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PUBLICATION 1462 1973

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Agriculture
Canada

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Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2011 with funding from

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada - Agriculture et Agroalimentaire Canada

http://www.archive.org/details/saddlehorseOOcana

SEP 25 1997

USE SADDLE ROBE

CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
PUBLICATION 1462 1972

Copies of this publication may be obtained from

INFORMATION DIVISION

CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

OTTAWA

K1A0C7

20M-36233-ll:72

©
Information Canada
Ottawa, 1972
Catalogue No. A63 — 1462

5 HISTORY AT A QUICK CANTER

6 ACQUIRING A HORSE

7 HIS HOME
9 stable floor

10 construction

14 tack room

14 feed storage

15 feeding facilities

16 paddock
16 stable yard

16 DIET

17 digestion

18 hay

19 grains

20 diet supplements
20 how much to feed

22 WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HORSE

23 parts of the horse
26 the set of the legs

28 other considerations

29 THE EQUINE CLINIC

29 signs of good health

30 general signs of illness

32 how to take a rectal temperature

32 diseases

33 parasites

36 wounds

37 some useful tips

37 ALL ABOUT HOOFS

40 MAINTENANCE OF THE HARNESS

41 HORSEMANSHIP

41 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

44 A FEW TIPS

44 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

44 REFERRALS

contents

This publication is for amateur horsemen who prefer the
smells of the countryside to the stench of exhaust fumes;
it is for all who, in fair weather or foul, can scarcely wait
to mount up, on a Sunday afternoon, and seek out the
hidden paths where nature is still quietly at home; it is
also for the hardier ones who are ready to risk life and
limb on the bumpy rodeo trail. It has been especially
written for owners of one or two horses.

This publication is an English adaptation of the original French text.

history at a quick canter

The horse (sometimes referred to as a nag or even a
cayuse) is quite unaware that once, in prehistoric times,
he was scarcely bigger than a good-sized cat. The early
ancestor of the modern horse has been given the enchant-
ing name of Eohippus, "the dawn horse." He was small
enough, then, to have been carried in our arms; now it is
he who totes us around on his back.

The little fellow has prospered. As he evolved into a
larger and larger animal, he passed through the stages
of Otohippus, Mesohippus, Merchippus, Pliohippus and

finally Equus. Somewhere along the way, in the interest
of an ever swifter stride, he lost his three toes, so that now,
we can refer to him as an ungulate.

The Equus that first roamed the plains and forests of North
America was chased southward by cold blasts from
advancing glaciers into what are now the United States
and South America. Then it appears that he crossed over
a prehistoric land bridge to Africa and ultimately Europe.
In any event, Equus disappeared from the Western Hemi-
sphere until the Europeans brought him back to America
in the 16th century.

Over the centuries the uses to which the horse has been
put have varied greatly. It was some 4,000 years ago in
Assyria that he commenced his long association with man.
Soon he entered upon a richly varied career — in war
and the hunt, in jousting and pleasure — interrupted from
time to time by the prosaic business of working a tread-
mill, pulling a plow or traveller's stage coach or deliver-
ing milk.

There are today, four main equine races: The Tarpan, still
found in Asia, is a dull grey animal, completely wild;
Equus Przewalski, an inhabitant of the Steppes, is only
occasionally domesticated; Equus robustus, the big, pow-

erful European horse, was the mount that carried the
mediaeval knights into battle; and, finally, most interest-
ing of all is the Arabian, undoubtedly the ancestor, near
or distant, of every true saddle horse living today.

Surely the horse will symbolize the coming age of leisure,
for is it not he who takes us for our Sunday stroll to the
lazy strains of a cowboy tune? From fierce warhorse to
cherished companion of the weekly outing in a mere
4,000 years in progress indeed, although we do not always
seem to appreciate the change. Some people, sad to
relate, treat their horses as badly as their fellowmen.

The Roman Emperor Caligula thought so highly of his
horse Incitatus, "the Swift One," that he built him a mar-
ble stable with an ivory feed trough. He dressed him in
blankets of royal purple and halters studded with jewels,
and even wanted to make him a Consul. We think per-
haps he went a little too far.

The best work ever published on the horse, the experts
tell us, was written by Xenophon, born in 445 B.C., a
gentleman farmer of ancient Athens who was at the same
time a captain of cavalry and a consummate horseman.
Xenophon not only wrote the first treatise (The Hippike)
on rearing and handling horses, but was also the first to
advocate gentleness and understanding in their training.
Before that the brutal approach had been mandatory. The
principles he laid down then are still the basis of all good
horsemanship and equine care.

acquiring a horse

Acquiring a horse, like getting married, entails a number
of responsibilities, in addition to the pleasures it affords.
The new owner must not only provide his mount with
food and shelter, but also a place to exercise, assiduous
grooming, a meticulously clean stable and proper shoes,
not to mention a full medicine chest along with a veter-
inarian's eye for the first symptoms of disorder. Most
important, he must provide an atmosphere of security
and affection.

The life and well-being of your horse depend on you
alone. The better you care for him, the better he will
respond. This does not mean treating him as though he
were human. This animal that you are keeping (in
custody) for your private pleasure needs many different
substitutes for the things that nature would otherwise
provide. Day-in, day-out, in good weather and bad, you

have to feed him; clean his stall, groom, his coat, and
manicure his hoofs. At the same time, you have to keep
an eye out for the slightest signs of indisposition.

Once you own a horse, you can forget about visiting
friends on an afternoon and even staying for dinner.
Remember, your stable charges have to be fed on
schedule. Should you be going off for a weekend's skiing,
don't forget to arrange for a reliable horse sitter — one
who won't fail you when the winter winds blow too chill
or too strong, and who won't let the water freeze in the
pails or forget to bolt the stall gates and the stable doors
behind him.

There are two basic types of stable design from which
various intermediate combinations can be selected. A
more elaborate stable can be built so that there is con-
trolled temperature and ventilation, a generous stall
(about 14 X 14 feet), and sometimes an indoor ring. In
fact, a horse thus stabled should never be taken out in
winter unless he is well protected against the cold.
Although such a stable is elaborate, and occupies a com-
paratively small amount of land, it is very expensive and
seldom built in Canada.

With the other type of stable, the horse stays outside all
year, except during very cold or bad weather when he
seeks the shelter of his barn. Although the stable is a
rudimentary structure in itself, the animal requires at
least a quarter of an acre for outdoor exercise.

Since the aim is to recreate, as far as possible, the living
conditions of wild horses, who seek shelter during bad
weather in thickets of evergreens, this will suit your horse.
As far as you are concerned, the stable is the place where
you feed, saddle and groom him. It is important to note
that a horse that stays out all winter must never be
clipped and should not be brushed during this season.
His body hair is covered with a wax that protects him
against cold, snow and rain, and brushing will remove it.
However, his mane and tail may be brushed.

The stable should have a floor area of at least 60 square
feet per horse, and a door facing south that is usually left
open for maximum sun penetration to fully benefit from
the disinfecting qualities of ultraviolet rays. The walls
should be windproof, since a horse can be just as suscep-

his home

A practical stable for two horses

SLIDING
SASH -n

FEED ROOM
CONC. FLOOR

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SOLID PARTITION TO
TOP OF 2" STALL LINING
OR SLOTTED "V_»

PARTITION
ABOVE 5'

BOX STALL
CLAY FLOOR

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HAY RACK

GRAIN OR

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7

BOX STALL
CLAY FLOOR

DUTCH DOORS

rll-,

20"x20"x12"

(26"x26"x12")

CONC.

FOOTING

COVERED WAY

GIRDER
OVER

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24"x24"x12"
(32"x32"x12")
CONC. FOOTING

L...J

13'-6"

13'-0"

7'-6'

Plan USDA 5S3S
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C.

tible to drafts as a human being, especially at feeding
time. This is because the digestive processes draw a lot
of blood at the expense of surface circulation, and this is
when the animal is most likely to catch cold. The building
should be equipped with mangers and drinking-water
facilities. There is little need for bedding in this kind
of stable.

A slight variation of this rudimentary structure is the box
or open stall. In this stable, the horse is locked up at night
and is turned loose in the daytime unless the weather is
very severe. The minimum dimensions of a box are
10x10 feet. If you have several horses, the building can
be laid out so that all the boxes open into a corral. It is
useful to have an alleyway running along the front of the
boxes and, if construction costs are an important factor,
this can be an exterior walkway protected by a generous
overhang. Since bedding is needed only at night, a small
amount will suffice.

A more elaborate type of stable has box stalls with an
interior alleyway. The animals remain indoors all winter
except for a few minutes each day when they are taken
out to stretch their legs while their stalls are being cleaned.

This stable must have good ventilation and an abundance
of natural light. It must be well insulated against the wind
and cold to provide protection against sudden drops of
temperature. These can be fatal to an indoor animal for
whom mother nature has been unable to fashion a shaggy
winter coat.

The temperature in this type of stable should be kept
fairly high, that is, above freezing at all times. However,
it is a mistake to confine the horses too closely together
with the idea of conserving heat. In fact, the risks of ill-
ness increase in proportion to the number of animals per
unit area. Moreover, indiscriminate mingling of horses of
different character may lead to irritability, fighting and
injury, not only to the horses themselves, but to their
owners and attendants as well.

