of the Ameba when moving slowly, the : villi being employed as organs of prehension. Fig. 3. The same, when advancing energetically, the villous patch being aggregated into a subspherical tuft, and the contractile vesicle and nucleus now sharing in the general protoplasmic circulation. Fig. 4. A specimen with two large Pinnularie in its interior, the upper of the two frustules being enclosed within a large vacuole. Fig. 5, A specimen in which the villous patch has assumed a brush-like shape, and is supported on an elongated pedicle of sarcode ; 5 2, an enlarged view of this tuft and its re pgp. | pedicle. Fig. 6. Enlarged view of granular nucleus, nucleolus, and the nuclear vesicle or cavity. Fig. 7. Contractile vesicle, showing appearance of reticulation. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. The Land and Freshwater Mollusks indigenous to, or naturalized _in, the British Isles. By Lovet. Reeve, F.L.S. Reeve & Co., 1863. On y a few months have elapsed since we had occasion to notice the publication of the first volume of a new work by Mr. Jeffreys, on British Conchology, which treats of the Inland Mollusca; and already - another handbook on the same subject lies upon our table. The valuable illustrated works on ‘Conchology’ by Mr. Reeve are well known, and more especially his splendid ‘ Conchologia Iconica ;” but, until we read the announcement of the intended publication of the work which we are about to review, we were not aware that the author had paid any special attention to the Mollusca of our Islands. We cannot therefore expect to find in-this volume the same mass of interesting detail which long years of patient and special study have enabled Mr. Jeffreys to condense in the pages of ‘ British Concho- logy.’ On the other hand, however, ‘The Land and Freshwater Mollusks’ is more fully illustrated, and the woodcuts of all the species offer an attraction which Mr. Jeffreys’s volume does not possess. The animals are engraved by Mr. O. Jewett, some from original drawings, while others are reproductions of previously published . The original drawings from the life, which may be recog- nized by Mr. Jewett’s autograph, are admirable. We were not pre- viously acquainted with this artist’s name as a natural-histo draughtsman ; but such life-like and characteristic figures as those of Limaz Sowerbyi, flavus, and cinereus, Helix aspersa, Planorbis corneus, Paludina- contecta, Dreissena polymorpha, Anodonta eygnea, and Unio tumidus raise him to a high position among delineators of Mollusca. Unfortunately the same praise cannot be bestowed on Mr. Sowerby’s figures of the shells ; for while the woodcuts of the larger species are generally good, no trouble appears to have been bestowed upon the smaller and closely allied species ; and thus in those very instances where accurate illustrations were most desirable and would have been of most value, we meet with en- gravings which are not only worthless, but caleulated to mislead. 292 Bibliographical Notices. We may mention, as examples of this carelessness, all the Zonite, but especially crystallinus, Helix pulchella, rupestris, pygmea, ro- tundata, &e. It is with much regret that we notice the numerous changes in nomenclature which Mr. Reeve seeks to introduce, changes in almost every instance uncalled for, in many cases actually wrong. Obsolete names, originally appended to descriptions of Mollusca so loosely and inaccurately defined as to apply with equal truth to many species, are here dragged forward from their merited oblivion, and made to supersede names which have been familiar to European conchologists for the last half-century. It is impossible to criticise all the changes thus made ; but let us examine those that are introduced into a single genus: let it be Planorbis. Planorbis imbricatus is changed to Planorbis crista, on the authority of the following synonymy :— Nautilus crista, Linneeus (1758), Syst. Nat. 10th edit. p. 709. Turbo nautileus, Linneus (1767), Syst. Nat. 12th edit. p. 1241. And the author remarks—* It may be observed on reference to the synonymy, that Linneeus made two species of this.” But Linnzeus did not make two species out of Planorbis nautileus. The facts are that he described Nautilus crista in the tenth edition of the ‘Systema Nature ;’ and in the twelfth edition changed the name of the species to Turbo nautileus, and referred to his Nautilus crista of the tenth edition as a synonym. We can only account for Mr. Reeve’s mistake by supposing that he has never consulted the twelfth edition—a