SCHLICH'S Manual OF Forestry VOL.V Fore Utilization W.R.Fisher ^hr Jl. 31 Hill ^i:ibranj ^oviU (L'arnlina .^tnto (Cnilcqc 5D371 534 V.5 NORTH CAROmASTAia.VIV'ERSiry LIBRARIES S01 948787 1 SD37 V.5 59928 This BOOK may be kept out TWO WEEKS ONLY, and is subject to a fine of FIVE CENTS a day thereafter. It is due on the day indicated below: MANUAL OF FOKESTEY, The MAifu^\x of Forestry consists of tlie follow- ing volumes: — Volume I.--INTRODUCTIOX TO Forestry. II. — Practical Sylviculture, or Forma- tion AXD Tending of Woods. ,, in. — Forest M^vnagement. ,, IV.— Forest Protection. ,, V. — Forest Utilization. Volume I. was published in 1889, under the head- ing "The Utilitj' of Forests and Principles of Sylvi- cultiu-e ; " its title was changed as above in the second edition published in 1896 ; Volume II. was published in 1891 ; Volume III. in 1895 : these three volumes have been wiitten by me. Volume IV. was published in 1S95, and this and the present Volume V. have been written by my colleague Mr. W. R. Fisher. W. SCHLICH. COOI'EKS HiLI,. May 1st, 1896. DIFFERENT TYPES OF OAK-WOOD Ivjessile and pedunculale/ B. C. Pedunculate Dale. — Section from a tree, 72 years old (sp. gr. (f.s27). Rapid growtli of an isolated tree, producing hard strong wood fit for shipbuilding. Communal forest of Lanride (Landes). Altitude above sea-level, 50 feet. [Oakwood pro- duced in Forest of Dean may attain G feet in girth in 75 years.] Sessile Oak. — -Section from a tree 190 years old (sp. gr. O-IJ'Jl). Slow regular growth in a dense High Forest. AYood of best (juality for staves and cabinet-making. Forest of :^roladie^ (Allier). Altitude 975 feet. Sessile Oalc. — Section from a tree 1 1 0 years old (sp. gr. 0'742). Moderately fast, in-egular growth. Quality variable ; wood usually sawn into scantling. Forest of Darney (Vosges). Altitude 745 feet. f- J;T- ., ...._;, ■,{] iloiJO'J^.— .-Av.VN ^\$\Wxu\n\\A ^>i-iii/Kl 1() J«-jTul li;niifimio') .^Miihlimlqifffe "ttft Jit Luo/. ::r ^>4n«{ fxiowjIiiO] J'»m1 (u"; .lo79l-r.os ')70(lii ohuililJ. .(aohn fijT rri riJiljj n I I.lo ^-rii'JV ! .~\!^ .Au.y,7 b.M^7A .iRo-io'H (l^jiH 'i;iii')h li ni lUv/o-p^ -Uilfryo-i 7/0I'' tt, i>-'- ,,'.1 ...„;■ 1,.. ,..„„.;.:.... f.-... ........ -...i yjiiuii,. „„, .,, ' .illA) T.if.Bl..]^ ■;^»voI(lj(i-iij7 /.liUtui,) .(IJ7/0174 -ifllu^'iTri ,.1«n't \hUyi')l)o\ /, _. V.') ,tT)l .".IT ■)furliJlA|- SCHLICH'S MANUAL OF FOEESTEY VOLUME V. FOREST UTILIZATION, W. R FISHER, B.A., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY, ROYAL INDIAN ENQINEERING COLLEGB COOPERS HILL ; LATE CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. WITH 343 ILLUSTRATIONS, Alf ENGLISH TllAA^SLATION OF "DIE FORSTBENUTZUNG," by DR. KARL GAYER, PRIVY COUNCILLOR IN BAVARIA, AND PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH. LONDON : BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. Ld., 8, 9, 10, BOUVERIE STREET. 1896. LONDON : URADBl'RY, AUNEW, 3. Booms 385 4. Method employed in floating wood 401 Section IL — Rafting. 1. Rafting-channels 409 2. Rafts 411 3. Dimensions of rafts . . . 416 4. Mode of rafting . 417' CHAPTER VI. COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORT. 1. Conditions of locality 421 2. Wood-assortments 422 3. Cost of transport 422 4. Loss of volume 424 5. Deterioration in quality of the wood 426 6. Influence of railways on the timber-trade 427 7. Canals 428 8. Concluding remarks 428 CHAPTER VII. WOOD-DEPOTS. 1. Land-depots 429 2. River-depots 431 3. Methodsof storing wood 437 4. Registration of receipts of wood at a depot ..... 440 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll CHAPTER VIII. DISPOSAL AND SALE OF WOOD. PAGE Section I. — Disposal of Wood 441 Section IL — Sale of Wood. 1. Form in which wood is sold 448 2. A^'arious kinds of sale 457 3. Coiuparison of the various kinds of sale 462 Section IH. — Business Pkinciples involved in the Sale of Wood . 467 PART II. HARVESTING AND DISPOSAL OF MINOR FOREST PRODUCE. CHAPTER I. UTILIZATION OF THE BAKK OF TREES. Section I. — General Account . . 483 ,, II. — Production of Young Oak Bark 486 ,, III. — Utilization of the Bark of Old Oaks and other Trees 505 ,, IV.— Yield in Produce and Revenue of Oak Coppices . 510 ,, v.— Other Uses of Bark 515 CHAPTER II. UTILIZATION OF FOREST FODDER. Section I. — Pasture. 1. General account 516 2. Production of fodder in forests 518 3. Effect of pasture on forest management, and conditions under which it may be tolerated 522 Section II.— Grass-Cutting in Forests 530 ,, III.— Leaf-Fodder 533 XIV TABLK OF CONTENTS. CIlAI'TKi: III. FIELD-CROPS IN CO.MIilXATlUX WITH FOIIKSTRV. VAGE Skctiun I.— JIetiiods adoitkk r>36 ,, II.— National Economic Imioktance ok ... . 541 III.— Sylvii'ultuuai- Imi'oi:tan( k of 543 CHAPTER IV. HAKVE.STIN(; THE FRUITS AND SEEDS OF FOREST TREES. Section I.— For the Artificial Rei-rodx'ction of Trke.s. 1. Production of seed by trees of different specips 547 2. Season of maturity and fiill of .seed 550 3. Methods of collecting seed 552 4. Treatment of seed after collection 556 Section II. — Stoking the Seeds of Foiiest Tkeks .... 557 III.— Panna<:k 563 ,, IV. — INDU.STRIAL U.sEs OF FoRE.sT FRrrr.s 569 CHAPTER V. DRY FALLEN WOOD. 1. Quantity available 2. Importance from national-economic and sylvicultural aspects CHAPTER YI. UTILIZATION OF STONE, GRAVEL, &c. CHAPTER VII. UTILIZATION OF FOREST LITTEI!. Section I.— General Account 579 Section II.— Importance for Wood-Production. 1. Beneficial effects of litter and humus on the growth of trees . . 580 2. Mode of decompo-sition of forest litter 587 3. Products of decomposition of the soil-covering . .... 589 4. Summary 591 Section III. — Amount of Litter produckd. 1. Dead leaves and needles . "....... 592 2. Moss-litter . . 596 3. Litter from weeds 51)9 4. Litter from green branches 602 Section IV. — Modes of Harvesting Litter 603 TABLE OF CONTEXTS. XV PAGE Seotiox V^— Effects of the Eemoval of Littrr. 1. Effects on forests 605 2. General physical effects 614 Sec'tiom VI. — Value of Forest Litter for Agriculture . . .616 VII.— Limits to the Permissible Use of Forest Litter . 622 ,, A'lII. — iloDE OF Disposal and Sale of Forest Litter . . 628 CHAPTER VIII RESIN-TAPPING. Section I.— General Account 632 ,, II. — Supply of Resin from the Maritime Pine in the Landes of Gascont 63.3 ,, III. — Tapping other Species for Resin. 1. Silver-fir 644 2. Spruce 644 3. Larch 645 4. Black pine 647 CHAPTER IX. LESS IMPORTANT MINOR PRODUCE. 1. Grass-seeds 649 2. Herbage for various purposes 651 3. Preparation of Scotch pine needles 653 4. Vanillin 653 5. Mosses 653 6. Knoppern galls 654 7. Truffles 654 8. Edible forest fruits 655 9 Lime-bast 656 10. Other items . . . - 656 PART III. AUXILIARY FOREST INDUSTRIES. CHAPTER I. ANTISEPTIC TREATMENT OF TIMBER. 1. General remarks 659 2. Materials used for injecting wood 661 3. Methods of injection ......... 663 4. Suitabilitj' of different woods for injection 672 5. Results of injection 673 XVI TABLE OK CONTENTS, CHAPTER II. SAW-MILLS. I'AOE Section L— Genekal Account 676 IL— FouEST Saw-Milus 677 IIL— Steam Saw-Mill-s 684 IV.— Otuf.i: Wuod-wouking Machines 690 CHAPTER III. WOOD-CARBONISATION. Section I, — General Account 693 ., IL — Charcoal-Kiln.s 695 ,, III. — PKOPEKTIE.S OF GoOD CHARCOAL AND YiELl) OF DlFFE- kent Kinds of Kilns 713 CHAPTER IV. DIGGING AND TREPARATION OF TE.VT. Section I. — General Account 720 II. — Different kinds of Bogs 722 III. — Methods of Working Pe.^t-Bogs 725 IV. — Drainage of Bogs 729 V. — Harvesting the Peat 732 CHAPTER V. HUSKING AND CLEANING CONIFEROUS SEEDS. Section I.— Scotch Pine and Spruce Seed 752 II. — Larch Seed 765 III.— Net Yield of Seed 768 CHAPTER VI. EXTRACTION OF OIL OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN FRO.M ClIUDE KESIN. Section I.— Procedure employed 770 ,. II. —Commercial Products oistained frum Crude Resin . 773 INDEX 775 rOEEST UTILIZATION. INTRODUCTION. The annual produce of forests is the most striking proof of their utility; by its means we are able to satisfy a great number of our wants, and we can never dispense with forest produce, or do so only with the greatest difficulty. In earlier times, when forests extended far beyond human requirements and unimpaired natural forces maintained them intact without any artificial assistance, Forest Utilization com- prised the whole art of Forestry. Protection, tending, sowing and planting, were unnecessary ; superabundant supplies of forest produce were available for all possible requirements, and had only to be utilized. This was done for ages, without any regard for economy or for the wants of future generations. An utterly wasteful utihzation of forest produce continued, until a wood-famine was impending ; for the demands made by a steadily increasing population on agricultural produce involved the clearance of vast areas of woodland, while the pro- longed maltreatment to which forests were subjected had ■considerably diminished their productiveness. Unfortunately, in many countries, matters have not yet much improved in this respect. If forests are to be maintained, the wood-cutter's axe and the utilization of all forest produce must be brought under control, the forest area densely stocked with trees, and forest utilization subordinated to sylviculture. Forest raw material may be utilized in various ways, but its utility will be most fully secured when each product is used for VOL. v. B Library K. C. State Colleg:^ 2 FOREST UTII.IZATKiX. the purpose for which it is better adapted thau any other avail- able material. Then only can a forest respond most fully to the interests of society, as well as those of its owner, for then only will it yield the gi-eatest pecuniary return. There was, however, a time when it was not considered compatible with good forestry to attempt to make a forest yield the best financial results ; a forest was looked upon as a means of satisfying, with- out any speculative motive, the direct and indirect national requirements. ]3ut this manner of regarding forests is unsatis- factory, as the importance of any jiroperty is most fully recognized and its protection best secured when itself and its produce possess a considerable sale-value. The profit obtained from careful forest-management is small when compared with that from other productive industries, and apparently will not improve, as substitutes for wood come more and more into use. So much the more, therefore, in the interests of both national economy and forestry, should every forest-owner endeavour to increase as much as possible the pecuniary yield of his woodlands, provided that at the same time he works within the bounds prescribed by good forest management. Forest utilization should therefore always keep in view the possibility of a steady improvement of the forest revenue, without pre- judice to its maintenance or future enhancement. The foregoing remarks lead us to define the science of Forest Utilization as a systematic arranfjcment of the most appropriate methods of harvestinrj, conrertiiifi and profitahly dis2)osivfi if forest i)roducc, in accordance n-'ith tlw results of e.r2)erience and study. Wood is the chief product of forests, and the aim of forest management is at present chiefly directed to its production, liesides wood, there are other useful products, which are derived either from the trees or the soil of forests. As most of them, however, are relatively inferior in value to wood, and their pro- duction is bound-up with the existence of forests, they are considered as accessory or minor produce. A distinction is thus made between principal and minor forest produce. A forest owner is, as a rule, only concerned in the rough conversion of the produce of his forest, so as to facilitate its transport. Sometimes, however, and for certain kinds of INTRODUCTION. 3 produce, it may be advisable for him to prepare forest produce iu the form in which it is directly utilizable for various industries, in which case he carries-on auxiliary industries depending on forestry. To deal fully with these industries is, however, beyond the province of the present book, and they will be described only in such detail as the ordinary routine of forestry requires. The matter of which the science of Forest Utilization, thus extended, is composed may be comprised under three principal headings, which arc as follows : — I. Hakvesting, Conversion and Disposal of Principal Forest Produce. II. Har\t:sting and Disposal of Minor Forest Produce. III. Auxiliary Industries depending on Forestry. [Owing to the enormous destruction of forests in America and other countries, and the fact that as yet forests are properly managed in only a few countries, there appears to be more reason for hopeful- ness than Gayer anticipates, as regards the future financial aspect of forestry. — Tr.] B 2 PART I, HARVESTING, COXVKRSION AND DISPOSAL OF PRINCIPAL FORKST PRODUCE. It is impossible to make the best use of any material without a thorough knowledge of its external appearance and inward structure. As every producer endeavours to become acquainted from all points of view with the raw material of which his wares are composed, so that he may render them most useful and increase their sale-value as much as possible, so the forester should — at least, to a certain extent — study the properties and consequent utilities of wood. Only after acquiring this knowledge will he be able to convert and classify his wood, so as to satisfy the demands of the timber-market and obtain for it the best possible price. If he has produced wood of the proper quality and dimensions, the next question is how to dispose of it to the best advantage. These considerations lead to the subdivision of Part I. into the following five chapters : — I. Technic.yl Properties and Qualities of Wood. II. Industrial Uses of Wood. III. Methods of Felling and Converting Wood. IV. Transport of Wood. V. Disi-osAL and Sale of Wood. CHAPTER I. TECHNICAL PROPERTIES AND QUALITIES OF WOOD,* The wood of our different forest trees has, according to species, very different properties, so that one kind of wood is better adapted for any given purpose than other kinds. The technical properties of any wood are those pecuharities Avhich render it suitable for certain uses. They nmy vary for one and the same species of tree according to the soil on which the tree has grown, the climate, the rate of growth, the part of the trunk, the age of the tree, the healthy or unhealthy condition of its wood and other circumstances ; and even under each of these heads much individuality may be shown. Hardly any material is so variable as wood, and it is, there- fore, impossible to predicate any fixed technical qualities in the wood of a certain species of tree. All we can do is to draw an average, and estimate the influences which may modify this average technical quality of the wood of any particular species. H. Mayr f lays-down a general rule, that, for every species of tree, the quality and quantity of the wood produced falls-off in proportion to the distance from the best locality for its growth, although the quality of the soil may remain constant. As all differences in the technical value of wood depend on the variability of its anatomical structure and its chemical and physical nature, it is necessary to consider shortly the anatomy and chemical composition of wood as far as our purpose requires. Section I. — Anatomy of Wood. Wood consists of three kinds of elementary organs, which do not, however, all occur in the wood of every species of tree — namely, wood-vessels, virood-fibres and wood-cells. * Vide Laslett's Timber and Timber Trees, edited by Marshall "Ward, 1894. + Die Waldungeu von Nordanierika, Munich, ]890, p. 73. 0 TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 1. Wood-vessels are more or less narrow tubes closed at their ends, which run longitudinally through the stem and branches of trees. Their walls are thin when compared with their lumina, or hollow interiors, and the latter appear as pores on transverse sections of the wood. Each annual zone of broad-leaved trees contains more or less numerous vessels, the distribution of which among the othei elementary organs of the wood affords excellent characteristics for distinguishing the different species. The pores may be uniformly distributed throughout the annual zone, or arranged in bands or wavy lines, in which their size usually decreases towards the outer limit of the zone. In the case of many broad-leaved trees the wood formed in the early-growing season, or spring-wood, is rich in large vessels, and may be termed ring-pored wood ; it contains less woody substance than the summer- or autumn-wood of the same annual zone. Coniferous wood possesses vessels, and consequently, pores, only immediately around the pith. 2. Wood-fibres are the chief constituents of wood ; they are elongated, closed organs, a few millimeters long and pointed at both ends, and their walls are more or less thickened, sometimes so much so that their lumina are greatly contracted. There are three kinds of wood-fibres : tracheids, with large lumina and large bordered pits on their walls ; true wood-fibres, forming sclerenchyma, or hard tissue, composed of thick-walled ele- ments, svith small pits on their walls ; intermediate fibres, resembling wood-fibres in shape, but containing protoplasm and starch, &c. The two former kinds of fibres, as well as wood-vessels, serve to convey air and watery sap throughout the plant. Coniferous wood contains tracheids only, which are thin- walled in the spring-wood, and have large lumina. Tracheids become thicker-walled and more compressed, with smaller lumina, towards the boundary of the annual zone in the summer-wood. As the radial section of these organs is much thinner than the tangential section, they are sometimes termed broad fibres. Broad-leaved wood, on the contrary, often possesses several kinds of wood-fibres, and then the tracheids and intermediate ANATOMY. 7 fibres are much thinner-walled than true wood-fibres. The more the latter predominate, the harder and firmer the wood. In oakwood, for instance, thin-walled tracheids are chiefly formed near the vessels, whilst the true wood-fibres form most of the harder summer-wood and are more numerous, the broader the annual zone. 3. Wood-cells forming parenchyma, or soft growing-tissue, are more or less thinly walled and nearly isometric cells, usually with flat ends, and superposed one above the other like bricks ; they contain starch, at least in the younger wood, for the greater part of the year. They are thus the store-chambers for reserve nutrient material, which may be used in ensuing years for forming leaves, flowers and shoots. Wood-cells are chiefly found near the vessels, but often, as for instance in oakwood, form concentric lighter-shaded zones in the darker and harder summer-wood. In coniferous woods, wood-cells are either entirely wanting or found only around the resin-ducts, or are scantily scattered among the tracheids, as in juniper- wood. 4. Resin-ducts are spaces without true walls, surrounded by resin-forming cells ; they run not only parallel to the axis of the tree, and are then visible on transverse sections, chiefly in the 8 TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. summer-wood, but also pass along the medullaiy rays, whicli are described in tbe next paragraph. The two kinds of ducts open into one another, and their contents have important effects on the technical properties of wood. 5. Medullary rays (tig. 1) consist of woody cells, which in winter usually contain starch ; they form bands, cither running radially from the i)ith to the bark, or not reaching as far as the pith, but originating from some of the later annual zones of wood. The number and size of these rays have much inllucnce on the technical properties of wood. As regards the dimension oi a ray, c d (fig. 1) is its height, a h its breadth, and in n its length. The oak and beech have very broad rays ; the oak and alder very high rays. These species are also characterized by possessing a large number of small rays besides their large ones. Maple, ash, elm, plane, teak and hornbeam,* have moderately broad rays. Most European woods have narrow rays, which may, how- ever, be clearly seen on thin transverse sections of the wood, as in lime, birch, robinia, horse-chestnut, sweet chestnut, hazel, alder, ai)plc, cherry, &c. ; in the case of willows and poplars, however, it is difficult to distinguish the rays without a magnifying-glass ; in conifers they are extremely narrow and crowded together, giving a characteristic silky gloss to a thin transverse section of the wood. From fig. 1 it is clear that, in order to ascertain the structure of a piece of wood, sections of it in three difterent directions at right angles to one another should be examined. The section cut at right angles to the axis of the tree is termed transverse, the radial section is parallel — and the tangential section at right angles to — one of the medullary rays. The medullary rays, vessels, wood-fibres and cells, may be seen in all their dimen- sions from the above three sections if cut sufficiently fine and observed either through a magnifying-glass or a microscope of low power. 6. Annual zones. — The structure of the annual zones of a piece of wood has considerable intluence on its properties, and is * Hornbeam-wood np] tears to liave very broad ra3s,, because its rays arc often crowded together in bundles. ANATOMY, often sufficient to determine the relative value of the wood. The relative dimensions of the spring- and summer-wood, the width of the annual rings, and their uniformity or want of uni- formitv, should he carefully noted. Fig. 2. (a) Belatire I)i»t('nsions of Sprinrj- and Summer-wood. If the spring- and summer-wood were similarly organized it would be impossible to distinguish the annual rings on a trans- verse section of a piece of wood. It has, however, been already noted that in many broad-leaved woods the vessels in the spring- wood are large and numerous, and the wood-fibres wider and thinner-walled than in the summer -wood, in which, usually, the pores are small and the fibres thick- walled. As, there- fore, the denser zone of wood A (figs. 2, 3 and 4) is immediately adjacent to the porous spring- zone B, the boundary of the annual ring is generally very obvious. It is difiicult to distin- guish the annual rings in woods which form little summer-wood, and with pores which are usually evenly distributed over the whole annual zone, as, for instance, in birch, hornbeam, maples, poplars, alders, limes, horse-chestnut, willows, fruit-trees, &c. Coniferous wood (fig. 4) is without pores ; but, on the other hand, the width and thickness of the walls of the summer-wood A are very difterent from those of the spring-zone B, so that the annual rings in this case are very sharply defined. As a rule, therefore, annual rings are clearest in the case of ring-pored 10 TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. wood (oak, ash, sweet- chestnut, ehu, rubiuia, Sec), and in coniferous wood. In coniferous wood from localities suitable for its best growth, the summer-wood is throughout so dense and hard that it difiers greatly from the spring-wood, which fact secures for it special qualities, and it has then well-defined annual rings. The more or less gradual passage of spring-wood into summer-wood is sometimes interrupted by the presence of a thin zone of the Fig. 3. ]•!<;. 4. latter appearing in the middle of the annual zone, which again passes into the usual form of spring-wood and interrupts the regularity of the summer-wood. These are termed douWe rings, and may be ascribed to the action of frost, insect-attacks, drought, &c., causing temporary changes in the tension of the bast and wood in the cambium-zone. Such double or fictitious rings rarely occur in temperate regions, and must be carefully distinguished from the true annual rings. (b) ]J'i(Jth ofthr Auutial Hitnis. The absolute width of the annual rings naturally varies considerably under different circumstances : the longer the ANATOMY. 11 period of growth, the deeper, moister and more full of nutri- ment the soil, the greater the amount of light to which the crown of the tree is exposed and of available material from which the wood is constructed; — the wider the annual zone. The most important factor here in the breadth of the annual zones of wood is the amount of light received by a fully- developed crown, as may be at once seen from the broad annual zones of standards over coppice, or of reserved trees left standing after a felling in densely-grown high forest. It is not uncommon, in the latter case, to find that the annual zones of standards increase two- or three-fold, provided the soil has not deteriorated owing to the removal of the other trees in the wood. Damp years favourable to vegetation yield a larger wood- increment and, consequently, broader annual zones than dry years, and warm, damp years greatly increase the width of the zones of summer-wood. A short period of growth, damage by frost (especially in the case of delicate species), a large production of seed and insect-attacks, reduce the width of the annual zones.* [Some annual zones are 1 to H inches wide (poplars, willows and some tropical trees, especially Bomhax Malabaricum), whilst in some trees from 30 to 60 annual zones may occur in an inch of radius. In branchwood the zones are usually narrower, and in rootwood always narrower, than in stems. — Tr.] (c) Uiiiformiti/ of the Annual Zones. As a rule, annual woody zones are broader in young trees than in old ones ; they therefore become smaller from the centre out- wards, even while the sectional area of the zone may remain constant. The pith of a tree is frequently excentric, the reason for this being the different width of the annual zones on opposite sides of the stem. This may go so far that a zone may be appreciably present on one side of a tree only, tapering-off quite finely at both ends on the other side. The good quality of timber is more prejudiced by periodical inequality of the annual zones than by this peculiarity. The occurrence of annual zones * R. Hartis, Iiifiuence of Seed- Years on Wood-Increraout. Frst. u. Jfrtlztiis. 12 TECHNICAL PEOPEKTIES OF WOOD. of the greatest possible regularity is always a sign of good quality in wood. Mohl states that nil nearly horizontal branches have excentric zones ; in conifers the zones are broadest below, and in broad-leaved trees, above. Large roots, on the contrary, near their junction with the stem, have broader zones above than below, and in their case numerous zones may be absolutely wanting below. In no part of a tree is uniformity of the zones less frequent than in the roots. The relative width of the annual zones in the upper and lower parts of stems depends on whether the tree has grown in a dense ■wood, or in the open. As long as a tree is growing vigorously upwards, and, therefore, usually in a crowded wood, the annual zones are broader in the upper part of the tree than below. The stump of the tree immediately above the roots forms an exception to this rule, for here the broadest rings are formed. In the case of trees grown in the open, standards over coppice and trees with large crowns reserved in high forest felling-areas, the bole tapers from the base upwards ; the annual zones may then be uniformly broad above and below, or even broader below than above. In the case of dominated small- crowned trees, the breadth of the annual zones is always broader above than below, and sometimes, owing to an insufficiency of nutriment afforded by their crowns, certain annual zones may be entirely absent below. According, therefore, to the varying effects of density of growth and admission of light on the tree at different periods of its life, there may be a considerable difference in the width of its annual zones. Section II. — Chemical and Physical Properties of ^N'OOD. Freshly-felled wood is composed of woody substance, water, and other materials, some of which are dissolved in the water. 1. The woody skeleton of a tree — i.e., the walling of its component organs — is chiefly composed of cellulose and lignin. In the cambium-zone the walls of all elements arc of cellulose (C,j Hio O.O, but during the very year of their formation the cell- walls become thickened by layers of lignin (C,s !!.,„ 0,i), which contains more carbon than cellulose : whilst cellulose is soft, CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. l^ flexible, highly hygroscopic and permeable by fluids ; lignified woody substance is harder, stifter, and less liable to swell by the absorption of water. 2. There is a considerable quantity of water in freshly felled wood — roughly, 45 per cent, of its weight — and this has considerable influence on its technical qualities. The amount of water contained in ^\ood varies, however, with the species, season, part of the tree, locality, &c. As regards species, broad-leaved wood generally contains more water than coniferous wood. The season of felling has a great influence on the percentage of water in wood, though it is dilflcult to say at what season any wood will be wettest or driest, as this varies according to species. The air-temperature, the degree of moisture of the soil on which the tree was growing and the condition of the roots, affect this question. In a general way, it may be said that trees contain most water during early summer, and are driest in autumn and late winter. According to E. Hartig's investigations, the following table shows when the wood of diff'erent species is wettest and driest : — Species. Month of inaximuui wetness of wood. Month of niininiuni wetness of wood. Birch Oak Beech Scotch pine Spruce Larch March July 1 End of Deceniljer /July End of December July July October. End of December. May and October. May. March and April. March and April. As regards the part of the tree, in certain species and especially conifers, the older inner wood is so dry that only the walls of the woody elements contain water, and their lumiua none at all. In other species, such as birch and oak, the inner part of the wood is sometimes wetter and sometimes drier than the outer portions, as the wetness of the sapwood varies greatly, according to the season of the year. As a rule, wetness becomes reduced towards the summit of the tree, and the roots contain most water. •14 TECHNICAL l'K0I>EKTIE8 Ob' WOOD. The influence of the locality (especially the degree of damp- ness of the soil and the factors of the locality which affect the vital processes in plants) has not yet been thoroughly studied as regards its effect on the amount of water in wood ; but it appears as if the facts of trees being shallow or deep- rooted, and possessing, or not, considerable powers of transpira- tion, are chiefly concerned in the problem. 3. The substances found in wood other than woody tissue and water form only a small part of the general mass, and only a few of them influence the technical properties of the wood. The most important of these substances are protein, tannin and other colouring matters, turpentine, starch, and the ash, or residue of mineral substances after the wood has been burned. The protein substances, rich in nitrogen, are chiefly found in young, unlignified wood, and especially in the cambium ; they readih' decompose, and have hitherto been considered as the chief accelerators of decay and rot in wood. Tannins are chiefly found in the bark, but are rarely absent from the wood of any species of tree. Their chief property influencing the technical quality of wood is that they corrode iron when the latter is used in contact with wood. Hence teak is preferred to oak for the backing of plates in iron ships, as the tannin of the oak corrodes and loosens the bolts which bind the iron to the wood. Turpentine, which is found in varying quantity in the wood of most conifers, and also of certain tropical and semi-tropical broad-leaved species, influences the technical qualities of wood in the highest degree. Turpentine is chiefly found in the resin-ducts, but as these occur in the medullary rays as well as among the tracheids, the whole of the wood may become impregnated with turpentine, which after- wards oxidizes into rosin, especially in the hcartwood and roots. The quantity of rosin in wood also varies with the specific gravity of the wood, depending on the greater or less develop- ment of summer-wood, in or near which, most of the longitudinal resin-ducts arc found. As regards starch, it is found that woody-tissues richest in starch are most exposed to attacks of fungi and wood- destroying insects. The ash- constituents of wood arc generally CHEMICAL AXD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 15 more abundant in the younger than in the older wood, [though this is not always the case with woods in tropical countries, where calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate sometimes fill the lumina of wood-vessels in the heartwood. — Tr.] In European trees they joredominate in the bark, bast and cambium, and are most abundant in the upper and outer parts of the tree. 4. Heartwood and Sapicood.* [The inner and older zones of wood are generally termed heartwood and the outer and younger zones, sapwood or alburnum; these should be distinguished by an actual change in the tissues. Thus, in true heartwood, the walls of the woody elements are charged, and frequently their lumina filled, with colouring matter or with gummy, resinous or mineral substances, which render the heartwood heavier than the sapwood ; if there be any at all, much less starch or protein is contained in the heartwood than in the sapwood, and the former is therefore less liable to attacks of insects and to decay than the latter. Sapwood is fully formed, structurally, from the cambium, but continues to carry-on processes vital to the tree, such as convey- ing water and reserve nutritive material. Heartwood, on the contrary, may still act as a reservoir for water, but has apparently lost all vital functions, and cannot be usefully injected with creosote or other preservative materials. As a rule, sapwood contains more water than heartwood, and is usually less darkly coloured than the latter ; but these distinctions do not hold for many kinds of wood, and the mere presence of colouring matter in the central parts of certain woods does not indicate any physiological change. In some trees, the transformation of sapwood into heartwood is very rapid, there being only two or three annual zones of sapwood, whilst in others, as in the oak, there may be from 12 to 45 zones in the sapwood. It is, therefore, proposed to classify timber as follows : — (a) Heartwood trees, with true heartwood as described above. i. Broad zones of sapivood. Oaks, elms, walnut, Scotch and other pines. ii. Narrow zones of sapioood. Sweet-chestnut, robinia, mulberry, fruit-trees, larch, yew. * Gayer's account of heartwood and sapwood in trees is less detailed. 16 TKCHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. (b) Trees with incomplete heartwood, in which there is no distinction in colour between the sapwood and Iicartwood, but tiie latter contains little or no water and takes no share hi the vital processes of the tree : — Spruce, silver-fir, beech. (c) Alburnum trees, without ascertained ilistinction between heartwood and sapwood : — i. Hardwoods. Box, holly, ash, hornbeam, sycamore, maples, plane, birch. ii. Softivoods. Aspen, lime, alder, horse-chestnut. — Tit.] Among trees with heartwood, oaks contain more water in their heartwood than in their sapwood, whilst pines and larch have a nearly dry heartwood. As a rule, old trees grown on rich soils have more heartwood than young trees from poor localities. Up to the present time, no very complete account of the nature of the formation of heartwood is available. Kobcrt Hartig has however written most lucidly on this question for the chief European trees. He holds,, in opposition to an old theory, that the colouring of the heartwood is not a commence- ment of decay, nor a chemical change in the walls of the tissue- elements, but a deposition of tannin, gums, oleo-resius, naineral matter, &c., in their lumina or walls ; hence there is an increase in substance and weight in heartwood, as compared with sapwood. In the case of some woods with imperfect heartwood (alburnum woods), however, the central parts of the tree, as it becomes older, lose weight owing to a loss of starch, or remain unaffected. The so-called false heartwood (red central zones of beech, kc.) is caused by a commencement of decay, or by the conveyance of soluble products of decomposition from other parts of the tree. The heartwood of old trees is in many species heavier, harder a,nd more durable than their sapwood, which is frequently trimmed off the logs on account of its want of durability. The larger the heartwood in oaks, pines, larch, &c., the more valuable the wood. As the breadth of the annual zones of wood often causes a SHAPE OF TREES. 17 considerable difference in the proportion of heartwood and sapwood in the same tree, and broader zones are often formed in youth and narrower zones later on, whilst the breadth of the annual zone has much influence on the density of the wood — it cannot be said that heartwood is always heavier, harder and more durable than sapwood. Section III. — Shape of Trees. There are technical differences in the wood taken from different parts of a tree, so that a distinction is made between stem- timber, branchwood and rootwood. Forestry is chiefly interested in the production of stem-timber, for the stem is the chief factor of the timber-harvest, both as regards quantity and quality. 1. The relation between the masses of stem-, branch- and root-wood varies considerably in different trees, principally as regards species, density of crop, age, and quality of locality. (a) Species of Tree. — Each woody species has its own peculiar mode of growth, and no two are alike in shape. There are trees, such as the spruce, silver-fir, larch [and Corsican pine — Tr.], in which, even when grown in the open, the development of the bole predominates over that of the branches. The stem of these trees generally grows undivided straight through the crown to the leading shoot, and the crown consists only of side-branches. The Scotch pine also at first produces a fine bole, but later on divides into boughs, which are frequently large and numerous forming a spreading crown. In the case of European broad- leaved species, during middle-age and often earlier, the crown gets the better of the bole ; amongst these, the alder, sessile oak, ash, poplars, common elm, birch and aspen produce the longest boles. Speaking quite generally, it may be said that when grown in the open, conifers and light-demanding broad-leaved species yield the best boles. (b) Density of Crop. — The general rule here is that the pro- duction of clean boles of mature timber is greatest, and branch- wood and to a certain extent rootwood, least, the denser the croj) of trees. Broad-leaved species gain most in this respect from a dense VOL. v. C 18 TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. crop, and above all, the beech, hornbeam, and pedunculate oak, the boles of which when grown in the open usually subdivide into boughs at a height of 15 to 20 feet. It follows that the ratio of the mass of timber in the bole of trees to that of their crown varies according to the system of forest management, and must be much greater under the high forest systems than in coppice-with-standards. (c) Age of Tree. — In considering the amount of utilizable stem-timber in a tree grown in a dense crop, it is evident that during its youth branch wood considerably predominates ; when middle-aged, the quantity' of stem-timber has already largely increased, and still more so during old age : hence when closely grown, the better species of mature trees yield only 10-20% of branchwood in their total wood-production. It is also easy to see that the amount of rootwood increases with the age of the tree. (d) duality of Locality. — The amount of useful development of which a tree is capable depends chiefly on the kind of locality where it is growing, so that it may be laid-down as a general rule, that the amount of stem-timber in a tree rises and falls with the quality of the locality. As a rule, the law of root-production is the converse of this, so that the more favourable the soil and climate, the smaller the root-system in proportion to the total mass of the tree. [In very dry countries, as in Ivajputana in India, and New Mexico, species of Frosopis develope tap-roots fifty feet and more in length, with very short stems. In these regions farmers dig up the wood they recjuire. — Tu.] It may readily be conjectured that, owing to the number of factors which affect the ratios betw^een the stem, branch and rootwood of a tree, no constant figures can represent these ratios. In order, however, to give some idea of their value, the following figures, taken from observations made by Pfeil and Hartig and relating to trees grown under favourable local con- ditions in dense high forest woods, show the relative per- centage of wood in the bole, branches and roots of different species of trees. SHAPE OF TREES. 19 Percextaoe of Wood. Name of Species. Aspen Birch Larch Alder Spruce Scotch pine , . Silver-fir Elm Hornbeam Weymoutli pine Sycamore Beech Ash Oak f)— 10 5—10 6— 8 8—10 8—10 8—15 8—10 10—15 10-20 5—23 10—20 10—20 15—25 15—25 5—10 5—12 12—15 12—15 15—25 15—20 15—30 15—20 l.'i— 20 9-20 20—25 20—25 20—25 20—25 The proportion of the different kinds of wood in the case of standards over coppice differs very much from the above, as the branchwood predominates until the standards are old. Thus Laupreclit gives the following percentage figures for branchwood of standards of different ages : — Species. 50—60 years. Beech . Oak.... Aspen . Birch . 59—60 40 35—40 Over 100 years. 51 42 40 35—44 28—40 18—25 25—29 34—40 2, The importance of the shape of the stem from an economic point of view is very great, and will now be considered. A good stem should be straight, free from branches, and as cylindrical as possible. (a) Dimensions. — Longitudinal growth usually begins to increase in early youth, and culminates in the pole-stage a certain time before the tree bears seed freely. In the horse-chestnut and many tropical and sub-tropical trees, the terminal shoot blossoms ; the longitudinal growth is thus eventually arrested, and begins to fall off in all trees after the blossoming period has commenced. The diameter-growth at first adds less to the mass of the c 2 20 TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. timber than the longitudinal growth, and usually culminates later than it, hut continues longer, only terminating \Yitli the death of the tree. The quality of the locality, especially depth of soil, is the chief factor determining the amount of height-growth ; the diameter-growth depends also on the amount of light to which the crown of the tree is exposed. As regards the absolute dimensions of the trees now produced in forests, it may be said as a general rule for Germany, that owing to short rotations, the large timber formerly available is no longer produced. Trees from 130-150 feet high are becoming rarities, and chest-high diameter measurements of 12-lG inches are the average sizes of timber. Anything over 16 inches in diameter may be styled large timber. In some districts, trees measuring 12-14 inches are already classed as large timber. In order to produce fine timber, both as regards length and diameter, trees should be grown in crowded woods until the principal height-growth has been attained, which will be at about the middle age of the tree ; the wood should then be heavily thinned so as to afford room for the crown and roots to develope and thus secure a good diameter-increment, care being taken to keep the soil well covered with undergrowth. Good localities and long rotations should also be selected, and only trees grown which naturally produce large timber. (b) Straightness of Stem. — The axis of the stem of a tree may or may not be in one plane, and if in one plane, it may be in a straight line in that plane. In the latter case the stems are straight, the spruce, silver-fir and larch being the straightest trees, ^and after them the Weymouth-pine, alder and sessile oak. When the axis lies in a plane but not in a straight line, the timber is said to be curved, and may be useful in shipbuilding and some other industries. Timber, the axis of which is not in a plane, or crooked timber, is of little use except for fuel. Density of growth has the greatest influence on straightness of stem. Most broad-leaved species and the Scotch pine which in the open are frequently crooked, when grown in dense woods yield straight timber resembling that of the spruce and silver- fir. Beech, sycamore, sessile oak, ash, and hornbeam, gain SHAPE OF TEEES. 21 greatly in this respect in mixture vritli other species which help to crowd the wood. The locality, especially depth of soil, is not without influence on straightness of stem. The Scotch pine alters its shape most of all according to the locality in which it is grown, as while in Norway, Poland, Finland and North Germany it grows as straight as silver-fir and spruce, in the warmer regions of South Germany and France it is often found crooked, even in dense woods. A rapid upward growth during youth is prejudicial to the Scotch pine in this respect, while a steady, moderate, and long-continued upward growth is favourable to its straightness. Larch trees in the open, or growing rapidly on the borders of dense woods, are often curved and acquire a sabre-like form ; this is probably caused by the prevailing wind contending against the soft upward shoots of the trees during youth. Fertile soil and a shallow root- system favour this peculiarity more than poor and stony soil, and the curve is confined to the lower part of the tree. (c) Freedom from Branches. — As soon as the crown of a sapling growing in a crowded wood has been formed, so that its lower branches do not receive sufficient light for their foliage to thrive ; they commence dying and dry-up, breaking off from the stem and leaving the latter to a certain height, as a clean bole. This clearance of the lower branches occurs in light-demanders, even when grown in the open. Shade-bearing trees, on the contrary, such as the spruce, may, in the open, retain side-branches down to the ground, and the same may be said of the hornbeam and beech among broad-leaved trees. It is therefore of the utmost importance that a dense growth should be maintained in woods during the whole period of upward growth of the trees. If after this period the trees are allowed more room, this has no influence on the cleanness of their boles, except that epicormic branches, which can easily be pruned, may appear in the case of isolated standard trees. Cleanness of bole, especially towards its base, is then among the very first conditions for the production of valuable timber. Early closing-up of woods is therefore essential, and all widely spaced planting, especially of shade-bearing trees, should be abandoned. Trees which have freed themselves only late in life 22 TECHNICAL PKOrEKTIES OF WOOD. from their lower liranclR-s will yield very inferior plunks juul scantling. It may be possible to secure cleanness of bole by means of pruning ; but this should be considered only as a last resource, for the soundness of the timber may be thus compromised. Where pruning is undertaken in place of close planting, it must be commenced very early, and continued till the trees are thirty or forty years old : late pruning clears only the superficial parts of the boles from knots, leaving them in its more central portion. (d) Cylindrical shape. — A bole is said to be cylindrical or non- tapering, the more it approaches the cylindrical shape ; it is tapering or conical, the more it approaches the shape of a cone. It is easy to see that the more cylindrical a bole, the more useful its timber, and the greater the diameter of the smaller end of a log for the same length, the more valuable it will be. Length, and diameter at the smaller end are therefore better measures of the value of a log, than its cubic contents, or its length and diameter taken midway along its axis. The absolute measure of the cylindricity of a stem is its form-factor, i.e., the ratio of its real volume to that of the ideal cylinder of the same height and diameter as the stem (the diameter being measured chest-high). Thus, to take examples : mature silver-fir have form-factors between 0*44 and O'ST, spruce between 0-41 and 0*58, and beech between 0'4G and 0*49. The more or less cylindrical shape of timber depends chiefly on the species, the density of growth, the height and age of the trees, the nature of the locality, &c. As regards species, it is evident that trees which, when crowded, produce tall boles without much subdivision into branches, especially those which have small branches (silver-tir, spruce, larch and Scotch pine), must have boles more cylindrical than others, such as most broad-leaved species, which have a greater tendency to sub- divide into branches. In the case of trees growing isolated in the open, the crown is largely developed and comes low down the bole, so that the nourishment available for the stem from the foliage of the crown increases downwards with the insertion of each bough. The annual zones are therefore often broader in the lower part of the bole than above, and the bole assumes a conical shape. This is most n;arked in the case of low-branching, iso- SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 23 lated spruce trees. lu a crowded wood, on the contrary, the crowns of the trees are reduced to the uppermost part of then- boles, and this portion therefore obtains more nourishment than their bases ; broader annual zones are therefore produced in the upper part of the bole, which approaches in shape to that of a cylinder. The height of the tree also influences matters in this respect, and Baur has shown that spruce and beech trees increase cylindricity of bole up to 60 — 75 feet in height, but that where the height exceeds 75 feet, the cylindricity falls-off ; so that in closely grown, nearly even-aged woods, the form-factor varies with the height of the trees. A similar relation subsists between the shape of the bole and the age of a tree, as the form-factor falls-off for very old trees, especially after they have been heavily thinned in order that they may put on increment, due to in- creased exposure to light. Section IV. — Specific Gravity of Wood. 1. General Account. The specific weight of wood varies considerably under different conditions, not only according to species, but also to locality and the mode of formation, the age of a particular tree, the part of the tree from which any piece of wood is taken, its degree of moisture, amount of resin it contains, and several other factors. The mere knowledge of the average specific gravity of any particular piece of wood is not sufficient to determine its weight. Physicists distinguish absolute from specific weight, the former being determined by a balance, and depending on the pressure due to gravity which a given mass exerts on any object supporting it. The unit of weight is that of 1 cubic centi- meter of water at its greatest density, 4 C, and is termed the gram. Under the term specific gravity is understood the ratio which the weight of a certain volume of wood bears to that of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity also indicates how much heavier or lighter any wood is than water, and whether it can be floated or not. Since a cubic centimeter of water weighs a gram, 24 TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. the specific gravity of wood is calculated by dividing its weight in grams by its volume ill cubic centimeters. Conversely the absolute weight of a piece of wood can be ascertained by multi- plying its volume by its specific gravity. [As one cubic foot of water at its greatest density weighs 1000 ozs. = 62^ lbs.; multiplying G2J lbs. by the specific gravity of a wood gives the weight of a cubic foot, or dividing the weight of a cubic foot by 62J lbs., its specific gravity. — Tr.1 A correct knowledge of the specific gravity of woods does not give much information regarding their economic value, but is of importance where much weight tells on the strength of a structure, as for roofs, machines, wood for carriages, t^c. ; also as regards the cost of timber transport. [In India, the great weight of many of the hardest woods, such as the different kinds of iron-wood {M esua ferrea,X ylia dolahriformis),&.c., renders them unsuitable for floating, and where other transport is not available may altogether prohibit their use. Comparative lightness, irrespective of their inherent good qualities, is one reason for the extensive use of teak and Cedrela Tuna ; also owing to their light weight many extremely soft woods, such as Bombax vialaharictim, are used for packing-cases, though their durability is very inferior. — Tr.] Hardness, durability, heating-} owcr and amount of warping also depend more or less on the specific gravity of woods. The specific gravity of woody substance, i.e., of the cell-wall, is greater than that of water for all species of trees. According to independent and accordant investigations by Sachs and R. Hartig there is no essential difference between the specific gravity of the substance of the more important woods, as for instance oak, beech, birch, spruce and Scotch pine ; the specific gravity of the woody substance of which they are composed may he placed at 1*5G. In this respect no diflerence has been observed between heartwood and sapwood. It is therefore clear that diff'erences in the specific gravity of different woods are due to their anatomical structure, and to the substances contained in the lumina of their fibres and vessels. Library SPECIFIC GRAVITY. '25 2. Differences due to Anatomical Structure. The specific weight of a M-ood depends chiefly on the character of the lumina of the woody elements — the more abundant they are, the greater their dimensions — and the thicker their walls, the less will be the woody substance and the lighter the particular kind of wood. Hence the greater or lesser quantity of woody substance contained in a given volume of wood is the chief factor in its comparative weight. In most woods this woody substance is unequally distributed, there being more substance in the summer-wood and less in the spring-wood. It therefore follows that the specific gra\ity of a wood depends on the ratio of the mass of the summer- to the spring-zones, and wood is so much the heavier, the broader the summer portion of the annual zone. Evidently a late and short spring and a prolonged summer are favourable to an increase of weight in wood. It is also evident that special localities and seasons will affect the differences between the amount of spring- and summer-wood. Comparative densities of stocking will also affect this question, for in crowded woods vegetation begins later in the spring than in more open woods. The quantities of woody substance in difterent woods vary considerably according to species, and to the energy of growth due to local conditions. Amongst the indigenous trees of Central and Western Europe, the oak contains the largest amount, and the silver-fir the smallest, of woody substance ; Hartig states that broad-leaved species exceed conifers in this respect by about 25 to 30 per cent. The energy of nutrition varies with the locality ; not only must the soil be considered, with its widely-differing powers of j)roductiveness, but also the powerful aids it receives from heat and light. They are chiefly influential during summer, when they meet with the fullest development of foliage and roots, and most woody substance is therefore formed in summer. The immense importance of these factors on the structure of the annual zones of wood, in localities where the soil is equally productive, is very noteworthy. From the harmonious or dis- cordant working of all the factors of nutrition a number of phenomena arise — for instance, the comparatively high specific 26 TECHNICAL PROPERTIKS OF WOOD. gravity of spruce and larch iu the Alps, with a short growing season and intense light, when compared with wood of these species from the plains ; the high specific gravity of oakwood grown on warm aspects compared with that from cold localities ; the low specific gravity of sessile oak on poor, sandy soils ; the fine-ringed sprucewood from the higher Alps and the extreme north of Europe ; the porous wood produced, especially hy the pedunculate oak and elm, when trees are grown iu very wet situations ; the high specific gravity of some of the hroadcr annual zones of conifers when the trees arc isolated and their crowns fully exposed to light. Although it follows from the above that there must be a considerable difference from year to year and from place to place in the amount of summer-wood, the question arises whether the breadth of the ring will alone suffice to decide the specific gravity of a particular wood ? This question can be answered only after a study of the different groups of woods. As regards woods which are ring-pored, it may be laid down that quick- grown, wide-ringed wood is denser than narrow-ringed wood, provided that G millimeters (} inch) is not exceeded. {Vide Plate I.) [As a rule, broad-leaved woods of the same species become heavier when grown more to the south, so that sessile oakwood may be much heavier from rroveuce tluui from Normandy. — Tu.] For wood with evenly distributed pores, the breadth of the rings is no indication of comparative density, the difference between the spring- and summer-wood being so slight. R. Hartig states that the breadth of the annual zones in beecli- •\vood has no influence on its specific gravity, which de])ends on the age of the tree. During youth heavier wood is formed and during maturity lighter wood, as the larger the crown of the tree, the greater the lumina of the woody elements through which the water passes from the roots to the foliage. If, then, superior beechwood is produced in good localities, it is usually because, in such places the rotation is shorter, and the wood felled when it is younger than in inferior localities. Regarding conifers, long experience has shown that, in the majority of cases, narrow rings imply heavier wood than broad PI II DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPRUCE WOOD A. n. Section from a tree 200 years old (sp. ^r. O-r.27). Slow regular growth in a dense forest. Wood of best quality for cleaving : used for violins, &c. Forest of Chamounix (Haute Savoie). Altitude 4,050 feet. Section from a tree loO years old (sp. gr. 0-458). Regular structure, even and moderately fast growth. Excellent wood for cai-pentry and joinery. Foi-est of Grande CMiartreuse (Isere). Altitude 4,420 feet. / Section from a tree 35 years old (sp. gr. 0-447). Very rapidly grown wood produced at a low altitude. Soft wood ■ ' of inferior quality. Forest of Saint Laurent du Pont (Isere). Altitude 1,545 feet. V;g'^!!"^.;\ WUiMI ;>'ri<>V oniK)h ^liinull) /iiii .(•j-J'ii-.l) .jr.iJ/i.Jii;il') •A}t\i:> - fKMjv/ dflo;^ .')I)iidijI/{ 7/<>( a J/! byonlttwi [lOow iiy?<)-iT» vll.ii|.it' SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 27 rings ; but there are certain exceptions to this rule, as in the case of sprucewood from high Alpine districts with annual zones only 1 or 2 millimeters broad. Hartig considers that the specific gravity of conifers increases and falls with the volume- increment : this is due to the fact that, with an increasing sectional area, the lumina of the water-conducting organs can be reduced ; on the contrary, when the sectional-area increment is reduced, the lumina must be larger. This, however, holds good only for individual trees, and it must not be laid-down as a general rule that larger sectional-area increment always implies heavier. wood. {Vide Plate II.) 3. Differences due to Substances contained in the Tissues. Among the materials present in woody tissue, water, resin and reserve nutritive material are the most important, the amount of these substances in the walls and lumina of woody tissue necessarily influencing the specific gravity of the wood. (a) Water. — The weight of water in wood varies, according to species, tree-part, season and locality, between 30 and 55 per cent, of the total weight of the wood, the wood of felled trees being of all degrees of moisture ; in practice a distinction is made between green timber, with an average of 45 per cent, of water (as is the case if recently-felled trees) ; wood dried in the forest, after lying for some time in breezy forest depots ; and, finally, air-dried wood, which has been for a long time kept under cover in timber-yards, and retains only 10 to 11 per cent, of water. For scientific purposes, absolutely dry wood is obtained only by placing wood in drying-chambers at a temperature of 105° C. (221° Fahr.) until it no longer loses weight in a sensitive balance. Such a state of dryness is retained only whilst the wood is in the drying-chamber ; after removal, it speedily re- absorbs moisture and becomes heavier. The greater or less volume of water contained by wood also influences its specific gravity indirectly, by its eff'ects on the mass of the wood. As wood dries it shrinks, and shrinkage tends to increase its specific weight. It has often been asserted that the season of felling has an influence on the specific gravity of wood. If the absolute 28 TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. weight of green wood is in question here, there can be no doubt that, as the amount of water in wood differs at different seasons, to this extent its weight varies. Thus broad-leaved wood con- tains least water in winter, conifers least during spring, allow- ance being made for the irregularities in this respect of certain species. The season of felling has, however, no effect on the specific gravity of dry wood. (b) Resin.* — In the case of conifers and of many broad-leaved trees of hot countries, resin replaces water in filling-up the lumina of the woody elements. Highly-resinous wood is always consider- ably heavier than similar wood poor in resin. R. Hartig states that the wood of European conifers t differs in this respect : thus the spruce only produces resin in the younger zones of the sapwood, and it is therefore evenly distributed throughout the stem ; the Scotch pine also produces resin in mature wood, and its heartwood thus becomes highly resinous. The larch appears to resemble the spruce, and owing to the fluid nature of larch-resin in old trees it tends to accumulate at the base of the tree. In all conifers, however, the specific gravity of the wood increases and diminishes with the quantity of resin it contains. (c) Other Substances contained in Woody Tissue. — It would appear that the different relative quantities of reserve nutritive material (starch, proteins, &c.) which are contained in wood at different seasons might affect its specific weight,^ and Th. Hartig believed that in summer a reduction of 5 to 8 per cent, should be made on this account, but E. Hartig has rendered this more than doubtful by his observations on the amount of reserve-material in the wood of oak and beech during summer and winter. These substances, as well as inorganic salts, are chiefly found in bark and sapwood ; their influence * [By resin, the crude material is lueant wliicli is found in trees and from wliicli oil of turpentine is distilled, rosin or colophany hauif!; left as a residual liroduct— Tr..] t [As regards exotic trees, the more southern trees are generally most resinous ; thus /-•/?*)/» a;(A/norus vaporarius, which are found on the woodwork of cellars and on beams and floors laid directly on the ground without ventilating spaces below them. 5. Classification of Woods in Order of Diirahility. From all that has gone before it may be conjectured that it is impossible to attribute fixed periods of durability to certain timbers, and that it is difficult even to classify different timbers approximately according to the absolute powers of durability. If, however, durability is taken as a measure of the duration of a sound condition in timber under the worst possible external circumstances to which it may be exposed when utilized, some attention being paid to its special anatomical structure, timbers may be arranged in the following groups, in order of durability:^ — * Vide Hartig's Diseases of Trees, oj). cit. p. 74. 94 TKCHNICAL rROPERTIES OF WOOD. Vn-i/ Durahlc Wood. Pedunculate oak : Grown in the open in a mild climate and on moist, but not wet soil. Larch : With Avell-developed heartwood, highly resinous, not too old, especially when grown in middle Alpine localities (4000 to 5000 feet altitude). Sessile oak : As durable as pedunculate oak in dry places, but inferior to best larchwood when exposed to damp. Scotch pine : From old trees, highly resinous, with well- developed, moderate-sized annual zones and well-developed summer-wood. (Baltic red deal.) Black, or Corsican pine : Of similar nature to the above Scotch pine. Especially valuable for water-pipes or -channels. Mountain-pine : The erect variety {Pintts iito)it(ina var. iincinata, liamond) is best. Robinia : Sometimes more durable than oak. (False acacia, or locust.) Sweet chestnut: More durable in the ground than oak or robinia coppice-wood. Common elm : From fertile, warm situations ; is not liable to be worm-eaten. Durable Wood. Ash : Only fit for use under cover, or partially so, as in the case of carts or agricultural implements — then very durable. Larch : From lowlands, or with little heartwood. Scotch pine : Rapidly grown, with narrow zones of summer- wood and only moderately resinous. Spruce : From high altitudes or latitudes, with narrow zones and resinous. (Baltic white deal.) Silver-fir : About as good as spruce from moderate altitudes ; more suited for use under cover. [Silvcr-fir is preferred to spruce wlien Ijotli are grown in I^ritaiu. -Tr.] Wood of I Attic ])iind>ilit!j. Cluickly grown and slightly resinous coniferous woods, especially from lowlands, should be used only under cover ; they are very DURABILITY. 95 perishable when exposed to the air and moisture and in hot sandy soils. Larchwood tapped for resin has also little durability. Beech : Is durable only in dry places and under water ; when used in the ground it soon rots ; is very subject to be worm- eaten. Hornbeam : Useful only in dry places under cover. Sycamore and Maples : Not liable to be worm-eaten ; durable only when kept dry. Alder : Durable under water, otherwise very liable to decay and to be worm-eaten. Wild cherry : Very liable to be worm-eaten. Birch : Utilizable for furniture and carriage-panels only when kept dry. Aspen : Usually durable only when kept dry ; but old, reddish aspen-wood is said to be durable. Lime : Durable, when kept dry, unless it is worm-eaten. Weyinouth-pine : Not durable, and not much prized, even in its native localities. (American white deal.) Poplars, hazel and willows : Only durable when kept dry. 6. Means of Increasing the Dnrahility of Timber. Since durability is of such importance in determining the value of timber, it is evident that the greatest attention should be paid to any means of increasing it. Here, only such means will be considered as the forester can apply, and the question of injecting timber will be deferred till the third part of the book. It has been already shown how greatly the durability of timber depends on the locality and exposure to light, and this points out the way to produce durable timber by following certain sylvicultural rules. The greatest possible care should be taken to select the proper species for the locality. Fertile soils and mild climates are necessary for most broad- leaved woods, the amount of light which reaches the crown of the tree being gradually increased, and when they have attained the period of maximum increment, the crowns should be isolated from those of the surrounding trees. Eor conifers, especially larch, spruce and silver-fir, mountainous 9G TECHNICAL PIIOPEHTIES OF WOOD, regions, cold aspects and density of growth during youth are advisable, and their crowns should be isolated only when their height-growth is nearly completed. By following such rules durable timber will be produced. Decay of Avood owing to fungi can arise only when the wood contains sap or moisture ; direct means for increasing the durability of timber must, therefore, consist in keeping it as dry as possible from the time of felling until it is utilized. Drying timber in the forest is effected by converting the trees into beams, scantling and firewood, and exposing the pieces in airy places, after raising them above the ground. Large timber cannot evidently be much reduced in size ; but drj'ing may be expedited by barking the logs and dividing them into halves and shorter pieces. In extraordinary cases, trees may be dried by barking or girdling them before they are felled, or by felling them when in full leaf and converting them after they are fairly dry. Wood never becomes thoroughly dry in the forest, and it is the wood-merchant and not the forester who has to see to the thorough drying of timber. Special care must be taken of wood which has been killed during the growing-season by insects or fire, or which has become coated with blue mould. Such wood should be prepared, barked and converted at once, if it is to be kept sound. A high grade of dryness may be secured, in exceptional cases, if a tree is girdled as it stands, or barked up to its crown and left standing till all the moisture in the trunk has been trans- pired by the foliage. Oaks are sometimes barked in this way in the spring, when the bark is wanted for tanning, and then left standing till the following winter.* Such wood is characterized by exceptional durability, and is in great demand by wheel- wrights. Trees intended for use in the Russian navy are barked during the growing-season, and only felled twelve months after, and in order to prevent cracking, the bark is separated from the tree in strips 10 to 12 inches broad, wliicli are carefully left hanging from below the crown of the tree, and then titd round the stem with withes, f * [This is done in the Forest of Dean. — Tu.] t [In Burma, all teak trees marked for felling are girdled, and may not then be felled for two years. — Tu.] HEATING- POWER. 97 Lanpreclit's investigations into the exceptional durability of some beecbwood give some idea of the value of another method, in which the tree is felled in full foliage and left with its crown on till the wood is dry, and the wood then converted. He reported that twenty houses are still standing at Lenterode in the Harz Mountains which were built 150 to 200 years ago, and the beech woodwork is still undecayed. The wood was felled whilst the foliage was coming out, and the trees remained with their crowns on till the foliage had developed and become completely dry. The wood was then converted and air-dried. It may also be remarked that this wood was thoroughly smoke-dried, for there were no chimneys to the houses, and the smoke found its way out, as it could, through the roof. Similar results were obtained at Vienna in the case of park- palings prepared from beech-trees felled whilst the foliage was coming out, barked, and left lying till the next spring. They lasted seven to eight years, whilst ordinary beech palings last only about a year without decaying. Section XIII. — Heating -Power. By the term heating-power of wood, is meant the amount of heat which a certain weight of wood will give out when burned in ordinary stoves. Carbon and hydrogen are the elements of wood which will burn, and when oxidised they pass into the air as carbon dioxide and water, whilst the inorganic elements of wood remain as the ash. Since the demands for wood-fuel for smelting ores in con- tinental Europe and in the South of England, which were formerly considerable, have been greatly reduced and forest man- agement is therefore principally occupied in producing timber, the heating-power of wood has only a small influence on its value, though the question is still an interesting one. It is a fact that thoroughly lignified woody tissue has the same heating-power for all species of trees, but the varying forms of tissues found in the different species, the addition of resin and other materials, and of water in varying quantity after the wood has been air-dried, cause different woods to have different heating-powers. The fact that the specific gravity of VOL. V. H i»S TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. woody substance is the same for all species of trees, and the rxperimeuts as to its heating-power made hy Brix, attest its equal lieatiug-power in all cases. The circumstances which affect the heating-powers of the different woods will therefore be considered here. 1. The Specific Gravity of Wood. The heating-power is usually proportional to the amount of solid woody substance, and [unless, as in certain Indiati icoods, mineral matter is deposited in the lamina of the vessels. — Tr.] this is directly proportional to the specific gravity of the wood; so that for a given volume, heavy woods give out more heat than light woods. This is not, however, always the case, and it cannot, therefore, be laid-down as a general rule that the heating-power of wood is proportional to its specific gravity; there are excep- tions to this rule which may be explained, partly, by the am.ount of mineral matter some woods contain, partly, by the fact that wood of any species used for burning is frequently of a different quality to that used for determining its specific gravity, and also owing to the varying amount of resin contained in different woods. Oakwood forms a well-known exception to this rule, for although it is usually heavier than the wood of beech, birch, and maple, it possesses less heating-power than these woods. It should, however, be noted that we use only inferior qualities of oakwood for burning, good oak being always used for timber. The specific gravity of oakwood is, however, always calculated for perfectly sound wood, and varies between 0*53 and 1'05, show- ing differences up to 100 per cent., so that much oakwood is really lighter than the above-named woods, which may explain the apparent anomaly. [In the W. Himalayas, the best fuel is supplied by the heavy wood of the evergreen oaks, (J. Ilej-,semicarpl folia, dilatata, &c., the maxinuuii weights of which per cubic foot are given in Gamble's Manual of Indian Timbers as G8, 54, and 61 lbs. corresponding to specific gravi- ties of 1-08, -80 and -98.— Tu.] Although the average specific gravity of the different species of woods is no conclusive guide to their heating-power, it may be aflSrmed that the heating-power of wood of the same species HEATING-POWER. V^ is proportional to its specific gravity, so that heavy oakwood produces more heat than lighter oakwood, and so on. Those parts of a tree, therefore, which have a higher specific gravity also possess greater heating-powers. Hence the heavy heartwood of trees is more heating than the sap^vood, and rootwood is less heating than wood from the stem, with the exception of the highly resinous rootwood of some conifers. Since the heating-power of woods is greatly influenced by their specific gravity, all local circumstances which increase the specific gravity of wood will also increase its heating-power. Thus, independently of the nature of the soil, the amount of light which aff"ects the rate of growth and density of the wood of a tree will increase its heating-power ; so that the broad-leaved trees, which attain the best quality in this respect, are those grown on southerly aspects and in fairly open woods, or with perfectly isolated crowns, and not those growing on northerly aspects and in dense woods. 2, The Amount of Water hi the Wood. As long as the wood is not perfectly dry, it cannot, when burning, produce its greatest possible heating effect, as much of the heat is used for expelling the water in the form of vapour. This is a matter of everyday occurrence, and it is clear that splitting wood intended for fuel into small pieces and letting it lie in the forest in airy places to dry, must increase the heating power of any wood. Wood felled during spring or summer, and dried in the forest at the warmest time of the year, is best in this respect. When- ever it is intended to burn the wood as soon as possible after felling, summer is the best season for the purpose ; but other- wise the season of felling has no eft'ect on the heating-power of wood. The anatomical structure of the wood also influences the rate at which it dries, as soft and porous wood may be dried more quickly and more thoroughly than denser wood. The influence the state of dryness of wood has on its heating power is clearly shown in the case of barked oakwood, for although oakwood, as a rule, burns slowly, barked oak coppice- shoots, when thoroughly dry, burn as rapidly as the lightest H 2 100 TECHNiuAi. 1'i;oi'ERtif:.s of wood. coniferous wood, and are therefore in great demand for liakinjj;, tilc-maldn<];, and other trades where a quick heat is required. Nordhngor states that when wood contains 45 per cent, of moisture, it loses half its utilizable heating-power ; many woods in winter contain up to GO per cent, of moisture, and when burned green, only exert one-fifth of their heating-power. The difference between combustibility and heating-power in the green or dry state is not the same for all woods ; conifers, when burned in the green state, give out relatively more heat than green broad-leaved wood, chiefly owing to the resin they contain, and among broad-leaved trees, alder and birch give out most heat when burned green. [Silver-fir branches with the needles on contain so much turpentine that a tire can be made from them when freshly cut from the tree. — Tr.] It has often been imagined that wood which has been floated for some time loses a considerable degree of its heating-power, because it leaves somewhat less ashes than unfloated wood. This circumstance, however, can have no influence on its heating-power, and recent investigations have proved that floatage is not appreciably prejudicial to the heating-power of wood, provided it is thoroughly and rapidly dried when landed. This latter condition is frequently not secured, but the wood is often piled together in heaps at the wood-depots, which are not so arranged as to aflbrd thorough ventilation, and therefore the wood does not dry quickly enough. It is owing to this fact that firewood brought from the forest by land-transport is often preferred for heating purposes to floated wood.* Steaming and boiling wood does not impair its heating-power, provided the Avood 1)C thoroughly dried before being burned. 3. A)iai()inical Stnicfiirc. The effect of the anatomical structure of the wood, indepen- dently of its influence on the drying and density of the wood, is also important, owing to the fact that the substance of porous woods is more in contact with the oxygen of the air than that of * Brix fo\ind tliat 1 lb. lloatcd l.cctliwood lieatiil l-C lbs. of water from 32° into steam, and lliat 1 lb. of imlloated bfechwood licatud 4-4 lbs. of water to the Siiiiu; extent. HEATING-POWER. 101 dense compact woods. Porous woods, therefore, burn more quickly and more completely than dense woods, or, in common parlance, light woods give a quicker fire, and heavy woods a more lasting one. Hence it follows that by burning equal weights of dry porous wood, a more intense heat is produced than ^^dth heavier woods. The heating apparatus of houses is usually of such a construction that, after lighting the fire, a certain interval of time must elapse before a room is thoroughly heated. If the development of heat is then very rapid, much of it passes uselessly up the chimney, as the stove is not capable of storing the heat so rapidly. Thus softwoods waste much of their heat when used for heating rooms. In other cases, such as in bakers' ovens, brick- and lime-kilns, the same amount of preliminary heat is not lost, but a rapid intense heat is required, and for these purposes light woods are most suitable. [Thus, wood from Scotch pine thinnings is in great demand by the Paris bakers.— Tr.] The degree of reduction in size to which wood has been subjected has a similar influence to that of its porosity. A piece of wood reduced by a plane into thin shavings is a thousandfold more in contact with the oxygen of the air than the entire piece, so that the burning of the shavings would be much more rapid and more complete than that of the latter, and the intensity of the heat given out mich greater. There is, however, a limit to the advantages of subdivision of wood in this respect, for saw- dust merely smoulders, and scarcely emits any flame, when burned. 4. Amoiuit of liesiii in wood. The importance of resin in the heating-power of conifers is well known. Kesinous wood always evolves more heat than wood poor in resin, as the latter adds so much more carbon to the woody substance. Old Scotch pinewood, the roots of Scotch pine, mountain pinewood, the lower part of larch-trees, which often contain concretions of resin, portions of the lower part of the stem of spruce-trees where the bark has been injured and which have become encrusted with resin, and resinous old branches of the spruce are, therefore, remarkable for their great heating-pou'cr. 10:! TECHNICAL rROPEllTlES OF WOOD. 5. Soundness. The soandness of wood also considerably influences its heating-power ; rotten wood has probably lost at least half of its woody substance, owing to the ravages of fungi, and has a light specific gravity and very little heating-power. Since, as a rule, young wood is sounder than old wood, fire- wood from young broad-leaved trees has usually greater heating power than when taken from old trees. It appears that when wood rots, it first loses its hydrogen, for fallen dead wood burns with a very slight flame. Even when perfectly sound, young broad-leaved wood, and especially that of the beech, has a greater heating-power than old wood, and especially than very old wood. In the case of conifers, as the amount of resin they contain, especially in the case of pines, varies with the age of the tree, old coniferous wood generally has a greater heating-power than young coniferous wood. 0. Jh:tcn)iiiuiti(iii of Jlcdtinii-l'iuccr. Attempts have often been made to ascertain by experiment the exact heating-power of the diflerent^woody species, and two modes of measuring it have been devised, the former physical, and the latter chemical. The physical method for measuring the heating-power of a wood, consists in heating a boiler with the wood to be experi- mented on, and ascertaining how many unit-weights of water at 0° C. can be changed into steam by a unit-weight of the wood. The two elder Ilartigs have experimented in this manner with equal volumes of wood, and have found, taking the heating power of the stem of beech as 1 : — 100 years old ashwood ..... 1*44 120 ,, very resinous Scotch i)inc\v()t)d . 1"00 Robinia (stem) 1*05 100 years old hornbeam (stem) . . . . 1*05 108 ,, sycamore (stem) . . . 1'03 25 ,, beech-poles . . . . . 1*10 HEATING- POWER. 103 50-80 years old split beech 120-160 100 120 70 100 100 100 120 beech (stem) birch (stem) . oak (stem) . larch (stem) . elm (stem) . spruce (stem) . lime (stem) silver-fir (stem) Sweet chestnut wood 40 years old alder (stem) Black poplar aud aspen 28 years old willow. 40 ,, pyramidal poplar 1-04 1-00 0-96 0-94 0-82 0-79 0-76 0-69 0-67 0-65 0-59 0-58 0-48 0-47 The following results obtained by Brix show how many lbs. of water at 0° C. may be converted into steam by burning 1 lb. of each of the following woods : — Scotch pine (old trees) ,, ,, (young trees) Alder . Birch Oak .... Beech Hornbeam Dry wood. Wood with 15 % water . 5-11 4-19 . 4-68 3-83 . 4-G7 3-82 . 4-59 3-75 . 4-58 3-74 . 4-54 3-63 . 4-48 3-66 These figures show that the amount of woody substance in a wood is the chief factor in determining its heating-power. The chemical way of deciding as to the heating-powers of woods consists either in an elementary analysis of the wood, and ascertaining how much oxygen is required for convert- ing all the carbon and hydrogen it contains into carbon- dioxide and water; or, this amount of oxygen may be deter- mined by burning the wood in a closed retort with a metallic oxide (red-lead), and ascertaining how much oxygen has thus been used. A calculation of the average heating-power of different fire- 1 01- TECHNICAL IMIOPKKTIP^S OF WOOD. woods by comparing their prices forms no absolute criterion of their heating effect, for many other factors come into the question. The average ratios of the heating-powers of coal, lignite, and wood may be placed as the figures 2*6 : 2*14 : 0*5. The results of the physical experiments, even more those of the chemical experiments, as regards the heating-power of wood are of doubtful value, contradicting as they do every-day experience, and average results taken from many repeated experiments are therefore desirable. Even were the exact heating-power of the woods to be correctly determined, these results would only be of limited use in actual practice, where the practical heating-power is always found to be much less than theory states it to be, and the loss of theoretical heating-power varies with the diflferent stoves used. This loss is chiefly due to the defects of ordinary stoves as compared with those used for determining the heating-power of combustibles, and the absence in ordinary use of precautions taken in experimental burning. The loss of heat which escapes with the varying draughts of air up the chimneys also varies greatly, and so does the dampness of the wood actually used for fuel. As a matter of fact about half the heating-power of combustibles is lost owing to the way in which they are burned. The groups below represent the relative heating-powers of equal volumes of different woods, arranged according to com- mon experience by burning them in stoves used for heating rooms. i. Best heating Woods. — Hornbeam, beech, birch, Turkey-oak, mountain-pine from high altitudes, robinia, old resinous ^^cotch pine, black pine. ii. Good heating Woods. — Sycamore, ash, common elm, resinous birch, ordinary Scotch pine, oak. iii. Moderately heating Woods. — Wych-elm, spruce and silver- fir, sweet chestnut, Ceuibraii ]niiv. iv. Badly heating Woods. — Wcymouth-pine, lime, alder, fallen oak-branches, aspen, poplar, willow. Woods vary also in the manner with which they burn ; some give out much smoke and soot, as resinous coniferous wood HEATING-POWER, 105 (Scotch pinewood gives more soot than sprucewood) , beech, &c. ; others less, such as softwood broad-leaved trees, especially alder and birch. Other woods crackle and send out sparks, owing to the air they contain, as woods of the sweet chestnut, larch, spruce and oak ; others to a less degree, as those of Scotch pine, silver-fir and aspen ; whilst some woods burn without any crepitation, as those of hornbeam, birch, alder, &c. lUO CHAPTER IJ. INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. There are few raw materials wliich possess such extensive powers of adaptability and are so largely used for industrial purposes as wood. A casual inspection of the interior of any building is sufficient to convince one of this. Wood may be classified according to the manner in which it is used, as timber and firewood. In timber the dimensions and shape of a tree and its individual technical properties are of paramount importance, and decide the purpose for which it can be used ; as regards firewood, however, they arc of little importance, for wood unfit for any other purpose may at any rate be used for fuel. Subdivision I. — Timber. Section I. — The diitekent Classes of Convekted Timber. 1. (icncvdl AccuHiit. The demands on timber are as varied as the kinds of timber available. In considering merely the woods used in the con- struction of buildings, furniture, implements, tools, and the innumerable articles of convenience, art and comfort, it will be readily perceived that nearly every object requires a special kind of wood. If, therefore, a forest is to be worked intensively, so as to yield the highest possible revenue, it should produce wood which may be used to the greatest advantage, or, in other words, which is most valuable. In order that the produce of a forest may be of this nature, the forester should possess a thorough knowledge of the special requirements of industries using wood, which is too much to CLASSES OF CONVERTED TIMBER. 107 expect from him. To a certain extent, however, this knowledge is indispensable, especially as regards those industries which obtain their wood directly from the forest, and require it in large quantities. It is true that iron competes more and more with wood for certain purposes — as for shipbuilding, agricultural implements, water-pipes, telegraph-posts and railway- sleepers, where it has been largely substituted for wood ; in mines, iron rails and props are used ; in the construction of large bridges, woodwork is entirely dispensed with, and iron instead of wooden pillars are used where vertical support is required to a building. Even in numerous small articles iron has been substituted for wood. Yet with the constant increase in human requirements, hundreds of new uses for wood are found, and the demands for high-class timber therefore constantly increase whilst the area of the forests decreases, so that the supply of this valuable material tends to diminish.* The timber required for various industrial purposes does not in many cases pass directly from the woodman to the artisan, but generally through the intervention of a middleman, the timber-merchant, who converts rough timber into pieces of dimensions suitable for the requirements of the various industries. In this intermediate state it is termed converted or marketable timber. Timber may be classified according to its form, adaptability, and mode of conversion, and this classification naturally precedes the account of the difterent wood- industries. Thus, logs may be distinguished from sawn, or cloven timber. 