Stable Floor — If for no other reason than peace of mind,
you will want to keep your mount healthy, and good
health starts at the hoofs. To maintain sound hoofs, your
first concern will be to choose a site for the stable, one
higher than the surrounding terrain, if possible, for good
drainage. In any case, gravel should be added to raise it
another foot or so.

Another consideration for good drainage is the floor

profile. The use of different levels facilitates maintenance
and thus helps keep your animals healthy. If the horse's
bed is given a slope of 3°, the urine will drain off freely
and his hoofs will be dry. This is of the utmost importance
because most equine ailments are centered in the bottom of
the hoofs. Moreover, with such an arrangement, less litter
is needed. There should also be a gutter to catch excreta.

Since horses always seem to answer nature's call wher-
ever it will make the most work for you, it pays to have a
stable floor that is easy to clean and maintain. Clay, river
sand, wood and concrete are some of the materials used
for the surface, but asphalt is probably better than any of
these, especially if it has a high tar content.

Clay over gravel on a well-drained soil works well in an
outdoor shelter, but is difficult to disinfect and requires a
lot of litter. Similarly, river sand makes a good floor and
is fairly easy to maintain, except in winter when freezing
affects drainage. Wooden floors are easy to sweep and
scrub, but like clay can be hard to disinfect. When the
animals are kept in stable, the floor will give off a strong
odor of ammonia that is as bothersome to the horses as it
is to you. However, if you must use wood, be sure it is elm
because it resists splitting more than other varieties.
Concrete is easily cleaned, but it is cold and hard on the
horses' feet and requires a great deal of litter. Moreover,
water and urine are likely to freeze on the concrete
surface, causing slippery spots. It is possible to insulate
the sotf beneath the slab but this adds to the already high
cost. Asphalt is easy to clean, softer underfoot than con-
crete and considerably cheaper. In fact, you can order
the material directly from your fuel-oil dealer and lay it
yourself. It should also be mentioned that high-quality
rubber floor coverings are available for stables but
are expensive.

To sum up, the prime requirements of a stable floor are:
good drainage, a surface that is easy to clean, with
abundant litter if the floor is hard, less if it is not so hard.

Construction — A rugged simple structure will suffice,
provided it is placed properly (door to south). As men-
tioned earlier, you will need at least 60 square feet per
horse, so that they can move about comfortably. For one
horse, an obvious choice would be 8 X 8 feet, since ply-
wood sheets are 8 feet long, but this may seem a bit
cramped. Why not build a stable for two horses? Chances
are that before long someone else in the family will be
clamoring for a mount of their own. If not, you can doubt-

10

A practical stable for three horses

r ,

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BOX STALL
CLAY FLOOR

BOX STALL
CLAY FLOOR

HAY MANGER

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HAY MANGER

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WORK ALLEY
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-•EXHAUST FAN

-8-0

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Plan 8201 Canadian Farm Building Plan Service (available from your provincial department of agriculture)

11

less find a neighbor who may be willing to share the
project.

If you have plenty of land, a one-storey stable will be
sufficient. On the other hand, if you want to conserve
land, simply add a second storey to accommodate the
tack room, feed bins and hayloft. This will involve some
hoisting problems and necessitate stronger joists.

Some horses resist being bridled and jerk their heads up
violently at the mere sight of a bit. This fact dictates the

uftmiMWiiiii'iifrmrr5" — -

12

minimum height of the ceiling because a horse with a
badly bruised skull (poll evil) can be dangerous. For
example, a head strap rubbing against the tender spot
can make him nervous and irritable; also, a horse can
suffer concussion like a person, with similar unpredictable
results. Therefore, the minimum ceiling height should be
at least 7 feet and be increased proportionately for larger
animals. Similarly, to prevent injury, any windowpanes the
horse might put his head through should be fitted on the
inside with iron bars spaced not more than 4 inches apart.

If you have chosen a type of stable in which the horse is
to be kept only at night or in bad weather, good ventila-
tion is especially important. Otherwise, in winter, the
contrast between the interior warmth generated by the
animals and the low temperature outdoors may be too
great. The stable should be built so that if there is a sud-
den drop in the outside temperature at night the interior
temperature will follow it gradually. Obviously, there
must be no drafts. The walls must be carefully con-
structed, using a wind baffle, and some form of insulation
should be provided to retard conduction (see CDA publi-
cation 1404, Ventilation of Livestock Buildings). Similarly,
the doors must be fitted with strong latching hardware
that even the most violent winds cannot dislodge.

Wind protection is another point to consider. A small
stable for only one or two horses will not provide much
shelter for your pets when they are outside. A windbreak
adjoining the stable can be very helpful. It should be
5 to 6 feet high with a ground clearance of about 1 foot
and boards about 1 inch apart. (For further information
on wind protection, see CDA publication 1461, Snow and
Wind Control for Farmstead and Feedlot.)

Stabled horses are subject to boredom. So far, the only
amusement they have been able to devise for themselves
is the beaver game, or the systematic gnawing away of
every part of the building they can reach with their teeth.
They also gnaw wood if there is a mineral deficiency in
their diet. There are several possible ways of foiling these
efforts. One is to coat everything liberally with creosote
or other wood preservative. Another is to cover the sharp
edges with strips of metal; for example, the angle-iron
parts of old iron bedsteads make excellent protective
moldings (any metal used should be coated with non-
toxic paint).

Since boredom is one of the most common winter afflic-
tions of horses, the idea of putting a radio receiver in the

13

angle of sun in winter (a)
and summer (b)

stable is not as silly as it might seem. Above all, be sure
to place the radio and any wires well out of reach of
mischievous teeth.

If you have several mounts in 4 X 8-foot stalls, the use of
open-work partitions helps reduce boredom, since the
horses can see each other. Open partitions also improve
ventilation and save lumber. Actually, a simple plank
secured at each end will suffice, providing neighboring
horses are compatible.

Tack Room — A generously proportioned tack (harness)
room will come in handy. If you wish to keep your saddles
in good condition, they should not be left on the floor
where they will warp and where rodents will find them
appetizing. An empty nail keg makes an excellent saddle
support and the interior is useful for storing things. The
side of the keg should be covered with felt, sponge rubber,
sheepskin or the like, to protect the saddle from splinters
and rough spots. A lid with padlock would also be in
order, especially if the keg contains hazardous substances.

Saddle stands need to be 3 to 4 feet above ground. If nail
kegs are unavailable, satisfactory stands can be made
from scrap lumber. An excellent model is shown in the
Light Horse Manual (unit 3, page 5) of the Extension
Division, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask.

A 1 -pound tobacco tin has about the same radius of cur-
vature as the nape of a horse's head (poll). Nailed to the
wall of the tack room, it becomes the perfect place to
hang the bridle. The interior of the tin could hold impor-
tant small items, for example, a hoof-pick.

Feed Storage — Horses, like children find it difficult to
occupy themselves all day long. Figuratively speaking,
therefore, they will be "into the cookie jar' at the slightest
opportunity. This means that you have to provide a secure
gram feed locker well beyond your horse's reach; other-
wise, you stand a good chance of losing both feed and
horse, one by larceny and the other by indigestion. Make
sure, too, that no electric wires are within reach of
your steed.

If you feed your horse hay and oats, there must be ad-
equate storage space for hay. On the average, a horse
consumes 15 pounds of hay per day. In 7 months, therefore,
he will eat a ton and a half, or 67 bales. Each bale of hay
weighs about 45 pounds, measures 40 X 20 X 15 inches
and occupies up to 7 cubic feet. Hence, your hayloft mu
have a capacity of about 470 cubic feet per horse. This is

14

equivalent to a space 10X8X6 feet or 12 X 7 X 6 feet.
You will not require as much storage space if your horse
is fed prepared feeds. (Refer to section on feeding.) These
feeds are available commercially and can be delivered
to you at regular intervals.

If you have a one-storey stable and are storing the hay at
ground level, there should be a ventilated false floor
beneath it to prevent wet rot due to ground humidity.

Hay can, of course, be stored outdoors, in which case it
has to be raised above the ground on a latticework floor
and roofed in to keep off the rain, snow and direct sun-
light. The practice of stacking hay on the ground and
covering it with a plastic tarpaulin cannot be too strongly
condemned. The plastic traps ground moisture, at the
same time producing a greenhouse effect that literally
cooks the hay. Hay should always be well ventilated and
well shaded.

A haystack is a favorite nesting place for rodents. A gooa
dose of rat poison, distributed among several strategically
placed weeping tiles or small sections of pipe, will readily
attract them. You would be well advised to have these
traps ready and baited before the hay arrives, because
after you have handled 4 or 5 tons of it such a detail is
easily forgotten.

Feeding Facilities — Each animal must have its own man-
ger and its own bowl for concentrates. The indispensable
drinking trough completes his feeding equipment.

The manger must be big enough for a ration of hay and
should be placed at floor level. A horse whose manger is
too high may have trouble in spring when he is put out to
pasture, because his neck muscles will be in poor condi-
tion for stretching downward to the grass. The manger
may be covered with an iron grill with bars spaced 1 1
inches apart, to keep the hay from being scattered in all
directions. The oat ration can be served in a bucket set
into a hole in a plank. If the manger is well constructed
and has no opening at the bottom, the oats can simply be
put in with the hay.