sup- position which is confirmed by the fact that throughout his volume the tenth edition is almost invariably referred to. It is the twelfth, however, which embodies the most matured views of the great natu- ralist, and has therefore always been justly held to be the standard edition of his works ; and it is for this reason that the name nautileus has universally been adopted. Few of Linneeus’s species are identi- fied moreover with the same degree of certainty as this little shell ; for specimens are still to be seen in the Linneean cabinet enclosed in a small paper envelope on which the name is written at full length. Planorbis marginatus (Drap.) is changed to P. complanatus (L.). Yet no one, from Linnzeus’s time to our own, has been able to say to — what species the brief description of Helix complanata was intended to apply. Miller, in his description of Planorbis umbilicatus (P. marginatus, Drap.), wrote in 1773 (only six years after the publi- cation of ‘Syst. Nat.’ 12th edit.), “Satis diu hesito an hie Pla- norbis Linneei, an complanatus auctorum dicatur, et descriptiones me dubium adhuc relinquunt ; quid quod, hunc et Planorbem confu- disse videntur, et sequens forte erit eorum complanatus. In tantis difficultatibus has tricas solvendi, ipso Linneeo litteris frustra consulto. Planorbem et complanatam, nomina generi toti propria, oblivioni dandos, descriptiones et nomina aptiora magisque significantia effin- genda reor.” And again, in the description of Planorbis nitidus, the same author observes, ‘‘ An H. complanata Linnzi, haud liquet.” Mr. Hanley, in his ‘Ipsa Linnei Conchylia,’ expresses his belief ahs Bibliographical Notices. 293 that Linnzus included both Planorbis carinatus and marginatus under the name Helix planorbis, aud that Helir complanatus is synonymous with Planorbis nitidus, Miller. “‘‘ Deorsum carinata,’”’ he observes, “is equally applicable to nitidus” as to marginatus ; “whilst ‘supra convexa—subdiaphana—apertura semicordata’ (Fauna Suecica) is much more critically correct when affirmed of that little shell than of its larger rival; and as ‘ parva admodum’ is plied to it in the ‘ Fauna Suecica,’ in the contrast of its features with those of the preceding species, I feel no hesitation in asserting the identity of nitidus with the Linnzean Helix.” Surely Miller was right, when he said of such names (impossible to be identified with the species they were intended to represent), ‘ oblivioni dandos reor.” The chief confusion, however, which Mr. Reeve introduces into the genus Planorbis is by his adoption of the views of Moquin- Tandon respecting the Planorbis nitidus of Miller. That name is here applied to Planorbis (Segmentina) lineata (Walker) ; while the shell which has hitherto been known to British conchologists as Pla- norbis nitidus is called P. fontanus (Lightfoot). Now, on what eons is this change made? Miiller’s description of the species in is ‘ Historia Vermium’ is very full, and agrees most accurately with P. fontanus until we reach, at the end, this sentence, ‘‘ Ultra quin- quaginta examini subjeci, quorum quidam strigis duabus ligamen- _ torum instar in superna parte extime spire, forte ex restauratione fractze teste, notantur.’”” Now what does this sentence prove, but that the majority of the shells he examined were Planorbis fontanus? to which species therefore his name should be applied. It is quite possible, though far from certain, that the author confused the two Species, and that ‘‘ quidam strigis duabus ligamentorum instar” has reference to specimens of P. lineatus; but such specimens were de- scribed as the variety, while P. fontanus is clearly the type of the species. And this becomes more evident when we find all allusion to the variety omitted in the subsequently published ‘ Zoologise oaptan Prodromus,’ the description in which work applies only to the type. Mr. Reeve describes 128 species. His estimate of our land and freshwater Mollusca differs from that of Forbes and Hanley in the omission of Helix aperta, and the addition of Testacella Maugei, Vertigo Moulinsiana, Conovulus Myosotis, Cyclas pisidioides and C. ovalis. And as compared with the species described in Jeffreys’s work, we find Anodonta anatina and Pisidium roseum omitted, and Testacella Maugei, Pisidium obtusale, Casertanum (cinereum) and Henslowianum, and Cyclas pisidioides added. Moreover Jeffreys considers that Hydrobia ventrosa has a claim to be inserted asa freshwater shell. But Reeve denies the species a place; while, on the other hand, he admits the Conovuli and