2. Lof/s. Logs are pieces of timber which retain the full thickness of the stem, but may be more or less shortened. They are further distinguished as round logs, and balks, which have been squared, or are of rough prismatic shape, and are also termed sided timber. * [A p.aper was written in the Rjviie des Eaux et Forets, December, 1894, showing that in Britain, whilst tlie production of iron is as great as in all the rest of Europe, yet tlie imports of timber have risen, between 1860 and 1890, by 168 per cent. — Tk ] 108 INDUSTJMAL USES OF WOOD. (a) Thus, timber in the round is the part of a stem which has been merely barked, and may be used directly as piles, masts and spars, wheel-hubs, scaflblding-poles, pillars, anvil-stocks, telegraph-posts, hop-poles, or, when bored, for M-ater-pipes. (b) Balks are used as beams in the construction of houses, bridges or ships, being logs roughly squared cither with the axe or saw. If not quite square, they are termed waney (tig. 24, Fig. <>, 1>, (], '■) ■'^, i, '>!, ^Oi wanes being the natural surface of the timber, and panes the flat, hewn or sawn surfaces from which side-pieces have been removed. In the case of waney balks, for which rarely more than two- thirds of the trunk are utilized, the waste is about 12 to 15 per cent, of the whole, while, when the timber is square, the loss is about 27 per cent. Boles about GO feet long and of about HI inches mid-diameter, corresponding to 12 inches diameter chest-high (4i feet from the ground), are commonly used for balks. (c) Round oakwood is sometimes split through the centre into half-balks, with a section as shown in tig. 25. These half-balks are met with in the Baltic oak-trade and in the case of oak from the Spessart, and are used in cabinet- making and joiners' work. Quarter -balks {hois dc qiiarticr), are commonly produced in France by sawing two cuts at right angles to one another through the heart of a tree. CLASSES OF COXVERTED TIMBER. 109 3. Saicn Timber. [Various methods of sawing timber are shown in figs. 26 to 29, the best sawn pieces are obtained by cutting as much as possible in the direction of the meduUarj rajs, as wood has a better appearance (silver grain), and stands friction better in this way. — Tr.] Scantlings, battens and planking, comprise the different forms of timber after the stem has received several saw-cuts lengthwise. Naturally, in these forms of converted timber the full diameter Fig. 26. Fig. 27 Fig. -2- Fig. 29. 2 of the stem is no longer retained, except sometimes in one direction, and the length of the pieces is generally of greater importance than their breadth ; it is chiefly large trees (16 inches and more in mid-diameter) which are most usually converted * [Figs. 26 to 29 are after Boppe.— Tk.] 110 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. into planks and scantling, and the followini,^ kinds arc commonly known in the timber-trade : — (a) Pieces Square, or nearly so, in Section. (Fig. 30.) i. Scantlings may be 8 to 20 feet long, and in section 4 inches by 5 inches, up to 9 inches by 9 inches ; sawn from logs and beams, of 5 to 10 inches mid-diumeter ^'^- ^°- and 8 to 20 feet long, also from planks. They are used for supporting floors and roofs, for door-posts, gates, c'^'c. ii. Battens, or small scantlings, may bo 8 to 20 feet long, and in section 4 inches by 4 -inch, up to 7 inches by 3 inches. They are used for door- and window- frames, &c. iii. Laths are made by sawing up planks, and are G to 20 feet long, and in section 2 inches by i-inch, up to 4 inches by 1 inch. They are used in supporting tiles, slates and ceilings, also espaliers, vines, &c. ; they are frequently split instead of being sawn. Those for ceilings may be sold even when 1 foot or 2 feet long. (b) Pieces in which the Breadth is much Greater than the Thickness, i. Planks arc cut right through the stem, and arc usually 10 to 20 feet in length, and 10 to 18 inches by 2 to G inches in section. (Fig. 31.) Fig. 31. [In tlie case of oukwood such planks take at least one year for every inch of thickness for seasoning, and they are kept in stock by timbcr-mcrchaiits and used for all kinds of I)iirposcs, frequently after being further rc- duce(} in size. Ivailway-slecpcrs arc coni])risc(l under tliis class, tlieir dimensions will be given further on. — Th.] ii. Boards and deals, under 2 inches in thickness, usually varying from }, inch to I4 inches, and of various lengths, but generally from 10 to 20 feet long, and 5^ inches to 1 foot broad, the usual breadth being 8 inches to 1 foot. 'J'hey are used for floors, door-panels, cabinet-making, cl'c SUPERSTRUCTQEES. Ill 4. Cloven Timber. Cloven timber comprises all those sorts of timber in which the wood is split, or cloven, along the direction of the fibres ; it com- prises staves for casks, park-palings, laths, shingles for roofing, spokes for wheels, rungs for ladders, hurdle-wood, &c. This class of wood is characterised by the fact that the fibres not being severed, the wood preserves its natural elasticity and strength, and is much less permeable by liquids, and less liable to warp and crack than sawn timber. The work of cleaving timber is also more expeditious, and requires simpler implements than sawing, and there is scarcely any waste of material involved. In cleaving wood, it is advisable, whenever possible, to work from the centre of the piece of wood outwards. Section II. — Timber used in Superstructures. (a) Different Kinds of Superstructure. — The term superstruc- ture includes all parts of buildings which are above ground or water, so that the timber used in their construction may be exposed to the external air and to atmospheric influences, but not to moisture from the soil or in water-courses. Building- timber may be distinguished into sawn timber (beams, planks and scantlings), which is fitted by a carpenter, and planed timber used for floors, doors and windows, and fitted by a joiner. According to the demands on the durability, strength, beauty, cVc. of the timber used, and to its local value, different modes of building are employed, some of which use timber in lar^e quantities, and others much more sparingly. These modes of building may be distinguished by the nature of the walls erected. Thus, block-houses, or log-huts, have entirely wooden walls ; the wooden framework sometimes em- ployed for the walls of houses may be filled-in with planks, bricks, or lath and plaster ; the walls of other superstructures are built of mud, stone, or brick masonry. In the case of log-huts, the walls of the whole building are made of round logs or squared balks, the necessary firmness of the building being secured by dovetailing their ends into beams 112 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. placed at right augles to tbem. Log-huts are still used in the Alps, and in countries like America or Australia, where timber is still abundant. A higher class of houses is built with a complete wooden framework of beams and scantling, dovetailed and riveted together, and the interspaces are afterwards covered with planks, or filled-in with lath and plaster, or with rubble- or brick-masonry. Houses with a wooden framework filled-in with masonry are termed half-timbered. In the Middle Ages nearly all houses, and even large edifices, were built with a wooden framework, owing to the abundance of wood ; at present this mode of construction is limited to woodland districts, and especially to Switzerland and the Black Forest. Its use is becoming more restricted in Europe, as communications improve, and stone- or brick-masonry takes its place. [In countries like Japan or Assam where earthquakes are frequent, this mode of building is far safer than masonry, tlie interspaces between the wood being fillcd-iu with reeds or bamboos plastered over. In the event of an earthquake, the whole house holds together and the danger of falling masonry is avoided. Owing to the malarious nature of the country in Assam, houses are frequently raised above the ground on piles. — Tr.] Brick- or stone-masonry is the best material for the walls of buildings, and is at present most usually adopted [though in fairly dry countries, such as the N.W. of India, walls, and even roofs, are frequently made of mud. — Tr.]. In all these cases the minimum amount of wood is used, and chiefly for doors and window-frames, for the flooring and wainscoting of the diflerent stories (though even this may be partly made of stone and cement, supported by iron girders), and for staircases and roofing. Wooden scaflblding used during the construction of buildings of all kinds also requires a large quantity of round timber and some planking, and work-sheds and other similar constructions are usually made with a wooden framework. Beams, scantling, planks, &c., and round timber for scaff'old- ing, are the usual forms in which wood is used in superstruc- tures, and the properties which timber should possess for use in superstructures may be considered under the headings — shape and dimensions, strength, durability and weight. SUPERSTRUCTURES. 113 (b) Shape and Dimensions of Timber Used. — Although in the construction of staircases and of half-timbered houses, curved wood is admissible, the carpenter requires straight, cylindrical logs for most of his pieces. The length and diameter of the pieces depend, of course, on the size of the building for which they are required, but the pieces used for any particular building will be classed in uniform sizes. They are seldom thinner at centre than 4i to 6 inches, or thicker than 1 foot. The usual transverse dimensions of squared timber for constructions is from 7 to 9 inches, for which, allowing for bark and sap- wood and average cylindrical shape, trees measuring 1 foot to 14 inches in diameter are required. As regards length, the carpenter usually prefers the longest pieces, provided the fall- ing-otf in cylindrical shape is not too great. (c) Strength of Material. — Timber is subjected to loads which when applied transversely to the length of the pieces tend to cross-break them. In such cases, the timber serves the pur- pose of a beam, as for instance, the joists for supporting floors and rafters for roofs. The strength to resist bending is proportional to the width of the beam and the square of its depth. Two beams of half width have the same strength as one of whole width, but two beams of half depth superposed one on the other have only half the strength of one of whole depth. The greater transverse thick- ness therefore should be placed in the direction in which the load is applied. In order to provide sufficient stifiness as well as strength, the depth of beams, &c., is made from yVth (in short beams) to ^rVth of the length or span (in beams 20 feet long), and to give lateral stiffness, the width is about ^rd of the depth in short beams, and ^th in long beams. For spans exceeding 20 feet, iron and steel girders are generally used. When the load is applied in the direction of the length of the piece of timber, the latter acts as a strut or column, when the load thrusts, or as a tie when the load pulls. Timber is very rarely exposed to a strong pull on account of the difficulty of getting secure attachments to the ends of a piece, by merely butting the ends, however, unlimited thrust may be applied. Long struts or columns are liable to yield not by direct crushing, VOL. v. I 114 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. but by cross-breaking clue to lateral bending. The thrust which can be safely borne varies from j of a ton per square inch of section in struts of a length equal to 8 times their diameter, to one half of that amount when the length is 24 times the diameter. (d) Deg-ree of Soundness and Durability. — All pieces of timber used in constructions must be perfectly sound and sufficiently durable, and in all cases none but thoroughly seasoned timber should be used. Some of the pieces used in buildings are more exposed to decay than others, such as those used for cellars, wash-houses, breweries, stables and other damp jilaces, whilst roofing timber is less endangered. It is not surprising to find, if green timber be used, that destructive fungi attack the beams, &c., and early rejjairs are necessitated. [In countries where white ants abound, only wood wliicii they do not attack should be used in constructions, an exception being made for rafters, when the masonry, or half-timbered walls arc secure against the passage of the ants. It is also usual to smear the timber externally with wood- oil, extracted ft-om species of Dipierocarpiis, which is a great preservative against insects. — Tit.J (e) Weight. — Weight is now-a-days avoided as much as possible, especially in the roofs of buildings, which were formerly made of heavy oakwood. In substituting light coniferous wood instead of oakwood for roofs, fairly durable wood should be used, such as narrow-zoned and not broad-zoned wood — at least, for the principal roof-timbers. The price of this fine-zoned timber is usually considerably higher than the inferior material. Greater ease in construction is also a cause of the preference of light to heavy wood. [In India, bamboos are largely used for roofing, under thatch they should be at least three years old shoots, and thoroughly soaked in water for a month or two before being used, in order to avoid insect-attacks. — Tn.] In Europe, the woods of spruce, larch, silver-fir, and Scotch pine, are chiefly used in buildings on account of their light- ness and other qualities, and good larchwood is the best material of them all. These woods arc straight and strong, and if not SUPERSTRUCTURES. 115 grown too quickly, sufficiently durable ; they are cheap and easily worked. Oakwood, formerly considered indispensable for building pur- poses, is at present much less frequently used, on account of its high price. It should, however, still be preferred in all damp, steamy places, where great demands are made on the durability of a wood. The spruce is more extensively used in buildings than any other timber, on account of its cheapness and special quali- ties. Its perfectly straight stem possesses great transverse strength and sufficient durability, and it is light and easily worked. Owing to its greater durability, good larchwood, which possesses all the other qualities of the spruce, is largely used in mountain districts. Black pinewood from the Alps approaches larchwood in value. The Scotch pine also affords excellent building-timber, which is more durable than sprucewood, and is generally preferred for beams. Silver-firwood is very elastic, and yields timber of as large dimensions as any of the above, and it is more cylindrical than sprucewood, on which account it is preferred to it in some districts. In others, it is reported as of limited durability, and liable to be worm-eaten, but is usually preferred to sprucewood in damp places. [It appears doubtful whether builders really distinguish between spruce and silver-fir timber, and local custom frequently prescribes the kind of building-timber which is preferred, irrespective of its other good qualities. Silver-firwood grown in Britain is in higher repute than indigenous sprucewood. — Tr.] Wood of the "Weymouth-pine is also used in buildings, but it is considered to possess little durability or strength, and is not much prized in Canada, its original habitat. The wood of few broad-leaved species, except the oak, are used in buildings. [Chestnut-wood has been reported to have been used in roofing cathedrals in France and England, but Mathieu (Flore foresticre) states that when the wood of these roofs has been examined by an expert, it has always been found to be of oak. — Tr.] Elmwood affords good building material, but is scarce in Germany, though fairly common in Britain. Aspen-wood, in spite of its little durability, is sometimes used for light roofing spars. Almost any wood may be used to fill I 2 11 G INDUSTllIAL USES OF WUOD. in the frame-work of timbered houses, aud beech is often employed for this purpose. Amongst foreign woods, imported from Algeria, Florida, Canada, Australia, &c., chiefly belonging to the species, Qucrciis, PiiiHS, Abies, Taxns, Ta.vodiam, Cnprcssus, Cednis, dr., that of the Pitch pine {Piiiiis aiistraUs), on account of its great durability and strength, beauty of grain and comparative cheapness, has been recently in great demand. [Of Indian woods, the teak, deodar, blue pine (P. exceha) and the sal {Shorea rohusta) afford some of the best building material, but each province (especially the moister regions of Bengal, Assam, Burma, Bombay and Madras) possesses a few other species yielding durable timber. By far the larger number of Indian trees are greedily devoured by the white ant, however well they may be seasoned, and this greatly restricts the possible selection of timbers to be used for buildings. — Tr.] Section III. — Timber used on, or in, the Ground. "Woods used in the form of piles for foundations in yielding ground, or to support road-embankments ; also woods used in aqueducts, roads, railways or mines, come under this head. 1. Wood used ill l-'diouhttioits of Biiildiin/s. Where buildings arc constructed on yielding soil, a foundation is frequently made for them by driving piles 8 — 12 inches in diameter, and 10 — IG feet long, into the ground, sometimes in several tiers one above the other, until a firm foundation has been secured. This frequently takes a very large quantity of timber. Wherever these piles are not completely under water they are extremely liable to rot, owing to the variable moisture in the soil which is not usually sufficient to exclude the air, and to the usually moderate temperature of the soil. Hence the most durable woods are used for this purpose, such as oak and resinous conifers, chiefly larch and Scotch pine. Wherever the soil is permanently wet, alder-wood may also be TIMBEK USED ON, OR IN, THE GROUND. 117 used, as it is essential that the piles should be straight. Spruce wood is often used in the absence of better material. 2. JVoodoL Watcr-inpes. Although iron water-pipes are everywhere replacing wooden pipes for aqueducts, yet in certain well-wooded countries the latter are still used, and for this purpose the best Scotch pinewood, larchwood, and black pinewood are most suitable. These woods usually last 8 — 10 years, if they are laid at a proper depth below the surface of the soil, somewhat over 2 feet, where frost and heat do not affect them. Failing these, woods of spruce, silver-fir, and alder may be iised. Oakwood gives the water a bad taste, and is too expensive for the purpose, and other woods are not sufficiently durable. [Deodar-wood is the best to use in the Himalayas for aqueducts. — Tk.] The wood is bored and used quite green, and supplies of wooden pipes must be kept in running water to prevent warping and cracking. It is preferable to keep them in dry sheds than in stagnant water, where spores of fungi get into the tubes and cause premature decay. Single pipes are 9 — 16 feet long, as it is difficult to bore them to a greater length. The wall is generally as thick as the bore. 3. Wood used for Timher Export-Works. Wood is also frequently used in forest export-roads, slides, or sledge-roads. Wherever there are extensive coniferous forests, and the local prices of wood are low, large quantities of wood are used for fencing, supporting embankments, culverts, bridges, and for covering swampy ground ; all kinds of wood, chiefly coniferous wood, are used. 4. Wooden Paving. Wooden paving is now employed in the streets of large cities. [In London, jarrah {Eucalyptus marrjinata) and kari {E. diver- sicolor) are now largely used for this purpose, and doubtless Pyngado {Xi/Ua dolahriformis) , and other heavy Indian woods might be used with advantage. — Te.] Among European species 118 IXDUSITJAL USES OF M'OOD. the hardwoods, beech, oak, and ehii are best, but owing to its cheapness Scotch pinewood is also hirgely used, and bus proved to be as durable for this purpose as Pitch pine. Injected wood is generally used, and zinc-chloride is said to have given better results in this respect than creosote. The wood is used either in rhombs, or rectangular prisms, placed on a slightly arched dry layer of concrete, molten asphalt being poured between the blocks, which are afterwards covered with a layer of fine gravel and well rolled. Wooden street-paving has proved as durable as asphalt, and does not exercise so much wear and tear on the shoes of horses. Fig. .32. or the tyres of vehicles ; it also affords a firmer foothold to the horses, and makes less noise than stone-paving. The blocks of wood are 6 — 12 inches long, 8 inches broad and G — 7 inches thick ; when rectangular they are placed endways, and when rhombic, as in the figure. Blocks of Scotch (red) pine and other wood are also used for the flooring of stables, threshing-floors, or outdoor staircases. 5. Uailiraji-Sleejx'rs. Up to the present time railways have made great demands on forests, chiefly for railway-sleepers, or ties, as they are termed in America. [The dimensions of railway-sleepers vary in different countries, in England being 9 feet x 10 inches x 5 inches, or 3| cubic feet ; eleven of these sleepers are used for 30 feet of line, being about 2| feet apart, but are further apart towards the centre of the rails and closer near the joints. Each i-cd juno slee})er is saturated with 2 J gallons of creosote, which is forced into the sleepers under pressure. The breadth of gauge between the rails is 4 feet 8i TIMBER USED ON, OR IN, THE GROUND. 119 Fig. 33. . o^e ^y o.jz^ . inches, which with the width of the rails, 2>\ inches, makes up 5 feet, the ordinary width apart of the wheels of a cart. In France great latitude is allowed in specifications of sleepers, as shown in fig. 33. In India, the ordinary gauge, termed the broad- gauge, is 5| feet ; and the meter-gauge, 3 feet 3f inches, corresponding to sleepers 10 feet X 12 inches x 6 inches or ^\ feet x 10 inches x 5 inches, and 8 feet x 8 inches X 4^ inches respectively. The rails are placed on steel chairs fastened to the sleepers by iron spikes, oak trenails or both, and it is essential that there shall be no bad knots on the sleepers just where the chairs are fixed to them.— Tr.] The yearly requirements in new railway-sleepers for Europe is estimated at 30,000,000 cubic meters (1,060,000,000 cubic feet) or 21,200,000 loads of wood, the annual produce of about 20,000,000 acres of forest. Steel and iron sleepers are, however, to some extent re- placing wooden ones ; and in 1892, 15 per cent, of the 26,800 miles of Ger- man railways were laid on metals, whilst the number of wooden sleepers used was as follows : — (Dimensions in meters.) Different sections of Railway-Sleepers used in France. (After Boppe. ) ^-oj? a. oM --> 1^ ^ -~o,22 a. o,So . t o 22 w o.Jo-^ . 120 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. Oak . . 1,427,1^)5 Coniferous . . 1,420,154 Beech 233,858 3,081,1^ WhcD sawing logs into raihvay-slecpevs, it is evident that the waste shoukl he reduced to a minimum, and the following facts should be noted : — Diameter of log at small end. For 1 sleeper . . . . .10 inches ,, 2 sleepers . . . . . 14 ,, .> 3 ,, 17 ,, „ 4 „ 19 „ Larger timber, especially of oak, is generally too valuable to be converted into sleepers, and on the Continent usually only third- class oak timber is thus used. There is between 30 and 40 per cent, of waste. Up to a recent period oakwood was considered essential for railway-sleepers, on account of its durability, extending to 10-16 years. Highly resinous narrow-zoned larch sleepers last 10 years, and those of Scotch pinewood similarly characterised last 7-9 years, whilst other woods unless injected were formerly hardly used at all. As, however, the supplies of oakwood in Europe are quite insufficient for the supply of railway-sleepers, and the price of good oak timber is very high, after sufficient experience of the advantage of injecting timber, Scotch pine, spruce and beech have been largely used. Sleepers injected with various the following durability : — Oak . Scotch pine . Spruce ,, (in liavaria) Beech Young oakwood, owing to its greater density, is more suitable for raihvay-sleei)ers than old timber. Tlie fact that many oak substances {r.lr p. G59) have . 19-5 — 25-0 y ears . 13-9 — 22-8 ,, . G-6 — 9-6 ^, 8-0 — 12-0 ,, . 13-0 — 17-8 ,, TIMBER USED ON, Oil IN, THE GROUND. 121 sleepers have not proved durable, is due to their being taken from the worst class of oak timber, which is frequently unsound. As regards durability, much depends on the ballast, and the nature of the soil and climate. If these factors are favourable, they may allow an uninjected sleeper made of wood of otherwise little durability to last for a long time. Attempts to replace wooden sleepers by stone ones were quickly abandoned on account of the unsuitability of the latter. Iron and steel sleepers are now, however, largely used, chiefly in the trough-shaped form, the old "pot" form not having been satisfactory. This substitution of iron for wood is due to the large quantity of iron available and to its great durability. The chief objection to the iron sleepers consists in the change in the molecules of iron, due to the action of the traffic, which renders the metal brittle. Another objection lies in the great cost of iron sleepers. [In India the saline nature of the soil is often preju- dicial to metal sleepers. — Tk.] On the whole, wooden sleepers are preferable if they can be procured. It is, therefore, the duty of the forester to produce as many oak sleepers as possible, and to favour their impregnation, if the field is not to be abandoned to iron. Attention in Germany should also be directed to im- pregnating good young beechwood, of which only 1 per cent, of the sleepers are at present made, although such sleepers are largely used in France. 6. Wood iised in Forts. Pallisades in fortresses are made of all kinds of wood, chiefly coniferous. Platforms for guns and other parts of forts are made of all kinds of wood, chiefly oak and Scotch pine. 7. Mining Timber. In spite of the large use of iron in supporting mine-galleries, large quantities of wood are also used for this purpose, as well as for lining shafts in pumping-works, &c. Wood used in mines is exposed to damp air, damp and frequently wet soil, and, in the deeper mines, to a constant degree of comparatively high temperature. Every circumstance therefore tends to favour the decomposition of the wood, and it seldom lasts '\IZ INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. more than 4-6 years. If the demands were not so con- siderable, none but the most durable oakwood ought to be used. It is, however, more economical to use the wood which is locally most easily procurable, and this is chiefly coniferous, of which liuchwood is most durable, and then resinous Scotch pinewood, but in Germany even sprucewood is sometimes used. Among broad-leaved trees beech is most commonly used, and largely so when shod with steel, as stamping hammers for pounding minerals. "With the exception of beams used vertically, dovetailed together in shafts, ladder-wood, and some other pieces, wood for mines is chiefly required in round logs free from bark. Different forms of sawn wood are also in demand for lining shafts, generally in the form of inferior coniferous boards and planks. Wood may be supplied in full-lengthed logs, which the mining carpenter reduces to the required dimensions, or in the form of pit-props, in which the chief bulk of mine timber is com- prised, and which vary from three to eight inches in mid- diameter (not less than 21 inches at the smaller end), and 24 to 30 feet long, and even longer. Only about 15 to 20 per cent, of the mining-props are required in pieces measuring 12 to 16 inches, mid-diameter. [Scotcli pine will yield pit-])rops when 40 years old, and bircli at 25 years, and for British coal-mines over 000,000 tons of Cluster pine arc imported annually from Bordeaux, where it is grown and tapped for resin in the extensive forests of the Landes and fiirondc. -Tk.] Wood is put to some other uses where it is subject to similar conditions as wood used in mines ; for instance, well-frames, for which purpose resinous coniferous wood, especially that of larch, black pine, and Scotch pine are suitable ; also in cellars, for bottle-racks, for which oakwood (or iron) is chiefly used. Section IV, — Wood i skd in contact with Wateu. 1. Jir'nhjrs, cCr. W^ood used in watercourses and bridges is under very much the same circumstances as wood in contact with the ground, except that it may be partly or entirely under water. All WOOD IN CONTACT WITH WATER. 12 '5 wooden bridges and works used in connection with them for strengthening the hanks of watercourses, sluices, weirs, booms and other timber-catching apparatus on streams used for floating, require pieces of many different shapes. Although iron bridges are now becoming usual even across narrow streams, and roads are replacing water-carriage for timber to a large extent, yet the importance of canals for cheap traffic of heavy goods is being more and more felt, so that very large quantities of timber are required in hydraulic engineering. Timber thus used is greatly exposed to decay, so that oakwood and resinous wood of larch and Scotch pine are generally employed for these purposes. In the case of works for floating timber, it would be highly advantageous were the best wood used, but owing to its abund- ance in mountainous districts, and to the great cost of oak and larch, sprucewood is usually employed, although its durability is small. Water-wheels for flour and sawmills and other purposes should also be made of oakwood, but are usually made of the wood of Scotch pine, larch or even spruce. Bridges are usually boarded with beech, which gives a smoother surface and is less liable to splinter than oak or coniferous wood, but the considerable amount of warping and shrinking of beechwood must be allowed for. The axle of a water-wheel must be thoroughly sound and free from flaws, it is seldom more than 18 feet long, and is usually made of the wood of oak, larch, Scotch pine, spruce or even beech. The diameter of the axle does not depend entirely on the size of the wheel, and the amount of the work to be done, but also according as the spokes of the wheels are dovetailed into the axle, or fastened to it tangentially. Iron wheel- axles rest on beech or hornbeam bearings, which are supported by a strong framework of oak, &c. 2. Fascines. Fascines are often used to support banks, a fascine being a bundle of young stool-shoots of diflereut species and dimen- sions. Their usual length is 10-12 feet, the height to which the coppice grows, and they should measure 12 inches in ^:l\■ IXDrSTKIAL USES OF WOOD. diameter at the larger end. Fascines are used tranversely to the bank of the stream, and long thin fascines, made of the finest available material, only 5 or 6 inches thick, but 24 to 50 feet long, ^vhich are bound with withes at intervals of ten inches are pegged down over them. Another kind of fascine is 12 — 20 feet long and 24 — 3G inches across, filled with heavy stones, and sunk alongside the bank in deeper water where the stream is strong. Quick-growing trees and shrubs with five to six years' rotation, especially willows,* are used for fascines; also buckthorn, viburnum, alder, hazel, poplars, ash, black- and white-thorn. The best time for felling coppice for fascines is in MurcU, just before the spring-shoots come out. This is satisfactory alike to the engineer and the forester, as the former gets the material when it is richest in sap and therefore heaviest, whilst the latter cuts the coppice just before sprouting, which secures ti good reproduction from the stools. For wattle-fences, duck-decoys, itc, osier-willows yield the best material. Section V. — Wood used in Machinery. Iron and steel are fast replacing wood in machinery, and it is only in purely agricultural districts that any machines are still wholly made of wood. It is therefore only parts of machinery, chiefly the frame-work, bearings and fixings of heavy machinery, that are made of wood. Wood is chiefiy used in sawmills, flour- mills, &c., and in machinery for driving wooden stamping- hammers. Even in large factories, however, wood is still required ; and then generally wood of dense structure is used, which resists shocks and friction. In all works driven by water-power, the water-wheel is the most important implement, and has been already referred to. In extensive plains, sails of wiml mills replace the water- wheel ; they are always made of coniferous wood, and chiefiy of Scotch pinewood of best quality, such as is required for masts of ships, and are sometimes very large. Pieces should tail-ofi" at the small end. Steam-power is however replacing wind-power to a great extent. * Salix fraijilis, alba, rubra, amyrjdaUiia, viminalis, acuminata, &c. SHIP- AND BOAT-BUILDING. 125 As regards the demands for wood for tlie interior of factories the following short remarks will be made ; — All wheels are made of iron, but hornbeam and dog-wood are still sometimes used for cogs. In sawmills, the supports of the saw and the bed are chiefly made of coniferous wood, the rollers of the latter are of wood of hornbeam, elm or oak. In flour-mills, except the wheels, most of the fittings, such as the hoppers and meal -bins are made of coniferous wood. The case in which the mill-stoues work should be of Scotch pinewood, as free from resin as possible, or of silver-fir wood. All parts of the mill where fric- tion is exerted should be of beech or hornbeam. In oil-mills and stamping- works, hard broad-leaved wood, such as that of beech, hornbeam, oak and ash, is required rather than coniferous wood, and also for pounding troughs in oil, tan, powder and bone-mills. Stamping-hammers are now usually made of iron, but in moun- tainous forest districts, many are still of wood bound with iron, and large quantities of beech, birch or hornbeam logs are used for them, in round pieces 8 to 10 inches in diameter and G-8 feet long. These pieces often require replacing 6 to 8 times in a year. They come constantly in contact with the glowing mass of iron below them, on which water is poured, which causes them to crack in all directions and wear out rapidly. The anvil-stock below the hammers is made of au oak log at least 3 feet in diameter and 6 feet long, which is bound with iron and let firmly into the ground. Wood is largely used in all factories for frame-work, work- tables, floors, &c., and after coniferous wood, beech wood in thick planks and scantling is chiefly employed. Section VI. — Ship- and Boat-Building. 1. General Account. In no industry has wood of recent years been more largely replaced by iron than in shipbuilding. It is chiefly the larger men-of-war, steamers, and sailing ships which are built of iron. Iron ships are most resisting to storms, of larger burden, easier to repair and more durable than wooden ships. As regards the shape, there is a considerable difference 126 INDT'STEIAL USES OF WOOD. between ships intended for the sea, and fresh -Avuter barp^cs : the former are comparatively short compared with their breadth, with keels which run straight from end to end of the ship ; whilst all the other lines are of different degrees of curvature. This curved shape is given to ships by means of ribs, which are partly made by joining difterent pieces of wood, but also by using curved pieces. Fresh-water barges have no keels, but a broad flat bottom on which the knee-pieces are fastened at a sharp angle, so that the straight line is much more frequent in their construction than in that of ships. The chief strength in ships consists in the ribs which are very close together, the outer planking being less important ; in barges the ribs are much further apart, and the planking is of greater importance. The demands on wood for ship and boat-building depends on species of wood, its quality, shape and strength. 2. Species and (Jtialitij. Oakwood is the principal material used in ship-building, and nearly the whole framework of wooden ships, boats and barges is made of it. All oakwood is not, however, suitable for the purpose ; for there is much inferior oakwood which is worse than several other timbers. Durability and strength are the principal requisites in ship- building timber ; and to ensure these qualities in oakwood, only broad-zoned timber should be chosen, with annual zones up to 7 to 8 millimeters, say I inch, with a narrow zone of fine pores. The wood should be light-coloured rather than dark-coloured when freshly cut : in any case, of uniform colour tliroughout, as long-tibred as possible, tough and with a strong fresh odour of tannic acid. Inferior oakwood has narrow annual zones, comparatively broad porous zones and wide pores, is short-fibred and brittle, and darkish coloured, streaky, or reddish in colour and only slightly scented. It is evident that not only the very best kinds of oak-timber are used in ship-building, the ship-builder knows the parts in the ship where the less valuable qualities may be used ; but it is also evident that there is a limit to the use of inferior oakwood SHIP- AXD BOAT-BUILDING. 127 in the construction of a ship, and the forester should at any rate be able to recognize the better qualities, and whether the oak- timber his forests produce is fit for ship-building, or not. It is difficult to decide whether the pedunculate or sessile oak is really preferable ; but most of the wood used in ship-yards is pedunculate oak ; in Norway, however, that of the sessile oak is preferred. Oakwood from rich soils and mild climates is best, and the countries bordering on the Adriatic sea, Istria and Carinthia, yield the best oak, that from Slavonia, the Spessart and Poland being less suited for ship-building. [English and French oak- timber is also largely used in dock-yards, and French (and Sussex) oakwood is preferred in England. — Tk.] In the north of Europe, a number of smaller coasting vessels and fishing and river-boats are constructed of coniferous wood. Larchwood is preferred, but spruce and Scotch pinewood are chiefly used, the latter being much more serviceable than spruce. Light boats are also built of the wood of Sallv alba. Teakwood {Tectona grandis) is at present much more employed in ship-building than oakwood, it scarcely warps at all, is more durable than the latter and does not rust iron nails and bolts. Certain species of Eiicahjptas from Australia and Tasmania are also used for ship-building. [*Tewart or White Gum {E. gom2:)liocephala), Jarrah {E. diversicolor), Iron- bark {E. siderophloia) and Blue Gum {E. Glubulus). — Tr.] Mahogany {Sivietenia Mahorjani) is also used and the Pitch pine (Pi?ms rti(.s^jT(Zis) for boards; of the American oaks, Qiwrcns rirens and Q. alba are most esteemed. The chief obstacle to the use of oakwood is the tannic acid it contains, which involves rapid rust in all iron with which it is in contact, and consequent decay in the wood. The chief value of several tropical and sub-tropical species of trees for ship-building consists in the absence of tannic acid in their wood. Next to oakwood, wood of the Scotch pine or red deal is largely used in ship-building, chiefly for masts and rudders. This timber varies in quality much more than oakwood, and the best qualities of red deal are strongly resinous and have narrow annual zones. {Vide Plate II.) * Firfc Timber and Timber Trees, by Laslett. 2ud edition. Macmillan & Co. 1894. 128 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. All mast- anil rudder-wood should be straij,dit and cylindrical, free from knots, elastic and uniformly resinous throughout. The sapwood, which is always trimmed-oft", should be narrow, being only 1 to | of the diameter in the best woods. The large masts taken from the Hauptsmoor Forest near Bamberg have frequently only 1-2 centimeters (3-6 eighths of an inch) of sap- wood, and even this, full of turpentine. Too highly resinous woods are not esteemed, as they are less elastic and strong. At the same time, the annual rings should not be too narrow, and experience proves that a breadth of ring of 075 to *2*00 mm. (^Vto ^tli of an inch), provided it is continued uniformly to old age, characterises the best sort of mast-wood. As regards colour, Scotch pinewood, of clean, bright, uniformly yellow colour, is preferred. The best red deal comes from the north, especially the Baltic coasts, Scotland and Norway. The best mastwood comes from Kiga, and is superior to all other mastwood in elasticity, strength and durability. Hardly any mastwood of the old excellent quality is now to be had, owing to the prevalence of even-aged woods with forced growth. The larch from high latitudes, or altitudes, comes next to the Scotch-pine as mastwood, and this species is largely used for masts in the Russian navy, where the northern Ural mountains yield splendid larch-timber. Spruce and silver-fir yield only inferior mast-wood, their timber not being strong enough for the purpose. In the Austrian mercantile navy, however, spruce- wood from Carinthia and other provinces is largely used for masts. Spruce masts are also largely used for sailing boats on most of the German rivers. American and Australian conifers are also used for masts, such as the Douglas-fir, Canadian Wcymouth-pino, Kauri {Dammara australis) of New Zealand, and pines and larch of Asiatic Russia, all of which come to European dock-yards in increasing quantities. For the inner lining of ships, besides the woods already mentioned, of which larch and Scotch-pine are largely used for deck-planking, many other species are employed. Injected becchwood is sometimes used, not only for keels, but for the SHIP- AND BOAT-BUILDING. 129 whole framework of ships on the Dahnatiau Coast ; the wood of elm, maple, lime, &c., and boxwood are used for models. 3. Permissible Defects. All wood used for shipbuilding cannot be entirely free from defects, for if that were the case, sufficient wood would not be obtainable from a large forest district to make a single ship, as old oakwood is seldom perfectly sound. Wood which, owing to its dimensions, is ranked as first-class, may have small local defects which do not practically weaken the balks. Brown spots and rings at the larger end of a balk, pro- vided they do not penetrate far into the wood, and may be removed by shortening the balk, need not cause it to be rejected. Where small patches of red or white rot and other similar defects occur, which are thoroughly dried and are not expected to extend any further, the decision of the admissibility of the affected wood must be left to an expert. Large heart-shakes, frost-cracks, twisted fibre, deep-going black and brown marks, rotten places descending from branches, are defects which naturally exclude the timber possessing them from use in shipbuilding. Shipbuilders as much as possible avoid using any defective timber in new ships, whilst in repairing old ships such material may be more admissible. 4. Shape and Dimensions. All shipbuilding timber is either wood for construction, or mast- or spar- wood. (a) Timber used in Construction. — This comprises curved and long wood. Curved or compass timber is chiefly used in the framework of ships. As a rule, the curvature should be uniform throughout the piece (fig. 34), or greatest at one-third from one of its ends, and when this is one-third the distance from its larger end (fig. 35), the piece is most valuable. Some of these pieces are thirty to forty feet long. Curved woods are chiefly required Avhich have a sagitta or camber of 2*5 and 1'5 centimeters per meter {i.e. :jV and o-g-^), but this may be exceeded in certain pieces VOL. v. K 130 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. fts in fig. 36. The beams used for supporting llic deck are much leas curved. Wood is now artificially bent for shii)building, as in ccr- FiG. 34. Fig. 3i [8S Fig. 36. /^ tain factories in Hungary, but it is then probably weaker than naturally curved wood. Kneed timber is formed where a bough parts from the parent stem as in fig. 37. The branch should accord in its dimen- sions with the stem, and not be too small when compared with the latter. The chief use of knee-pieces is in the construction of river-barges ; wood of smaller size is then required than for ship-building, and in that case the arnirt, fig. 37, is much longer than b, whilst for ships it is only twice as long. In North Germany, where oak is scarce, large, branchy Scotch pines arc used for knees, which would otherwise be fit only for SHIP- AND BOAT-BUILDING. 131 firewood. Such knees last 10 years in barges. Beechwood may also be so used in the interior of vessels. In Saxony use is made of the lower part of a spruce stem with a strong root attached, which may be 15 to 20 feet long, and 7 to 10 inches thick. It is difficult to give the proper dimensions for compass-timber used in shipbuilding, but the longer and thicker, the more valuable they are ; 10 inches diameter, and 15 to 20 feet length represent the minimum dimensions. When used for barges and boats the diameter of knee-pieces may go down to 4 inches. Long, straight pieces of timber are used for keels, but are chiefly sawn into planks for the inner, or outer, casing of vessels, and even larger sizes are required than for compass-timber : lengths below 24 to 30 feet, and a diameter of less than a foot at the smaller end, are not permissible. Only in the case of planks for barges are much smaller sizes used. Figs. 38 and 39 show different sections of a shij) where the curved pieces are used. Fig. 38. Longitudinal section of a ship. (After Boppu.) (b) Mast- and Spar-Wood. — Wood for masts, booms, and spars should be perfectly straight, as cylindrical as possible, and when required for large ships, of the largest possible dimensions. K 2 132 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. First-class masts must measure, free from sapwood, at least 60 to 80 feet in length and be IG to 20 inches in diameter at the small end, and such masts were formerly procurable in Haupts- FiG. 39. Transverse section of a ship. (.Vfter Boppe.) moor, near Bamberg. Smaller spars are also required which ar. of dimensions within the powers of most forests to supply. 5. Snppln of Timber for ShiphmliUtiri. The supply of oak-timber from German forests is only smalL but they would be in a better position to yield masts and spars, if the Scotch pine forests of North Germany were specially managed to produce timber of large dimensions. The system of coppice-with-standards is better adapted for the supply of oak timber for shipbuilding than the even-aged systems, and thus France, where this system is very prevalent, produces large quantities of suitable oakwood. Most of the timbers used in shipbuilding are compass-timbers, which are much more joiner's work. ]33 abundant in uneven-aged wood, and even in hedgerow trees, than in even-aged high-forest. The wood of standards in coppice is also harder, and of better quality for the purpose, growing as they do, isolated or in groups, with plenty of room both for their roots and crowns. As regards mastwood the opposite conditions prevail, slow, uniform, and prolonged growth is required, and the trees must be grown close until they have nearly attained their full height, in a uniformly moist soil, a situation sheltered from storms, and a cold climate. Only individual trees in such woods will attain sufficient dimensions for the largest masts, and on them .jrreat care and attention must be bestowed. Section VII. — Joiner's and Cabinet-maker's Work. Joiners and cabinet-makers use large quantities of wood, which is usually the only material they employ. These industries have become highly specialised, and there are all grades of artisans employed — the joiner, the cabinet-maker, the wood- carver, model-maker, and tool-maker. 1. Joiner's Work. The joiner constructs the inner fittings and finishing of houses, such as the floors, doors, window-cases, wainscoting, staircases, &c. The material he uses is chiefly sawn timber, planks, boards and scantling. He does not usually work with roughly sawn material, but with planed scantlings, &c., which are sold by the wood-merchants ready for use, and are often already cut into the requisite mouldings. Thus much labour is spared which would cost more if executed by a joiner than when made by special machinery. Hardly any wood in the round, or roughly sawn wood, is used by the joiner. The wood used is chiefly coniferous, and broad-leaved wood to a less degree. Boards, planks, and upright pieces are chiefly of spruce, and after this, of silver-fir, pines or larch. Owing to its white colour spruce is preferred for flooring. Silver-fir turns grey and splinters more readily than spruce. Pines and larch are darker coloured but more durable than spruce. For wainscoting, 13-i INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. Cembrnn pine and lurch yield excellent wood. The joiner always prefers fine-ringed coniferous wood, free from knots, to coarser material, except in cheaply run-up buildings. Amongst broad- leaved woods oakwood is preferred, and is largely used for parquetry floors, for which the blocks are specially prepared by machinery. It is also used in short, flat, planed pieces, and beechwood is employed in the same manner. Oakwood is less frequently used for friezes, door- and wall-panels. Oak panelling made of wood showing the silver grain is used in dining-halls, staircases, churches and other public edifices. Oak is also used for staircases, and so is beechwood, and ash is often turned for banisters. Fine mosaic parquetry floors are made of woods of difterent colours, such as oak, walnut, birch, teak, &c., and cut in difterent ways as regards the grain. Some of the woods used are coloured by strong acids, others preserve their natural tints. 2. Cdbiiu't-HKihiiKi. Furniture is now-a-days made more in factories than by individual makers. It makes a greater demand on the quality and variety of the wood used than joiners' work, and equals it in the quantity of wood used. Sawn timber is used in the form of planks and scantling and round wood of all dimensions. Veneer of finely marked wood is also frequently used to face coarser material, and its use is justified by the fact that these thin strips of wood do not crack, as is always more or less the case with solid woodwork. Only the more valuable hardwoods are used in the round by the cabinet-maker. All kinds of wood are used, and for coarser furniture, kitchens, cupboards, school-benches, frames, chests, cheap cottins, &c., coniferous woods and soft broad-leaved woods are used. The inner part of other furniture is made of these woods and then veneer glued on to it, or they may be covered with upholstery. Oakwood is often used for the inner part of the better kind of veneered furniture. Solid furniture is made of broad-leaved species, such as oak, walnut, cherry, birch, maple, ash, elm, il'c. There is, however, CABINET-MAKING. 135 a limit to the construction of solid wood furniture owing to its weight. Beechwood is largely used wherever friction and wear and tear will be considerable, as in work-tables, chairs, wedges, &c. It is also often used stained in various tints to imitate more valuable woods. The cabinet-maker selects his material for its fine colour, good texture, freedom from knots, ease in working, capability of being polished, and for being little liable to warp or crack. Finely marked and wavy woods are highly esteemed. In order to reduce warping and shrinkage as much as possible, the cabinet-maker only uses thoroughly seasoned wood ; he does not care for the most durable wood, but prefers wood which is easily worked, with, or against, the grain. He therefore means quite a different kind of oakwood from that esteemed by the ship-builder when he speaks of good oakwood, and prefers that of the sessile to the pedunculate oak. The best cabinet-maker's oakwood comes from the Spessart, the Pfalz, the Silesian mountains, from French forests managed under the even-aged high forest system, and generally from mountain districts with a slow rate of growth ; on account of its lower density it is less liable to shrinkage. Slavonian oak and that from coppice-with-standards is much less prized. Beechwood would be much more highly prized for furniture, on account of its dense uniform texture, were it more frequently obtainable from middling sized trees in quarter-balks from which the core of the tree has been excluded. Such wood is excellent material for working up, and is now being extensively used for bent-wood* furniture. Thoroughly sound beech stem-wood free from knots is used for bent- wood furniture, and young wood is preferred to old. Even large pieces may now be easily bent, and the bending avoids sharp corners, dovetailing and glueing, the pieces being. merely bent and screwed together. The wood is felled in summer and sawn into rectangular pieces 6-10 feet long and l|-2 inches in diameter, which give a waste of 60-70 per cent. Beech-veneers are also glued together and made into the seats of chairs. These are now being used in increasing numbers. * See an excellent article by Exner on bending wood, in the Ceutralblatt fur das gesanite Forstwesen. 1876. 130 IXDrsTPJAL USKS OF WOOD. Amongst softwoods of broad-lcavcd species, poplar-wood is chiefly used, and that of the bhick pophir is preferred, the wood of the white poplar being very subject to cup-shake. These woods are of very uniform texture, and the spring-wood does not shrink so much as in other woods, causing the summer-wood to project beyond it and giving the veneer, which is glued outside the piece of furniture, a wavy surface. 3. Artistic (did Fajorj Wan:. The manufiicture of artistic and fancy ware forms a branch of cabinet-making, and is used in the finer pieces of furniture, picture-frames, clock-cases, &c. ; according to the present fashion (old German, Italian, Kenaissance, Rococo styles, &c.) it is more or less accompanied by artistic carving, inlaying with metals, mosaic work, kc. Walnut, oak, fruit-trees, maples, birch and coniferous wood are used, partly solid and partly veneered. Many exotic woods are used, especially mahogany and foreign walnut, maple and ash-burrs ; also rosewood, satinwood, olive, cedar and cypress wood, teak and pitch pine. Wooden frames for mirrors and pictures, which are largely made in Saxon and Bavarian factories and also by individual liandwork, are made chiefly of coniferous wood, but also of oak and ash. 4. Modcl-iiiakiii;!. All models used for cast-metal works, of machines, imple- ments, &c. are chiefly made of coniferous planks and scantling of the best quality and also of lime, maple, alder, ash, pear and beechwood. The model-maker is a real artist in his line. 5. Jl'ood for Tools and Implcincitts. Plane-boxes, turning-lathes, presses, joiners-benches, mangles, handles of tools, &c., are chiefly made of beech, hornbeam, oak and ash. The framew^ork of agricultural implements also uses up much coniferous wood, as well as the above species. MISCELLANEOUS USES. 137 6. Miscellaneous Goods. Many other industries may be added, which are also branches of cabinet-making ; such as the manufacture of biUiard-cues, sword-sheaths, and articles used in dairies and cheesemaking establishments. Section VIII. — Miscellaneous Uses of Wood. A very large quantity of wood is consumed in making packing- cases, for which coniferous wood of middling or inferior quality, and side-pieces and other waste timber are used, especially when the cases are fastened together by bands of zinc or iron. Casks used for packing are also made of inferior coniferous wood. Better and more durable classes of packing-cases are however coming more and more into use, beech being largely employed. For small boxes used for packing soap and other small articles, wood of conifers, beech, poplar, aspen and lime are used, cut like veneers with special saws, or even a whole round block of wood is revolved against a sharp fixed blade, and con- verted into a sheet of wood for this purpose. In France, light wood such as aspen is thus used to reduce as much as possible the gross weight of the goods. Wood- pulp and tin are also frequently used instead of wood, as the material for packing-cases. German cigar-boxes are usually made of alder-wood, and the pieces without bark should be 9 inches to 1 foot in diameter and free from knots ; they are sawn into planks, and the latter reduced to thin boards by the circular saw. The wood of the West Indian cedar (Cedrela odorata, L.) allied to mahogany, is largely used for foreign cigar-boxes. Attempts to use other woods for the purpose, and especially stained beechwood, have failed owing to the warping of the wood. Cigars are pressed into a good shape in presses made of beech and hornbeam-wood. A very large quantity of wood is used annually in the numerous pianoforte-factories, which in Germany alone turn out about 75,000 pianos annually. In piano-making all kinds of sawn wood (oak, beech, walnut, mo.ple, lime and poplar, &:c.) 138 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. are used, but the wood for sounding-boards is of a special kind. For this only coniferous wood is used, chiefly spruce, more rarely silver-fir. The simple anatomical construction of sprucewood and the absence of vessels, the extremely fine evenly distributed medullary rays, the straight and long-fibred nature of the wood, and above all its uniform structure, render it most suitable of all woods for reverberating pure tones. Such wood must have narrow and uniform annual zones, must have no knots, contain Httle resin, be straight-fibred and of low specific gravity, 0*40 to 0*45. The best wood for musical instruments should have zones between 1"5 and 2 mm., and the summer- wood | to -jl- of the zone. Trees producing such wood grow in mountain-regions at altitudes between 2,500 and 4,500 feet above sea-level, on cool and not too fertile localities. They are generally grown in selection forests, where the trees get little room for development, until they are middle-aged, but more room as old trees. Certain forest districts in Bavaria, ]:{ohemia and the French Jura, are renowned for the production of this wood, also Galicia and North America. The trees are sawn into quarters, and then along the radius, into planks | inch thick ; they are then seasoned, planed, and sorted according to their tones. Recently, attempts have been made to produce such wood artificially by glueing together thin veneers of wood by means of turpentine, shellac, gum, Sec, and pressing it into planks. Straight-grained beechwood in planks Ih inches thick is largely used for pianos, being cut along the radius, which prevents its warping as much as ordinary beechwood. Many foreign woods are used for piano-cases — ebony, maho- gany, American walnut, sycamore, &c., and Florida-cedar for the hammers. Woods similar to those in use for pianos are also employed in organ-building. Venetian blinds and shutters use up much light wood, especially spruce, and wood of similar quality to that used for sounding- boards is used for the better sorts of blinds, much of it coming from Bavaria. WOOD USED BY THE WHEELWRIGHT. 139 Section IX. — Wood used by the AYheelwright. Fig. 40. The wbeehvright, besides carts, also makes a number of articles used in agricultural work, and comes iu this respect next to the blacksmith as an indispensable village artisan ; he usually obtains his wood directly from the forest. Wheelwrights' wood should be even-grained, long-fibred, tough and dense, and free from knots and all other defects and patches of decay. The chief industry of the wheelwright is the construction of carts and waggons, the principal parts of which are the wheels, axles and shafts. The wheels consist of the nave, spokes, felloes and tires. The nave or hub is generally made of oak, elm or ash, and in the case of carriages, of walnut, or, more recently, of plane-wood. The wood should be hard and dense to prevent the loosening of the spokes, which are morticed into the nave. [It is said that wych-elm- wood is tougher, finer-grained, and more easily bent than common elm- wood, both woods are largely used lor naves and felloes. — Tr.] The felloes, which are afterwards morticed together in a circle, are generally made of split wood of elm, beech,birch,ashorrobinia, elm being best for the purpose. The wood should, if possible, be naturally curved, and as the pieces are only about 2 feet long, there is generally little difficulty in getting nearly the suitable curve, the wood being then cut into shape with a band-saw. There is a large export of felloes from forests, and in Germany they are usually sawn out of split pieces, with their flat sides parallel to the annual rings (fij which enables them best to support the pressure of the i * FeniiinJez, Utilization of Forests, p. 54. Moile of cutting out felloes. Feinaiulez. *) (After ;■ -iO), spokes MO INDrSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. ■without wavpiug. Where felloes are sawn out of orJiuary planks 3 to G iuclies thick, they are much weaker than those made as above. A bent rim is sometimes used for the wheels of light carriages, being made of one piece of steamed split-wood ; larch, ash, oak, beech, birch, or hickory are employed. Spokes are made of cloven oak- and ash-wood, also of robinia, American oakwood or hickory. Wood thoroughly tough and strong, and ]iot likely to shrink much in dry, hot weather, should be used. [Spokes vary greatly in size, the smallest being 2-2i feet long X 2 to 2i inches x 1 to H inches and tapering down to about h inch at the smaller end ; these are used for omni])Uses and coaches. Cait- wheel spokes are heavier, but of about the same length. Large spokes 5 inches x 3 inches at the thicker end are freciuently made. — Tr.] The principal piece of the body of a timber-cart is the pole, which is made of oak, birch, or ash. The axles of the wheels are usually made of steel, or of strong oak or ash-wood, with steel ends on which the wheels revolve. Carriage-pole? are preferred of birch, but are also made of ash and oak ; and for shafts, ash is preferred to oak, the latter, when strong, being usually too heavy, whilst ash bends and yields better without breaking. The best shafts are of hickory or lancewood {rich: p. 174). The size for shafts is 8 to 10 leet by "iJ, to 4 inches square. The framework of carts and carriages must be made of well- seasoned wood, beech, ash and oak being used, the panels of carriages being of lime or po])lar. Ploughs and harrows are made of heavy wood wherever iron is not used in their construction, and crooked pieces of oak, ash and elm-wood are used. Teeth of harrows are made of horn- beam-wood if not of iron. For sledges, oak, birch, elm, ash and beech are generally used, and their horns are made of the best beech, maple, or birch-wood. Wheelbarrows also require curved wood. Ladders consist of two uprights and the rungs, the former made of coniferous Avood, generally of a pole sawn in two, and the latter of cloven wood of oak, ash or robinia. Mangers have a similar construction to ladders, and are made of beech, birch or oak. WOOD USED BY THE WHEELWEIGHT. Ill The manufacture of the handles of tools requires large quantities of wood, as axe- and hatchet-handles, and handles of hammers, spades, scythes, hoes, thrashing flails, Sec. Split pieces of young beech saplings are chiefly used for axe- handles, as well as of hornbeam, oak, juniper, ash, and the service-tree. Beech or birch handles for scythes ; for spades and hoes, ash, elm, robinia, oak and birch are used. Wooden hay-forks are made out of forked birch, ash or aspen ; wooden brakes for wheels, of beech or hornbeam. In making all these articles the wheelwright uses logs and scantling of dift'erent dimensions, above all, logs of 3 to 8 inches in diameter of oak, ash, elm and birch, but all kinds of wood are used, and chiefly cloven wood, from which the core and the sapwood have been removed, as such material is less liable to warp or crack. Curved and bent wood is often of special value to the wheelwright, although such pieces are frequently made artificially. Elmwood aftords excellent material for the wheelwright, some- times that of the common elm and sometimes that of the wych-elm being preferred, but it is very difficult to work, and costs the artificer more labour and trouble than he often cares to bestow. Near the sea-coast much exotic wood, ready cut to size, is used by wheelwrights, especially American hickory {Caria) and oak (chiefly Quercus virens). Butchers' blocks use up much beech- and oak-wood, though elmwood is best for the purpose, if it can be obtained of suit- able dimensions. Pieces of large diameter, and thoroughly sound, are required. The manufacture of railway-carriages and -trucks consumes enormous quantities of wood of high quality. The horizontal beams underlying all passenger-carriages as well as goods-trucks are made of squared oak timber. They lie between the iron girders supporting the carriage, and rest directly on the axles. Broad-ringed ashwood is preferred for the uprights, which are dove-tailed into the horizontal beams and pieces which unite with them to form the framework of the carriage, but oakwood is sometimes used, and also more recently the wood of Ailan- tJius (jlandidosa, Desf. The flatly-curved roof-supports are made of bent elm, ash, or Scotch pinewood. All panels and the 112 INDUSTIIIAL USES OF WOOD. interior work are made of liV(r/v'/.s-. Slack Barrels are used for non-spirituous liquids, »!v:c., such as those used for the transport of herrings and other sea-fish, for living animals, for oil, bathing- and water-tubs, malting-vats, milk-pails and a number of other articles. Herring-barrels were formerly made of inferior oakwood, but more recently of beech, birch, alder, red pine and aspen-wood. Large malting-vats, and other vats used in brewing, are made of oakwood. Oil and petroleum casks are made chiefiy of beech- wood, but also of oak and chestnut-wood. Other slack barrels are made almost exclusively of coniferous wood, only smaller drinking-vessels being made of maple, pear and cherry-wood, or in preference, of junij)er or Cembran pinewood. In splitting wood for staves for slack barrels similar methods are followed as alrciidv dcscrilx'd ; the staves are, however. SUNDRY USES OF SPLIT WOOD. 147 commonly split along the annual rings, or made of good sawn material. Freedom from knots, and even fibre, are also here the first conditions of suitability. 3. Barrels for Dry Goods. Dry Goods' Barrels are employed for storing and transport of all kinds of wares, such as salt, colours, cement, gypsum, sugar, currants, figs, butter, lard, chemical preparations, &c., and are usually made out of coniferous wood. Staves for these barrels are seldom split, but are usually sawn pieces, half an inch thick, 2 — 6 inches broad and varying in length ; poles, 4 — 4i inches in diameter at height of chest, may be thus utilized. Larger wood, chiefly of beech, is used in Hungary and North Germany for currant-, flour- and butter-barrels. Barrels for dry goods are chiefly made in factories, and there are large factories at IVEiinden, Hannover, &c., for making margarine barrels. Smaller barrels are made of papier-mache with wooden headings. [The fig. on p. 174 shows a method employed for splitting spruce-staves in the Jura. — Tr.] 4. Barrd-lloops. Hoops for barrels are now-a-days increasingly made of iron, but a large quantity of wooden hooping is still used. Coppice poles of oaks, chestnuts, birch and hazel are used, and of willows for the smaller casks. They should be felled before the leaves are out. The coppice-shoots are cut with bill- hooks, trimmed of all twigs and knots, and then split in halves. When green they can be easily bent to the requisite shape, but if dry must first be soaked in water. In the case of slack barrels the hoops are chiefly made of pieces of the stem of ash, spruce, or willow trees, 2 inches broad, and ^rd to frds of an inch thick. They are cut smooth with a knife, plunged into boiling water, and bent over a round piece of wood. Section XL — Sundry Uses of Split Wood. Some other articles besides casks and barrels are made of split wood, or of wood treated in a somewhat similar manner. L 2 U8 IM)USTi:lAL rsES OF WOOD. 1. SliiiKjlfH for liOoJiiKj or to rorcr Walls. Shingles are either used for roofs, or to cover niasonrv or cement walls, Avhich do not otherwise sufficiently exclude atmospheric moisture. The most durable shingles are made of oak- or larch-wood, but owing to the abundance of spruce and Scotch pine, wood of these species is chiefl}' used, and less frequently silver-lir wood ; beech- and aspen-wood are also sometimes employed. Fi«- 46. The butts to be split must contain sound, light, and straight- grained wood without knots, and therefore the lower part of stems is chiefly employed. "Wood of inferior grain, and less fissile may, however, be split by means of machines. Shingles are pre- pared of very diflercnt sizes, according to the manner in which they are to be used. Roofs are usually covered with shingles three deep, i. c, only a third part of each shingle being exposed (fig. 4G), and such roofs are very durable and watertight. Shingles used in this way are 16 — 24 inches long, 3 — 10 inches broad, and from 2 inches down to half an inch thick. In many countries they are so thin at one end as to be semi-transparent, especially in the case of larch-shingles. Another kind of roofing (Legdacher) is frequently employed in Alpine districts, the shingles being 30 — 40 inches long, and 8 — 12 inches broad. They overlap one another, and are fastened-down by nailing split laths over them. In the case of tiled roofs, thin laths, 12 — 14 inches long and 2 — 3 inches broad, are placed wherever one tile is superposed over another. Shingles are split radially from the butts, and the sectors thus obtained are continually split until pieces of the right dimensions have been secured ; they are then made smooth. As the central portion of the butts cannot be used for shingles, SUNDRY USES OF SPLIT WOOD. 149 there is a loss of 35 to 40 per cent- of wood in making them, and even more. Machines have been invented for making- shingles, that by Gangloff* being the best known ; a man and boy can thus make 700 shingles in a day, and wood of inferior quality may thus be utilized. Shingles stained black or red, the better to resist the weather, are prepared in Sweden. Fire- proof shingles are also employed. [In the Western Himalayas, deodar, and other conifers are used for shingles, the former wood benig extremely durable. — Tr.] 2. Wood for Oars and Rudders. Large quantities of wood are used for making rudders and oars. Ashwood is best, but beechwood is also used. The pieces used for the purpose are 6 — 15 feet long, 4 — 5 inches broad at the flat end, and 2h — 3 inches square at the other end. Large spars used to stretch the large nets used by English fishing-boats may be also included here. The wood used is in round or split pieces of slender ash-stems 24 — 30 feet long, and 7 — 8 inches in diameter at the top. Oars for light river boats are made of split sprucewood. 3. Jh-oad split Pieces. Thin pieces of wood are used for making boxes, sheaths for swords or knives, by the bookbinder, shoemaker, &c., and are chiefly of coniferous wood (spruce), but wood of beech, aspen, and birch is also used. They are split out of butts, or straight- fibred split billets. Wood-Tapestry of the thickness of ordinary paper is used for coating the walls of rooms, up to 3 feet broad and 60 — 100 feet long, and is prepared from the wood of all species of trees. This is obtained by supporting the butt on a special kind of turning-lathe, and revolving it against a blade which is con- stantly pressed further forwards as it peels ofl" the periphery of the butt. The same machine may be used for making veneer. Straight-grained spracewood is also split and used for * Forst. u. Ja-azeitung, 1872, p. 312. 150 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. making plaited wooden baskets which are exported iu hirge numbers from the Erzf^a'birge. Aspen- and lime-wood is also similarly used. In order to prepare the wood for this purpose, it is first thoroughly soaked in water and cut into bars, which are split into thin pieces along each of the annual rings. These pieces are extremely flexible. Sprucewood is also used for sieve-frames and cheese-moulds, the wood for which is separated from ordinary split billets with the cooper's divider, and afterwards planed with the same instru- ment. These pieces are made in different dimensions, their length being measured in hands (4 inches) : thus there are pieces of 4, G, 8, &c., up to 24 hands, the breadth varying with the length between 2h and 8 inches. AVood must be used green for this purpose, the preparation of the pieces and subsequent bending being thus facilitated. The pieces are then bent on simple frames, and fastened in bundles of 10 to 15 pieces for sale. Wooden rings are also made wider than the frames, but only j^rd of their height. The bottoms of the sieves are fixed between the frame and the ring. The sides of measures for fruit or dry goods, and of drums, and other round articles, are split radially from billets of beech- or oak-wood, from which all defective heartwood and the younger zones of sapwood have been excluded. They are split with the divider, worked smooth on the cooper's bench, steamed and bent around frames. They are then sorted, and sold in assortments like sieve-frames. The band-box maker chiefly uses spruce and silver-fir wood, less frequently larch, sycamore, and sallow wood, liutts of straight-grained wood are cut into the proper lengths, and split into from 4 to G billets, and after these are thoroughly dried they are gradually split by successive bisection into pieces of the required dimensions. The pieces are then carefully planed, softened in boiling water, fastened over frames, and wlien thoroughly dried are fastened together by wooden bands. The bottoms and lids for each box are made in a similar manner. Oblong lucifer match-boxes are chiefly made at Jonkoping of aspen-wood by means of machines, which cut out a piece large enough for a box, and press dents into the wood wherever a side SUNDRY USES OF SPLIT WOOD. 151, has to be bent inwards. In the absence of aspen-wood, wood of lime or poplar is used in Germany for these boxes. 4. Wood-Wool Wood-Wool may be mentioned here, which is made from even-«;-raiued wood, chiefly coniferous, though any species of wood may be used, in round pieces one to two feet long, and is used instead of hay, seaweed, &c., as packing-material; for stuffing chairs, and other furniture ; as stable litter ; for pre- serving ice, and in surgery, &c. It is also made into ropes. Villeroy, in Schranberg, compresses very fine wood-wool under high pressure into a sort of papier-mache which is very durable, and is used for rules, carvings, ornaments, &c. The machine for making wood-wool consists of an implement working in a groove, and composed of a number of small vertical knives which cut the wood in the direction of its fibres, and a plane moving vertically which cuts-otf the separate strands of wood. Such a machine can turn-out three cwt. of moderately fine wool in a day. 5. Slender Pieces of Wood. Slender pieces of w^ood are used for making handles for paint- brushes and pens, flower-sticks,&c., also wooden thread for making lucifer- matches and other articles. Fissile straight -grained sprucewood is used for these purposes. The pieces used for paint- brush and pen handles and flower-sticks are in section either round, semi-circular, oval, or quadrangular, and of various lengths up to 5 feet. They ai'e prepared from wood in the rough by machines. Grasenau, in Bavaria, is one of the chief seats of this industry. Wooden thread is now prepared on a large scale, either in round pieces of sprucewood 8 to 30 feet long, or in short pieces, used for lucifer-matches in Germany and Sweden. The round pieces, usually jVth of an inch (2 mm.) thick, are made only from the finest grained sprucewood, and the refuse of musical instrument wood may be thus utilized. They used to be made by manual labour with Romer's plane, which, instead of an ordinary cutting blade, has a blade with a number of funnel-shaped grooves, each of which cuts-out a cylindrical thread. After a btycr of thread had been planed 152 INDUSTHIAL U.SKS OF WOOD. away, th^ wood was planed smooth by means of an ordinary plane, and a fresh hiyer of threads then removed. At present manual labour has been replaced by machinery constructed on the principle of Homer's plane. The tli reads are then woven with stout twine into blinds, floor-coverings, table-covers, iSic, and are specially useful for chicks in tropical countries, which, hanging before doors and windows, allow sufficient ventilation, while excluding the glare of sunlight and insects. The short pieces used for lucifer-matches are made from the most various woods, especially those of spruce, Scotch pine, silver- tir and aspen. They are prepared in factories according to three different methods. The oldest method, and that still most usual in Germany, is by means of Romer's plane, which in this case is perforated by twenty-five to thirty little cutting tubes, one above the other, through which the wood is forced by the work- men. The serviceable i)ieces are then separated from the unserviceable pieces by machinery, and placed five hundred together in boxes, which are fastened by rings into large bundles containing several thousand pieces ; a workman can prepare •200,000 pieces in a day. Another method is employed in Sweden, only asi)en-\vood being thus used. The round piece of rough wood, 1^ feet long, is softened in water and fixed between the points of a lathe, and the wood is then turned against a blade which peels-ofi' from it a long piece Ih feet broad, of the thickness of a match. This is then cut and split by machines into separate pieces, each the size of a match. The Jonkoping factories alone used up, in 1883, 280,000 cubic feet of Russian aspen-wood for this purpose. Pieces with a quadrilateral section are prepared after a third method, machines similar to those in use for wood-wool being employed. The manufacture of lucifer-matches is steadily consuming more and more wood, and there are factories which for matches and match-boxes consume 200,000 to 300,000 stacked cubic feet of wood annually. Thirty-five stacked cubic feet of wood will yield 2,000,000 lucifer-matches 2 inches long, weighing 3J cwt. The yearly requirements of Europe in this respect are estimated at more than 3,500,000 cubic feet of wood. SUNDRY USES OF SPLIT WOOD. 153 6. Trenails. Trenails aro wooden pegs of different sizes, the largest being used in shipbuilding and smaller sizes by the cabinet-maker and joiner, for fastening pieces of wood together ; the smallest kinds are used by shoemakers. Ships' trenails are in lengths of 4, 8, 16, 28 inches, li to 3 inches thick, and are made of robinia, ash, and mulberry- wood. Thirty-live stacked cubic feet yield on the average 200 trenails. Trenails used by jomers and cabinet-makers are made of the wood of oak, frait-trees, beech, and even of coniferous wood, besides that of robinia and ash. Shoemakers' pegs are made of birch, hornbeam and sycamore. The larger kinds of trenails are made by machinery as follows : — A round piece of wood is cut to the length of the nails, and then placed on a sliding frame, which forces it against the cutting-blade. It is thus Fig 47. split in one direction, and then turned through an angle of 1)0° and split again. The split pieces are then pointed conicall}' by machines. Shoemakers' pegs are similarly made, only here, as in fig. 47, the points are made by means of planes running first along a Ji, and then along a c. The pieces are then split vertically [a in). There are factories in Silesia where annually 35,000 cubic feet of wood are made into shoemakers' pegs. Large numbers of wooden toothpicks are made at Weissenfels and other places, of soft, white wood, chiefly willow. 7. Lead-Pencils. The best wood for lead-pencils is the so-called cedar {Juni- penis viirjiniana, L., and J. hernuidiana, L.), but inferior pencils are made of the wood of lime, spruce, Cembran pine and poplar. The wood is partly split and partly planed into shape. 15-i INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. 8. Wood for StriiKj Musical Instruiiu'fits. Split wood is used for making violins, violoncellos and other string-instruments. As steamed woods more or less curved and pressed into shape are required, only split wood, and not sawn wood, can stand the strain. The fronts and backs of the instru- ments are made of spruce and silver-fir wood, and their sides of sycamore. As regards fine zones and uniform structure, wood of even superior quality to that used for pianofortes is required. The zones in the wood for violins should not exceed 1 to 2 mm. (^V to i\j inch) ; for double-basses and violoncellos it may be coarser-textured, 2 to 4 mm. {^'^ to ^ inch). The higher the key, the finer the woody zones should be. This valuable wood is steadily becoming scarce. Up to the present it has been obtained from selection forests, in which the suitable trees are found disseminated. It is rare that an entire stem can be used for making musical instruments, only certain portions of it beiijg suitable. These pieces are exported in split sector-shaped pieces, from which the core has been removed, in lengths of 1(3 to 30 inches for violins, or of 40 to 60 inches for the larger string instruments. Grasenau (in the Baviaian Forest), Mittenwald (in the Bavarian Alps), a".d Markneukirsck.en (in Saxony) are the best known markets for these goods. Section XII. — Glazier's AVood. (jlaziers formerly used chiefly oakwood for window-frames; less frequently, wood of sweet chestnut, elm, larch and Scotch pine. More recently, in large towns, the better kinds of Scotch pine-wood [or teak. — Tr.] have replaced oak for this purpose. The glazier requires oakwood of similar quality to that used by the cooper ; it is generally sawn, with a nearly square section, or is taken from the refuse wood after splitting staves, or is split from billets. Sawn oak planks are used for the larger windows. The advantage of split wood for this purpose is that it warps less than sawn wood. Coniferous window-frame wood comes into the market ready prepared by machinery. Iron is steadily replacing wood for window-frames, especially in windows of shops and other large buildings. WOOD-CARVING. 155 Section XIII. — Wood-Carving. The wood-carver is represented by a whole class of artizans who use a number of chisel-like tools, especially in the finish of their products. The following classification of these wares is attempted : — 1. Coarse Wood-Carving. All sorts of bowls, plates, platters, corn, meal, and bakers' shovels, kitchen-rollers, milliners' blocks, milk-ladles, wooden spoons, wooden shoes, shoemakers' lasts, saddle-trees, &c. Beechwood is chiefly used for these articles, and sycamore-wood for cooking apparatus; wood of birch, aspen, lime and poplar are also used, and boxwood for the finest Russian wares. Short wooden butts are chiefly used, which for the larger bowls, platters, &c., should be 3 feet and more in diameter, and, on account of their size, are becoming scarce. For smaller articles, and especially sabots, or wooden shoes, the better sorts of timber are required. All the timber used should split easily, bo perfectly sound and free from defects and knots. As the finished articles must be, above all, safe from warping and sufficiently strong, the cuts should be along their lines of Fig. 48. greatest extension. The butt is therefore split into from four to six sectors, from which the core and bark are removed and the shape roughly hewn-out with an adze. The further finish is given to the articles with special instruments, which are bent according to its shape, and of which figs. 48 and 49 represent general types. 156 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. The remarkable progress which has been made recently in wood-working machines favours the idea that handwork on rough wood-carving will become in time more and more replaced by machinery. The turning-lathe is already largely used for round articles, whilst machines* have now been invented by which almost any shape may be given to wooden articles. These machines work with a revolving steel blade, which cuts the piece of wood according to the model, much more rapidly and exactly than handwork can ever attain, and with much less waste of material. Wooden shoes arc made by hand, of the wood of beech, alder, birch, hornbeam, walnut or poplar, the split pieces being lirst roughly trimmed into shape by a short hatchet and then finished with various curved instruments. Trees 11 feet to 2 A feet in diameter at height of chest are preferred for this purpose. In order to give the shoes a dark colour and preserve them from splitting whilst being gradually dried, they are smoked. The finer kinds are made of poplar or willow- wood and blackened. The Departement of Lozere, in France, alone produces 600,000 pairs of wooden shoes yearly. [Wooden heels of women's boots are extensively made in Normandy. — Tr.] Wooden soles for leather boots and wooden pattens and clogs are largely made in Saxony by machinery. Shoemakers' lasts are chiefly made of hornbeam-wood, and failing that of beech or sycamore ; there are large factories of these articles in 1 Bohemia and Saxony, in which machinery is used. Broomheads are made chiefly of beech and cherry-wood. They are chiefly made at Globenstein in the Erz mountains, at Esslingen, and at Todtenau in the Black Forest, where i'25,000 to .i'30,000 worth of broomheads are made yearly. Wood is mostly used green for rough wood-carving, as it is then easier to work. 2. Gini.^tdcls, U"ni(I-Iiistrumt. Although saw-dust, which collects in large quantities at saw- mills, is chiefly used as fuel, or as litter in cattle-stalls, or mixed with coal-dust to make the well-known briquets, it is also used for making water-tight parquetry floors, for sculptures, plates and other articles.* [In N. America for illuminating wood-gas. — Tr.] • Laris, Haiulelsblatt fiir Waklcrzeugnissc, xi. No. 4, aud xii. No. 37. WOOD FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. 105 Section XVII. — Wood for Agricultural Purposes. A considerable amount of wood is used in agricultural indus- tries. These products have one character in common, being used more or less in the rough, or at least without any elaborate in-eparation. The following comprise the chief classes : — Pea- sticks, consisting of twigs 1-3 years old from various broad-leaved species, especially beech and birch, and are the tops and branches of poles and trees which are cut off after fellings, in lengths from 2 to 4 feet. Bean- sticks are used for scarlet-runners and other climbing beans ; they are poles 8-10 feet long, and up to about 1| inches thick at the base. Coniferous saplings or straight coppice-shoots of broad-leaved species are chiefly employed for this purpose. Stakes are intermediate in thickness between bean- sticks and hop-poles, and are used for all kinds of purposes, chiefly to fill gaps in hedges and fences. They are generally coniferous saplings and smaller poles. Stakes are also used for tightening the chains and ropes used in lading timber and firewood on to carts. Saplings and small poles of different lengths of oak, ash, birch, beech, &c., are thus used. Hop-poles, for use in hop-gardens ; light, straight and slender coniferous poles are chiefly employed. [Sweet chestnut coppice also yields excellent hop-poles, and has been largely and profit- ably grown in Kent and elsewhere for the purpose. — Tr.] Hop-poles are usually placed in 4-6 classes, according to their dimensions, being from lG-40 feet long, and from 2h-5 inches thick at the base. They are generally barked in order to render them more durable. The introduction of steel-wire between wooden supports has replaced hop-poles in many localities, and reduced considerably the demand for the latter. Tree-stakes, which serve as stakes for freshly planted orchard- trees, and in Germany usually consist of coniferous poles cut into lengths of 10-20 feet. Old (red) aspen-wood, robinia and other broad-leaved trees (ash, &c.) are also employed for this purpose. [Hurdle- and crate-wood. — Much split ash, oak and other coppice-wood is used in Britaiu for hurdles, and for crates used in packing machinery, crockery, &c. — Tr.] 166 IX1>L'ST1JIAL r.SIvS VV \VU(»D. Tree-props, which are used to prop-up the houghs of orchard trees when heavily laden with fruit, are usually of the same dimensions of small or middling sized hop-poles, and are made from poles of conifers, also of beech, oaks and other trees, several stumps of branches being left at their tops to serve as forks and support the laden branches. Vine-stakes, which are placed in the ground close to vines and to which the latter are tied, usually consist of split oak or coniferous wood, G-8 feet long, and lA-3 inches square. In Alsace, vine-stakes are split from sweet chestnut stool- shoots 10-12 feet long; they are far more ^durable than oak- stakes. In France, vine-stakes are made even of aspen and willows. AMierever, as in parts of the Palatinate, the vines are grown very low, and spread more horizontally than vertically, the stakes are left in the ground over winter, and only oak, sweet chestnut and robinia-wood are found serviceable. In this case, horizontal pieces or bars of wood are nailed across from one stake ta another, the latter being placed vertically into the ground. The stakes are thick split pieces 4-G feet long, and the bars split laths 10-14 feet long, which are split off straight-grained stems with a wedge or divider. They are sometimes replaced by steel- wire. Wooden Park-palings. — These are employed round gardens and parks, and es})('c-iMlly in Alpine pastures, and are made by splitting round logs 4-G feet long. Inferior kinds of wood are used sawn and generally creosoted. They may be driven directly into the ground side by side. [In Jiritain, are generally nailed to strong post and rail supports, and kept entirely above ground, the lower part of the fence being formed by a plank placed horizontally from post to post. Deer-parks require the strongest fencing, and split oak and sweet chestnut, or sawn larch or Scotch pinewood are chiefly used. — Tn.] Withes for fastening faggots, bundles of corn, oak-bark, hemp, &c., are made of coppice- shoots of hazels, willows, and diflerent shrubs ; sometimes oak and beech saplings are stolen for the purpose. Brooms are usually made of young shoots and twigs of birch trees, and should be cut before the foliage has appeared. FIREWOOD. 