If your horse has to be tied up in the stable, the rope
(preferably a cotton one) should be long enough so that
when he is getting food from the bottom of the manger it
is still just comfortably slack. The other end, therefore,
must be attached to the wall at the height of his head
when he straightens up. Thus, he will not be able to get
his legs tangled in the rope.

A screw top jar makes a cheap
weather tight light fitting

the core of toilet paper may be
used as a poison container

15

do

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hydrant

0.

soil line

frost line

diet

The watering question calls for very careful consideration.
Water must either be brought to the stable in pails or be
piped in. Horses consume a great deal of water and pails
can get very heavy and awkward, especially in winter on
an icy pathway. If you decide to have the water piped in,
then the pipe must be laid well below the frost line and,
preferably, terminate in a hydrant at the stable end. In
this arrangement there is a tap for opening the line and a
drain valve, both below the frost line, so that the pipe
bringing the water up into the stable remains empty
when not in use. Otherwise, it would freeze up regularly
and cause no end of trouble. Although heating elements
can be installed on the intake pipe and drinking trough
and eliminate the necessity of a hydrant, they consume
electricity and entail some risk, however slight, of elec-
trocution and fire. Moreover, freezing is still possible if
there is a general power failure.

Paddock — The best fence is built of 2 X 8-inch lumber
nailed inside the paddock to posts not more than 8 feet
apart. The fence should be creosoted, not only to preserve
the wood but also to prevent the animals from chewing
on it. Barbed-wire and electric fences are not recom-
mended, but wire-mesh fences of the kind used for hogs
are acceptable. There should be a ground clearance of
about 1 foot. This will allow you to make a fast getaway
(by rolling under the fence if one of your gentle pets
decides to make a scene).

A word of advice in passing: spread some manure on the
grass outside the paddock. This will prevent the horse
from breaking the fence, trying to reach the grass on the
other side.

Stable Yard — Leave nothing lying around that might in-
jure the horse. Keep a sharp lookout for bent nails; when
rusted, they can cause a nasty hoof wound that could
lead your steed to the glue factory.

Your horse is not a gourmet, but he does require a
balanced diet containing a variety of food components
normally found in nature. He knows by instinct where to
look for these items, although sometimes a region may
be lacking in some of the essentials. In any event, to feed
him you don't have to start up the barbecue pit!

Like every other warm-blooded animal, a horse needs
energy foods, which provide heat for comfort, fuel to keep

16

the body functioning and energy for walking, trotting or
galloping. At the same time, he must have the food
elements necessary for building and repairing cells of the
muscles, bones and body organs which are constantly
changing.

Although carbohydrates and fats (for heat and energy)
and proteins (for building) make up the bulk of the
horse's rations, vitamins are also necessary for his well-
being. Only minute quantities are needed, but each of
these Vital amines' has a special function in the horse's
diet. Vitamin A, for example, ensures good eyesight and
healthy respiratory and digestive systems. Vitamin B
assures the overall strength of the animal, normal devel-
opment of bones and a good balance of minerals in
the blood.

Thus, your cherished steed needs all sorts of things in his
diet. However, since diet is a long and complicated study
and you have no need to understand all its ramifications,
we suggest that you merely follow current practices. Feed
your horse hay in winter, grass in summer and grains all
year round. Finally, see that he gets all the water he
needs — preferably, about 10 gallons every 24 hours.

Water is not usually considered a food, but this makes it
no less essential. Water makes up the greater part of the
blood, which moves the nutritive elements to wherever
they are needed, and at the same time water carries
away the organic wastes. It also serves to stabilize the
body temperature. In a sense, a horse is just a big leather
bottle. Did you know that water constitutes almost 50% of
him?

Digestion — If you understand the digestive system of
your horse, you will have gone a long way towards
establishing a proper feeding regime.

Digestion breaks down food into elements the body can
assimilate and eliminates wastes at the end of the line.
It is a combination of mechanical, chemical and micro-
biological processes. It begins, as everyone knows, with
chewing. What is not so well understood perhaps is that,
in the course of chewing, the food gets mixed with saliva,
which is 99% water and 1% proteins. Hay absorbs about
four times its own weight in saliva, and oats about their
own equivalent by weight.

Although a horse eats about the same feed as ruminants,
he does not have a similar multiple-stage digestive sys-
tem and must chew his food longer before swallowing.

17

It takes him 15 to 20 minutes to eat a pound of hay and
5 to 10 minutes for a pound of grain. At the same time, he
drinks at least 5 pounds of water if available.

From the mouth; the food travels to the cardia, an ex-
tremely important organ which controls the amount of
food entering the stomach. Since a horse's stomach is
comparatively small and can only accommodate a little
food at any one time, it is preferable to feed him two,
three or even four times a day. Some horses eat greedily
and choke; to correct this, put one or two round stones,
about the size of a tennis ball, in the oat bowl — ■ and
watch them slow down.

A horse's stomach is delicate. Since it is small, the filling
and evacuation cycle is necessarily slow, and any distur-
bance brings difficulties. The stomach is particularly sus-
ceptible to abrupt changes of food and can also become
1 unsettled by over-eating of grain or drinking too much
water. Any change in diet should be spread over at least
r15 days. Regularity of feeding times is also essential.

^S^ghe stomach is followed by a system of tubes (intestines),
through which digested food is assimilated and wastes
are carried to the end of the line. The system ends in a
rectum about a foot long which functions five to a dozen
times a day, ridding the animal of several pounds of
fecal matter.

Hay — Feeding a horse is easy but care must be taken
not to feed him improperly. All feed must be wholesome
and of good quality. But how can you tell if the hay, for
example, is up to standard?

First, it must not be dusty. Pick up a bale and let it drop
from a height of 3 feet. If you are blinded by the dust and
it makes you cough, the hay is not good. Nothing is more
dangerous to a horse than dusty hay. Among other things,
it causes respiratory ailments. However, if by some un-

~tunate set of circumstances you have nothing else to
him, dampen it as carefully as you can before

iding.

>econd, hay should be as green and leafy as possible
tnd should have a pleasant odor. It may consist mainly
>f timothy (or millet), with a small amount of non-spiny

Legrass and alfalfa. Brownish, hard hay with whitish

is of rot is dangerous.

lly, hay must not contain too many weeds. Some
;ds are very dangerous, especially in large quantities
; of the worst is horsetail (not to be confused with

18

foxtail, a weed harmless to horses), which is as toxic dry
as when green. Wild barley is also hazardous to horses
because spikelets can get into the skin and eyes causing
sores and sometimes blindness. Other bad ones are the
common fleabane, which makes horses sneeze, and cow
cockle and hare's-ear mustard, both of which have poi-
sonous seeds. Stinkweed seeds also can be dangerous if
eaten in large quantities.

Hay that is contaminated with weeds has less chance of
being dangerous if it is cut before the seeds have formed.
In any case, the earlier the hay is cut the more nutritive
it will be, although obviously there will be less of it. The
most favorable time for cutting from the standpoint of
both yield and quality is just before the grass flowers.
It will be to your advantage, therefore, to get hay from
the very first cutting. Timothy and other grasses can be
affected by a mold known as ergot, which is very dan-
gerous to horses. If you see some ergot or horsetail in a hay
field, get your hay somewhere else.

Some weeds found in pastures are poisonous. One of
these is cowbane, related to the hemlock the ancients use
to settle their political arguments. Stinking Willie, or tansy
ragwort, is dangerous to horses but is rather rare. FinalJ^
common St. John's-wort contains a substance that is,
sonous to white horses if they are exposed to strong Ui
light after eating it.

Grains — The only way to be sure of getting good grains
(also called concentrates) is to buy them from a reputable
dealer.

Oats are probably the best grain for the horse, because
they tend to dissolve into an easily digestible porridge.
Oats must be supplemented, however, by certain min-
erals. Crushed oats are best because they are the most
easily assimilated by the animal.

Crushed barley is a good energy food. It can be fed i
very cold weather, but care should be taken not to giv
too much. Horses that get too much barley show a ten\lj
dency to shed their winter hair prematurely. Also, barley
has a tendency to form a hard ball in the stomach and
may be hard to digest.

Cobs of corn are perhaps better than barley as an energy
food. The horse has to do a lot of chewing on the cobs.
This slows down his ingestion of food and keeps him from
stuffing himself. At the same time, it keeps him occupied
and out of mischief (saves lumber in the stable, too!).

Timothy

19

Diet Supplements — Supplements are additives intended
to balance the diet. However, they must not be given
without first having the hay and grain analyzed. Other-
wise, the only result may be to aggravate a deficiency
that is already present. Your local agronomist can tell you
where to get your feed analyzed and what supplements
to feed. Do not forget to specify the horse's weight and
type (saddle horse, work horse, etc.), whether he has a
salt block available, what his color is and whether he is
stabled day and night, at night only, or is let out to
pasture.