Assiminia Grayana, which are rejected by the former author. Mr. Reeve gives a map, in which, by a deeper or lighter tint of colour, it is intended to show the boundary of the Caucasian province of Mollusca, over which the British species range, and to indicate the part in which the most characteristic of the genera and species 294 Bibliographical Notices. congregate. ‘Two tables also show the distribution, in Great Britain and abroad, of the several genera and species ; and a short chapter on the “ Distribution and Origin of Species’ concludes the volume. Geological Observations in South Australia ; principally in the Dis- trict south-east of Adelaide. By the Rev. Jutian EpmMuND Woops, F.G.8., &c. 8vo. Longman, 1862. ** Every country has its history, not alone the history of what its inhabitants said and did, nor how its people lived, conspired, quarrelled, fought, and died, but a history which stretches further back and is buried in more remote antiquity. If it had not been so, Australia might indeed be counted the youngest as well as the least interesting of continents. She has had no people that could de- scribe her vicissitudes, and there are no monuments left to chronicle her changes ; but yet her history is written in an imperishable record. Of old, when the first explorers came upon the coast of a newly disco- vered territory, the rocks, the trees, the soil, and the verdure only spoke to them of one thing, namely, of fertility, or richness, or special adapta- tion to the wants of man. But now the very coast-line tells much more. Not only is the fertility or barrenness of the place itself told by the rocks, but the explorer is able to guess how far these appearances extend, and whether the country is likely to be fitted for human requirements in the present state of civilization.” These are our author’s preliminary observations in his Chapter IL. ; and he follows them up, Istly, by pointing out the evidences of former and different physical conditions presented by the existing geographical features of Australia generally; 2ndly, by giving in detail an account of the limestone-beds that form the plains of a great part of Southern Australia, and perhaps of Tasmania, describing their probable origin in a sea occupied by reefs of Bryozoa, as some seas now are by corals ; 3rdly, by treating of the extinct volcanos of Mount Gambier and its vicinity, and of their individual and general history ; Athly, by describing the caverns in the limestone of the district under notice, and the undergound drainage in connexion therewith. The conclusions that the author draws from his observations on the geology of the colony are as follows :— «J, There has been in Australia an immense area of subsidence during the Pliocene period, at a time when Rome, parts of Italy, Vienna, and parts of Austria, Piedmont, and Asia Minor were under the sea. II. This subsidence was accompanied by a [moss-] coral formation, very similar to the subsiding area of the Pacific at the present time ; and although all the appearances are those of a reef of true zoophyte corals, the predominent fossil is a massive Cellepora, while true corals are rare. III. This gives rise to the suspicion that Bryozoa may build reefs and atolls, as well as true Corals. IV. That the sub- sidence ceased; and probably about that time volcanic disturbance commenced, and gave rise to submarine craters. V. That, after the cooling of the lava from these submarine craters, a deposit of small fragments of shells was thrown down from an ocean-current. VI. Bibliographical Notices. 295 That this beeame hardened into stone, and was then upheaved from the sea; during which process large portions of it became washed away. VII. That the latter part of the upheaval was separated by a long lapse of time from the subsidence, because the latter strata show some difference in their fauna. VIII. That while upheaval was going on, until very recently, extensive volcanic disturbance took place, giving rise to craters which are now all extinct. IX. That the up- eaved [ Bryozoan] rock, when decomposed, has given rise to a very different sort of soil, of a sandy character, which causes large tracts of arid, useless country in this part of Australia. X. That the same tock, being of a loose texture, easily allowed water to percolate through, forming caves and underground passages, besides honey- combing the ground in all directions. XI. That, while these opera- tions proceeded, the animal life was of a slightly different character from what is found in the same