167 Vigorous birch trees afford the best shoots for brooms. Brooms are also made of broom, Genista, peeled osiers, &c. [In India large quantities of prickly bushes are used annually for making temporary dead fences round the crops in the dry season, and are used for fuel, or left to rot, when the cattle come into the fields to graze on the stubble after the harvest in April. — Tr.] Subdivision II. — Firewood or Cordwood. It might be imagined from the mauitold uses to which timber is put, and which have just been described, that nearly all the wood produced by forests is thus utilized. Further on in this book the relative quantities of timber and firewood produced by forests will be discussed, but it should now be noted that firewood still forms a large portion of forest produce. Next to food and clothing, fuel is, in temperate regions, the most indispensable material for humanity, for protection against the cold, cooking food and manufactures. Other fuels however, coal, coke, &c., compete with wood-fuel and reduce its price, so that every forest-owner should devote more and more attention to timber, the value of which is steadily increasing. We are not yet able, however, to dispense with wood- fuel, which (in Germany) still competes fairly with coal, and is preferred in many countries. As regards the various modes of consumption of firewood, the following classification may bo adopted : — 1. Fircivood used/or its Heatiiif/ Power. In this case, wood is either totally consumed at one time, or is first partially consumed and converted into charcoal, a more serviceable form of fuel than firewood, which is also used for heating purposes. Firewood is chiefly burned directly for heating apartments, or for cooking food, washing, drying, 6:c. Hardwoods which give out a more lasting, uniform heat than softwoods are preferred to the latter for the above household purposes. For boiling food or heating boilers, as in kitchens, hard dense woods are preferred ; for baking or roasting, when a quick intense heat is required, porous softwood or charcoal is preferable. It is not always 16S IXDrsTKTAL USES OF WOOD. jiossible, however, to obtain the best matciiiil, and wood of all kinds is used for both i)urposes. Firewood is still emi)loyed in factories, which may be classified according as they require hardwoods, as in soap-making, laundries, and all factories employing boilers ; or softwoods, producing a quickly radiating intense heat, as in bakeries, potteries, brick- kilns, lime-kilns, &c ; finally charcoal, the heat of which is not only quick and intense but also very enduring, as for the work of locksmiths, blacksmiths, glass-makers, Sec. The carbonisation of wood is described in the third part of the present work. [Charcoal of alder, dogwood, &c., is used in 2. ComhuHtloii of Wood in order to produa' certain Snhstaiices ichicJi are either Intermediate or llesidind. The intermediate substances are obtained during wood-car- bonisation, as for instance pyroligneous acid, wood-gas, tar, pitch, lamp-black, &c. ; the residual substances remain after the wood has been more or less completely consumed, as for instance potash, &c. The manufacture of pyroligneous acid, which is used to form several chemical compounds, has in many places been undertaken on a large scale. Woods which yield the best fuel are most productive in this respect, and above all those of beech and birch. A cord (216 cubic feet) of sound beechwood will yield 25 cwt. of distilled products (tar, acetic acid, water, kv.), and 1^. 2 cwt. of pyroligneous acid. Most illuminating gas is made from coal, but exceptionally from strongly resinous red pinewood [in N. America from saw- dust.— Tr.]. Wood-gas can be more easily and thoroughly purified than coal-gas. Although tar is obtainable from all kinds of wood, broad-leaved woods are less suited and far less productive than conifers. Eed pine and spruce are chiefly em- l)loyed. In the north of Europe, in some forests, the whole stem of these trees is thus utilized, and the trees are stripped standing of all their bark, except a small strip in order to en- hance the flow of turpentine. In other forests, where timber is more valuable, only pine-roots arc thus utilized, and these only rarely, as coal-tar has almost driven wood-tar out of the market. LIST OF WOODS. 169 lu Sweden attempts have been recently made to utilize tar- oil mixed with benzine for lighting purposes. It is very doubtful wbether alcohol will ever be distilled cheaply from wood. Pitch* is prepared by melting crude resin in iron pots over a steadily increasing, but at first slow fire. The melted resin is at first yellow, then brown, and lastly becomes converted into black pitch. In order to expedite the process, and increase the out-turn of pitch, a press is used which fits into the pot, and is moved forward by means of a screw. The refuse after the pitch has been pressed out is used for making lamp-black. The forester has, however, little to do with any of the above- mentioned industries. It is evident that compared with timber it is unimportant in what form firewood is used for burning, or other purposes. As a matter of fact, split and round billets, root-wood, and bundles of faggots of the most variable kinds are so used. The dimensions in which firewood is delivered for difierent purposes are the most important items, and it may here be remarked, with reference to later paragraphs on that subject, that a minute sub- division of fuel-trees is generally most advisable. A rough reduction in size is first undertaken in the forest, and the consumer completes the process before using the wood. Sub-division III. — Woods arranged according to their Uses. In the following abstract of the technical uses to which wood may be put, only its uses as timber are considered. The list first contains the European woods, and then the most serviceable foreign woods. 1. JJ'oods of Bvoad-h'civrd Trees. Oakwood. — Used in logs and balks for superstructures, hydraulic works, bridges, ship and boat-building, gate-posts ; as scantling and boards for mill-wheels, railway-sleepers, mining timber, joiners' work, cabinet-making ; for wheelwrights' work, blocks, staves, bungs, sieve-frames, shingles, trenails, wood- * Karl Georg ililler, Die trockene Distillation, Leipzig, 18.58. Ad. Hohen- stein, Die TeerJ'abricatioii, Wien, 1857 ; Ditto, Die Pottaschefabiicatioii, Wien, 1856. Joh. lVr.sch. Yei-wtTtunfr des Holzes anrcliemisclien Wege. 170 INDUSTRIAL USES OF WOOD. carving, pianoforte-making, turnery, window-frames, park- palings, vine-stakes, hurdles, &c. It should be noted that the fiue-zoued, easily worked, softer wood of the sessile oak is preferred to that of pedunculate oak for all purposes making less demands on size, hardness, strength and durability. The latter is preferable for construc- tions of all kinds, for staves, wheelwrights' work, split-wood, S:c. Ashwood. — For pillars, stamping hammers, wheelwrights' work, joinery implements, tool- and whip-handles, hurdles, barrel-hoops, gymnastic apparatus, lance-shafts, rudders and oars. Figured ash-wood is greatly in demand for furniture. Elmwood. — Used by the furniture-maker, undertaker and turner, greatly in demand by the wheelwright ; for blocks and the inner lining of ships. Figured elmwood is much esteemed ; the wood of the common elm is generally more valuable than that of the mountain elm. Sweet chestnut. — Used occasionally in superstructures, also for furniture, gate-posts, park-palings, staves ; makes excellent vine-stakes and hop-poles. Sycamore and maple. — Preferred by the cabinet-maker for solid and veneered articles, parquetry, Sec. ; by the turner and carver ; for articles made by the compass-saw, churns, musical instruments, gunstocks and ornamental whip-handles. Figured sycamore is very valuable [and so is bird's-eye maple. — Tr.] Limewood. — For fine carving, founders' patterns ; used under veneer, for turnery, in pianos and organs, wooden shoes, papier- mache, &c. Beechwood. — Joinery, for floors and staircases, in mills and mines (stamping -hammers), railway -sleepers, street-paving blocks, cabinet-making ; for bentwood furniture, pianos, car- penters' benches, wheelwrights' work, slack barrels, agricultural implements, packing-cases ; for coarse carved work, wooden shoes, horse-collars, gunstocks, brushes, S:c. Hornbeam- wood. — AVheelwrights' work, in mills, machinery, turnery, shoemakers' pegs and lasts, plane-boxes, carpenters' benches, tool-handles, agricultural implements, ikc. Birchwood. — Joinery, furniture, wheelwrights' work, turnery, bobbins, wood-carving, brushes, clogs, shoe pegs, coarse carved wares, withes, brooms, &c. Figured birch- wood much prized by cabinet-maker. LIST OF WOODS. 171 Alder-wood, — Used underground iu mines, for covering damp places, water-conduits, largely used for cigar-boxes, clog-soles, rarely carved. Poplar. — Rafters and rails, joinery and wheelwrights' work, packing-cases, coarse carving, matches, cigar-boxes, and papier- mache. The white poplar, or Abele, also for superior wood- carving and in organs. Aspen for lucifer-matches. Willow. — Cricket-bats, basket-work, withes, fascines ; wood of tree-willows used in furniture under veneer, for packing-cases, papier-mache. [Being soft and teuaceous is used as well as poplar for lining carts. — Tr.] Robinia (False acacia). — Wheelwrights' wood, implements, joinery, trenails, vine-stakes, tool-handles and turnery. Service-wood (Pynis torminalis). — Used by turner and cabinet- maker, and for wood-carving. Rowan- wood (Pyrns aucuparia). — Splendid wheelwrights' wood, on account of its great toughness. Hazel. — Used for hoops, sieve-frames, and also by the cabinet- maker. Horse-chestnut. — Used by the turner and cabinet-maker, and for tine wood-carving. Wild cherry {Pninas avium). — Esteemed by the cabinet-maker and turner, and used by the wheelwright. Wild pear {Pyrus communis). — Highly esteemed for cabinet- making and turnery, for picture-frames, blocks for woodcuts. Figured wood equally prized with that of the cultivated pear and apple-trees for veneers. Walnut. — Highly esteemed for furniture, veneer, gunstocks, and for frames, wood-carving and turnery. 2. Coniferous IVoods. Spruce. — Logs used in construction of all kinds, and in boats for fresh-water traffic. Sawn timber used by the joiner and cabinet-maker, by the wheelwright and shingle-maker, for boxes, packing-cases, toys, piano-making and organ-building. Poles and saplings used for agricultural purposes, ladders, telegraph- posts, fencing, vine-stakes, wooden baskets, and paper-pulp. Silver-fir {Ahies x>cctinata). — Used for the same purposes as ]7-Z INDUSTl'JAL USES OF Wool). sprucGwood, and especially useful in buildings, and for pillars, and also in hydraulic works. In some European districts silver-fir wood is less prized than sprucewood, partly on account of its darker colour, and partly because much of it that comes to the market is too old and knotty, so that it cannot be planed as easily as the wood of spruce. [When both are grown in Britain, silver-fir is superior to spruce. — Tr.] Scotch pine (Pinns si/Ircstris) ; also termed red deal. — Used for the same purposes as spruce, except for musical instruments, shingles and other split-ware ; superior to spruce or silver-fir for hydraulic works (piles), bridges, or mining timber ; used for railway-sleepers and all purposes requiring durability ; esteemed for ships' masts and spars, spars for windmills, conduit-pipes, street-paving, &c. Larch {Larix citropi^-a). — Used for the same purposes as red deal, and wherever durability is demanded is more highly esteemed than the latter. Black pine {Pinns Laricio). — More used in hydraulic and earthworks than for superstructures, furniture, kc. Weymouth-pine {Pinns Strains), termed white deal in America. — Used in superstructures, especially in roofs ; also in cabinet- making, packing-cases, &:g. Old wood is preferred. Cembran pine. — Used for wood-carving, toys, and cabinet- making. Yew {Ta.iits haccnta). — Esteemed for bows, cabinet-making, wood-carving and turnery. Mountain-pine {Pinns montana). — Turnery and wood-carving. Juniper (Jnnijx'rns communis). — Fine wood for turnery and wood-carving. 8. Exotic Woods. Teak (Tcctomi urandis). — The best wood i'or slii])l)nilding, superstructures ; largely used in railway-carriagc-building, and by the cabinet-maker, wheelwright and turner. Mahogany (.S'»/(7r///'(/ MaJtofiani). — Highly-esteemed furniture- wood ; also used for panels, picture-frames, cigar-boxes, •kc. [Padauk(/Vc?y>rvn7m.«tn(Zic?/.'. nuirninata), ship-building, railway-sleepers, wood-paving; and " Kari " {E. diucrsicolor), wood-paving. — Tr.] [Lancewood {Duguetia qnitarensis, Benth. of (Juiaua, and Giudteria rirr/ata, BraziU which is largely used for fishing-rods, golf-clubs, itc, should also be mentioned. — Tr.] Conversion of sprucewood into staves in Uie Jura. (After Doppe.) Vide i). 147. 175 CHAPTER in. FELLING AND CONVERSION OF TIxMBER. The third chapter of this book deals with the methods of felling trees, and converting them into logs and scantling which are then handed over to the consumer. When one considers the long period which elapses from the seedling stage of trees till their maturity, and the many dangers to which they are subject, and compares this with the few weeks required to convert them into marketable lots, it would appear that the conversion of timber is a very simple under- taking, within the comprehension of an ordinary woodcutter. In many cases this is so, and where pure woods producing fii-ewood in plains or low hilly districts are managed according to the olear-cutting system with artificial reproduction, conversion is nothing more than a clean sweep of the old wood, and cutting the trees into convenient sizes for export. But wherever natural regeneration is employed, and the woods are uneven-aged and of mixed species ; where the best qualities of timber are re- quired, and each tree is to be utilized so as to aftbrd the most valuable material it is capable of yielding, so that the forest may give the highest possible revenue and the cost of conver- sion be reduced as low as possible ; where the locality presents all sorts of difficulties, and successful working can only be assured by emploj'ing clever woodmen : — in all such cases, the mode of conversion adopted is of such importance, that the revenue of the forests, their regeneration, and tending, depend chiefly on the way it is carried-out. The foremost rule in conversion of timber is also common to all industrial undertakings, and is as follows : — Consider care- fully the uses which may be made of the raw material, and then act as far as possible without Avasting it, and in accordance with the current demands of the market. 17(; FKFJJXO AND CONVEKSION. Since the produce of every forest comes under the influence of a special market, the wares required b}- which are multi- farious, while local requirements, customs, and usages are also influential, there must be many modes of conversion suitable for diff'erent localities. In the following sections, therefore, the results of experience are considered, their utility gauged, and a decision formed as to the basis of a rational system ot Forest Utilization, Section I. — Manual Lai5our. 1. General Iv')iiarl,H. The productiveness of every industry depends on the number of available labourers, and on their skill and mode of organization. Hence, the essential conditions for profitable forest utilization are plenty of gjod woodcutters, and good arrangements for furthering their labour. The worth of a woodcutter does not depend only on the value of the material which he can convert in a given time, but also on his following the rules of Sylviculture and Forest Protection. In all forest management based on the highest possible pecuniary return, which may be termed Economic Forestry, it is in Germany a general rule to entrust the fellings to wood- cutters under the pay and control of the forest owner, and only exceptionally to employees of wood-merchants. The latter method was formerly more frequent, and is still largely followed in France and liritain, and occasionally in Germany. Speaking quite generally, whenever the sale of the wood will do little more than cover the cost of its conversion, timber- exploitation may be left to the purchaser of standing trees, either by the sale of all standing trees on a certain area in block, or by single marked trees. In high mountain-districts there are localities difiicult of access, where the conversion and transport of timber would frequently cost more than its value, if done by other agency than that of the timber-merchant, such as State agency, or that of a private forest owner. In such cases it is better to sell the trees to a merchant. "Where timber has to MANUAL LABOUR. 177 be given away to right-holders, in cases where only inferior material is in question and there is no fear of the right-holders defrauding the forest owner by taking too much produce, it is also better to allow them to fell and convert the trees. In forests belonging to poor communes, or villages, it may be more economical for the villagers to work-out the timber for themselves. In all these cases restrictions for the benefit of the forest must be imposed on the woodcutters, just as if they were directly under the control of the forest owner. It is evident that only by the employment of woodcutters engaged and paid by himself can the forest owner maintain a satisfactory and permanent labour-force, and this he should always endeavour to secure. Such an object, however, is not always attainable, and though occasionally it may be easily secured, it is sometimes very difficult to do so. This depends on local circumstances, and especially on the superiluity or want of labourers, the duration of work in the forests, and the con- ditions of employment offered to the labourers by the forest owner. The Demand for Forest Labour fluctuates with the season of the year. Owing to increased production of wealth, to modern laws regulating industry, and to the rapidly improving means of transport, the conditions of labour have altered considerably during the last twenty years, and forestry has not remained unaffected. The woodman who formerly remained attached to his hamlet has freed himself from his fetters ; he leaves field and forest, and proceeds to the centres of industry and manufacture, where he hopes to get a better price for his labour, to lead a pleasanter life than in his lonely forest village, and to acquire property more rapidly. A few years ago, owing to this migration of the villagers, the scarcity of labour in certain forest districts had become calamitous. The crisis, however, did not last long, and at present, many woodmen have returned to their former pursuits. The Duration of Work in the Forest depends on the local extent of the forest area, and the degree of intensity of forest manage- ment. Whenever there is always full employment throughout the year in an extensive forest district, the inhabitants are VOL. v. N 178 FELLING AND CONVERSION. closely attaclicd to the forest. In such ilistricts there is hardly any other industry but forestry ; and, even if other employment could be found for the men, outside or within the district, yet, provided they can earn the usual wages pre- vailing in the locality, forest work is preferred to any other industry by the greater part of the population, who have, as it were, grown-up in mind and spirit with the forest. "Where, on the contrary, in districts chiefly industrial or agricultural, the work in the few existing forests can be done in a few weeks' time, forest work is only an auxiliary to the usual modes of occupation, the labourers have for it little taste or skill, and can be induced to work only in a perfunctory manner. The Remuneration aaid. other Conditions which the woodmen receive from the forest owner should under all circumstances be a fair equivalent for the amount of labour required, and suffice for the support of a labourer and his family. It is, therefore, clear that the more a forest owner can identify his own interests with those of his woodmen, the more remunerative will be the management of his forest. 2. T>eiii(mtls on the Woodcut trr. People are apt to think that the demands made on a wood- cutter may be satisfied by any labourer who can use the axe and saw. This is indeed true in certain cases, but usually a certain amount of skill, foresight, power of reflection and experience is required, attainable only after prolonged labour in the forests, which all workmen are not equally capable of acquiring, and is not found in an equal degree in all forest countries or districts. All industrial operations are more or less dependent on the skill of the workmen employed, and the demands which forestry make on labour form no exception to this rule. It is, therefore, necessary to distinguish woodcutters of diirerent grades of utility, and to distribute the work among them according to their capability. "Whilst for work in high forest, clear-cuttings, coppices or thinnings, the ordinary labour force may suffice, natural regeneration-fellings and cutting of standards over underwood demand much more skilful hands. MANUAL LABOUH. 179 There is a great difference between working forests for fuel, or for valuable timber and where a careful and detailed mode of converting the timber is required. Besides the demands made on skilled labour by special condi- tions of forest management, which vary with the locality, there are others of a general nature which must be made on every woodcutter, or gang of woodcutters, as regards order, capacity for labour, and control. A consideration of these points leads to a statement of the conditions of agreement between the labourer and the forest owner, which should be thoroughly explained to every W'Oodcutter before he engages to work in a forest. Although these conditions vary for different forests, or localities, in order to provide for important local require- ments, there are others Avhich prevail throughout a whole province or country. Such general conditions are, therefore, usually decided for extensive forest tracts, leaving the special local conditions to be added where necessary, penalties for breach of agreement being included. The following are the usual clauses in an agreement with a woodcutter : — General Conditions. A. Obligations of the AYoodcutter. (a) Regarding his conduct during the engagement. (b) Regarding felling. (c) Regarding conversion of timber. (d) Regarding removal of the timber. B. Obligations of the Wood-Stacicee, and of the Foreman. €. Obligations of Men employed in Carrying and Floating Timber. D. Obligations of the Contractor. E. Special Conditions. F. Penalties. N 2 180 FELLIXf; AND CONVERSIDN. A, Op.ligations of the Woodcutter. (a) Conduct of Woodcutter. — As rcfjards the conduct of the woodcutter, the followinir are the chief points : — i. Xo one is allowed to do other than the special work allotted to him. ii. Every woodcutter must he at work punctually at the appointed hour, and should work steadily and without intermission until the work is completed, except during^ the off-time agreed upon. iii. Any woodcutter absent without permission from work will be warned on the first occasion, and on the second will be considered to have vacated his work of his own accord. iv. No work is to be done before sunrise or after sunset. V. Every woodcutter is to provide his own tools in good condition, and he should also have a two-foot rule. Wood for mending tools and for constructing huts for the work- men is provided by the forest guards. When the work is completed, all wood used for huts, timber, sledge-roads, &c., should, as far as possible, be converted into firewood. vi. Every woodcutter should be as careful as possible in carry- ing outsylvicultural rules, and obey the special instructions of the manager and guards in this respect. He is also held responsible to report any infractions, which have come to his knowledge, of such rules by any other workmen. vii. The woodcutter is not allowed, either by himself or his family, to remove any wood from the felling-area. At the completion of the felling and conversion of the produce, all broken pieces, chips, and other wastage, will be divided among the workmen, viii. Each foreman is responsible for the security of the wood worked by his own gang. ix. Fires should not be made by less than six workmen, wherc- ever a larger number is present on a felling-area. Great care must be taken of the fire, and it should be extinguished, or carefully guarded, every evening. Bules under headings B to E as regards felling, conversion, and removal of the timber will be given in the next chapters dealing with these subjects. MANUAL LABOUR. 181 F, Penalties. The third part of the conditions of agreement gives the penalties for infraction of any of the above stipulations. Such penalties may be pecuniary, such as deductions from wages, temporary suspension from work, or dismissal, and when- ever the woodcutter obtains certain privileges from the forest owner, such as land for cultivation, wood, litter, &c., temporary or permanent deprivation of such privileges. Certain offences by woodcutters and other forest labourers are punishable under the forest law. The penalties should be those usual in the district, and within the means of the working population. Deductions from wages and deprivation of privileges are the most suitable penalties for the poorer workmen. Wherever experience shows that penalties are unavailing, it is better not to include them in the conditions of agreement, for in such a case it is better to have no law than one which cannot be carried out. There are many districts where at present this is the case, and penalties cannot be enforced owing either to the poverty of the people or the scarcity of labour. 3. Wages. (a) General Remarks. — -The remuneration to the woodcutter for his labour consists chiefly in a regularly contracted payment, but partly in undertaking to contribute to his support or that of his family in cases of accident, sickness, undeserved want, &c., and occasionally in special rewards paid to skilled labourers for difficult and unusual work. One of the best means for retaining the services of the better part x)f the labourers for forest work is to allow them certain forest privileges gratis, or at reduced rates, such as small areas of land for cultivation during good behaviour. Societies for saving money, to which the forest owner contributes in proportion to the regular contributioDS by the labourer, may also be mentioned here. Among all these items the wages are naturally the most important, and these may be either contract- wages by the piece, and proportional to the amount of work done, or merely daily wages, reckoned by a fixed number of hours daily daring which the 182 f^ELLING AND (.OXVERSTOX. workman is employed : as a rule, daily wages arc exceptional in woodcutters' work, and arc given only when the amount of trouble taken by tlic workman is out of all proportion to the amount of work done, as in forest plantations, where if the work be paid by the number of plants, the latter will be planted carelessly, without proper attention to their roots. A piece of work done, or unity of work, may be measured in various ways, either by its weight, volume, or roughly stacked volume ; or by the chief determining measure of the work, as for instance, the length and mid-diameter of a log, the yard of ditch- ing, the hundred planting-holes of definite size, the single rail- way-sleeper, &c. Weight is not much used in forestry as a unit of work, but the common unit for timber is the cubic foot, or load of 40 cubic feet, for hardwood, and of 50 cubic feet for softwood, both corresponding roughly to a ton. Stacked tire- wood is measured by the cord (G feet X (J feet X G feet) of 21 (> stacked cubic feet, and faggots by the hundred. Timber may be measured by its dimensions, and the diameter of different pieces may be used as a unit. Such a measurement of his work is more easily appreciated and calculated by the wood- cutter than when the cubic foot is the unit for measurement, and it is also a fairer measure of the work done than the latter. It has not yet been decided whether it is more profitable, or not, for the forest owner to measure the work for payment by the diameter of the piece, or by the cubic foot, but experiments made in Saxony are in favour of the former system, which is much the commoner of the two. Wherever logs are sold by their length and the diameter of their smaller end, these latter should also be taken as the units of work. Whatever unit of work may be chosen, the unit of pay must now be calculated, and this naturally varies more or less with the time and locality, and depends chiefiy on : — the supply of labour ; the extent and variability of the demands for labour in a district for manufactures, agriculture, public works, traffic, &c. ; the immediate cost of the necessaries of life ; the value of money measured in commodities; the economic condition of the people; the inclination of workmen for forest work, tic. Different measures may be taken to rectify the greater or less variability of the circumstances which alle-jt wages. Either a pern.anent iJANUAL LABOUK. 183 table of average wages is compiled, the wages being increased or diminished when necessary, or new tables of wages may be pre- pared annually, according to the price of labour. In the latter case a written agreement to hold good for a year between the forest owner and the workman must be made, and signed by both parties. Besides the fact that it really furthers economy to secure fair wages to the workman, it is also clearly in the interest of the forest owner, as contented workmen will avoid waste in felling and con- verting timber, and damage to young growth. Care for the welfare of the forest depends more or less directly on the wood- cutter's work, and the latter will always turn the rate of pay to his own advantage. The amount of care he takes of the forest will be always the less, the lower his wages are driven by the competition of other workmen. In forest management, as in all great productive industries, the determination at any time of fair rates of wages is of the greatest importance, and the question then arises, how should this be done ? (b) Determination of Rates of Wages. — It is clear that the woodman must obtain as high wages in the forest as he could get by a similar expenditure of labour in any other rough in- dustry. The forest owner has to compete for his labour with other industrial enterprises ; he may usually compete with them successfully when he remembers that the industrious wood- cutter should receive wages somewhat above those actually in force for other works in the district for the hard and frequently dangerous forest work in ordinary fellings. This addition to the ordinary local wage depends on the favourable or unfavour- able aspect of the circumstances affecting wages which have been already described; it may be sometimes 10 per cent., 20 per cent., or even 30 per cent, above the usual daily wages of labourers. The amount of the daily wage once settled, the next step will be to fix the pay for each unit of work in accordance with it. It is easy to ascertain from the results of the previous year's felling, what amount of work an industrious workman can do in a day, i.e., how many cubic feet of converted timber he can prepare in summer in ten hours, and in six or seven hours in winter. 18i FELUXn AND CONVKKSlOX. and in this way, gjiven the rate of daily wa^^'e, the rate per unit ( f work can be fixed. There are, however, several classes of wood produced in each forest, and a distinction must he made between conversion of fire- wood and that of timber of different varieties. As re^ijards fire- wood, it should be noted that split billets are frequently the pre- dominating class. As regards classified timber, it cannot be predicted which class will predominate ; this depends on the mode of conversion and the size of the trees, &c. Thus, in some districts, middle-sized butts for saw-mills — in others, average- sized logs — will be the material on which the wood-cutter bestows most of his labour, and for which the rate should be fixed. Firewood and timber are produced by all forests, so that there are two standards of rates of pay, of which one is for a cord of split firewood, and the other for a unit of that class of converted timber which the forest yields most abundantly. (c) Scale of Wages, — The standard rates, therefore, consist in those paid for split-wood and for one kind of converted timber : but on every felling-area there are several — often many — classes of timber and firewood, the preparation of which does not exact the same amount of labour, or the sale-vaiues of which are highly dissimilar ; there must therefore be several grades in the rates of pay for piece-work. These difi"erent piece-work prices are always multiples, or parts, of the two standard rates of pay, and in their case the amount paid, besides being, as far as l)Ossible, proportional to the work done, should also be propor- tional to the sale-value of the converted material. As regards the former of these factors (the expenditure of labour on any work) round billets are much easier prei)ared than split-wood, and should be paid for at a lower rate ; whilst the preparation of 100 bean-sticks should cost less than tliat of 100 hop-poles. The amount of labour involved in the work is, however, made subsidiary to the sale-value of the out-turn, and the maxim of making the labour-charge for preparation of more valuable material higher than for what is less valuable is of the highest importance. Thus, the preparation of the bettor classes of logs or scantlings is more highly remunerated than that of the lower classes, even when the amount of labour expended is the same MANUAL LABOUR. 185 in both cases ; this is especially true for long pieces of valuable timber, provided the diameter at the small end is up to standard ; a higher payment would be made for the entire piece than if it had been cut in two, although in the latter case more labour would have been expended. There are forest districts where, in the interest of the forest owner, the wages of woodcutters are allowed to rise and fall with the sale-prices of the outturn ; as in parts of the Schwarz- wald, and especially in the forests of the Prince of Fiirstenberg. The best plan is, therefore, to pay relatively the highest rates for those pieces, the sale of which is most profitable to the owner, and to pay the wages corresponding to the labour involved only for less saleable pieces, the number of which the owner wishes to keep as low as possible. Thus, payment for wood from the stump and roots of the trees is kept very low, to prevent material lit for straight, split, or round cordwood being thus used, and especially to keep down as much as possible the amount of root- and stump-wood. (d) Area where the Same Wages Prevail. — Once the scale for labour-payments has been decided, it may be applicable to a forest district, range, or working circle, but sometimes only to a particular felling-area. Thus, where the locality is unfavourable, as, for instance, on steep, lofty slopes ; in fellings where special care has to be taken of the material, or of the regeneration or tending of the forest ; in very remote felling-areas, where the woodmen have far to go to reach their work ; where the trees to be felled are far apart, so that there are difficulties in collecting and sorting the outturn ; and in several other cases, — greater de- mands are made on the labourers than where opjiosite conditions prevail. The preparation of forest accounts is much simplified when the same rates of payment are made in all the felling-areas of the same forest range. In level, uniformly-stocked forests, and especially where only one species of tree is grown, such simplicity is often admissible ; but in the case of irregular woods and un- like conditions, the forest owner will find it to his profit to have different rates of payment for different localities. Thus, we have various rates of payment for piece-work, which rise and fall with the local daily wage. In allottinof these rate 186 FKLIJNG AND CoXVKHSIOX. according to the dillcrfiit kinds of produce, too nmcli detail should not be attempted, so that the accounts may not be too complicated. An exception to this maxim arises only in the case of forests yielding highly Viiluable timber. (e) Wages for Barking Trees, Stacking Firewood, &c. — When the rates of payment for felling and converting the timber have been settled, it is also usual to enter in the agreement the rates for barking the trees, also for collecting the timber and stacking the firewood. The latter work usually involves only one rate, but in the case of collecting the timber in temporary forest depots, the greatest differences of rates, compared with the average rates for i)ieces of the same size, may prevail. In level land, it is necessary to convey the converted wood only to the nearest road, or timber-depot, and the amount of labour involved is practically the same in all cases for pieces of similar dimensions ; but in mountain-districts there arc, as a rule, great differences in this labour, and it is usual tn iix different rates for each felling-area at difierent altitudes. (f) Daily Wages. — There are cases where special demands are made on the ability, experience and care of the workmen, which must be considered in fixing wages, for in these cases it is quite exceptional that the work is at all proportional to the energy ex- pended on it. If in these cases a special agreement cannot be made, daily pay should be given. For constructing the various means of water-transport ; making or repairing roads, slides, bridges ; building substantial huts for workmen ; setting- up fences, and so on, the skill of a carpenter or engineer is required, although it is frequently only :i wood-cutter who does the work, and he should then be paid in proportion to his skill. Only experience can guide the forest manager in settling a fair wage for such work. It is clear that the total amount of woodcutters' work in any forest varies according to the locality, the degree of conversion of the timber which is required, and many other circumstances, and that for each forest a special study of these factors is required. The most important of them are : — species of tree ; age and character of the standing crop ; suitability of the wood for special purposes ; the kind of felling employed and nature of the locality ; season of felling ; distance from the wood- cutters' homes and the industry and skill of the woodcutters. MANUAL LABOUR. 1^7 4. Organisation of the Lahow-Gang. (a) General Account. — It is evident that the efficieuc}", as regards quaHty and quantity of outturn, of the whole force of labourers employed in a forest, leaving out of consideration their special aptitude for the work, will depend greatly on the supervision the foresters and forest-guards can exercise over them. This influence and the possibility of its leading to useful results, will depend on the relations of the wood- cutters to one another, and on their dependence on the forest and its interests. All this varies considerably from place to place, and in certain cases it is hardly possible for the forest- manager to exert the desired influence, whilst in others he can do so quite easily. In order, however, to do what is possible in this respect and supervise the hundreds of woodcutters who may be employed in any forest-range, as well as distribute them suitably among the different felling-areas and pay them proportionally to their labour, a certain organisation of the whole force of labour must be instituted, subdividing them into gangs and parties, and appointing from amongst themselves certain influential persons as foremen and heads of parties. The gangs are usually composed of all men coming from the same village (or district), and their leader is termed a foreman. A party consists of the number of men, not less than 2 or 3, required for complete felling and conversion of a certain lot of trees. The party chooses its own leader, works together and divides the payment for the work done, into equal parts among its members. Considerable importance should be attached to the choice of the foreman, as he is the intermediary between the workmen and the forest officials, and is more or less responsible during the absence of the latter for the conduct of the woodcutters. On account of the indispensable nature of his services it is advisable to attach him as much as possible to the forest and to keep him constantly employed ; he should also get special privileges. He usually settles the accounts with the men, and obtains a small percentage of the total payment for doing so. The connection of the woodcutters with one another varies in different places, depending partly on the possibility of carrying 1B8 FELLlXt; AND CONVKU.sloX. out the organisation already described, and partly on local laws regarding workman and employer. It is often very difficult to enforce penalties against the Avoodcutter for non-fulfilment of the contract, or agreement, made between him and the forest owner, iilthough it may be advisable if possible to secure such an agree- ment. "Whether an agreement is made with all woodcutters or with some of them only, or with the foreman on behalf of the other men, depends on the particular class of labourers to be dcalt-with. "Woodcutters may be classified as follows : — (b) Non-associated ■Woodcutters. — "Where forest blocks arc found scattered amongst agricultural lands, forestry is only an accessory means of employment for the people, and no regular gang of woodcutters exists. The men engaged for forest- work are a motle}' crew following all callings and without any connection with one another. The attachment binding the woodcutter to the forest is in such cases generally of the slightest kind, and even if a legal act of agreement be made between him and the forest owner, it will be only of a temporary nature, depending on his own interest and liking for the work. In this class there is no association between the different woodcutters, each man works independently of the others, or they may work in pairs in the case of sawyers. Very often such a gang of woodcutters is composed of quite different individuals at the close of a felling to those who com- menced Avork on the same area. In such cases, if the forest- manager wishes to secure attention to the most necessary protective rules, he must make a separate aj/rccuioit uitJt ereri/ Jalioiircr. (c) Associated Labour. — In extensive forest districts in plains and mountains the conditions of labour differ greatly from the above. The chief means of livelihood of the inhabitants are then obtained from the forest and the Avork it affords ; the people i^'onsider it mu honour for a man to be employed in the forest, and forest Avork is preferred to all others Avhich may offer. A fcAv of the people possess all the best qualities of these Avood- cutters, and are most attached to the forest and most trustAvorthy in Avorking, and have much influence over the other men. In such cases it is sufficient for the forest owner to make legal {ajrecmenta Avilh the more influential Avoodcutters Avhen they are MANUAL LABOUR. 189 sufficiently numerous to form a regular enrolled gang constantly employed in the forest, and with a common insurance fund to which the forest owner contributes. Such a labour-gang is strengthened from time to time, as necessity arises, by tempor- arily engaging other men. (d) Contractors' Men. — Sometimes the legal act of agreement is made by the forest owner with a contractor, who undertakes to supply all the men required for any definite piece of work in the forest. Contractors are frequently active, influential and fairly wealthy men who have considerable tact in managing woodcutters. Their assistance simplifies matters for the forest owner, as the contractor has all the worry and trouble of managing and supplying the labour-gang, and of paying them in detail for the work done. In extensive forest districts, insufficiently supplied with experienced foresters or forest-guards, or where the woodcutters are very experienced and trustworthy and the work can be largely left to them without much supervision on the part of the forest staff, it is often better to leave the conversion of the timber to an experienced contractor who thoroughly knows the capacity of individual workers, and can give full security to the forest owner for good work. This system has however its shady side, as contractors sometimes defraud their men. The contractor is often obliged to bring his men from a distance (as in the case of Italians employed in Germany), and he then requires pecuniary advances and concessions which are not necessary under ordinary circumstances. Timber-work is largely done by contractors in the Black Forest, Alps, Hungary, Galicia, and in many extensive forest districts of the North German Plain. In the Alps the contractors are frequently mayors of villages. Although, strictly speaking, the contractor is responsible for the conduct of his men, the forest-manager does not abstain from direct supervision over them, and it is evident that the contractor must be legally bound by conditions covering' all the interests of the forest owner. In the case of extensive damage to forests by wind, insects, snow, &c., when there is an extraordinary amount of material to be converted, it is generally necessary to entrust the work to inn FEI.LINC; AND CONVERSION. contractors. In such cast-s the workmen are often brought from a distance, as Itah'ans in South German}', &:c., and it is necessary to make arrangements which the ordinar}- course of forest-work does not require. (e) Work done by Forest Settlers. — Hitherto it has been pre- supposed that for ordinary fellings the necessary labour-gang could be secured within easy distance of the forest, but there are forest districts where the population is so scattered and scanty that the needful force of labour cannot be obtained in the neighbour- hood ; the manager is then obliged to engage labourers from a distance and settle them in a regular colony within his forest. It is evident that only in the last extremity of scarcity of local labour would a forest-manager resort to such an expensive measure as the above. Such colonies of forest-labourers arc found at Herrenv.ies in the Black Forest, and in other parts of Germany, also in certain districts in Hungary. The settlers must be supplied with houses, food, medical attendance, schools and churches, plots of land to be cultivated and of meadow-land for each head of a family, also litter and firewood, and even their widows and orphans must be maintained. [Imported labourers from Chota Nagpur arc largely employed in the Assam tea-gardens under conditions similar to the above, but the Indian Forest Department has hitherto been able to dispense with the necessity of resorting to such a class of lal)our. — Tii.] 5. I'Jie Forest L(ih(nir- CUNVEKSION. Fio. :,0. weight of an axe, its size and relative dimensions depend on whether it is to be used for hard and heavy, or soft, light wood ; in the former case, a tiuer but less highly tempered edge is required, and the axe should be lighter and thinner than one used for softwoods, which in all parts, and especially in the back, is thicker and broader than the former, acting more like a wedge. In no case, however, should the axe be too large or heavy, as it fatigues the woodcutter, and does not work so economi- cally as a lighter implement. The axe-handle is sometimes straight and sometimes curved, sometimes parallel to the edge and sometimes bending from or towards it. It is difficult tj decide which shape is most advantageous, and it is often made so as to taper away from the end, and thus afford a better hold. Fig. 50 shows the shape of the Kenebeck V I American axe, the edge of which is made |j| of compressed steel and lasts almost in- n '' definitely. It is said to tire the woodcutter j - less than any other axe, and can be readily used to cut horizontally. It is made in two ( sizes, weighing respectively oh and 7 lbs., including the handle, and costs from 15 to 20 shillings a dozen. The handles are usually '2i feet long, a longer one being in- convenient, though they are sometimes used up to 3j feet in the Spessart and eastern l)art of the l^lack Forest. The use of these axes is spreading widely throughout Ger- many. Three kinds of axes may be distinguished, viz. : the felling-axe, the lojjping-axe, and the axe for cleaving or splitting wood. (a) Felling- and Lopping- Axes. — The felling axe is used tor telling trees, ehielly large ones which offer con- siderable resistance to felling, whilst the lopping-axe is mainly used for lopping branches from felled coniferous trees. The former may be of much slighter maki' than the latter, which ^: WOODCUTTERS IMPLEMENTS. 195 meets with greater shocks ; it is especially lighter in the back which is often rounded-off, whilst the lopping-axe contains more Fig. 51, Fig. 52. Fig. 53. metal, and is usually flat and steeled at the back. The head of a felling-axe rarely weighs more than 3 to 3^ lbs., whilst the Fig. 5i. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. lopping-axe may be about 20 per cent, heavier. It is quite exceptional for woodcutters to have both these axes, and the loppmg-axe is not required in broad-leaved forests. It is, o 2 19(; FELLING AND t'ONVKKSION. however, a sign of a good woikman to possess more than the absohitely indispensable tools. The Saxon axe (fig. 51) is quite straight-bladed from back to Fi«. 58. edge, and forms a complete wedge ; the faces are slightly curved outwards, the handle is straight, and 0-75 meter (29 inches) Fig. f.l). Fig. go. long. The Harz axe (fig. 52) is shorter, broader, and the faces hardly curved at all. The Bohemian axe (fig. 53), also used in Moravia and Silesia, resembles the Saxon axe, but is bent down- WOODCUTTERS' IMPLEMENTS. 197 wards. The Carpathian axe (fig. 54) is broader than those ah-eady described. The axe used in the Bavarian Alps (fig. 55) is a hght axe with a rounded back ; the Black Forest axe (fig. 56) resembles it, but is shorter, broader, and heavier, and owing to the large timber common in the Black Forest, the handle is generally one meter (39 inches) long. The lopping-axe used in the Bavarian Alps (fig. 57) is similar to the felling-axe, but is stouter and flat in the back, and heavier. In the same region the double-axe (fig. 58) is used, which has Fig. 61. Fig. 62. a smaller head for small wood; it only weighs 1*40 kilograms, (3 pounds). The Thuringian axe (fig. 59) somewhat resembles the Saxon axe. The characteristic shape of the Norwegian axe may be seen from fig. GO ; it is considered a very workmanlike instrument. The main diff'erence between the American axe and the various European axes consists in the devices for preventing its jamming and sticking in the cut. The faces of an axe are either provided along their middle line with a prominent ridge, or as in the Pennsylvanian axe (fig. 50), are strongly curved outwards. The blade of the latter is formed of compressed steel, hardly wears at all, and works well. By general consent this axe is con- sidered to save labour and tire the men less than many German 10s FHLLIN(; AND CONVERSION. axcy, owinj? to its convenient handle and freedom from sticking. [This axe is not, however, adapted for hard, tropical wood, for which the use of a narrower and lighter axe is advisable. — Tr.] (b) Trimming-Axes. — The trimming-axe is used bj' woodcutters for trimniing-olV side-pieces of balks, and by the carpenter in preparing timber for building and other purposes. In Germany it is usually of the shape given in fig. Gl, having only one edge, and the blade being curved inwards to allow sufficient play for the hand of the operator. The handle is short, usually 1 h to If feet, and the workman uses it sideways from the side of the log he is trimming. Another shape (fig. 62) is in use in the Black Forest, being more convenient to use on rocky and difficult ground than the former. [Trimming-axes in India are generally synmietrically sliaped, hut much larger and heavier than ordinaiy axes, weigliing up to 8 lbs. and more. The workman stands on the top of the log and trims-off side-pieces by swinging the axe vertically and merely allowing its own weight to act. The handles for these trimming-axes are 3^ to ih feet long, so as to give sufficient momentum. — Th.] (c) The Bill-hook. — Bill-hooks may be of various shapes, and are chieflv used fur cutting coppice or fascines, and in lopping F[G. 63. Fig. 6.0. branches from trees. Fig. (')3 shows the connnon German bill- hook, the backward turn of the blade at its top being useful in WOODCUTTERS IMPLEMENTS. 199 pulling out the ends of withes while tying faggots. The English fascine-knife (fig. 64) is 21 inches long and very serviceable in cutting fascines. Fig. 65 represents a very serviceable bill-hook ; it is half an inch thick at the back, and has a cutting edge at a for cutting through branches placed on a piece of .wood, as well as its ordinary cutting-edge h. Courval has invented a pruning bill-hook (fig. 6(5) which is 16 inches long and weighs about 3i pounds ; it is made thickest along its axis in order to add weight to its cuts. According to Courval all kinds of pruning, even of large boughs, may be effected with this instrument. 2. Saivs. (a) General Account.— Saws are used by woodcutters for felling- trees and reducing the length of logs and branches, at right angles to their axis. A saw' may be much more economically used for such a purpose than an axe, which wastes much of the wood. Under certain circumstances, and on difficult ground, the work may however be more expeditiously done with an axe. The amount of time used in sawing may vary from 20 per cent, to 40 and 50 per cent, of the whole time spent by woodcutters on the felling-area. Forest saws were formerly rolled out of wrought iron, and the rolled blade was then hammered cold to make it hard and elastic. At present, saws are made of cast steel, and work more easily than the older implement^. Owing to the superior toughness of the steel they retain their edge and set better, and owing to their smooth sides, they cause much less friction in use than the iron saws. Saws have to overcome not only the resistance of the wood, but also the friction of their sides against the rough surface of the wood which is being sawn. Their teeth chiefly act by tearing the wood-fibres asunder, and so much the more, the more porous the wood and the longer and tougher the wood- fibres ; this is therefore especially the case with soft, broad- leaved and coniferous woods. In the case of hard, broad-leaved woods, this tearing action is partly superseded by a cutting action. The more a saw tears the fibres apart the greater the amount of sawdust, which is therefore most abundant in the case of soft- woods. 200 P^ELLIXO AND CONVERSION. (b) Mode of Construction of Saws. — Saws are constructed differently accovdinj^' to the uses tor wliicli they are intended ; they vary in shape, length, weight, and shape of teeth. Tliey may be used either for large or small timber. In the former case they cut both ways, and are worked by two men, and termed two-handed saws. In the latter case they only cut one way and are one-handed : such saws rarely exceed Ih to 2i feet in length, whilst the two-handed saws may be 3.\ to 6^ feet long, their length being determined by the diameter of the piece to be sawn, and the distance through which the arm moves. The weight of a saw also depends on its length. The construction of the teeth of saws varies considerably. Each tooth may be either symmetrical or unsymmetrical, and Fio (57. Fig. <){>. b vary in depth, thickness and distance from one another, each ot which points affects the working of the saw. As regards the shape of the teeth, a distinction must be made Fig. 69. Fi«- "0- //AA between those cutting one or l)oth ways. In llie former case they are usually shaped as in tig. 67, that of a right angled tri- angle, the shorter side of the triangle or face of the tooth being at ri'dit anjfles, or nearlv so, to llic line of their inst-rtion on Fic M j^J-^ J^/_^A_A/L the saw. In Knglisli saws the liypotbenuse, or buck of the teeth, is cut-out in a curve (tig. (58). Such teeth are only used in the case of one-handed saws, or in pit-saws used by wood- cutters for sawing timber longitudinallv- WOODCUTTERS IMPLEMENTS. 201 Forest saws which cut both ways require teeth of a different They are always symmetrical, aud usually bounded by straight lines, as in fig. 69, by curved ones, as in fig. 70, or are so-called M teeth, figs. 71 and 72, which cut both ways. American saws have teeth as shown in figs. 73 and 74. Space must be allowed between the teeth for the escape of the sawdust, which requires six times the space of the wood from which it is taken. This is provided by giving the teeth a much greater depth at a h (fig. 75) than their cutting edge a c, and by leaving a larger space between the teeth than their own area. In old-fashioned saws this was provided for by breaking-off the tops of some of the teeth at regular intervals, as in fig. 76, but such imperfect teeth are not found in modern saws. The tri- FiG. 76. angular teeth between the combined M teeth of American saws may be considered as plauing-teeth for removing splinters of wood, as they are not set like the other teeth. (c) Shape of Saws. — Various kinds of saws have come into use in difi'erent countries, of which the following are the most serviceable : — i. Tir()-]i(()idcd Sdirs. The two-handed or forest saws comprise the straight, bow, and curved cross-cut saws. 202 KKLLIN(; AND fON VERSION. The straight cross-cut saw is 4 J, to 5 feet lon<^, with a breadth of blade of 41 to ~)'} inches. The handh.'S are phiced at right angles to the cutting edge of the saw, which consists of tri- Fiu. 77. """^"AT,,,/-/", ffdTvvrimr*rr^rrf .ru^r..AO-^^'-^^ '^ angular teeth, with some shortened ones, and the blade is slightly convex. Such saws are used in broad-leaved forests, where there is much large timber, as in the Soessart and Rhine Fig. 78. •■^>>-Yv> '"'^'^^^'^>1«^^^-^u^l.vK^>^^v^^^-^'^'»•^■^^^'^^ .Tft^rtWvJJ Valley. American saws, termed Nonpareil saws (.tigs. 77 and 78), from Disston & Sons, Philadelphia, are now largely used in Germany, and experience shows that their outturn in broad- leaved forests is 35 to 10 per cent, more than that of the Fig. 70. ordinary German saws. In coniferous forests, on the other hand, they have noc proved superior to the curved saw (fig. 81). The Nonpareil saw is made of the best steel, and has an ingenious contrivance for fastening and removing the handles. The bow-saw (fg. 71t)> Nvhich ])artakes if the character of a WOODCUTTERS IMPLEMENTS. 503 straight cross-cut saw, has a straight thin blade, which is kept rigid by means of the bow. More exertion is required to work it than the other cross-cut saws, and it is only serviceable when short. Fig. 80 represents the blade of the Bohemian bow-saw. illiil;.^^^^ The curved cross-cut saw is constructed as shown in fig. 81, and the teeth are often made longer in the middle than at the two ends, where they are less in use. These curved saws vary in length and curvature, and are either straight or curved inwards at the back ; they are the best cross-cut saws for coniferous wood. The Thuringian, or Saxon saw (fig. 82) moy be taken as the Fig. 82. w..--^ type of a saw in which not only the edge, but also the back of the blade, is carved. It is a very light and short saw, but is strong and turns-out good work. It is not suitable for very broad cuts, as when made long it is not stiff enough. In spite of this defect, it has, however, recently been introduced into several districts in the Black Forest. An important adjunct to all saws are the handles and the arrangements for fixing them to the blade. In the older saws, 201. FKLLING AND CON VKUSldX. the blade termiimtes nt eacli into the wooden handles. Fig. y.i. Fi.;. SI. ^ hiiudle, as shown in ti^'. 84. end witli spikes, which are driven American saws have, however, a Letter device, the blade not being provided with spikes, but the handles fixed to it by means of screws and nuts, the former passing through holes in the blade, as shown in fig. 83. This allows the handles to be removed readily, and the blade withdrawn from the cut ; the blade can even turn on the ii. Ot(('-]i o, so that the teeth pass successively between cr may also be floated during the open season. In industrial countries, where factories abound, there is generally a scarcity of forest labour throughout the year, and especially in summer. 3. Mode of FcUinfi. On sylvicultural grounds, as regards those modes of felling which are not concerned with reproduction, such as clear- cutting, the season is of only slight importance ; it is more important, as in thinnings, when tending the woods is in question, as well as removal of some of the trees. Natural regeneration fellings, especially in broad-leaved woods, must be eflected when the fall and transport of the trees will do the least amount of harm to the shelter-wood and young growth, and that is in winter, whenever the ground is covered with snow. Clear- cuttings may be effected at any season of the year, unless they are to be immediately followed by sowing or planting. Thinnings in young woods are best done whilst the trees are in full foliage, and the best season for them is autumn. When, however, quickly-grown, slender poles in a densely-grown wood are thinned late in the autumn, in exposed localities subject to breakage by snow or rime, they are very liable to be bent or broken ; whilst, if the thinning be executed in spring or summer, they have time to become stronger and often to escape the danger. Whenever injured trees, broken by the wind or snow, or killed by insects, have to bo felled, this is usually done in summer for broad-leaved trees ; but in coniferous woods the injured trees should be fellcil as soon after the damage as possible. For pruning the branches of broad-leaved trees, provided the SEASON FOR FELLIXG. 221 wounds are tarred, autumn and early winter are the best seasons, but in the case of resinous conifers, pruning may be done at any season. [Where tarring is not effected, February is the best month for pruning, — Tr.] Regeneration-fellings among broad-leaved trees, and especially secondary fellings on steep slopes, are best effected over a deep layer of snow, in order to protect the young growth from damage during the removal of the timber. During summer, when vegetation is in full activity and tender shoots are so easily injured, broad-leaved forests should be left alone ; and the same rule should also be applied to coniferous woods with natural re- generation, unless the winter is too severe for fellings ; but, even then, the period between the sprouting of the young shoots and their full development should be one of repose. For coppice, late winter is the best felling season, for if the wood is felled early in the winter, it frequently happens that the stools are killed by the severe cold. Whenever, for certain reasons, autumn or ^^•inter fellings are necessary, the stools should be cut as deep as possible in the ground. Cutting coppice during the period of vegetation gives rise to weakly coppice- shoots. Wherever stumps are to be extracted, this is generally done during summer, and naturally cannot be done at all when the ground is frozen. 4. Quality of Outturn. As regards the influence of the season of felling on the quality of the outturn, the question has already been discussed (p. 82), and it has been determined that for firewood the season has hardly any influence, provided the wood be thoroughly dried, but that the qualities of timber are greatly influenced by the season of felling and the subsequent treatment of the felled material. As a rule, broad-leaved trees should be felled only in winter, and the same rule is desirable for coniferous wood, unless it can be removed from the felling-area and sawn-up immediately after it has been felled ; winter-felling is also best in the case of old and imperfectly sound trees. 212 FELLING AND CONVERSION. "Whenever climixte is against winter-felling, the most valuable trees should be felled late in the autumn ; this is the more essential, the greater delay there is likely to occur between the felling and the sawing up of the timber, or the removal of it to sheltered, airy timber-yards. 5. Species of 'Tree. Conifers, and especially the spruce, are most liable to be worm-eaten; and to protect them, the bark should, as soon as possible, be peeled from off the felled trees. Thorough barking is possible only in summer, whilst in autumn or winter the bark can only be partially removed ; this, however, is quite sufficient to protect the wood from insects and to allow of its thoroughly drying. If the trees are felled in autumn and partially peeled, the fact that the bark is left as a thin coating prevents the wood from cracking. 6. Special Application of the Material from Fellinfi-Areas. Exceptions are made when the material from the fellings is required for special purposes. Thus, for bent-wood furniture, and for certain impregnation processes, and in the case of cloven wood, the trees should be felled in summer. If bark is to be used for tanning, the trees must be felled in the spring. "Wood used for wells and water-pipes is also sometimes felled during spring. 7. Modes of Transport. As regards transport, it is found that wood felled in summei- is lighter to carry, and floats better than winter-felled wooti ; hence less firewood sinks, and the timber-rafts are less heavily laden, owing to the wood being much more thoroughly dried than when felled in winter. 8. Demands ), and several wedges then driven into it transversely, or between it and the edge of the notch, so as to press the stem over to the side on which it should fall. In the case of valuable timber-trees, it is often advisable to cut them below the surface of the ground so as to save a portion of the stump as timber. In that case the notches are cut down as deeply as possible, and often the earth is dug away all round Q 2 228 FKLLINC AND CONVKRSION. the stump of the tree. It is then often insufficient in the case of large trees to cut only two notches, but cuts are also required at the other sides, though they should never be as deep as the principal notches in the direction of the fall. Small trees may be felled by one man, trees from 10 to 12 inches in diameter by two men working together, and very large trees by four men. FcUitui icifJi tlic Sair alone. In the case of small trees, side opposite to tliat of the the tree can be pushed-over ; friction, the sawing cannot, beyond the axis of the tree ; wedges are driven-in behind ceeds they are driven further , the saw-cut is commenced on the proposed fall, and continued until in the case of large trees, owing to without some help, be continued as soon as possible, therefore, two the saw, and as the sawing pro- and further until the tree falls. yi iii. Fiiling hij nicans of Axe and Saw. The sawing (fig. 120) is commenced at the side {h) on which the tree is to fall, and continued to about \ or -Ith of its diameter, and a notch in direction {a) Fig. 120. is made with the axe to meet this saw-cut. The saw is then taken to the oppo- site side of the tree, and as soon as the cut (c) is deep enough wedges are in- serted behind the saw, and from time to time driven further until the tree falls. \a ifSH a iv. FelliHii irith the llillhook. \ ' ^^HP' This is restricted to small poles, saplings and coppice-shoots forming a dense growth in which there is no room to use the axe. Saplings [are felled with one blow of the billhook, but if a stem is too thick for this, it should be felled with two blows on opposite sides, without making a regular notch. METHODS OF FELLING. 229 V. Felling hij Means of an Electric Current. A thin metallic wire brought to a white heat by an electric current may be used as a saw for felling trees, the wire being stretched in a frame the handles of which are isolated. Experi- ments* have thus been made on a large scale, the stems being cut so deeply with the electrified wire that they can be thrown by means of wedges. A longer experience will show whether or not this method can be applied practically to forest work. vi. Advantages and Disadrantaries of the Different Metliexls. The characteristics of a good method of felling are, above all, that it is not dangerous for the workmen; that the tree is thrown accurately in the desired direction, the most important sylvicultural point in the felling ; then, that it wastes as little Fig. 1-21. wood as possible, and finally, that it involves the least possible amount of labour. Experience has shown that felling by means of saw and axe combined, with the help of wedges, is the best of all methods, for in no other way can the tree be so accurately * Patent and technical bureau of Richard Baj-er, Berlin. 2-30 FKLLING AND CONVERSION. thrown in any desired direction, or is it less liable to splinter in lallin-. Where the saw alone is used, several wedges may indeed be introduced, but the tree rests on one point of the circumference of the cut, and during,' the fall it frequently turns on its stump in a way which cannot be prevented by the use of wedges. If, however, a small notch is cut on the side of the fall, and the saw-cut opposite to this is opened-out by wedges, the stem when ready to fall rests, as shown in fig. 120, not on a point, but on a straight line perpendicular to the direction of the fall, and any turning of the stem on its stump is an extremely rare event. A very simple and safe method has been long in practice in the Schwarzwald, as shown in fig. 121 ; the pole ((h, fitting into a notch in the stem at a, is lifted by two men by the horizontal lever nth, and is thus forced into the required direc- tion. This is a simple form of Wohmann's apparatus. The greatest waste of wood is involved when the axe alone is used for felling, and this not only because a considerable portion of the base of the tree is hewn into chips, which in mature trees may be 4 to 7 per cent., and in poles, 2 to 2i per cent, of the volume of the bole ; but also because the end of the log remains pointed, and it cannot be used in its full length. "Where the saw alone is used, there is least waste (about I per cent.), but even where both saw and axe are used the waste is small (1 to 1^ per cent.). There arc, however, localities where working with the saw involves a greater loss than when the axe alone is used, and that is in steep rocky places where one is obliged to leave a high stump in order to work the saw at all. The loss of bark in conversion is 4 per cent, of the prepared bole for the beech, and other smooth-barked trees, 7 per cent, for oaks and coarse-barked broad-leaved species, 8 — 11 per cent, for the Scotch pine, spruce, and silver-fir, 15 — 18 per cent, for the larch and black pine. As regards facility in working, this depends on the practice and skill of the woodcutters. We should only compare the labour of men equally skilled with saw and axe, and in such cases there is very little advantage in using the axe alone. Felling trees by means of axe and saw combined is, therefore, under ordinary circumstances the best Uiethod, and should be METHODS OF FELLING. 231 everywhere introduced, where custom still clings to the use of only the axe. It is only impracticable on steep rocky ground, and unsuitable in the case of very large valuable timber trees which should be felled out by the roots, and in thinnings in densely grown poles, where there is no room for sawing. The disadvantages of the use of the saw and accompanying wedges, must not, however, be overlooked. This frequently increases heartshake, a circumstance which deserves full consi- deration in the case of valuable timber trees ; besides this defect, very tall thin stemS; when half cut through, may split in two if the wedges are carelessly used, and such a split often proceeds high up the stem. This disadvantage in the use of the saw depends, however, less on the method than on the carelessness of the workmen. (b) Utilization of Roots and Stumps. This can be effected either by extracting the stumps of trees, or by uprooting the trees themselves. i. lloiioral of Stiuiijhs. Stumps are utilized by means of grubbing-axes, saws, wedges, crowbars, &c., or with the help of machines. The principal part of the work is that of grubbing-out the stump, which takes 70 to 90 per cent, of the labour involved in the whole operation. The work is commenced by digging all round the stump, and exposing all the side-roots as far as they are worth extracting. All these roots are then severed close to the stump and removed, the longer ones being severed at the thinner end as well. The workmen then continue to dig round the deeper going roots, or taproot, until their upper parts are exposed and can be severed, or extracted with the stump. Another way, after the roots have been exposed bj digging, is to split the stump into pieces, and extract these separately ; for this purpose iron crowbars are used, or the stump may be blown-up with gun- powder, as will be described further on. It is evident that uprooting stumps is a most laborious process, and attempts have naturally been made to lighten the work by using machines. These are all characterised by the attempt to tear the stump from the strong descending roots after the earth has been dug away, as previously explained. It FELLING AND CONVERSION. Fig. 122. is only in cases of small stumps and superficial rooting tbnt digging can be dispensed with. Also where machines are used, they either tear the whole stump from the roots, or remove it piecemeal. Wherever machines such as the forest devil are used for uprooting stumps, all the side-roots should be cut-off close to the stump, except one large side - root which is left longer than the others, and serves as a lever for the attachment of the imple- ment, as shown in fig. 122. Preference should always be given to the simplest of the implements which have been already described, and although they only partially replace manual labour, yet they afford a simple application of considerable power. Experience has shown Fi(i 12:3. (.Vflor i;.,i,i,e.) that the forest-devil is the best of the heavier implements. The Hawkeye machine is more powerful, and would be used in preference were its cost not so high. Objection has been made to the use of the forest-devil, that it requires too many hands to work it, that it is difficult to fix the METHODS OF FELLING. 233 rope, and that the long lever requires much space to work in. These difficulties are not, however, so great as they would appear to be, if a chain is used instead of a rope, and the roots are thoroughly exposed before working with the machine is attempted. Once this has been done, only three or four men are required to extract the stump, and in Silesia it has been found to save 33 per cent, of manual labour. ii. Uprooting Trees. When trees are uprooted (fig. 123) much of the stump is obtained with the stem, in the same operation. The roots are exposed by digging, and the stem is then thrown in different ways, but in all of them a thorough exposure of the roots is essential. If all the horizontal roots are then severed, the stem is attached to the ground by the taproot or main roots only. If, as with spruce on shallow soil, there are only horizontal roots, merely severing these suffices to fell the tree ; but wherever there are strong deep-going roots which it would be a most laborious operation to sever, the work is effected as follows : — A rope is fixed, as high up as possible, on one of the main branches of the tree, and on that side of it towards which the tree is intended to fall. A number of men then tug at this rope, and by alternately pulling and yielding, they make the stem oscillate backwards and forwards. One man is left at the base of the tree to cut through any roots which may still resist, and to place poles under the base of the tree as it rocks, and prevent its return to the vertical position. In this way, without any great amount of trouble, the tree can be made to fall, tearing-out at the same time all the stronger roots. The forest-devil, Wohmann's thrust-pole, and the common screw-jack may also be used to overturn trees by the roots. The mode of using these machines has been already explained, and is shown in figs. 116, 117, and 118, but in the case of the forest-devil a stem or stump must be at hand to be fastened to the implement, stronger than the tree which is to be over- turned. All roots on the side where the tree is to fall must be cut close to the stem in order to lighten the work, and it is a good 23 1 FELLINC AND CONVEUSIUN. plan to place a round piece of wood under the falling stem, so that by its own fall the latter may the more readily tear its roots frum the irround. iii. AdranfafU's (tnil J >isa(Ir(nif((t] centimeters) in diameter at the larger end. This is either piled in heaps about equal in size, or tied into bundles termed faggots, which arc of about the same length and circumference as split cordwood billets. The remaining refuse of the felling is collected in heaps, and may be given away to the workmen, or auctioned. 3. TJic ]]'(irJi- (ifConrersion. The work, of conversion comprises the woodcutter's work of preparing the different assortments just described from the felled trees, and demands the greatest care and supervision on the j)art of the forest manager. (a) Conversion of Timber, i. Removal of Jiraitdies. The felled tree is first freed from branches from its butt up- wards, the axe, or lopping-axe with a thick back, being generally used for the purpose. The branches must be severed smoothly close to the stem, and all projections on the stem and stumps of branches removed. If the branches are large enough to make cordwood they may be sawn into suitable lengths whilst still attached to the stem. In other cases, and where it is preferable to use the axe, the branches may be cut from the stem and placed aside while the woodcutter is occupied with the stem. Whilst one man of a party removes the branches the others shorten the stem. In most cases the branches are only fit for firewood, but wherever some of the boughs in the large crowns of certain trees can be used as timber they should be carefully set aside, as pieces of valuable curved and kneed wood may be thus secured. In the case of oak-trees the portion of the stem above the insertion of a large bough is so reduced in diameter that the ROUGH CONVERSION. 25-3 stem should be severed at this point. The top is so much the more valuable if it forms a knee with an upper bough. Knee-pieces may also be obtained from a portion of the base of a tree and of a strong root, if the tree has been uprooted. ii. Measurinfj the Stem. Once the stem has been freed from branches it is measured with a yard or meter measure, and the different yards or meters marked on it by slight cuts in the bark. If the stem is only fit for fuel it is then sawn through at these points (or into other short lengths) ; if intended for timber, it is cut into suitable lengths according to circumstances. iii. DeterminiiKj the Assortment. Once the tree has been freed from branches, and measured, it must be decided from a consideration of its species, dimensions, form, and quality, and the demands of the market, into what assortments it will be converted. This decision is of the great- est importance, and should usually be made only by one of the forest staff. The usual rule is to allow the stems fit for timber to retain their full length as much as possible. There are many exceptions, however, to this rule, which is more applicable to coniferous than to broad-leaved wood. (a) duality. — Only perfectly sound wood should be converted into timber. This rule is specially applicable in the case of oak- wood, which is often full of defects. Large old beech, spruce and silver-fir trees are also often heartshaken, cracked, infected with red-rot, or brittle at the base of the stem. Wherever pieces of timber of doubtful soundness, or from which the defective parts have not been carefully removed, are offered for sale, future sales of timber are greatly prejudiced. When, therefore, there are any doubts as to the soundness of the wood, it is better to cut it into shorter pieces than to send suspiciously looking goods to the market. The timber purchaser, now-a-days, has had too much experience of such pieces. (/3) Shape of Stem. — "V\T3erever long pieces are in demand, it is unusual to include in them the small end of the stem. The 234 FELLING AND CONVERSION. next point is, tbcrcfore, to decide where the top should be cut ; as a rule, this should be wherever there is a marked fallin<,'- off in size, or a chan^'e of shape, in the stem — wherever, in fact, the top of the stem may be utilized differently from its lower portion. By leaving,' a piece of wood at the end of a lo^' which does not accord well with it the value of the latter is not increased, for the purchaser always excludes this piece from his estimate. If, how- ever, the forest owner cuts off such a piece, it will at any rate be utilizable as firewood, and in the case of oak may be used as a railway-sleeper or <,'ate-post, the value of which would not be considered by a purchaser of the bole. Straif^ht, lonfi: pieces which are chiefly coniferous need nof, after removal of their end-pieces, be further shortened, and this is also the case with sound oakwood, even if not quite straij^'ht. In such cases, the lon<(er the lo*? the more valuable it will be. But as regards coniferous wood further consideration is necessary. Logs are sometimes sold by length and a fixed minimum diameter of their smaller ends, and this should be the universal rule with coniferous timber. In such cases, the best place for removing the end of a log is where the small-end diameter approaches as nearly as possilde to the minimum admissible. This is rarely less than G inches for logs, and it may be laid-dowu as a general rule, that the small-end diameter of a log should be one-third of that at its base. In the case of trees from coppice-with-standards the crown usually contains most of the wood, and the stem must often be cut much shorter than its entire length. (y) Demands of the Market. — There are districts where long logs are not in demand, but butts for sawmills are preferred, and the finest spruce-logs are cut into suitable lengths for the neighbouring sawmills ; where fine, straight oak stems must be cut into short lengths for staves, and so on. In other districts long logs are required for floating. In such cases, the custom of the trade must be followed in converting the timber. It should also be considered whether, or not, the customs of the market are stable, the former being frequently the case in districts richly supplied with sawmills, and more so with coniferous than with broad-leaved wood. In other cases, and especially with oak- ROUGH CONVERSION. 255 timber, the demands of the market are very variable, depending on a good vintage, on large imports of foreign timber, &c. In such cases it is prudent to cut the logs as long as possible, provided they are sound. In other districts, where timber is chiefly used for local pur- poses and both short and long logs are wanted, it is better to cut one or two butts for sawmills from the base of the stems and retain the remainder as long as possible for building purposes. A prevalent demand for long logs will occasionally modify this rule and decide on the number of sawmill butts which will be sawn from the stem. It is not, as a rule, financially advisable to prepare butts for sawmills of less mid-diameter than 12 to 13^ inches (30 to 35 centimeters) ; small butts may, however, be split or sawn, into laths. (8) Facilities of Transport. — In converting large standards over a dense growth of saplings or poles, it is often considered best, out of respect to the young wood, to cut them into short lengths. Exceptionally this may be justifiable, but should usually be avoided, for the standard was retained expressly to yield large timber. All shortening of stems should be done with the saw, and only long logs which are to be dragged along the ground, slid down-hill with ropes or floated in rafts, should have their larger ends rounded with the axe. iv. Exposure of Defects. All wood, and especially pieces of valuable timber, should be so exposed by cutting through all swellings or overgrown knots, as to show its inner quality, and increase the confidence of the purchaser. In the Spessart, and for the Baltic trade, oak-logs are split down the centre into half balks, so as to completely expose the interior of the wood. V. Prepare the most Valuable Assortments. Wherever stems may be converted in several ways, that way should be adopted which is expected to yield the best price. 156 f?:lling and conversion. vi. Cuniersion of Poles. Poles suitable for pit-props, bop-poles, cart-poles, tclegrapb- posts, ladders, sbafts, burdles, bean-sticks, cl'c, wbicb come partly from tbe principal fellinjjfs, but cbiefly from tbinnings, present tbe least difficulty in conversion. Tbe species, and tbe gi-eatest possible degree of straigbtness, are tbe cbief points to be attended to. In some cases it is necessary to leave tbe poles quite unsbortened, as for bop-poles, wbere tbe brancbes are not lopped oft" close to tbe stem, but snags of brancbes are left to assist tbe climbing of Fig. 126. Fig. 121 \^ tbe bops. Sometimes tbe tops are left, as a proof tbat tbe poles were not dead wben felled. Clotbes' props, and props for trees, are also left forked at tbe top. Tbe top is removed from cart-poles. Tbe dimensions of tbe different assortments vary locally. Tbus, bop-poles may be between 16 and 30 feet (5 and 10 meters) in lengtb. Telegrapb-posts sbould be 7 to 10 incbes (18 to 25 centimeters) in diameter, at one yard from tbe butt-end ; ROUGH CONVERSION. 257 hop-poles 2i to 5 inches (6 to 12 centimeters). Hop-poles are generally felled deep into the ground with the axe, whilst ladder-wood and wheelwright's wood should be sawn straight at the butt. vii. Br moral of Bark. All stems felled in coniferous forests during summer are usually barked to prevent insect-attacks, facilitate transport and preserve the white colour of the wood. The wood may be completely barked, whenever this can be done, as in spring and early summer. During autumn and winter the bark can only be partially removed. Although complete barking gives the wood a better appearance, yet the rapid drying which ensues frequently causes numerous cracks, into which spores of fungi are conveyed by the rain, and then the timber is liable to decay unless rapidly transported to its destination. In this respect partial barking is superior. The tools used for barking are shown in tigs. 125, 126, and 127, and they save 50 per cent, of labour when compared with the axe. Large stems with rough bark, especially during winter, are usually barked with the axe or adze. It has recently become usual also to bark the larger poles and especially hop-poles. Here only partial barking is necessary. (b) Preparation of Firewood. Firewood, and especially split and round firewood, is prepared from the remains of the stem and branches after conversion of the timber; or whole firewood trees, as in beech forests, are freed from branches, marked-otf into lengths, and then sawn into short butts. In cutting-up butts for firewood the curved saw is chiefly used, and the work is assisted by wedges, which are inserted as soon as the saw-cut is deep enough. Woodcutters must be cai-eful not to cut obliquely, as they may easily do by mistake on sloping ground. The cut must be at right angles to the axis of the tree, if the cords of firewood are to have a good uniform appearance. As a rule, the larger branches are also cut into lengths with the saw, which should be used wherever possible in converting wood. Only on very steep, rocky ground, where the VOL, V. s 258 FELLING AND CONVERSION. workman cannot find room to use the saw, or when stems are lying one over the other, itc, may the axe he used for this pur- pose. The wood should then he cut so as to have one cut vertical and the other ohlique, as in fig. 128. By the use of the axe from 0 to 8 per cent, of the wood is wasted, Iteing 7 per cent, when the pieces are 1 meter long. The round pieces over 5^ inches in diameter at the smaller end are then split by means of the Avedge and cleaving-axe into split cordwood, and whenever the trade prefers that round cord- wood should be split, this should also he done. The wedge is generally placed on the top of the round piece, and driven in by a blow of the axe-head. Whenever the wood is difficult to split this forms the chief part of the woodcutter's work in the preparation of firewood. He requires several wedges of difl'erent sizes, and even uses the cleaving-axe as a wedge, driving it in Avith the beetle. It is only in the case of easily split wood that the wedge may be placed on the side of the round pieces. Pieces 5 J to 8 inches (14 to 20 centimeters) across are usually merely split in half, whilst pieces 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centi- meters) across are split into 6 or 8 pieces. Except in the case of very large trees, the pieces are always split to the core. It would, however, be better, both to facilitate transport and improve the quality of the wood, that no pieces exceeded 5\ to 8 inches (I'l to 20 centimeters) measured along the chord. (c) Refuse. Pieces too knotty or of too twisted fibre to be split remain entire and go with the refuse, after the conversion is over. (d) Cloven-timber. In the conversion of firewood, billets which may be otherwise utilized should be carefully put aside. This is specially necessary with oakwood ; and from the broken pieces of trees which cannot be converted into logs, or butts, many billets may be utilized as cloven-timber, and they should be carefully freed from all defective portions and from sapwood. They need have no fixed dimensions, but should be as large as possible and of whatever length is desirable. EOUGH COXVERSIOX. 259 (e) Conversion of stumps and root-wood. The most laborious of all works in conversion of wood is that of the stumps and roots. If the tree has been uprooted, the roots are separated from the stem by means of the saw, and they are then freed from the soil which may be attached to them and reduced in size by means of the wedge and axe, or by blasting them with powder or dynamite. In separating the roots from uprooted trees, it sometimes happens, in easily cloven wood, that when the saw has gone about half through the base of the stem, the stump splits the stem owing to its weight and falls back into its original hole. To prevent this disaster, a chain may be wound round the stem below the saw-cut and tightened by driving in wedges, and the stump supported by pieces of wood. i. Conversion of Stiinq^s by means of Ordinary Tools. Small stumps up to 3 inches across are not split. Those from 3-6 inches are split lengthwise by means of the axe and Avedges, the wedges being usually placed on the sawn section, and if it is also necessary to begin splitting from below as well, always from the projection of a side-root, where the stump is most easily cloven. If possible, the wood should be split to the core, but this cannot be done in the case of thick stumps of coarse fibre, from which pieces are split-off gradually from the circumference. This method of splitting is more easily effected while the stump is still in the ground, than after it has been extracted. Wooden wedges, holding better than iron ones, are more serviceable in splitting stumps. In order to tear the pieces more thoroughly apart, iron crowbars are used, and the ordinary screw-jack is very serviceable. It has already been stated that machines may be used for splitting stumps. ii. Blasting Stumps hy Gunpowder. The stump which is to be blasted by a charge of gunpowder is best bored from its flat surface by means of a large auger, (fig. 129), so that the bore-hole may go down to the junction of the roots. In case the tree is rotten at the heart, the boring must be made from one of the sides. The charge should consist of 1^, 3 or -ih ozs. of blasting-powder, and a fuse sbould be s 2 260 FELLING AND CONVERSION. iutroduced, or some other arran^'ement made for firinycvious to Conversion. It has been hitherto presupposed that the conversion of the felled wood takes place on the felling-area near the stumps of the felled trees, and this is generally the case. There are, however, circumstances in which it is necessary to * Utilization of Forests, p. 103. 