Linseed meal is an excellent protein supplement for
horses. It is also a laxative and a tonic. Used in reason-
able quantities (a pound a day for a 1,000-pound horse)
at the start of the summer, it will give your horse a bright,
glossy coat for the show ring. Linseed meal should be
bined with corn, oats or hay. Do not start abruptly
with a full pound. In fact, always begin with small
antities of supplements and increase them gradually
full daily ration.

Cow cockle

ne supplement that can be given without hesitation is
the salt block, which some horses devour avidly. Also,
powdered minerals, brown or black and very heavy, can
be left in a bowl in the stable where the animals can eat
them at their leisure.

How Much to Feed - - The amount of feed you give your
horse is governed by his weight. Since it is hard to get his
four feet all at one time on the bathroom scale, we recom-
mend that you acquire a height-weight tape. Saddle
horses all have more or less the same proportions, and it
has been observed that the chest girth gives a fairly
accurate measure of the horse's weight. Tapes that have
been graduated accordingly can be bought at most
feed stores.

Most of the information obtainable in Canada on the
feeding of horses applies specifically to draught horses.
In such literature the feeding is compared to that of milk
cows. However the latter require certain supplements of
milk and beef cattle, of course, require a different set of
supplements for the production of meat.

Saddle horses must be fed much more lightly than either
cattle or draft horses. The Arabs have a saying: the two
worst enemies of the saddle horse are idleness and fat.

Canada fieabane A 1,000 pound horse needs 10 to 12 pounds of hay and
(horseweed) 6 to 10 pounds of grain a day. When he is idle, the hay

20

ration should be increased to 12 to 15 pounds, and the
grain reduced to 4 to 8 pounds. The following table may
serve as a guide:

Weight of

Ration for i

die horse

Ration for wor

■cinq hor

horse

hay

qrain

hay

grain

pounds

600

7.2— 9.0

2.4—4.8

6— 7.2

3 6—6

700

8.4—10.5

2.8—5.6

7— 8.4

4.2— 7

800

9.6—12.0

3.2—6.4

8— 9.6

4.8— 8

900

10.8—13.5

3.6—7.2

9—10.8

5.4— 9

1,000

12.0—15.0

4.0—8.0

10—12.0

6.0—10

1,100

13.2—16.5

4.4—8.8

11—13.2

6.6—11

1,200

14.4 — 18.0

4.8—9.6

12—14.4

7.2—12

In addition, give your horse plenty of water (at
5 gallons a day), salt in block form or mixed with
grain, and have minerals available to the horse at all
times in a bowl.

Obviously, you will not want to weigh out the grain ration
at every feeding. Do it once for the whole day, dividing
this quantity into three or four equal portions. It is useful
to have a tin of some kind that will hold a third or a
quarter of the ration; for example, a 1 -pound cigarette
tobacco tin will hold 1 0 ounces of grain. As soon as your
horse sees this tin he will get excited.

It is possible to buy feeds fully prepared for horses. Some
of these are balanced concentrate mixtures that replace
the grains of the above table; others are intended to
replace the entire ration, including hay. After a visit to
your local dealer you should know exactly what to feed
your horse. The ration will have been mixed, balanced
and designed to make everything easy for you. Obviously
you are going to have to pay extra for this service, but at
the same time you will avoid certain maintenance and
storage difficulties.

A summer pasture for the horse is most desirable, for
green grass contains all sorts of things essential to his
good health. How large a field is needed? Consider first
of all that the horse has four hoofs and the clumps of
grass that he tramples are going to be left there several
days until they straighten up again. Also, he drops his
dung whenever and wherever nature dictates and, fas-
tidious creature that he is, won't eat the grass, on which
it has fallen, for several years.

Let the horse out to pasture at every opportunity. Horses
and cows can be pastured together, though it is not the
best of arrangements.

Ergot on quack grass,
rye and timothy

21

You should try, as far as possible, to reconstruct the con-
ditions of a natural life for your horse. The wild horse
finds his hay already sun-dried beneath the snow, which
he scrapes away with his hoof. He gets grains in the same
way, and to compensate for a number of deficiencies he
also chews the bark from trees. He is quite fond of white
poplar bark. Many old timers will tell you that you ought
to give your horse five or six poplar logs in the course of
the winter, to keep him from getting worms and to supply
all sorts of nourishment that he needs. In any case, while
he is gnawing on a poplar log, he will not be trying to
chew up his manger. Cut the logs only as needed, as
horses do not care much for stale or dried-out poplar.

what to look for in a horse

To the uninitiated, all horses look alike. But, as anyone
who really knows horses can tell you, there is an almost
infinite variety of specific features and temperaments
among them. If you have a picture of the ideal horse
firmly in your mind, any defect will become evident at a
glance. Certain of these defects, however unobtrusive,
may eventually have serious consequences. Therefore,
before devoting your life to a horse, you should know

Cabal us Perissodactyl, an ungulate of the equine family, usually called a
horse.

ear

forehead
eye

mane

neck haunch

withers |ojns / rump

back i / / thigh

tail

nostril
mouth-

throat
shoulder

belly

forearm -^|

1 elbow \
H chest ^^

knee — K

[■M legorgaskin
^ft chestnut

canon — H

M canon—

fetlock-joint M

fetlock-joint —
M. coronet-^^^

*~ toe — 4p

The 'hand' is a horse measure
equivalent to 4 inches.

foot ^3

hock

22

something about horses generally. A description of im-
portant characteristics follows.

Parts of the Horse — The pastern does for a horse what
the shock absorber does for a car. If the hoof is well
shaped, the pastern is on the same slope as the wall. The
most common angle of inclination is 45° (greater on the
hind legs). Cracks sometimes develop in the fold of the
pastern when the horse has been walking in frozen mud
or cold water. Bony tumors can develop on the pastern,
from the hoof upward. This condition, called sidebone,
can become painful and reduce the suppleness of the
limb. It is most noticeable when the horse is walked
downhill.

The fetlock is important to the smoothness of a horse's
gait. Overshot fetlock is a wobbly condition due to a
vitamin deficiency in young horses, and to fatigue in
older ones. Windgalls, small lumps that develop at the
back of the fetlock joint, will cause limping.

The cannon should be short and strong. It can be at-
tacked by fusees, bony tumors that may be hardly visible
at first but eventually lead to lameness.

The fragile knee joint should be broad, thick and vertical.
External injuries or internal strains can cause the forma-
tion of osselets, or hard lumps, which blemish the joint
and may ultimately immobilize it. Scars on the front of
the knee detract from the value of the horse.

The forearm should be vertical, to give length to the
stride.

The elbow is the joint at the top of the forearm. The cap-
ped elbow merges into the thorax. When a horse gets
down on the ground with its legs curled under, the hoofs
knock against the elbows and often cause soft spongy
tumors. This can be avoided by applying a pad to the
pastern.

A long, sloping, muscular shoulder provides the flexibility
of movement that enables a horse to adapt its gait in-
stantaneously to variations in the terrain. Severe falls can
produce arthritis of the shoulder, a very serious infirmity
in a horse.

The throat must not be constricted by the bridle or halter
but both should be tight enough to keep them from slip-
ping off the horse's head.

Horses' mouths vary greatly in sensitivity. The bridle bit
should be wide enough to leave room for one finger on

ear

eye socket

forehead
eye

nose

lips
nostril

23

low

high
wither

either side of the horse's mouth. The cheek piece should
be adjusted so that one or two wrinkles show at the
corner of the mouth. Some horses will respond to the
slightest pressure on the bit, others will require fairly
rough handling of the reins. Occasionally, you will find
one with no sensitivity in the mouth at all. Some horses
have a habit of munching' on the bit so that their mouths
fill with foam. The bit can cause injuries at the corners of
the lips, and an improperly used bit can even cut the
tongue.

Lips should remain slack except when the horse is chew-'
ing. Sometimes the lower lip of an overworked, poorly fed
horse droops. This is not only unattractive but the con-
tinual loss of saliva can also be detrimental to the
animal's health.

On a saddle horse, the nostrils should be broad and well
opened. Bleeding from the nostrils after strenuous exercise
indicates something wrong with the circulatory system.
Scars or ulcers on the mucous membrane could be due
to a serious ailment.

If there are any scars on the muzzle, they could indicate
a weakness of the forequarters and frequent falling.

Bumps or depressions on the forehead suggest that the
horse is or has been seriously ill.

The eyes are protected from injury by their sockets, lids
and lashes. Horses with skittish eyes may have poor
eyesight. Although it takes a specialist to accurately
determine the quality of the eyesight, a cursory examina-
tion can give some idea. Move a finger in front of the eye,
or cover the eye with the palm for a few seconds and
then expose it quickly to the light. This should cause the
eye to blink and the pupil should dilate. So-called 'pig
eyes,' that is, small and deep set, are indicative of poor
eyesight and a weak sluggish animal. Large, bulging
'bull's eyes,' on the other hand, suggest a myopic
condition.

The eye sockets are hollow at the top and their depth
increases with age. Thus they provide a handy way of
estimating this factor.

The ears are the best indicators of a horse's character;
they stand straight when he is in good spirits and lie flat
when he is in bad humor. Horses with a lot of hair in the
ears are usually docile.