locality now, though probably the land-animals were not specially different from individuals in other parts of the Australian continent.” Lastly, that “these numerous changes seem to have taken place without any vast convulsion of nature, or phenomena different from what happen in the world now.” In discussing the many geological and natural-history points of interest that occur in his work, the author, himself an amateur, often freely explains the elementary basis of his several lines of argument, quoting Lyell, Darwin, Jukes, and others, for the information of his readers as to geological systems, the theories of coral-formations, the nature of coral-reefs, &c.; and his book, thus popularly written, is tendered more readable for the general public than if written with strict technicality ; but at the same time we miss a requisite scientific accuracy, especially as to zoological nomenclature and classification, without which no geological work can have a high scientific value— though certainly a hard-working amateur in so distant and isolated a position as Penola must surely be excused for this short-coming. Some observations by Mr. Woods on extensive recent accumula- tions of minute organisms, such as Cypride, Diatomacee, and Chare, and of mammalian bones and of lake-shells in South Australia, are to be found inChapter III., and must prove highly suggestive to geologists. The notes on the bone-breccia and accumulations of bones in caves, in Chapter XI., will also attract attention. The author’s explanation of the origin of the limestone “‘ Biscuits ”’ of the ‘‘ Honeysuckle flats ” (pp. 43-45) is very ingenious; and his other numerous observations on the physical features of the district, which have been ‘‘ the occupa- tion of many a passing hour in the bush, where amusements are otherwise few,” are full of interest and value. In his Introductory Chapter and elsewhere, the author has taken care to point out what others have already done in explaining the geo- logical features of Southern Australia; but he has overlooked the little work ‘On the Geology and Mineralogy of South Australia,’ by Mr. T. Burr, published at Adelaide in 1846. 296 Bibliographical Notices. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Vol. xxiv. Part 1. 1863. ~ Tuanks to the exertions of its late excellent President (Prof. T. Bell) and his successor (Mr. G. Bentham), the Linnean Society ap- pears quite restored to its pristine activity. In addition to the usual annual publication of the quarto ‘Transactions’ in the autumn of 1862, and the ordinary quarterly ‘ Journal,’ it has lately issued an- other part of the ‘Transactions,’ in order to bring as quickly as possible to the knowledge of botanists the exceedingly valuable paper by Dr. Joseph D. Hooker “On Welwitschia, a new Genus of Gnetacex.” This paper occupies the whole of the part, extends to 48 pages, and is illustrated by 14 plates. We think this proceeding in the highest degree creditable to the Society. When such a paper is brought before it, it does well to deviate from its usual course. The present essay has attracted the utmost attention from botanists. Probably nothing of equal botanical interest has appeared since the publication of Robert Brown’s papers on Raffesia, in the thirteenth and nineteenth volumes of the same ‘ Transactions.’ The first notice of Welwitschia was sent to Sir W. J. Hooker by Dr. Fred. Welwitsch, its discoverer, in a letter from Loanda in South Africa, dated Aug. 16, 1860, which was soon followed by the dis- patch of specimens to Kew. This singular plant never possesses more than the same two leaves, although it seems to be very long- lived. These leaves appear to be the cotyledons, which, instead of fading, as is usual, and giving place to ordinary leaves, are perma- nent, and attain to a length of six feet and a breadth of two. They are hard and leathery, and in the course of time split to longitu- dinal strips. They spring from a groove situated between the crown and stock of the plant, and lie flat, or nearly so, upon the ground. This is the only example of a ‘ perennial flowering plant which at no period has other vegetative organs than those proper to the embryo itself, the main axis being represented by the radicle, which becomes a gigantic caulicle, and developes a root from its base and inflorescences from its plumulary end, and the leaves being the two cotyledons in a very highly developed and specialized condition.” The yenation of the leaves is ‘parallel and free, like that of Mono- cotyledons in general appearance; but there is a total absence of lateral vascular communications between the bundles,” as in many Coniferze. Its male flowers are structurally hermaphrodite, but their naked ovule is always abortive. It seems therefore probable that the plant is truly dicecious. Dr. Hooker considers its female flowers as gymno- spermous, but that the plant is rather intermediate in character between gymnospermous and angiospermous plants. We feel sure that many of our botanical readers will hasten to eruse this remarkable essay, which is a permanent monument of the high attainments of its author, such as it seldom can fall to the lot of even a Hooker to obtain, Royal Society. 