264 FELLING AND CONVEliSlON. remove the wood from the fellin«,'-area, or at any rate away from the stumps of the felled trees, before it is converted ; — as in a young crop, during the final stage of natural regeneration ; under a shelter- wood, in selection -fellings, cleanings and thinnings. Splitting firewood and conversion of the easily transportable poles and saplings may then be efi'ected on neighbouring blanks, roadsides, etc. Wherever the firewood before being stacked has to undergo a further transport by water, sledge-roads or slides, it is advisable to convert it into short butts, and to split these up only after they have been transported to a depot. 5. Occasional Xon-conrersioii of Firewood. Owing to the present greatly reduced price of firewood, foresters are often obliged to give up converting it in the regular way just described. Wood yielding only round billets and faggots, especially from extensive thinnings, may then be simply carried unshortened, including the crowns, to the nearest roadside, and stacked between stakes. There are districts where there is absolutely no demand for small poles, saplings, and branch-wood, as in many Alj^ine forests, or in districts containing many private and communal forests. 6. General Hides regardin;/ C'onrersion. Forest managers should bear in mind the following rulfs regarding conversion of timber and firewood : — (a) The most urgent local demands of right-holders and contractors must be first satisfied, and the conversion of the remaining material efi'ected from a strictly financial point of view, that is, with a thorough knowledge of the actual demands of the market. (b) After carefully considering the demand, the wood should be converted so as to yield the highest possible net-value on deducting the cost of conversion. Jicnce, the mode of conver- sion is a purely local afi'air, and will vary greatly according to circumstances in difterent forest ranges. (c) The conversion into any assortment should be regulated in quantity, so as not to glut the market, and to allow of the demands for other assortments being fully met. Forest managers should, SORTING AND STACKING. 265 therefore, be conversant with the state of the supply of different classes of material from other forests wliich compete with their own. (d) The rarer and more valuable any assortments, the greater care must be bestowed on their conversion. This is especially the case with oak and large coniferous timber. (e) Conversion of timber is often better effected when different classes of workmen are employed for the different works. Thus, in broad-leaved forests the work commences with the felling and conversion of the large timber trees, and after all the best timber is ready, what is left is converted into firewood and other inferior assortments. In coniferous forests it is often customary and advisable first to prepare the various cloven wares, such as shingles, staves, &c., then the butts for sawmills and the logs, and finally the firewood. (f) The forest manager should always ascertain the wishes of timber-merchants, manufacturers and craftsmen of the neigh- bourhood, and they may be encouraged to visit the felling-area for this purpose, but he should be on his guard lest by following the advice of any of them competition for the produce may be reduced. (g) Although it is justifiable, when the prices of wood are low and wages high, to attempt only a very rough conversion of firewood, or abandon converting it altogether, yet this should never be done with valuable material. Any carelessness in its preparation will do more injury to the forest revenue than paying high wages for good work. (h) It is usually advantageous in forests where petty delin- quencies are frequent, for the manuger to compete with the thieves by selling better and cheaper material than they do, such as hop-poles, bean- and pea-sticks, Christmas-trees, &c. Section VI. — Sorting and Stacking Converted Material. 1. Goicral Acctmnt. The rough conversion of the felled trees must produce many pieces of the same class, but of different qualities, shapes and dimensions, especially among the timber where scarcely two pieces are identically alike. As every producer keeps his wares of different kinds and qualities apart, so each kind of converted forest material should be separately arranged. In this way only 2GG FELLING AND CONVERSION. can it be possible to estimate the probable value of tbe results of the felling, and to expose tbe lots for tbe inspection of the different classes of purchasers. The real object of separating assortments of woods used bj' various industries and consumers, is to obtain the highest possible price for each assortment. The arrangement of the assortments into classes should, therefore, be made on the following principles : — i. All pieces which are of different value, and fetch different prices, must be put in separate classes. ii. The classes must always correspond to the demands of the locality. iii. The separation into classes should depend on differences of species, size, shape, quality, and demands of the market, and these will be discussed in detail further on. iv. This separation must not be too minute, or go too much into detail, so that there can be any doubt about the proper classification of any piece, or too much difficulty in calculating and registering the results of the felling. There is a consider- able difference in this respect between valuable pieces of timber, and common sorts or firewood. In the former case, the manager can hardly go too far in subdividing the classes, and a difference of price exceeding hd. per cubic foot should cause a different class of timber to be established. A difference of value is, therefore, the chief reason for a difference in class of material. 2. Detailed Aceouiit. (a) Species. The species of tree has a great influence on the use to which the wood can be put. Timbers of different species should, there- fore, be separated into classes, or at least species of equal value should be classed together. The same procedure should be adopted in the case of firewood, or where there are few of them all inferior kinds should be separated from those more valuable. Of great importance in sorting felled material is the comparative abundance or rarity of any species. Thus, where valuable oakwood is abundant, the chief point to attend to will be to classify the oak- timber ; in coniferous forests, the spruce or pine timber, and in beechwoods the beech-timber and the better classes of firewood. SORTING AND STACKING. 267 (b) Dimensions. Logs, butts, and poles will be classified according to their dimensions. As the value of a log or butt is not always directly- proportional to its cubic contents, but to its length or thickness, and in the case of coniferous wood to the thickness of its smaller end, the pieces will be classified accordingly. Such classes are formed according to differences of about 6 feet in length, and 2 — 4 inches in thickness. In the case of valuable timber, the classification according to thickness may go down to one centimeter. [Thus, in France, oak-timber in- creases in value at about one franc per cubic meter, for every additional centimeter in diameter over fifty centimeters. — Tr.] The less valuable the pieces, the rougher the classification. Large billets always increase the solid contents of a pile of stacked firewood, so that firewood should also be classified accord- ing to dimensions. (c) Shape. Curved timber should be classed according to the degree of curvature for a certain length, or in kneed-timber for the angle at which the branch leaves the main piece- In classifying other timbers, the chief points to which atten- tion should be paid are ; — whether they are straight, bent in one plane, quite crooked, or contain burrs ; also, whether they are clean-grained, or have been merely trimmed free from many branches and are knotty. In the case of firewood, also, straight billets of split or round stem-wood should be piled separately from crooked and knotty branch-wood. (d) Quality. Independently of its soundness, which is always presupposed in the case of timber, there is a great difi"erence in quality depending on its grain. Thus, we have coarse-grained and fine-grained timber, timber with broad or narrow annual zones, with straight, twisted, or wavy fibre. Some stems are naturally smooth on the surface, others lumpy owing to occluded knots. All these circumstances affect the value of the pieces, and should be considered in sorting them. In the case of firewood any unsound and broken pieces should be piled apart from the better wood, and as the age of the tree 268 FELLING AND CONVERSION. often influences the heatinfj-power of the wood, youn^^ or very old wood may be separated from middle-aged wood. It cannot be too often repeated that only sound wood should be classified as timber. Wood, in its present strugj^Ho a<,faiust iron and other substitutes for it, can only win the day when it is sound and durable. This is especially the case where the wood has to be transported long distances, and is subject to indifferent treatment before it reaches the consumer. (e) Local Demand. In classifying the produce attention must always be paid to the local demand. Thus, in certain localities, custom may render it necessary to classify wood in a way which is quite uncalled for in other localities. Whilst, however, sufficiently conforming to custom in this respect, the manager should always attend to the chance of changes being gradually introduced in conformity with the demands of more distant markets than his own immediate surroundings. 3. List of Wood-aHSortments. The following list gives all the common sub-divisions of the different classes of produce from the fellings. A. Large Timijer. (a) Lofjs. i. Oakwood. 1st class, logs over 20 inches in mid-diameter, and 30 feet in length, thoroughly sound, straight, fibre not twisted, with fine bark and easily split. 2nd class, logs over 18 inches in mid-diameter and 30 feet long, thoroughly sound, being somewhat bent, coarse- barked and not very fissile. 3rd class, logs over 14 inches mid-diameter and 20 feet in length, with some defects which cause waste in sawing. 4th class, logs over 12 inches mid-diameter and 20 feet long, fairly sound, straight-grained and fissile. 5th class, logs over 10 inches mid-diameter and 20 feet long, fairly straight, but with some knots and defects. 6th class, logs over 0 inches mid-diameter and 20 feet long. SORTING AND STACKING. 269 fairly sound ; also defective logs of larger dimensions and logs from dead trees. In the first four classes of this group are included the 1st and 2nd rate shipbuilding timber ; the best wood for staves, planks and building-timber. The two last classes include inferior wood for staves, building-material, ship-knees, pit-wood, small planking, &c. ii. Coniferous Timl)er. After rejecting wood from diseased trees and setting apart the finest ringed and straightest grained wood, the outer shape and the dimensions of the timber form the chief guide for classifying coniferous wood. As regards dimensions, the logs may be classified according to the mid-diameter, or to the small- end diameter. In no other case has the latter so important a bearing on the value of the timber, as in coniferous logs, and accordingly in many districts of North and South Germany the classification is so arranged. The mere volume of the logs is a bad index of their comparative value. Considering the usual sizes of logs, a separation into five or six classes will suffice, in the following manner : — 1st class, logs thoroughly free from knots, smooth, straight, fine-ringed, straight-grained and fissile, over 60 feet long and at least 11 inches across at top. 2nd class, logs of similar quality and length, and over 9 inches across at top. 3rd class, logs of similar quality over 50 feet long, and over 7 inches across at top ; also larger logs of inferior quality. 4th class, logs of good outward appearance over 45 feet long, and over 6 inches across at top. 5th class, logs over 40 feet long and 5 inches across at top. 6th class, logs over 30 feet long and 4 inches across at top. Wherever the classification is by the mid-diameter — I. and II. classes, logs of 14 inches and more. III. class, logs of 10 — 14 inches. IV. class, logs of 8 — 10 inches. V. class, logs under 8 inches. All measurements are supposed to be taken without bark. The first two classes comprise timber for masts, booms, mill- wheel axles, and the best building-timber. The other classes comprise ordinary or inferior building-timber, 270 FELLING AND CONVEKSIOX. rafters, fencing rails and pit-props, Wood for paper-pulp, which is often taken in lengths of 25 — 50 feet and longer, hclougs to the last three classeF. iii. Remaining Species. Broad-leaved trees, other than oak, do not yield much market- able timber ; the exceptions to this rule are elm, ash, alder and aspen. [Willow and sycamore are valuable in Britain. — Tr.] In many cases each of these woods may be separately classified, and the others classed together. "Wherever any of these timbers are of special value, they should be classed separately. (b) Btdts. i. Oak. 1st class, 12 — 20 long and over 20 inches in diameter. Good quality. 2nd class, 16 —20 inches in diameter. 3rd class, 12 — 1(5 inches in diameter. 4th class, 8 — 12 inches in diameter. 5th class, butts exceeding 8 inches in diameter, but of inferior quality. They must, however, be good enough for railway sleepers and for sawn timber. 6th class, butts exceeding 8 inches in diameter, but too inferior to come into class 5. The above timber is for sawing, staves, cabinet-making, wheelwright's work, gate-posts, &c. ii. Coniferous Wood. 1st class, butts of best quality for musical instruments, shingles, and other split ware. 2nd class, butts of 14 inches raid-diameter and over ; straight grained. 3rd class, butts of 10 — 14 inches mid-diameter. 4th class, butts less than 10 inches mid-diameter. 5th class, butts of inferior quality and of various sizes. The wood in these classes is chiefly intended for sawmills to be converted into planks, boards and scantling. The wood must be classed according to species, and occasionally more classes than those here given will be required. As regards length, it is generally constant for the same SORTING AND STACKING. 271 localit}^ according to the custom of the sawmills or floating trade. The timber-trade prefers lengths of 10, 11, 12, 14, and 18 feet. The smallest class is usually used for water-pipes. iii. Remaining Species. Here according to the quantity of timber available, and the demand, a separation into classes is advisable. Three classes for each kind will suffice. Among broad-leaved trees, beech ranks next to oak in importance, and most requires separate classification. Frequently logs and butts arc classed-together, and then six to eight classes are required for oakwood and four to six for conifers. B. Poles. In this group poles used for building or other industrial purposes come first, and then those used in agriculture. There is great variety in difi"erent districts as regards their dimen- sions : the following list only gives the more important classes, most of which, and especially the larger sizes, may be sub-divided into two, three, or even four sub-classes. 1. Building- and scaffolding-poles, always coniferous, 30 — 50 feet long and more, 100 pieces containing 200 — 300 cubic feet (6 — 8 cubic meters). 2. Telegraph-posts, 25 — 30 feet long, 6 inches across at top. 3. Ladder-wood, 20 — 40 feet long, 100 pieces containing 175—200 cubic feet. 4. Cart and agricultural implement poles, of both broad-leaved and coniferous wood, 100 pieces containing 100 — 175 cubic feet. 5. Hop-poles, coniferous [except sweet chestnut — Tr.], 15 — 30 feet long, 2i — 5 inches in diameter at 4 feet from the base, generally sub-divided into four or five classes. One hundred pieces contain 125, 80, 60, 35, 20 cubic feet. 6. Poles for fastening logs into rafts. 7. Tree-props of different species. 8. Tree-stakes of different species. 9. Poles used for making hooping for casks. 10. Crate-wood and hurdle-stakes. 272 FELLINl:: -^■v^' stability : at tuc >nuic time, the men should pile the wood in such a way as to keep the topf of the stack continually horizontal. In order to pile the stacks closely, and also to protect the wood as much as possible from rain, it is better to place the curved sides of the billets above and their points downwards (figs. 154 and 155), except in the lowest row. The front surface of the stack should also be quite level and vertical, and as the billets are of diiferent thickness at the two ends, they should be alternately placed with their thick and thin ends at either face of the stack. The first cord binding the stakes should be placed at a height of li feet (half a meter), and the second at 3 to 4 feet (1 to 1 j meters). Stacking stump-wood is most (litlicult, as the shape of the pieces is so variable. Split pieces of small stumps are placed in the ordinary direction, but the larger pieces have to be arranged according to the skill of the operator, so as to fit in with the S0RT1^'G CONVERTED MATERIAL. 297 others. Spaces that cannot be otherwise stacked should be filled in with broken pieces and small roots, but round pieces should not be used for this purpose ; a stack of stump-wood should contain nothing but pieces of stumps and roots. When the workman has raised the stack to nearly its proper height, he should carefully measure it so that the proper height may be attained, but not exceeded. To ensure this, it is often necessary to finish the top of a stack of split billets with a layer of round ones. Stacks should, if possible, be placed alongside one another in long connected rows. This economises space, and secures the stacks from being overturned. In case the firewood has to re- main over winter in the forest, the long stacks are, if possible, placed in parallel rows, wdth intervals between them narrower than the length of the billets, and the topmost pieces are arranged to form a complete roof over all the stacks. (c) Shrinkage. — As the green stacked wood shrinks while dry- ing, and if not removed for sometime will lose its bark, in many countries, such as Bavaria, Switzerland, &c., it has become customary to increase the height of the stacks, so as to allow for shrinkage. In Prussia and other German countries, this is done only when there is a long interval between the stacking and the sale of the firewood, but in Wiirttemberg and Hesse no excess height is allowed. This excess height is as follows in different countries : — Prussia Tr-th of the regular height. Bavaria iVth ,, Switzerland v;Vth ,, Considering that the shrinkage of the billets does not depreciate the heating-power of the wood, and that its total amount varies greatly according to circumstances, such as the interval between stacking and sale, the species of wood, the position of the stack, the degree of splitting, &c., and that no excess is allowed for shrinkage in the case of timber, it is advisable not to allow for it in firewood except where legal rights to that eff"ect have arisen. It has also been proved by Bohmerle* that there is scarcely any change after a year in the * Das waldtrockne Holz, Vienna. 1879. 298 FKLLING AM) (JONVKIJSloX. lieipfht of a stack of Hrewood, as warpinj,' counteracts the sbrink- a<^e, so that accoi-dinj; to his experiments, its hei^'ht decreases only hy al)()nt an iiidi in a year. (d) Stacks of Cloven Timber. — In stackinj,' cloven timber, <,'reat care must be taken to separate the better kinds from inferior timber, and not to suffer any unsound or knotty wood in a stack. In the case of oakwood, all sound split pieces must be included in stacks of cloven timber, and oak-firewood stacks should not contain a sinji^le sound piece which can be classed as timber. Deviations from this rule are justifiable only where there is no demand for inferior classes of cloven wood. (e) Stacking Faggots. — Fa^'j^ots are collected into piles each con- taining 25, or a multiple of 25 faggots. They are sometimes put horizontally, but keep much better standing, three faggots being laid in a pyramid and all the others placed leaning against them. "When faggots are not prepared, the brancliwood is generally piled in heaps, and may be cut into equal lengths for this pui'})osc. It is sometimes piled, as shown in fig. 15G, and roughly tied in bundles to facilitate transj-ort. (f ) Special Men employed. — Ordinary • woodcutters are not allowed to stack firewood, as in their own interest they would make as much of it as i)()ssil)le. Special men are therefore employed, who are well known to the forest manager and thoroughly trustworthy. They should pile the wood prepared by each party of woodcutters separately, so that their earnings may be calculated. The supei'visi' greatly facilitate recognized i)lan. 3. ]>n>f('rtin;l thr J-nrrsI I>rj,nl. and guai'il ovei' tlie material at the depot is if it lie ai'i-anged according to an easily [L must lie placed so tliat the purchasers' carts ESTIMATING THE YIELD. 299 can api^roach each lot as nearly as possible. This is more easily attained when the conversion and sale of the timber precede that of the firewood, and the billets may then be stacked in lonff rows along the roads or rides, with the faggots behind them. As a rule, the mode of arrangement of the depot depends chiefly on the area available, but the forest manager should always endeavour, like a trader, to secure a good display of his wares. "When the last firewood stack is ready, and the felling is thus completed, all chips, broken pieces and other waste material may be collected and distributed among the woodcutters and in certain localities, the twigs and branchwood may be spread over the area, either as in the Alps to protect the young growth against cattle, or as in jJiuDics, to facilitate the burning of the surface before sowing an agricultural crop. Section IX. —Estimating the Yield. 1. Xiuxhcrifi;/ the Lots. As soon as the felling operations are over, the amount of material produced must be calculated and its value estimated. If the clearance of the area and the transport are carried on simultaneously, and the wood is removed to a considerable dis- tance from the felling-area to valleys or rafting-stations and collected there, the estimation is eflected at these places, and in the case of summer fellings often not till the following spring. Each log or butt, and each pile of 100, 50 or 25 poles, &c., each stack of firewood, and each 25 faggots, form the several lots. Current numbers are, therefore, affixed to each separate lot, to distinguish them from one another. In order to render the control of timber-export eftective, it is better that one series of numbers should serve for a whole forest range, or for a group of fellings the produce of which passes in a certain direction. In order, however, to obviate the inconvenience of using very high numbers, each class and sub- class of produce is numbered separately, so that there are several series of numbers each beginning with No. 1 for the logs, butts, hundreds of poles, stacked wood or faggots. In Prussia and '300 FELLING AXD COXVERSION. some other countries, each species of wood, such as heech-loi^s. oak-lo^s, &c., receive differeut series of numhers. The numheriD<; may be done by hand, by means of a piece of softwood charcoiil, a red pencil or by Faber's numberinj^ chalk, the marks of which last for two years, A paint brush and black oil-paint mayalso be used with or without stencil-plates. Certain steel dies have also been invented, of which Gohler's revolving die-hammer (ti^. 157) is most eftective and at present exten- sively used. According to Iv. Hess, it is less laborious to number the lots by hand, but the figures impressed by the apparatus are more durable and legible, and witli Gohler's revolv- ing hammer 2,000 to 3,000 logs may be numbered in a day. Fi.;. ]:.S. Another revolving hammer by Sedelmayr, somewhat heavier than that by Gohler, is shown in fig. 158. Logs and blocks are usually numbered at their ends ; in the case of split wood, one large billet is pulled forward from the stack to receive the number ; stacks of poles and smaller produce and faggots are numbered on a stake driven into the ground in front of the stacl\. The numbers slionld be always plainly visible from a road, and so arranged consecutively that any numbered lot may be readily found. The numbering must be done as soon as work on the felling-area is over. After completing the numbering, the estimation of material is made, the forest manager entering each numbered lot with notes as to its quality in his Range timber receipt-book. ESTIMATING THE YIELD. 301 It is usual to have separate books for timber aud firewood. The Range timber receipt-book should contain the following columns : — No. of lot. Species. Description. Length. Diameter. Cubic Contents. Remarks. In the remark column, entries may be made as to where the lot is situated, for instance, on the upper, middle or lower road, through the depot, or felling-area. The numbering book for firewood should run as follows : — No. of lot. Species. Class. Quantity. Remarks. 2. Estimating the Quantity of Produce. The quantity of produce from a felling-area may be estimated in different ways, according to the cubic contents, or dimensions of the lots. (a) Each Lot a Separate Piece. — When each lot is formed by a separate piece, the volume of the pieces must be estimated sepa- rately, either by calculating their cubic contents, or their dimensions. i. CuJnc Contents. In Germany, France, and some other countries, the cubic con- tents of timber are always measured by the cubic meter, but in. 302 FKI.LINC AND CONVERSION. Eu<,^lan(l. Indin Jiucl X. America by the cubic foot. "\\'itliout complicatiug the procedure by considering' loi^s as truncated paraboloids, the simple method is always adopted of multiplying the sectional area at the middle of the log by its length. The cubic contents alone, however, are no exact indication of its value, its length and thickness and the diameter of its smaller end must be also given. It is customary on the continent of Europe to measure the length of logs in meters, and even decimeters ^m. 0"*2, 0*4, 0*6, &c.) ; the diameter in centimeters, and the cubit- contents in cubic meters to two decimal places. [In English measure, the length of logs is given in feet ; the diameter, or quarter girth, in inches and the volume in cubic feet without fractions. Logs of valuable wood like nialiogany are how- ever sold by the superficial feet. — Th.] Whether timber should be measured with or without bark depends on local custom. In the case of winter-fellings, the bark is included, and wherever summer-felled or other peeled wood is measured, 1*2 to 15 per cent, is added to the cubic con- tents to allow for the al)sent bark. This is done because the yield of the forests in the working-plan is estimated with the bark on the trees, but the German timber-trade is most anxious that bark should not be included, and this method Gayer strongly recommends for adoption everywhere in the interests of uni- formity. A universal system of measuring timber without bark presup- poses that the bark of logs is removed at the measuring point, and that no addition is made for peeled wood. In the case of coniferous logs, the difference in diameter between barked and unbarked trees is f inch on the average, somewhat more in the case of pines, and for logs under 10 inches in diameter, less than I inch. In the case of rough, barked broad-leaved trees, such as oalc and ash, the bark is 12-15 per cent, of the total volume ; in the elm, up to 18 per cent, and more ; the birch 11 per cent,, the Scotch pine, 11 to 15 per cent., spruce logs and blocks 12 to 13 per cent. ; silver-fir ditto 17 per cent, and more. It should be noted that on good soil with a dense growth, the bark is least. ESTIMATING THE YIELD. 303 whilst in unfavouruLle localities and open woods it is at a maximum. Whenever stems are sold at their full length, the measure- ment for timber naturally stops where the small end becomes less than the minimum in timber-classes, and the rest of the log can be measured only as firewood. ii. Measurcmoits according to Dimensions. In some localities, where there is an extensive trade in logs, it has been for a long time customary to arrange them in classes which do, not depend on their cubic contents. Thus, for each class {HolliinderJioh, iVc. of the Black Forest), a log of average dimensions is assumed as a standard, and by its value that of all other logs in the class is regulated, according to variations in length and thickness at the butt-end. Thus in the Kinzigthal of the Black Forest, which has been renowned for centuries for its fine logs, a silver-fir log 20 meters (65 feet) long and 46 centimeters (18 inches) at the butt-end, is considered the standard. In many regions of the Southern Alps, in the same way, butts 12 — 15 inches in largest diameter are considered standards. Thus traders speak of 2 pieces of 10 — 12 inches, 4 of 8 — 10 inches, 8 of 6 — 8 inches as equivalent to a standard, whilst butts of 15 — 18 inches are considered equivalent to li, and larger butts to 2 standards. A similar custom prevails in Norway. It is clear that such a method greatly facilitates trading, for the price of each class is a multiple or part of that of the standard log and rises and falls with it. At the same time it is much simpler to calculate prices by the cubic contents, than where a few millimeters in the diameter of the butt give rise to a considerable difiference in prices. Besides it is evident that traders must have experience in the method before they can thoroughly understand all its refine- ments, and this gives local traders a considerable advantage over would-be competitors from a distance. This naturally reduces competition and prices. Hence the method is falling into disrepute, and will probably be gradually replaced by that which employs the cubic contents. 30 !• FELLING AND CONVERSION. (b) Piled Lots. — With the understandint when very carefully constructed. (d) Paved Roads. — Paved roads are distinguisbed from ordinary roads by their greater width, and the greater attention paid to the gradient, but especially by the care with which they are FOREST-ROADS. 313 metalled. The cart-track in tiiera is excavated, lined with stones or cement, and coarse broken stones are then spread on the surface and firmly rolled down. Several other layers of stones are then superposed, each layer consisting of finer material than the one below it. It is always better to use broken stones, which pack better than round pebbles. Each separate layer is rolled and firmly pressed down. The more gradual the change of size in the material used for successive layers of metalling, the more durable the roadway will be. If small stones are directly placed on a coarse basis, the road soon becomes worse than the simplest macadamised road ; the coarse stones from below work their way through to the surface, rendering it uneven, and forming holes into which material placed to mend the road soon sinks. As these paved roads must be everywhere strongly constructed, the retaining walls, culverts, bridges, &c., must be much more elaborate than on ordinary roads ; frequently solid masonry- revetments must be applied to the steep slopes above them, to prevent landslips, and in any case, slopes of soft material must be terraced and wattled. The main roads coming from a forest, where the traffic is con- tinual, should be constructed as paved roads or at least mac- adamised. Even the most frequented subsidiary roads should be macadamised. False economy is never more out of place than in the construction of indispensable forest-roads. (e) Roads made of Wood. — Such roads are not durable and should be avoided as much as possible. In the case of peaty soil and in swampy depressions, they cannot, however, be dispensed with, nor for summer-sledging. They are of three kinds : roads made of fascines, of round pieces of wood and sledge-roads. i. Itoads made ivith Fascines. Fascines are used for short distances in crossing swampy ground, which cannot easily be drained, especially over peat- mosses where macadam would sink in uselessly. After digging the boundary ditches of such roads, a layer about one foot deep of spruce or Scotch-pine branches is placed evenly on the track, the larger ends being turned inwards ; on this a layer of moss, heather, bilberry or turf-sods, &c., whichever the locality affords, ."314 LAND-TRANSPORT. is laid, and the surface is completed with ^a-avel, iron-pan or clay. Sand alone should not be used, as it soon finds its way through the substructure of the road, and in any case is a bad binding material ; sand, however, when mixed with clay or loam, may be used to cover the roadway. Where roads cross shifting sands they may be similarly constructed. ii. Ilodils made with lloiind or Sj^Ut Billets. These are also made under similar circumstances to the fascine roads for crossing short stretches of swampy ground. In this case, the lowest layer should consist of middle-sized logs placed close together longitudinally in the direction of the road, and upon them round or split billets of wood are packed transversely, whilst poles are pegged-down firmly on both sides along the edges of the roadway abos'e the billets to retain them in position. This kind of road is used to prevent the feet of beasts of draught from sinking into swamps, and is also much used for filling-up hollows in the construction of sledge-roads. iii. Sledge-roads. Permanent sledge-roads are used in the summer transport of wH)od over slightly sloping ground. In order to reduce friction in sledging logs or fire-wood, the road is laid transversely with middle-sized round billets which are held in position w^ith pegs driven into the ground. Their distance apart should not exceed two feet, so that the sledges may always rest on at least two of them. To reduce friction further, the billets are often smeared with grease, or water is poured on them. In the case of their being too slippery after rain, sand may be strewn on them to increase the friction. In the ]3arr forest-range in Alsace, sledge-roads are extensively used, also in most of the forests of the Vosges mountains. [A much more elaborate slcdge-road than tliose described here has been made in the forest of Tihri (Jarlnval, in the north-west Himalayas*. Its gradient varied between o and 1 1 degrees, and experience shows that 8 degrees is best, and the sliarj)cst curve has a radius of 20 feet. * For a coniplute account of tliis sletlgc-road, see Indian Forester, Vol. XII., p. 366. FOREST-ROADS. 315 The length of this sledge-road is 5877 feet, and the total fall 835 feet. It is constructed of defective meter-gauge deodar railway-sleepers wliich measure 8 feet x 8 inches x 4| inches, two sets running horizontally and 2f feet apart, being jointed and pegged together by oak-pegs, whilst the transverse sleepers are pegged into them at distances of 2| feet. The grooves in which the sledges run vary in breadth from 4-6 inches according to the curves, and are | to | inch deep, and 2 feet apart. The central part of the roadway is ballasted up to the level of the transverse sleepers to prevent the roadway from shifting, and to serve as a footpath. Guards consisting of half-sleepers are placed on the outside of all sharp curves to prevent the sledges leaving the road. The roadway itself has in many places been blasted out of pre- cipitous rock and contains 20 bridges and wooden viaducts, altogether 1068 feet long. This sledge-road has proved very economical in the transport of railway-sleepers. — Tr.] (f) Horizontal Plan of Roads. — As regards the horizontal plan of forest roads, sharp curves with a radius less than 100 feet should be avoided as much as possible, especially in mountain- districts, and the roads should run in long sweeping curves. Wherever the transport is mainly concerned with logs, attention should be paid to the possibility of the road being used for sliding the timber or for a forest tramway. (g) Gradient. — It is most important to decide on the gradient of a forest-road. Roads for general traffic have a maximum gradient of 5 per cent., which is also a desideratum for main forest roads, as in such a case, the road may be conveniently traversed in both directions. Forest-roads, however, are generally used uphill by empty conveyances, and those which are laden generally come downhill, so that gradients in main roads may go up to 7 and 8 per cent., and in subsidiary roads to 10 per cent., and even more, according to the manner in which they are used. Steep gradients should always be avoided for cart-traffic, not only to facilitate the latter, but also to protect the road, which when steep is liable to much injury from the use of the break and owing to erosion by water. Sledge-roads on the contrary require a steep gradient. Permanent roads should be constructed only after the levels have been carefully laid down. Sledge-roads have been recently •5 1 C LA ND-TR ANSP( )KT. constructed in a most perfect form in high mountain-regions, being made of two kinds for sledges drawn by men or animals ; they may be termed feeders and main sledge-roads. The latter are confined to the lower ground, and traverse long valleys and serve for the convej'ance of the wood to depots. The feeders descend the mountain-slopes from the highest and most inaccessible parts of the forest, they often wind round all kinds of obstacles, rucks are blasted to make way for them, galleries cut along precipices and tunnels bored. By their means the wood is brought down to the main sledge-roads. Wherever sledge-roads run through cuttings in districts with heavy snow- fall, they must be covered with rafters and spruce branches for protection. The gradient of the feeders should not be less than 6 to 8 per cent., or greater than 18 to 20 per cent., though even the latter is sometimes exceeded, but 12 to 15 per cent, are the usual gradients. The main sledge-roads are less steep, and 8 to 12 per cent, are usual gradients, but even a slight ascent cannot always be avoided in their case Avhere a ridge has to be crossed between two valleys. Ground timber-slides are extensively used in the eastern Schwarzsvald, they may also be used as sledge-roads chiefly for the transport of logs. Their gradient should generally lie between 9 to 12 per cent, and may even go up to 18 per cent. A steady gradient is more necessary in the case of sledge- roads than on roads for wheeled traffic ; in the latter case, it is now-a-days considered better to vary the gradient, as this is less tiring to beasts of draught than a uniform gradient which always calls on the same muscles. (h) Breadth of Roads. — The breadth of forest-roads depends on the mode of conveyance used, and the amount of traffic. ]\Iaiu forest-roads should not be less than 18 to 24 feet broad, if the traffic on them is not to be impeded, Gi to 8 feet being the width between the wheels of a cart. The subsidiary roads need not have a greater breudth thiiu 10 to 15 feet. The breadth of sledge-roads is still less, for the main sledge-roads 8 to 10 feet, and for the feeders 3 to 4^ feet. The slides may be 6 to 8 feet wide. All roads, however, which are only wide enough for one cart or sledge, must have sufficiently wide places here and there for the return traffic to FOREST- KO ADS. 317 pass ; wherever logs are trau sported, the breadth of the road must be increased at all turnings, or where curves run round projecting rocks. Otherwise logs must be fastened along the edge of the road on which the projecting ends of logs dragged on small sledges may slide. In the case of narrow sledge-roads with steep gradients passing with curves over precipitous ground, accidents are avoided by placing logs along the edge of the road, which touch one another at their ends and are kept in place by piles or props. (i) Maintenance of Roads. — Wherever there is heavy traffic, roads suffer much damage, by the use of breaks, &c. ; in mountains the rain-water brings down silt and landslips, and may inundate the roads at certain points, so that their surface is constantly being degraded. Continual prompt maintenance and repairs, improvement of the drainage of the road and filling-up all holes and ruts are therefore necessary. Kepairs to roads, therefore, require almost as much attention as their construction. The chief rule is not to allow any damage to get the upper hand, but to commence repairing it as soon as the weather is dry. It is often advantageous to entrust the repairs of the roads to trustworthy woodcutters. [in France there is a separate class of guards employed iu the State forests and termed ' f/ardes cantonniers,^ each of whom is entrusted with the repairs of so many miles of road, both working himself and supervising the other labourers. — Tr.] In many forests it is customary to place a bar across roads after the season's transport is over, in order to protect them from ex- traneous traffic. The possibility of doing this depends on the nature of the forest rights and other local circumstances. As a rule, such a practice does more harm than good to the forest. Koads should be open to traffic, and the more they are used and injured by the traffic, the more useful they are, and the higher the net-revenue of the forest will be. 2. Mode of Conveyance. The conveyance of the converted wood along rolds to the collecting or sale depots is effected either by men or beasts. 31 s LAND-TRANSPOHT. (a) Conveyance by Men. Conveyance by men is almost entirely confined to sledgiujj;, which in transport, as opposed to clearance of the felling-area, takes place on permanent sledge-roads. Only firewood and butts, but not long logs, may be thus transported. In the case of sledges, it is impossible to draw any sharp distinction between transport and clearance, except that in high mountain- regions sledging bears more of the character of transport, and in lower hills, of clearance. From both points of view the methods of sledging have been already described on page 284. In forests of low hills and plains, no permanent sledge-roads exist, and sledges are only used to convey the wood to the nearest cart-road. In mountainous regions, however, there is no object in merely removing the wood from the felling-area to the nearest road. It is a question of transporting it for miles over permanent sledge-roads down to the valleys to depots, or rafting-stations, at low altitudes ; this implies a separate industry not always intimately connected with the felling operations. i. ]]"nitcr SlciJginfj. In most cases sledging is done over the snow, and the same kinds of sledges are used as in clearance of the felling-area {vide Fig. 1; p. 281). Sledges used for firewood have high side-pieces, but for those used for carrying butts, the loads are fastened by means of chains and ropes, and the sledges are longer, as shown in fig. 159, which represents a Bavarian timber-sledge. Before sledging begins, the wood is frequently piled-up in stacks, but usually the sledge is laden on the felling-area and brought thence down to the depot. "Wherever sledging is done iudepen- FOREST-ROADS. 319 dently of the felling operations, and by many workmen actinjj; together, a certain order and uniformity in the operations will be found to be very effective. Therefore, and in order to avoid the constant interruptions which sledges ascending and descending simultaneously would cause in the work, a large number of sledges are laden, and descend and ascend together (fig. 160). The returning empty sledges are sometimes carried back along the sledge-road, but the workmen usually prefer to carry them by the shortest cut, uphill. At the collecting depot the wood must be carefully stacked in order to economise space ; or if further transport is down slides or by water, it may be thrown at once down the slide or into the water. In many mountainous districts as in the Alps, sledging is the usual mode of conveyance of wood ; the work is then com- menced at the first fall of snow and continued as long as the weather permits. Huts built of wood or stone are provided in suitable places for the workmen, so that they may remain con- stantly at the work ; and these huts also prove useful during felling operations. The loads which may be transported by a sledge vary with the 320 LAND-TKAXSPOKT. size of the sledge, the skill and experience of the workmen, the gradient, the nature of the sledge-road, and the distance of the collecting depot from the felling-area. Much greater loads can be carried down regular sledge-roads than on mere hillside tracks. The load may be Ih to 2 stacked cubic meters, i.e., 50 to 70 stacked cubic feet. This, however, implies that the sledge-road is in good order, and to secure this the workmen have often to work several hours daily. The amount of wood a man can bring down in a day depends chiefly on the distance traversed, and then on the condition and gradient of the sledge-road. "With moderate and uniform slopes and a good road, a man can bring down 3 to 5 stacked cubic meters (100 to 175 stacked cubic feet) of firewood for a distance of about 3 kilometers, say 2 miles ; or 10 to 12 stacked cubic meters (350 to 420 stacked cubic feet) to half that distance. The amount of work done is, however, reduced where the gradient is very slight or excessive, as in the latter case the re- turn of the sledge is difficult ; also where the gradients vary, so that breaks have frequently to be used. ii. Si(iiuiicr Sle(l;ii)i;f. Sledging during summer takes place on the sledge-road de- scribed on page 315, and both firewood and butts are thus transported. In the forest of Barr, in Alsace, there are 24 kilometers of summer sledge-roads, the longest being 7 kilometers. These roads cost 43 pf. per meter {5(1. a yard), and the round billets of silver-fir and beech last ten years. The cost of the transport of fuel is 70 pf. per stacked cubic metre {2s. per 100 cubic feet) ; 2 to 5 stacked cubic metres (70 to 175 stacked cubic feet) of firewood form the load, or from 3 to (5 butts, according to the gradient. [In the llinialiiyan sledge-road ah-e:uly referred to, two men carry down daily 100-120 meter-guugc sleejicrs (6j ft. x 8| x 4^ inches), whilst they could carry down only 24 on their shoulders, the distance being 1 mile and 1 furlong. — Th.] (b) Transport by Beasts. Transport by the help of beasts is carried on with carts and sledges, and less frequently by dragging or by pack animals. FOREST-ROADS. 321 i. Ordiudry Cart-Trajjic. On a dry roadway the ordinary four-wheeled timber-cart is used (figs. 161, 162), and for firewood it must have sides, but for poles and middle-sized logs, these are not required. The Fig. 161. wood is secured on to the cart by means of ropes and chains ; and specially strong carts are used for large logs and butts. The mode of transport by carts depends chiefly on the quality of the roads, as larger carts may evidently be used on good roads than on bad ones. The largest waggons for firewood are used in the Schwarzwald, and often carry 30 to 36 stacked cubic meters of wood (14 to 17 tons). In carrying long logs, the front and back parts of the timber- cart are separated, and the butt-ends of the logs are placed in front, their smaller ends being suspended under the axle of the hinder pair of wheels, so as to allow for turning at curves in the road. All timber-carts should contain levers, screw-jack, and the VOL. v. Y 82£ LAND-TKANSPOKT. necessary chains. If tlie wheels are high enough, the log is sometimes hung under both axles, which saves the frequently laborious process of lading the timber ; and if, in such cases, in descending steep slopes, one end of the logs drags along the ground, it then acts as a break. ii. SUuhjitKj iritli Beasts. Horses are generally emploj-ed in timber transport, although bullocks are very serviceable, and replace them in certain dis- tricts on the Continent. After a fall of snow, the sledge (fig. 164), when laden with fire- wood, may be conveniently dragged by a horse or bullock ; it is larger than the ordinary sledge, and has short horns and two shafts. For the transport of butts, the short sledge (fig. 163) is used, and in this case the butt-ends of the logs are fastened to the sledge by chains and nails, whilst their smaller ends rest on the ground. The break consists either of a bundle of fire- wood attached to a short chain, or an ordinary break, as shown in fig. 163 or 165, on which the driver stands. Sledging by the help of horses is extensively followed in the Bavarian Alps. iii. ])nuj(ii)ui hi/ In'dsts. Dragging logs by beasts is often impracticable on ordinary roads, on account of the great damage which would ensue. iv. Use of PaeL-CdttJe. In Germany the use of pack-cattle, mules, oi- ponies for the transport of firewood or charcoal-wood, is limited to the Alps, where the wood which has been collected lies scattered over a large area. A horse carries only 4 cwt., while it can drag 14 to 18 cwt. At the same time, pack-animals require only bridle- paths, which can be much more easily and cheaply constructed and kept in repair than cart-roads. [In tlie Himalayas the transport of firewood is extensively carried on by means of pack-mules and ponies, in billets 2 feet long, and the cost of conveyance is 1 rupee G annas per 100 stacked cubic feet per mile for oakwood, and 1 i-upee 2 iuuias for fir. — Th.] FOREST-ROADS. .323 Y 2 324 LAND-TKAXSPOKT. Section III. — Timber-Slides. A timber-slide is a more or less permanent channel, either constructed of wood or excavated in the ground, and placed aloncf a mountain slope ; the wood descends in it hy its own weiiiht. Slides may be distinguished as wooden slides, gi-oimd C3lides, or roads used for sliding timber. 1. ]]'ooi]rtt Sluh'S. Wooden slides may be constructed either of butts or poles, or of planks. (a) Log or Pole Slides. — These are semi-circular channels, made of closely-nacked poles, or logs, 4 to 12 inches thick, and are used for timber transport. The pieces of timber used in con- structing ordinary slides of this kind should be IG to 26 feet long, and the separate sections of which the slide is made are the same Fig. 166. length as the pieces. The length of a slide is thus frequently described by the number of sections it contains. The channel has a width of 2i to o feet ; it rests on strong wooden supports, Avhich may be termed block-sleepers, and are made of ditferent shapes. Owing to the great Aveight of the slide, which naturally tends to drag it down-hill, this tendency being increased by the shaking to which it is subject Whilst sliding is in progress, the block-sleepers must be supported by props on both sides to keep them steady. Only when the block-sleepers are sufficiently TIMBER-SLIDES. :3-25 massive to preserve their own stability cau these props he dis- pensed with. The lowest section of a slide is very strongly made to resist shocks, and is either horizontal or inclined upwards, in order to moderate the fall of the wood as it slides-down. It should rest on strong blocks of wood driven into the ground, and the effect is to shoot the descending piece of wood upwards in a curve, so that it may fall without any great shock (fig. l(jO). As a rule (fig. 166), each section consists of six poles, two {a a) forming its base, two {h h) the sides, and two (c r) the edges of the slide. In curves, one of the pieces <: may be omitted on the inner side. Where the gradients are very steep a second pair of poles {d d) may be added. The wood on the inside of the slide is all barked. The different sections of the slide are joined together as shown in fig. 167. The pieces {a a) tit into the groove of the block-sleeper (fig. 168), the pieces {h J>) rest between the former and pegs driven into the block- sleeper, and (e c) on these pegs and two others similarly fixed ; they^are also kept in place by props [w), (d d) when used are similarly supported. The construction of slides in the Black Forest is somewhat different, as shown in fig. 169, where all the poles, except the two lowest, are bored by augers, and kept in position by strong beech trenails. In some cases a plank is used for the bottom of the slide. The trestles which support the block- sleepers vary in height, according to the nature of the ground, or the block-sleepers may rest directly on the ground. In the Black Forest and the Tyrol, the block-sleepers tisually rest on round billets. 326 LAND-TRANSPORT. ¥v^. 170 sliows the mode of construction of the end-section of a slide, (///) beinjj^ a platj of wrouLrlit iron, over which the Fig. 160. descendin-^- pieces sHde, and which, owing to its elasticity, propels them upwards before they fall. Slides intended for the transport of logs must he constructed Fig. 170. ^■^-^^il^M in a much stronger manner than those for firewood, and it is then chiefly the side pieces (h and c) which must be strongly supported, and logs measuring one foot and one foot two inches in diameter and 50 to GO feet lon()i(blc Win'-Trdiinrdi/s. These consist of two wires about o centimeters or one inch thick, each of them composed of a wire-rope made of C strands WIRE-TKAMWAYS. 353 of wire closely twisted round a hempen cord and extending without supports from the top to the bottom of a declivity. One serves for the descent of laden cars, and the other for the ascent of the empty ones. The upper ends are fastened to large trees and run over a pair of iron rails, which are curved downwards in front, (fig. 195). The lower ends are wound round horizontal cylinders, which can he turned by means of levers and cog-wheels, so as to stretch the wires (tig. 196). The log which is to descend the wire, is suspended from it by chains from t^'o wheels {a a fig. 197) running on the wire and kept at a suitable distance apart by a rod (/>). This arrangement is termed a truck. Were the laden truck left to itself, it would descend with constantly increasing velocity down the wire, and smash the wood and itself at the end of its course. In order to prevent this and control the course of the truck, a second and more slender wire (*S' fig. 197) is attached to the rod Qi), and is wound round two rollers at the upper end of the tramway, so that the truck may be let-down and drawu-up again empty. These rollers also serve as a break to regulate the speed of the truck. The wire- tramway in the Grindelwald, which is shown in figs. 195, and 196, is 4,300 meters (say 14,000 feet) long, and VOL. V. A A 354 LAND-TKANSPOKT. the Avires baupj quite freely without any support at an antj;k' of about 2G degrees. Another double wire-tramway has been constructed m the forests of the Count of Stolberg-Wernigrode. Fig. 19 Fig. 198. It differs from the preceding one owing to its moderate gradient and because the wires are supported at several points by bent iron rods (fig. 198) attached to hori- zontal poles (ni) supported by trestles. In fig. 198, {. (6) Dams of combined masonry and earth. — These are the most highly perfectiouetl of all, and are used in the Bavarian forest, as shown in transverse section in fig. 20G. The masonry rests on a foundation of piles, and the reservoir side of the dam is faced with hewn stones resting on cemented rubble-masonry containing a thin layer of concrete. A wall of cement and clay Fig. 207. bounds this structure, and a well-stamped earth-dam is continued towards the valley. This mode of construction, and a liberal use of cement and concrete to a considerable depth in the foundations of the dam, make it in the highest possible degree watertight. (e) Sluice-gates. — The gates for the chief outlet of water from the reservoir are usually in the middle of the dam, but some- times at its base. The sluice-gates usually open into a channel which conveys the rush of water at some distance from the dam into the natural bed of the stream. This protects the lower side of the dam from being undermined by the water, and is specially important in the case of wooden sluices and earth-dams, as in iig. 203, )n l> n. The sluice-gates are closed by various contrivances, and they may be distinguished, according as they open with a rush, as in ordinary sluice-gates, or are raised gradually, as in the case of vertical! \ opening valves. (0 Sluice-gates opening in the ordinary way. — This is effected FLOATING. 367 by means of hinges, but the gates are closed by various contriv- ances. The usual method of closing them is shewn in fig. 207. A is the gate revolving on hinges at (a). jB is a revolving elliptical cylinder of wood, which is kept closed by means of a peg (b), a lever placed between (b) and the wall of the dam and the pressure of the water in the reservoir, until the lever (m) is withdrawn ; the pressure on B then causes it to revolve on its axis through an angle of 90'^ and present its smaller diameter to A, so that the latter can open, {b) entering a recess in the wall made to receive it. Another mode of opening a sluice-gate is shown in fig. 208 : as long as the end (m) of the lever (s d m) rests against the peg (b), the cylinder is kept closed, but when (s) is pressed down, (b) is released and the gate opens. This mode of opening is chiefly used when the walls of the dam are high. Fig, 209, represents another mode of opening sluice-gates, where the bar (m) is fastened back by an iron pin which fits through a projecting stone at P, and can be easily withdrawn. [In the case of all the above sluice-gates, there is danger of the giite swinging violently against the wall of the dam, and being broken or injured. This is avoided by having the hinge at a short distance from the wall, so that when the gate is opened, there may be a passage for the water between the hinge and the wall of the dam ; the intervening water then breaks the force with which the sluice-gate swings, and prevents its striking the wall. — Tr.] 368 WATKII-TIIANSruHT. It is evident tbat when the confined water of the reservoir presses with all its weiglit on the whole sluice-<:rate, on open- ing the latter, the violent rush of water would damage the banks below ; such gates can therefore be used only where the watercourse below has steep rocky banks. They have also the disadvantage, that the sudden rush of water may not be able to carry downstream all the wood which is lying on the Vu;. -200. X'Nj^i^wui^^?^ bed of the water-course, so that much of its effect is lost. In the Tyrol, self-opening sluice-gates are used, which open when the reservoir is full. (t)) Sluice-valves. — Sluice-valves are used in well-constructed floating-channels and wherever the banks need protection against the downward rush of water, so that the amount of water passing through the passage in the dam may be regulated at will. These valves are opened by means of a lever fitting into cogs, a ratchet preventing the descent of the valve (fig. 210). In the Absdach sluice, the so-called ladder sluice-gates are adopted, the construction of which may be seen in fig. 204. In order to avoid the use of heavy valves, two smaller ones side-by- side may be used, or several, each of which works in its own FLOATING. 36.9 groove and may be raised by a revolving axis by means of rollers and chains, or winches. The mechanism for raising these heavy valves with a small expenditure of strength should be of a very simple nature. Fig. 211 gives a simple combination of cog-wheels and endless Fig. 210. screw for the purpose. This mode of raising valves is in general use for the tanks which will be described lower down. (6) Sluice-gates made of logs. — The roughest method adopted for closing sluices is to place a number of round logs, split in half, vertically alongside one another, with their ends resting against two strong beams above and below. The crevices between them are then stopped with moss and a pile of earth is often made behind them. When it is desired to release the water, a hook attached to a rope is passed through an iron ring in the central log, which, on VOL. V. B B 370 W ATER-TK A NSPO RT. Fig. 211. being lifted, is cftrricd down by tlic water ; the other logs are similarly lifted out of the way, ]^alks of wood one above the other may also be suspended horizontally as is usual in the Black Forest, by chains before the opening, as shown in tig. 205. They are raised one after the other by hooked-poles. Fig. 212, shows the so-called plug-valve which is much used, especially in Austrian Silesia. The valve tits vertically into a channel (a) excavated under the dam and projecting 4 or 5 yards into the reservoir where it is strongly closed, the open end of the channel leading down-stream. The end under the reservoir is open at (m) and can be closed by a conical plug (») which is raised by means of a vertical bar and screw {b) ; {p] is a plank bridge for giving access to (/'). The chamber in which this plug plays is covered with a fine grating to exclude rul)liisli. This kind of valve weakens the dam much less than any other form of opening for the water, and the water can be allowed to pass through the chan- nel, as gradually as one could wish; it is however very liable to become tilled with silt and mud dilllcult to remove. All sluice-gates must allow for an ovcrllow of excessive water from the reservoir and also for i)assing a small quantity of water into the floating channel before the principal sluice-gates are opened. The principal rush of water, which is required for floating, passes through the sluice-gates, of which there may be several in the case of large dams, but w^hen once the reservoir is full of water, any more water coming in must be allowed to escape, otherwise the top of the dam would be injured. For this pur- X 1 ■ i i m ^^ timber often accumulates behind them to a height of 15 to 20 feet, and sometimes even overtops them. In such cases, as has been already remarked, not only must the construction of the boom be of the strongest possible character, but also the locality must be specially adapted for it. In the case of many booms, with either vertical or oblique gratings, the latter are placed in situ only during the floating season, and for the rest of the year are removed and kept in sheds on the river-banks. This cannot always be done, when the 390 WATEll-TKANSPORT. grating rails are very large and weigh several liundredweigbts each, but even then, part of the grating must be removed if the stream is to remain navigable, or i)assable by rafts of wood. In such cases, the rails are provided with strong iron rings so that they can be raised by means of hooked poles and placed on the horizontal bars, and on a planked footway constructed behind the latter. "Water-sawmills always require booms to keep out the float- ing wood which is intended to pass beyond them. Such booms must be constructed so that part of the grating may be readily removable and allow entrance for the butts which are to be sawn. The grating is, therefore, frequently provided with the arrange- ment shown in fig. 231. The hooks at {n n) are for the removal Fig. 232. of the rails, each of which is perforated for the admission of a wedge to keep it when raised in position, the wedges resting on the bar (a a). Besides the above usual kinds of booms, special local booms, such as trestle-booms, portable booms and booms with gabions are in use, of a cheaper and simpler mode of construction. They are chiefly used for temporary floating, or in the case of streams subject to such high floods that the construction of more elaborate and expensive booms is not advisable. The}- are FLOATING. 391 therefore, re-made every floating season, and then broken-up, and are chiefly prevalent on the south side of the Alps, in Savoy, the South Tyrol, Carinthia, and other districts. The essential feature of a trestle-boom is a three-legged trestle (fig. 232). These trestles, strengthened by the transverse pieces (a a), are placed in a line across the stream so that one foot of each projects somewhat over the foot of the trestle next to it, and the tops of all the trestles are about the same height above water-level. Thus difterent sized trestles are required accord- ing to the depth of the water. In the case of large trestle- booms over strong streams, a second row of trestles is placed behind the first to strengthen it, one of the feet of the second row crossing the feet of those in the front row. This crossing of the feet of the trestles strengthens the boom in a very marked way. After all the trestles are in position in the water, the bars {h h h) are nailed on to them ; they are intended to support heavy logs with which the trestles are loaded, to add. weight to the boom and render it firmer. As the trestles are not imbedded in the ground, 392 W ATEll-TR A N S PO RT. but only rest on it, they would not withstand the force of the stream if the trestles were not heavily weighted. Further weight is added by placing stones and boulders above the logs which rest on {b h h). Supports for the rails are then nailed on to the trestles, and the rails fastened to them with withes, and floating placed in front logs of the rails. Portable Booms form another class which may be erected and removed at pleasure, but their mode of construction varies con- siderably. Fig. 233 represents a section of such a boom with a permanent base, which is used in streams where sudden Hoods occur, as in lower Austria, the rivers Ziller, Gail, I've. The fixed base is composed of a beam {a) and piles (c c) ; on the latter the trestle-beams {m m) rest, and the grating-rails {d d) are sup- poited by pieces {h h) which are bolted to {m). Another kind of portable boom is used in Nadworna in Galicia, in which three twisted wire ropes are stretched as tightly as possible one above the other, and supported by trestles at distances of 30 feet apart. Another kind of boom is formed of gabions (fig. 234), as used in Yeuezianiscli and other places. Here, instead of wooden or stone pillars, gabions of basket-work filled with stones are used, which support the horizontal bars and the grating-rails. The gabions are placed in a line across the stream at distances of 5 to 15 meters (IG — 48 feet) apart, according to the strength of the stream, and are tall enoufrh to be above the highest water FLOATING. 393 level ; their height varies, therefore, with the depth of the water in which they are placed. Planks are then placed from gabion to gabion, forming a footway, and stout poles {a a a) are bound to the gabions by means of withes. The grating-rails (h h) are then bound to (c) outside the water, and let down into it from the footway, till each rail rests on the bottom of the river. The several rails are then bound by withes to {a a a), and along the grating floating logs are placed. These gabions have the advantage of costing little, of being erected in a short time by the floating-gang and of being easily repaired. At the same time, they are not durable, and are often overthrown by heavy floods, to which they offer a great resisting surface. They are speciall}- adapted for small temporary sweeps of floating timber, especially on unimproved mountain-torrents. Finally, floating booms must be mentioned. They consist for the most part of spruce-logs which are united at their ends by iron rings and fastened together in sufficiently long chains. These chains of logs are fastened at one or both ends, and float on the surface of slowly flowing streams, on which floating is done only occasionally. In order to give them a greater power of resist- ance, some of the logs are anchored to the bottom of the river. In spite of this, however, they cannot resist a sudden flood, as has been often experienced, in the breaking of such booms, especially if the stream is fairly strong (the river Inn). [In the river Jumna, at Daghpathar, a boom is placed at a point where the river is 120 yards broad. It consists of two portions, a raft 35-1 feet long, constructed of railway-sleepers as shown in fig. 235. It is fixed at one end to a rock on the right- hand side of the river, and kept obliquely inclined towards the current by Avire ropes anchored to the other bank. This portion of the boom is placed in the full current of the powerful stream. From its other end extends a line of logs fastened end to end by a wire rope, and 910 feet long. The floating sleepers are stopped by the raft-bojm, and then float along the line of logs into slack water, when they are easily caught by men swimming on inflated buffalo-skins, and landed. The construction of the raft-boom is as follows : — Two broad-gauge sleepers are placed 6| feet apart and with their broad face vertically downwards ; transversely to these and 394 WATER-TRANSPORT. dovetailed or merely let-iu, are placed at intervals of about one foot-meter-gauge sleepers with the broad face horizontal. In the centre are two planks placed longitudinally and serving as a foot way. A wire rope runs along each side, and is tirmly fixed to the broad-gauge sleepers. This is to give the boom tiexi- bility against sudden strains. Below the sleepers are three iron Fig. 235. DAGHPATHUR BOOM .SraU Support Iron rndn-ZCir. I-ron roda-i'CiTl eUEVATION (np~»trfinm ed^e of Boom) 3 Drawn by A. G. Hubait-HampJen. rods one inch in girth supported by bars two inches in girth from the broad-gauge sleepers. This boom cost Rs. 1150, including Es. 500 for wire ropes which last for many years ; it is annually removed before the July monsoon, and replaced in October. About 400,000 sleepers and scantling are stopped by it annually and made-up into rafts at Daghpathar. — Tr.] (b) Modes of using Booms. — According to the strength of the stream, the purpose for which they are erected, but above all on account of their suitability for any particular localit}', various kinds of booms are used. Here, in the first place, a distinction must be made according as the booms are used, either to stop all « FLOATING. 395 the wood floatiiif^ in a stream (terminal "booms), or to divert it into a side-channel (lateral booms), and it must he considered, secondly, what steps may he taken to reduce the pressure on booms and prevent them from breaking. i. T('rt)ii)i(tl Booms. Terminal booms, intended to stop all the wood floating in a stream, are erected either transversely or obliquely across a stream, the former being termed straight and the latter oblique booms. Booms may run in a broken line, or be arranged so that a quantity of floating wood may be collected and Fig. 236. taken away from the boom. Straight booms are chiefly found on streams with a slight fall and where sudden floods are not to be feared. They have to resist severe pres- sure, and wherever large sweeps of wood are floated should be strongly con- structed. Oblique booms are com- moner both in the case of lateral and terminal booms, they have naturally a greater length in propor- tion to the breadth of the stream than straight booms, and the longer they are, the better able are they to withstand the pressure of the floating wood and floods. Most booms are not straight, but have a broken line of contour ; and many booms, and some of the most important ones, collect and retain for some time a large quantity of the floating wood. The boom 396 WATER-TRANSPORT. across the river IIz near Passaii, built as iu fig. 230 ami a plan of which is given in fig. 230, collects over ten thousand saw-mill butts, and allows for their being continually removed by the underground channel {a). ii. Lateral Booms. These booms are intended to divert floating timber into a side channel, and are long and oblique. In powerful floating-channels, a terminal boom cannot usually be laid across the main stream without danger of being broken. In such cases, therefore, a side channel is diverted from the main stream and the sweep of timber conducted into it, the main stream being barred by a boom. Fig. 237 is a long lateral boom, only closed in the middle by floating logs. II is the main stream ; s, the side-channel, lower down in which the ter- minal boom is placed ; h is a weir diverting water into s. As in this case the pressure of the sweep of wood and of the stream is divided between two booms, neither of them need be very strongly constructed. This is the chief advantage of leading the floating wood into a side-channel. AVhere a natural bifurcation of a river does not exist, an artificial side-channel is frequently constructed with advantage ; if, then, the lateral boom is sup- plied^with a strong weir, or, if possible, with a sluice-weir, the supply of water to the side-channel may be regulated at will. On this general principle are founded all the better kinds of FLOATIXG. 397 riverside sawmill timber-depots, which will be described further on. By supplj'ing booms with sluice-gates, they may be consider- ably improved ; but this necessarily pre-supposes sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of the wood and water. Sluice-gates are specially valuable in the case of large booms with masonry supports. By regulating the supply of water, the front of the boom may be more uniformly covered with floating wood, so that when the sluices are opened the greater part of it may become stranded, or can easily be brought to land. In the case of long booms, it is highly advantageous by opening first one sluice-gate and then another, to drive the Avood in front of portions of the boom hitherto free from it ; and, finally, by open- ing all the sluice-gates to bring in the tail of the sweep of the wood. iii. Reduction of the Pressure on a Boom. Attempts should be made in every possible way to reduce the pressure on a boom, and this object may be secured in various ways by constructing booms on weirs, by means of channels for waste water, channels to remove sand, sluice-gates, &c. Lateral booms are generally placed on a weir, which supports part of the water-pressure and reduces the fall of the stream and the pressure on the boom. Nearly all large booms which are intended to strand the wood, or to serve as lateral booms, are of this nature. Channels for waste water are artificial cuts which branch-off from the main stream above the boom, returning into the stream below it. A certain portion of the water is thus led away from the boom, which has, therefore, less pressure to with- stand. Fig. 238 represents such a channel, which is supplied at its outlet (ni) with a lateral boom and sluice-gates and sub- divides below into several branches {b, b, b). If the terminal boom were also in a side-channel, which has besides the advan- tage of a weak current, its utility may be further increased by smaller channels taken from above the boom and returning into the other below it. Booms in streams which bring down boulders and gravel have, besides the force of the current and of the floating wood, to with- stand the pressure of the sand and boulders. Wherever, there- 398 WATKK-TRANSPOllT. fore, the fall of the stream is considerable, it is usually sufficient to place the boom out of the main current by allowing surplus water to pass off by a side-channel ; or, when the boom Fio. 238. is in a side-channel, a deep and steeply inclined cut, termed a sand-canal, is made in the latter to carry the sand and boulders into the main stream. Fig. 239 shows the floating-channel (s, s), which bifurcates from the main stream, H ; (m, m) form so many cuts between strong, solid masonry walls, which may be closed by lateral booms and sluice-gates ; ((/) is the sand-canal, which at (^0 is only half a meter deeper than the rest of the floating channel, but deepens gradually towards (]>). The boulders which accumulate in {d, ]>) are passed through a temporary opening (jj) FLOATING. 399 and the corresponding sluice-gate in the lateral boom, and pass along )ii into the main stream //. Simple sand-canals can only be opened for the passage of silt, &c. whilst floating is not in progress. In order to free a float- ing-channel from these accumulations during the floating, they Fig. 239. may, as at (q) (fig. 239), be covered with a wooden lattice-work (fig. 258) constructed at the bottom of the floating-channel (s). Besides this method, double booms may be used, which are erected the one close behind the other, and the silt and boulders are admitted into the interval between them by opening the first boom and then passed through the second boom, so that always one of the booms is ready to stop the floating wood. In order also to expose the bed of the stream in front of a boom and then 400 WATER-TRANSPORT. straiul the timber, deep culverts with sluice-n;ates may be made and opened to pass the water under the boom. (c) Further Details regarding Booms. — In the preceding para- praplis, a distinction has been made between lateral or terminal booms, but the latter may be of several kinds. Every boom, whatever its dimensions, which catches floating wood at a timber-depot is a principal boom. Owing to certain conditions of a locality and want of sufficient room, it is not always possible to supply evei-y river timber-depot with a principal boom ; or the risk cannot be incurred, in the case of numbers of saw-mills situated along a stream, of entrusting the supply of the thousands of logs they require for their annual work to one lioom only, which is always liable to be broken. In such cases, subsidiary booms are used in order to ensure a supply of wood for all the saw-mills. For this purpose narrow parts of the stream are selected, confined on either side by ro-^ks, and booms are here erected with moveable gratings, from which the wood can be again despatched down-stream in small sweeps to the different saw-mills or timber depots. Not unfrequeutly a stream is broken-up by booms at not very long intervals ; this is generally for charcoal-burning, in order to land the wood required where permanent charcoal-kilns are main- tained ; or each forest owner or principal wood-merchant has his own boom, in order to collect his own wood and float it separately from that of other owners to the principal boom ; or the saw- mills situated along the stream have each its special boom, provided with passages to allow extraneous wood to pass through them. Subsidiary booms are sometimes erected in strong streams below the principal boom, where, owing to occasional floods, there may be danger of the latter breaking. Wherever floating timber is rafted, or passed in lines of logs across a lake, most of the water-logged wood would enter the lake and sink to the bottom without possibility of recovery, were not a boom stationed at the point where the stream used for floating passes into the lake. FLOATING. 401 4. 'Method employed in Float.in-rs are used for rafting. RAFTING. 409 rafts. A quantity of wood firmly bound together is termed a raft-section, and a number of sections form a raft. 1, Uaf ting -Channels. In order that rafting may be possible, it is generally necessary that the water in a stream should flow uniformly and gently, with only a slight fall. In well-regulated rafting-channels a smaller head of water is required than in mere floating-channels, but the depth must not be less than 2 or 2| feet. Although rafting may be done more favourably on the lower courses of streams and large placid rivers,* yet higher mountain-torrents are sometimes thus utilized. In such cases, however, where the channel is full of rocks and boulders and has a considerable fall, a larger head of water is required than for floating, for unless the rafts are carried over all obstacles in the water, they will be stranded and broken-up. Li the latter case, therefore, artificial supplies of water are requisite, and both reservoirs and weirs placed along the stream are employed to increase the head of water. The latter are either sunken weirs with a long wooden wall in the middle of which there is a passage which may be closed, or stone over- flow-weirs are used. Reservoirs are not so valuable for rafting as for floating, as they do not concentrate the water in a certain part of the rafting channel. On the other hand, this may be done efl"ectively by placing weirs at short distances apart along a channel, when the water can accumulate between any two weirs to the height required by a raft. Wherever the sections and rafts are made-up in powerful streams, a side-channel or basin is required wide enough for the logs to be turned and placed alongside one another. In smaller streams this is best secured by constructing weirs at places with shelving banks. In the upper portion of rafting-channels the rafts may be made-up in the bed of the stream at any suitable place with shallow water. It has been already remarked that * In 1883, araft consisting of 11 sections, each containing 500 logs, and 800 feet long, was towed 600 miles from St. John in New Bmuswiek to New York iu ten days by two powerful steam- tugs. 410 WA'IEll-'J'ltANsruKT. tanks are used to supply water to rafting-channels ; tbcy are preferable to any other mode of strengthening the head of water, as they permit rafting to be carricd-on without inter- ruption. The constant struggle to extend and improve commerce by reducing the cost of transport is now chiefly directed in Germany to the work of improving moderate-sized rivers by canalisation. This cannot but have considerable influence on the rafting of timber and on the dimensions of the rafts and their mode of conveyance, &c., and arrangements should be made to allow sufficient way through bridges, locks and sluice-gates for the rafts. Accordingly, through the canalisation of the rivers Main, Neckar, Saale, &c., timber-rafting will be more and more extended to the lower courses of these rivers, if by forming suitable collecting-places out of the reach of floods and spacious tanks in which the rafts can be made-up and through which they can pass, the construction of large rafts is rendered possible. For if the rafting business is to be conducted on a large scale, spacious timber-tanks at central places to which rafts converge down the smaller streams are indispensable.* * ["The Oifsr. X or 8 bundles are now fastened together by * These immlM 100, 120, or loO illy choseii, so tlial each ralt-seotioii may contain EAFTIXG. 415 means of two or more pairs of poles, and one of each pair (m m) being placed above the bundles and one {n n) below, transversely to the raft-section, the withes are fastened round these poles. F[G. 24; n TdZil 1^ which thus enclose all the boards in the raft-section (fig. 246). Such a section is quite rigid. The raft-sections fastened Fig. 248. together on the land and slid into the water are then bound into rafts as shown in fig. 247. The sections A, B, C, & D, Fig. 249. are not dovetailed together by their projecting borders, but long slender spruce poles (figs. 246 and 247, d d) are fastened to their sides, passing from section to section, and thus affording rigidity to the whole raft. Another mode of binding rafts is shown in fig. 248. The bundles of boards are tied with withes, but each withe passes through that of the neighbouring bundles, so that the bundles 416 watei;-ti;ansi'()I;t. are sli<:htl_v Imuud together. The raft-section (fig. 218) being thus made-up. a pole {a b) is fastened to it by the wedges {in III in). In the method of making-up rafts of boards, as shown in tig. '24!>, the bundles of boards are fastened one below the other, poles being used for the purpose, as in fig. 248. This method of rafting requires deeper water than the preceding ones. (c) Method of making-up Rafts. — Several raft-sections are fastened together to make a raft. This is done either by attach- ing the ends of the sections together by withes, leaving them sufficient play — an important point in long rafts and in floating channels with sharp bends ; or the sections are bound firmly together with withes, as is the practice on the river Kin/ig, so as make a rigid raft. The spruce poles, as shown in fig. 24G, are also used for fastening the sections together. In binding the sections into rafts, the lightest ones are placed in front at the head of the raft, and the heavier ones behind in the tail. The more attention must be paid to this rule, the more rapid the stream of the rafting-channel, for the light sections float more freely than the heavy ones, and were the latter placed at the head of the raft, they would be pressed upon by the lighter ones, and the latter would even press the heavy ones down and mount on to them rendering the management of the raft impossible. It is a rule that each section should bo formed of stems equally long and thick ; if the sections arc small, containing 5 to 8 logs, the bases of the logs are all put together at one end of the section, and their tops at the other. Where the sections arc larger, and the logs markedly uncylindrical, the butt-ends and tops of the logs are placed alternately side by side, in order to give the raft section a uniform breadth throughout. Such raft-sections are more easily united in a raft. 8. ] iiinensioiis oj' Ilaj'tH. A distinction is made between rafts only one section broad, the sections being placed one behind the other, and large rafts formed both in breadth and length of many sections. The former class of rafts is in use in the upper and middle courses of rivers KAFTING. 417 and brooks, whilst the latter are employed on large rivers and broad steadily flowing streams. The former kind of rafts may, however, be very long, and often consist of from 40 to 70 sections hung one behind the other, containing altogether 300 to 500 logs and more. The large rafts, on the other hand, are often 50 meters (160 feet) broad and 200 to 250 meters (650 — 810 feet) long, and were formerly even larger. 4. Mode of Rafting. A raft should be so conducted that it can be guided, its pace moderated, or it can be stopped at pleasure. On slowly flowing Fig. 251. waters, ordinary spreads are used to guide the rafts. Wliere the current is rapid the rafts are made long so that they may travel slowly, and spreads are hung out behind the last section to drag along the bottom of the channel ; the last section may also be opened out as in fig. 250, or a kind of break is used from the last section as shown in fig. 251 in section and fig. 252 in plan. This break consists of a stout beam (a) passing between two poles [h) fastened to the raft by clamps, or withes. The break drags obliquely along the bottom of the channel, whilst it is firmly held above between the poles. In this way the pace of a raft may be regulated, and the raft directed through difficult passages and even stopped or stranded. Long heavy rafts on fast streams with a steep fall have always several of these breaks on the last raft-section. VOL. v. E E 418 WATKll-TKANSroirr. Eafting on shallow mountain-streams always tlemands the greatest attention and care, long experience of the rafting channel, und assiduous, trusty workmen. Men engaged in rafting require an amount of skill and daring which only experi- ence from their youthful days can give. The workmen on the "Wolf and Kinzig rivers ^'^' -•''^- and their tributaries, in the •-^~^~ -" ^'^^^^^%- ' |2^^ ~~*~"~ lUack Forest, are veritable ^^ - _7^-^ 4H5=^-^4m ~ '--'- ^^^sters in the art of raft- '^-■niMiiigf^j^^M|£i"if¥jgili^^^^"''' ^^"' ^^^ ^^ ^^ "^^^ proposed ^~ ~ ^3l^^^BE7 -^ ^^ follow a raft down one """ ^ ^|t^;=|»^ ^ £ of these rivers. The logs ^* "^ are floated down to a boom and sorted along the river- bank ; they are then fastened together in its bed into raft- sections and rafts. The rafting-channel here is only 3 to 4 meters (10 to 13 feet) broad, with a rocky bed strewn with boulders and a fall of ^V to fV (sometimes even \) ; in the worst places it is somewhat improved by simple weirs, and at the time the wood is floated has a depth of only 15 centimeters (Cinches). At longer or shorter intervals there are weirs in its upper course, and sluice-gates where its higher tributaries join it. The raft, consisting of forty to fifty sections, is got ready, and is attached by ropes to the shore. The front section consists of only four small logs, which run together like a wedge in front, terminating in a short piece of planking. The second, third, and succeeding sections gradually increase in width, up to a middle width of 4 to 5 meters (13 to 16 feet), which is also attained by all the remaining sections of the raft, except the last, on which are the breaks, and which is only as broad as the water in the stream. The sections are fastened so that all the small ends of the logs are in front, which gives them a fan-shaped appearance as represented in fig. 253. Owing to this form, the raft may be actually broader than the stream and the passages through the weirs, provided that the latter are not narrower than a b, as the wings ((( c and h d) of the sections then fold back over the rest of the section, recovering their former position as they emerge from the i)assage. It is therefore evident that rafts for tloatin*' on mountain-streams must be EAFTING. .19 throughout quite loosely jointed. Suppose now, the long raft which is lying in the nearly dry bed of the stream and here and there overlaps it on both sides is to be floated ; a few days before- hand all the sluice-gates of tributary streams must be closed, as well as the sluice-gates on the weirs down-stream, so that as much water as possible may be available in the upper 7'<(ti<)n in (JiKiJiti/ of the WmuL The detevioriition in the (juality of wood during transport consists in external and internal damage. The former kind of damage may be recognized as soon as the wood has reached its destination by a brush-like loosening of its fibres at either end, in the case of both butts and firewood billets. To this may be often added a certain number of radial cracks. The internal damage is of much greater importance, affecting as it does the soundness of the wood ; land-transport cannot have any influence in this respect, but floating is held to be a cause of decay, which in the case of sawmill butts is often considerable. Provided the floating were properly effected, it could not alone be responsible for this, supposing that it were always possible to take the necessary precautions. But frequently this cannot be ensured, and consequently in the out- LOSS OF VOLUME. 