On a saddle horse, the neck should be clearly separate
from the shoulders. A neck that is too long shows lack of

24

strength and detracts from the appearance; one that is too
short indicates lack of flexibility; one too thick — a stiff
forearm; and one too thin — the head is poorly supported.
A horse with a neck like a stag will likely be difficult to
manage.

The mane, a ridge of long hairs along the nape of the
horse's neck, provides your horse with something to brush
away flies, and gives you something to hold onto when
you ride bareback.

The withers, a very important part of the saddle horse,
are situated just behind the shoulder, continuing the neck
line. They should be prominent on a saddle horse. A
poorly fitting saddle can cause severe ulceration in this
area. The size of a horse is indicated by its height from
the ground to the withers. When the withers are low and
thick, the forearm movements are apt to be awkward.
Also, the saddle will be hard to keep in place and injury
to the withers can result. If the withers are prominent but
do not extend back far enough, the pommel of the saddle
will butt against them and cause injury. Do not treat
injuries or defects on the withers lightly because they can
lead to endless complications.

The back should slope gently from front to rear. This will
enable the saddle to slide rearward, thus avoiding injury
to the withers. A sway-backed horse is one with a con-
cave back. Swayback is due to underdevelopment of the
loin muscles, or it may be hereditary. A deep swayback
slopes forward, causing the saddle to slide onto the
shoulders and giving the rider a poor seat. Roachback,
the opposite to swayback, results in a stiff stride.

Prominent haunches may be injured when the horse lies
down on a hard surface or passes too close to projecting
objects. This is where a great many fractures occur, most
of them not serious.

The rump of the saddle horse should be long, horizontal,
fairly muscular and moderately wide. The animal's
strength is proportional to the length of the rump, and its
speed to the direction. A steeply inclined rump does not
promote speed, but favors up and down motion, as in the
gallop. 'Double rump,' where strongly developed buttock
muscles are separated by a depression, which is charac-
teristic of the Quarter Horse, is not desirable in a saddle
horse. Such a horse is strong and has considerable speed
for short distances, but lacks suppleness. A horizontal
rump with a slope of less than 25° relative to the top line
means less strength and resistance in the hindquarters. A

Va 4>i¥ "1

double V \i
croup ^ * \ V

25

strung up
hindquarter

horse with a rump slope of more than 45'
ride.

is a poor one to

arter

The fail is not simply for decorative purposes. The horse
uses it to brush away flies. Often you will see two horses
side by side swishing flies away from each other's heads.
Never dock a horse's tail.

The anus. The Arabs advise us to mistrust a horse with a
gaping anus, whose droppings are irregular in size.

In a fast horse, look for a gaskin that is broad, thick, fairly
long and sloping.

The hock is the most important of the hindquarter joints,
since it has to withstand the forces exerted by the numer-
ous and powerful muscles of the hindquarters. It must be
arter flat, clean-cut and long. Bone spavin, an inflammation
appearing at the base of the hock, causes lameness; and
bog spavin, a soft tumor on the outside of the hock, gives
it a deformed profile.

The cannon. The longer the forearm the shorter the can-
non must be if the horse is to be fast. The cannon should
be straight, short, flat and moderately thick.

The belly behind the ribs should be round and well
shaped, neither too bulky nor too flat. Its size depends on
the size of the digestive organs, whose development, of
course, depends on the animal's diet. A flabby or droop-
ing belly is a sign of too much coarse roughage, especially
dry forages or grass, and not enough exercise. This can
usually be overcome by careful feeding on an oat base,
and a gradual return to regular work. 'Greyhound' belly
is a sign of poor digestion.

The chest should be long, wide and deep. A horse with a
small chest is too easily winded.

The Set ot the Legs — This has to do with the perpendicu-
larity of the front and hindquarters. Have the horse stand
on a level surface and inspect it from the front, side and
rear.

Viewed from the side, the set of the ioreguarters is right
if the perpendicular divides the forearm, knee and cannon
into equal parts when passing through the center of the
joints from the elbow to the heel. Look for the following
faults:

□ Slope to the rear: gives unfirm balance and increases
the risk of falling; paces are too close to the ground and
stride too short.

□ Set forward: legs slope forward, putting too much

26

weight on hindquarters; sprained talons and pulled ten-
dons may result.

□ Bandy legs: knees are too far forward; increases risk
of falling.

□ Hollow knee: opposite condition to bandy legs; gives
unfirm support; arthritis of the joints may result.

[J Long pastern: forequarters are not firm; legs tire
quickly.

Viewed from the front, the set is correct when the mem-
bers are perpendicular from the forearm to the ground.
Look for these faults:

□ Open set: legs as a whole are turned forwards, elbows
are separated from body and breast is wide; talon injuries
and wounds from the sides of the shoes may result.

[J Knock-kneed: knees come together without the feet
being turned and tend to strike each other; chest is too
narrow and muscles are flabby; horse has general in-
stability.

□ Cow-hocked: legs as a whole turned outward; chest is
generally narrow and elbows are close to body; cuts from
the calkins and quarters of the horseshoes may result.

□ Too open at the front: horse has powerful muscles and
broad chest but paces will be slow.

Viewed from the side, the set of the hindquarters is correct
when a perpendicular from the point of the buttock passes
through the point of the hock, follows the back edge of
the cannon and strikes the ground behind the foot.

If the hind legs are situated ahead of the vertical from the
point of the buttock, the horse will tire easily and have
poor balance. It should be noted that a horse suffering
severe pain in the forequarters will pull part of his hind-
quarters under him to ease his discomfort.

A horse is said to be more or less stretched in the rear
quarters when the legs are behind the proper vertical line.
This will affect his speed.

Viewed from the rear, the set is correct, if the perpendicu-
lar from the point of the buttock runs right through the
center of the lower parts of the leg from the point of the
hock, and leaves a space between the hoofs about equal
to the width of the fetlock. If the line is inside these points,
the horse is too open, often splay-footed (point of hoofs
turned outward and inside of heels too close). Legs will
lack firmness.

- - bog spavin

wide
hest

27

%

set
I forward

hocks
too
far under

In the opposite condition, the legs are too close and the
horse can hurt itself on the insides of the cannons and
fetlock joints.

Other Considerations — Obviously, you can't be too care-
ful when buying a horse. Look for a reputable dealer and,
if possible, take someone along who knows the 'ropes', so
to speak. If you want to make a real blunder, buy a horse
at an auction, where you will have little time to look him
over and will not be able to mount him.

Choose a gentle horse for a child or beginner. Nervous,
temperamental or stubborn animals provide a lot of busi-
ness for the hospitals! A novice rider should not be al-
lowed to go near them.

The size of the animal should be matched to the pro-
spective rider. A child or a beginner on a big horse
will feel overwhelmed and have difficulty in learning
the essentials.

If you are looking for a show horse, build will be the
prime consideration. Decide on the class you want to en-
ter, then look for an animal that best meets the require-
ments. In any event, it costs just as much to keep a good
horse as a worthless one, so the choice should be easy.

The paces of a horse are also important. Look for one with
a flexible gait rather than a short, jerky stride. Observe
the gait from the side, head on and from the back. Watch
the hoofs carefully; if the rear ones touch the front, pass
on to the next offering. If an animal has navicular disease,
the lameness will show up best when he walks up an in-
cline. Ringbone shows up best on a downhill walk. Corns
are best perceived when the animal goes along the side
of a slope.

An older, trustworthy steed is preferable to a young one,
which is best left to an experienced horseman.

Before you finally make up your mind, decide whether
you will be pasturing the horse or stabling him. A horse
used to being pastured will have trouble adapting to the
barn.

28

knock-
kneed

too open
front

too

narrow

in front

Take a good look at the incisors. If they are worn, you will
know that the horse has beaver tendencies and will chew
up- your stable.

A final word of advice that may save you a lot of trouble:
before closing the deal, why not have the horse looked
over by a veterinarian? A spoiled horse is useless and will
be hard to resell.

The size of a horse is measured in 'hands.' A hand is 4
inches, so that a horse of 15 hands will be 60 inches from
ground to withers. A 62-mch horse will be 15-2 hands.

the equine clinic

One of the books reviewed during the preparation of this
publication seemed to be of such great interest that the
chapter on the signs of good health and signs of illness
has been condensed for inclusion here.*

Every responsible, well-informed horse owner should be
able to assess the condition of his animals and be capable
of assisting the veterinarian by the careful administration
of prescribed treatments. He should also be able to dis-
cern the first signs of illness in his animals, so as to call
for professional aid as soon as possible. On the other
hand, he must never forget that his knowledge is only a
means of appreciation and detection and in no way re-
places the art of the veterinarian.

Signs of Good Health — In a healthy animal, everything
functions in a regular way.

The posture never appears strained, whether the animal
is standing or reclining. The standing posture is the more
common. In this position, the animal sleeps with its head
leaning on the manger or some other convenient object.
Each leg is rested in turn by lifting it off the ground and
transferring the weight to the other three. A reclining horse
will lie on either side and have its legs stretched out fully;

'Translation of extract from Traite des maladies du cheval, by A. Benion.

29

or, it may put the weight on one side of the chest and
belly and lie with its head up and legs drawn inwards
and bent.