297 PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. ROYAL SOCIETY. Feb. 5, 1863.—Major-General Sabine, Presidert, in the Chair. “On the Embryogeny of Comatula rosacea (Linck).” By Prof. Wyville Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S.E. &c. After briefly abstracting Dr. W. Busch’s description of the early stages in the growth of the young of Comatula, the author details his own observations, carried on during the last four years, on the development and subsequent changes of the larva. After complete segmentation of the yelk, a more consistent nucleus appears within the mulberry mass still contained within the vitelline membrane. The external more transparent flocculent portion of the yelk liquefies and is absorbed into this nucleus, which gradually assumes the form of the embryo larva, a granular cylinder contracted at either end and girded with four transverse bands of cilia. This cylinder increases in size till it nearly fills the vitelline sac, gradually increasing in transparency, and ultimately consisting of delicately vacuolated sar- code, the external surface transparent and studded with pyriform oil-cells, the inner portion semifluid and slightly granular. The vitelline membrane now gives way, and, usually shortly after ~ the escape of the larva into the water, the third ciliated band from the anterior extremity arches forwards at one point ; and in the space thus left between it and the fourth band, a large pyriform depression indi- cates the position of the larval mouth. At the same time a small round aperture, merely separated from the posterior margin of the mouth by the last ciliated band, becomes connected with the mouth by a short loop-like canal passing under the band, and fulfils the function of an excreting orifice. A tuft of long cilia, which have a peculiar undulatory motion, is developed at the posterior extremity of the body. The larva now increases rapidly in size, assuming some- what the form of a kidney bean, the mouth answering in position to the hilum. It swims freely in the water, with a swmging semi- ree? motion, by means of its ciliated bands and posterior tuft oO a Shortly after the larva has attained its definite independent form, ten minute calcareous spicula make their appearance, imbedded within the external sarcode-layer of the expanded anterior portion of the larva. The ten spicula are arranged in two transverse rings of five, the spicula of the anterior row symmetrically superposed on those of the posterior. By the extension of calcareous network, these spi- cula rapidly expand into ten plates, which at length form a trellis enclosing a dodecahedral space, open above and below, within the anterior portion of the zooid. Simultaneously with the appearance of these plates, a series of from seven to ten calcareous rings form a chain passing from the base of the posterior row of plates backwards, curving slightly to the left of the larval mouth, and ending by abut- ting against the centre of a large cribriform plate, which is rapidly Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xi. 20 298 Royal Society. developed close to the posterior extremity of the larva. Delicate sheaves of anastomosing calcareous trabeculee shortly arise within these rings, and the series declares itself as the jointed stem of the pentacrinoid stage, the basal and first interradial plates of the calyx being represented by the already formed casket of calcareous network. The skeleton of the Crinoid is thus completely mapped out within the body of the larva, while the latter still retains its independent form and special organs. Within the plates of the calyx of the nascent Crinoid two hemi- spherical or reniform masses may now be detected,—one superior, of a yellowish, subsequently of a chocolate colour; the other inferior, colourless and transparent. The lower hemisphere indicates