427 turn of the sawmills there must be a certain proportion of unsound boards and scantling. In so far, therefore, as floating actually increases the difficulties and practical impediments in the way of a rational treatment of wood, it is advisable, wherever it is not susceptible of improvement, to limit its use, at least as regards valuable timber. 6. Injinencc of llnilirai/s on the Timber-Trade. It is easy, from observation of the freight of goods-trains which pass through forests, to form an idea of the share that the ordinary railroads of a country take in the transport of wood. By the co-operation of branch-lines and road-railways the meshes of the railway-net are constantly narrowing, and a great and important future is being prepared for facilitating the transport of wood by the use of railways, and by uniting them with main forest railways and portable tramways. Plains and hilly districts alone can fully profit by these benelits ; and although mountain forests, as we have seen, may also participate to some extent, it is chiefly long gently inclined valleys, penetrating the interior of mountain-districts, where projects for the construction of forest railways can at present be entertained. In general, how- ever, the decisive arguments for and against the adoption of a forest railway are : — whether large quantities of wood are avail- able for trade along a given line of export, or the produce of a forest has to be distributed in detail to satisf}- merely local demands ; the total amount of the produce in question, which may be temporarily augmented owing to damage by storms, insects, or other causes of injury ; and sometimes the probable duration of the demand for the produce. This last motive may also involve serious danger to the forest, in case the existence of a forest railway should lead the manager to overstep the limits of true forest conservancy by overfelling. It is in the interests of sylviculture, especially for the repro- duction of the standing-crop, to extend portable tramways as much as possible, in order to remove the produce of secondary fellings and standards in full-sized logs without injury to the young crop, and thus supply a quick and cheap transport of wood from the constantly shifting felling-areas to the nearest 428 COMPAUISON OF MODKS OF TRANSPORT. timber-depot, or to a junction witli iui oidinnrv laihvay-lino. It is, however, evident that for such a purpose only phiteaux and plains can be utilized. The introduction of portable tramways into the forest ran<,'e of Einsicdel-liJebenhausen is well worthy of imitation, and here also a considerable savin[enous and foreign timber are carried by the various canals. Canals are now bein«i[ constructed to unite the Khine with the Weser, and also with the Danube and Main. [The acquisition of English canals by railway companies is against cheap inland traffic — Tk.] 8. Conclusion. Facilitating wood-transport by increasing and improving the means of communication within and outside the forest has become a question of the first importance. Forestry has in many places lagged behind almost every other industry in this respect. Owing to the situation of forests, transport from them is most difficult, but this does not relieve foresters from the duty of making every endeavour to utilize all present engineering resources, so as to reduce, as far as possible, the present high rates of timber-transport. Apparently the present tendency is to curtail floating in favour of land-transport, either ])v eart-roads or tramways. Success in carrying out this programme will at any rate be justified by the consequent improvement in the quality of timber ; its adoption is further enforced owing to the constantly increasing utilization of water-power by other industries, in most cases incompatible with the use of the same streams for floating. Changes in the mode of transport arc constantly occurring, as sawmills are established more and more in the interior of forests. Nevertheless the time is far distant when floating and rafting will completely disappear from the list of means of forest transport, and in many districts they can never be dispensed witb. 429 CHAPTER VII. WOOD-DEPOTS. In order to collect transported wood in an orderly way, and store it for a longer or shorter period, a site must be selected for a permanent wood-depot, from which it may pass into the hands of the wood-merchant or consumer. Cases not unfrequeiitly occur, when it is necessary to keep the transported wood, especially logs and sawmill butts, in water until it is used, but usually wood is stored on land and kept dry. The arrangement of a wood-depot differs according as the wood has been transported by land or water. 1. Land-depots. Any well-drained area sufficiently extensive and accessible to cart-traffic will serve as a depot for wood transported on carts, tramcars or sledges. In collecting and storing logs, which are Fig. 254. to be transported further by the purchaser, all that is required is to arrange them in an orderly manner, after duly considering the available space. If there is plenty of room, and the logs are to be numbered, measured and registered at the depot, they may be arranged as shown in fig. 254, or the logs and butts may be placed in three or four layers, crosswise, one above the other. If there is not much room, and no necessity for estimating the volume 4.30 W(»(il)-I)Kl'()TS. of the wood, the loj^'s uiitl hntts muy he rolled into heaps, as in ti'T. 255. In any case, precautions must he taken to kee}) the higs raised above the ^'round, and to secure for them free admission of the air. In case the wood is sokl hy lots at the depot, it shouki now be arranged in suitable lots, according to trade custom. Wherever logs are to be stored for a number of years, it is best to keep them under water, provided that they are com])letely immersed, and there is a moderate inlet and outlet of the water to prevent its becoming stagnant. T^ogs are then most securely preserved for several years from decay and from crack- ing, and can be readily converted into planks, scantling, cl'c. If it is not possible to submerge the wood, and large quantities of wood must be stored dry for several years (as after insect-attacks, storms, ^:c.), the greatest care must be taken to isolate them from ground moisture. liOgs are, therefore, thoroughly barked and rolled into parallel rows one above the other, in shady places which are not exposed to dry winds ; the stacks of logs are also lightly covered with sods, to protect the logs from cracking in dry weather. The wood suffers least of all on northern aspects. Under similar circumstances, spruce logs keep better than silver-fir ov Scotch pine, and logs better than butts. In depots used for firewood brought hy land, only the best class of tirewood will repay further land-transpt)]-t. Firewood requires the same precautions as timber, and tirewood depots RIVEll-DEPOTS. 431 should also generally be fenced and furnished with a gate which can be locked. The arrangement of the wood is done in a similar way to that in river-depots, which will be now described. Fig. 256. 2. Riccr-depots. A large number of depots are used for storing wood after transport by water, and different arrangements are then required from those described under land transport, especially after the wood has been floated. The necessary characteristics of a good river-depot are: — im- mediate proximity to the float- ing-channel ; a site thoroughly exposed to air and wind ; the soil formed of sand, gravel or boulders to a depth of at least half a meter [Ih feet) — otherwise it should be paved with large stones ; elevation of a few yards above the highest flood-level of the stream, or in case the depot is so arranged that the wood lands itself, a sufficient fall in the different basins of the depot, which are separated by sluice-gates. In many cases it is also necessary to include protective works against floods, which will l)e described further on. Wherever only a little wood is floated and labour is plentiful, a bank of the stream above the boom, if otherwise suitable, is generally selected on which the wood is landed. As all the wood must then be dragged from the stream, and many men thus simultaneously employed, the depot should extend for some distance along the river-bank, and its breadth be reduced to a chtcsgaden. 432 WOOD-DEPOTS. minimum, allowin^r sufficient room for storing' and removing the timber. It is 11 ^ootl plan to dig a canal from the floating-channel, which reunites with it lower down stream. The land between the two watercourses will then form a good depot. At the point where the canal leaves the floating-channel, the latter is barred by a lateral boom, the terminal boom being placed at the River-depot at Tlialliam. point Avhere the canal reunites with tlu' main stream. If the terminal boom is on a small weir, and sluice-gates are sui)plied to the lateral boom, the wood can be stranded almost dry in the bed of the canal. Fig. '2;"5G aflbrds an example of this system in the river depot at Berchtesgaden. The floating-channel {a) from the Konigsee here joins the river Eamsau (h) ; canals and depots are provided for the wood from the Konigsee at (c) and (m), and at {<■'} and (iii') for the wood from the Ramsau, whilst the terminal booms are at {!>) and (//). The canals are paved with stone, and the wood is stranded almost dry. Side-canals often bifurcate from floatin'). This cbunlic'l is wideiicd-out into the reservoir A, and m, m, Sec. are outlets between solid hewn stone masonry walls, which can be closed by means of gratings and sluice-gates. The flow of water through these out- lets may be increased by means of culverts (s, s), which are covered with gratings (fig. 258). From A, the floating wood passes into the preliminary collecting basins B and B', and, in Fig. 260. case of necessity, water can be removed from them by means of the culvert (s) and the canal (//). B and B' serve to distribute the wood into the basins 1, 2, 3 and 4, whilst the more remote basins 5 and 6 are supplied from B by the canal {z). The outlet iy) leads the water back into the river Traun. In all mountain-streams where floods occur, sawmills, as well as wood-depots, are placed in side-channels. This is essential, so that each mill may obtain its water-power separately and leave the main stream free for other mills and for floating purposes. In fig. 2G0, the stream A is closed by a long lateral boom {iit) at the outlet of the mill-stream B. At {n) is a second boom with a removeable grating, behind which are sluice-gates, so that both the water and the floating wood maybe under control ; {a, a, a . . .) are outlets. The sawmills {k, k) receive the butts directly by water, and the sawn boards are bound into rafts below the mills and rafted down-stream. (b) Method of Landing and storing Floated Wood. — As soon as the wood has been collected in front of a boom, the measures METHODS OF STORING ^YOOD. 437 taken for lauding it must be so arranged that it may be brought out of the water as soon as possible. Whenever the depots are arranged so that the wood becomes stranded of itself (pp. 434-436), the workmen must be stationed at the various sluice-gates and gratings, and be carefully instructed in the manner of landing the wood. Wherever the wood has to be dragged up to the depot, different methods of doing so are followed for sawmill butts and firewood. Butts are either rolled up the river-bank, or dragged up an ascending slope by horses or by machinery worked by the driving-wheel of a sawmill. Firewood billets are either spiked by a floating pole and thrown upon the river-bank, or passed from hand to hand by a chain of workmen. In some places machines are used for landing firewood. These machines consist of two horizontal rollers, one of which is alongside the water, and the other up on the bank of the stream. Two chains bound together link by link, and pro- vided at short intervals with projecting iron hooks, are passed round the rollers ; the billets of wood are then placed on these hooks, whilst the chains are set in motion by the upper roller, and the hooks ascend the river-bank with the billets, which fall off as they reach the upper roller.* These machines are specially useful when the depot is situated on a high, steep, sloping river-bank. 3. Methods of Storinrj Wood. The landed billets are conveyed to the stacking-yard in low tramcars or wheelbarrows, the round pieces being previously split; they are then stacked, beginning at a point in the depot the furthest removed from the water. In stacking, great care must be taken not to occupy too much space, to leave sufficient room for ventilation between the diflerent stacks and erect the latter in a stable manner. With this object, the stacks of firewood are placed in long rows, in the direction of the prevailing wind, and made as high as their stability will permit. This * On the river Ilz near Passau, there are 10 of these machines which save 40% of the former cost of manual hiliour for landing the tirewooii. 180 to 200 stacked cubic meters (100 to 140 loads) of wood can thus be raised in a day. At Hals, also on the Ilz, similar machines worked by steam-power are used for raising butts up to the depot, 8 meters (26 feet) high. The heaviest kind of butts are thus raised. 438 WOOD-DEPOTS. is rarely hi'Ood was delivered from the German State forests. Since means of communication have been extended and with them the trade in firewood, the necessity for the department has disappeared, and it has been abolished. (e) Wood required for Sawmills. — There are several German States and Communes owning sawmills, the management of which is more or less independent of the Forest Department. (For instance, Brunswick, Alsace aud Lorraine, Hannover, Baden, &c.) (f) Wood given to R-ivileged Persons (Deputdtltolzer). — Under this heading comes wood given as part of the salary of Govern- ment servants ; in some States, as in Mecklenburg, inferior firewood is also given gratis to the poor. Special orders are given by superior authority to the local forest officials as regards the delivery of wood of the different classes referred to above. 4. l>isj)oS((l of ]Vo(>d 1)1/ Sale. All wood which is not required under any of the above head- ings will be sold. The next section describes the different modes of sale, the only point of interest here is into what hands the wood should come after being sold. A distinction is SALE OF WOOD. 447 thus made between satisfying local demands and sale of wood to traders. (a) Satisfaction of Local Demands. — Care for the protection and tending of his forest will often lead a forest owner to consider, first of all, the requirements of people living in or near the forest. As this can be done only to the extent of their own absolutely necessary requirements, it will suffice, if, as a rule, the less valuable assortments are set-aside for this purpose ; usually only inferior assortments of firewood and building timber are thus sold in a market limited by the exclusion of wood- morchants. Whether or not the State will undertake to satisfy local demands on a large scale depends on its vacillating interpretation of the laws of national economy. (b) Sale of Wood to Traders. — The sale of wood to meet local demands is opposed to its sale to traders, as then an open market is understood. When once a forest owner has satisfied local demands, his desire to sell the rest of his produce at the highest price attainable is distinctly to the advantage of his forest. It is chiefly the best timber and wood which can be exported with profit to a distance with which the forest owner can speculate. For very many forests the mode of treatment and conversion depends on the timber-trade, and many forests can be worked only with the help of the wood-merchant, local demands being small and easily satisfied. Disposal of wood for trade purposes is therefore in most forests the most important mode of utilising them. 5. Loss of Wood. Cases occur where wood already registered as received maybe lost, for instance by fire, theft, &c. The possible loss of wood is therefore a mode of its disposal. Section II. — Sale of Wood. Wood, like every other raw material, is an object of trade, and is sold in various ways, the 2)^' SALE OF WOOD takoii, in case experience of the yield of similar fellings is not avjiil- able, to make use of every assistance which the different methods of valuation can afford. In Paissia, crops of standing trees are generally sold by area [and so is coppice in England. — Tr.] If, however, the sale is only of certain marked trees on a felling- area, the protection and tending of the forest may be much more endangered than when the sale is by area. This is specially the case in regeneration- or selection-fellings, and in those of trees standing over poles. This mode of sale may how- ever be advantageously applied to standards over coppice, or to isolated large trees in middle-aged high forest, or in forests where the trees are far apart, as in Russia. It is more admis- sible for conifers than for broad-leaved species, as the real value of the former may be more accurately forecast than broad-leaved species, which so frequently suffer from internal defects. Here and there material of little value, the conversion of which would prove too costly for the forest owner, may be sold en masse, such as stunted wood on Avaste land, inferior pollards, stumps of trees which are difficult to uproot and split, &c. A purchaser who estimates his own labour at a low value may find a profit in purchasing such material. iii. Lease of tlie Yield of a Forest for a Teim of Years. The two preceding modes of sale involve the sale of only one year's fellings in a forest, but not the lease of the annual yield of a forest for a term of years. This was formerly almost the only mode of sale in the vast Austrian mountain-forests. During the eighteenth century, nearly all extensive works using wood obtained the assignment of adjoining forests for their exclusive use, sometimes with the sole stipulation that the management of the works should remove all the trees in a forest during a rotation, on undertaking to pay all the costs of main- tenance of the forest. This privilege was termed KoJthridmintff (charcoal concession), and implied the right of the works to take so much charcoal annually from the forest. Such concessions of forest produce are no longer made, but leases of forests for terms of three to ten years still prevail, chiefly in Ivussia, Sweden, West and East Prussia, in some provinces of Austria- BY ROYALTY. 451 Hiingavv (Moravia, Bohemia, Szc), Switzerland, Sec. The price is then fixed by formal written agreement. Some of the older concessions are not yet abolished, in spite of repeated endeavours on the part of the German Forest Departments and private forest owners. iv. General liemarls. The chief point to be observed in all sales of standing trees is to decide the requisite sylvicultural and protective conditions and to word them clearly ; a thoroughly detailed description of the material to be sold should also be given. In France, lists of trees to be sold standing are published in pamphlet-form giving all the sale-lots on the felling-areas of a single forest range {inspeetion) for a whole year. [In these French lists, besides the number and species of trees in eacli lot and their cubic contents in timber and firewood, a list is given (cjilder des charges) of all the protective works to be done at the expense of the purchaser, such as pruning, plauting-up blanks, repairs to roads, ifec, together with estimates of their cost. Strict general sylvicultural and protective rules for the conduct of the fellings are also printed in each pamphlet. — Tr.] In Austria, also, much acuteness has been shown in devising the conditions of sale of standing trees. 2. ]'(irinufi kinds of Sale. Three kinds of sale of forest produce are in use, which depend on different methods of fixing its price ; namely, sale by royalty, sale to the highest bidder and sale by private contract. (a) Sale by Royalty. Whenever wood of any assortment is sold at rates fixed by the forest owner, the mode of sale is termed sale by royalty, or sale at fixed rates or tariff-prices. The characteristic of this mode of sale is that the price is fixed by the seller, the forest owner providing for the distribution of his forest produce among its consumers. i. Mode of fixing the Royalty. By the term royalty is meant the present local value, in a foi'cst district, of any wood-assortment, as it is determined by G G 2 lo2 SALE OF WOOD the free action of (k'niaiul ami supply in the tiniber-niarket and in auction-sales. The royalty for any assortment is determined by taking: the nverafre price during a recent period for all similar "wood sold within a certain district. The larger the volume of wood sold in the open market, and the narrower the limits of time and place within which the average price is fixed, the more neaidy will the royalty correspond to the correct price of the assortment. Royalties were formerly fixed on quite different grounds from these. Up to the end of last century it was considered advis- able— and in some countries this is even still the case — that the State, at any rate, should sell the produce of its forests at moderate rates to the people. Royalties were therefore purposely kept low, so much so, that they were considerably under current local prices ; they therefore formed the minima margins of the prices of forest produce. Royalties were fixed for a district by making benevolent estimates of prices, after considering the area of the district which was under forest, the economic condition of the popula- tion, the cost of transport, and, finally, the different qualities of the wood-assortments. It was, therefore, a mere stroke of luck if the royalty was anywhere near the correct price of an assort- ment. How little, indeed, this was the case, may be gathered from the fact that royalties were often fixed for entire provinces, or small States, and frequently remained unaltered for long periods. If the forest ofiicials desired to counteract these bad results to some extent, they had to propose an increase in the royalties for certain special cases, and thus attempt to reform an evil by imposing a greater one. This system did most damage in Austria, where certain State and private forests were assigned to mines of salt and other minerals, supplying them with forest produce at prices which were for the most part ludicrously low, often so much so as barely to cover the cost of maintaining tlie forests. In this way, forests were deprived of their proper revenues, and their maintenance and development were unfairly hindered. The great harm done to forests by low wood-prices, tlie rising value of all raw material, the constantly increasing demands on State treasuries and the many inconveniences resulting from the above antiquated ideas in the sale of forest produce, have. BY ROYALTY. 453 in most countries during the second and third decades of the present century, led to a complete change^ of principle. It is now admitted that the forest owner, like any other producer, is thoroughly justified in selling his produce for its full value. Even if there can be no question that the price of firewood depends on that of coal, yet to depress it as low as that of coal merely on this account is not fair, for there are several other intervening circumstances which must not be neglected, such as custom, comfort, &c. The price of wood varies with time and place and in order to allow due weight to these factors in fixing royalties, different tariffs must be assigned to different districts or sale-depots. Thus, all places .where wood-prices are about the same, should be comprised within a sale-district, excluding places where there are any marked differences in prices. In a province, forest district, or forest range, therefore, there will be as many tariffs as there are market-values for the same wood assort- ment. But even the very points which have occasioned the separation of sale-districts from one another may themselves vary, and render it necessary to alter the circumscriptions of the latter. In a similar manner allowance is made for periodic- variations in wood prices, by revising the tariffs whenever a general rise or fall in prices has occurred. Owing to the present changeable nature of trade this should be done almost every year, at any rate for sale-districts within the reach of the general trade in wood. As regards very valuable wood-assort- ments, tariffs should be revised even more than once a year, whilst for inferior assortments longer intervals, from two to three years, will suffice. Where most of the annual yield of a forest is sold to the highest bidder, tariffs arc prepared for the ensuing year by taking the average sale-pi'ices in round numbers for each assortment, due allowance being made for any abnormal cir- cumstances affecting particular sales, or for assimilating the tarift's sufficiently to those in force in neighbouring sale-districts. Whenever the average results of sales to the highest bidder do not afford sufficient data for framing tariffs, the market-prices of . wood in neighbouring towns should also be utilized, natu- rally after deducting the cost of transport from the forest depots. lui SALE OF WOOD lu many cases, tlie forest range will suffice as a sale-district. It may, however, be necessary to subdivide a forest range into two or more sale-districts, i.e., to fix several tarifts in a range according to the different directions in which the produce is distributed. This is generally the case with ranges situated on the borders of extensive forests, or composed of widely scattered isolated forest blocks, and where considerable differ- ences of prices result from different transport charges. In high mountain-regions, especially the Alps, tariffs will depend on the altitudes of different zones of forest ; thus, the lowest zone, including the valleys, may form one sale-district, the middle zone, another, and the highest forest zone, with Alpine hamlets, cheese-factories, &c., the third. As a rule, royalties include the cost of conversion and removal from the felling-area. In districts where the conversion and removal of the wood is partly done by the purchaser, two tariffs will be in force, including or excluding the above charges. ii. Application of the Method of Sale by litnjdUi/. There are districts where, in consequence of admitted rights, almost the whole annual yield of forests in firewood is disposed of by royalty, either at a full or reduced value ; in other dis- tricts this happens in the case of only a portion of the yield and no further than sheer local necessity requires. In most cases, however, sale at tariff-prices has receded quite into the back- ground, and is resorted to — in cases of unforeseen distress ; for wood-assortments which cannot be sold to the highest bidder ; for inferior sale items, the sale of wliich will not rrpay auction charges, or rare assortments of specified kind and sliape ; also linally, in some districts, for the requirements of the forest officials, who are not allowed to bid at auctions. In country districts, it is chiefly wood for agricultural ri'cjuire- ments, such as bean-sticks, tree-props. Sec, which in cases of considerable demand should be sold by royalty, as in this way theft nniy be prevented. It may be imagined, since sale by royalty is at present generally the exception, that the fixation of a correct tariff" is a matter of only second-rate importance. This is, however, not the case, for a continual knowledge of the actual value of forest BY PUBLIC AUCTION. 455 produce is advantageous in many ways. Royalties are the best means of deciding the acceptance of offers to purchase wood, or when to knock-down lots to bidders at public auctions; they afford a means of estimating the value of stolen produce ; they are indispensable in every kind of forest valuation, and in calculating the value of forest rights, damage, sale of forest land, or other similar questions, and finally in calculating budget-estimates and other statements. Royalties are evidently useful only when they represent the actual momentary local value of wood, i.e., its average market price for the time being. Unless this can be affirmed of them they are absolutely worthless. It must not, however, be for- gotten, that royalties also possess the character of prices fixed by authority, and thus often exercise an influence on market- prices which is not always justifiable. (b) Sale to the highest Bidder. The next mode of sale to be discussed, is when a purchaser offers his wares for sale to the highest bidder in the presence of a larger or smaller number of purchasers. The characteristics of this method are, that the price is fixed by the purchasers, and the wares, i.e., the forest produce, is divided among the consumers according to their own requirements and without direct interference on the part of the forest owner. Sale to the highest bidder may be effected by public auction or sealed tender. i. Sale hi) Public Auction. (a) General Account. — Public auction-sales may be conducted either by the purchasers out-bidding one another, or by putting up each sale-lot at a prohibitively high figure, a public crier then calling-out at regular intervals successive reductions by a fixed sum of this figure for any lot, until one of the purchasers signifies his acceptance of the lot at the last figure proclaimed by the crier. This latter mode of sale is termed a Dutch auction, and in case two or more purchasers accept a lot simultaneously, it is put-up for sale to the highest bidder among them. Sale by successively increased bids is the common mode of auction- sale in Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzer- J 50 SALE OF \YOOL) land, &c., whilst Dutch auctions for forest produce prevail in France, Belgium, Holland, Alsace and Lorraine. Dutch auctions for forest produce are generally emploj-cd only in the case of valuable timber sold in large lots, and when only a few of the purchasers present are men of means ; they arc preferred in Alsace. Wherever wood is sold in small lots to a number of small purchasers, such a method would be out of place for the following reasons, it takes much more time than when purchasers outbid one another ; where there are a largo number of purchasers assembled, only a few of them will have the requisite presence of mind to make a bid at the right moment ; customary usage ma}' be against this mode of sale. [Dutch auctions are preferred in France in the sale of standing trees in the principal fellings, l)ccause there are a body of large contractors, termed adjudicataires, who make it their business t<> ])urchase the marked trees standing on a felling-area, and convert and remove them for sale to smaller dealers or industrial enterprises. These men visit every felling-area within their beat, measure and estimate the value of every marked tree ; they know exactly what amount they can afford to pay for the trees and bid accordingly. French foresters consider that Dutch auctions prevent the purchasers from agreeing not to out-bid one another ; a purchaser cannot know beforehand at what figure any other purchaser will buy, and there- fore dare not delay too long in his offer to purchase, fearing lest the lot should fall to another person. In France the felling-areas are subdivided into small lots, which are marked out on the ground ; no lot should exceed 10,000 francs, £400, in value.— Th.] /3. Proccdt(re iit Auctidii-Salcs of ]]'(>od. When once the mode of disposal of the produce of a felling has been decided, the produce which is to be auctioned should be carefully valued without loss of time. The date of the auction should then be fixed, and this, as well as the place where the auction will he held, and the list of material to be sold, should be publicly advertised. The procedure of the auction itself begins by an announcement of the conditions of sale made to protect the seller against injury or loss, the lots are then put-up successively at the fixed upset-price, and knocked down to the highest bidder ; the highest bid is therefore the BY PUBLIC AUCTION. 457 price of each lot. As soon as the last lot has been sold, the auction is concluded by ascertaining the total price paid for each wood-assortment, and for the whole of the produce which has been sold. The success of the auction will depend in some measure on the place where it is held. This may be either on the felling- area or at the wood-depot, or in a building in some neighbouring and suitably situated village or town. If the sale is effected in the forest or depot, then every would-be purchaser can examine each lot, and estimate its value, and bid for it with confidence and deliberation. This is par- ticularly useful for purchasers when there is a considerable difference in the quality of the various lots. When, however, in a sale by detail, the lots are scrupulously assorted, as at present in many forests, the buyers are accustomed to visit the felling-area before the sale and true descriptions of the lots are given by the auctioneer — or where in sales of standing trees sufficient information regarding their volume and quality has been supplied beforehand to the buyers — a sale under cover of a roof is preferable, as it is much more expeditious and usually attracts a greater number of purchasers than a sale in the open air. Anyone wishing to purchase a large quantity of timber, will in any case visit the felling-area before the sale, and small purchasers have no time during the sale to measure and value every log, without intolerably delaying the auction. An auction in the forest is therefore advisable — when buyers cannot be induced to visit the felling-area or depot before- hand ; when the wood has been carelessly assorted, or each lot contains wood of various assortments and qualities. In all other cases, the interests of the forest owner are generally better safeguarded when the auction is held in a building. The date chosen for the auction ; the place in which the auction is held, and the list of material to be sold, should now be publicly advertised, both in the best local newspapers and in printed notices posted-up at inns and public buildings in the sale-district, as well as by the public crier. If the produce to be sold is chiefly wood for local demands, it is superfluous to spend much money on advertising ; it is then sufficient to give a list of the chief assortments in the notices, and to advertise loS SALE OF WOOD only iu purely local newspapers. If, however, valuable timber is to be sold for which there is a good demand or which is suitable for export, or in sales of large quantities of mer- chantable firewood and especially of standing trees, the sale notices should be more widely published. In such cases the forest manager should select the best newspapers for his advertisements, and too much economy would be out of place. Whenever purchasers from a distance may be expected, they should be informed by advertisements of the chief conditions of the sale. Whether the sale should be conducted by Forest or Accounts officials, depends on the special administrative arrangements of difl'erent countries. Although unnecessary expense in this matter cannot be justified, it is, on the other hand, un- desirable to leave all responsibility for the sale to the Forest Department. The Accounts officials are, in any case, better acquainted with the buyers than the foresters and should therefore be responsible for their solvency ; this is the case in Prussia, where the Forest Accountant attends all State forest auctions.* The auction commences by an official reading out and explain- ing the conditions of sale. These include : a statement whether the sale is with or without reserve ; the terms of security for payment to be off"ered by the purchasers ; conditions under which unknown strangers are allowed to bid ; measures of security against a conspiracy among the buyers to keep down prices ; dates of payment, and limit to which credit is given ; a list of roads by which the wood may be removed, and the condi- tions of removal; si)ecial political and sylvicultural conditions which are considered advisable ; finally, that no complaint will be entertained as regards any lot after it has once been knocked down. The upset-price at which the lots are offered for sale must evidently be less than that expected from the purchaser. How much lower it should be is a question not without importance as regards the obtainable price. Too high an upset-price fre- * [In Fiiiiice, the Trefd or Suus-prefcl presides at State forest auctions. In Belgium, sales of standing trees in jirivate forests are conducted by a Nutnirc, or notary public, who charges 11% commission, 3% of which is a vState tax, and guarantees the solvency of the jmrchasers. Iu France, tlic cliargc is I'o'j^. — Ti;.] BY PUBLIC AUCTION. 459 quently prevents the ijurchasers from bidding freely ; ^\llell too low, it causes delay, and if the competition is limited, leads to inferior prices being obtained for the wood. Although local cir- cumstances, the social condition of the purchasers, their number, and several other matters, may influence the choice of an upset-price; in most cases, it should be 10 to 20% under the royalty or real value of the wood. In the case of valuable merchantable timber, the upset-price may be higher, and even equal to the royalty when there is a probability of eager bidding. In the administration of some State forests (Saxony and Baden), the practice of fixing an upset-price to the lots in proportion to the royalty has been discontinued ; unrestricted bidding being considered more advantageous to the owner, as well as to the buyer. Every sale-lot should be clearly designated in the sale catalogue by its number ; the assortment, volume or dimensions of the wood, and any other particulars which are advisable being- given. In important timber-sales, intending purchasers should be allowed, before the sale, to consult the felling-register, or facsimile extracts from it should be handed round. In sales of standing timber, ready assistance should be given to enable pur- chasers to obtain knowledge of their value. The amount of the highest bid for each lot, with the purchaser's name, is then entered in the auctioneer's report, or in the felling-register. This is often attested by the purchaser's signature and that of a trustworthy surety. In sales by detail, after the last lot has been sold, the price of the diflerent assortments is totalled and the average price of each assortment calculated, so that it may be decided whether the confirmation of the sale may be at once efi"ected, or must be postponed, in case the average prices of the assortments are under the royalties* at which the forest ofiicial is authorised to sell the wood. In case the prices are lower than the authorised minima, they must either be confirmed by superior authority, or a fresh sale held. * A sale may Le conliniied in Baden, when the average ]>iiee ofiei'ed is not less than 10% lower than the avera<^e price of the last sale in u neighbourinjj; forest range. In Prussia, the Ohcrfurster can confirm a sale, if prices are not '20% lower than lixed royalties. In Bavaria, the Forslmeistcr sanctions annually the ])er('eii- tage by which sale-prices ma}' fall below royalties (for timber, generally, 10%, firewood 15%.) 1<5() SALE OF WOOD y. Delircry of ITood to tin: PurcJiascrs. The sale having been confirmed, the wood of the difl'crcnt lots is delivered to the purchasers immediately after the sale, uuless there is any difficulty in furnishing security for payment. If the sale is held in the forest, this is done either by handing over the wood at once, and by giving each purchaser a written order of removal for the wood he has bought. ^Yhen sales are not held in the forest, the forest manager assembles all the pur- chasers at the felling-area or depot, on a day fixed as soon as possible after the sale, and shows each purchaser his wood. Either then, but generally at the auction, each purchaser obtains his permit to remove his wood, on which is stated — the place where the wood is lying, a sufficiently clear description of the wood sold, the price to be paid for it and sometimes the dates when payment should be made. This permit should then 1)0 taken to the forest cashier and the price paid to him, when it is returned stamped and receipted, and the purchaser can then remove his wood. When credit is given, and payment is there- fore not immediate, the forest cashier should notify to the forest manager the names of any purchasers regarding whose solvency he has any doubt ; in such cases, the wood must remain in the forest until paynu'Ut has been made, or satisfactory security provided. Sometimes a period of time is fixed during whicli the forest manager is responsible for the safety of the purchasers' wood lying in the forest. • As a rule, however, wood once sold and delivered to the pur- chaser remains at his risk after he has received the permit for its removal, although the forest guards are expected to watch it carefully and prevent fraud. In many districts — as, for instance, in the Rhine-valley — the forest owner declines all risk for the sold wood, but a special guard is appointed and paid for by the puichasers for one or more felling-areas, to protect their wood when lying in the forest. A fixed rate of payment is then allowed for every stack of wood, every log and every hundred faggots, which is paid to the guard by each purchaser on the removal of his wood. This institution of a guard for felling-areas is generally tacitly agreed to by all purchasers BY SEALED TENDER. 461 of wood. Usually, the men who stack the firewood also guard the felling-area, and they can conveniently carry on these double duties. ii. Sale hy Sealed Tender. The other mode of sale to the highest bidder is that in which, after public advertisement of a sale, the offers or tenders to pur- chase are written and submitted to the seller in a sealed cover. In the case of a sale of standing trees, the written tenders to purchase may be either for the produce of a whole felling-area, or for separate lots ; in either case a valuation in volume and by assortments of wood is presupposed. If the wood to be sold has been converted, it is generally sold in assort- ments, or classes of assortments, usually by the purchaser tendering so much % more or less than the upset-price (say, two, five, ten % over, or under, the usual royalty). All tenders which have been received are opened on a fixed date and hour, in the presence of the intending purchasers. They are publicly read out, and each lot awarded to the purchaser who has submitted the highest tender, provided he can give good security for payment. Just as the solvency of the persons who tender for the wood must be assured, so other motives such as SAdvicultural require- ments may also influence the sale. As a rule, however, the sale is confirmed to the highest bidder. As in sale by public auction, it is highly in the interests of the seller and an absolute right on the part of the purchaser, that before tendering he should have free access to the sale-lots, and, on demand, should be allowed to see the report of the valuation of the wood and the felling- register. (c) Sale by Private Contract. When an owner deals with a single purchaser, and the price is fixed after a discussion between them, a sale by private contract results. This mode of sale is characterised by the fact that the price is fixed by both buyer and seller. In arranging the price, the owner will generally be guided by ICrl SALE OK WOOD. the avera^fo results of past sales to the highest bidder (or in certain cases may accept this figure as the price). Sale by private contract has the advantage of saving expense in valuation and auction-charges, or in avoiding possible loss. At the same time, it is clear that the seller undertakes a greater responsibility than in any other mode of sale, and must have a precise knowledge of the actual state of the wood-market for the time being. 3. Coifiparisoii of tlie raviolis Modes of Sdlc. Each of the above methods of selling forest produce is ad- visable under certain special circumstances ; it is better that a forest manager should not be wedded to any one of them, but that he should be ready at any time to adopt whichever method may prove most suitable for the case in question. (a) Sale by Royalty. — Sale by royalty has the least claim of all to exclusive adoption or even preference, as has been already shown on p. 452. Only in some places, in the case of certain privileged demands for wood, is such a method exclusively followed, and then the formation of a proper taritf demands great care. Where, on the contrary, sale by royalty is only occasionally followed, it forms a useful supplement to other modes of sale. It has then the advantage, in cases of necessity (conflagration of a village, scarcity of wood for agricultural purposes at seasons when the principal sales are not conducted, &c.) of satisfying urgent demands. Also, when traders combine to keep the price of forest produce below its full local value, a recourse to sale by royalty may improve matters. To adopt sale by royalty generally and exclusively would at once exhibit the shady side of this method, and prove that it is almost impossible for a forest manager to acquire an accurate knowledge of the real local value of wood. If it were also argued that prices may be corrected by the competition of sellers, a reply may be made that forestry is less able to effect such a result than any other industry, the forests in any district being usually in the hands of one or only a few owners. (b) Sale to the highest Bidder. — Sale by public auction, pro- vided that enough competitors arc present, may be considered COMPAEISOX OF MODES OF SALE. 46:5 as tlie most ordinary mode of sale. The chief advantages and disadvantages of its different varieties are as follows : — i. In Sale by Detail. AVhen converted timber is sold in small lots by public auction, sufficient competition will ensure the best prices, for owing to demand and supply, prices in this case most nearly represent the true local value of any sale-lot, including its quality, utihty, portability, &c. By auctioning forest produce, it is distributed in the simplest manner, and according to the measure of their requirements, among the consumers. If there are excep- tions to this rule, they are less numerous and more easily remedied than in sales by private contract. Much less time is occupied by auction -sales than by sales by private contract, a matter of great importance. All unjust dealing and respect for persons which may easily occur in private sale, or com- plaints of which may be brought against the most honourable foresters, are avoided by public auctions. The superiority of public auction over sale by private contract is proved by the fact that nearly everywhere in Germany, sale by private con- tract has been supplanted by auction-sales. Amongst the disadvantages urged against sale by public auction, the following is worthy of notice, namely, the possi- bility of the purchasers coming to an understanding before the sale. This is especially to be feared — when the attendance at a sale is small ; when too much material is offered for sale at once ; in the case of wood-assortments which not everyone can buy, either because their cost is prohibitive, or demands for them are small ; or finally, when the seller purposely tries to maintain prices above their proper local figure. Coalitions of purchasers are very frequent in the sale of merchantable timber, rafted wood or firewood intended for trade, for which local competition may be nil, or of a very limited nature. Coalition of purchasers is becoming a common affair in Germany, being much more frequent than is imagined both at large and petty sales. The theoretical idea of an auction-sale involves the assumption that every competitor is present merely on his own account, and that a coalition among the competitors is impossible : coalition cannot, however, be prevented, provided Kii SALE OF WOOD. it is agreed upon freely by the competitors ; it is illogul only when brought about by threats, &c. The seller must, therefore, endeavour to guarantee himself against the damage he may sufter owing to coalition at auctions. Almost the only remedy available is to stop the sale, and adopt measures to improve the competition of purchasers. Among these are the following : advertising widely (this however, presupposes sufficient wood to attract distant purchasers) ; sub-division of the sale-lots into smaller ones, so that it may be possible for poorer purchasers to compete ; finally, avoidance of all burdensome sale-conditions which reduce competition. A further measure against coalition is to adopt another mode of sale. There are also first principles of justice as well as of self- interest, wdiicli should always induce the seller to avoid all conduct on his part which may hinder a proper price being paid, or lead to coalitions of the purchasers. ii. SdU' of Stdudin;! Trees. The sale of standing trees, especially with the right of felling and conversion by the purchaser, is frequently preferred by wood-merchants and large dealers in timber to that of con- verted wood. This is easily explained by the fact that in the former case the wood-merchant can convert and remove the wood more profitably to himself, and can time its conversion and removal so as to take advantage of any special demand. In this mode of sale, however, the purchaser obtains the crown and stumps of the trees, as well as the stems, and thus may be encumbered with a quantity of firewood, the disposal of which is often burdensome and unprofitable to a timber- merchant. The matter has a difterent aspect as regards the interests of the forest owner. When the standing trees are sold by imit of produce, this protects the forest owner from the necessity of selling his trees at too low a price, and at the same time allows him full play in carefully felling and converting the trees. When, however, it is important to satisfy local demands, this mode of sale is not satisfactory [as the whole of each assort- ment from a felling-area (or the demarcated portion of one) is necessarily purchased by one individual. — Tu.]. COMPARISON OF MODES OF SALE. 465 Sale of standing trees to be felled and converted by the purchaser is generally more disadvantageous than otherwise to the forest owner, since he is obliged to hand over the felling- area more or less to the purchaser, and is unable to effect an accurate estimation of the volume or quality of the wood, a condition which is generally more unfavourable to the seller than to the buyer. It is well-known what large profits are made by wood-merchants in the purchase of whole forests, or compart- ments, of standing trees in Russia, Bosnia, Hungary, &c. Still, under certain circumstances, the sale of standing trees may be preferable to that of converted wood, especially when the wood- market is over-stocked ; also when supervision is defective or labour scarce, and in districts where this mode of sale has become customary, and long usage, influenced by the interests of both buyer and seller, have removed much of its harmfulness. Experience of the sale of standing trees has shewn, especially in Russia, where this mode of sale jjrevails, and also in France * and Austria, that in many cases sylvicultural requirements cannot be safe-guarded to the extent that is desirable in regular forest management, even after most carefully specifying the conditions of sale and the best possible supervision. In extensive forests, and where the regeneration and culture of a forest in no wise depends on the mode of utilization (as in clear cuttings) there is no objection to the sale of standing trees. If, therefore, sylvicultural considerations do not intervene, it may be to the advantage of a forest owner, under certain circumstances, to adopt this method temporarily. Such circumstances are — persistent coalitions of competitors at auctions, and scarcity of labour, for wood-merchants can often engage wood-cutters more cheaply than the Forest Department. Since a wood merchant, with foremen attached to his interests, is more in touch with the whole business than the distant and often impersonal forest owner, the felling, conversion and assort- ment of the produce of a felling-area is eflected with more zeal and skill, and a finer finish is sometimes given to what would * [The attention to S3'lvicultural requirements on felling- areas in the French State Forests on the part of the adJudiMtaires, or purchasers of standing trees, is generally satisfactory. In thinnings, where all the trees to he removed cannot he known before-hand, but are marked gradually as the work progresses, sales in France are effected by unit of produce. — Tk.] 466 SALE OF WOOD. otherwise be merely rough conversion.* Finally, in the case of extraordinary quantities of ])ro(luce, owing to damage by storms, insects, Arc, when the trees may be considered as only partially standing, it may be more advantageous to the owner to sell the trees on the whole affected area to a wood-merchant, than to convert it by the help of his own wood-cutters, and sell the material by detail. As regards State forests and those belonging to corporate bodies, the question between these two modes of sale has another bearing. The forest official should generally pay maximum wages for felling, conversion and removal of the wood. When, however, in State forests from short-sighted financial economy, wages are kept so low that even the industrious wood-cutter can hardly earn a living wage, the work he effects must decrease both in quantity and quality, and he loses all interest in the well-being of the forest. The rich wood -merchant who under- takes to fell and convert the trees on a felling- area usually pays high wages, as his interest is bound-up with careful conversion, &c. That he carefully considers this expense in the price he pays for the trees cannot be denied. In such cases, the general welfare is evidently better secured by selling the wood standing than by converting it departmeutally, the balance falling the other way for the forest owner. An example has here been cited merely to show that there are many factors affecting the question in any special case. Sale by sealed tender should be employed for standing trees, or in sales by detail, for large lots of converted wood ; it is especially suitable when only a few rich wood-merchants com- pete. It also serves as a remedy against coalition of buyers when trade is slack, and finally, in selling assortments for which there are no local purchasers, for instance, hop-poles, osiers, &c. AVhenever only a few large dealers are present at a sale, they can easily agree to keep down prices. By calling for sealed • [In the niiiialiiyan forests, export-works involving a large expenditure are recjuired in order to work the forests econoinically and ])rolital)ly, and the trees are simply converted into railway-sleepers or lirewood ; it has therefore proved more proiitahle, after agreeing beforehand with a railway or the commissariat department for the sale of the produce, to convert the trees departmcntally rather than to sell them standing to purchasers, who are accustomed to work out stinding trees from forests of native chiefs without any sylvicultural restrictions. — Tr.1 BUSINESS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 467 tenders the forest owner may invite competition from distant purchasers in order to paralyse the coalition of local traders ; this remedy may, however, prove to be only of a temporary nature. (c) Sale by Private Contract. — The sale of wood by private contract is employed when the demand is slack. There may often be only one or a few purchasers, and it is then pre- ferable not to auction the produce, but to deal directly with the purchasers ; the best price possible wall thus be obtained, Avhich would not result from selling to the highest bidder, where competition is so restricted. In this case also, the lots should be large, and the purchasers men of means. Sometimes the whole produce of devastated forest- areas are thus sold; some- times an entire assortment — round billets, charcoal-wood for smelting-furnaces, large quantities of railway- sleepers, telegraph- posts, merchantable timber, &c. ; sometimes large lots of con- verted wood, for which at an auction the bids were too far below the proper prices. Sale by private contract has recently been extending in a remarkable manner, especially in North Germany, and desires for its further extension have been expressed. This may be justifiable for certain districts, but in most cases, and especially in sales of State forest produce, it should be considered rather as a necessary evil, enforced by a limited demand in slack times, than as an even tolerably regular mode of sale, for where trade is brisk, no forest owner w^ould wash, by private sales, to reduce the competition at auctions.* Section III. — Business Principles involved in the Sale of Wood. 1. General Account. Owing to the moderate net revenue resulting from forests, .and the considerable amount of invested capital which they * [In Britain, coppice is generally sold at so much an acre, or the wood felled .and sold in assortments after conversion. Standards over coppice are sold at fixed prices per cubic foot which increase with the girth of the tree ; only the bole is cubed, and the crown given-in to cover cost of felling. In beech selection forests, the marked trees are usually felled by the owner, and the logs and faggots sold as they lie in the forest, and this is also the case with oak and Scotch pines in the Crown forests, the price being fixed by private contract. — Tr.] H H 2 •1P.8 SALE UF WOOD. involve, it is evident thiit every forest owner should strive, by improving' the markets for his produee, to obtain as high a price as possible for it. Even if the forest owner can exert no in- fluence on the general temporary prices of wood, and as regards the sale of his own produce, is fettered by the situation of his forest, the state of the local wood market, and many other con- ditions ; yet the financial results of the sale of his wood, under the given conditions, depend greatly on his skill in managing sales. Much has been already said on this subject in the preceding sections ; it is, however, necessary to discuss, in a general way, the principles and experience of mercantile busi- ness which are most nearly related to the above objects. In order to sell wood profitably, a forester must be a trader, and must have the same aptitude for trade as other dealers who sell wares. Forest officials entrusted with the sale of produce should either have mercantile experience, or endeavour to acquire it in a certain degree. Exactness in formally carrying out de- partmental orders and routine ^\^ll not suffice here, for this is not by any means all that is needful for a commercial mental outfit. Active and intelligent intercourse with the world, especially in all industrial and mercantile questions, observation of all causes which affect the market for his own produce, persistent endeavours to detect all precursors of trade, to weigh accurately the importance of all intervening occurrences, and to form correct decisions after considering all these circumstances — only habits such as these make a successful trader. 2. Genuine Goods, and (jood ]Vci(j}it and Measure. All solid mercantile success is founded on the genuineness of the goods oil'ered for sale, and on giving the purchasers good weight and measure. Genuine goods arc those which are equal to the description given of them by the seller. Every wood assortment should contain only pieces of wood which are thus correctly classified. Every offer of inferior wood, every conceal- ment of defects and damage in timber, every classification of pieces above their proper class, and so forth, impairs their genuineness. Wood should therefore be always so exposed for BUSINESS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 469 sale that every would-be purchaser may easily ascertain its quality. In a similar way, full measure should always be given in firewood stacks, and a thorough understanding arrived at as to the sale measurements of logs, in order to maintain a good credit with purchasers. A most careful assortment in accordance with prices inspires purchasers with confidence. With the same end in view, the price-tarifi" should also be most carefully compiled in accordance with the real value of the wood-assortments. Above all, timber should be carefully classed as regards its quality, and a forester should give no cause for a report that he sells half-rotten or inferior material as good timber. He should also take great care not to mix inferior wood with good material, hoping thus to obtain a better sale for the former. It is now about time to secure uniformity in all wood measurements — especially should all timber be measured without its bark, and old country measures should give place to the metric system. Only absolute clearness in measuring leads to genuine trade. It frequently happens that in slack times for trade, logs are measured below their actual dimensions, or timber classified below its proper rating, with the object of finding ready purchasers at prices which appear to be on a par with, or even to exceed, the fixed tariff. Such manipulation must be entirely abnegated, for it impairs the confidence traders should feel in the honesty and accuracy of forest officials, hinders the compilation of a correct tariff, and serves only to blind superior otticials. 3. The Produce to he Sold. Every felling-area yields good as well as inferior wood. The forester should always attend most carefully to the conversion and assortment of good material, for this chiefly affects the financial returns of his forest ; he should also endeavour as much as possible to avoid overstocking the market with inferior wood. This should be especially attended to when trade is slack, or the sale of good material will be prejudiced. When the market is overstocked, it is better to leave stump- wood and inferior firewood in the forest than allow it to reduce •l-7(l SALE OK WOOD. the price of the better class of firewood ; also, where poles from thinnings are in a similar condition, it is better not to classify them as timber. In slack times it is a matter of ordinary prudence to reduce to the utmost the cost of conversion of inferior material. Purchasers of such stuft" will convert it more cheaply and more in accordance with their own wishes than forest officials. In converting his trees, the forester should always be guided, as far as general rules will allow, by the wishes of purchasers. Whenever there is a generally expressed desire for any change in the details of the wood-assortments, as is often the case, the forester should be ready to meet the purchasers' wishes ; they are usually the expression of an actual technical require- ment. When, for instance, there is a desire that stacked wood should be more than a yard long, or that butts should be longer than is usual in the locality, the question should be carefully considered, and it often happens that it is in con- sequence of a new demand for timber, and then the wood should in future be converted accordingly. 4. lVood-M((rhcts. A few decades ago, before the present world-wide means of communication had been established, each forest had its own local purchasers, its own more or less limited local market to which each forest range was practically confined. Only forests which were favourably situated as regards water-carriage were accessible to traders of the world-market, to which most of the best timber was floated. INIatters have changed in this respect, and at present almost every forest range has a share in the world-market, and there are few forests too remote to feel its fluctuations. Although the local market has not entirely lost its importance in certain forest districts, yet, especially as regards timber, it is the world-market which regulates prices. Under these circumstances, the really enterprising forester must know not only his local market, but should also keep in view all the movements and changes of the world-market ; although ho may be only indirectly connected witli the latter through the BUSINESS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 471 middleman, yet he should be thoroughly acquainted with the prices which prevail in the distant principal market, as well as those of the local market. The generally isolated residence of forest officials would be an insurmountable obstacle in the way of his meeting such demands, were he not to avail himself of the assistance which is open to every trader. This consists in the public press and in consular reports from the chief timber-markets. As regards pamphlets dealing with the timber-trade, some are edited and distributed by the chief forest officials in certain States ; others are private undertakings, for instance, Das Handalsblatt fi'ir Walderzeugnisse, the Berlin Centnilblatt fi'ir Holzindustrie, Revue dcs Eaux et Forets, The London Timber Trades Journal, &c. Agents employed by forest owners and State consulates would do great service if they would publish, not merely periodic reports, but any rapid changes in the markets. The future can only decide as to the extent to which forest owners, like other W'holesale producers, can make use of regular travelling agents to offer their produce for sale, and arrange contracts and deal with purchasers, &c. It need hardly be remarked that all endeavours which may be made to raise the price of wood (since its fall in 1865) should apply only to timber, for, with exception of a few country districts, it is impossible to rehabilitate firewood in competition with coal. As long, however, as firewood is procurable at a steady and moderate price, it will always find a ready sale. Although the fullest attention should be paid by the forester to the general market, he should always endeavour to improve and extend his local market. Wherever industries using wood, such as sawmills, factories for wood-pulp, furniture, carved work, kc. exist, or are to be introduced and extended, provided there is no sylvicultural impediment, they should be energetically supported and assisted. 5. Tlie Timber-Trade. Under present conditions, the assistance of the wood-merchant is, in most cases, indispensable to the forester. No wholesale •172 SALE OF WOOD. producer can dispcuse with the middleman ; least of all forestry, with its voluminous and heavy produce, its unequally distributed producing localities, and its owners, who are in general unfitted for trade (the State, municipalities, hospitals, Sec). As far as concerns the local market, and in cases where the latter favours a direct dealing between consumer and forest owner, the whole- sale timber-merchant does not intervene. The petty dealer is, however, a necessary and generally welcome member of the local market. "Whenever large quantities of wood, and especially of valuable timber, are in question, especially in forests with a small local demand, the wood, for the most part, would rot in situ if wholesale timber-merchants did not undertake its sale and dis- tribution in distant districts which are densely populated and poorly supplied with forests. Forest owners and wholesale timber-merchants must therefore work hand-in-hand, and good business relations between them are entirely in the interests of forests, as long as only through the latter the distribution and conversion of the raw material into marketable produce can be effected. Under present trade conditions, so changed compared with the past, it would be a serious injury to a forest owner were he to refuse to acknowledge the necessity of the middleman ; he must, on the contrary, constantly endeavour to improve his relations with him. For it is the timber-trader who endeavours to extend the present market and to open out fresh ones and improve the means of transport ; who invests a large capital in buying timber and establishing sawmills ; who follows with attention every change, however small, in the price of wood ; who is constantly posted-up in all industrial changes in the conditions of transport or the incidence of taxes, and who is vigorously engaged in pushing on the timber business. All this energy of the timber merchant, even though it is in his own interest, should be thankfully acknowledged by the forester. But if these desirable relations in the interests of both parties, between the forest owner and the timber-merchant, are to bear useful fruit, the latter must also be more ready than is often the case to meet the former half-way. BUSINESS PFJXCIPLES INVOLVED. 473 6. Modes of Sale. Public auction of converted wood should be considered as the regular, though not exclusive, mode of sale, for it is only suit- able when free competition of purchasers may be expected. In slack times of trade and when markets are overstocked, also in the case of very large fellings, sale by sealed tender, by unit of produce or by private contract, may yield better financial results than auction sales under such conditions. Wherever, business being very slack, large quantities of wood must be sold in remote imd comparatively inaccessible districts, the forest owner may have recourse to sale of standing trees by area. Whenever it is possible, however, auction-sale of converted wood is preferable. After considering all local and temporary objections to any mode of sale, there can hardly be any difficulty in deciding which to adopt in any particular case. To act by routine in such a matter may cause great pecuniary loss, as experience has often shown. Especially in selling valuable timber, the forester should not be guided solely by custom, but should select, without prejudice, whichever mode of sale is best for the case in point.* 7. Season fur Sales, The season when trade is most active is clearly the best time to sell the produce. As a general rule, autumn, winter, and fiarly spring are the best seasons for the sale of wood ; matters vary locally in this respect, and the best seasons for sale depend on the necessities of the consumer, the dates of final payment for the wood, and the amount of leisure which the public interested in the purchase of wood can command at different seasons of the year ; also, as regards merchantable timber, on the usual date when contracts to supply the timber are closed, and the season in which, according to local custom, wood prices are steadiest. Demands for firewood are clearly greatest in winter, whilst building and industrial timbers are more in demand during the summer. As, however, nobody burns green wood, but allows it, * [Tlie Deputy Surveyor reports that in the Forest of Dean, trees are felled and sold in logs and butts as they lie. Any considerable quantity of timber is sold by sealed tender, and smaller or inferior lots by private contract, at so much a cubic foot for timber, varying with the girth, or in cords of 128 cubic feet.— Tr.] 471 SALK OF WOOD. ill any case, to dry tlirouj^liout the suminer so as to ensure a profitable sale, it is better to sell the produce of summer-fellings in the autumn, and those of winter-fellings early in the spring. In years with proh)nged cold winters, evidently the best time for selling firewood is in mid-winter, and then cart-transport is- readily available. Small wood for agricultural purposes, which is generally brought into use immediately after felling ; railway- sleepers, which are sold by wholesale merchants and must usually be impregnated and delivered to the railway authorities, by the beginning of summer, and other wood-assortments whicli are reqmred early in the year, should be sold during autumn or early winter. When trees are sold standing, the sales should be effected in September, so that the merchant may know in time what business he has to undertake during the felling season. If the technical requirements for certain woods pre- scribe that the felling should take place in the growing season, an enterprising forest owner will endeavour to meet such a demand. The date of final payment for the wood sold is also more important than the immediate demand. "Where sales are for cash down, they should be held in autumn and early winter, when the country people have most ready money ; if payment is by instalments, with security, the season for sale is less im- portant, provided the interval before final payment, for which autumn is best, is not too short. When the peasantry takes 2)art in wood-sales, these should be fixed when they have leisure to attend, and that is usually during winter. As regards wholesale traders, they generally sell from timber-yards, where they keep their wood a longer or shorter time, so as to profit by favourable opportunities for sale. The petty dealer, on the other hand, buys only at favourable seasons, when he can readily dispose of his wood for a fair profit. The above remarks may be thus summarised : — Autumn and winter, and the times nearest to them, are the most profitable seasons for selling wood; by the middle of April, in ordinary years, the chief produce of felling-areas should be sold. It should also be noted that people become accustomed to fixed dates for sales, conduct business accordingly, and attend such sales with the determination to purchase sufficient wood for their requirements. BUSINESS PRINX'IPLES INVOLVED. 1T5 [In India, the sales of standing trees and other produce from the State forests between the Jumna and Ganges rivers, are held annually in September, so that work in the forests may commence in November, as soon as the healthy, dry season has commenced. — Tr.] Whenever large falls of timber result from storms, snow-break, or damage by insects, the sales should be hurried-on and the wood rapidly cleared, even if only inferior prices are obtainable ; for the loss by the threatened decay of the wood is, as a rule, greater than that due to a low price for it, whilst danger of further damage by insects is reduced. 8. Extent of the Sales and Sale-Lots. The quantity of wood offered for sale should correspond with the number and position of the purchasers. In well-populated districts, with a fair consumption of wood and to satisfy local demands, under ordinary circumstances, a moderate supply of converted wood, say 600 to 1,200 cubic meters (400 to 800 loads) of timber and firewood usually sell better than larger or smaller quantities. In poorly populated districts with a small local demand for wood, and with large quantities of wood for sale and only a few wood-merchants competing, large wood sales are absolutely necessary. Whether in such cases the produce of several ranges, or of several felling-areas, should be sold together, depends on the expected amount of competi- tion. In no case should valuable timber be sold at different times ; it is better that neighbouring communes, and even private forest owners, should unite to hold large sales, if their own fall of timber is small. It is evident that most large timber-sales in which only large capitalists can compete, are chiefly sales of standing trees by area ; for instance, in W^est Prussia, sales of 10,000 to 20,000 cubic meters (7,000 to 14,000 loads) of standing wood for three or five years are eftected. Sales of 5,000 to 6,000 cubic meters (8,500 to 4,000 loads) of converted timber are not rare ; as, for instance, in the forest ranges of Jachenau, Walchensee, &c. of the Bavarian Alps, also in the case of the enormous masses of wood killed in S. Bavaria by the nun-caterpillar, for which sales of 400,000 and 500,000 cubic meters were held. It is not 476 SALE OF WOOD. advisable to bold mixed sales of timber and firewood wben cbiefly wbolesale mercbants are competing. Similar principles underlie tbe formation of sale-lots. Tbe amount of competition and tbe class of traders present will decide tbeir dimensions. Tbe wisbes of tbe public sbould also be so far followed in tins respect, tliat it may be possible for large dealers to purcbase separately tbe assortments wbicb tbeir business requires. Tbese consist cbiefly of tbe better class of stem-timber. Wbere sales are beld to satisfy local demands, only small lots are advisable. Wbilst in sales of standing trees, lots may consist of 500 to 1,000 and more cubic meters (350 to 700 loads) ; in large regular sales of converted wood tbe lots seldom surpass 30, 50, or at tbe most, 100 cubic meters (20, 35, or 70 loads) : as a rule tbey are even smaller. It is otberwise in extraordinary falls of large numbers of trees, owing to storms, &c. ; in sucb cases tbe size of tbe lots increases witb tbe quantity of material to be disposed of, and tbe capital of tbe competing mercbants. In the sale of wind-fallen timber in tbe Yosges mountains, in 1892, besides smaller lots, large lots of 5,000 and 8,000 cubic meters were formed ; and in tbe case of trees killed by tbe nun- caterpillars in IJavaria, tbe lots attained 10,000 cubic meters. Wbetber, in forming tbe lots, tbe same care sbould be taken as in forming tbe assortments of timber, i.e., tbat tbe same lot sbould only contain tbe same quality of wood, depends on tbe numbers and kind of would-be purchasers present. [In tbe French State forests no lot of standing timber offered for sale should exceed 10,000 fr. (£400) in value.— Tr.] 1). ( 'innJUioiiH of Side. It is self-evident tbat burdensome conditions, displeasing to tbe purchasers, will reduce competition, and tbat the sale will be the more profitable tbe less stringent are its conditions. On tbe other band, the security of tbe owner against loss, and the demands of sylviculture, must be ensured. It is difficult to say how far a forester can go in the latter direction without prejudice to tbe interest of the forest owner ; it depends on the state of the market and of ])rices, the solvability of the purchasers, tbe cost of transport, and the actual demands of sylviculture. The BUSINESS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 4-77 less favourable the local and temporary conditions of the timber- market, the less must one insist on conditions of sale which reduce competition ; and this is more necessary when the purchasers are dealers than when the wood is disposed of among- local persons. One of the most important points is whether cash-payments should prevail, or credit be given. The question is regarded from different points of view in different countries. In most German State forests, except quite recently, cash-payment was the rule, but this has been considerably modified of late. Credit increases the woj-k of accountants, often encourages swindling and indiscretion on the part of certain purchasers, but all this shady side of the credit system disappears compared Avith the disadvantage of reducing competition by demanding ready money. Credit is now-a-days such a necessary condition of all trade and business, that the forest owner cannot avoid it. Sufficiently long credits, up to a half-year and even longer, in the case of trustworthy large dealers, are conditions which much experience, far from verifying the fears of extensive loss which have been expressed, has proved thoroughly jus- tifiable in the interest of forest owners.* It is self-evident that credit can be given to doubtful pur- chasers only on sufficient security (after payment of 25/^ of the purchase money, deposition of valuable documents, promissory notes on good banking houses, &c.). In the different German States and in Austria, various systems of credit prevail, for instance, in Baden, 3% discount is given for cash payment, otherwise three to eight months' credit. [In India, depositiou of Governmeut promissory notes, on which interest continues to be payable to the depositor, is the best form of security in wood-sales. It can also be stipulated that in sales of standing trees, one-third of the purchase money is payable after the wood is converted, and the balance on removal of the wood from the forest, more than sufficient wood being retained in the forest to cover the balance of the purchase-money. — Tr.] The date fixed for removal of the wood from the forest or depot is also an important condition of the sale. If the limit * The accountant's office at Ascliaffenburg, which receives payment for the oakwood from the Spessart, had to receive between 1863 — 73, £111,400, of which only 27s. was a bad debt. 178 SALE OF WOOD. allowed is too short, or not fixed Avitli due reference to the cost of transport ; if carts and boasts are few and are required for the time bein<,' for af^^ricultural purposes, the cost of transport will he increased, and the price of the wood consequently falls. In fixin^,' the date for the removal of the wood, the forester should respect ^^eneral departmental orders, but in carrying them out he should be very lenient and consider the nature of the roads, that in some cases sand docs not bind in winter, or other roads are too wet for use except during frost, or after dry summer weather ; that in the case of Avater-carriage the logs cannot always be floated or rafted at a fixed time, and that country people prefer to work at wood-transport before the hay is mown, or after the corn has been harvested. If all the wood has been brought out of the forest, sylvicultural rules will not intervene to hurry on the removal of the wood from the road-side. 10. Adcertiabifi Sales. It has been already remarked, that competition at sales is greatly improved by judicious and timely advertisement. As no petty dealer is afraid of the expense involved in bringing his goods to the notice of consumers, and wholesale producers often spend immense sums in this way with good results ; it cannot be doubted that in forestry, judiciously advertising timber-sales must have an important bearing on their financial results. Too great economy in this matter will certainly entail loss. It should, however, be clearl}' understood, that no allusion is here intended to puffing advertisements, which are more calcu- lated to excite mistrust than to stimulate purchasers. The advertising medium should be much more carefully chosen than is usually the case. Here is meant, not only advertising in the public press, but also the despatch to large dealers and other persons interested in the sales of printed notices giving sufficient detail of the sale-lots. Wherever large numbers of logs arc sold yearly, and there is a more or less extensive demand for them, the timber-trade may reasonably expect to be informed by notices published before- hand, what woods and felling-areas will be taken in hand, and what will be their probable yield, so that timber-merchants may BUSINESS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 479 undertake contracts and make other preparations for the expected timber. In France and in many forest ranges of Prussia, Baden, Bavaria, &c. such notices are now issued regularly. 11. Means of Transport The great influence which the available means of transport has on wood-prices is well known, and has been already referred to. All unwise economy in providing good means of transport depresses prices, and improvement in this respect should be one of the first objects of the forest owner. Every intelligent forest owner will endeavour to reduce the cost of transport from his forest. The forester therefore lays- out new roads, improves old ones, regulates floating channels, constructs slides, sledge-roads or tramways ; establishes depots on the banks of streams and canals and at railway stations ; he will see to the drjung and seasoning of his wood, and in certain cases will convert his timber and split his firewood in the forest. He should not be too narrow-minded in allowing the public use of the forest-roads. If a forest is to be lucrative, its roads should be always open, provided they communicate with the general network of public roads. The higher cost of repairs will be fully recovered by the improved means of transport. Of immense importance, in this respect, is the proximity of railroads to the forests. Reduction of railway-rates for wood, and introduction of railways into the forests are vital interests to forest owners, which they, in conjunction with the timber- trade, should use every possible means to secure. [In Britain, this question is complicated by the fact that railway companies grant through rates for timber and other produce from their ports to the large inland towns, which are actually less than rates from intermediate places between the port and the place of destination of the timber. In this way foreign timber is unduly favoured. — Tr.] For owners of extensive forests, provided that sylvicultural requirements are not infringed, it is generally justifiable to entrust the transport of forest produce to contractors, as they can generally work more expeditiously and cheaply than owners, and especially than the State. 480 SALE OF WOOD, 12, Forest (llfic'uds. If the manager of a forest is expected to work it to its full linancial advantage, he must be allowed a free hand in timber- sales, so that he can act without delay in accordance with the demands of the market. Cases constantly arise when owing to an overstocked market the competition at auction-sales of converted timber is too slack, and other modes of sale must be tried. Although control is necessary, especially in large State departments, yet it should not be too rigid, and a trustworthy executive official should not be too much fettered by routine but left sufficiently to his own responsibility, mere routine in timber-sales having disastrous results to the forest owner. Now-a-days, thousands of pounds may be gained by taking time by the forelock, and using telograpliic communication between buyer and seller, Fi«. 26;). Mode of Eaisiko Logs on to Carts^ h T. CTKATII. (Vide p. 321.) 481 PART II. HARVESTING AND DISPOSING OF MINOR FOREST PRODUCE. The term minor forest produce comprises all the useful pro- ducts of a forest, except wood. The very term implies that, as a rule, these products fill only a subordinate roll in forestry, and should be utilized only so far as this can be done without prejudicing the yield of wood, which is the principal forest product. Some articles of minor forest produce (such as forest litter) may be commercially valuable, and at the same time afford important assistance in the production of wood, so that their harvesting may prejudice the latter. Other products (such as grass) are less important in assisting wood-production, while some are thus of no importance at all (stones, for instance), and yet the very existence of certain industries may depend on their utilization. As long, however, as the con- tinuous production of wood is the object of forestry, the industrial importance of any article of minor produce must be less considered the more important it is as a means of wood- production. As the utilization of articles of minor forest produce has more or less influence on the tending of forests and the produc- tion of wood, it has become customary in books on forest utiliza- tion to deal with them from every possible point of view. Their partial relations to the subjects of forest protection, forest utili- zation, sylviculture &c., do not justify us in dealing with them separately under each of those heads. In the present book, therefore, the usual practice will be followed, and all the more important points regarding the follow- ing articles of minor produce will be described : — I. The B.\rk of 'I'eees. II. Forest Fodder. 482 MINOll FOKEST TKODUCE. III. Field-Crops combined with Forestry. IV. The Fruits of Forest Trees. V. Fallen Dead Wood. VI. Stones, Earth, &c. VII. Forest Litter. VIII. Resin. IX. Less Important Items of Minor Produce. [Game and fisheries in forests are generally included among Minor Forest Produce, and frequently yield considerable revenues. In German State and communal forests, the right of shooting deer, hares, &c., is either leased for a term of years, or is exercised by the local forest officials, the gam-^ which they shoot being sold and its jjrice credited to the State. The right of catching fish is also leased, especially in trout-streams in hill-forests in Germany. In France the right of hunting red-deer or wild-boars, or of shooting these and smaller game, as well as fishing rights, are leased for a term of years in both State and communal forests. For further details, vide Schlich's ^lanual of Forestry, Vol. IV., also Dlustrirtes Forst und .Jagd Lexicon, edited by Dr. Fiirst, and other s})ecial works. — Tr.J 4y;3 CHAPTER T. UTILIZATION OF THE BARK OF TREES/" Section I. — General Account. With the exception of a few other employments for bark in certain countries, which will he referred to at the close of this chapter, the bark of trees serves principally for tanning. In order that skins of animals may be utilized for boots, articles of saddlery, &c., they must be subjected to a process which pre- serves them from decay, and renders them more or less supple. There are four methods at present employed for preparing leather, that termed tamiing, when substances containing tannin are used for the purpose ; tawing, by means of aluminium salts ; shamoying, by means of fats or oils, [and the fourth, by means of compounds of chromium.— Tr.]. [Tanning produces ordinary leather ; tawing — kid and other white leathers which may be dyed various tints — and shamoying, which is the oldest process, produces wash-leather. The process by means of chromates is a comparatively recent discovery, 1882, and has been reported to produce leather stronger than the best bark- tanned leather. — Tr.] Tanning is eflfected by the affinity of tannic acid for the albumen and gelatine in skins, the process partaking of a chemical as well as of a physical nature ; by the union of these substances a firm but supple compound is produced, which is insoluble in water, resists decay, and penetrates all the other components of a skin, without damaging its natural structure. In Germany, the production of tanning materials is chiefly limited to the bark of trees. Nearly all indigenous forest trees contain tannic acid in their bark, young shoots, &:c., but only a few yield it in sufficient quantities to be commercially utilizable. These few are oaks, spruce, to some extent also larch, willow, and * In Pnissia, hark is coiisidt^red an article of principal forest produce. I I 2 48-4 BARK. birch. Even chestnut-wood* is now used in Savoy for the pro- duction of tannic acid. The oak heads the list both for ricliness in tannic acid and quantity of production, and oak-bark is at present reputed as the best tannin<^ material in (Germany, Belgium, and England. The tanner considers only young oak-bark suitable for render- ing leather water-tight, a faculty more or less wanting in other tanning materials, and which, according to chemists, is owing to the starch in the young bark. As regards tanning materials from foreign countries, the following list is given : — Catechu, an extract rich in tannic acid, from the wood of an Indian tree. Acacia Catechu, Willd., and the leaves of a Malayan shrub, Uncaria Gambia, lloxb. ; also in small quantities from the nuts of the Indian palm (Areca Catechu, L.) ; Dividivi, the dried husks t of the pods of a small tree, Caesalpinia Coriaria, Willd., which grows in Brazil and the West Indies [and has been introduced into the East Indies. — Tr.] ; Sahla consists of the pods of a Mimosa ; Valonea, of the cups of acorns of Quo'cus A'lgilops, which grows chiefly in the Levant and Greek islands, &c., it is a very powerful tanning agent, chiefly used in the tanneries of Southern Europe, and is now being increasingly used in Germany to strengthen weaker tanning substances. A very powerful tanning material is Quebracho wood {Aspidosju'rma Quebracho), from the river Plate ; it is cut into shreds, and used with tanning bark ; Myrobalans, the fruits of Terminalia Chebula, T. IxUerica, and 7'. citriii'i, are largely imported into Europe from India. [Besides the above substances mcntioiKHl by Gayer, Mimosa bark from various Australian acacias — chiefly (A. harpo2>hi/Ha) from Queensland, tlie black wattle {A. mol/isdma), tlie gold wattle {A. I'l/cnantha), the Tasmanian silver wattle (A. leucophi/lla) and {A. cyi()iojilti/lla) — is largely imported into the United Kingdom ; and Hemlock bark, the bark of Abies canadensis, is the most important tanning material in the United States, its extract being imported into Europe. At Cape Town, the l)ark of Acacia srth'rpia, a naturalised W. Australian species, is the mainstay t)f the tainiL'rics.