The skin is supple, the hair smooth and oily.

The conjunctive (mucous membrane of the eye) is pinkish.

Appetite is robust and constant. As mealtime approaches,
the horse neighs, paws the ground and tries to attract the
attention of those who look after it. It attacks its food
greedily and eats its entire ration without stopping.

Digestion is normal; droppings are well molded and
healthy looking.

Respiration is slow and regular. When the horse is idle,
the nostrils are barely open, flanks rise and fall constantly
and smoothly. A colt breathes about 15 times a minute,
an adult horse 9 or 10 times and an old horse only 9 times.

Circulation is determined by the regularity of the heart-
beat, which may be felt by placing the hand flat over the
left side of the chest inside the elbow, or by probing with
the fingertips at a point where an artery comes to the
surface; arterial pulsation corresponds exactly to the con-
tractions of the heart. The average pulse rate of an adult
horse is 30 to 40 beats a minute. In some animals, it may
be considerably higher (50 to 70).

The pulse is so valuable a prognostication of disease that
it is very important to know how to take it. There is noth-
ing difficult about this; it merely requires a little practice
and care. Generally speaking, it is taken from the artery
along the edge of the maxilla (cheek) where the latter
emerges from the hollow space beneath the jaw and en-
ters the facial region. The thumb of the right hand is
placed on the outside of the maxilla while the fingers curl
around it. When pressure is now applied to the sharp
edge of the maxilla, the artery will be felt as an elastic
cord. Surges of blood through it will be clearly sensed.

Finally, the temperature is taken with the aid of a special
thermometer, called an a maxima medical thermometer
which every horse owner should possess. To obtain a read-
ing, it is inserted in the rectum. The normal temperature
is between 99°F and 101 °F.

General Signs of Illness — Symptoms of illness may be
either general, that is, common to all acute illnesses, or
specific, which apply to diseases that follow a particular
course. A horse owner should learn to recognize general
symptoms.

30

These signs point to a vague but alarming situation that
makes it necessary to call in a veterinarian and to give
prompt medication. Though all the owner can do is take
preventive measures, he must know how to determine the
nature of the illness and make a general diagnosis. Acute
illnesses affect mainly digestion and circulation, since the
rest of the body depends on these functions. The least dis-
order will affect them profoundly and the morbidity imme-
diately becomes evident in the deportment, appearance
and general bearing of the animal. Let us consider the
various deviations from the normal state, one by one.

The bearing of the animal is not natural. He keeps away
from the manger, at the end of his tether, so to speak, and
seems reluctant to move. He holds his head low, has a
strained attitude and stands stolidly on all fours. He walks
painfully, slowly, listlessly, sometimes unsteadily, and has
a dull-eyed, dejected expression.

The skin is sticky, the hair dull and patchy looking. The
loins, normally flexible, do not react to pinching. Backbone
is rigid.

Appetite is often poor, the horse sometimes refusing food
entirely. Thirst is always intense.

Digestion, accompanying the loss of appetite, functions
poorly or not at all. The entrance to the digestive tract
should be checked immediately to see if the rejection is
due to some trouble with the teeth (wolf's tooth), tongue
sores, obstructed saliva ducts or various other possible
causes that should not be confused with the start of an
acute illness. There may be diarrhea, or the droppings
may be small, dry, too few and spotted with a whitish
mucous.

Circulation is more rapid than usual; this is determined by
taking the pulse.

Body temperature rises with faster circulation. These vari-
ations are greatest at the ends of the limbs and in the
mouth and ears. The rectal temperature will sometimes
go above 102°F and even 104°F (hyperthermia). Such an
abnormal temperature is a sign of circulatory trouble and
a general disorientation of the system. The visible mucous
membranes of the eye, nose and mouth are inflamed and
warm, because of the fever accompanying the disease.
Sometimes, however, these membranes change from be-
ing red and warm to pale and cold. This drop in the
external temperature as well as the internal one (below
98°F; hypothermia), together with pallor, always indi-

31

cates a serious lesion, requiring the attention of a vet-
erinarian.

Thus there are two possibilities: a small artery, weak
pulse, low temperature and pale mucous membranes on
the one hand; a full, swollen artery, strong pulse, high
temperature and inflamed mucous membranes on the
other. With the first, while waiting for the veterinarian to
arrive, energetic steps should be taken to restore circula-
tion. Vigorous rubbing with handfuls of straw or stroking
with rags soaked in warm vinegar or oil of turpentine, the
application of mustard plasters, and the feeding of such
aromatic plants as sage, wormwood, rosemary or camo-
mile are all helpful and generally successful.

With the second, that is, with fever, the horse may be
given warm, clear liquids, and should be covered with a
blanket to prevent chills.

In a sick horse, respiration is also speeded up; the rise
and fall of the flank are rapid, unsteady and of short dura-
tion. In certain respiratory diseases, the falling of the flank
takes place in two distinct stages.

From the above, it is evident that a person can easily tell
when his horses are in good health and can immediately
recognize the first signs of trouble. After that, all he has
to do is apply the proper first aid and explain his diag-
nosis to the veterinarian.

How to Take a Rectal Temperature — Before taking the
temperature, always bring the mercury column down be-
low 98°F mark by shaking the thermometer vigorously, or
by grasping it firmly in the hand and swinging it back
and forth. Now, wet the lower part or smear it lightly with
vaseline, introduce it gently into the rectum through the
anus and hold it there about 5 minutes. At the end of this
time, withdraw it carefully. Since the column of mercury
now indicates the maximum rectal temperature (whence
the name a maxima) and is stationary, there is plenty of
time to. take the reading under the most favorable lighting
conditions available.

Obviously, for safety's sake, one of the horse's feet, either
front or hind, should be raised off the ground before be-
ginning this procedure.

Diseases — Infectious, benign or virulent diseases caused
by organisms that invade a horse's body from within or
without undermine its health. Some animals have a na-
tural resistance to such diseases but others have to be
vaccinated to avoid infection.

32

Many disease-carrying organisms are ejected in the urine,
in the pus from sores; in cough sputum and, with rabies,
in the saliva. This is how the diseases propagate.

Here is a quick lesson in disease prevention:

□ Avoid contact with sick animals.

□ Disinfect buildings twice a year, and horse vehicles
before every trip.

□ Do not allow anyone to bring in disease germs from
other animals on their shoes and clothing. Change cloth-
ing and shoes!

□ Make the blacksmith sterilize his tools with a product
that you supply.

□ Buy your grain in new sacks, and at fairs and exhibi-
tions use your own manger and your own pails (filled at
the tap).

□ Feed the animal well; a tired, hungry, neglected one
has low resistance and invites disease germs to take up
residence.

□ For injections use only disposable needles.

Probably the most important things for you to know in
connection with horse diseases is the name and telephone
number of a good veterinarian. Be sure to write down all
the symptoms — temperature, appearance of the eyes,
hair, which leg has the limp, condition of appetite and
any other general signs of illness that will assist him in
arriving at a diagnosis.

Parasites — Since infectious diseases are spread by para-
sites, you must get rid of these unwanted guests. To do
this, you have to be able to identify them.

Let us start with the external parasites: flies, lice, mites
(causing mange), ticks and fungi that cause ringworm.
Note that mange and ringworm can attack the rider as
well as the mount. Ordinary flies do not bite, but their
buzzing about the eyes drives the poor beast to distrac-
tion. Horseflies and stable flies sting first and then suck
the animal's blood. They are efficient carriers of such
diseases as equine encephalomyelitis and infectious
anemia. The bluebottle lays its eggs in wounds; the larvae
then feed on the dead flesh and thus retard the healing
process. Another type of larvae from flies eats live flesh.
Neither of these will survive a good cleaning of the wound
followed by the application of a suitable ointment recom-
mended by the veterinarian.

The best defence against flies of all kinds is to remove the

Botfly

Stable fly

5/16'

33

1/8"

Louse

Mite

1/100'

Tick

manure every day from the stable and corral, store it in a
well-closed shack and apply slaked lime to it frequently.
Common flies lay their eggs in fresh manure in the pas-
ture or the corral, horseflies and bluebottles in decom-
posing organic matter of the kind found in swamps and
bogs, in grasses, near water or in old manure. Make sure,
therefore, that you don't provide them with the means to
a population explosion. Clean and disinfect!

Pesticides can also be used, but be careful. Above all,
consult your agronomist to be sure that you purchase the
right product and, please read the label before opening
the package. Pesticides used by themselves are only a
palliative. The daily cleaning is a lot more economical, a
good deal more aesthetic and less dangerous.

Lice, being small, are hard to see, but a horse that has
them will show bald patches and do a lot of scratching
and biting at its skin. It will have an unkempt appearance.
The adult lice lay their eggs at the base of the hair. These
hatch in 1 1 to 20 days and are ready to lay, in turn, 1 1 to
12 days later. The best remedy is to feed the animal prop-
erly and keep the stable clean. Also, scrub any harness,
saddle, brush or other equipment that has been used on
other steeds before putting it on yours. Your local agrono-
mist or veterinarian can recommend pesticides to combat
lice.