the permanent alimentary canal of the Crinoid, with its glandular follicle ; the upper mass originates the central ring of the ambulacral system, with its ceeca passing tothe arms. The body of the Crinoid is, how- ever, at this stage entirely closed in by a dome of sarcode, formi the anterior extremity of thelarva. After swimming about freely for atime averaging from eight hours to a week, and increasing rapidly in size till it has attained a length of from 1 to 2 millims., the larva becomes sluggish, and its form is distorted by the growing Crinoid. The mouth and alimentary canal of the larva disappear, and the external sarcode-layer subsides round the calcareous framework of the included embryo, forming for it a transparent perisome. The stem now lengthens by additions of trabeculee to the ends of the joints. The posterior extremity dilates into a disk of attachment. The anterior extremity becomes expanded, then slightly cupped ; the lip of the cup is divided into five crescentic lobes corresponding to the plates of the upper ring; and finally five delicate tubes, ceeca from the ambulacral circular canal, are protruded from the centre of the cup, the rudi- ments of the arms of the Pentacrinoid. At some stage during the pores of these later changes the embryo adheres, and at length ecomes firmly cemented to some permanent point of attachment. The author states his views as to the morphological and physio- logical relations of the larval zooid. He believes that all the peculiar independently organized zooids developed from the whole or from a part of the segmented yelk in the Echinoderms, and which form no stage in the development of the perfect form of the species, must be regarded as assimilative extensions of sarcode, analogous in func- tion to the embryonic absorbent appendages in the higher animals. For such an organism the term “pseudembryo” is proposed. In the Echinoderm subkingdom, although constructed apparently upon a common plan, these pseudembryos present considerable range of organization, from a somewhat complex zooid provided with elaborate natatory fringes, with a system of vessels which are ultimately con- nected with the ambulacral vascular system of the embryo, with a well-developed digestive tract, and in some instances with special nervous ganglia, to a simple layer of absorbent and irritable sarcode which invests the nascent embryo, The pseudembryo of Comatula holds an intermediate position. It resembles very closely in external form and in subsequent metamorphosis the “pupa stage” of the NE hi pis Zoological Society. 299 Holothuridz, the great distinction between them being that in the Holothuride the pupa has already passed through the more active “Auricularian” stage, while the analogous form in Oomatula has been developed directly from the egg. ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Nov. 11, 1862.—Prof. Huxley, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair. Descriptions or Two Corats FROM MApEIRA, BELONGING TO THE GENERA Primnoa AND Mopsea. By James YATE Jounson, Corr. Mem. Z.S. Fam. GORGONIID, M.-Edw. Subfam. Gorconin#&, M.-Edw. Sect. Primnoacez, M.-Edw. PRIMNOA IMBRICATA, Sp. 1. White, having a tendency to branch dichotomously in one plane ; the branches slender, flexible, not plume-like, and not anastomosing. Axis pale brownish yellow, spineless, obscurely striated, effervescing in hydrochloric acid, coated with small white scales composed of carbonate of lime. Over the lower coating of scales there is another coating of larger scales, with a wide space between the two. The — outer coat, which is easily removed, appears to be attached to the peduncles of the cells. These peduncles are in elosely-set whorls of three or four, each of which expands into a cup-like cell, having its mouth closed in the dead coral with eight scales that have their apices in contact. The peduncles project at right angles from the stem, and are also clothed with scales, This is a much more delicate form than Primnoa lepadifera, in which species the pedunculated cells appear to be arranged spirally on the branch. Two specimens of this elegant Primnoa have been obtained, the larger of which has a height of 84 inches, with a width of 11 inches. It was attached to a piece of Lophohelia (Oculina) prolifera. The whorls of the pedunculated cells are about three-twentieths of an inch apart, and the peduncles about the same in height. The prin- ope branch, near the base, has a diameter of one-fifth of an inch. The smaller example has been deposited in the British Museum. Subfam. Istpinz, M.