--Tn.] * [There is a factory near Stuttgart in Wiirtteniburg, wliere eliestnnt-wood is cut into shreds and Ijuiled-down for the ])iirj)ose. A smnlar factory at Nancy, in France, uses 2,600 loads of oak-womi aiimuilly, the wood being taken from tin- refuse of fellings in oak-forests, broken luanclies, stumps, roots, kc. (l3oj)iie, o]>. cit. p. 108.)— Ti:.] t [The seeds contain an oil injurious to leather and must be removed. — Ti;.] GENEKAL ACCOUNT. 485 Southern Europe, especially the southern provinces of Austria- Hungary, produce certain tanning substances, which are not only locally important, but are exported to other countries ; these are Knoppem-galls, Galls, and Sumach. Knoppem-galls are rough excrescences on acorns of the pedunculate oak, produced by various gall-wasps, chiefly Cynips calycis, Burgod. Galls are more or less round and smooth growths on the twigs and petioles of several species of oak, caused by Cynips r/allae tinctoriac, L. Those from southern countries, such as Aleppo, Turkey, and the Levant, are superior to those from Istria on Quei'CKs Cerris ; Hungarian galls are the worst, and those appearing on the leaves of oaks in Northern Europe have no commercial value. [Except the knoppern-galls, galls are too valuable to be used for tanniiif^, containing much gallic acid used for ink and dyes. — Tr.] Venetian sumacli is a tanning material prepared from the leaves, young twigs, and bark of the wig-tree {liJiiis Cotinus, L.), which grows abundantly in Transylvania, Hungary, Dalmatia, Venice, South Tyrol, &c., often as coppice, and is cut annually, dried, and ground into tan.* Sicilian sumach is similarly prepared from Rhus Coriaria, pollards of which are grown in Sicily. For the quantity of tannic acid in these various substances, special works + should be consulted, the only source of interest here being young oak-bark. The amount of tannic acid this contains varies considerably with the locality, age, mode of growth, &c., and in commercial oak-bark, the extreme limits of the contained tannic acid are 6 and 20 %.t From the numerous analyses w^hich have been made of oak- bark from the provinces of South Germany and Austria-Hungary, the best kinds of young bark contain 15 — 20 7o of tannic acid ; middling kinds, 10—15 % ; old bark, 8—10 7„ ; in North Germany, oak-bark gives an average of Gg — 10 7o> ^^^ spruce- bark 6 — 8 7o- "Tlie tanner, however, does not attach much im- portance to analyses of bark, but trusts to appearance, taste, and * Ehus Cotiaus also grows in the Himalayas, its wood termed yellow-wood, or false Brazil-wood, is used commercially as a yellow dye. + [Encyc. Brit. Xiiitli edition. Vol. XIV. " Leather."— Tr.] :;: The results of numerous analyses of oak-bark, from the Bavarian Palatinate, are given in the reports of experimental stations of the Bavarian Agiicultural Society, 1861, Vol. 3. Also Theo. Hartig, Gerbstotf der Eiche, 1869. 486 ]iai;k. smell. From the researches of llurti^', thin twigs (wood and bark) of youn<( and old oaks in winter, as also unlignifiod spring shoots, contain as much tannin as the fine bark of oak-coppice.* Section II. — PnoDUCTiox of Yoixd Oak-Uvkk. Tans prepared from the bark of young oak-trees form the best possible tanning materials. Extensive forest tracts stocked with oak-coppice are required for its production, and both in quantity and quality far outvie the yield of older oak-trees. For that reason, a separate account is given here of the production of tan from j'oung oak-trees, as compared with that produced l>y old oaks and other species of trees. By young oaks are meant both seedling and coppice growth up to a limit of 25 years. Before considering the mode of harvesting oak-bark, it will be useful to give a short account of the various conditions which affect its quality. 1. Coitdltioiis afcetiufi the Qiialitij of Bar!:. (a) Species. — Oak coppice-woods in Germany are partly stocked with the sessile oak and partly with the pedunculate species. In the best localities for oak-bark, the Odenwald, the Bavarian Palatinate, the Hundsriick, Taunus, the valleys of the Neckar, and hills of the Middle and Upper Rhine- Valley, it is, with very few exceptions, the sessile oak ; only in the low^er lands, near the water-courses, does the pedunculate oak take its part in these woods. In the North German plain (as in Britain), on the con- trary, the pedunculate oak prevails ; also in the neighbourhood of the Harz and Siegen, in Silesia and in most oak-bark coppices in Austria. Each of these species yields the largest quantity and best quality of bark in the locality that is best adapted for it. In South and Central Germanv, the bark of the sessile oak is preferred ; in this region also it is much the easier of the two oaks to peel. The Turkey-oak is used here and there in Austria for the production of bark, but on account of its forming, at an early age, a deeply-cracked rititidanic, or dead bark, and * 14 cwt. of oak-l)ark, coiitiiiiniif^ 1 iwt. of tannin, arc recjnired to cDnvert into leather 2 cwt. of fresh skins. 2 tons (.f spruce-bark will iirodiice the same cMVct. Boppe, oj). cit. ]). 109. Bark of Qurrciis Ilr.v contains more tannin tlmn that of Jeciilnous oaks. Boppe, op. cit, p. 107. PRODUCTION OF YOUNG OAK-BARK. 487 because its numerous bundles of bast penetrate the sapwood deeply, and render peeling very difficult, it is of little value. (b) Locality. — It may be stated as a rule proved by expe- rience, that not only the quantity, but also the quality of oak- bark is directly proportional to the energy of the coppice- growth, for quickly grown, vigorous oak-shoots produce most tannic acid. The percentage of tannic acid for oaks of equal age is directly proportional to the thickness of the bast and cor- tex, and this is known to depend on the greater or less vigour of their growth. The nature of the locality is therefore the most important factor in the yield. If the oak, when compared with many other trees, has a very limited range in which it is at its best, this is even more marked with oak-bark coppice. A mild climate and a loose, sufficiently moist and miuerally rich warm soil are essential conditions for this to be remunerative. The climate is undoubtedly the chief factor in the production of tannin. All tanning materials are the richer in tannic acid, the more southern the country in which they are produced ; this is the case with galls and other substances, and is equally true for oak-bark. The mild climate of the Rhine-valley and the adjoining districts, especially the Moselle-valley, Rheingau, the district of the Saar and the Odenwald, aflfords the best oak-bark coppices in Germany. Oak-bark is also produced commercially in the Silesian hills. Saxony, the North German plain, Bruns- wick, Mecklenburg, &c., but it cannot compete with Rhenish bark. Many districts in Austria are more favourably situated for successful production of bark, which is there produced in fairly large quantities. Districts where the vine is cultivated in the open, or where at any rate the better classes of fruit trees flourish, may be cited as suitable for a remunerative yield of oak- bark. The richer the soil in suitable mineral matter, the better, provided it is sufficiently porous ; for the demands of the oak on heat require a loose soil easily capable of being heated. Wet, even damp places are not suitable for oak-coppice. Most oak- coppices are on southerly aspects of hills, on Bunter sandstone, Grauwacke, Argillaceous schist, porphyry or limestone, or on gravels in the wide river-valleys.* * [From the above, it is evident that oak-bark coppice should prove more renunierative in the south of England, ^\' iles, and in Ireland, than in Scotland. -Tu.] 188 BATIK. (c) System of Management. — All oak-bark woods are managed as coppice, because the quickest growth in youth is attained by coppice-shoots, rather than by seedlings. Besides pure coppice, a mixed system of field-crops and coppice (Ger. Ilackinihl) is also employed. Although much benefit to the production of bark has been ascribed to the cultivation and burning of the soil which accompanies this system, it cannot be admitted that cereal crops are compatible with a rational method of bark production. Without considering the impoverishment of the soil which must result at each cereal harvest, the disadvantage of the method consists chiefly in the fact that the coppice is in this case kept much more open than is consistent with a large pro- duction of bark, that the earth at each felling is witlidrawn from the stools in order to supply loose soil for the cereal crop, and that it is washed-down from slopes. Even from financial and national-economic points of view, this mixed system is inferior to simple oak-coppice. (d) Rotation. — The bark should be peeled when the bast is thickest, and before the cortex cracks owing to the formation of rhitidome ; from this period the bast, which contains twice as much tannic acid as the rhitidome, will thicken no longer. Such bark in Germany is termed Spicf/cl-rinde, silver-bark, and is most highly esteemed by tanners. Soon afterwards rhitidome is formed, and this inferior bark is termed Rauh-rindr, or coarse bark. In the best districts for oak-bark, where its pro- duction is properly regulated, the coppice is felled when from 14 to 20 years old, as then the best bark is obtained. Wherever there is a wish to obtain fairly utilizuble wood as well as bark, as for instance, in many municipal and private woods in Fran- conia, Wiirttemberg, itc, the rotation is fixed at 25, or even 30 years. The tanner estimates the value of bark by the appearance of a transverse section. If a transverse section of a piece of young bark is inspected, two layers are noticeable, a reddish brown outer layer, the true bark or rhitidome, and a light coloured layer, the cortex with the bast. The thicker the inner whitish or pink young cortex and bast, and the thinner the rhitidome, the more tannic acid a bark contains. That period of its life in which oak-coppice is growing most vigorously, in PRODUCTION OF YOUXG OAK-BARK. 489 which its annual shoots are strongest, is necessarily the best for the yield of tannic acid, as then there is the greatest accumula- tion of reserve-material. (e) Mixture with other Species. — Oak-bark coppice is not always exclusively composed of oak, but beech, hornbeam, birch, hazel, or conifers are more or less represented in the crop. It is especially the hazel, making such heavy demands on the soil, and the broom, which are frequently in excess. It should, however, be a general rule on all areas suitable for oak and where it is intended to grow oak-bark coppice, to maintain as much as possible a crop of pure oak ; the net revenue will rise and fall in proportion to the comparative scarcity or abundance of other species besides oak. Neubrand rightly declares that a mixed coppice on a good soil is a sure proof of bad management. Only on poor soils may a temporary soil-improving mixture of non-exacting species which give little shade be permissible ; thus, on deteriorated soil Scotch pine and birch may be planted in order to cover blanks quickly, and the Scotch pine subsequently removed as oaks spring-up under its light shade. Wherever a mixture with conifers appears to be permanently necessary, the locality is not suitable for oak-coppice. The hazel, which is a very exacting species, should never be allowed in an oak-bark coppice. (f) Density of Crop. — Owing to the exacting nature of the oak as regards heat and light, an oak-coppice should not be too densely stocked. If, however, the crop be too open, the quality of the soil will deteriorate, and this must be prevented. When young, the crop should be as dense as possible and kept so until the lower shoots are killed, and the dominating shoots require more room. Then thinnings should be made, so as to reduce the number of shoots gradually to those which are most vigorous, which should be afforded room for full development in accordance with the demands of the oak for light. 1,600 to 1,800 strong clumps per acre form an average crop, and should be kept properly thinned. In planting oak- coppice, a distance apart of more than 5 feet should not be allowed. Experience in the Odenwald regarding the importance of thinnings on the quantity and quality of the bark produced, liXI J'.AKK. fully attests their value. This operation is commeuced when the coppice has passed two-thirds of its rotation, species other than oak and hadly developed oak-shoots, which grow obliquely away from the clumps instead of vertically upwards, being removed, and only the strongest shoots left. In the Oden- wald such thinnings have been in force for 30 years, but they are hardly known in many other places. (g) Maintenance of Standards. — In many woods when the cop- pice is fclKd, seedlings or strong coppice-shoots of oak, birch, Scotch pine, larch, hornbeam, &c., are left as standards and kept for a second or third rotation of the underwood with the object of producing inferior timber, as well as bark. There are oak- bark coppices which present the appearance of coppice-with- standards (Franconia and Wiirttemberg, &c.). Independently of the fact that each standard kills the other shoots of the same clump, and when it is felled a blank is caused in the wood, the shade it throws on the surrounding clumps must retard their development. Wherever, therefore, oak-bark coppice is properly grown no standards are allowed. Schuberg shewed in his observations on the yield of oak-bark coppice, in two coppices in which standards were maintained, that shaded felling-areas yield bark not only inferior in quality but in reduced volume, there being in the latter case a reduction of 30 to 35%- Neubrand wisely remarks that if timber is required, it is better to grow it in high forest rather than impair the quality and volumetric yield of bark. (h) Accessory Usages. — It should be thoroughly undi'rstood that it is quite unjustitiable to remove leaf-litter from oak-bark woods, which frequently grow on soil not naturally rich but protected by the shade of the wood, its whole strength being required for the coppice. As a deplorable proof of this state- ment may be cited the wretched condition of hundreds of acres of coppice belonging to municipalities and private owners. The soil of woods thus nialtrrated, by depriving it of dead leaves for litter, becomes so rapidly impoverished as hardly to yield half tlu- returns from a similarly situated wood where the litter is i)reKerved. Similarly, pasture and grass-cutting should not be allowed in oak-bark woods, for the trampling of the cattle and the sickle of the grass-cutter have disastrous PRODUCTION OF YOUNG OAK-BARK. Wl effects on the stools. lu some localities in the middle Rhino- valley leaf-fodder is unfortunately still utilized in oak-baik woods. Even so, when only a moderate use of litter is practised, the bark cracks at an early age, becomes encrusted with lichens, and frequently no silver-bark is obtainable. Broom may per- haps be removed carefully, but it is better to leave it, especially where cereal crops are grown intermediately with oak-bark, as the cereal harvest will be all the richer for the ashes left on the ground when the broom is cut and burned. The Hauberge near Siegeu affords a clear proof of the damage done by grazing, the browsing of the cattle there often reducing most markedly the quantity and quality of the bark. 2. Ilarvestinr/ the Bark. The work of harvesting the bark may be divided into three parts, preparatory work, peeling and drying. (a) Preparatory work. — As has been already stated, in most oak- bark woods there is a mixture of other species with the oak. Partly in order to obtain more room and time for the business of peeling the bark, partly to avoid deterioration in value of the wood of the mixed species if it is cut during the season of growth, but chiefly in order to expedite the peeling operations, all the mixed wood in an oak-bark coppice is felled at a sufficiently early date so that it may be removed from the felling-area before the peeling commences. This is usually during the winter before the peeling. At the same time, in many places, all oak-wood which cannot be stripped, epicormic branches and shoots grow- ing more or less horizontally along the ground are removed. In the Odenwald, the side-branches are removed from the oak- shoots, as far as the wood-cutter can reach with his bill-hook. Where cereal crops are also cultivated, as soon as the mixed wood has been felled and the soil is no longer frozen, the first cultivation of the ground around the oak-stools is efi"ected. The sods of grass or heather thus loosened dry better than if the work was only undertaken at the end of the peeling, when the time for sowing is approaching. Wherever there are standards over the underwood, those intended to be felled are marked as soon as the mixed wood has been felled. The felling of these 10;^ HAIIK. standards, if at all large, will naturally stand over until the oak-coppice has been felled. (b) Season for Peeling. — Oak can be peeled at any time from May till the middle of July, but peeling should be eflected as soon as the buds begin to shoot, which, according to locality, is from the end of April till the middle of May,* and at the first appearance of the foliage, the bark is most easily peeled. In extensive woods, as a rule, the work is commenced as soon as the bark is removable after the first flow of sap, and is then conducted as rapidly as possible : firstly, on account of the com- parative ease with which peeling can be done early in the season ; secondly, so that the young shoots may mature their wood before they become endangered by autumn-frosts, and finally, because it is probable that there is more tannin in the bark in spring than in summer, after much of it has passed into the foliage and young twigs of the coppice. The state of the weather has considerable influence on the peeling. In damp, calm weather, especially Avhen accompanied by light and warm showers of rain, the bark is most easily peeled early in the morning and late in the afternoon ; this is also the case when the soil is moist, rather than when it is dry : in windy, dry or cold weather and at midday during hot weather, peeling is difficult. The sessile oak is always more easily peeled than the pedunculate oak, but the latter may be peeled about ten days earlier than the former. Larger stems are more easily peeled at the commencement of the season, smaller stems at the middle and end of the season. Theodore Hartig states that tannic acid is transformed into sugar soon after the foliage has appeared, this begins in the buds and continues with the leaf development. This fact is evidently in favour of early peeling. In unfavourable localities, where damage by autumn-frosts is inevitable, the forester is obliged to abandon the whole first year's crop of shoots. The injured shoots are then either cut- back in the following March, making way for a stronger growth which repays the loss of the first year's wood, or the peeled oak- stems are left standing till the succeeding winter, arc then felled * In England this is from the tliinl week in April till about the third week ot -May, in Scotland abont a month lat< r. A. D. Webster, Practical Forestiy. PRODUCTION OF YOUNG OAK-BARK. 493 and the succeeding crop shoots up early in the spring. This custom is followed in some valleys in the western Schwarzwald. [In order to be independent of the natural movement of the sap, H. Maitre, in France, in 1864, adopted with good results, a system of peeling oakwood after steaming it, the wood being removed in billets with their bark to the factory and there steamed in closed retorts, after which the bark is easily removed. This system was improved in 1871, by de Normaison, an engineer, who used for the purpose an apparatus weighing only 5 cwt., which supplies a blast of superheated steam. This is used on the felling-area, and by the help of 3 men and a boy, 15 to 18 stacked cubic meters (10 to 12 loads) can be peeled in a day and yield a ton of bark. A load of wood and 130 gallons of water are used, and the cost is about £2. The advantages of this method are that the wood may be felled in winter when labour is cheap, and that the bark may be i-emoved and stacked in dry sheds instead of being exposed to the weather or the felling- area. Pieces of wood may also thus be utilized which could not otherwise be peeled. The increased cost of carriage of the wood with the bark on has, however, to be considered.* Gayer states that though there is hardly any loss of tannin due to this method, yet that the leather produced by tan froui steamed bark is soft and fine and excellent for saddlery, but not so good for the soles of boots. — Tr.] (c) Method of Peeling Bark. — The hark is peeled either after the stems have been felled, half severed or knicked, or from standing stems. Peeling felled wood is the method which prevails in Germany ; it is followed in the Odenwald, Frauconia, the Palatinate, Baden, Wiirttemberg and many other districts. The workmen, divided into small parties, commence felling the coppice-shoots, and should he careful to cut them smoothly and close to the ground. All the crop should not at once be felled, but only as much as can immediately be peeled. It is reckoned that a skilful woodcutter can keep two men emplo.ved in peeling. It should he a rule, that every evening not a piece of felled wood remains unpeeled ; for only from wood which has just been felled can the hark be readily peeled, whilst from poles which have been lying felled for 24 hours, the bark can he removed only by knocldng it with a mallet. As soon as a lot of oak coppice- * Boppc, 02}. cit. p. 105. I'.'l- BARK. shoots has been felled, iVeed Ironi tops and side-hranches, and the parts to be barked set aside, the operation of peeliuj,' is commenced. This is done dift'erently in different countries. In the Odenwald, the Palatinate, Wiirttemberg, itc, the coppice- shoots and all other wood fit to be peeled are cut into round billets of the length customary in the district; the workman then takes each billet and removes the bark, as far as possible, with- out tearing it. In order to do this, he lays each billet on a stone or log, beats it with the back of a small hatchet along a certain line, so that the bark opens-out and separates from the wood along this line. In case the shoots are to be used in their full length, as stakes, for hurdle-wood, &c., they are supported at one end on a trestle made of forked sticks. In either case, the bark is stripped-off, either in meter-lengths or of the length of the billets. Only when the shoots are smooth and the bark easily removable can beating be dispensed with ; the workman then severs the bark in a line along the piece of wood and piels the latter with his hands and with the peeling-iron. In Franconia, felled wood is barked different!}', being cut into lengths as billets, after being peeled. The shoots having been topped are arranged horizontally on trestles, to facilitate the peeling, and the bark is peeled with an ordinary knife in longi- tudinal pieces, the full length of the shoots, without being first beaten. These strips of bark are then rolled together into bundles (>() centimeters (2 feet) long and 30 centimeters in girth, and dried. In the lower Main-valley, the shoots are also peeled before being cut into billets, the bark being removed in pieces of the length of a billet, with the peeling-iron. All shoots over 8 centimeters (8 inches) thick are then sawn into billets, whilst smaller pieces are cut into lengths with a hatchet and their bark beaten with the back of the hatchet. The use of a saw, instead of the hatchet, saves much bark. The instruments used in peeling bark vary greatly in dill'ertut districts, Imt they are of an extremely simple character. The most important instrument is the peeling-scalpel (tig. 26G), a piece of wood, or bone, shaped like a chisel at one end, and about 20 — 30 centimeters (H inches to 1 foot) long. [In France this is made from the tibia of an ass or horse, with a sharp PRODUCTION OF YOUNG OAK-BARK. steel blade attached to its upper extremity. — Tr.] This simple implement is preferable to those made of iron, the best of which are : (fig. 247) a peeling-iron used near the river Saar, (fig. 268) one used near the river Lahn, (fig. 269) Wohmaun's peehng-irou. For felling and removing the branches of the shoots, the hatchet (fig. 270) is used in the Odenwald, its back being also used in beating the bark ; "Wohmann's bill-hook (fig. 271) is also an excel- lent instrument, especialh' for peeling bark from standing stems. Fig. 271. Fig. 267. Fig Fig. 266. J (After Boppe.) The shock owing to the beating loosens the bark from the wood at other points besides those beaten, but the peeling is not always so easy that the bark can be removed in one piece from the wood merely after beating on one side of the pieces ; in that case, the billet must be turned and beaten all round, and the peeling-knife brought into play. In every case, however, beating the bark is a rough operation, which always causes a loss of tannin, for the cambium-zone which holds the most tannin is easily crushed, and if rain should fall, much of it is washed away ; besides this, the beaten places soon turn brown and become much sooner mildewed than when the bark is not beaten. Considering, that the loss of tannin, owing to beating, has been estimated at about 20%, it is desirable that beating shoald as much as possible be abandoned, and wherever it is obligatory, that it should be done with wooden mallets, and the shoot which !»(') BARK. is being barked supported on a broad log or stone, as is done in places along the river Moselle. The smaller and knotty shoots must, however, always be beaten, as well as all the thinner branches, which in the Odcnwald are peeled down to 1 centimeter in thickness ('4 inch). Peeling knicked stems is customary near Burgen, Aschafl'en- Fi.;. 273. burg and the Hundsnick ; it consists, as is shown in tig. 272, in cutting the stem (b) half-through aud peeling it, alter its base (a) has been peeled standing. A considerable advantage results from this method as only a little beating is neeessary. The bark is then usually peeled in long strips, as in the following method. Peeling standing stems is employed at Lorch on the river Taunus, in some of the Schwavzwald valleys, many oak-bark districts of Austria, and almost universally in France. The branches are lopped from the stem as high as the men can reach, and a strip of bark 2 — 4 centimeters (about an inch) broad is peeled either with the bill-hook (tig. 271), or the peeling-scalpel (fig. 273). These strips are then rolled into loose bundles and hung from the /** trees to dry. The rest of the bark is then peeled with a I scalpel, without girdling the tree, and is left hanging on ) the stem to dry. A ladder is generally used in order to Vm peel the upper part of the stem. Thus the ])ark is not beaten, but that on the branches is not utilized. In many districts in Austria, all the bark on standing stems is cut longitudinally in strips, and these are then peeled. It would be supposed that in peeling standing stems, the stem should first be girdled close to the ground in order to protect the roots from being peeled. This precaution is, however, often omitted. PRODUCTION OF YOUNG OAK-BARK. 497 not without prejudice, as may be imagined, to the reproduction of shoots from the stools. [It is now customary nearly all over France, in peeling oak-bark, to make a circular cut through the bark of the stem at a suitable height (say 3| feet) from the ground and a similar one level with the ground (fig. 274) ; a longitudinal cut is then made between these two marks and the bark removed by means of the bone- ^^<^- ^''^• scalpel (fig. 266) in a single piece, forming a roll of bark, "which oan then be dried. Another ; strip is then removed, as high ."■. iis a man can reach, and the stem is then felled, and peeled in a similar manner, as it lies on the ground. — Tr.]* It is not yet decided whether peeling felled or unfelled stems is preferable, although most foresters prefer the former method; much may be said for and against either. It is contended against peeling standing stems that it is not then possible to use the bark on all branches down to the thickness of a finger, for the uppei method is frequently left unpeeled.t standing stems is advantageous in economising labour, in better drying the bark which remains hanging on the stems, and because beating is then unnecessary. The chief disadvantage of peeling felled stems consists in the fact that beating cannot be avoided ; in consequence, the bark depreciates in quality and mildews, the work is more slowly done and there is a consider- able loss of bark (about 21%) when the axe is used to shorten the billets ; whilst by peeling standing stems, the undamaged l)ark is obtained in a closed roll. (After Boppe). part of the shoots in this At the same time, to peel * Boppe, op. cit. p. 103. t [This is not the case with this method in France.— Ti;.] VOL. V. 198 BARK. As regards economy of labour, Neubrand states tbat workmen at Lorch will peel daily from standing stems '2j — 4 bundredweights of bark; by beating, bowever, witb difficulty. Ih cwt. Neubrand considers beating the worst method, the best being that in force in the forest range of Insbach, near Donnersberg. Here, the lowest part of the bark up to li meters (4 ft. 10 in.) is removed from standing stems, which are then felled level with the ground, but the stumps not completely severed ; the top is removed and peeled by beating, whilst the bark from the rest of the stem is removed by the scalpel. Such a method is clearly preferable to felling the whole stem before peeling, for the quality of the bark is not impaired, and the valuable upper bark can be thus utilized as well as in the other method. (d) Drying the Bark. — No part of the business of harvesting bark has such influence on its value as the way it is dried. Any neglect here may cause considerable loss. The less rain falls on the peeled bark, and the more quickly the drying process is conducted, the better. Observations made by Dr. Gantter,* show that rain may deprive the bark of 70 % of its tannin, the relative loss being more considerable with rich bark than with inferior material. If the rain falls at the commencement of the drying process, it is chiefly the tannin which is washed away ; later-on, other soluble substances in the bark. Undoubtedly rain is more disastrous on freshly-peeled bark than on bark nearly dried ; but the eff"ect also depends on the persistence of the rain. Tanners fear the eff'ects of rain most on dried bark, but probably only on account of its consequent loss in weight. The chief point in this work is, therefore, to eff'ect the drying of the peeled bark in such a way that the almost certain spring-showers may cause it to lose as little tannin as possible, and mildew may not ensue. The best conditions for drying are to isolate the bark from the moisture of the ground, to expose it fully to air currents and protect it from spring-showers. It would have the best efl"ect on the quality of the bark if light sheds were erected in the felling-areas to keep-oft" the rain. In Hungary, Transylvania, &c., bark is heaped on well-ventilated stages and protected from the rain and dew by large tarpaulins, mats ♦ llandclsbliitt fiir Waldeizeu«Miissc, XV. Year, No. 17. PEODUrCTION OF YOUNrr OAK-BARK. 499 made of reeds, corrugated iron sheets, Szc. These coverings are supplied, not only in rainy weather, but regularly every night to keep off the dew. In many places the pieces of bark are piled like a roof, or in a pyramidal shape, being placed, as iri fig. 275, against a horizontal pole supported by two forked stakes, the rough bark outside. At Lorch, several poles are placed parallel to one another, with one end on the ground and the other on a pole supported by two Fig. 276. _X'"^ forked stakes, thus forming a gently sloping stage, usually towards the south, and on this the pieces of bark are placed to dry ; or the stages may be horizontal, the poles being supported by pairs of forked stakes, and the bark placed on it. In the llhine-Valley, drying on trestles is most usual, the bark being 500 BARK. supported on stakes driven crosswise into the {:!;round (fig. 276). In tliis case it is necessary to place the rolls of bark so that they overlap one another, and with the outside uppermost. The looser they are placed, and the fewer pieces there are on a trestle, the quicker the}' dry. This is undoubtedly a good method of drying bark, as it nowhere touches the ground. "Whenever the bark is allowed to form rolls, the drying process is very simple, for the rolls are generally removed as soon as they are prepared, and left to dry in well-ventilated sheds. If the rolls of bark are not removed till the end of the felling, they should be piled in pyramids of five to ten on the felling-area. The rolls should be loosely tied together so as to admit the air, but the middle of the rolls, enlaced by the withes, frequently becomes mouldy. "When standing stems arc peeled, drying the bark does not give any trouble; the strips of bark remain hanging on the trees, and roll-up to such a degree in drying that the inner surface of the bast is thoroughly protected against rain. The loose pieces are hung-up to dry on the top of the stems. The degree of dryness attained may evidently vary consider- ably. Practically, however, besides the green "bark, freshly stripped from the tree, traders distinguish air-dried from meal- dried bark. Bark is said to be air-dried when, on bending, it breaks easily ; meal-dried, when it has lost all flexibility and becomes brittle. According to Baur, bark, in passing from the green to the air-dried condition, loses considerably in weight ; from 32 to 49 %, according to quality, that from the branches losing most weight, and coarser stem-bark the least. The loss in weight, therefore, increases with the age of the wood, i.e., from the foot of a shoot to its top. In a similar way shrinkage of volume takes place, from 21 to 41 %, according to the part from which the bark is taken. In passing from the air-dried to the meal-dried condition, the bark loses in weight only 4 to 5 °/o, whilst it shrinks in volume 11 to 20%. Schuberg found a loss of weight of 35 % for bark passing from the green to the air-dried condition, and a further loss of 14°/ in becoming meal-dried. PEODUCTIOX OF YOUNG OAK-BAEK. 501 3. Assortments of Bark and formation of Sale -Lots. In estimating the yield of bark, greater care than is usually bestowed should be given to the business of assorting the bark according to quality; the forest manager should go beyond customary limits of assortment, and have at any rate two classes of silver-bark, for these are the lots which really determine the value of the produce. This is both in the interest of the forest owner and of the purchaser, and will materially decide the results of the sale. Dry bark is sold differently in different places. Usually larger or smaller bales of it are prepared ; or, as in Franconia, it is made into round bundles. In the Pthine-valley, three sorts of bark are recognized : silver- bark, seconds and coarse bark. Silver-bark {Glanzrinde, Sjnegel- rindc) is the bark cut from shoots up to 8 centimeters (3 in.) diameter, in Wiirtemberg, 12 centimeters (4| in.), when measured unpeeled ; seconds (Baitelrinde) is from stems 8 — 25 centimeters (3 to 10 in.) in diameter, in Wiirtemberg, (4^ to 10 in.), also the smooth bark from the branches of these stems ; coarse bark {Grohrinde) is from branches and stems exceeding 25 centimeters (10 in.) in diameter. Silver-bark is also sub- divided into three classes. No. 1, that from the lower part of the stem, No. 2, from its upper part, and No. 3, from branches. The third class is, however, the richest in tannin, sometimes thrice as rich as the 1st class, although traders value them in the inverse order. The bales of bark are of various dimensions, according to locality. In some of the Rhineland districts large bales weighing 30 — 35 kilos (say 70 to 80 lbs.) are usual, which can hardly be moved by a man. Tanners prefer the bales to be about one meter long and of the same girth ; these dimensions are obligatory in parts of South Germany, and each bale then weighs about 15 kilos (34 lbs.). As soon as the bark is dry, it is made into bales ; this is either done by hand, or in presses. The important points, in either case, are to give the bale its proper dimensions and fasten it so securely that it may withstand the shocks of ordinary transport without opening, or the loss of any bark. AYhenever 502 BARK. tlic l)ark is dried on trestles (fi<,'. 27^), the bale is tied as it lies on the trestle. The presses used in the Odenwald are made as follows : — four stout peeled stakes are driven in pairs into the ground at distances somewhat less apart than the proposed length of the bale. Between these pairs of stakes the withes and the bark are laid on the ground. Large rolls of bark are placed first and are piled on either side between the stakes. As many smaller pieces of bark as a man can take in both arms are then placed in the press between the large rolls of bark, until the bale has become about the right size, when large rolls of bark are placed on the top and the bale is then fastened by means of withes, iron wire, or Manilla hemp. The whole exterior of the bale then consists of the larger rolls of bark, the smaller pieces being inside. The fastenings should not be too tight, or the bark may crack and break into pieces, and the bale become loose ; this is important, considering the distance to wdiich bark is sometimes transported. The large external rolls will, how- ever, generally stand fairly tight fastening. The peeled wood is stacked in the usual manner. 4. Sale of Bark. No forest produce is sold so variably as tanning-bark. Taking into consideration whether the sale is chiefly left to the pur- chaser, or conducted by the forest owner ; the chief kinds of sale are : — of the coppice, by area or unit of produce ; and of the converted material by weight or volume. As regards the public or private nature of the sale, sale to the highest bidder is the rule ; but although to the apparent prejudice of the forest owner, sales by private contract are not unusual, often before the market-])rices of the previous year's bark are known. (a) Sale by Area. — The mature coppice is subdivided into larger or smaller lots, and each lot, both wood and bark [or these separately. — Tu.], is sold to the highest bidder. The purchaser of a lot converts both wood and bark at his own risk, subject to certain sylvicultural conditions imposed on him at the sale, and endeavours to dispose of the produce to the best advantage. As by this method it is impossible to form any correct estimate of the value of the crop, it should be absolutely abandoned. At PRODUCTION OF YOUNCt OAK-BARK. 503 Hirschhorn, a sale-condition is enforced on the purchaser of the lots of coppice, that he should sell the bark at a fixed price per cwt. to the tanners. Similarly, some sales are conducted which provide that the forest owner shall have the converted wood and the purchaser the bark, after the latter has converted both the bark and the w^ood at his own cost. This is one of the most usual modes of sale and is very convenient, though not always most profitable for the forest owner : for, although the felling and conversion is effected under the supervision of the forest staff, and the purchaser's workmen must submit to sylvicultural rules, yet they study the interest of the purchaser rather than that of the owner. Good supervision may, however, remedy matters in this respect. (b) Sale by Unit of Produce. — In this mode of sale also, the price of the bark is arranged before it is harvested, but the felling and peeling is undertaken and paid-for by the forest owner. This mode of sale is far preferable to those described under (a), and is generally the best to adopt ; the workmen are then engaged by the forest owner and will see to his interests, and the con- version of the wood will be more profitably arranged as fire- wood, or timber for agricultural purposes, according to the requirements of the case. There is here nothing to interfere with the best possible harvesting of the bark, and the main- tenance of its quality ; for if the workmen are paid by piecework, according to the weight and quality of the bark, their interest in the matter will be thoroughly enlisted. This mode of sale has recently been adopted in several places in Baden, Wiirtemberg and the Palatinate and in parts of Prussia. (c) Sale of Converted Material. — Another possible mode of sale is when the forest owner converts both wood and bark at his own expense and sells the produce afterwards. This method is seldom adopted and is mentioned here only in order to show how necessary it is to arrange for a purchaser of the bark before the felling. If, however, forest owners were to provide large sheds for drying and keeping the bark, the trade would greatly benefit, and this would lead to the whole bark harvest being conducted by the forest owners. 504 15 A UK. n. Measures for Bark. In selling bark-coppice by area, it is important to know how to estimate the quantity of bark which has l)C'cn harvested. This may be done by measuring its rough volume ; by weight ; or indirectly, by measuring the volume of the barked wood, from which the yield of bark may be determined by means of experi- mental ratios. Measurement by rough volume is done by the bale. Although this method has the advantage, that the bark can be removed as soon as it is sufficiently dry, and there is thus little danger of any loss of tannin, yet it affords for both purchaser and seller such an uncertain measure of the yield, that it is employed only to a limited extent. If measurements are to be made by bales, not only must the length and girth of the bales be nearly uniform, but the hark must also be uniformly packed in each bale. The best, and at present, the most usual sale-measurement is the weight. As soon as the bark is dry, it is packed in bales and weighed in the forest by means of a steel-yard or spring- balance. Everything then depends on the degree of dryness of the bark, for green bark must lose 40 — 50% of water to become air- dried. In the interest of the purchaser, however, the bark must not be kept a day longer in the forest than is necessary, owing to the danger of a loss of tannin. Although one might anticipate disputes between seller and purchaser as to the proper date for measuring bark, yet experience proves that this seldom happens, A prudent tanner will allow the bark to remain in the forest no longer than is absolutely necessary ; he knows that it is more to his interest to pay for the bark when soniewliat moist than to risk its being badly washed by the rain. The third mode of measuring bark consists in merely measur- ing the peeled wood, and assuming that its volume will bear a fixed ratio to that of the bark which has been harvested. This custom is always followed in Franconia. It cannot be denied that this method has certain advantages, as it saves labour and avoids inconvenience, but to it is attached the great disadvantage that the ratio between wood and bark varies every season, and neither purchaser nor seller can be certain how much bark has been bought or sold. It may be suggested that an average BARK OF OLD OAKS AND OF OTHER SPECIES. 505 yield being maintaiued, matters will adjust themselves iu a few years' time ; but on the whole, the forest owner will lose, for as long as a purchaser is uncertain of the amount of bark he will obtain, he will generally bid below its proper value. This is, therefore, the most rough and ready of all measurements. According to Baur, the average ratio of the bark in cwts. to the peeled wood is as follows : — One stacked cubic meter (35 stacked cubic feet) of peeled wood will yield Silver-bark O'Ql cwt. Seconds 1*69 ,, 16 years old stem bark 1*45 ,, 25 years old stem bark 1*95 „ Section III. — Utilization of the Bark of Old Oaks and OTHER Trees. As the tanner will pay only a very moderate price for the bark from young oak-trees, he cannot easily be induced to utilize the inner bark of old oaks or other trees ; considering that their cortex and bast are generally poorer* in tannin than that of oak coppice-shoots, and that tan prepared from old bark always contains a certain quantity of the worthless external rhitidome, whatever care is taken to exclude it, 1. Harvesting the Bark of Old Oaks. As in the case of poles, so in that of older trees, the bark is peeled in the spring at the opening of the buds, or at Mid- summer, when the second oak-shoots appear. Utilizing the bark of old oak trees, however, involves several causes which are harmful to the forest owner, for felling large oak trees iu the spring impairs the quality of their timber, and many heavy stems would thus fall on ground already stocked with young growth. If, therefore, in order to utilize the bark, the forester neglects the improved quality of his wood obtained by winter felling, he should, at least, exclude areas of young growth, * The cortex and bast of oaks, 40—50 years old, according to Wolff, is as licli in tannic acid as that of oak-coppice, provided all corky substance is excluded. 506 BAKK. Fl(i. -21 wliich are most liable to damafje. Even then, tliinniiifijs, pre- l>aratory fellin^^^s, extraction of old trees from younger woods and eeeding-fellings in high forest will still yield much bark for use if required. In some districts in Hesse and Hanover, old oaks are peeled standing in the spring, left standing till winter and then felled. This method [also employed in the Forest of Dean. — Tr.] gives superior timber to that felled in the spring. As a rule, bark is peeled from old oak trees after they are felled, and here also only as many trees should be felled as can be peeled during the day. The men engaged in peeling, who are usually employed by tanners, or merchants, follow close on the woodcutters. The workman makes a cut down the stem and through the bark with the barking-iron (Fig. 277). The bark is then peeled in large flat pieces by means of the iron and the workman's hands. It can seldom be removed without constant beating. Wherever the bark is sold stacked, the pieces are then cut to the required length (say one meter). The less common method of barking standing trees is easier to effect, although ladders are required. The most troublesome part of the work is to peel the crooked knotty branches which must always be beaten. Sometimes, instead of the barking-iron, the common felling-axe alone is used. If the weather is favourable an experienced workman will peel 4 or 5 I large oak trees in a day. Trimming the bark, how- 1 ever expensive it may be, greatly increases its value. Jli The more thoroughly the cracked and dead outer bark or rhitidome, which in old trees forms 50 to (50% of the bark, is removed from the iimer and more sappy bark, the more valuable will be the produce ; the percentage of tannic acid in old bark would not be so low as compared with young bark, were all the hard outer bark removed. Wherever trimming is done it should always precede peeling, and is best effected on standing trees. The peeled bark is then carried to a neighbouring blank to be dried. For this purpose it is usually placed horizontally on a SPRUCE-BARK. 507 stage made of poles, with the cambium side downwards to pro- tect it against rain. As soon as it is dry it is piled between stakes like firewood, being well trodden down in the stacks. If, as is usually and most conveniently the case, the bark is sold in stacks, they should be made by an employee of the forest owner ; in Wiirtemberg, bark is packed in bales for transport. The bark may also be sold at so much a tree. A stacked cubic meter of old oak-bark weighs 130 — 200 kilos (4 to 6 cwt. per load of 50 cubic feet) and more, according to the amount of moisture it contains. More fresh bark goes to a stack than dry bark, for it is easier and softer to pack in the former case. Sale by the amount of peeled wood is more uncertain than in the case of young bark, owing to great variability in the pro- portion of bark to peeled Avood ; for according to the age of the trees the wood may be proportional to the bark in any ratio from 3 to 1, up to 6 to 1, or even 8 to 1 in the case of very large trees, i.e., there are 3, 6 or 8 cords of wood to 1 cord of bark. (In the case of oak-trees 55 to 62 j^ears old, Baur found this ratio about 4 to 1.) In old oak trees the quantity of bark is greater in the crown, which contains 2, 4 and 6% more bark than the stem for the same volume of wood ; this is due to the larger surface of the branches than the stems. As regards utilization of the much more valuable bark from the branches of old oak trees, von Frivolin has made numerous experiments, showing that there is a gain of 25 to 30 % in utilizing the bark, compared with the mere use of the unpeeled wood for fuel. The oaks in question were lopped of all their branches in the spring, and the stem felled in the succeeding winter. 2. Spruce-Bark. Spruce-bark is much more extensively harvested than old oak-bark, and in eastern and southern Germany and the adjoin- ing Austrian districts when mixed with Knoppern galls, valonea and silver-bark, it is largely used for tanning. It can, however, be used only in the preliminary stages of tanning, or for tanning thin skins ; thick skins are only tanned with spruce-bark when largely mixed with other tanning materials. As most spruce forests 308 HAKK. are in mouiituinous regions, where on account of the climate summer-felling prevails, and the wood must be peeled, owing to the danger of insect-attacks, and the necessities of transport, most of the ditiiculties which occur in utilizing oak-hark are avoided. In order to obtain spruce-bark, the felled stems after being cut into saw-mill butts, are peeled with the barking-iron or the axe, so as, if possible, whenever the log is not too thick, to Fig. 278. remove the bark in one piece. The men, however, prefer peeling the firewood blocks a meter long, to heavy logs and butts. The bark is then spread-out on poles or placed on au incline to dry, or arranged as in Fig. 278, the roof-like structure thus formed being covered with numerous other pieces of bark, and thus secured against the rain. In setting-out the pieces of bark to dry, they are bent outwards so as almost to break along their middle line in order to prevent them from rolling-up, otherwise they would not dry thoroughly. As in all trees, the bark of young spruce contains more tannic acid than that from old trees ; and the bark of trees grown wide apart, or in the open, and of trees exposed to the south or along the borders of a forest, is richer in tannic acid than those under opposite conditions. In most countries dried spruce-burk is stacked like ordinary firewood and sold by the stack ; a stacked cubic meter (35 cubic feet) contains 0*3 cubic meters (10 cubic feet) of solid bark. Well-stacked smooth middle-aged spruce-bark, when air-dried weighs from 150 — 175 kilos per stacked cubic meter (-li to 5 cwt. BARK OF BIRCH AND LARCH. 509 per load of 50 cubic feet). It is also sold by the tree, by the hundred rolls, by the volume of the barked wood, or by the drying stack (Fig. 277) containing 12 to 15 pieces of bark. Selling by the amount of peeled wood is the simplest method, provided sufficiently accurate ratios between the wood and bark have been ascertained ; for wood 80 — 100 years old, this ratio is as 1 to 8 — 12, averaging 1 to 10. In younger wood the ratio is more in favour of the bark. 3. Birch- and Alder- Bark. Birch-bark is more in use for tanning in the north of Europe, especially in Russia ; in Germany it has hitherto been used only experimentally. It contains much less tannic acid than oak- bark, and even than that of spruce, but sometimes repays harvesting when the price of silver-bark is high. In Germany it is not used for tanning, but for macerating sole-leather with the object of opening the pores of the leather and preparing it to receive tannin. Leather tanned with birch-bark is softer and less water-tight than that tanned with oak-bark, but it has a lighter colour and a better appearance. Birch-bark is harvested in the same way as oak-bark, it can be peeled only about a fortnight later than the latter although the birch shoots first. It is easier to peel old birch trees than young ones, but they are not nearly so easy to bark as oaks. The few data regarding birch-bark give 65 — 80 kilos of air- dried bark for a stacked cubic meter of peeled birch billets from trees 20 years old (say 2 cwt. per load of 50 cubic feet). Alder-bark is occasionally used for tanning, but is of no more importance than that of birch. Russian leather is tanned with willow-bark, but its pleasant odour is the result of soaking it during the tanning process wdth birch-oil, which is distilled from the external white layer of birch-bark. 4. L'lrch-Bark. Larch-bark is seldom harvested in Germany, but is exten- sively used in Russia, Hungary, and Austria for tanning. According to Wessely, in the Carpathian Mountains and the 510 bai;k. Alps it is preferred to spruce- and l)ircli-l)ark. It is probably uusuitable for tanning sole-leather, but deserves consideration as a substitute ft)r oak-bark iu tanning calf-skin. Owing to the straightness and freedom from branches of the larch, it is more easily barked than oak. It is better to bark it in summer than in spring, as the maximum amount of tannic acid is then attained. r,. WlUoic-Barh. Willow-bark contains a considerable amount of tannic acid. ]-{esides Sulix caprca and ,S'. alha, the so-called osier-willows are best in this respect. According to data furnished by the Moscow Academy, the quantity of tannic acid in willows varies between 8 and 12 '^j^. In Russia, it has for a long time been usual to use willow-bark for tanning, especially in preparing that flexible, water-tight, shining upper leather, for which llussia is so famous. The well-known Danish glove-leather is also tanned with willow-bark. In Germany, little use has hitherto been made of willow-bark, probably on account of the small quantity grown. Peelings from osiers are dried in loose heaps and used for tanning, or as litter for cattle. Section IV. — Yield in Produce and Revenue of Oak Coppices. 1. Yield in Produce. W oak-coppice is managed for the production of valuable bark, bark must be the principal item in the produce, and the yield iu wood can be considered only as of secondary importance. A sensible management of bark-coppice will, therefore, endeavour to secure all the conditions which have been already stated as essential for the production of a large crop of good bark. Besides the cultural conditions, however, the yield of bark is chiefly influenced by the quality of the locality, and it can be readily understood that owing to the great variability of locality and cultural treatment in the case of bark-coppices, that their yield also varies considerably. As an average yield of the best REVENUE FROM OAK-COPPICE. 511 German bark-coppice districts, with rotations of 15 to 18 years, 60 — 70 cvvt. of bark, and 40 — 50 stacked cubic meters of wood per hectare, may be cited (24 — 28 cwt. of bark, and 560 to 700 stacked cubic feet of wood per acre). The longer the rotation, the larger the proportion of wood as compared with bark. Careful management has an immense influence on the yield. R, Hess has shown to what an extent this is possible, in his account of the management of the forest range Oberrosbach, near Friedberg, which shows, taking one compartment as an instance, that in sixty years the yield was increased 105 % by careful management. The following examples of the yield of bark-coppices per acre are taken from pure oak-coppices of best quality, and under first- rate management : — Frauenwald compartment 15 of forest range Oberrosbach, 15 years' rotation : 50 cwt. bark. 670 stacked cubic feet of wood. Thinned forest {Hackicald), forest range Beerfelden, 17 years' rotation : 40 cwt. bark. 1,480 stacked cubic feet of wood. Forest range Brichold, in Franconia, rotation 20 years : 43 cwt. bark. 1,030 stacked cubic feet of wood. 2. Revenue from Bark-Coppice. The amount of revenue obtained from bark- coppice depends chiefly on the price of bark, for the value of the peeled wood remains pretty constant in most oak-coppice districts. Baur has shown that peeled wood takes up 17 — 30 % less volume when stacked than unbarked wood. These figures, there- fore, represent the loss in volume in firewood due to the barki)ig, but the loss is compensated for by a rise in price owing to the larger volume of wood in the firewood stacks, and its consequent superior combustibility. It is, therefore, even when the price of 512 BARK. bark is low, more profitable to sell the bark for tanning than as fuel with the wood. Under the various factors which regulate the price of bark, its quality, the demand for it, and the mode of sale, are the most important. (a) Quality of Bark. — The conditions affecting the quality of bark have been already discussed. As the revenue from bark- coppice depends almost entirely on the price of bark, and the latter chiefly on its quality, it is evidently necessary to subordinate the culture of the wood to that of the bark. [In the Ardennes the v.ood is as valuable as the bark, being used for mine-props. — Tr.] Whenever the proper rotation is exceeded, many standards preserved, much admixture of other species tolerated, careful cultivation neglected, thinnings omitted, and the bark negli- gently dried, one need not wonder at lower prices for bark being obtained than where it is carefully cultivated. (b) Demand for Bark. — Next to its quality, the demand for bark is the most important factor in its price. Owing to the constantly increasing demand for tanning material, one might imagine that the demand for oak- bark is everj'Avhere favourable ; experience in most bark districts is opposed to this idea, and whilst the tanner is complaining of insufficient production of tan, the forest owner complains of low prices. At present the prices of tan are low everywhere. This is probably due to the large import of tanning material and of leather. The production of tan in Germany is quite insufficient to satisfy the home demands of the tanning trade, which has been estimated at 7,000,000 cwt. of bark, for the production of which 3,750,000 acres of bark-coppice would be required ; for in spite of the large imports of leather, chiefly from America, tanning materials to the extent of 3^ million cwt. have been imported recently, although the duties have been raised. France governs the trade in tan over Switzerland and West and South Germany, while Austria supplies the North. The desire of the German tanner for an extension of bark-cojipice is therefore justiliablo, although the forest owner cannot be induced to follow suit, owing to the low prices. [The annual ])roduction of oak-bark in Britain may be estimated at 250,000 tons and about 16,000 tons are imported annually. This is REVENUE FROM OAK-COPPICE. 513 quite inadequate for tlie tanning industry, as may be seen from tlie following figures taken from the official returns for 1894 : — Imports (British and Irish). Tanner's bark Cutch and Gambler Tons. 15,994 17,303 24,508 31,220 101,696 Value. £124,356 254,954 311,119 1,341,392 7,094,156 1,510,828 985,502 Valonia Rawhides Exports. Leather (excludin'^ boots and shoes) Skins and furs Re-exports of Cutch and Gambler and of raw hides have been deducted from the gross returns of imports. — Tr.] (c) Mode of Sale. — It has already been shown that tanning- bark should generally be sold by auction before peeling the coppice, but that sale by private contract is also sometimes advisable. Sales by private contract, however, should not be conducted in ignorance of the proper price of bark, and should be avoided, unless there are large quantities of bark for sale. In no case should small sales of bark be held ; large sales are better attended, when several neighbouring forest owners unite to sell their bark. Such large sales of bark are held at Heilbronn, Erbach, Hirchhorn on the Neckar, Bingen, Kreuznach, Kaisers- lautern, and Riidesheim, the State and neighbouring private forest owners and communes combining to sell their produce. Samples of bark are produced at these sales, which in the Rhine valley, &c., consist of a piece of wood 7 to 8 inches long, cut 3 feet above the ground from a coppice-shoot, and unbarked. Each sample bears a label, on which the name of the owner, the forest, age of the coppice, aspect, altitude, soil, and quality of the bark is stated. The results of the sale are published annually. Up to the present time, unfortunately, only a small part of the bark produced is thus sold. Many communes and private owners abstain from these sales from short-sighted motives, to the prejudice of their own interests. Wherever the climate and soil are undoubtedly favourable to bark-coppice, and the best attention is paid to produce bark of VOL. V. L L 511 BARK. lii;,'li (juiility, the maintenance of oak-coppice is justifiaLlo, and will pay its way in spite of bad prices. Wherever the nianaf^e- ment is indifferent, half the crop mere firewood, the rotation up to 80 or 35 j'cars, the fellin^^-areas shaded hy numerous standards, no tending afforded, the bark-coppice expected to yield plenty of wood and even litter, the preparation of the bark defective, &:c., it cannot be wondered that the forest owner is disappointed in his revenues ; he had then better turn his attention to hop-poles or wood for paper-pulp, rather than to bark. In such cases, one need not be surprised that the tanner will offer only a low price, since it is always possible for him to use some imported material as a substitute for oak- bark. Ill the middle of the present century the question was raised, owing to the outcry of the tanners, whether the increasing demands for bark should be met by converting certain areas of the State high forests into bark-coppice. The German Forest Departments have almost unanimously resisted this demand, and quite rightly, as is now recognized. Independently of the fact that it is not statesmanlike to favour only a single industry, it is evidently the duty of the State to manage its forests so as to satisfy most fully all market demands, and render them in every way most productive. Had the State forests been transformed into coppice as was then suggested, they would now, with the low prices of bark, be in a wretched financial condition. The cultivation of bark must be left chiefiy to communes and private forest owners, especially as they are the principal owners of the localities where bark fiourishes. In thus recommending the cultivation of bark in communal and private forests, not only those areas already under forest are referred to, but those numerous half-cultivated lands bordering on forests, which owing to their position, remoteness, or inferior soil are unsuitable for agriculture, and often afford merely a poor pasturage, but owing to the climate of the locality are in many cases admirably adapted for the production of bark. It appears as if the strenuous endeavours to manufacture tannin have already proceeded beyond the experimental stage. The initiative taken at Lyons and Nantes has been followed by the establishment of large factories in France Austria, and OTHER USES OF BARK BESIDES TAN. 515 Slavonia, which j^repare from old oak-hark and refuse oakwood of all descriptions a concentrated extract of tannin which is sold at 40 francs per 100 kilos (IGs. a cwt.). It is not yet decided as to the importance which may result from the application of certain minerals to tanning. Pyrofuchsin prepared from wood- tar and coal-tar is also said to be an important tanning agent. Section V. — Other Uses of Bark besides Tan. Regarding other uses of bark, birch-bark deserves a short notice. It is used in Norway and other parts of northern Europe for many purposes. For instance roofing, the under- lying j)lank roof being covered with pieces of birch-bark measur- ing a square foot, which are placed like tiles and covered with a slight layer of earth. Such roofs last for 50 or 60 years. Birch-bark is also made into vessels of all kinds, which in Norway are even used for salting herrings. The great value of birch-bark to the Norwegians may be imagined from the fact that besides numerous other articles, they make shoes from it. Birch-bark is similarly used on a large scale in Russia. The use of birch-oil in the manufacture of Russia leather has been already referred to (p. 509). [Canadian bircli-bark is largely used for making canoes, which are sewn-together by means of tliin spruce-roots. It is also used for packing material. In the Himalayas, the bark of Betula Bhojpatra is used for making hats and umbrellas, also packing material, and has been used as paper. — Tr.] The bark of many willows is used in the preparation of salicin, or of lacker-dye, and for cattle-fodder, as will be seen further on. L L 2 516 CHAPTER II. UTILIZATION OF FOREST FODDER. The natural fodder produced by forests is composed of grasses aud other herbage growing on the ground, as well as the leaves and young shoots of woody plants. This material can be used in several ways for cattle-fodder, either by driving the beasts into the forest to graze, or by allowing men to cut grass or the leaves of woody plants, and use them for stall-fodder. The present chapter is therefore divided into 3 sections : pasture, grass-cutting and leaf-fodder. Section I. — Pasture. 1. General Account. Forest Pasture means the utilization of the herbage and grass of a forest by the admission of cattle. In earlier times, and until the second half of the eighteenth century, this was almost the sole mode of feeding cattle employed in all the forest districts of Germany. In many places forest pasture was exercised without any restriction ; it first, however, came into collision with the interests of sport, and later on, care for the forest intervened, and as soon as the development of agriculture necessitated stall-feeding, the first move was made towards with- drawing cattle from forests. If stall-feeding has not yet become universal, and owing to the increased population of the higher mountain-ranges, a steady demand for forest pasture still prevails, there is no comparison between its present condition and that of earlier times. In plains, hilly districts and many low moun- tain ranges, forest pasture completely loses the injurious im- portance loruicrly attached to it, provided it is kept within PASTURE. 5J7 sylvicnltural limits, the enforcement of which is not prevented by any legal rights. In the Alps, however, and some other mountainous districts, forest pasture is still as bad an impedi- ment to forestry as ever. From a National- Economic Point of View. — The gain to agri- culture through forest pasture from the large quantities of grass and other herbage which forests annually produce, and from the maintenance and exercise of the beasts in the open air, is too self-evident to be controverted. On the other hand, the loss of manure is thus largely increased, and whenever, as now almost everywhere, the latter is the turning-point of agri- cultural profit, forest pasture is clearly a hindrance to agri- cultural success. Stall-feeding, however, demands increased supplies of fodder, and this in its turn, ^rass-meadows or rich soils suitable for clover and other fodder-crops. In fertile districts, and wherever rich meadows or other means allow cattle to be fed in stalls or fields throughout the year and they are chiefly kept for the production of manure, the farmer will not think of sending his cattle into the forests to graze. The more unfavourable, however, the agricultural conditions, and the more the farmer is compelled to use all available means in order to be able to feed his cattle at least through the winter, the greater value does he attach to forest pasture. Forest pasture, therefore, at present prevails in mountain-forest regions where the climate is severe, and also in districts where landed property is much sub-divided. Mountainous districts permit only of poor farming ; there, crops of artificial fodder are scanty and the yield in straw is insufficient for the winter's fodder-supply. Most mountainous forest districts are in this plight. The less favourable the conditions for agriculture, the more are the people driven to cattle-breeding, and the more they value forest pasture ; in the Alps and higher mountain-chains of the interior of Germany, cattle-breeding and the production of milk and cheese are the chief popular industries, and forest pasture far exceeds sylvicnltural limits. The majority of so-called Alpine regula- tions allow the villagers bordering on forests to drive as many head of cattle into the State or other forests as they can maintain during winter on their farms ; to leave the cattle day 518 FOREST- FODDER. iiiul ni<,'lit ill the forests without bcrdsmt'ii, iind to cliouse their own graziiif^ frrounds. Owing to le«,'al decisions there are many local variations and more or less clearly worded moditications in these reffulations. Whenever pasture is allowed owing to prescriptive rights, as throughout the Alps, forests are always in a very poor condition, for national-economic reasons Avill not allow of such a limitation of the rights as to render them harmless. The danger to the forest increases inversely with the area closed to grazing and the necessity for feeding the cattle on areas poorly stocked with grass. In such districts therefore it is in the interest of forestry to favour the production of fodder as much as possible, by not planting grassy blanks, leaving good pasturage open and managing forests under the group system. In many of the interior mountain-ranges also, for instance the Bavarian forest, pasture is a heavy clog to forestry, even though the herdsmen are bound, before twihght begins, to drive the cattle to their quarters for the night. Excessive sub-division of landed property is also a gi-eat incentive to forest pasture. Where the poor peasant hardly possesses enough land to grow potatoes for his family, and can scarcely manage to stack sufficient fodder for the winter supply of his cattle, he will pasture them as long as possible in the forest. Whenever in a densely populated district which may not be very favourable for agriculture, all the more fertile lands belong to large owners and richer people, the worse lands are so sub-divided amongst the poor that a single plot of land cannot maintain a cow ; a goat is kept instead, and herds of goats, so greedy for woody plants, are added to the herds of cattle. 2. I'rixluction of Fodder in Forests. As already stated, forest fodder consists of the grass, herbage, foliage and shoots of woody plants growing in the forest. It is clear that in properly regulated pasturage woody plants should not be utilized for fodder, as then wood could not be produced. At the same time, there are certain beasts which prefer them to other fodder, and there are circumstances, seasons and local conditions when woody plants are dangerously exposed by pasture. PASTURE. 519 (a) Amount of Forest Fodder. The amount of grass and herbage produced in a forest depends chiefly on the fertility of the soil, the amount of light afforded and climatic conditions. The richer and moister the soil, the more it is exposed to light and the milder the climate, the more fodder will be produced. i. Soil. As regards soil, the amount of clay it contains (up to a certain point) is the chief factor in producing fodder ; sandy soils produce as a rule the least grass; limestone mountains also produce little grass, being often characterized by scarcity of springs and a slow disintegration of the rock, they also abound in deep gorges. As soon, however, as a little clay is mixed with either sand or limestone, provided that the soil does not thereby become too stifi', or impermeable by water, plenty of grass will be produced. An abundant and constant supply of water during summer is almost more important than a mixture of clay, for grass production. On this account, the crop of grass on a naturally dry soil is markedly increased by an admixture of humus, or by the shelter of a thinly stocked wood [of larch, for instance. — Tr.], which moderates radiation from the ground and protects it from drying winds : for this reason, mountain-forest grazing-grounds and grassy blanks are so much moister than those outside the forest. Anyone can observe the increased deposition of dew in open land with scattered shrubs and bushes which keep-oflfthe wind, and the comparative dryness of similar land without this protection. The depreciation of Alpine meadows in the Tyrol and many parts of Switzerland and Austria-Hungary is chiefly due to the clearance of forests. If the soil once suffers a diminution of steady moisture; moss, sour grasses, rushes, &c. take the place of sweet meadow-grasses. Areas which have been rapidly cleared or sw-ept by storms, with rich moist soil especially on southern aspects, often afford the worst pasturage. They become overgrown with a dense crop of weeds, which leave no room for nourishing grasses. Cattle-grazing in such places almost entirely prevents the growth of all forest trees. 52U K()I!KST-FODI)Ki:. ii. AtnoHiit of Lhiht. Grasses, clovers and most fodck-r-pliints are decided light- demauders : on a soil covered with a dense growth of woody plants, or from which light is otherwise excluded, no grass usually grows ; only when the leaf-canopy of a wood becomes elevated and admits lateral light, and more and more light reaches the ground under an old wood, does the surface become gradually overgrown with herbage. If the wood is under natural regeneration, and the soil contains some humus and is naturally moist, the production of grass is at a maximum, and frequently struggles with the woody plants for possession of the ground. If the soil be sufficiently fertile, more or less woody plants and shrubs spring up, such as raspberry, blackberry, briars, loose-strife, thistles, hypericums, belladonnas, &c., birch, aspens, sallows appearing here and there ; then the woody species which the forest is intended to produce sooner or later disentangle themselves from this heterogeneous vegetation, the grass begins gradually to thin out under their shade and tinally disajipears when the woody crop is reconstituted. Light-demanding trees evidently favour the production of grass much more than shade-bearing trees. Among them, oak forests in the broad alluvial valleys and larch-woods* in the mountains are the regular grass-producing forests. Among shade-bearing trees, spruce and silver-tir forests produce more grass than beech-woods, on account of the greater degree of moisture in the former and because their soil-covering of dead needles and moss impedes the germination and growth of grasses less than the dense covering of dead leaves of the latter. The most grassy places in forests are therefore regeneration fellings, badly stocked places where light is admitted, especially in older woods and in woods of light-demanding species ; and, tinally, blanks, unfrequently used roads, and places for stacking timber, road-sidings, and so on. iii. S//.st('iii nj' MaiKincinciif. Pollarding is adopted rather with a view to pasture than to the production of wood, and grassy tracts on rich, fresh soil along * Tlie gra.'iS in many larch-woods in tlie Alps is regularly mown. PASTURE. 52 1 the banks of streams, are, under this system, sheltered by willow- iind poplar-pollards, grown pretty far apart, and the produc- tion of grass is thus generally favoured. Provided the same species of trees are grown ; next to pollards, coppice produces more fodder than any other system, and coppice-with-standards approaches coppice the nearer, the less standards it contains. Coppice and coppice-with-standards, for the same area, produce at least five or six times as much fodder as high forest. The last form of forest, especially the clear-cutting system, is the most unfavoui-able for pasture. iv. Climaie. In mild climates the production of fodder is greater than where extremes prevail. In the former, grazing may commence at the end of April or the beginning of May, and continue till the middle of October, whilst in the latter, the season for grazing is much more restricted, and in upper Alpine pastures may only last 10 — 12 weeks. During May and June there is most fodder in forests ; in high altitudes, in July. In these months grass pro- duction is greater than during all the ]'est of the year. (b) Quality of Forest Fodder. As regards its quality as fodder, the amount of light which herbage receives, and the nature of the soil, are more important than the species of plants of which it is composed. The excellence of Alpine pastures depends less on the in- digenous* plants (for in the North German plain and Holland equally fine cattle are produced as those in the Alps) than on the advantage resulting from constantly keeping the cattle in the open air, the moderate distances to which cattle are driven to graze, and the effects of the intenser sunlight to which these lofty open pastures are exposed. On this account, provided there is sufficient moisture, southerly aspects yield better pasture than northerly aspects. The more the soil is sheltered by trees, and the less light it receives, the poorer the quality of the fodder ; hence regeneration-fellings and plantations, on protected soil yield the best fodder. It is well-known that forest pastures yield the best fodder before the herbage has blossomed. * The best Alpine fodder-plants for niik-h-cattle are -. — Poa alpiaa, Ahhcinllla alpina, Plantayo alpinus, Meant. iiLuleUiiia, Achi/lca moschata, die. bZZ FOKEST-FODDEK. 3. Effecta of Pasture on Forest MdNat/emcnt, and Conditions under uliich it may he tolerated. At the present time it is very difficult to pasture cattle in forests without danger to the latter. Although sometimes the forest may thus profit in certain ways, and the magnitude of the danger to which it is exposed may vary, yet in the majority of cases pasture is a great hindrance to the productiveness of forests. (a) Advantages of Forest Pasture. In only a few cases does forestry gain any advantage from pasture. These should not, however, he overlooked ; they consist in the suppression of dense growth of grass and herhage in regeneration-areas and plantations, in protection against mice, and, to some extent, in keeping the surface-soil free for the ger- mination of seeds. There are many sheltered regeneration-areas with moist and rich soil, on which, after only a moderate admission of light, such a strong growth of grass appears that the woody plants under it must he stifled if the herbage is not carefully removed. It is chiefly shade-bearing species of slow growth when young, such as the beech, silver-fir and spruce, which thus suft'er to any considerable extent, and for which the admission of cattle on to the area may be advantageous. In higher altitudes large- leaved herbs spring up among the tufts of grass and, especially on moist soils, form such a dense mass of vegetation that the young woody plants must perish were it not for the intervention of cattle. It cannot be denied that in the Schwarzwald, the Harz, &c., many young plantations and woods owe their existence to cattle-pasture. Similarly, in the Central German mountain ranges, as, for instance, the Vogelsgebirge, natural beech-repro- duction can be secured against the luxuriant growth of grass only by the help of cattle-grazing. In recommending the admission of a moderate number of cattle into reproduction-areas in order to keep down a stifling growth of grass and herbage, it should be remembered that this is only applicable when the latter threatens the existence of the young woody plants, and cannot be removed by other means than the admission of cattle ; and that, on the other hand, there are dangers connected with grazing with which, in certain cases, the advantages already PASTURE. 523 described are not commensurate. As with grass and herbage, so also with aspens and sallows, which may often be kept down by grazing. Frequently, danger from mice follows from a dense growth of grass, especially in felling-areas near fields. Under and between the dry procumbent tufts of grass the mice find sheltered winter quarters, where they collect in swarms, especially under deep snow, and cause great damage to young beech and other plants by gnawing their bark. It has been observed in many places, that in scantily-stocked old woods with consolidated soil, where cattle have pastured, natural regeneration is more easily obtained than in others closed to grazing, provided the cattle are removed when the seed germi- nates. This is due to the wounding of the soil, caused by the tread of the cattle, especially on somewhat sloping ground. (b) Disadvantages of Forest Pasture. The realisation of the above-mentioned advantages from forest pasture is always more or less attended with danger to the forest. Before deciding on the admissibility of pasture to a forest, one must be acquainted with the means of meeting these dangers, and the sylvicultural rules to be enforced to keep the grazing within proper limits. The damage which cattle effect in a forest is chiefly due to impoverishing the soil, browsing on the forest jilants, and trampling on their roots and on the soil. Besides the injury due to hardening of the soil, the dung which collects at the resting places and night-resorts of the cattle, is said to cause red-rot or other diseases ; but as a rule these consequences are inconsiderable or doubtful [whilst the dung may frequently be sold. — Tr.]. i. Impoverishment of tlie Soil. Every usage which removes forest produce must consequently reduce the fertility of the soil ; it is incontestable that pasture removes, in the fodder consumed, large quantities of nutritive mineral matter from the forest and reduces the organic matter necessary for the formation of humus. It is dilficult to say to what extent this deprivation of nutriment is replaced by the dung of the cattle. 324 FOKEST-FODDER. ii. J>(iina(ie hi) Broua'uuj. Cattle not only graze on the grass and herbage of the soil- covering of forests, but also browse on the leaves, buds, and young shoots of woody plants, to an extent which will be con- sidered below. That, by this browsing (especially if repeated annually for long intervals of time) forest growth is seriously damaged and its very existence endangered, may be proved by the present condition of hundreds of acres of forest, even if the fact is not accepted as self-evident. When and where browsing is to be feared, and the extent to which woods are thus endangered, depends on the larger or smaller supply of fodder- plants on the grazing-^n-ounds, the species of cattle admitted to gi-aze, the susceptibility of the woody species, the season for grazing, the age of the woods and the system of management. Supply of Fodder. — It is obvious that when cattle do not lind sufficient grass or herbage on their grazing-grounds, they will attack woody growth. Thus, when cattle are driven into young plantations to remove a dense growth of grass, the young forest plants are secure from serious danger until the grass has been sufficiently grazed-down. It is evidently necessary to base the number of cattle admitted to graze in a forest on the amount of available fodder it contains. Very many Alpine forests, for instance, have suffered greatly from an excess in the number of cattle admitted into them by grazing-rights. As a rule, the requirements of fodder per head are proportional to the weight of the beasts ; thus, a cow of average size, weighing 200 kilos (4 cwt.), requires daily for its complete nourishment 7 — 8 kilos (15 — 18 lbs.) of hay ; if, as Hundeshagen calculates, for every cwt. 1*8 — 2 kilos (4 to 4i lbs.) of fodder are necessary. If calves are reckoned at two-thirds and sheep at one-tenth the weight of a full-grown cow, 5 kilos (11 lbs.) of hay are required for a calf, and 4 kilo (li| lbs.) for a sheep. It is impossible to say what is the average yield of fodder in forests open to grazing, but grass, equivalent to 700 — 1)00 kilos of hay per hectare {^^h — 7 cwt. per acre), maybe cited as the supply in good localities. Species of Cattle. — Forest pasture is chiefly used by horned cattle ; also by sheep and goats, and less frequently by horses TASTURE. 525 or ponies. [In India, elephants, camels and buffalos may be added to the above list. — Tr.] Among these, horned cattle do the least damage, for they prefer grazing on the ground, and as long as there is sufficient grass and herbage, will not attack the woody plants. The sheep likes dry pasture, and prefers short grass among woody plants to a strong, luxuriant growth of grass, and especially prefers fodder which has grown unshaded by trees ; it attacks woody plants much more freely than horned cattle. If there are no dry pastures, sheep nibble the trees in a similar way to red deer. The goat is absolutely destructive to the forest, and no other beast shows such a preference for woody plants, which it will attack, however abundant the supply of grass may be. This greedy beast, often indeed indispensable to the poor peasant, bites off the buds, young shoots, and leaves of almost every woody plant within its reach ; no forest is too remote for it, and no mountain too lofty, no patch of woody growth beyond its reach, and it even bears-down fairly tall saplings with its fore legs, so as to nibble their juicy tops. Forests in the Alps, the South Tyrol and Southern Switzer- land, which were formerly so well wooded, and those of Spain, Greece, Sicily, &c., have been destroyed chiefly by herds of goats ; even up to the present time a limit has not been put to their ravages.* Young cattle are always more harmful to the forest than older beasts ; even calves form no exception to this rule, nibbling woody plants partly out of playfulness, partly to assist dentition. Whilst a flock of full-grown sheep may be driven without much danger through a beech or spruce reproduction-area well stocked with grass, as is sometimes done in the Harz, this can never be the case with lambs. The condition of the animals as regards fodder is of immense importance to the well-being of the forest. Hungry cattle, of any kind, will attack woody growth much more readily than those which are well fed ; if, therefore, there is only scanty herbage in a forest, the damage done by either horned cattle or sheep may be considerable. It is on this account that the half- starved flocks of sheep driven annually from Lombardy to the "* Compare the excellent pamphlet on grazing hy goats hy Dr. Fuiikhauser Berne, 1887. 520 FUKEST-FODDER. En^'ailiuf and the Tyrol arc always so (lostructivc to the forests. So, also, cattle reared from their youth in forests attack woody gi-Qwth much more than cattle accustomed to meadows and only occasionally driven into the forest. Milch and hrecdin«,' cattle always require the best fodder, and satisfy their hunger without wandering far ; young cattle thrive on inferior herbage, and it is even beneficial to them to be driven far into the fores-t for their fodder. Species of Tree. — In general, broad-leaved species sufter more from cattle than conifers ; among them, it is (unless they possess acid or bitter sap) the quick-growing, sappy and chiefly light- demanding species which are most attacked, such as ash, aspen, sallow, sycamore ; also hornbeam. These species are attacked when mixed here and there with beech, even where there is plenty of herbage. It is characteristic of cattle to prefer locally rare woody species to those of which a wood is chiefly composed. Whilst in districts where beech predominates, it rarely sufters provided there is plenty of grass, beech-plants springing up in coniferous woods with scanty herbage are so freely attacked as to grow into abnormal shapes, which can be hardly recognised as trees. The steady diminution and approaching extermination of beech and silver-fir in the Alpine forests are due, partly to the clear-cutting system, and partly to forest pasture. Oak and alder are less liable to attack than the species already mentioned, and except the alder, the birch is the only P^uropean forest tree which is rarely browsed by horned cattle. Sheep spare beech more than horned cattle, but they attack light-demanding species freely, even the birch. The goat is impartial in its taste for woody species. Among conifers, silver-fir and larch arc more endangered than spruce and the various species of pine, wliicli latter suffer least from browsing. The spruce escapes more easily than the softer silver-fir ; the larch grows most rapidly out of diingcr, as tlic larch forests of "Wallis and the Engadine show. Season for Pasture. — Pasture is most dangerous to woody growth at two periods of the year : first, in the spring, when the young shoots appear and the foliage is tender and most nutritive ; again, late in the autumn, when the grass has become hard or scanty. The least damage is therefore done at the season when the grass is still soft and juicy, and the annual upward growth PASTURE. 