Mange is caused by mites. It makes the horse nervous,
causes him to scratch a lot and lose his hair. He may get
a reddish skin with wrinkles. Scabs often appear. Each
mite lays 10 to 25 eggs during the laying period, which
lasts 12 to 15 days. The eggs hatch in 3 to 10 days and
10 to 12 days later the larvae have become adult mites,
ready to lay again. To get rid of the mites, you will need
to consult a veterinarian.

Ticks not only sting, but carry serious infectious diseases.
They may pose serious problems. Small numbers can be
removed by rubbing them with a cotton swab wound on
the end of a stick and dipped in alcohol or chloroform.
Since ticks breathe through their skin, this suffocates them.
Consult your agronomist about their control in pastures;
or the veterinarian if a horse has an excessive number on
his body.

Ringworm, caused by microscopic fungi, causes the hair
to fall out. Often the bare part is covered with a grey scab
with short hairs coming up through it. A good soaping
(no detergent, please) and painting with tincture of iodine
will usually suffice. In more serious cases, call the vet-

34

erinarian. Remember that ringworm is easily passed on
to humans, especially children. Keep them away during
the treatment, and burn the scabs. Always work with
rubber gloves.

Internal parasites, although not as evident, can cause a
great deal of suffering and reduce the value of your ani-
mal. No treatment will be of any use unless you observe
the following precautions:

^] Don't put the hay on the floor where it may be in con-
tact with manure containing insect eggs or larvae.

□ Don't let the horse drink from puddles that may be
contaminated by manure.

□ Keep the stalls clean and don't use hay as litter.

□ If the stable has an earthen floor, replace the top 6
inches every 6 months.

□ Store the manure in a closed shack where it will heat
up, killing insect eggs and larvae.

□ Don't let grass grow in the corral.

□ Don't leave the horse too long in one pasture.

Q Discourage flies, birds and rodents that carry parasites
from farm to farm.

□ Apply slaked lime to the droppings.

Once again, the best method of combatting these para-
sites is sanitation, since all the medicines for them are
hazardous. In cooperation with your veterinarian, you can
organize a good preventive program: constant cleanli-
ness, and treatment after the first severe frost and again
before putting the horse out to pasture in the spring.

The commonest of the internal parasites is probably the
botfly. This insect flies around the horse, then suddenly
dives onto the front legs, where it lays an egg that sticks
to a hair. It repeats this about 500 times. When the horse
scratches the spot with its teeth, the eggs enter the diges-
tive system and the larvae, after a trip of 3 to 4 weeks,
establish themselves on the wall of the stomach. Ten to 1 1
months later, they emerge in the droppings, change into
flies and repeat the cycle.

Certain stomach worms will cause a rrera in su: mer

All of them produce distress of one soqjeZJ2?^£nother
Ascarids are the longest of these parasites, o
a length of 12 inches. They inhabit the intestines.

Thread worms, 2 to 3 inches long, are white an
often be seen in the droppings. Horses with these wor

Parasites

actual size

large stomach worms

are often seen rubbing their hindquarters against fences.
This crushes the worms emerging from the anus. They
can be seen if the tail is lifted. A horse with threadworms
tends to be listless.

The most dangerous of the parasitic worms is the stion-
gyle. It feeds on the blood, causing lameness and even
death. Being very small, strongyles are difficult to detect.

Wounds — Besides being subject to many diseases and
parasites, horses are also prone to injury. A footing
missed because of a concealed stump, a rusty nail in a
board or an old fragment of barbed wire in the grass, a
broken bottle on the side of the road — these are some
of the causes of injury.

The first thing to do about a cut is to prevent infection,
but don't stop there. If the wound is severe, call the
veterinarian at once. Most important, avoid using disin-
fectants that are too strong.

Tetanus is the infection to be feared most, especially if
the injury happened on muddy or dusty ground, as it
usually does. Only a veterinarian can give an antitetanus
injection.

All injuries to joints require close attention. Lameness
makes the horse avoid putting weight on the sore foot.
First of all, you must determine which foot is affected, and
this is not always easy. Obviously, the animal will be
reluctant to bring the injured foot to the ground. If it is a
front foot, he will raise his head when it touches the
ground so as to reduce the shock, lowering the head
again when he puts the sound foot down. He will do the
opposite for a bad rear foot, lowering the head for the
injured one and raising it for the good one. Sometimes
this can be observed best by making the horse walk or
trot towards you. However, on reading this paragraph
again you will realize that you may easily mistake an
injured hind foot for a front one, and vice versa. You will
have to observe very carefully. Then feel the feet to see
which one is warmest.

Any blow or shock that the horse has had can produce
lameness. When it happens, rest the horse and rub the
sore foot. Lameness can also be caused by a cut in the
fold of the pastern, perhaps after catching a foot in a wire
fence or injuring it in some other way. If the wound is
slight, treat it with an antiseptic. If there is a running sore,
an antiseptic footbath will be needed.

Strange as it may seem, lameness can be due to causes

36

other than shocks or wounds. Too much grain, or drinking
cold water when overheated from galloping, for example,
will bring it on (laminitis). Usually only the front feet are
affected, but it can strike the hindquarters too. If the con-
dition does not improve after 3 days, call the veterinarian.

Some Useful Tips —

Normal pulse (1 -year-old idle horse) 50-68 beats per m.
Normal pulse (adult idle horse) 36-57 beats per m.

Respiration (idle horse) 12-13 breaths per m.

Whenever possible, use medicines that can be mixed with
the feed. Call the veterinarian:

□ If the temperature goes above 103°F.

□ If there are severe spasms.

□ If there are deep wounds.

□ If there is marked limping that does not respond to first
aid treatment.

□ If the horse has trouble eating the grain.

□ For all stubborn skin conditions.

□ If there is a yellow discharge from the nostrils.

□ If you cannot diagnose some trouble.

□ If the animal has severe diarrhea, a bad cough, a runny
nose, or if it loses weight.

□ If the temperature rises a few days after a deep wound.

.cannon
bone

long
pastern

short
pastern

coronary
band

coffin
bone

horny
wall

horny frog

sensitive
navicular ^^
bone horny sole

all about hoofs

The hoof, in one sense, is the strongest part of the horse;
in another, the weakest. It is adapted to running and is
susceptible to anything you might do to it other than
restore its natural shape. Horseshoes, pesky things at
best, are only necessary if the horse is being ridden
regularly on hard or rocky ground. Often it is better not
to have them, but then you must use common sense.
Never ride an unshod horse for any great distance on
hard ground (3 miles at the very most).

If you do have your horse shod, see that the shoes are
adjusted every 6 to 8 weeks. Never, never let a shoe go
until it falls off by itself.

Dr. John Spark of the University of Arizona has designed
a new type of horseshoe which, far from being a neces-
sary evil, will help reduce laminitis, navicular disease
and other foot ailments. In all probability, this shoe will

frog

quarter

bar

sole

white
line

toe

37

path of the foot in flight

normal angle

broken backward

broken forward

X

^

ringed foot

low heeled

high heeled

cracked heel

hoof bind

Illustrations from Larousse

completely replace traditional horseshoes in time, but at
the moment it is very expensive.

It is useful to know the names of the different parts of the
hoof and the bottom of the foot, as shown on page 37.
You will then be in a better position to assess the advice
you are going to get from every quarter. You should
know, too, that the wall grows V2 inch a month, that the
sole and the frog wear down, and that the latter acts as a
lift-and-force pump, sending blood to all parts of the foot
each time it is put on the ground.

Before you attempt to work on your horse's hoofs your-
self, you should watch a competent farrier do the job
several times. The following hints may help you to under-
stand better what he is doing.

First and foremost, check the slope of the pastern.

The dotted lines in the diagrams above, indicate movement
of the hoof through the air at the walking pace. Now, if
you observe any of these configurations of the walk, you
know that the hoof has to be trimmed. Consult and
observe farriers, read books and, if necessary, take a
course. Only then will you be able to deal competently
with hoofs.

Every day each hoof should be cleaned with a hoof pick.
This will keep pebbles from getting permanently lodged
in the lateral clefts of the frog, and at the same time will
give you an opportunity to observe anything unusual.

Note first of all that the hoof should appear more or less
circular from above, that the sole should be concave, the
frog thick and the horn slightly moist. Scrub the hoofs

38

frequently with a sponge or a hard-bristled brush. Once
a week rub fat on the sole, the frog, the wall and the
coronet.

A standing horse puts a weight of about 10 pounds per
square inch on the hoof, but this load is greatly increased
when he trots or gallops (a man, by contrast, carries only
about 3 pounds per square inch). Thus any injury to the
hoof will hurt badly. If the horse is shod, the first thing to
do is to remove the shoe.

In the event of a stab wound in the sole or frog, for
example, from a nail, remove the object, disinfect the
opening and dress the wound until healed; also, get an
antitetanus injection for the horse.

If the frog has a bad odor and there is a blackish dis-
charge from it, your horse has thrush and you must first
disinfect the stable and the corral, then the sore, and
possibly put a boot over the ailing foot until it heals.
It would be wise to consult a veterinarian.

A hoof can be bruised from a blow of some kind. The inter-
nal injury, rarely visible, can be treated with warm baths.