-Edw. MopsEA ARBUSCULUM, sp. n. The whole coral is coated with a thin brown skin. When this skin has been removed from the lower calcareous joints, they are found to be stony, white, subcylindrical, but rather narrower at the middle than at either end. They are finely striate longitudinally, and the striz are parallel and straight. The interjoints do not nearly equal the joints in length, being little more than discs, and are somewhat less in diameter. They are striate, and from them spring the branches. These branches are very numerous, diverging 20* 300 Zoological Society :— in all directions subdichotomously, and making a tolerably thick bush. They are much thinner than the main stem, and they become gradually more slender upwards, the calcareous joints at the same time becoming longer. Occasionally two of the ultimate branchlets come into contact and are soldered together. Each branchlet bears at its apex a cell of a shape between campanulate and infundibuli- form, the margin of which bears eight pairs of long, upright, spine- like spicula. There are also sessile cells at the sides of the ultimate branchlets, one at each interjoint. All the cells are of a pale brown colour. The pellicle covering the branchlets contains long spicula, which are for the most part large and fusiform, whilst the smaller ones are cylindrical, and all are brown and minutely tuberculated. A single example of this Coral was obtained from a fisherman at Cama de Lobos, Madeira, and it is now in the British Museum. Its length, without the base, which is wanting, is 13 inches, and it is 7 inches across. The lower part of the main stem has a diameter of three-tenths of an inch, and its calcareous joints are about three- eighths of an inch in length. The branches are broken away from this part of the stem; but there are remains to show that some of the interjoints bore four branches, others only one. A cell, with its marginal spines, measures the fifth of an inch. This coral seems to be nearly related to Mopsea dichotoma; but M. Milne-Edwards gives the Indian Ocean (with a mark of doubt) as the habitat of that species. Strange to say, that writer, in his work on Corals (‘Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires,’ forming one of the ‘ Nouvelles Suites 4 Buffon’), is altogether silent as to the cells of Mopsea. lLamouroux says that the polypi (? cells) of M. dicho- toma are mammiform on the higher, tuberculous on the middle, and superficial on the lower branches. This would ill accord with the Madeiran specimen. Little agreement can be made out between that Seen and the figures of Esper, ‘“ Pflanzenthiere,”’ Isis, pl. 5, gs. 1-5. Nov. 25, 1862.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, F.Z.S., in the Chair. ' Mr. W. K. Parker read the following abstract of a Memoir on the Osteology of the'genera Pterocles, Syrrhaptes, Hemipodius, and Tinamus, intended for publication in the Society’s ‘ Transactions :’ — “The classification of the gallinaceous birds would be easy enough if it were not for certain outliers, which refuse to conform to that particular plan of structure with which we are all so familiar in that very convenient and natural type of the group, the Common Fowl. * Agreeing with this bird in all essential respects are the genera Phasianus, Polyplectron, Lophophorus, Tragopan, Pavo, Meleagris, Numida, and many others, the species of which are in many instances creatures of unsurpassed beauty. This properly typical group has, amongst other characteristics, its species provided with a robust body, short rounded wings, and very strong legs; whilst the tarsi are naked, provided with one or two spurs, and having the generally small heel elevated above the anterior toes. “Notwithstanding the more subdued style of colouring, and Mr. W. K. Parker on Pterocles, Syrrhaptes, and Tinamus. 