537 of the woody plants is about finished, i.e. from the end of May till the middle of July. In the higher Alpine pastures, however, the grass is not fully grown till the second half of June. If cattle are brought into the forest only when the grass has become tough and there is little after-growth, they will certainly browse on woody plants. Cattle should not be driven into the forest in the morning before the dew has nearly dried from off the grass, or else they will attack the woody plants ; they will also do so in wet weather. System of Management. — The damage done by pasture is very slight in even-aged woods, provided the cattle are only admitted into compartments where the trees have grown beyond their reach, and all young woods are closed to them. Plantations suffer much more from browsing than natural regeneration or sown areas, where the plants are much more numerous. The comparative duration of the close-time depends on the rate of growth of the young plants, and therefore on the quality of the locality, the species of tree, the nature of the wood (whether from seed or plantation), the kind of wood (coppice or high forest), and also the species of cattle. Selection woods appear, at first sight, to be less favourable for pasture than those which are even-aged, for in them regeneration is carried on at the same time all over the forest. AYhen, however, cattle remain night and day in the forest without herdsmen, as in most Alpine regions, selection forest withstands the danger better than even-aged woods. Even-aged, densely-stocked spruce forests are destitute of herbage, which is found only on the reproduction-areas that are closed against cattle. It is, however, a matter of everyday experience that no amount of care in fencing will always protect these areas. In natural regenera- tion in a selection forest, not only is there far more fodder produced, but damage by cattle is more widely distributed. If the close-time for young woods is j^rolonged until the crown of the woody plants is beyond the reach of the grazing animals, there can be no object in admitting them to the forest, for in dense even-aged woods of poles and saplings there is no herbage. The forester has, therefore, no interest now-a-days in the question of a permanent close-time for a wood. On the other hand, the existence of rights to pasturage necessitates an enquiry 528 FOREST- FODDER. US to the possibility of admitting cattle into young natural regeneration-areas. In some districts tliis is considered not only allowable, but even advisable ; whilst in others there is no privilege to which the forester is more opposed than pasture in felling-areas. Grazing is therefore admissible only when the herbage is so dense as to threaten the very existence of the woody growth. If in such cases a small herd of cattle, or even a small flock of sheep, is admitted in dry weather, and when the grass is still tender and nourishing (usually before Midsummer- day, or, in the Alps, during July) ; if the cattle are not half- starved, and not accustomed from their youth to forest pasture ; if they are driven gently and not every day in the same direction, and are kept under strict control by the herdsmen ; if they are withdrawn from the wood as soon as they have satisfied their hunger, and not allowed to lie-down — then, in most cases, on the grounds of both general and sylvicultural utility, the damage done will be slight in comparison to the advantage gained. It cannot be denied that in the most favourable cases hundreds of woody plants will be nibbled or trampled-down ; and that in beech-woods, with a few disseminated ash, sycamore, oak, and other saplings, these plants and especially the oak will suffer : but if too many plants are not thus sacrificed (when one considers that most of those injured will recover, and also how many forests which have been open to pasture, especially extensive tracts of Alpine beech and spruce-woods, and yet have grown into splendid woods), the conviction cannot be resisted, that pasture need not be entirely excluded from felling-areas when they are richly stocked with grass. It appears obvious that grazing cannot be allowed in artificially planted or sown areas, where the number of plants is necessarily reduced to a minimum ; yet cases have occurred in Eussia (Poretsche), where grazing has proved beneficial to plantations with a dense growth of grass. iii. IhiiiKKjc 1)1/ Tra)i(i>liii'j. It is evident that young plants must be damaged when trampled by the hoofs of heavy cattle ; colts and fillies are most hurtful in this respect ; sheep also, owing to their sharp hoofs and short stride, in si)ite of their comparatively light weight, may do much damage. Besides trampling-down young plants PASTURE. 529 and shoots and bruising young superficial roots, calves jump about and crush saplings and poles. The amount of damage done, however, is modified by the configuration of the ground. On level or gently sloping ground the damage done by the tread of cattle is only slight ; on slopes, however, both horned cattle and sheep, when grazing in narrow strips of forest or passing daily in the same direction, make a network of narrow paths, which intersect in all directions on dry slopes where the grass is scanty. The efi'ects of trampling are, however, much worse on steep, damp slopes, with marshy patches, the cattle at each step slipping and making grooves in the surface-soil, and burying every plant in their way. In damp, scantily turfed felling-areas with a deep moist coating of humus, which frequently occur on the north sides of mountains, this kind of damage attains its maximum in the case of hea-vy cattle, after prolonged rainfall ; a very few cattle then suffice to destroy the re-growth on a felling-area. After the soil has settled-down and become overgrown with grass, and the plants are somewhat larger, this form of damage is less formidable. It is obvious that heavy beasts do more damage by their tread than smaller ones. Their degree of hunger is so far influential that, once satisfied, the herd comes into close order, no longer moves leisurely onward and its tread is far more dangerous than when the beasts roam individually in search of fodder. In pasturing cattle on young reproduction-areas, therefore, these peculiarities should be taken into account. (c) Money Value of Forest Pasture. It is extremely difficult to ascertain the money value of forest pasture, although this must often be done in order to fix com- pensation for grazing-rights ; a thorough knowledge of all the local circumstances of the case is then essential. The greatest difficulty is to compare the nutritive value of forest pasture with that of hay. This ratio varies considerably, showing that serious errors may be made in roughly estimating the value of forest pasture. The annual value of a right to pasture cattle in a forest can be readily ascertained only in particular cases, by considering how much rent the farmer would have to pay to secure equally good pasturage outside the forest. VOL. V. M M }l]0 FOKEST-FODDKR. Section II. — Grass-Cutting. AVhilst forest pasture is steadily dimiuisliing owiug to the increase in the stall-feeding of cattle, grass-cutting is gaining ground in like measure. This is especially the case in places where agriculture is most profitable. The small farmer (and even the peasant living close to forests) is gradually learning the advantage of feeding beasts in stalls ; consequently, the supply of manure and the demands for forest grass are con- stantly increasing, for the increase in fodder-crops and meadows does not keep pace with the increased number of beasts fed in stalls. If the full value of the grass cut in Germany from forests could be given, its immense national-economic value would be thoroughly appreciated; it would be seen that a very considerable number of cattle obtain their summer fodder almost entirely from forests, and that the maintenance of the poor man's cow or goat is often only thus rendered possible. From the Hardtwald near Miihlhausen in Alsace, for instance, the annual crop of forest grass is estimated as at least 2,500 tons. There are also forest ranges in Prussia, which obtain annual revenues of 750/. to 900/. from grass ; in the forest range of Berghausen, in Baden, the average revenue from grass during 5 years has been 760/. (Gs. an acre). Any forest range situated in a populous district and where the soil is moist, especially if treated as coppice, or coppice-with-standards, can yield even larger returns. In the dry year 1893, no less than (35,000 tons of grass were obtained in a regular manner from the Bavarian forests. About as much was probably taken from them fraudulently. The advantages the forest gains from grass-cutting are similar to those already described under pasture. Plantations and natural regeneration-areas are saved from being choked by the grass, and from deprivation of light and dew ; whilst damage by mice is greatly reduced, and finally, a considerable revenue is fre- quently obtained. It should not, however, Ijc forgotten that by the removal of so much organic substance from the forest, the productive power of the soil is impaired ; for grasses often contain large quantities of ash, especially at seasons wlun they blossom and their seed GRASS-CUTTING. 531 ripens. More mineral matter is therefore taken from the soil when the grass is cut and removed, than when litter is utilized, and onl}^ moist rich soil can withstand this. On poor soil the practice must not be adopted. Persistent grass-cutting for a series of years on poor soil reduces not only the production of wood, but even of the grass itself, which eventually dis- appears. Localities, which under the influence of the factors referred to in the first section of this chapter produce large quantities of grass, may be distinguished as permanent, or temporary, grass areas. To the former belong regular forest meadows, which owing to their naturally moist condition are adapted for a prolonged supply of good grass. Temporary grass -areas include all those destined for the production of wood, but which, during the young stages of woody growth, are adapted for the production of grass ; besides these, all blanks in the forest, such as the sides of ditches, road-sidings, fire-lines and other similar places may be here included, which unlike permanent meadows are not kept clear from woody plants expressly for grass-production. The permanent grass-areas are lands contained in the forest area, but used for the production of grass : these are lands liable to inundations from rivers and brooks or near perma- nent springs which atford the necessary supplies of subsoil moisture ; lower parts of valleys between mountainous slopes ; Alpine pastures or similar areas with rich moist soil in moun- tainous countries. Wherever there are extensive areas of this nature, and fodder is scarce, every means should be employed which the farmer uses to improve his meadows ; often only a small expenditure is necessary to obtain a better crop of grass by removing stones and rocks, draining swamps, or planting rows of trees far apart. It is not only the direct utility to the forest which should be considered by the forest manager, but public duty also should impel him to endeavour strenuously to increase the local supply of fodder, especially in essentially forest districts where the poor peasantry are constantly increasing in numbers and becoming more and more impoverished. For a temporary supply of grass the most important places are : — areas of recent fellings ; plantations with moist, grass- il M 2 T):i-Z FOREST-FODDER. liroclucinj:^ soil (especially 1 to 5 years old beech ami spruce refrcneration-areas, and 1 to 3 years old fellings in coppice or coppice-with-staiidards) ; also alder, ash and larch woods of almost any age, which usually produce good crops of grass. In some places, clear-felled areas are used for the production of grass several years before being replanted. Grass-cutting among young plants causes much anxiety to many foresters. There is a danger that many young plants may be cut with the grass, so that to forbid grass-cutting altogether may appear to be the simplest remedy, hy so doing, however, a valuable product is with- drawn from people who are in general greatly in want of fodder, and a source of danger to the young woody plants is not removed, whilst the most stringent regulations and laws will not prevent poor people from stealing the grass. Then, owing to hasty cutting or to the fear of inevitable punishment, it will be cut without the slightest care for the forest plants. Grass-cutting is therefore, as a rule, advantageous to the forest, provided the soil is sufficiently good to permit the practice on felling-areas and among young growth, on condition that it is carefully cut and removed. This is specially important in years of local scarcity of fodder. On the other hand, all poor dry soils should be excluded from this practice, especially in lightly stocked coppice and coppice-with-standards ; for besides the fact that the grass-crop is scanty in such places, its removal must be considered as a great drain of nutriment from the soil. Oil all permanent forest grass-lands, the grass is mown wiiJi scylhes iis in ordinary meadows ; where the presence of trees would interfere with the scythe the sickle is used instead. Forest revenue is obtained either by leasing the grass for longer or shorter periods, or by selling the crop in well demarcati-d lots by public auction. The grass among young growth or on felling-areas may be either plucked by hand or cut with the sickle. Hand-plucking is considered a less hurtful method, l)ut it yields little and cannot be continued long without danger (o the hands. Cutting grass is nearly every where effected with the common sraootli-blailed sickle, and but rarely with the saw- toothed one. ll is (lilliriilL to prove that the sickle is always a dangerous instrument among young growth, for both plucking and reaping must l)oili l)e carefully done. Where the plants are LEAF-FODDEK. 533 small and the grass tall, reaping is less dangerous than plucking ; when the plants are taller, they can be easily seen and are as easily avoided with the sickle as with the hand. On very wet soil and where plants are subject to frost-lifting, for instance, on basalt covered with deep humus, reaping is better than plucking, as the latter dangerously loosens the soil. The season for grass-cutting cannot be begun too soon when plants are being choked by the grass. In any case, a com- mencement should be made no later than the blossoming period ; and if, as on very rich soil, it is necessary to repeat the cutting, this should be done during autumn, for the snow will press down the grass over the young plants in winter and thus endanger them. Grass-cutting on felling-areas is thus not only permissible with good supervision and goodwill on the part of the workmen, but in most cases is preferable to absolute refusal of permission to cut. The revenue for it is collected either by the issue of cheap grass-permits, giving the holder a right to cut grass on certain designated areas, or by auction-sales of demarcated lots of grassy tracts. This latter plan is suitable in the case of moist coppices and coppice-with-standards along the banks of large rivers, where there is usually a dense growth of grass. Section III. — Leaf-Fodder. The foliage and young shoots of woody plants may be used in a similar way to herbage for cattle-fodder. The value of leaf- fodder, however, varies with the season of the year : as long as the foliage is incompletely developed its value as fodder is highest ; it continually depreciates after the foliage is fully grown, and is lowest just before leaf-fall. The species of trees which are most exposed to damage by the browsing of cattle, furnish the best fodder ; after the Canadian poplar, which is best of all, are ash, poplar, willow (especially S. alba, caprea, vitel- lina, and pentaiidra), lime, sycamore and other maples, oaks, and (as long as their foliage is young), beech and elms. Among conifers, yew and silver-fir are favourites [the former may be injurious. — Tr.] ; even the spruce may be used, last of all the larch. The kind of beast must also be considered, for goats and 5:31" FOKEST-FODDEl!. sheep will cut any broacl-lciived species, whilst horned cattle are more discriniiiiating ; as a rule, leat-fodder serves in Germany for the winter food of sheep and goats. The remark is hardly required, that the use of leaf- fodder is highly prejudicial to the growth of trees. A tree can only dispense ^ith its foliage after the processes of transformation and assimilation are over, and that is shortly before leaf-fall. As, however, the nutritive value of foliage [other than that of evergreen trees and shrubs which store nutritive material in their leaves during winter. — Tr.] late in the autumn is very small, and farmers wish to use it as early as possible, the use of leaf-fodder must, from a forest point of view be regarded as highly prejudicial. Little is to be gained by permitting foliage to be plucked only after the buds have been formed for the succeeding year's crop, for the preparation and storage of reserve nutritive material for that year's wood is thus prevented. With the exception of a general scarcity of fodder, when in many districts the foliage of trees afford the only means of saving the lives of the cattle (in Hungary 1863, Fichtelgebirge 1887, and France 1893), the use of leaf- fodder should as far as possible be prohibited. In Switzer- land (Canton Wallis) oak-pollards are regularly lopped for goat fodder. [Similarly, in the centre and south of France. In the Himalayas, evergreen oaks, elms, wild i)lum-trees, Celtis, itc. and even spruce-trees are regularly pollarded for cattle-fodder, and the ])ractice prevails witli other species in various parts of India. Kules on this subject, for the protection of the trees, are given in Manual of Forestry, vol. 4, p. 25.— Th.] Leaf-fodder is harvested chiefly in coppice and from pollards, the leaves being either plucked by hand, or the young shoots cut, tied into bundles and dried quickly in order to prevent the leaves from fulling, Tlie wilting twigs and foliage are placed under cover in an airy place, or kept in loosely piled stacks. One hundred and fifty kilograms of leaf-fodder (330 lbs.) ex- clusive of branches, is considered equivalent to 100 kilos (220 lbs.) of hay of average quality ; a bushel of leaf-fodder, including twigs, contains, for oak, 40%, for sallows, 00% of nutritive substance. In the lower Ilhine-valley, and along the Moselle, LEAF-FODDER. 535 leafless twigs and young shoots from oak-coppice are used in years of scarcity for sheep fodder. In districts where broad-leaved forests abound, the use of leaf-fodder is unimportant, for where there are extensive forests there is also abundance of grass, and a scarcity of fodder is very exceptional (as in 1893). Leaf- fodder is, on the other hand, of great importance where there are few broad-leaved forests; as, in most Tyrolese valleys, in some districts in Switzerland and on the Eifel, in districts where large flocks of sheep are kept and there is a permanent scarcity of other than leaf-fodder. Leaf- fodder is also regularly used in parts of the Alps, Dalmatia, and some Hungarian districts, &c. [Also in most of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. — Tk.] 536 CHAPTER III. FIELD-CROPS IN' COMBINATION WITH FORKSTllY. When tiold-crops are grown on forest laud they are classed as minor forest produce. Plither the field-crop or the crop of wood may preponderate in value, and the methods adopted vary in accordance with their comparative importance. These different methods will now be considered seriatim, chiefly from a syl- vicultural point of view. Section I. — Methods Adopted. 1. Lands permanently cleared in Forests. Forests contain certain lands which are always free from wood. and are consequently classed as sylviculturally non-productive. These are fields given either rent-free or at a low rent to forest guards or to permanently engaged woodcutters ; areas cultivated for feeding deer or other game ; areas adjoining foresters' houses in the interior of forests, which are cleared to afibrd sufficient light, heat, and air to render them habitable, and to afibrd space for gardens, orchards, or field-crops. Road- and railway-sidings, and blanks left unstocked with trees for sporting and other purposes may be included. As lands thus excluded from the wood-producing forest area (except those used for feeding game) are rarely cultivated by the forest owner, they should be leased unless they are allotted to forest officials or woodcutters. '2. Field-crops (jroan on Woodland a-itltout eare for forest uroictJi. Formerly in certain localities where ihe value of wood was almost nil, it was often customary to fell. and burn the trees, and then cultivate the soil for agricultural crops as long as these FIELD-CROPS IX FORESTS. 537 would grow without manure. The land was subsequently put under pasture. It then became gradually restocked with trees by means of coppice-shoots and seeds coming from adjoining woods. In Europe this barbarous manner of destroying forests and using the burned area for field-crops or pasture is still followed in Finland, Northern Sweden, certain parts of Eussia and here and there in the Alps and Carpathian mountains. In other localities a regular utilisation of the wood has been introduced, only the unsaleable parts being burned, as well as the shrubs and soil-covering. Such a system is still in force in the Swiss cantons of Luzern and Wallis. The wood on these areas is felled every 10 — 20 years, the stumps extracted, and the refuse burned ; potatoes or corn are then grown for a few years, when the land is abandoned to forest growth or used for pasture. Gradually, woody growth reappears, and after a number of years the same treatment is repeated. In the district of Birkenberge in LoAver Bavaria, a similar system, now falling into disuse, was followed in woods chiefly stocked with birch and spruce trees ; but in this case, a few standard trees were left to give seed, and the land constantly subjected to pasture and removal of litter after 2 — 3 years of potato or corn crops had been harvested. Some districts of the Eeutberge in the Black Forest may be mentioned here, as the cultivation of trees is quite subordinated to that of field-crops. Some of the better tracts in the Reut- berge are, however, managed more in accordance with the system which will be described in paragraph 4. [In many hill-districts in India, a similar custom, termed jhujning, prevails. As an instance, the mode adopted in the Garo Hills, south of the Brahmaputra river, will be described. The Garo village-com- munities own land natm-ally stocked with trees, bamboos or grass. In October they fell all the woody growth on areas they Avish to cultivate, and cut the herbage, &c., reserving a few large trees, if found on tho area. Sometimes they remove a cez-tain number of poles and other pieces of wood or bamboos for their own use, or for sale in the plains of Sylhet, and the rest of the wood is spread on the ground, and burned in March. The stumps are not extracted, but the land hoed between them and cotton or rice sown. In the second year, a crop of yams, chillies, tapioca, Arc, is taken off the land, and then the area is abandoned to woody growth from coppice-shoots, seedlings, &c. In about ten years or less, according to the total area of land possessed 53S FIELD-CKOPS IN FORESTS. by the village, the operation is repeated. The Oaros levy fines on a village if a fire should spread from its lands to those of another village. The reserved trees are lopped of most of their branches, so as not to overshade the crops, and temporary bamboo huts are built in the forking boughs of these trees, where the cultivators can sleep without fear of elephants and other wild beasts. — Tu.] 3. Fidil-Crops (dti'i-iKitiiuf nitJi the Cultivation of Trees. Wherever care is taken to protect the woody growth after the tield-crop has l)een harvested, the latter may he considered as subordinate in importance to the former. Here, usually after a clear felling, unless the trees have been up-rooted, the stumps are extracted, the refuse burned, and the soil cultivated for a crop of corn. If the soil-covering consists of shrubs, grass, &c., it is sometimes hoed-up in sods and burned in loosely piled heaps with the wood-refuse. The heaps are thoroughly burned to ashes so as to leave as little charred wood as possible. The ashes and the burned earth from the sods are then strewn t)ver the area. This system is termed in German, ScJimoren or Schmodcn. If the area is merely roughly hoed, and all the herbage and refuse wood spread over it so that the fire passes over the whole area, the system is termed Seiujeii. This is usual when there is not much herbage on the soil, the soil- covering chiefly consisting of coniferous needles ; the fire is then applied against the wind, or downhill on slopes, otherwise it would be kept under control with difficulty. In the system termed Srltinorcn the refuse is more thoroughly burned to ashes than in the latter system, which produces more charred wood. The beneficial effects of burning the soil arc, however, more marked in Sciu/en. The field-crops usually last for two years. CTcnorally cereal crops are cultivated, l)U(kwheat, rye, or oats, a third crop being sometimes obtained. [Potatoes are also grown. — Tr.] The ground cannot always be cleared early enough for spring sowing, it then lies fallow till the autumn, when it is sown for the next year's crop. As soon as the cultivation of field-cro])s ceases, the area is restocked with trees either by sowing or planting, and occasionally the seed of the trees is sown with the last cereal seed. There are several varieties of this mode of treating forest land. FIELD-CROPS IN FORESTS. 530 Thus, in many Scotch pine districts, the felling-areas with reserved standard trees standing on them are leased in lots for one year's cereal cultivation, in order that the soil may be thoroughly loosened for natural regeneration of the Scotch pine. The soil must not then be too matted with weeds or roots if the cost of cultivation is to be covered by only one year's crop. In some cases, in order to supply a certain amount of transitory freshness to a poor, di-y, sandy soil, the area after cultivation is sown with lucerne, which is cut-down and ploughed-in as soon as it is in full bloom ; corn is then sown, and in the third year either Scotch pine seed sown, or another fodder-crop of lupines harvested before this is done. As now-a-days Scotch pine culture is frequently combined with that of field-crops, so it was formerly the case with pure oak-woods. In nearly all German countries there are forest compartments termed acorn gardens {Eichel- gdrten), which were formerly cultivated with field-crops for several years, acorns being sown with the last crop, and the area again surrendered to forestry. In Upper Bavaria spruce plants with balls of earth round their roots are planted in laud which has been cropped with oats. The land is cleared, cultivated, and oats sown in the spring. In the second year a crop of potatoes is reared ; in the third year another crop of oats mixed ■svith spruce seed. From the fourth to the sixth year the spruce seedlings are utilized as transplants with balls of earth, and planted in lines on the area and on other neighbouring cleared strips. 4. Simultaneous Cultivation of Forest and Field-Crops. In the above-mentioned systems the felling-area is abandoned to agriculture for several years, and the cultivation of a forest crop commences only after the last field-crop has been harvested. The wood-increment is therefore lost during the years occupied by the field-crops. There are, however, other methods in which there is no interruption in the production of wood, and the field-crop is merely intended to assist the latter. The two most important varieties of this method are termed in German, Hachcald and Waldfeldhau-Betrieh. (a) Hackwald. — This is a combination of field-crops and 5i0 FIELIJ-CROPS IN FORESTS. coppic-e, iiL'Jirh- always of oak ; it has l)eeii practised for centuries iu the Odeiiwald, Siej,'en, Westphalia, Hildesbeim and several other localities, and is most extensively followed in the district of Beerfeldeu and Hirschhorn in the Neckar-valley. As soon as the oak-coppice compartments have been felled and peeled, the bark removed, and the felling-area cleared (usually about the end of May), the felling-area, on which the oak-stools are somewhat far apart, is cultivated by hoeing and burning, as in the previously described methods. At present, in the Odenwald and in Siegen the cultivation is only for a single crop, and the area is sown with winter-corn (in October or November). In Siegen a light plough, or cultivator, is used before sowing. The harvest follows in the succeeding year, and the felling-area is then left for the coppice to grow up. In the third year, broom generally appears, which is used as farm-yard litter. Sometimes in Siegen the felling-area is grazed in the third year by sheep, but as a general rule by cattle, till the Gth year or later. In the Odenwald an acre of the best Ilacktcald yields about 8] bushels of grain. The felling-areas are leased in small lots for cultivation either after the felling and clearance of the wood and birk, or together with the wood and bark. In Hirschhorn and Ik'erfelden the forest owners first auction-off the bark to tanners at so much a cwt., and at the same time the right of cultivation in small lots to the peasantry ; the latter also buy the standing- crop, bark and wood, and the right of cultivating as well, under agreement to sell the bark at a stated price to the tanners (see p. 503). In Siegen an acre yields on the average 13 bushels of grain. The right of cultivation is here exercised on the annually felled areas by an association of peasants. There has recently been much less demand for Jiarkwdld cultivation, as more grain is imported, and p(uisants find remunerative employment away from their native villages ; the landowners are therefore compelled to make an allowance to the coppice purchasers to induce tlicni to cultivate the soil, and thus increase the production of bark. (b) Waldfeldbau. — WaldfeWmu is a similar method to that of Hachicdlil, but is ajiplied to high forest instead of coppice. The method adopted by Furstnicistcr Reiss of Hesse-Darmstadt has been exactly followed in different German countries, and the following account of the experience gained in the well-known NATIONAL-ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES. 541 forest range of Viernlieim will suffice to explain it. The felling, and clearance of the felling-area is hurried-on so that the land may he cultivated early in the spring. All the wood is uprooted except a few standards (oaks or Scotch pines). The whole cleared felling-area is cultivated to a depth of from 1 foot to 16 inches, and the thoroughly worked soil restocked by sowing, or by planting in lines 1| meters (say 5 feet) apart. Oaks or conifers are used for this purpose, according to locality. For oaks, acorns are sown 3 meters (10 feet) apart ; at the same time Scotch pine nurses are planted or soAvn in rows to protect the oaks, and are eventually removed in thinnings. The rotation is fixed at 100 years. In the intervals (4 feet broad) between the plants, field-crops are grown on the better soils for 4 years and on poorer soils for 2 years. In the first year it is usual to grow a crop of potatoes, in the second year, winter-corn ; and if the field-crops are continued during the third and fourth years the same order is followed. When the potatoes are dug the intervals between the forest plants are also hoed, weeded, and the plants almost as carefully tended as if they were in a forest-nursery. If in the first year there should not be enough plants or seed to stock the ground, the whole area is cultivated for a potato-crop, and, as an exception, the restocking only undertaken in the autumn. In Hesse about 10,000 acres of forest land have been thus treated. In Wiirttemberg also, this system has been extensively adopted, especially on a rich soil near Bibrach. The method has also been tried in the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, Silesia, Hesse-Nassau, and in Alsace-Lorraine ; in some Bohemian districts ; in Hungary, Avhere also crops of maize are reared. At present, however, the agricultural aspect of this system has gi-eatly lost in interest for well-known reasons. Section II. — National-economic importance or Field-Crops COMBINED with FORESTRY. The national-economic advantages of combining field-crops and forestry consist in the increased production of food, the fact that this can be secured without any manure, and last but not least, because the increased supply of straw really increases the 51-2 FIELD-CROPS IN FOKKSTS. iiinount (»f niiiiiuie aviiiliil)lc for ji^rririilture. Tlieso advantages, however, depeiul in the first place, on conditions of climate and soil heing favourahle to agriculture; secondly, on sufficient facility in the cultivation of the soil, and the possiljility of ohtaining a sufficient sui)ply of lahour. Field-crops make greater demands on hoth climate and soil than forest plants ; in order, therefore, that they may thrive, suitahle climatic conditions are essential, and this, experience has fully proved (as in the Rhine-valley, Switzerland, Bohemia, and s(mie districts hordering on the Danube). The demands which field-crops when continued only for a few years make on the fertility of the soil are more easily met, for only a moderate and superficial supply of nutritive soil is requisite, which every forest soil possesses, provided it has not been dei)rived of litter and its degree of compacity does not offer too great obstacles to cultivation. As regards locality, the gradient of the area to be cultivated is often steep, and deep cultivation cannot bo efiected without danger of denudation by rain-water. It is therefore essential, if field-crops are to be grown with profit, that the area be level, or only slightly inclined. Another condition is that the land shall be not too remote from the labourers' houses, a liigbly important point now that wages are so high. The amount of labour involved in the cultivation naturally varies with the stifiiiess of the soil, the amount of herbage which binds it together, and whether the roots of the woody plants have been extracted or not beforehand. The duration (»f the agricultural treatment also greatly influences the question, for it can hardly prove remunerative to remove the stumps and roots of felled trees for the purpose of cultivating a piece of ground for one year's crop only. Scarcity of Land for Cultivation and a Dense Population are also necessary conditions ; where sufficient cleared land is available for agriculture, and plenty of other work is available, the peasants cannot be induced to cultivate remote forest areas. If the forest owner attempts to cultivate at his own expense it is evident that labour nmst be plentiful, or he will not get sufficient workmen. ^Matters of late years have greatly altered in this re- spect. Formerly it was only possible for the dense population of many mountainous districts to obtain sufficient food by supplementing SYLVIOULTLRAL ADVANTAGES. 543 t the crops from their own poor lands by those taken from adjoining forest field-crops, as they could not possibly purchase imported grain. The present increased facilities for traffic, the great demands industries make on labour, the small returns of agriculture and many other circumstances have in most districts greatly reduced the desire for forest field-crops, and in a few decades they will probably be abandoned. Section III. — Sylvicultural importance of Field-Crops in Forests. The question now arises as to what forestry may gain or lose by a combination of field-crops and tree-growth. 1. Advantaf/es to the Forest. The two chief ways in which a forest gains from field-crops are : the consequent increase in the forest revenue, and the reduced cost of reproduction ; for the ground is thus cultivated and the growth of the young plants stimulated. (a) Increased Forest Revenue. — As agriculture usually gives higher pecuniary returns than forests, the cultivation of field crops on felling-areas will generally repay not only the cost of cultivation of the crops and of the forest re-growth, but also yield a surplus. From a pecuniary point of view it would be more profitable to clear all forest areas which are suitable for clover and produce fodder-crops, but the production of wood is the real object of a forest, and attempts to increase the forest revenue must be made within proper limits. The question therefore arises, whether the apparent gain from the field- crops will not disappear when balanced by the consequent loss in productiveness of the soil. (b) Stimulation of Forest Growth. — Combination of field-crops with forest growth necessarily supposes a thorough cultivation of the soil, thus utilizing its nutritive power to the utmost. As on good soil only a portion of this nutritive power is required by the field-crop, and a balance remains over for the use of the forest plants, the usually favourable growth of young forest trees under these circumstances is easily explained. It is no wonder that the reproduction of a wood should succeed on such 514 fip:ld-ckops in forests. a loosened soil niuch better than when uothinfjf is done to the soil, or it is only sli•")<■. IIAMVI-STING I'ltriTS AND SKEDS OF FUUKST TIJEES. iiatnrallv lie piopctrtioiiiil to the oidiiiaiv daily wa^^e for (•ther similar work. This is especially the case in the collection of <-ones, when the work may also be in proj^^ress in uei<,'hbourin^' forests and if sufficient payment is not made for the seed, much of it may find its way into the hands of seed-merchants or nei<,'hbouriu; acorns and beech-nuts. This method is evidently applicable only when the fruit is used i'oi- other purposes besides artificial reproduction. It is cairied out by givin<^- formal permits to applicants ullowinj^- them access to the forest to collect acorns or beech-nuts, on condition, that they deliver a snndl percentat^e to the forest owner. Finally, Avhen the owner does not need the seed for his own requirements, he may lease the whole crop to seed- dealers. 4. Trcdtinciit of Seed aj'tcr Collcrtioii. The fruits and s('ef T)nj Wood from Xdtioudl-Economic and Stjlvirultnral Asjx'cts. ^^^len the immense amount of dry wood is considered, which in many places is gathered weekly by the poor and forms a large proportion of their winter supply of fuel, its national economic importance is obvious. Even when firewood-prices are at their lowest in well-wooded districts, this usage is always practised. It has been maintained that the collection of dry wood is a waste of labour which might be more profitably applied in other directions; this may, however, be controverted. "Wherever the country people are chiefly employed in agri- culture, there are certain slack times in every year which they can devote to collecting firewood for their own household requirements. It cannot be denied that labour might be more profitably employed than in collecting dry wood, but it should also be remembered that country folk, and esi)ecially those li\ing near extensive woodlands, are not acquainted with national-economic laws and are usually satisfied with obtaining the bare means of living. Country labourers, however, are severing themselves more and more from old customs, and obtaining better markets for their labour, so that it is chiefly children and weaker people who gather dry wood. [In India, dry fallen wood is freely given from the State forests and othei-s to villagers and travellers ; large quantities of firewood are also gathered by tlie i)eople free of any charge from the drift- wood which is stranded hy tlic numerous rivers during and after the monsoons. — Ti{.] The sylvicultural importance of dry fallen wood depends chiefly on its value in enriching and loosening the soil, the protection it aflnrds to dead leaves in exposed places (preventing the wind from blowing them away) ; also when properly super- vised, on the careful removal of dead branches fi'om trees to render them free from knots. It is well-known that dry twigs and blanches decompose in the same way as dead leaves, needles and other organic bodies, and thus increase the supply of humus. The physical eflect is still nnn-e important, for pieces of dry wood becoming gradually buried in dead leaves loosen the upper strata of soil and DRY FALLEN WOOD. 575 expedite the formation of humus, au important point in the case of wet and binding soils. Moreover, the coating of dead leaves when mixed with pieces of dry wood is not so easily removed by wind, a property not to be despised for exposed beech- woods on poor soil. In woods which have been sown artificially or naturally, the stems free themselves of their dead branches. This, however, in modern plantations, is not com- pletely secured without pruning ; the branches otherwise become enclosed within the stems and thus depreciate the value of planks and scantling obtained from the trees. In such cases it is best to employ paid labour to prune the trees : where, how- ever, the collectors of dry wood are properly supervised and allowed to remove dead branches with small hand-saws, the cost of pruning is saved, and damage avoided which may be con- siderable when the dry branches are roughly removed. 5/0 CHAPTER Vr. UTILIZATION OF STOxN'E, GRAVEL, ETC. In mountuiu-fin-ests, the utilization of stone is frequently an im portent item of forest revenue ; quarrvinfif the better kinds of stone increases in importance with the expansion of towns, the more substantial nature of the buildings erected and the con- stantly extending means of communication. Independently of the fact, that an absolutely necessary want is thus met, the forest owner's own pecuniary interest will prevent him from opposing ii well-regulated system of quarrying, for the best production of wood will never pay so well as leasing quarries. 1. Ditf'rrcnt kinds of Stoiir. The following kinds of stone are utilized : — Hewn-stone which is regularly shaped, and for which the fine, compact sandstones of the Cambrian, Silurian, New Red Sandstone and Tertiary formations, also trachyte among eruptive rocks, &c., are most in demand. [In Hritain also Bath oolite, Aberdeen granite, &:c. -Tr.] Broken stone used in rubble-masonry, for foundations, S:c., for which almost any kind of stone is suitable ; — or paving stones, for which the hardest material, basalt, phonolith, diorite, fine-grained syenite, iSrc, are most suitable. Slate for roofing from the Cambrian and Silurian formations, and lignite nt ar Liegnitz and Frankfort are also valuable. The forester should everywhere favour quarrying, not only on financial grounds, but also for national-economic reasons. Calcareous rocks are also of great importance, serving as building-stone or for lime-burning, for which purpose they are the more valuable the less clay they contain. Quarries of gypsum, felspar and kaolin are rare. The list may be closed by enumerating sand, gravel, marl and clay, which are almost fv.iv wlicic more or less in demand. STOXE, GRAVEL, kc. 577 2. Mode of Utilization. Stone is obtained either by quarrying the mountain-side, or by collecting boulders or flint-nodules from the surface of the ground. From a sylvicultural point of view, permanent quarries are greatly preferable to the employment of boulders, as the area taken from the production of wood is then of limited extent and more easily controlled : the growth of wood being permanently excluded from the area, no question of indirect injury to the forest can arise. Direct injury to the forest may, however, occur in quarrying — in the experimental search for suitable localities for a quarry ; the loss of wood production on areas AA'hich are often extensive ; the damage to roads, and occasionally the increase in forest offences owing to the presence of the quarry-men in the forest. The quality of stone from the same geological formation may vary considerably in different parts of the same mountain-side ; hence several experimental quarries are frequently commenced and eventually abandoned. This causes loss of a considerable area for wood-production, as when the soil is covered with fresh unweathered rock it is often impossible to restock it with trees. Even when a workable quarry has been started, fairly large areas are often required for deposit of the refuse stone, and on steep slopes the latter often accumulates in long strips down the valleys, as in the Siebengebirge. This nuisance may, however, be improved by good regulations and confined within reasonable limits. It is therefore indispens- able that not only the quarry itself, but the area on which refuse maybe thrown should be carefully demarcated. Forest offences by quarry-men, who are sometimes imperfectly acquainted with the limits of mine and thine, cannot be altogether avoided. Con- siderable damage is also done to the forest roads, no traffic being more ruinous to them than that of stones from quarries. The latter are not usually important enough to warrant the construc- tion of roads specially made for them alone ; hence the nearest forest road is used, and if the expense of its maintenance falls exclusively on the forest owner, this may cost him more than he obtains from the stone-quarry. In such cases, a condition should be entered in the lease of the quarry for payment by the lessee for maintaining the road in good condition. VOL. V. p p 578 STO^^E, GRAVEL, 6iC. Altbou^'h rc^'uliir quanifs are nsnallv more profitable than the mere collection of boulders, the latter arc often harder and drier than freshly quarried stone from the damp mountain-side, and are, therefore, much used for rough building purposes if the slope on wbith they are lying is steep enough to facilitate their collection . and roads are available for their removal from the forest. As in this case, the stones are collected from among trees, damage to the standing crop is always to be feared, and especially Lo the roots of the trees. It is the interest of the lessee, however, to be careful, as he would otherwise lose the business, so that the best precautions against damage are usually taken. [Con.siderable daniaiic is done to tlie roots of trees in tlic forests of Normandy, by removal of superficial flint-nodules. It should also be noted that large stones lying in regeneration-areas often preserve moisture in the soil and their removal should therefore be restricted to older woods, in which the cover has not been interrupted. — Tu.] The forest owner rarely undertakes the quan-ying or i-emoval of stones at his own expense ; even if he should require the stones for buildings, walls or road-metalling, it is better to obtain them by contract, rather than by daily labour. Hence it is usual to lease quarries. The limited local demand for sand, gravel, forest soil, i^-c, is generally met by permits, at rates agreed upon ])er hundred cubic feet or cartload, from the more or less permanent sand or gravel-pits. [In the north of India, considerable revenues are obtained by leasing the limestone-boulders in the beds of watercourses, which are dry for 8 months in the year; lime-burning has the further advantage of causing a large demand for firewood, for which it is often difficult otherwise to find a market. — Tr.] 579 CHAPTER VII. THE USE OF FOEEST LITTER. Section I. — General Account. In forests, the mineral soil is not exposed, but is everywhere coated with a vegetable soil-covering which is partly dead and partly composed of living plants. When a dense broad-leaved forest is left to nature, its soil-covering consists of dead leaves, husks of fruit, fallen flowers, &c., which the trees shed periodi- cally and with which dead fallen branches and twigs are mingled. In a dense coniferous forest, the soil-covering consists of living and dead mosses, among which are the dead fallen needles. Wherever the soil is exposed to the influence of light, and in more or less open woods, the soil also produces a number of weeds of various species. If this covering is removed from the soil, the f»roductiveness of the latter is greatly affected and in most cases deteriorates : not unfrequently its power of producing wood may be completely arrested. This removal of the soil-covering has in many forests become a more or less regular custom and has unfortunately assumed the character of a forest usage termed removal of forest litter, the litter being used in stalls and stables instead of straw. Whenever the soil-covering of a forest, consisting of dead leaves or needles and moss, is left to the natural process of decomposition, its lowest layers completely lose their organic character, only their mineral components being left. More and more organic matter is thus found in its upper layers, till the surface consists of dead leaves or living moss. Its lower and partly decomposed layer is termed humus and its upper decom- posing and living layers, litter. While therefore in humus all 1' p 2 580 FOIIF.ST LITTEll. vegetable structure Las completely disappeared, in litter {Stirii). this structure is quite recoguizable. Humus cauuot be used in stalls for litter, but it has some value as manure and is there- fore appreciated by the farmer as an adjunct to litter. It is thus generally the undecomposed layers of the soil-covering only which arc used as litter in agriculture. Forest litter may therefore consist of various materials, which have difiereut values as substitutes for straw and are collected in various ways. Besides ground-litter, the young twigs of conifers are also used as stable litter. Hence a distinction is made between the follo^nng kinds of forest litter : — A. Ground- Litter, including all dead or living materials from the soil-covering of forests, which may consist of: — (a) Dry fallen leaves or needles, which are shed by the trees forming the standing crop of the forest ; and to some extent, by shrubs in the underwood. (b) Moss and grass, partly living and partly dead. (c) Forest weeds, such as broom, bilberry-plants (and other species of Vacciiiiuiji), heather, ferns, reeds, rushes, ilvc. B. Branch-Litter, young needle-bearing twigs of the Scotch pine, spruce, silver-tir and larch. SkCTION II. iMrOETANCE OF FoiJEST LiTTER FOR WOOD- Production.* Foresters have always endeavoured to preserve the forest soil- covering of humus and litter ; these materials have indeed for a long time been recognized as the natural means of preserving the productiveness of the soil and preventing deterioration of the forest, which is in no way more endangered than by their removal. 1. J'xiir/irial I\lJ'rrts of LitUr and IIumuH on the Growth of Trees. (a) Preservation of moisture in the soil. — The humus which covers the mineral subsuil and is only to a slight extent mixeil with it, and the coating of litter above the humus, are the most eflectual means of securing and maintaining in the soil th( • Eliermayer, Die gosammte Lehre der Waltlstieu, Berlin, 1876. IMPORTANCE FOR WOOD-PRODUCTIOX. 581 requisite amount of moisture. The action of hamus and litter is in this respect threefold, viz. : The mechanical impediment it aftbrds on slopes to rapid drainage of surface-water from atmospheric precipitations, and the time thus allowed for the water to sink into the soil-covering and the soil ; the sponge- like action possessed by dead leaves and moss of absorbing and retaining water, and the consequent reduced evaporation of water from the soil. Without a sufficient supply of water, other productive agencies of the soil are unavailing; it may therefore be affirmed that the most important influence of the soil-covering on woody growth is the supply of water it affords. Only about three-quarters of the rain falling on the leaf-canopy of a forest actually reaches the ground, much of it being broken into spray by the branches and foliage and re-absorbed by the air. So much the more important is it, that forest soil, as compared with cleared land, should have the means of utilizing all rain-water it secures. Most of the rain-water falling on a mountain-side, where the soil has been deprived of litter, moss and humus and has consequently become hard and compact, runs down to the valleys, only a small part of it soaking into the soil. If, how- ever, the spongy soil-covering has been preserved, much of the rain penetrates it and is retained, gradually cbaining down into the ground. This mechanical action of the soil- covering is therefore highly important in mountain-forests. The water which the soil thus secures is also most thoroughly retained by the absorptive action of the soil-covering; dry coniferous needles can absorb 4 to 5 times their weight in water, dry beech leaves 7 times, and mosses 6 to 10 times this amount, without allowing it to dribble away. This absorptive power of the soil-covering is further increased by that of humus for water-vapour, which, becoming condensed in the cool soil, increases the supply of moisture. Once the soil-covering is thoroughly saturated with water from atmospheric precipita- tions, it passes on the superfluous water to the subjacent soil in the numerous interstices of which it is distributed, and thus reaches the roots of the trees. When, however, a mossy soil-covering becomes very thick, 582 FOREST LITTKK. and the rainfall is slight, it may happen that it retains all the water and allows none to reach the soil. This usually happens, however, late in the summer when assimilation is ahout ended for the year. The soil-covering finally acts by protecting the soil from the evaporation of the water it contains. The water ascendinj^ by capillarity from the soil finds in the larger interstices of the soil-covering an impediment to the continuance of this action up to the surface ; it therefore collects in the lower strata of the soil-covering and is re-absorbed by the soil as the atmosphevt- cools down in the evening. Ebermayer* has experimentally shown that the evaporation of water from a forest-soil protected by litter is 21 times less than when the litter has been removed. In this respect the difference between dead leaves and moss should be noted. Wallney has shown that a soil-covering composed of beech leaves is the best preservative against evaporation ; it is much more effective than the mossy soil- covering of coniferous forests, which dries up rapidly in summer. Whenever the soil is otherwise supplied with sufficient moisture, either owing to its hygroscopic power or a more than usual supply of water — as in sweating sand {Schuitzsand) , when the level of subsoil-water is high ; in narrow valleys, mountain terraces, depressions in plains and plateaux, &c. — a soil-covering of humus and litter is of less importance in this respect. It may even prove injurious in localities, which, without its aid, are too wet. In all other cases its importance is the greater, the less hygroscopic the soil — in sandy and calcareous soils, all shallow soils, loose gravels and masses of boulders — which can only retain water when covered with humus and litter. It is also obviously more important on slopi'S than on level ground. (b) Influence on porosity of the soil.— The activity of a st)il also depends on its porosity, which affords interstices in it for the circulation of air and renewed supplies of oxygen. Litter and humus keep the soil loose and prevent its becoming caked b\ the rain. * Din I'iivsikalischeii Eiiiwirkuii''eu des Waldes auf Lull uud Bodeii. IMPORTANCE FOR WOOD- PROD QCTION'. 583 By niixiiiy- soils of various degrees of compacity with humus, a suitable degree of porosity may be secured, as is often seen in lands periodically flooded. Where humus is produced, especially in mountainous districts, it does not become mixed with the soil, but merely covers it, rarely penetrating it more than an inch or two. The admirable condition of the soil, however, which is termed " fresh," is usually accompanied by a suitable degree of porosity ; when fresh, a soil is as it were raised and porous, without being saturated with water ; whilst dry soil, unprotected by a soil-covering of litter and humus, becomes more quickly compact and superficially hard, the more exposed it is to be beaten down by the falling rain-drops. Besides, as the particles of humus become more and more oxidised and pass into fresh chemical combinations, such as soluble salts, the process of diffusion causes movements within the soil, which highly assist in increasing its porosity and activity, whenever it is protected by a suitable soil- covering. At the same time, this process is assisted by the decomposing dead roots of felled trees remaining in the soil and by the tunnelling of earthworms, mice, moles, lizards, grubs, insects, &c., whenever the soil is protected by a soil-covering. (c) Maintenance of a steady temperature in the soil. — The presence of the soil-covering acts further, in maintaining a fairly steady temperature in the soil, a condition, the importance of which should not be underrated for any trees, and especially for those which are shallow-rooted. Just as the closed leaf- canopy of a forest secures it from wide ranges of temperature, when compared with cleared land, so also, extremes of temperature in the soil are moderated by the soil-covering : the fact that this is very beneficial to roots spreading in the upper layers of the soil has been conclusively proved by the disastrous results of removing litter. (d) Fertility of the soil. — Humus has finally most important effects on the fertility of forest soil. It is well-known that undecomposed humus does not afford sufficient nutriment for plants, but nevertheless it influences the fertihty of the soil very considerably ; in the first place, by its physical action on soil, and secondly, by providing from its own decomposition 5St FollKST LITTKi:. tlie iiu-ans of (lisintc'<,niitin<,' the subsoil and renJcrin- the nutritive matter contained in it soluble. i. PhVSICAI. ACIION iiK HlMlS. 'riic physical action of humus is beneficial owing; to its power of absorbing:; water and watery vapour, as well as some of the most nutritious mineral substances (potash, phosphoric acid, ammonia, &c.), from their soluble compounds and supplying them to plants ; also for its retention of heat. Fine earthy particles have similar properties, but not more so than humus. The soil-strata containing the roots of plants is thus protected, to a certain extent, from loss by drainaire of these important substances. ii. Rksiih-al PiioiH'cTs ok Dkcomi'osed Hi'Mrs. The residual products of decomposed humus are ash, carbon dioxide and water ; they form, partly alone and partly in com- bination as salts, the nutritive material or manure for the forest. In the ash resulting from the decomposition of humus, the nutritive mineral substances which have been taken from the soil for the production of wood are returned to it in a form that is most easily assimilable. The extent to which nutritive mineral matter, the so-called ash-constituents of a soil, furthers the growth of plants, is proved by the effects of manure in agriculture, the improved growth of manured forest nurseries and the enhanced wood- ])roduction of minerally rich, as compared with minerally poor soils. Trees retain the ash-constituents in different degrees in their several parts, and at different seasons of the year. Tlie stem is poorest in this respect, the more so the older it is ; green branches are richer in ash the younger they are ; still richer is the bark, especially in the upper parts of the tree. Leaves and needles, however, contain the greatest proportion of ash. IMPORTA^X'E FOR WOOD-PEODUCTION. 585 The following table gives the amount of ash in needles and leaves : — Dca.l leaves or iiee. 322. 5SG FOREST LITTKI;. a want of manure in agriculture. How greatly the soil thus loses in important chemical constituents (in phosphoric acid for instance) may be gathered from the fact that a soil formerly stocked with broadleaved trees may, owing to the removal ot litter, contain only 0*012 to 0'020 % of phosphoric acid and thus become fit only for Scotch pine. For, according to Weber, at least 0"0o0 % of phosphoric acid is required in soils by broad- leaved trees. Another important point is the scarcity of lime in most sandy soils, whilst much lime is required by most trees. It is also well-known that the indispensable supply of nitrogen depends on the quantity of humus in soils. When it is further considered that the nourishment of plants depends chiefly on a sufficiency of assimilable ash-constituents, which owing to the small proportion of fine earth in many soils can hardly be supplied except by humus, there can be no doubt that most forest soils absolutely require the ash-constituents of humus. This is especially the case with sandy soils, which are usually poor in lime and potash, and with localities liable to inundations, which may wash these substances out of the soil : forest litter is then almost the only source of mineral matter, the only supply of manure. In soils containing humus, according to Frank, fungi which form a viycoyliiza on the roots of most forest trees are always present, they are absent in soil deprived of humus [or artificially sterilised by burning. — Tr.] and a long time passes before mycorhizas are produced. Owing to this symbiosis of plants and fungi, the former not only derive nutritive matter through the humus, but are even enabled to obtain nitrogenous substanci' indirectly from the atmosphere. Owing to the utilization of timber and other forest produce, the nutritive substances obtained from humus are not sufticient for the growth of trees ; fresh material must therefore be taken from the sub-soil and supplied to the soil in an assimilable form. Among the substances which eftect the disintegration and solubility of parts of the sub-soil, besides various salts, the carbon-dioxide resulting from the decomposition of humus plays a very important part and without its assistance the soil cannot remain contiimously active. The efficacy of carbon-dioxide is not only confined to the topmost layers of soil formed by the IMPORTANCE FOR WOOD-PRODUCTION. 587 litter, but also exerts itself wherever the roots of the trees pene- trate. The presence of dead roots in the soil is not therefore a matter of indifference and it may be doubted whether the extraction of stumps is not prejudicial to the fertility of the soil. Humus yields not only assimilable mineral nutriment, but also the carbon-dioxide necessary for extracting nutriment frorn the sub-soil ; it is therefore indispensable for the nourishment of plants both in poor and rich soils. It is also obvious that a scarcity of humus must be prejudicial to the production of wood, owing to the enormous requirements of carbon-dioxide by plants and the large quantity of this gas passed into the air by decomposing organic matter. 2. Mode of Decoiiq)ositio)i of Foi-est Litter. In describing the beneficial effects of forest litter and humus the manner in which their decomposition is effected has been pre-supposed, but now requires some explanation. It is well- known that the decomposition of all organic matter can only be effected by the agency of bacteria (fission-fungi). The necessary conditions for the life of these organisms are the action of air, and of a certain amount of moisture and heat, [whilst light is prejudicial to them. — Tr.]. Hence it follows — as those factors are not always equally effective, sometimes one and sometimes another of them preponderating and some vegetable sub- stances decomposing more readily than others — that the rate of decomposition varies in different cases and the products of decomposition themselves are variable. The comparative rate of the decomposition of forest litter and humus is chiefly iufiueneed by the kind of soil- covering, soil, locality, climate, nature of standing crop, &c. (a) Kind of Soil-Covering. — Soft and only slightly lignified parts of plants decompose most rapidly. Thus, of broad-leaved trees, the dead leaves of the hornbeam, ash and lime decompose more rapidly than those of oak, beech and birch. Of conifers, larch needles are soonest decomposed, then Scotch pine needles, then those of silver-fir, and most slowly, those of spruce. It is generally true, that dry leaves of broad-leaved trees decompose 588 FOREST LITTER. more rapidly tlian (•onit'crous needles. Mosses are known to decompose very slowly ; but tlieir decomposition once commenced, passes quickly throu<,'h the condition of humus to that of com- plete dissolution. On this account, the living layer of moss rests on the ground with hardly any noticeable intermediate layer and may be removed from it like a carpet. (b) Soil. — The most important factors in the soil which expedite decomposition of the soil-covering, are its capacity for heat, its degree of porosity and the amount of moisture it contains. Decomposition is generally slowest on clay or loam, quickest on calcareous soil and sand. It is especially rapid on moist calcareous soil in South Germany ; after two years most of the litter is decomposed, the humus decomposing still more quickly. (c) Locality. — It is well-known that decomposition proceeds more slowly on north and east than on south and west aspects ; northerly slopes are damp and cool, and in folds of the hills near the valleys the rate of decomposition is extremely slow : in such places the greatest amount of })artly decomposed humus and litter accumulates. (d) Climate. — Southern countries prove strikingly that heat combined with moisture is most eilective in expediting decom- position ; in South Germany, and still more in Hungary, t^-c. decomposition proceeds much more rapidly than in North Germany and the countries bordering on the Baltic. Whilst in the latter case 3 or 4 years are often required to complete the process of decomposition, one or at most two years suffice for the former. [In an Indian forest, except in mountainous districts, it is rare to lind any noticeable layer of humus in forests. — Th.] The contrasting climates of the lowlands and high mountain-regions of Euroiie have opposite effects on de- composition ; the high relative humidity of the air and low mean temperature in mountain tracts cause deep layers of raw humus to accumulate in forests, fallen Avood may there be found which has hardly made any progress in decomposition during a century or more. (e) Density of Standing-Crop of Trees. — The denser a wood, other conditions being similar, the slower the decomposition of forest litter. Densely growing poles shelter the soil from air and heat, by their complete cover they hinder evaporation of water I IMPORTANCE FOR WOOD- PRODUCTION. 589 from the soil, and heuce retain much moisture in the surface- soil. [Not, however, iu the soil containing their roots, which is well drained by the demands of the growing poles for water, transpired by their crowns into the atmosphere. — Tk.] Hence in dense pole-woods of spruce, beech and silver-fir, especially on northerly aspects, there is always plenty of half-decom- posed litter and humus. Woods of old light-demanding trees show opposite phenomena. The Scotch pine loses its soil- improving character soon after light gains admission to the ground. [In Britain, generally at an age of about 60 years. -Tk.] (f) System of Management. — Decomposition of litter is un- doubtedly slowest in even-aged high forests, and here (unless it is removed periodically) the greatest amount of undecomposed and partly decomposed litter is found. Coppice forms the other extreme ; litter there decomposes the more quickly, the shorter the rotation and the more open the crop (as in oak-bark cop- pice). A light growth of herbage may be then considered beneficial. Coppice-with-standards also resembles coppice in this respect. Whilst under the above-mentioned systems the rate of decomposition varies with the age of the crop, in Selec- tion-forest this rate is invariable, though owing to the moderate access of heat, light and air and the moisture preserved in the soil by the groups of underwood, it is moderately fast. For this reason, in the still existing virgin forests of Germany the amount of humus and litter imagination may have pictured does not exist ; under otherwise equal conditions, the amount of humus in them is frequently less than in any dense pole- woods of Scotch pines or spruce managed under the clear-cutting, high forest system. 8. Products of Deeompositioit of the Soil-Cover uig. The nature of the products of the decomposition of the soil- covering depends on the rapidity with which it proceeds. According to Ebermayer (op. cit. p. 580), they may be classed under three principal heads as sour, dry and mild humus. (a) Sour humus. — Sour humus is formed on wet soils which exclude the air and do not contain enough oxygen ; the decom- position of the soil-covering, therefore, proceeds very slowly and 500 FOREST LlTTEIl. is incomplete. Souv humus is formed in swamps nnd feus and has an acid reaction owing to the absence of alkaUs or bases. It also occurs in poor sandy districts, where it passes into the form of dry humus. Sour humus and the consequent acidity of the soil in which the roots of trees grow, are the greatest pos- sible hindrances to the growth of most European woody. species. The beech is most sensitive to the action of sour humus ; oaks, sycamore and other maples, Scotch pine and spruce with- stand it better; alder, birch, poplars, and willows are not affected. It is well known that rhododendrons, azaleas and camellias thrive on sour humus. (b) Dry humus. — Dry humus is the product of a decomposi- tion, in which plenty of air and heat are the chief factors, but moisture is limited. Whilst in sour humus all the inter- stices of the soil are tilled with water and mild humus forms a loose moist mass, dry humus is rich in ash and carbon and when quite dry is a mere dust. It is formed wherever there is free access of air and heat, and insufficient moisture ; as on dry moorlands, southerly slopes, blanks in forests, clear-cut felling- areas, over-thinned old woods, especially on poor sandy soils and above hot calcareous rocks. This kind of humus [resulting from the decomposition of heather, grasses, and Iceland moss {Cladonia rangiferina)] is not beneficial to vegetation, as the light dusty soil is easily blown away and has besides very little nutritive properties ; being rich in carbon, after it has lost nearly all its moisture and oxygen its further decomposition is difficult, it adds little to the chemical ingredients of soils, and supplies very little carbon dioxide to the subsoil. Being deficient in alkalis it is sour, and is the chief cause of the formation of moor-pan ; heather-soil is its commonest form. (c) Mild humus. — Mild humus, known also as forest humus or leaf-soil, results from the chemical change in forest litter to which air has free access, and when sufficient heat and moisture are present to hasten the process. Free organic acids are not then formed, but are combined with alkalis, the decomposition liberating only carbon dioxide and water. The beneficial cflects of humus on the fertility of the soil can then act unimpaired, a mild humus which is very useful in the production of wood resulting from the decomposition of the soil-covering in forests. IMPORTANCE FOR WOOD-PRODUCTION. 51)1 That humus should have a neutral or basic action on the soil is a necessary condition for the successful growth of most forest trees. The cultivation of beech, silver-fir and hornbeam appears to depend on it. In mountain-regions and wherever the soil con- taining the roots of trees is formed by the disintegration of the subjacent rock (the sub-soil water not being stagnant) the soil has a neutral reaction. The contrary happens in the sandy plains of North Germany and in countries bordering on the Baltic, especially in Schleswig-Holstein [also in extensive sandy heather-tracts in the British Isles. — Tr.] If, therefore, humus is to act beneficially on soils, the decom- position of the soil-covering must be moderately rapid and con- tinuous. For then only are those chemical constituents of soils replaced which have been used in plant-growth, whilst, at the same time, a sufficient quantity of litter and humus remains as an indispensable covering of the soil. Decomposition often proceeds differently in the different strata of the soil-covering: whilst chemical change ^predominates in its upper strata, the lower strata rather putrefy ; chemical change is, however, the more active agent, especially in localities with a dense standing crop of trees. Although it is difficult to state the exact time required, it may be alleged that for ordinary forest localities, humus is formed in the most beneficial manner when the soil-covering of dead leaves is decomposed in two or three years and that of dead needles in three or four years, the underlying stratum of humus being about a centimeter (one- third of an inch) thick. 4. Summary. To resume all that has been said in the preceding pages about humus, it must be admitted that it is the chief factor in the fertility of soils. "Whenever the forester has to pro- duce the greatest quantity of w^ood of the best quality, he must maintain continuously the productiveness of the soil by all the means in his power. Of these, none is more effective than preserving humus in the most suitable condition. However abundant chemical nutriment may be in rich soils, it is worth- less, unless the means for rendering it soluble (carbon dioxide and water) are present. A rich soil can dispense with humus better than a poor soil, but in the long ran must fall back upon it. 502 I'UltKST LITTEi;. As poor laiul rather tliaii rich hind is usually stocked with forests, forest-litter may always be considered the most indispensable and effective factor for the growth of trees. ^ Section III. — Amoint of Forest Litter produced. Owing to the importance of moss and weeds as well as dead leaves and needles in the supply of litter for farmyards, the different nature of these kinds of litter and the various ways in which they affect wood-production, it is necessary to consider the question separately for each kind of forest litter. 1. Dead Leaves and Xeedles. Exi)erience shows that the annual amount of litter produced from dead leaves and needles in a forest varies with the species of tree, locality, weather, density of crop and age of trees. (a) Species of tree. — Three factors have great influence on the amount of litter produced by European forest trees ; namely, the density of the foliage, its duration on the trees and the suit- ability of the species to form a more or less dense leaf-canopy. Considering all these factors, not for individual trees but for a whole wood, and deducting the amount of moss produced in coniferous forests, the species may be arranged as follows in descending order of their comparative production of dead leaves or needles : — Beech ; Sycamore and other maples, lime, sweet chestnut, hazel ; Hornbeam, alder, black pine ; Elms, oaks, black poplar ; Scotch pine, larch ; Spruce, silver-tir ; Ash; Birch, aspen. The density of foliage of a species depends on the nature of the locality and its mode of growth. Silver-tir, spruce and beech have the densest foliage ; that of sycamore, lime, sweet chestnut and hazel is also dense though comparatively lighter than the above ; black pine, alder, and hornbeam follow these * See tlie interesting j.aper by Oberfoi strath Braun in Borgreve's Forstliche Blatt.-r. 16!'0. im the inii>nrtance of forest litter for tlie soil. AMOUNT PRODUCED. 593 closely. Oaks, black poplar and ash come some way behind the last group ; Scotch pine and larch produce still less foliage, whilst birch and aspen close the list. The duration of the leaves on the trees is evidently longest for evergreen conifers, silver-fir, spruce and pines. In the case of the black, Weymouth and Scotch pines, the needles remain from two to four years ; in the spruce and silver-fir, four to six years and even longer for the latter. Hence it follows that pines shed about one-third of their foliage annually, the spruce and silver-fir only the fifth or sixth part. These species, therefore, are much worse producers of litter than follows from the density of their foliage. Silver-fir, spruce and beech possess in the highest degree the property of growing in densely stocked woods, next come the hornbeam and hazel — some way further down in the list — alder and sycamore. In the case of ash, elms, oaks, sweet chestnut, birch, aspen, Scotch pine and larch, the woods open out much earlier. As compared with woods of light-demanding trees, those of mixed light-demanders and shade-bearers produce more litter, whilst woods of spruce, silver-fir and beech produce litter most abundantly. (b) Locality. — The nature of the locality in which it is grown has the greatest possible influence on the well-being of a species of tree. The more a locality suits a tree, the greater, other conditions being equal, will be the production of litter. As a rule, a moist atmosphere, provided there is sufficient heat avail- able for the species in question and a rich soil, increases the density of the foliage. Localities with high relative atmospheric humidity produce a much denser leaf-canopy than those where the air is dry ; the spruce in high mountain-regions, the beech in extensive wood- lands, the hornbeam, alder and birch in damp lowlands near the Baltic, produce much more foliage than the same trees in other localities. The better the soil, the deeper and denser the leaf-canopy ; but the soil and local climate must always be considered together. The aspect is also influential, as owing to their greater moisture, north and east aspects produce as a rule most litter. R. Weber's* note on beech leaf-production * Ebermayer, Die Waldstreu, p. 37. VOL. V. Q Q 594 FOKEST LITTER. Khould also be notocl, viz., that it falls off in quantity with the altitude. (c) Weather. — Any casual observer must have noticed that according to the changes of weather in different years, the forest presents different appearances, being in certain years fresher, greener and possessing denser foliage than at other times. Spring-weather is most decisive in this respect. Years with severe late frosts and dry seasons produce less foliage than moist years free from frost. According to Krutzsch, there may be a difference of 60 % in the amount of foliage produced by Scotch pine and beech in wet and dry years. The duration of the foliage of evergreen trees depends on their shade-bearing properties and age, on the climate, the com- parative density of the crop, frosts and nature of the weather in spring. As a rule, leaves persist longer in southern than in northern latitudes. The amount of rainfall is very influential ; with heavy rainfall needles which should fall normally remain on the trees, and whenever a dry year follows a damp one, needles of two or three consecutive years may all fall together. (d) Density of growth and system of management. — The pro- duction of foliage depends on the free admission of light to the trees ; the more a tree is exposed on all sides to light, the larger its crown. A tree, therefore, standing in the open produces far more litter annually than a tree of the same species grown in a dense wood. The densest woods do not produce most litter, nor do open woods where each tree is completely exposed to the influence of light, the number of individual trees being then too few. The most litter is produced annually when there are as many stems as possible in a wood, with the proviso that each stem has ample room for its growth — a density which results from well executed thinnings. Even-aged woods exercise a similar influence to that of the density of woods on the animal supply of litter. When all trees in a wood are of the same height and their crowns form a dense leaf-canopy at a uniform level above the ground, the influence of light is far less than when the heights of the trees vary, when lateral light is admitted between the groups of the taller trees and their crowns consequently grow lower down their stems. AMOUNT PRODUCED. 595 Even-aged woods, therefore, do not produce as much annual litter as uneven-aged selection-woods, double-storied woods (with overwood and underwood) or woods managed according to the group-system. Well-stocked coppice-with-standards on good soil may yield annually even more litter than even-aged high forest.* (e) Age of trees. — The greatest production of dead leaves and needles is during the pole stage, and only slightly falls off in the older stages of high forest, provided the leaf-canopy is fairly complete. Whenever no direct experimental results as to the amount of litter in a forest are available, estimates of the quantity of litter are necessarily based on the physiological fact that the annual production of foliage is very nearly proportional to the annual production of wood. The results of the Bavarian investi- gations has not so completely confirmed this rule as was expected, but all sylvicultural observations tend to prove the existence of a fixed ratio between the amount of foliage and the wood-increment. The following results give the average yield of litter as deter- mined by observation! made in the Bavarian State forests. One acre of dense forest of the ages given in the subjoined statement produces annually so many tons of air-dried litter : — Age of wood. Beech. Spruce. j Scotch pine. Years. Under 30 Tons. 1-67 1-64 1-62 Tons. 2-50 1-58 1-35 1-31 Tons. 1-56 1-4 1-69 25 to 50 30 to 60 50 to 75 60 to 90 75 to 100 Over 90 Average 1-64 1-42 1-48 It is evident that when the litter is allowed to accumulate in a forest for several years, the supply is greater than that pro- * [The apparent contradiction between tliis statement and that in (f), p, 589, is due to the fact that here the annual supply of litter is referred to, and there, the accumulated amount of litter undisturbed for years. — Tr.] + Ebermayer, Die gesammte Lehre der Waldstreu, Berlin, 1876. Q Q 2 59S FOREST LITTER. duced annually. At the same time the accumulation is limited, as the lower layers are constantly decomposing and only the upper layers are available litter. In this respect investigation has led to the adoption of the following average figures per acre : — No. of years. 1 Beecli. Spruce. j Scotcli pine. 3 years' supply Tons. 3-26 3-39 417 Tons. 3 04 3-76 5-54 Tons. 3-56 5-49 7-31 Over 6 ,, A cubic meter (35*3 cubic feet) of air-dried litter (15 — 20 % water) well compressed is of the following weight : — Kilos. Lbs. per cubic foot. Beech 81-5 5 Spruce 1G8-4 10-5 Scotch pine 117'3 7'3 Hence the yield of litter may be calculated in stacked cubic meters or in waggon-loads per acre (as in the following state- ment) as waggons drawn by two horses usually carry 5 stacked cubic meters (176"5 cubic feet) of litter : — I'.EEcn. Scotch Pink. Spucce. Waggon-loads Waggon-loads Waggon -loads per acre. per acre. per acre. One year's- > supply 4 2-4 1-6 Six years' >j 8 6-4 4-4 2. Moss- Litter. The forest is the home of most mosses, and especially of the larger species which may be used for litter. The growth of moss generally depends on the presence of damp soil and air, and a certain amount of cover. Only a few mosses can stand full exposure to light. Some kinds of forest mosses only exceptionally form large tufts, whilst other gregarious mosses under favourable circumstances may carpet the ground over extensive areas. If these carpets are formed of the larger kinds of moss, they yield a very important form of litter. AMOUNT PRODLX'ED. Fio. 2r9A. 597 (Drawn by R. S. Tkoup, after Schwarz.) 1. Pol.vtrichum commune. 2. Sphagnum cymbifolium. 3. Hylocomium triquetrum. 4. Hylocomium siJienJens. 598 FOREST LITTER. Of the mosses usually employed for litter, several species of tbe liirge j;eiius lli/puuin and of other genera are common, as :* — Ili/pimin Scltrcheri,piinim, cuajn datum, moUuscnin, cupressiforme; Iljlloconnion splouh'iis, sqitarrosiwi, triquetnim, and hrcnm ; Jirachythccium nitabulum; Campotltecium lutesci'its ; Thuklinm tamariscinum and abietimim, S:c. ; also Pohitrirhum formusum and urnigerum ; Dicranum saipariuin ; Bartramia fuittana ; Climatium dendroides ; on wet, swampy ground, besides some of the above, species oi Sphaliiin a living by growing a higlily valuable product which fully AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF. 6£1 employs all their labour. Whenever, therefore, a vineyard is grown outside the natural zone of the vine, it is an unjustifiable intruder, which can make no possible claim for external support, — in other cases, however, vineyards require forest litter and can only with difficulty dispense with this assistance. The culti- vation of tobacco, beet-root for sugar and other similar crops not used for household consumption, and intensive market- gardening, are similarly situated. Indolence, obstinacy, blind attachment to long usage and want of receptivity for good advice on the part of a peasantry are the greatest hindrances to success in agriculture. Farmers find it easier to claim assistance from forests than to obtain Avhat their land requires by their own exertions : they are not sufficiently ready to improve their farms — by increasing the area of good meadow-land ; growing green fodder-crops ; deep ijlough- ing ; changing the rotation of their crops ; reducing an excessive stock of cattle, which may at present yield them much manure but of bad quality ; making better dung-heaps ; saving liquid manure, also by a more extensive use of artificial manure and of substitutes for straw. Among the latter are — material obtained from swampy meadows (rushes, reeds and coarse herbage) ; sawdust, which is produced in enormous quantity at saw-mills ; forest weeds, and finally, peat-litter* which may be obtained almost everywhere and has proved extremely useful, and wood-Avool which is very cheap in Germany. Several means are thus at the disposal of the farmer for improving his position, without using forest litter, which he has hitherto considered indispensable. It is, however, difficult to teach him improved farming, except by the stress of necessity ; this hard master should therefore be employed to his own advantage and that of the forest, whenever he indolently wastes his own resources and tries to live on the ruin of forests. Forest litter is not necessary, and should always be refused, Avhen farms show signs of wasteful management. This waste is chiefly shewn when stall-manure is wastefully collected and used, and its liquid parts allowed to drain away. The forester is always justified in enquiring whether the cultivator has done his * [Largely nscii in London stahles. being imported from Holland. Vide ch. iv. part iii. of the present book.— Ti;.] (r2-Z FOREST LITTER. duty, hffoi'c iqiplyinj^- tor assistaiu-e. Were the fiirmcr always to calculate the cost of a wa^f^'oii-load of forest litter, includinj^^ royalty and cost of cuttiii},', collecting and carriage, he would gene- rally discover that straw or peat-litter is as cheaply obtainahle. [One of the chief kinds of forest litter in the Bombay Presidency of India, is termed rab, which means gathering inferior bamboos, branches and vegetation of all kinds and burning it in heaps, on the rice-fields. In some districts, nib is applied onh* to the nurseries of young rice-plants, which are covered with successive layers of dung, grass, bushes and pulverised earth and finally with urass. This is then burned and dug into the ground.* — Tr.] Section YII. — Lnnxs to the Permissible Use of Forest Litter. 1. General Aeeoiiiit. Although there is no reason to despair of overcoming the practice of using forest litter in districts where it is everywhere prevalent or prevails to an intolerable degree, or at least of freeing State forests from this burden, it is out of the ques- tion to think of any immediate abolition of the usage. The more therefore it threatens the existence of forests, the more carefully should the latter be treated from all points of view. Although a vigorous forest can withstand sylvicultural mis- takes and other dangers better than another forest in a less promising locality, nowhere are the bad results of erroneous management more severely felt than in a forest exposed to intensive removal of litter. Wherever symptoms of impoverish- ment of soil are noticed, a forest should be most carefully managed. Protection of the soil should then l)e aimed at rather than ])roducti(iii of wood in quantity or quality, for the soil is the liest inipleni'-nt the forester can employ, and this he should never forget. Not that any sylvicultural measures can annul the bad results of the removal of litter, l)iit these results become worse wlu'ii toix'si numagement neglects to take into account the reduced productivity and care- demanding nature of the soil. * Vide Piaden Fowcll, l-'orest Lnv, pp. XHi ami 3()1. Uradlniry, Ai,'nc\v k Co. London, 1893. LIMITS TO USE OF. 623 Maintenance of a dense leaf-canopy should be the chief maxim ; it cannot indeed be expected that the standing-crop will be as dense where litter is removed as in an unimpaired forest, but this failing need not be increased by defective sylvicultural treatment. Thinnings and extraction of dead trees should be discontinued in such cases, unless a proper control is exercised over woodcutters, who are inclined to imagine that they can find dead trees all over a forest. Great care should be exercised in thinnings where litter is removed, for the peasantry prefer these fellings to any others, as they yield wood without any reduction of the area from which litter may be obtained. The forester should, however, most carefully attend to his mature Avoods, to compartments opened out by fellings, and secure their regenera- tion as soon as possible. Some of the following protective measures should be adopted, according to the circumstances of the case : — Soil-protection woods ; protective-belts of spruce in places exposed to the action of winds ; abolition of the removal of dead wood ; maintenance of water-reservoirs in mountain regions, and utilization of the water to irrigate the hill-sides ; in any case, great caution should be shown before draining plateaux in mountain-regions, and, as a rule, such drainage should not be undertaken ; horizontal trenches should be dug on steep slopes for the retention of dead leaves and water, as in the Bavarian Palatinate ; slopes, whence litter has been removed, should be roughly hoed with the same object. Although the forester can do something sylviculturally to protect the soil of the forest, more may be done by the method under which the litter is removed. This must obviously be rendered as innocuous as possible ; thus the demand for litter should, if possible, be met by supplying those kinds which the forest can best dispense with ; places and woods are opened which can best Avithstand the loss ; the intensity and length of rotation of the removal of litter should be modified in places which are most liable to injury, and a season chosen for the usage when the soil is least exposed to be dried up. 2. Kind of Littn: Litter from roads, halting-places, ditches and blanks, and from forest weeds, may be supplied with least injury to the (;.n FOREST LITTEK. forest. Clear-cut areas yield the greatest amount of weeds, especially heather, which may be injurious to young forest plants. If weeds are used, and only their tops cut their lower parts being left in the ground, so that the soil-covering of moss, dead leaves, &:c., is undisturbed, this mode of removal of litter may be considered innocuous. Heather should not, however, be pulled up by the roots, and certainly not hoed up in sods. Steep slopes should, as far as possible, be protected from this mode of removal. The removal of branch-litter from felling-areas also does little harm, whilst lopping branches from mature trees may be practised when subject to strict sylvicultural rules. Wherever branch-litter is used, ground-litter must be scrupulously preserved. Only when other sources of supply fail should the removal of ground-litter be permitted from the woods. The remaining paragraphs refer to that mode of litter only. 8. JjOcaliti/. The better localities should be first taken in hand, the inferior ones being spared as long as possible. Ijitter which has been heaped up by the wind in wet places, on moist, low-lying ground, in hollows, ravines or narrow valleys, and thick cushions of moss iu damp ground and on places about to be regenerated naturally, may be utilized with the least damage to the forest. There is sometimes in cold localities a stiff, heavy soil, which is improved by removing the litter. The north and east slopes of hills, with rich deep soil covered with scattered blocks of stone or boulders, and terraces or gentle slopes on mountain-sides, should always be preferred, the more exposed places being only used as a last resort. Places exposed to wind, such as hill-tops, mountain- ridges, steep declivities and especially the upper parts of steep mountain-chains, should always be spared. 