More serious are corns, which appear at the bottom of
the heels or on the quarters when the horn is dry. A good
farrier or veterinarian can remove them.

Sand cracks, at the toe or on the quarter, are due to
extreme dryness of the walls. This happens when the
horse has been in the wet for a long time, followed by a
long dry period. When these appear, the farrier will have
to be called in; however, it is best to prevent the condition
by frequent oiling of the hoofs during wet periods, to
prevent the moisture from penetrating too deeply, then
washing the foot in the subsequent dry period, followed
by another oiling to retain the water.

Hoof bind is a constriction of the hoof. Often it is the result
of a horse being confined to the stable without sufficient
exercise. Only a veterinarian or daily exercise can cure it.

Horned ringbone is an extension of the hoof wall above
the coronet. It is due mostly to a short, stubby upper
pastern joint, which puts too much strain on the lower
joint. Ringbone makes the joint stiff. This is a case for
the veterinarian.

Greasy heel is a stubborn disease of the frog that does
not produce lameness in the early stages, and, therefore,
may go unnoticed. One good reason for cleaning the
hoofs every day is to catch the disease at the start. A very
bad odor is the warning sign. Once again, a dirty stable

good foot

flat foot

foundered foot
ringed)

horned ringbone

sand crack
(quarter)

sand crack (toe)

corn

greasy heel

Illustrations from Larousse

39

<£

War spurs XIV century

is the main cause, although incorrect feeding may also
be involved.

Navicular disease is most common in saddle horses with
high or contracted heels. The shoulder is cold and the
animal appears as if walking on eggs. Do not ride your
horse on hard surfaces, and if you must, be sure to only
lead the horse. Call a veterinarian.

maintenance of the harness

War bit
XV century

After picking out your saddle and paying for it, whether
it is intended only for a weekly ride or to practice the fine
art of manege, you will have a large dent in your bank
account! If you want your equipment to last, give it
proper care after every riding session.

After your horse has been watered, groomed and stabled,
your next chore is to clean the saddle. This takes 10 to
15 minutes, but the effort will be well repaid in preserving
the suppleness of the leather for many years. All you
need are a pail of warm water, a sponge and a cake of
saddle soap.

Begin by wetting the sponge and wringing it as dry as
possible, then rub it over the soap until saturated with
lather. Redip the sponge in the water only when it has to
be rewet or if the lather disappears. Soap the saddle with
a circular motion, allowing the sponge to soak up dirt
and sweat. The pores of the leather will fill with saddle
soap. Follow the same procedure for the inside of the
saddle and the various leather straps, taking special care

40

with the parts in contact with metal; for example, the
girth and stirrup leathers. Do likewise with the bridle;
and at the same time rinse off and dry the bit. If the bit is
not to be used for a time, coat it with vaseline to keep
from rusting. However, don't forget to wipe it off before
putting it in the horse's mouth again.

horsemanship

Horsemanship is the art of making a horse do what you
want him to do as if he were willing it himself. This takes
a well-endowed animal, but it also takes a rider with a
feel for the horse. Above all, you need a good teacher.
If you do not take lessons, you will probably never enjoy
the sport of riding as much as one who has learned it
properly. No one is a true horseman until he knows how
to communicate with the horse in a way the latter
understands.

safety precautions

Careful attention to simple safety rules in handling horses
prevents serious mishaps. You must know safe riding
when you are training riders. Here are basic rules of
safety you need to stress constantly so that members will
develop the habit of practicing safety at all times.

□ Never approach a horse directly from the rear. Even
Horsemanship is the art of making the horse do what you want him to do.

,^*«5%

"*&&*

#*

in single stalls it is possible to approach from an oblique
angle at the rear.

□ Always speak to a horse before approaching or
touching him. Most horses are likely to jump and may
kick when startled.

□ If the horse hangs back on the end of the rope, lead him
a few steps forward before touching him with your hand.

□ Keep your head in the clear when bridling the horse.
He may throw his head or strike to avoid the bridle.
Avoid bridling a nervous animal in close quarters.

□ Walk beside the horse when leading, and on the left
side; not ahead or behind him. Always turn the horse to
the right, and walk around him.

□ Use a long lead shank when leading. If the horse rears
up, the folded lead shank will unfold so you can stay on
the ground.

□ The horse is stronger than you, so don't try to outpull
him. He will usually respond to a quick snap on the lead
strap or rope.

□ Never wrap lead strap, halter shank or reins around
your hand, wrist or body.

□ Keep bridle reins, stirrup leathers and cinch straps in
the best possible condition, as your safety depends on
these straps. Replace any strap when it begins to show
signs of wear.

□ Stand with your feet well back in the clear and reach
forward when saddling the mount.

□ Never mount the horse in a small barn, near fences,
trees or overhanging projections. Riders, who failed to
take these precautions, have been injured by sidestep-
ping mounts.

□ Adjust the saddle carefully and the cinch tight enough
so it will not turn when you mount. Lead the horse a few
steps before mounting.

□ Soon after starting the ride, dismount and again
tighten the saddle girth. Horses often get excited when
first saddled, and failure to tighten girths later can result
in serious accidents.

□ If your horse is frightened by an obstacle, sit quietly
and wait for him to settle down.

□ Keep your horse under control and maintain a secure
seat at all times. Horses are easily frightened by unusual

42

objects and noises. Anticipate these and steady your
horse.

□ When a horse is frightened and attempts to run, turn
him. in a circle and tighten the circle until he stops.

□ When riding in groups, stay at least half a horse

length behind the horse in front of you and be alert for

overhead tree branches.

.... .. . Ask your local government to have

□ Hold your mount to a walk when going up or down these signs installed along your
hjJJs riding trails at cross roads and

highways so that you don't become

□ Reduce speed when riding rough ground or in sand, a vital statistic.

mud, ice or snow, when there is danger of the mount's
falling or slipping.

□ Avoid paved roads. Slow your mount to a walk when
crossing such roads. If he is a spirited or young horse,
dismount and lead him across.

□ Know your horse, his temperament and reactions.
Control your temper at all times, but let him know that
you are his firm and kind master.

□ Ask permission when leading through a group of
people.

□ On long rides, dismount and lead for 5 minutes each
hour.

□ Novice riders should consider wearing protective head
gear. Construction helmets or crash helmets are satisfac-
tory, but they should have the peak removed for greater
safety in a fall.

□ It is suggested that you have side reins and a neck
strap on your horse during all your early work. Side reins
will help prevent your horse from bolting and throwing
you off balance or off the horse. The neck strap will assist
you to learn balance and correct riding positions.

43

a few tips

Keep a box of cinders or sand handy to spread in the
corral when it is slippery.

Don't give grain to a heated horse.

Don't make your horse work right alter a meal.

Let him graze as often as you can.

Don't overfeed your horse. If he leaves the manger before
it is empty, or if he drags food on the ground, you are
giving him too much.

The litter must not be dusty. Wood shavings are better
than sawdust and straw is also good.

Give manure to gardening enthusiasts.

If your horse has an attack of colic, walk him 3 miles or
% to 1 hour.

To keep your horse from getting too frisky on his first
outing after the long winter, cut down his grain ration by
a third.

acknowledgements

To La Maison rustique (26, rue Jacob, Paris VI, France)
for permission to reproduce parts of Traite des maladies
du cheval, by A. Benion, which is out of print.

To La Hbraire Hachette for permission to reproduce many
illustrations (among the finest) from their publication Le
cheval, by E. C. Fraisse, also, unfortunately, out of print.

To La lihiane Larousse for permission to reproduce their
very fine illustrations.

For further information on horses, the reader is referred to:

The Pleasure Horse - — Bulletin 58-4. 35 pp.

The University of Connecticut,
Agricultural Extension Service,
Storrs, Conn. Reprinted 1964.

Light Horses — Bulletin 2127. 56 pp.

U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C. Re-
vised 1962.

44

The Sound Horse — Bulletin 330. 40 pp.

Michigan State University of
Agriculture, Cooperative Exten-
sion Service, East Lansing, Mich.

A few useful knots

Western Horses

Horse Science

Horses and
Horsemanship

How to Buy A

Healthy Horse And
Keep Him That Way

Intermountain Regional Pub. 3.
40 pp.

University of Wyoming/ Lara-
mie, Wyoming. 1969.

4-H horse program. 46 pp.
National 4-H Service Committee
Inc., Chicago, 111. 1965.

4-H horse program. 48 pp.
National 4-H Service Committee
Inc., Chicago, 111. 1965.

Dan W. Scheid. 243 pp.
The Highsmith Co., Fort Atkin-
son, Wis. Revised 1968.

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Information Division

Canada Agriculture, Ottawa, Kl A 0C7.

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Information Services Branch,

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Truro, N.S.

Information Branch,

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Fredericton, N.B.

Service de l'information,

Ministere de l'Agriculture et de la Colonisation,

Quebec, P.Q.

Information Branch,

Department of Agriculture and Food,

Parliament Bldgs.,

Toronto, Ont.

granny knot

square knot

45

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Manitoba Department of Agriculture,
Winnipeg, Man.

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Sask. Department of Agriculture,
Regina, Sask.

Extension Division,
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Saskatoon, Sask.

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Edmonton Alta.

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46

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