301 the rudimentary condition of the spur, the Red Partridge (Perdix rubra) ought to be placed with the Francolins in the typical group. *« Still further, if we are to be guided by the structure of the ske- leton, and especially by that of the skull, the dwarfs of the family, the Quails (Coturniz), ought to stand in the same inner circle as the gigantic species, the Turkey and the Peacock. “In a subtypical group all those forms ought to be placed, in which, besides the quiet style of colouring, we find feebler legs, often with the tarsi feathered, a more depressed pigeon-like form of the body, and a skull with thinner and more fibrous walls, combined with a much enlarged tympanic cavity. The spur is also obsolete. «The Grey Partridge (Perdix cinerea) should be classed with this subfamily—the Tetraonide. “This beautiful and valuable bird is, as is especially shown in the structure of its skull, much more nearly related to the Ptarmigans (Lagopus) than to Perdizx rubra, with its very thick-walled cellular skull, small tympanic cavities, and rudimentary spur. “There is a group of very majestic birds inhabiting the warmer parts of the New World, which differs so much from the Galline proper and from the Tetraonida, that it must be considered to be- long to an outer or aberrant place in the great gallinaceous family. I allude to the Cracide. : ** These birds, less ornate indeed than their normal relatives, are nevertheless creatures of great interest, and of no little beauty, whether we consider their form or their mode of colouring. “In this outer circle we place the Guans (Penelope), the Curas- sows (Crax), the genera Ortalida, Opisthocomus, and others. “The mode in which the Cracide differ from their terrestrial typical congeners is highly interesting ; but as the present paper is only intended to be an introductory outline, I shall not ‘ bestow all my tediousness’ upon the Society by going into details now: suffice it to say that they appear to me to connect the Gallinacee quite as much with the Plantain-eaters (Musophagide) as with the Pigeons. “The habit, which has given the family-name Rasores to the Fowl tribe, curiously enough, does not attain its highest degree in the typical species, but is developed in certain subtypical genera which are found ranging from the Philippines through the islands of the Indian Archipelago to Australia: these birds are the Megapodes*. Tn the ‘ Mound-maker’ we have a bird which, whilst marvel- lously like the Common Hen in gentleness of expression and neatness of contour, has also a most striking isomorphic resemblance to certain members of a very distantly related family, viz. the Gallinules. “* My acquaintance with the structure of Talegalla was made six- teen or seventeen years ago; for at that time I met with and made drawings of a precious skeleton of this bird in one of the drawers of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons ; it has not, however, been noticed in the Catalogue. “Being therefore well and safely possessed of the fact that the Brush Turkey (Talegalla) does not, in any essential point of struc- * Gould (see Penny Cyclop., art. “ Talegalla”). 302 Zoological Society :— ture, differ from the Common and Ocellated Turkeys (Meleagris Gallo-pavo and M. ocellata), I was indeed surprised to find that, as late as last spring, Professor Owen had classed them with Cuvier’s Macrodactyli. ‘In the report in the ‘ Medical Times and Gazette’ of the fourth of Professor Owen’s Jermyn Street Lectures for this year, delivered on the 23rd of May, I find the classification which he has adopted, and in which the mound-making birds are placed between the Rail and the Screamer. ‘As there are in the same system of classification several other instances of what appear to me, to say the least, very odd and con- fusing misplacements, I shall crave the liberty to point them out, and to make my own remarks upon them, especially as the position in nature of these birds is exactly what I have set myself to try and find out. It is in Professor Owen’s Second, Third, and Fourth Orders, viz. the ‘ Grallatores,’ ‘ Cursores,’ and ‘ Rasores,’ that I find most to surprise and confuse me. “The family Macrodactyli, of the Second Order, ‘ Grallatores,’ according to this eminent author contains the ‘Coot, Crane, Rail, Megapode, Screamer,’ and ‘ Jacana.’ “The next family, or the ‘Cultrirostres,’ contains, we are told, the ‘ Boat-bill, Adjutant, Heron, Ibis, Stork, Tantalus,’ and ‘Spoon- bill.’ “The third family, or ‘ Longirostres,’ is said to be composed of such forms as the ‘ ee Avocet, Snipe, Ruff, Turnstone, Curlew, Sandpiper,’ and ‘ Godwit.’ “And the fourth, or the ‘ Pressirostres,’ the ‘Oyster-catcher, Thick-knee, Plover, Lapwing, Bustard,’ and ‘ Courser.’ ‘«Then in his Third Order, the Cursores, Professor Owen places these genera, and in this succession, viz. :— ‘ Apteryz. Didus, Pezophaps. Ostrich, Emeu, Nandi. Cassowary. Notornis. Dinornis, Palapteryz.’ “In the Order 4, ‘ Rasores,’ he gives us two families, viz. the Gallinacei or Clamatores, and the Columbacei or Gemitores. “The first of these is exemplified by the ‘ Pea-fowl, Partridge, Quail, Pheasant, Ganga, Grouse, Pintado, Tinamu, Turkey, Curas- sow,’ and ‘ Guan.’ «