4, Xdtitrc of Forest. As regards species of tree, the only question to be considered is whether or not a tree is suited to the locality. AVherever iu alder- or birch-woods the usage is possible, it may always be permitted, also among pollards and in forests open to pasture ; LIMITS TO USE OF. 625 in all other kinds of forest the question should be decided according to the nature of the locality. All woods which are deteriorating for any reason — which have suffered from cater- pillars, snow-break, wind-break, drought, &c., or in which, from any cause, the leaf-canopy has opened out — (for instance, immedi'ately after thinnings, preparatory fellings, &c.) — must be protected as long as possible against the removal of litter. Even-aged old woods ready for felling, and all young woods till they have reached middle-age, should in any case be spared. Litter should, as far as possible, be carefully preserved in coppice-with-standards and coppice, and especially in oak-bark coppice. 5. Intensity of the Usage. Only undecomposed litter should be removed, that in process of decomposition being preserved. This proviso cannot indeed be completely secured, but every effort must be made in this direction and the removal of the humus should never be per- mitted. The more a locality requires protection, the more superficial should be the removal of the litter ; this is possible if the workmen are engaged by the forest manager, but when the peasants remove litter on their own account, it is better to allot a large area instead of a small one for the removal of litter. The mossy carpet in spruce and silver-fir forests should never be entirely removed, but only in patches or strips. The hoe must never be used for removing heather in sods. When dead leaves are raked together, only a wooden rake with wide intervals between the teeth should be used, never an iron rake. 6. Length of Close-time. The length of close-time between two successive removals of litter from the same area depends on the nature of the locality ; the soil and configuration of the ground should be considered first, and, only in the second place, the species, age, and condition of the wood. It requires no argument to prove that the forester should insist on as long a close-time as possible, and should only consent to an interval less than 6 years when absolutely compelled to do so. The close-time may be shortened in woods of high poles or of trees which have attained the full VOL. V. s s 626 FOREST LITTER. height, but must be kept as long as possible in the case of younger or oliler woods. No rigid interval should therefore be adopted for close-time, but its length should vary according to variation in the locality or the condition of the woods. 7. Season. Heather and broom should be harvested just before they are completely in blossom, ferns* in the autumn ; on regeneration- areas it is better to collect litter somewhat late in the year. Branch-litter must be lopped in autumn and winter only. Ground-litter should be raked up chiefly in autumn, Avhile the leaves are falling. Wherever the removal of litter must take place in spring, it should be restricted as much as possible in quantity ; the farmer, however, requires more litter in spring than in autumn. Dry weather is preferable for the removal of litter as the work is then less laborious, and because, in wet weather, in order to obtain dry litter, the peasant will select those very places which arc most liable to damage. 8. Plan of Operations. It is in many places usual to draw up a plan of operations for the removal of litter, to serve for a longer or shorter series of years ; this is usually revised at the same time as the forest working plan. In such a plan all compartments are designated which may be opened for the removal of litter, subject to a suitable close-time, and the plan is based on area. Although this plan is drawn up on diftcrent principles in the different German countries, yet they all agree in excluding from the usage areas requiring protection, and especially all kinds of young woods. After this is deducted, the remaining area is divided by the figure representing the rotation of the litter, the quotient being area which is opened annually for the removal of litter. In order to compensate for the withdrawal of the annual felling-areas from the area open to the removal of litter, an area of the oldest woods equal to those which were closed, must be opened annually to the usage. In countries where years of • Hon. G. Lascellcs, Deputy Surveyor, New Forest, states that if bracken is cut before the end of Sciiteniber, as in the forest of Dean, its rhizomes become greatly weakened, and the crop becomes gradually poorer. — Th.] LIMITS TO USE OF. 627 scarcity of straw occur periodically, a reserved area of woodland should be set aside, which may be opened when required. In Baden, removal of litter is not allowed in the case of broad- leaved woods, till they are 40 years old ; in coniferous woods — 30 years and in coppices — 12 to 15 years. The shortest close time is one jeav. In Hesse, removal of litter is not allowed in high forest till after the first thinning, and in coppice till the second half of the rotation. In Bavaria, all woods are closed to the removal of litter till the second half of the rotation ; the close-time is as follows : — Nature of Forest. Moist soil. Dry soil. Scotch pine, larch, birch Beech, oak, silver-fir, spruce Years. 2 5 Years. 5 9 In the Wiirttemberg State forests all rights to litter have either been commuted [by purchase, or by granting a forest area to the commune which held the right. — Te.], or are now in process of commutation, so that no plan of operations for the removal of litter is required. In Prussia the local forest official is authorised, according to the actual requirements of the people, to open those forest areas for the removal of litter which are best able to bear it. Wherever removal of litter has gone too far and especially in the case of prescriptive rights to litter, plans of operation for its removal are extremely valuable, as they represent the extreme limit up to which the usage may be practised, though they often go too far in this direction. Wherever there is no absolute necessity for the usage, it is better not to draw up such a plan ; for this is apt to prevent any interference with the removal of litter by fostering the belief that the plan must be completely carried out. A custom then arises among the people of using the full amount of litter the plan may allow. In putting such a plan in practice the forester should not actually open the whole annual area allotted by the plan, but only so much as experience shows is actually required, i.e., the litter should not only be granted by area, but also by volume. s s 2 628 FOREST LITTER. Section VIII. — Mode of Disposal and Sale of Forest Litter. 1. Persons iclto may licmovc Litter. Owing to the great prejudice to wood-production caused by the removal of Htter, this usage is not considered as a regular form of forest utilization, as in the case of wood and other minor produce ; but unless there is any actual right of user, it should only be permitted as an extraordinary concession for otherwise irremediable agricultural distress. Thus litter is only granted by a forest official to right-holders, or by special permit. In either case the amount granted is limited by sylvicultural requirements, as laid down for instance in the plan of operations, and in cases of urgent necessity even these may be exceeded. (a) Right- holders. — Rights to litter are generally unlimited in amount ; even then they must be limited by the requirements of the right-holders, or by those of sylviculture. It is extremely difficult to decide what are the actual requirements of the right- holders, so that sylvicultural requirements must be paramount. All national-economic laws in Germany prescribe that rights to minor produce from a forest must be so limited in volume as not to endanger the production of wood. The necessary limits are laid down in the plans of operation for litter which have been drawn up by competent persons, and all grants of litter to right-holders must therefore be kept within the limits prescribed in these plans. (b) Permit-holders. — Permits to remove litter should be given only to persons actually in need of it. No peasant who wastes manure, who keeps no cattle, who is not a cultivator, who does not use available substitutes for litter, who uses forest litter in a wasteful manner, who sells or disposes of forest litter to other people, should on any account receive permission to remove litter. 2. Sale of Litter. Litter can be sold only in two ways ; by royalty, or by public auction. The latter method, however, is not generally applicable, as litter should be regarded as only extraordinary forest produce, the price for which is fixed by the forest official and not by METHODS OF DISPOSAL. 629 competition ; at any rate, leaf, needle and moss-litter should be sold by royalty and not by public auction. If litter is sold to the highest bidder, it at once assumes the character of ordinary forest produce ; farmers base their cultiva- tion on these sales and expect them to recur annually, and thus a steady demand for litter arises. The value of litter depends on agricultural requirements only, but in fixing the royalty for it, foresters will also consider the damage caused to forests. Large land-owners and wasteful farmers do not need forest litter, and only necessitous peasants should obtain it ; but when sold to the highest bidder, the latter class may not be able to compete for it with the farmer. Several methods have been adopted to enable the poorer peasants to compete with the better class of farmers in these sales ; the best known of these has been practised in communal forests in Hesse since 1839 : the litter is collected under the forest manager's control and sold to the highest bidder and the money thus obtained divided amongst the inhabitants of the communes. There is, however, little or no objection to auctioning litter of forest weeds or branches, the removal of which rarely injures a forest. The agricultural value of these kinds of litter, there- fore, is mainly in question and they may be sold annually to the highest bidder. In fixing royalties for litter, two points must be con- sidered, the unit of measurement to be adopted and the rate of royalty. (a) Unit of measurement. — Forest litter may be measured by area, or volume ; in the former case, as a rule, one or more compartments in a forest are opened to all permit-holders who remove the litter collectively. They then either divide the litter amongst themselves, or each permit-holder is allowed to remove a specified number of cart-loads or head-loads. Separate areas are then usually allotted to the different modes of conveyance (carts, wheelbarrows, head-loads, &c.). When the litter is disposed of by volume, heaps of specified dimensions are usually prepared by the permit-holders. The size of each heap usually corresponds to the local waggon-load, (for two horses or bullocks) termed in German (Fader), being equal to five stacked cubic meters. 630 FOREST LITTER. The disposal of litter by area, where everyone may take as much as he can collect, is least advisable ; it {li^ives too great advantage to farmers with good teams and numerous labourers over needy peasants, and the surface of the ground is usually scraped so clean of litter, that it is completely deprived for a long time of its humus. In order to protect the forest from such a calamity, large areas are opened at once, so that it is impossible to remove all the litter on them within the prescribed time. Even when a stipulated number of cart-loads, barrow- loads, &c. is prescribed, the ground is not protected from exces- sive removal of litter, for the permit-holders always endeavour to collect their litter from off the smallest possible area, so as to reduce the labour of collecting it. Removal by volume in heaps is therefore preferable to the former method, and does less injury to the forest. The litter is then brought alongside the roads and piled in heaps as rect- angular as possible, these are counted and delivered in a regular manner to the permit-holders. It is a pity, that this regular method of distribution, which prevails for all other classes of forest produce, is not the rule for litter where sylvicultural requirements are so urgent. The fact that the collectors are right-holders is no obstacle to the enforcement of this system. (b) Price of litter. — Strictly speaking, the price of litter should depend on the loss of wood-increment caused by its removal ; for, from a sylvicultural point of view, litter is as valuable as the additional volume of wood which would grow on an area, were the litter allowed to remain. Since, however, the exact amount of the loss of wood for any locality can be determined only by long repeated observations, and in many cases is non-ascertainable as a rule, this method of valuing litter must be abandoned.* Another means for determining the royalty on litter is its agricultural value, which should be the minimum royalty for litter, and may be most correctly determined "by selling it by public auction. The agricultural value of litter is, however, also measured by the current price of straw, and the royalty should unhesitatingly be placed at this figure, after deducting the cost of collection and removal of the litter. * Vido p. 613, where Dr. Rleuel's observations sire given, wliich aironl the most correct basis for valuing litter. METHODS OF DISPOSAL. 631 It is of the highest importance that a proper royalt}' for litter should be fixed. Formerly, in many districts, litter was given either free, or a small charge levied in order to protect the forest against the usage becoming a prescriptive right, which scarcely interfered with the gratis character of its delivery. When, however, any produce is given gratis, the presumption is that its owner sets no value on it. Forest-owners could not therefore complain of the widespread idea that litter had no sylvicultural value. Such an important item in forest production, without which a steady yield of wood is scarcely conceivable on forest soil often absolutely poor in itself, should, if sold at all, be sold at the highest price obtainable. If forest litter is of such essential importance to agriculture as people imagine, it should certainly be sold, and at the same rate as straw, for it is a matter of every- day experience, wherever forest litter is used, that straw ceases to be used for stall-litter, and consequently forest litter is a complete substitute for it. Even in cases where forest-owners for certain reasons are compelled temporarily to facilitate the removal of forest litter, it should not be given gratis, though lower prices than those current for straw may be charged. This position among others was adopted by the Bavarian Forest Department in the year of drought 1893-94. ii'i'Z CHAPTER Vlir. RESIN-TAPPIXG. [In Germany, only the spruce is tapped for resin, and though this pnictice was formerly carried on in all extensive German spruce forests, it is now becoming obsolete on account of the great damage it causes to spruce-trees, and because the yield of resin from the spruce is insignificant, when compared with that from the maritime jtine in France, and other pines in America. As the question has a certain importance fur India, where profitable resin-tajiping has been introduced, the account of this important industry given by Boppe in his Techiwlofjie foreitiere will be followed here with some additional information gained by the translator during his visit to the Forest of La Teste, near Arcachon, in 1894. — Tii.] Section I. — General Account. Crude resin is a viscous substance flowing from incisions iu the bark of certain conifers (also from some broad-leaved trees * in tropical countries) which penetrate slightly into the wood, the operation being known as resin-tapping. Among European species, the maritime or cluster pine {Pin us Pinaster, Sohind.) may be tapped most advantageously for resin ; this pine yields resin most abundantly near the sea-coast between Bayonne and the mouth of Charente, chiefly among the sand-dunes and landcs (waste, sandy tracts) of Gascony. In other parts of France, where the maritime pine grows either naturally or artificially, resin -tapping is not sufficiently remunerative to be practised. Although other conifers also yield resin, they do not furnish it in sullicieut quantities for resin-tapping in their case to • Vide Fernandez, Utilization of Forests, p. 176. KESIN-TAPPING. 633 become a regular industr}'. In France, at any rate, their wood is too valuable to be exposed to the damage which the operation causes. However, as the silver-fir, spruce, larch, black pine and Aleppo-pine are sometimes tapped, it is useful to know how this is done. The Scotch, mountain and Cembran pines are not tapped. The principal world-supply * of oleo-resin comes from the swamp or long-leaf pine {Piniis jxilustris), also from the loblolly pine (P. Tceda) and the pitch-pine (P. atistralis) of the North American States, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. Dr. Mohr states that 2,0U0,000 acres of these pines were being worked for resin in 1890, and that about 500,000 acres of new forest were taken up annually. In five or six years after these forests have been invaded, they present a picture of ruin and desolation painful to behold, the seedlings and poles being burned and all hope for the restoration of the forests excluded. In India, resin-tapping has been introduced by Government agency in certain forests of Pinus lonfjifoUa in Jaunsar in the N.W. Provinces, and is practised on a careful plan based on that employed in Gascony. Resin may also be obtained in India from Pinus cxcelsa and P. Khasya. Section II. — Supply of Resin from the Maritime Pine IN THE LaNDES of GaSCONY. 1. Mode of Tapping. The maritime pine contains very large and numerous resin- ducts, and the flow of resin being much more active in the sap- wood than the heartwood, superficial cuts into the former, which pass through these canals, cause the resin to flow into receptacles placed to receive it. Towards the end of February or the beginning of March, in order to prevent pieces of the coarse external bark from mingling with the resin, the rough bark or rhytidome of the maritime pine is trimmed oft' as a preparatory measure, so that only a few * Extract from Report of Chief of the Forestry Division, U. S., "Washincrton, 1892. 634 KESIX-TAPPIXO. inner cortical layers are left outside the Bapwood ; they then present a smooth reddish surface. Ouly portions of the trunk which are to he tapped during the ensuing season are thus prepared. From the 1st to the 10th of March (according to the weather), the resin-tapper makes an incision with a special implement in the trunk of suitable trees. This is in the shape of a gi-oove (earn) near the base of the tree and where the bark has alreadj* been trimmed, about 10 centimeters wide, 3 centimeters high, and 1 centimeter deep (4 inches by 1 inch by f inch). From this groove the resin flows in viscous transparent drops, which thicken on contact with the air : part of the resin thus solidifies, becoming attached to the surface of the groove ; the remainder, being more liquid, flows into a receptacle which has been placed on the ground to receive it. Eain-water, which may fill the pots, always remains above the resin, the specific gravity of which is slightly higher than that of water. Once a week, and once every five days during the season when most resin flows, the groove is freshly cut by slicing off" a thin sha^^ng of the wood at its upper extremity. The groove thus becomes gradually longer, its breadth remaining constant or being gradually reduced. As the groove becomes older, the resin ceases to flow ; in freshly cutting it, the resin-tapper slices the surface of the top of the groove for a length of 10 to 12 centimeters (4 — 4f inches), his chief skill being shown in removing only a very fine shaving of the sapwood, so that the operation may be resumed several times without cutting deeper than 1 centimeter. This operation is thus eff"ected forty to forty- five times during a season, but ceases after the loth of October. The groove is thus cut in successive years up to a height of 3 or 4 meters (9|— 13 feet). Formerly, the resin which ran from a groove was collected in a hole dug in the sand at the foot of the tapped tree. This method, which is now nearly everywhere abandoned, had many disadvantages. The sand in which the hole was dug absorbed much resin ; besides this, when the groove became elongated, the resin had to traverse its whole length before reaching the ground. In flowing over the groove, therefore, the resin lost much volatile matter, and became hard ; while needles^ MARITIME PINE. 635 Fig. 280/ pieces of bark and particles of sand were blown on to it by the wind, and water or other impurities mingled with it. In order to prevent the consequent waste of resin, Hugues, in 1860, devised a method for catching the resin immediately below the points of exudation by means of a little zinc collar which was fixed across the groove, and for collecting it in a glazed, couically- shaped pot, 14 centimeters wide at the top, 8 centimeters at the base (5 A and 3 inches) and 14 centimeters deep. Then, after cutting a groove, the collar is fixed below it, and the pot placed on the sand under the collar and gradually raised with the cut, as explained below. Every spring the whole apparatus is raised above the sterile portion of the groove, where the former year's tapping had stopped (Fig. 280). In order to fix the collar, an incision is made with a sharp, curved, steel im- plement, and the collar fixed in the incision. The pot is supported between the collar and a nail driven into the tree below the pot. The pots are also bored with a hole near their rim, so that they can be suspended if necessary, and this hole also allows any rain-water which is in the pot to drain away. Frequently evaporation of the turpentine is prevented by covering the pot with a thin piece of pine- wood. This improved system has increased the yield of resin by from 3 to 4i%, and also yields a much purer resin than before, selling at 10 francs a cask more than that collected in the sand. Only the more liquid parts of the resin reach the pot, the rest solidifies on the way and remains attached to the groove. The upper part of this solid crust is easily removed by hand ; it is thus collected by the resin-tapper, and is termed (jalipot. The resin in contact with the wood is much harder, and can * This, and all plates used in tliis chapter (except fig. 292) are taken from Boppe's Technologie forestitrc. G.3G KESIX-TAPPIXG. be removed only by a scraping implement. This substance, mixed with chips of wood, is termed hurras. AMien collected according to Hugues' method, hardly any (talipot is produced, the residue being chiefly hurras. After the pot has become sufficiently filled with crude resin, the collector empties it into a kind of basket (rscoiiurtc), holding about 20 liters {41 gal.) and made of rough cork, with wooden hoops, an osier handle and a round piece of wood for its base ; at the same time he scrapes oft' the Imrras, which falls on to a cloth spread below the tree to receive it. The resin is then conveyed to reservoirs (humms), formed of half-casks let into the ground alongside the forest roads, with removable, sloping wooden covers, which keep out the rain and impurities. The hurras is either mixed with the crude resin in the harcous, or packed separately in palm-leaf baskets, imported for the purpose from Algiers or Egypt. From the reservoirs the resin is ladled out into casks, and carried to the factories in carts with very broad wheels, on account of the sandy nature of the roads. It is, however, proposed to improve transport of both resin and timber in the Poorest of La Teste, by constructing a tramway to Arcachon, about 12 miles distant. 2. Implements used. Various implements are used for cutting grooves, remonng the crust of resin from the trees and conveying the produce to the factories. An ordinary axe is used for trimming the bark before the grooves are cut. A curved axe (uhsrhot), with a short handle (fig. 281), is used for cutting and freshening the surface of the groove. The blade should be sharp as that of a razor, so that the resin-ducts may be cleanly cut. Its irregular shape renders it an instrument difficult to construct and use ; it can be used skilfully only after long practice, and experience in India shows that better work can be done there with an ordinary adze. The scraper (pclle) (fig. 282) is made of iron, topped with steel ; it is fixed to the end of a wooden handle a yard long. It is used for scraping the lower portion of the grooves, and MARITIME PINE. 637 under the old method, for digging holes in the sand and removing the resin from them. Another scraper {harrasquitc) (fig. 283) has a curved, sharp blade with a handle Ih meters (4 feet 10 inches) long. It is Fig. 281. Fig. 282. Pelle. Fig. 283. used for removing bark which cannot be reached by the axe and also for collecting the harras from the same places. Another implement, termed rasclet (fig. 284), has a handle 1'80 meters (5 feet 10 inches) long ; it has also a step, and is sometimes used to raise the height of the grooves when above the reach of the workman's ahscliot. The workman, how- ever, frequently stands on the step of the rasclet and uses his curved axe. Fig. 285 shows another scraper (jyoussc), with a handle 2 meters 40 centimeters (7 feet 9 inches) long, and used, like the harrasquitc, for the higher portions of the groove. The jx^/o^ (fig. 286) re- sembles the jioussc, but its handle is only 90 centimeters (1 yard) long ; it replaces Ban-asquite. the pelle, when the Hugues method is adopted, and maj^ also be employed as a dibble for sowing acorns or pine seeds. G38 RESIN-TAPriNG. The rcsin-tappcr also uses a kind of ladder (fig. 288) made of a small pine, into which steps are cut 30 centimeters (1 foot) apart. Each step is strengthened by a nail to prevent breakage. Considerable practice is required for a man to remain perched on this ladder whilst using the ahschot with both hands. Fio. 284. Fio. 235. Pousse. Fig. 287. Fio. 286. Rasclet Talot. Espatule, The spatula (fig. 287) is used for scraping off the resin which ndheres to the pots or the rscoiiarfr. The workmen make their own ladders and rscouartc, and buy the other implements at the following prices : — The axe, or aJmrhot, 1 franc 50 centimes the kilogram (say M. a pound), or fi or 7 francs each ; the harrasqiiitc, 2 francs ; the ]>i>iissr, 2 francs 50 centimes ; the 2>alot, 1 franc 50 centimes ; the iicUc, 2 francs. MARITIME PINE. 639 Fig. 25 Forest of La Teste. of tlie inesent book. t t'fhia account is taken from Gayer.— Tii.] SPRUCE. 64-5 Fro. 292 them (fig. 292). The crude resin pours over these grooves from the large radial resin-ducts and gradually covers them with a hard crust of resin. About a year after tapping, in the second summer, the workman removes this crust with a special iron implement, scraping it into a conical basket, made of spruce-bark, placed below the groove ; he afterwards empties the basket into a larger one, in which the resin is well pressed down. The callus which forms over the wound is cut about every four years to expedite the exudation of resin. The process of resin-tapping causes decay in spruce trees, and by depriving the wood * of its resin reduces the quality of both timber and firewood. If, however, the usage be re- stricted to the last 10 years before the trees are felled no damage is apparently caused, except the reduction in size of the logs, due to the grooves cut in the stem. The annual yield of resin from spruce trees in Thuringia 80 to 100 years old, when tapped during the last 10 years before they are felled, is pounds of galipot and 43 pounds of crude resin per acre. mm 30 3. Larch. Most commercial larch-resin comes from Austria, where two methods for its extraction are employed, as reported by Marchand.t (a) The Styrian Method. — A hole, 2-i centimeters (1 inch) in diameter and 80 to 120 centimeters {2| to 4 feet) long, is bored with an augur into the trunk of a tree as near the ground as possible, sloping upwards and passing across the axis of the tree. Crude resin exudes through this hole into a pot placed at its entrance, from which it is guided to the pot by a piece of * The wood of the black and maritime piues, on the contrary, becomes more resinous when tapped. t Mission forestiere en Autriche. Arbois-Jarel, 1869. 6^G IIKSIN-TAI'I'IXC 8j)ruce Imrk. Impurities are kept out by covering: the pot witli a leafy branch of spruce or a piece of bark (fig. 298). Resin-tapping exhausts the larch, so that the resin is collected for a season only at a time, the hole being then stopped with a piece of wood which is removed after a rest of from two to six Fiii. 2P3. Styriau inetlioJ of tapjjinj,' larcli. years, when the How of resin recommences. By means of this precaution the tree may be tapped for 30 years, or more. (b) Tyrolese Method.— In this case (fig. 294) the hole in the larch tree is somewhat larger than the preceding one (3 centi- meters) and is bored either horizontally or at an angle towards the axis of the tree, being then closed by a plug. The resin which accumulates in this hole is removed in autumn by means of a specially made spoon. The process is only carried on at intervals, as in the preceding case ; but, though it yields more resin at first, it weakens the tree more than the Htyrian method and cannot be applied for more than 15 to 20 years. Tapping the larch for resin yields very little profit to the owner of the trees — viz., about Ul. per tree annually. This is as nothing when compared with the damage caused to the wood; only trees 150 to 200 years old can be thus tapped. BLACK PINE. 647 4. Black Pine. The black pine {Pinus Laricio, austriaca) is tapped in the Wienerwald by removing the bark from the base of the tree over about one-third (Gayer says two-thirds) of its circumference to a height of 40 centimeters (15 inches). A V-shaped niche, which serves as a reservoir for the resin, is then cut into the Fig. 294. Tyrolese method of tapping larch. base of the tree, below this blaze. The blaze is trimmed several times in a season by cutting into the sapwood, and in succeeding years it is heightened annually by 40 centimeters, small pieces of wood being inserted in cuts made in the blaze, so that the resin may not form too thick a crust, but may fall into the niche. The crude resin is removed from the niche once a fortnight, and the crust and dry resin in autumn. Thus, at the end of 10 years, the blaze will be 4 meters (13 feet) high. These broad blazes' are never occluded by new wood ; the stem, however, becomes saturated with resin and does not decay. There is a considerable loss of timber, owing to the grooving. The black pine yields from 2i to 41 kilos (5^ to 10 pounds) of crude resin per tree annually ; 50 pounds of the CIS KESIN -TAPPING. crude resin yield 7 to 10 pounds of oil of turpentine, and about 30 pounds of colopbany. [K. McA. Moir, in charge of tlie rcsin-t:ii)ping of rinns loiujifoUa, in .lansar, states that in 1894-5, G,318 trees were tapped and yielded .')09 cwt. of crude resin (9 lbs. a tree). Each tree 6 feet in girth and over is tapped for three consecutive years and thus yields 1 1 to 15 lbs., the yield after the 3rd year's tapping being usually very small. 333 cwt. 64 lbs. of crude resin was distilled in the same year, and yielded 222 cwt. 16 lbs. of colophany and 621 gallons of turpentine. It is more profitable to sell the crude resin than to distil it ; it is mixed with lac and used for making bracelets at Delhi. In India, l)esides resin, various kinds of gums arc collected for sale IVotn numerous species of forest trees, also caoutchouc from Flms • lastica, gutta-percha from species of Dichopsis, and from some of these products fairly large revenues are obtained. Since 1872, the Indian Forest Department has formed an extensive ])lantation of Ficus ^fasdc'i in Assam, as it was found that the wholesale tapping of this valuable tree (which is only disseminated in the forests) would render it extinct.*— Tr.] ■^ Vide Feriiamloz, Forest Utilization. 649 CHAPTER IX. LESS IMPORTANT MINOR PRODUCE. The most important items of minor produce have been dealt with in the preceding chapters, but there are various other items which are more or less useful. Most of these are leased by area, either of the whole forest or for certain parts of it ; permission is given to collect others gratis. Not unfrequently, however, it should first be decided whether their utilization will be injurious to the game in the forest, for permission given to persons to wander all over a forest in search of petty products may often give rise to irregularities. The following items of produce will be referred to : — Grass-seeds. Vanillin. Edible Fruits. Herbage for various Mosses. Lime Bast, &c. Industrial Purposes. Knoppern Galls. Wood-wool. Truffles. 1. Grass-seeds * The frequently abundant growth of grass on clear-cuttings, forest-roads and other places has been already described, nearly all the species of grass occurring which are found in pastures. As meadow-grasses are cut for hay when in full blossom, meadows do not afford grass-seed ; but in forests, grasses may be allowed to ripen their fruit and thus afford a useful agricultural product. The collection of grass-seeds is at present in many forests a matter of importance, employs many people and yields a fair revenue. The species which, as good meadow-grasses, are chiefly in demand for seed may be classified as gregarious, light -demanding * G. Rothe, Samehi dcr Grassamen in den Waldungcn, Stuttgart, 1875. tJoO LKSS LMPOrvTANT MINOII IMIODUCE. or shade-bearing grasses, and arc iiicliulcd in the following list :— GrcfinrioHS Grasses. Fiorin-grass l;/rosfis nUxi, L. : var. stolonifcni, Ij. ,, if/rostis allia, L. : var. r((/- fjnris. With. l^ent-grass Ar/rostis rauiiia, L. Meadow foxtail llopcciiriis pratettsis, L. Upright brome Bromus erect ns, Huds. Meadow feseue Festuca ehitior, L. : var. arinuVniaeea, Schreb, ,, Festnea elatior, L. : var. pratensis, Huds. Festuca rubra, L. Yorkshire fog JIolcus Janatus, L. Perennial rye-grass LoUum perenne, L. Italian rye-grass"'-' ,, „ : var. italicum, A. Br. .Meadow poa Voa pratensis, L. Timothy-grass Phleum pratense, L. &c., &c. Li> >> ,, ,, : var. jtuhcscens, Huds. Common (juake-grass Ihiza media, L. Field bronie Bromus entli;ini .'^; I looker. HEKBAGE USED FOR VAEIOUS PURPOSES. 651 Shade-heariiKj Grasses. Vernal grass Anthuxantlmm (ujoratum, L. Tufted aira Aira aespitosa, L. Wavy aira Aira jicxuosa, L. Tall brome Bromus giganteiis, L. Sheep's fescue Festiica ovina, L. Reed fescue Festuca sylvatica, Vill. Soft holcus Tlolciis mollis, L. Spreading milium Miliitm effnsnm, L. Wood poa Poa nemoralis, L. &c., cVc. When the seed is ripe (which for most grasses is in the latter half of June or July, and for others, in August and September) the collectors walk in lines through extensive grassy areas, grasp a handful of spikelets, cut them off and place them in a bag slung in front, which is emptied from time to time on to a large cloth spread out on the nearest road. The spikelets are then put into sacks for removal and again spread out in sunny places to dry, threshed and sifted. The chief points are to collect only one species at a time and entirely avoid seed of bad species ; in his own interest the forest-owner should pay atten- tion to this. The revenue from the collection of grass -seed is sometimes considerable. In the State forests of the Grand Duchy of Hesse the revenues thus obtained in 187B and 1874 were respectively i'634 and i'494. This covered from one quarter to one-sixth of the cost of re-stocking the annual felling-areas. In 1878 50 acres of felling-area in the Forest of Stockstadt, near Aschaffenburg, were leased for this purpose in one year for ii31. Forstmeistcr Urich, at Biidingen, sows Poa nemoralis in beech felling-areas and on clear-cut areas, in order to produce a crop ot valuable grass-seed. The seed of JSIiliiim effiisinn (common in Britain) is used as bird-seed. 2. Herbage vsed for Various Purposes. Among herbage used for industrial purposes, other than those already described, Carex hrizoides chiefly deserves mention ; it is used instead of horsehair for stuffinj^ furniture, ^'c. This sedge 652 LESS IMPORTANT MIxNOR PRODUCE. is found in Germany on the clamp, rich, loamy soil of somewhat open spruce forests, also in coppice and coppice-with-standards of ash, alder, aspen, etc., where it grows in tufts between the overshading coi)pice-shoots and thrives in places sheltered from late frosts. The longer and softer the leaves, the more valuable the product. The sedge is full-grown by the end of June, and may be plucked from then till October ; it is partially dried by spreading it on sunny roads, and then brought in and plaited. It is extensively collected in the Baden PJiine valley, where 5 cwt. of the grass per acre form a fair crop. The yield may, however, under favourable conditions, amount to 9 or 10 cwt. per acre; 150 pounds of dry sedge yield 125 pounds of plaits, worth 4-s. to Gs. per cwt. In the Grand Duchy of Baden at least 2,000 tons of sedge (worth over t'12,500) are collected annually. In 1872, the town of Friburg obtained £1,287 for sedge removed from its forests ; and other towns, i'712 and £840. In 1873, several communes in Baden obtained 30.s-. to 60.s. per acre for the sedge. More recently the demand has somewhat lessened, owing to the sub- stitution of Crin (VAfriqiic (filaments from a palm, Chdiuccrops hum His) as stuffing for furniture. A grass {Acrn (I alls. The oak forests of Hungary and Servia yield an important product in the galls produced on the cups of pedunculate acorns (termed, commercially, knoppern galls), which fall in September, arc collected and carefully dried on shelves, and sold as a valuable tanning material. Although the price is ut present very low, still, 20.S. to ;M).s. a cwt. are obtained at the place of production. Knoppern galls, as a rule, are only obtainable every 8 to 10 years ; plenty of acorns, a warm summer, plenty of gall-flies and an open crop of oak trees, are essential conditions. In 1860 the production of Austria-Hungary was estimated at 7,000 to 12,0(10 tons, 'j'hia yield has subsequently decreased, owing to the destruction of oak forests. 7. Tnitih's. The truffle (Tnhfr iiiihiiKixjiunnn) is the most valuable of edible fungi; it is chiefly found in oak, elm and ash forests, a few centimeters underground, in dump, rich soils of the warmer " D«iik('Iin;iiiii\ Z.-itsclirift, iv., p. 159. EDIBLE FRUITS. 655 parts of France and Germany. [It was formerly fairly common in oak forests in the south of England, and is still found in Sussex and Hampshire. — Tr.] Other species * of truffles, especially T. cestivum and Choimmi/ces meandiformis, are found from Hannover to the river Vistula. The importance of truffles may he gathered from the fact that 1,500 tons (worth 4^640,000) are exported annually from France ; in the whole of Germany only ahout a ton (worth i;35) is collected yearly. In Perigord, land formerly stocked with vineyards is now planted with young oaks for the cultivation of truffles, which grow as a mjicorluza on the oak roots. This is said to pay three to five times as well as vineyards. Whole villages are engaged in this industry, which has now gone beyond the experimental stage. [When the high price is considered at which truffles are sold, there is every reason for endeavouring to grow them in the south of England and Ireland. — Tr.] 8. Edible Fruits. Cranberries and bilberries are the edible fruits most frequently collected from forests. In many districts all the children are engaged during the season in collecting these berries, and a large trade driven in the produce ; there are commercial houses in North Germany which deal with them to the extent of i5,000 and more yearly. The forests of the Fichtelgebirge, the Spessart, the Schwarzwald, &c., yield large quantities of these berries. When fully ripe, large wooden combs are used to strip off the berries into baskets. Only a small part of the produce is now used for brandy ; it is chiefly made into wine, partly to convert white wine into red wine and partly as bilberry wine, which is sold at Frankfort- on-Maine and other places as a medicinal beverage ; it is also sent in large quantities to the south of France to be mixed with grape-wine and sold as claret, t Bilberries may be also eaten fresh, cooked or dried. Several municipal forests in Germany sell annually from ^625 to £50 worth of bilberries. In the forest-range of Ottenhofen, in Baden, £250 worth were sold in 1855, and for ■' Cf. R. Hesse, Die JL/pnya/ien Dcutschlands, Halle, 1891. t E. Laxis, in Handelsblatt fiir Walderzeugnisse, 1894, No. 23. 05(5 LKSS IMPORTANT MINOlI PRODUCE. the same value in the forest division of Schaidt, in the Palatinate, in 1882. It is well known what enormous quantities of strawberries, raspberries, alderberries, etc., are annually jjathered. In the village of Frammersbach, in the Spessart, children yearly collect these berries to the value of .i'200. Mistletoe-berries are here and there collected for making bird-lime. [liranches of mistletoe for Christmas form a yearly artic-li- of trade from Normandy to London, whole steamer- loads arriving from the Norman apple-orchards. — Tr.] 9. Lime-bast. The inner bark, or bast, of the lime tree (termed Russian bast) is used for making ropes, string, shoes, dusters, for use by gardeners, packing material, mats, sacking, cl'C. Lime-bast is used for many purposes in Russia, and exports of different articles thus made from Welisch are valued annually at 30,000 tu 10,000 roubles. In lirandenburg and Galicia, thin roots of Scotch pines are used for cables, withes and basket-work. 10. Other Items. Among the multifarious forest plants which are used in- dustrially or medicinally may be mentioned : — Orchid bulbs, as salep ; spores of K are employed in handling it, it also corrodes iron and is some- what volatile at ordinary temperatures. Products from the distillation of coal or wood containing more or less heavy tar-oils, carbolic acid, tar, acetic acid, »\:c., are chiefly used in the form of heavy tar-oils from coal-tar, the process being intro- duced by Bethell, in 1838, and subsequently termed creosoting, though there is no true creosote in coal-tar. The coal-tar is obtained as a residual product of gas-works and is distilled by being suV)jected to the heat of a furnace, yielding certain oils lighter than water (naplithas), oils heavier than water, and pitch, which runs out from the bottom of the still and solidities into a hard black substance- Formerly the heavy oils were used without further distillation for preserving tindjer, but Boulton considers that the tar acids (including carbolic acid) which they contain, are speedily washed out of injected timber and that the heavier portion of the oils which clogs up wood- pores is more valuable than carbolic acid as a preservative of timber. It is essential that wood should be air-dried before being creosoted, the method by which this is secured will be described further on. Wood-tar is less used than coal-tar, though it is undoubtedly superior to it for injecting timber, the main difficulty witli coal-tar being its viscosity and the consequent difficulty of driving it deeply into wood. Boulton maintains that Newcastle coal produces heavier oils than other Knglish or Scotch coal and that the lighter country or Scotch oils ])enetrate more deeply into timber but do not produce such a lasting effect as the heavier London oil from Newcastle coal. -Tu.] Creosoting is cbielly employed in Britain and is now being increasingly used in France, Germany and other countries ; although the method of injection now employed is capable of imi)rovenu'nt, it is undoubtedly superior to injection by any metallic salts. Creosoted wood is bard, tough and black, much less absorptive of moisture than uncreosoted wood and mp:thods of injection. 663 does not form chemical combinations with metals. On the Emperor Ferdinand Railway, in Austria, a mixture of chloride of zinc and carbolic acid is being used with good results. Blythe at Bordeaux injects wood with steam containing tar-oils. [Boulton considers that no good can result from this, the light oils being too volatile to remain long in the timber ; on the other hand, the injection of heavy oils in the form of vapour is prevented by their high boiling point ranging from 400° to 760° F., while timber is rendered brittle and unsafe for engineering purposes at a tempera- ture of 250° F.— Tr.] Stuart Monteith first used milk of lime to fill the pores of timber ; this method has been reintroduced by Frank and is useful for preserving furniture and other woodwork under cover, but its utility is doubtful for wood in the open. [An American, Haskin, has introduced a process termed vul- canising, by which green wood in trucks is passed through an iron cylinder 6^ feet in diameter and 112 feet long, where it is subjected for a few hours to compressed air at temperatures of 300° to 500° F.; this converts the sap of the wood into neutral oils, i-esins, &c., which act as antiseptics. Haskin maintains that this high tem- perature docs not weaken the wood. — Tr.] 3. Methods of Injection. The method of injecting wood by the various substances already referred to is as influential on the result as the antiseptic substance itself. The most important methods are : — hydro- static injection, pneumatic injection, imbibition by immersing or boiling the wood in solutions of the antiseptic substances. (a) Hydrostatic injection. — At first the antiseptic liquids were absorbed by natural force of the foliage raising the sap, incisions being made with this object at the base of the stem of a standing tree. This method was abandoned owing to its impracticability [and the fact that the foliage exerts only an upward pressure equivalent to that of 10 or 12 feet of water.* — Tr.]. Boucherie discovered that a pressure of one or two atmospheres applied at the transverse section of a log is sufficient to expel the sap and replace it by another liquid. * Boppe op. cit. , p. 93. »;o4 ANTISKI'TIC TKEATMENT OF TIMBER. Stems or poles, \Yitli their bark intact, are placed nearly horizontally (fig. 295, a, a) on a timber framework ; the liquid (1 part sulphate of copper to 100 parts of water) flows from a vat h, which is supported on a trestle 26 to 32 feet high, passing by the pipe m into the conducting tube n under the ends of the Fig. 29S ^^ %=d-^ logs, and enters the logs through the gutta-percha tubes _/; each tube having a separate tap. In order to prevent the liquid from escaping by the anterior section of a log, a piece of hempen rope is placed round its periphery and a board {d, d, fig. 29G) l)laced over a rope and pressed firmly against the log by a press // and two tension screws and nuts. The section of the log, the hoard d and the piece of rope placed in a ring between them, L-nclosc a hollow space with which the gutta-percha tube communicates by means of an oblique augur hole bored in the log. The solution of sulphate of copper llowing from the METHODS OF INJECTION. 665 vat d, with a pressure due to its height above the ground, is therefore driven into the log and expels most of the sap, which issues from the smaller end of the log, at first pure hut eventually mixed with the injecting solution. This waste liquid flows into a wooden trough s, and is then conducted to the tank K, which is provided with a filter to exclude impurities [and also a basket full of crystals of the injecting substance in order to maintain the strength of the solution. — Tr.] The liquid in K is then pumped back into the vat h by the pump iv. Instead of forming the Fm. 296. hollow space at the base of the log by means of a piece of rope, Oesau used a metallic vessel, like a round, shallow box, the sides of which are sharpened so that they can be driven into the base of the log with a few blows of a hammer, whilst there is an orifice in the base of the box into which the tube j) i« screwed. [Boppe states that long logs in France are injected by being sawn nearly across at their middle (fig. 297), so that a thickness of only li to 2 inches of wood is left below, the log is then raised by levers and a piece of rope inserted in the opening. On removing the levers, the log returns to its former position, and the cut closes tightly on the rope ; an augur-hole is then bored obliquely through the log into this hollow space, and the gutta-percha tube placed in it as before.— Tr. J Wood to be thus injected should be freshly cut, and still full of sap. Stems are therefoi-e topped, branches cut down to short (iCC, ANTISKI'TIC TiiEATMENT OF TIMUKi:. snags, the bark left uninjured and the injecting process applied as soon as possible. If the base of a log has dried it should be again freshly cut before being injected. Logs kept in water for a long time preserve the faculty of being injected. [The free ends of the logs are tested, either by tlieir colour, or by a chemical test to ascertain when the injection is suthcient.— Tr.] Fk;. 297. In order to inject logs satisfactorily by Boucherie's process, a long time (up to 70 hours) and a large timber-yard are required. The injected logs are dried slowly and as thoroughly as possible, they are then barked and converted. When freshly felled stems are injected the bark must be com- pletely preserved, or the injecting liquid will escape. If, however, they have been kept for about three months, the preservation of METHODS OF INJECTION. 667 the bark is not material, as the sapwood dries down for a few- centimeters and becomes impermeable for liquids. Another improved method based on that of Boucherie is that carried out by Pfister.* Instead of pressure due to a fall of about 30 feet, Pfister used a portable forcing-pump producing a pres- sure up to 20 atmospheres, he thus drove the injecting liquid through tubes into the wood, the tubing being so arranged that it can be lengthened at discretion or conducted at the same time to several logs. The advantages of this method are, that the injection is more rapidly effected than by Boucherie and in the forest immediately after the felling of the trees or poles, without any necessity for transporting them to the injecting works. Pfister's apparatus will thoroughly inject a beech-butt 10 feet long in about half an hour, it being immaterial whether the bark is damaged or not. He also devised an improved method of enclosing the base of the logs. The apparatus, with several different sized closing pieces, costs .i>200 to £300. (b) Pneumatic injection. — Antiseptic substances can be injected into wood more effectually by means of a forcing-pump than by the hydrostatic method, the process being then much more rapidly conducted : at present pneumatic injection is exclusively employed in Germany in the case of chloride of zinc, creosote, acetic acid, &g. In this case the wood is first converted into beams, scant- ling, railway-sleepers, &c., and is then placed in large iron cylinders {A, A) containing the injecting liquid, which, at tem- peratures of 112°— 194° F. (50'— 90" C.) is pressed into the wood by powerful steam forcing-pumps. The pieces of wood to be injected are packed as tightly as possible on the trucks (fig. 299), and the latter are then pushed along a tramway {m, m, fig. 298) into the cylinders A, A. When the cylinders are full, the rails leading to them are removed and the head x adjusted and firmly fixed so as to close the cylinder. The wood is then at first steamed at a temperature of 112i C. (234i F.) for one hour ; the steam is conducted from the boiler M through the steam-pipe a. When the steaming process is ■■' Dimitz uud Bblimerle, Centralblatt des gesamniteu For.stwesens, Vienna, 1889. OGS ANTISKPTIC TREATMENT OF TIMBER. METHODS OF IXJECTIOX, 669 Fig. 29 concluded, the air is sucked out of the wood by means of the air- pump B and the injecting liquid (30 — 50 fold diluted chloride of zinc, the latter containing 25% of zinc) is admitted through the pipe h h into the cylinders, the air-pump still working for some time. When the cylinder is full, the forcing-pump D presses the liquid into the wood. In order to eftect this a pressure of about 6 atmospheres is applied for | — 1| hours. The injecting liquid is then drawn back into the reservoir, and the truck removed with its contents. The two cylinders are used alternately. Quite recently it has become the practice to omit the steam- ing entirely and to dry the wood, especially in creosoting with tar-oil, &c. It is, how- ever, desirable, in order to render wood durable, that all the nutritive material in the sap should be withdrawn, which is not the case when the wood is dried. The drying is effected in a drying-chamber, heated to 175°— 250° F. The wood is then placed in the injecting cylinders, out of which the air is drawn, and the tar-oil admitted at a temperature of 113°— 140° F. (45°— 60^ C), and pressed into the wood in the same way as when chloride of zinc is used. [Boulton* says that the presence of water in timber at the time of creosoting is most prejudicial to successful injection, and that railway- sleepers and other timber should be stacked and dried for several months before injection. This precaution can easily be secured in the case of railway-sleepers or telegraph-poles, but when timber is sawn from logs kept in timber-ponds in the docks, it is difficult to afford a proper time for stacking and drying it before creosoting. * S. B. Boulton, " An improvement in the process of Creosoting Timber." 1"^-,^. u4 Front of an injecting cylinder with a truck laden with wood. (•.70 ANTISKITIC JJtEATMKNT OF TIMHER. Owintr, however, to the injury done to timber by drying it artificially at temperatures up to 250° F., the action of stoves in closed cham- bers, or of superheated steam, is very prejudicial ; he therefore con- siders 230° F. as the limit of safety for heating timber intended for engincoiing purposes. Boulton has therefore patented a process depending on the different boiling points of water (212° F.) and of heavy tar-oils (350° F. to 700' F.) ; the creosote is admitted at a tempemture slightly over 212° F. and the action of the air-pump contiiniod, so that any water in the logs is converted into steam and drawn off by the air-pump through a condensing worm in a dome on the top of the injecting cylinder. The creosote is still liquid at 212° F. and rejdaccs the water in the log, which is not then subject to any excessive heat and consequently its tissues arc uninjured. Boulton also maintains that in the case of railway-sleepers to be used in India and other hot countries, this injecting at a temperature of 212* F. fills all cracks in the wood with creosote ; as in India there- fure the sleepers will not be subjected to &uch a heat in the ballast, they will not crack an}' further there, which is not the case with sleepers injected at a heat less than that they may experience in Indian baliast.— Th.] "When heavy tar-oil is used for injecting purposes, the wood is coloured dark black ; the hard, pitchy components of the tar form a crust almost as hard as stone on the surface and fill all the crevices of the wood. [In England about 50 gallons of heavy tar-oil are used per load of 50 cubic feet, the oil weighing 11 lbs. per gallon. — Tr.] F. Lowenfeld has designed a portable apparatus for injecting wood, which is based on the principle of first steaming the wood and then injecting it by forcing-pumps in chambers deprived of air. There are six of these chambers, which can be successively con- nected with the steam-generator and in which the process of injecting is carried on continuously, the sixth chamber being removed and charged with wood, the first chamber steamed, and so on. In Blythc's system (according to Gayer) the wood is first artificially dried and then placed in boilers, where it is sub- jected to a high pressure of steam containing heavy oil of creosote in suspension. The wood is subjected to injection from G to 20 hours, and is completely injected, assuming a dark colour like METHODS OF INJECTION, 671 that of several tropical woods. The softened wood is then rolled and pressed till it is reduced in thickness by 10% or even 40% The effect of the injection is thus increased by compressing the wood, and a very superior kind of furniture-wood is thus produced (Exner). It is preferable to use freshly felled wood, and Exner states that beechwood thus injected and compressed gains up to 19% in strength. (c) Steeping converted wood in antiseptic liquids. — This method is chiefly employed for Kyauisiiui stakes and small pieces of wood. Large wooden troughs like cooling-troughs are parti}' filled with a solution* of corrosive sublimate in water, the pieces of wood are placed in them, weighted to make them sink and kept from 8 to 10 days immersed. Stakes are merely placed in petroleum casks tilled with blue vitriol solution and other antiseptic liquids. [Boulton says that small pieces of wood, hop-poles, fencing-slabs, stakes, tkc, may be placed in an open trough with heavy tar-oil, which is heated by a fire under the trough, care being taken not to raise the temperature of the creosote above 230° F. — Tr.J Other methods by immersion give inferior results. Formerly the wood was frequently boiled in antiseptic liquids, steam being introduced into the vessel in which the wood was immersed until the liquid in it boiled. Blue vitriol, borax solution, kc, were thus injected, but the liquid must be kept at the boiling point for 10 or 12 hours. H. Liebau, in Magdeburg, has recently attempted to introduce the liquid from the interior of the pieces of wood instead of externally, in order to protect the heartwood from decay. This can be used only for stakes, piles, &c., the axis of which is bored through after they have been driven into the ground and tar-oil, pitch, &c., poured into the cavity. Nothing can yet be said as to the efficacy of this method. [Boppe states t that in France mining pit-props are immersed for about 24 hours in solutions of Hlbs. per gallon (1.50 gr. to 1 liter) of sulphate of iron, or in wood-tar heated to a temperature of 278° F. * Accordiiif^toTredgold's Carpentry by Hurst, 1871, lib. of corrosive sublimate to 10 to 15 gals, of water, iMbs. of the sublimate in the strongest solution being enough for a load or 50 cubic feet of wood. — Tp..] t Techuologie Forestiere, p. 97- iu:l ANTISKI'TK; TKHAIMENI- OF TI.MP.Ki;. (HO' ('.), in order to render them more durable. It is found tliat if the immersion is continued for a longer period, the wood becomes brittle, and that chloride of zinc, blue vitriol or creosote poisons the wood and renders it dangerous to the miners. — Tr.] 4. Sititabilitff of different Wood for Injection. The question as to the comparative ease or difficulty with which a jiiece of wood can be injected and whether the injection is thorough, or merely superficial, cannot as yet be satisfactorily answered. As a rule, a thorough injection is rare, in most cases the antiseptic liquid merely injects the sapwood and younger woody zones ; in the case of railway-sleepers which are injected pneumatically, it also passes into the two ends of the sleepers, whilst the heartwood in the centre is often only partially injected. There are, however, many modifications in the above condition of injected wood, according to the species of wood, its soundness or unsoundness, special anatomical structure and amount of contained resin, which differs greatly in individual cases. According to species, woods without heartwood, or with imperfect heartwood, are much more easily injected than those with heartwood. It has been proved by experience, that the beech is the wood most easily injected and that hornbeam, aspen, birch and alder come next, then spruce and silver-fir. As regards heart- wooded trees, although the sapwood may be readily injected, it is an exception when the heartwood can be injected at all and then only partially. Different woods also absorb antiseptic liquids in difterent degrees; thus on the Kaiser Ferdinand Railway, 50 cubic feet each of oakwood and Scotch pinewood absorbed respectively 240 lbs. and 570 lbs. of antiseptic substance. In fact the more porous a wood the more easily it is injected. [Houlton states that up to GOOlbs. of heavy tar-oil may Ijc absorbed by a load of timber. — Tu.] The degree of soundness of the wood is also influential in this respect, as only sound wood-fibres are capable of injection. Young wood being generally sounder than old wood is more absorbent than the latter. RESULTS OF INJECTION. 673 The more resinous a wood the less easily it is injected and much resin in wood may entirely prevent injection, as for instance in Scotch pinewood ; it has not yet heen ascertained whether the different injecting processes afiect matters in this respect. Beechwood with reddish false heartwood (from trees over 100 years old) is quite unsuitable for injection. It is not yet known whether variations in the specific gravity of the same wood affect matters in this respect ; this question should be decided experimentally. 5. Results of Injection. Reference has heen already made (p. 120) to the results ot injecting railway-sleepers ; it was stated that the locality, nature of the soil and wear and tear on a railway must be considered in judging the durability of injected sleepers. The method of injection, the anatomical structure of the wood and whether the injected wood is used immediately after injection or is first kept some time in store, also aff"ect its durability. As regards the methods of injection, the following results are given by German Railways : — Nature of antiseptic substance. Method of injecting. Life of sleeper in years. Oak. 1?^!f 1 Beech. Spruce. Chloride of zinc Creosote Sulphate of copper... Steam-pre.«.sure Immersion Steam-pressure Hydrostatic pressure Immersion 19-25 — 19-5 22-8 16 14 13—15 18 6-6 9-6 Lowenfeld found the following percentages of antiseptic sub- stances in sleepers after being used for 13 years : — Chloride of zinc. Tar-oil. Oak 45 31 Larch 51 41 Beech 71 42 Scotch pine 28 21 Spruce, Silver-fir 83 55 VOL. V. XX 674- ANTISKPTIC TREATMENT OF TIMBER. In comparing the durability of injected and uninjccted railway-sleepers it may be stated that on the average : — Beech durability trebled. Scotch pine ,, doubled. Oak „ Spruce „ increased 50% According to Burescli, beech railway-sleepers injected with chloride of zinc last only 8 or 9 years, but their life is reckoned at 18 years on the Koln-Minden railway, whilst a thoroughly injected beech-sleeper costs only half the price of an oak-sleeper. It is clearly proved by experience on many railway lines and by numerous carefully conducted experiments that injected beech railway- sleepers are quite durable enough to be extensively used, yet only 1% of the sleepers used on German lines and 3 % in Austria-Hungary are of beech. This non-use of beech is therefore unjustifiable, and the different State Forest Depart- ments should therefore endeavour to supply large quantities of beech sleepers from sound young trees, whilst the railways should use them only after thorough injection by steaming and when they are air-dry. It appears that when chloride of zinc is used, the injected sleepers are more durable if laid down a few months after injec- tion and not fresh from the injecting works. The cost of injection varies according to the method employed. Buresch has given figures for a number of German lines on p. 82 of his valuable book already referred to, being as follows per cubic foot : — d. Chloride of zinc (steam-pressure) 2'04 Sulphate of copper (Boucherie) 2*!28 Kyanising 8*72 Kreosoting 4'92 In Germany the cost of injection per railway-sleeper is given as follows by Nepomacky : — Oak. Scotch pine^ d. d. Sulphate of copper (Boucherie) 4*1 5*2 C'hlorido of zinc (steam pressure) 8*3 10*3 Corrosive sublimate ()*G 11-6 Creosoting 14-8 24*2 METHODS OF INJECTION. 675 In considering therefore the good results of the process of injecting wood with chloride of zinc under steam pressure, it is the process most highly to be recommended for Germany. The question whether wood injected with metallic salts loses strength and becomes brittle, requires further investigation, [As already stated, the objection to the use of metalHc salts for injecting wood is chiefly that they are liable to be washed out by rain, although they usually penetrate more deeply into the wood than heavy tar-oil. There is a further objection to the use of sulphate of copper or chloride of mercury, that they react injuriously on iron, but this objection does not hold for chloride of zinc, which appears to answer satisfactorily in a comparatively dry country, such as parts of Germany. Mr. W. H. Preece* gives some interesting facts as regards the durability of injected telegraph-posts in England. In 1844, the line of telegraph between London and Southampton was constructed with posts of best Memel timber Burnettised with chloride of zinc ; and in 1857, the following per-centages of decayed posts were observed : — On sand 40 per cent. On clay 33 „ „ Onchalk 28 „ „ In 1871, all the posts had to be removed. Unprepared telegraph- poles last 7 years, Boucherised poles 15 years. In 1848, 318 poles on a line of 20 miles from Fareham to Portsmouth were creosoted by Mr. Bethell, and in 1883, every pole but two was sound. On the South Western Railway along the line from Yeovil to Exeter, in 1861, poles were put up alternately, as follows : first, ail uninjected pole ; then, a Boucherised pole ; then, a creosoted pole, and so on for 40 miles. In 1870, all the uninjected poles were rotten, and 30 per cent of the Boucherised poles, while not one creosoted pole had gone bad. Creosoted red-pine sleepers used on English railways appear to last from 8 to 12 years, but much depends on the amount of traffic, Bouisson of the Western Railway of France statest that on the line from Rouen to Dieppe, creosoted beech sleepers were laid in 1859, and in 1878 not one of them showed any signs of decay, though beechwood unprepared becomes completely decayed in 2 or 3 years. Granthamt also stated that on the Great Western Railway in England, creosoted Baltic sleepers last 8 to 10 years and uncreosoted 5 years, and that kyanised sleepers last 6 to 7 years. — Tr.] * Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 78, p. 174. + Minutes of Proc. of Inst, of Civ. Eng., op. cit. p. 659. X X 2 676 CHAPTER 11. SA\V-MILL8.""' Section I. — General Account. The transportability of the wood produced bj' a forest considerably influences the revenue of tbe latter. Timber in tbe round cannot, as a rule, bear transport to a distance and timber-prices would in general be very low, were it not possible to convert heavy logs into planks and scantling and thus facilitate their transport to a distance from the forest. This conversion is chiefly eff"ected by saw-mills situated either in or near the forests, the existence of which enables many forests to be worked at a profit and afi"ords a market for their timber. [It is stated that saw-mills were run by water-power in Germany as early as 1322. An attempt to establish a mill in England in 1663 was abandoned owing to the opposition of the sawyers, and one erected at Limchouse, in 1768, was destroyed by a mob. North America is the home cf saw-mills, one having been erected in Maine in lG3-4.t— Tu.] The question whether saw-mills should be managed by forest owners, or left to independent private industry, has, in the German State forests, with few exceptions, been decided in favour of the latter alternative. The State should not, however, hesitate to favour and support saw-mills, as its interest lies clearly in that direction. As, moreover, saw-mills are sometimes controlled by forest owners, especially private owners of large forests, and it is desirable that foresters should possess some knowledge of their mode of construction and management, a general account of them is included in this book. • Saw-iiiills, by M. P>. Rale, London, Crosby Lockwood & Co., 1888. t From lincyc. Hrit., 1SS6, Saw-mills, by Hotchkiss. FOREST SAW-MILLS. 677 Not very long ago, the simply constructed saw-mill, hundreds of which are still found in coniferous forests, was the only means employed for converting logs into scantling. The marvellous improvements in machinery and in the use of water- and steam- power, and improved communications, have recently not only elaborated and multiplied saw-mills, but have also led to the construction and use of numerous other wood-working machines. It should also be noted that the better kinds of simple saw- mills are by no means obsolete, but deserve full consideration on the part of forest owners as long as they produce marketable material at cheaper rates than large saw-mill establishments in towns. Section II. — Forest Saw-Mills. 1. Description. The ordinary forest saw-mill is characterized by its position in a forest, its usually simple mode of construction, by being driven by water-power and having as a rule only one blade to a saw. It consists of three parts, the frame which moves up and down with the saw, the travelling or butt carriage supporting the logs which are to be sawn and the mechanism for setting both the above in motion. The saw-blade a (tigs. 300, 301), is nearly vertical and fixed in the frame hh, moving up and do^\Ti with it between the wooden slides ee ; below the frame is a pitman / which is attached to a cranks/. Every revolution of the wheel B drives the saw up and down by means of g. The cut is effected by the downward stroke of the saw, the steep edges of the teeth being pointed downwards. During the upward stroke, the butt to be cut must be pushed forward against the saw. With this object, the butt is placed on the carriage h, which consists of a long, somewhat narrow, strong platform. The head-blocks P and F are dovetailed into the carriage at each of its extremities and serve to hold the butt in position. The carriage is pushed forward by means of a rack ?i, which is driven by the pinion k of the cog-wheel L and the latter by the cog-wheel M, on the axle of which another cog- wheel N is fixed and driven by the ratchet q; q is connected by a hinge with one of the levers ri- attached to a cylinder y, which is moved through part of a rotation and back again, by 678 SAW-MILLS. the motion of the other lever r attached to the upper part h of the saw-frame. Fio. 300. Thus, every upward movement of the saw-frame forces q against the wheel X, which is thus set slightly in motion and FOREST SAW-MILLS. 679 communicates the motion through the cog-wheels M, L, k, and thus pushes forward the butt-carriage and the butt against the saw. At the downward motion of the saw-frame, the ratchet q Fia. 301. is drawn backwards, catching a cog in N when the saw is at its greatest height and again forcing N round at the next down stroke of the saw. U is the water-wheel which drives the saw, the small water-wheel W being used to drive back the butt- 080 SAW-MILLS. carriage, when the butt has been sawn through. II is an iron fly-wheel which regulates the motion of the machinery. As soon as the butt has been sawn through its entire length, the butt-carriage is pushed back as far as it will go, and the butt adjusted for a second cut and so on, till it has been completely sawn into planks. Keceutly, many forest saw-mills have been improved* in various ways ; some of them, however, are still sadly wanting in this respect. The improvements are mainly directed to improving the outturn of saw-mills, both in quantity and quality. The most important of these are the material of which the machinery is constructed ; the mode of suspending the saw-blade ; its form and the nature of the teeth (their thickness, shape and Bet) ; the movement of the carriage and the mode of fastening the butt on to it ; the rapidity of the saw, &c. Besides these points there are several others, so that evidently, there are at present many different kinds of saw-mills. An efficient saw-mill should utilize all the uvailable water- power, should yield a sufficiently large outturn of i)lanks, the latttr hc'ui of their area is available for work. Circular saws require a comparatively low motive power; their ■dimensions vary considerably from 8 in. to 4 feet (0*20 — l*20m.) diameter, whilst the thickness of the blade varies from 1 to 3'5 mm. A moderate-sized circular saw moves, at its circumference, at the rate of 50 — 65 feet (15 — 20m.) a second, for hardwood and 65 — 100 feet (15 — 30m.) for softwood. The commonest uses of circular saws are as follows : — i. Large circular saws for removing side-pieces from beams, thus replacing much tedious work with the adze. Although this can also be done by frame-saws, yet the circular saw is often preferred, as it works the more quickly of the two. l^y means of mechanism, the log resting on rollers moves automati- cally towards the saw. ii. Large saws for cutting butts into planking ; these are generally used after the butts have been sawn in half by frame- saws. Circular saws are much more commonly used for this purpose in America than in Europe. [Where driven by engines of from 25 to 100 horse-power, the rirculur saw-mill will turn out 20,000 to 60,000 feet a day in addition WORKED BY STEAM. 689 to running double cdgers and trimming saws, trimming off the rough edges and bad ends of the himber.* — Tr.] iii. Double-edging circular saws for edging planks and boards consist of two saws on the same axis, the distance between them being capable of adjustment. They feed by rollers. iv. Saws for laths resemble the above, but there are 3 to 5 blades on the same axis, which cut up planks into laths or other scantling. v. Ordinary circular saws, used for sawing planks into thin boards, such as those used for cigar-boxes, packing-cases, staves, &c. The wood may either be pushed by hand along a bench to the saw, or automatic feed may be adopted. vi. Another form of circular saw is used for shortening logs, removing bad ends of planks, refuse wood, &c. These saws may be either fixed or portable. I" 3. Band-Saws. A band-sav.- is a long thin flexible steel ribbon uniting to form a belt and bearing teeth on one side. It passes above and below over two large pulleys, the lower pulley driving the saw, while the upper one is driven by it. Thus, like the circular saw, the band-saw cuts continually, and also either vertically or hori- zontally. Band-saws require 25 to 40/^ less motive power than circular saws, the friction caused is also less and very little waste of Avood is caused, saving 20% compared with other saws. They yield smooth and fine scantling. Band-saws were first used in small work, either with a fixed or moveable table, and especially for cutting along curved lines. More recently they have been used for sawing large butts (fig. 308) and are now ousting frame-saws for this and other purposes, especially in America, where the band-saw is con- sidered the saw of the future and can turn out 40,000 feet in a day. Machine-saws for felling trees have been already described (p. 205). ■' Encyc. Brit., 1886, vol. xxi., p. 345. + For a good descriptiou of an American saw-mill, vide Encyc. Brit., vol. xxi. VOL. V. y Y cm SAW-MILLS, &C. Sf.ction IV. — Other "Wood-Wokkixg Machinks. Besides saw-mills, other wood-workinjj^ machines oonsist of veneer-saws, and machines for veneer-cuttinfr, planing, borinp;, mortising, moulding, &c., by means of which all the finer kinds of joiner's work may be effected. It would, however, take the Fio. 308. forester too far, to give full descriptions of these machines, and a short sketch only will be here attempted. 1. Sairs, dr., for cuttinfj Veiuwr and tJilii Boanh. Veneer-saws difl"er from other frame-saws by woiking horizon- tally with their teeth pointed downwards. The wood to be sawn is fixed in a vertical frame, the f('(>d being of an ordinary nature, except that it is from Ix^low upwards. OTHER WOOD-WORKING MACHLNES. 691 Veneers are sawu from planks of valuable wood, which are frequently glued to ordmary coniferous planks and then placed in the frame. The valuable wood can then be entirely sawn into veneer without any waste, the thinest veneers sawn being 7 to a centimeter. For a number of years past veneer has been cut in machines. [A machine for cutting thin boards was invented in 1875 by Leon Plessis,* the action of v.-hich may be understood from fig. 309 : (a) is the cutting blade, 3 or 4 meters long, fastened to a ^'°- ^^^• frame (6) ; (c) regulates the thickness of the cut pieces of wood, which may vary from 2 to 20 mm. The greatest thick- ness which can' be cut is 2 centi- meters, supplying boards for cigar-boxes, packing-cases, &c. The instrument slides up and down in a vertical frame, a piece of wood being cut at each down stroke, and the bvitt which is being cut advances thi'ough a space equal to the thickness of the section at each up-stroke. The cutting part of the machine weighs 6 tons. The butts cut are as long as the cutting-blade, and are previously steamed, the wood being chiefly softwoods, such as poplar or alder. The pieces when cut are pressed dry by hot rollers ; they are then replaced consecutively so as to reproduce the form of the butt from which they were cut, when they are fastened together and kept ready for use. This machine is driven by 20 hoi'se-power and cuts in a minute 20 pieces, 3 meters long and of any thickness up to 2 c. It can cut 30,000 sq. feet of boards in a day.t— Tr.] 2. Planing -Machines. Planing-machines consist of rapidly rotating, narrow, steel rollers, which are cut in various patterns along their length, and * SocUte Franraitie de tranchage de hois. 4, Passage diaries Dallery, Paris. t Boppe, op. cit. Y Y 2 (?M SAW-MILLS, &U. tlius plane the surfiice of wood exposed to them in various shapes. They are constructed in various ways ; some planing tiat surfaces aud others giving different profiles to the wood, some of tlum plane all four sides of a piece of wood during one operation. By their means joiner's wood of all kinds is prepared, door and window mouldings, corner pieces, mouldings for picture-frames, Sec, and wood is now brought at once to the market ready moulded from Sweden. 3. Irref/ular MouhVimi-Mcichines. Machines used for irregular moulding resemble planing machines in principle ; in their case a sharp steel cutter, revolving on a vertical axis, cuts wood which is pushed against it on a steel table into various shapes more or less out of a straight line, or irregular. They are used in making curved parts of furniture, wooden heels for boots, &c. 4. Other Machines. Besides the above most important of the wood-machines, there ai-e machines for boring, by means of revolving augurs ; mortising when the augurs move laterally besides revolving, thus cutting oblong holes in the wood ; preparing chips for wood-pulp, &c. Several machines for splitting fire-wood are largely used in German towns. A consideration of the number of wares which are prepared by these various wood-machines, and above all of the enormous* quantity of planking and scantling turned out by saw-mills, and of the present demands of the market for quality, shape, and good external appearance of lumber, will prove the great importance of these machines in forest utilization. * "One saw-mill at Bay City, Miiliij,'an, which was Ixirned before 1886, pro- duced annually •10,000,000 fectof lumber besides shingles, laths, &c., from the reluse wood. The total yearly (.roductiou of sawmills in the United States is about 26,000,000,000 feet." Eucyc. Brit., 1886, vol. xxi. 693 CHAPTER III. WOOD-CARBONISATION. Section I. — General Account. Whenever wood is burned, in the presence of air, it is converted into gases with a small ash-residuum. If, however, air is excluded and the wood heated to temperatures of 300° — 350° C. (570^ — 660° F.), it becomes converted into secondary products, such as water, acetic acid, wood-alcohol, tar, carbon- dioxide and monoxide, and hydrocarbons ; also into hydi'ogen and a solid residuum, wood-charcoal. This decomposition of an organic body is termed dry distillation, and in the case of Avood, carbonisation. Charcoal consists of carbon and the incombustible inorganic constituents of wood : all charcoal also contains more or less hydrogen and oxygen, which become the more reduced in quantity the higher the temperature at which the wood is car- bonised; consequently the percentage of carbon is then increased. As the secondary products absorb a not inconsiderable quantity of carbon, and when charcoal is made in the forest some wood is actually burned, the loss of combustible matter, according to V. Berg, may be as high as 64%. This loss is, however, compensated by the superiority of charcoal to wood as a com- bustible and by its easier transportability. Charcoal is more effective than firewood, owing to the greater intensity of the heat it gives off when burning, the greater power of radiating heat which it possesses, the facility with which it may be reduced in size before being used and especially owing to its superiority for metallurgic processes (greater uniformity in smelting, &c.). Theoretically, according to Grothe,* charcoal should yield * Die Brenn-rnaterialien u. Feutruiic'saiilageii. 694 WOOD-CAHBONISATIOX. 7,440 heat-units, ami wood 4,182. Its comparative facility of transport is proved by the fiict, that the weight of charcoal is only 25% of that of the same volume of wood. Owing to these advantages, large quantities of timber in remote forests, which were formerly not otherwise utilizable, were converted into charcoal. Forests formerly existed in which the whole annual yield of wood was converted into charcoal and used for smelting iron, or in glass- or salt-works. In Europe at present, charcoal- making has lost much of its former importance, as nearly all heating and smelting processes are effected by means of coal an. meters (1893). France 44,300,000 Italy 10,600,000 Spain 30,000,000 Austria-Hungary and Germany each exported in the same year 20,000,000 cubic meters of charcoal. Charcoal-dust is used in the manufacture of the well-known briquets for fuel. There are three modes of charcoal-making, in pits, retorts and kilns. Charcoal is usually made in kilns, so that only a few remarks will be made about the other methods. The most wasteful way of making charcoal is in pits. A circular hole is dug in fairly stiff soil, with inclined walls and a depth of about a yard, it is then filled Avith dry branches. These are fired and remain burning uncovered until they have ceased to smoke and the wood has been converted into charcoal, which is then pressed down and dry wood placed upon it. The operation is repeated until the pit is full of glowing charcoal. It is then covered with sods and earth, and the charcoal allowed to cool ; in 1 or 2 days the pit may be opened and the charcoal removed. This method which admits air almost freely, is only justifiable where wood has scarcely any value. Charcoal-making in retorts is jjiactised when wood is placed in completely air-tight masonry, or iron, chambers and heated, partly from outside by a furnace, and partly by the combination CHARCOAL-KILNS. 6U5 of carbon and hydrogen with oxygen within the chamber. As the construction of the chambers and the transport of the wood are very costly, and the yield of charcoal is not always greater than in kiln-burning, the method is only exceptionally employed, and then chiefly to obtain secondary products, acetic wood, tar, &c. Where wood-gas is used for illumination, charcoal is a bye- product. Section II. — Charcoal-Kilns. A charcoal-kiln is a heap of firewood of a regular shape, and with a covering, as eifective as possible for keeping the fire inside the kiln and excluding atmospheric air. The shape is generally that of a paraboloid, and only in certain cases that of a horizontal prism. Wood may be piled in kilns either vertically or horizontally, and as these methods of piling the wood, as well as the external form of the kiln, give rise to considerable ditferenccs in the process of charcoal- making, vertical and horizontal kilns will be separately described. In vertical kilns, the wood is piled nearly vertically around stakes in the middle of the kiln, so that the latter assumes the shape of a paraboloid. Horizontal kilns are distinguished from the former kind by their prismatic shape and by the fact that the charcoal is removed Irom them gradually as the wood becomes carbonised. Although the comparison between these methods will follow at the end of the chapter, it may here be mentioned that the vertical arrangement of the wood is that usually followed as experience shows that it gives the best results. A further dis- tinction depends on whether the kilns are made in the forest, and consequently in different places every year as the felling- areas change, near iron-furnaces and other works using charcoal, or in large kilns away from the forests. It is evident that in the last case greater care can be taken and better results will follow than when kilns are burned in the forest, frequently under very unfavourable conditions. In spite of this disadvantage, however, forest charcoal-kilns are more economical, as will be seen hereafter. OOn WOOD-CAKBONISATKJX. 1. Paraholo'ulal Charnial-kUna. There are two mctliods of making charcoal whicli do not diftor much from one another — they are the common method and the Alpine or Italian method. The former is practised all over Central and Western Europe, except parts of Styria, the Tyrol, Lower Austria and Lower Bavaria. (a) The Common Method of Charcoal-making. i. Wood use<} J'or Charcoal-mdkin;/. Charcoal-making is a much more important industry in mountain-districts stocked with coniferous forest than in broad- leaved woods. Whilst in the latter — only the less valuable fire- wood, round billets from early thinnings and stump-Avood are carbonised — in coniferous forests, frequently the best class of fire- wood and even timber may be used for this purpose, according to the demands of neighbouring works for charcoal. Any species of wood may be carbonised, but the method employed varies with its density and greater or less combusti- bility. If two kinds of wood are placed in the same kiln, one of which must remain some time burning in the kiln until the other is carbonised, the former might be burned to ashes before the latter can be removed. It is therefore advisable to pile only one species of wood at a time in a kiln ; if different species must for any reason be burned in the same kiln the precaution should be taken to restrict these to hardwoods or softwoods only, or to split the harder woods and place them in the centre of the kiln, where the heat is greatest. It is, however, always better to separate the woods, as charcoal made from different species is used for different purposes. As regards the comparative soundness and dryness of wood for charcoal-making, it is customary to use only sound air-dried wood, and not dead wood. Rotten wood is useless for the purpose, and must be carefully excluded. Carbonising broken billets is a difficult process, as the pieces continue to glow' for a long time and may set fire to the kiln during the removal of the charcoal. THE COMMON METHOD, 697 All wood for carbonisation should be spread out in dry parts of the felling-area or of landing depots until it is air-dry, in order that there may be the least possible waste of heat in driving oft" moisture from the wood. Only in very hot summers, or when the wood is highly resinous, is it advisable to use some- what green wood so that the process may not be too rapid, or else the workmen may not be able to keep the combustion of the wood well in hand. The shape and dimensions of the billets have considerable influence on the process of carbonisation. Although all parts of a kiln do not burn at the same rate, yet it is advisable to have the billets as uniform in shape as possible. As a rule, therefore, only one assortment of wood is used in a kiln ; only in cases of necessity, in very large kilns or in carbonising stump- wood, should deviations from this rule be allowed. One of the chief points of difterence between the common and Alpine methods of carbonisation is that, in the former, the wood is generally split and used in small pieces, large pieces of sound wood being used in the latter. The length of the billets may be either that usual for fire- wood, or a special length may be given to charcoal-billets (rarely exceeding 6 feet). The shorter the pieces the easier it is to give the kiln its requisite shape, and the less the cost of its construc- tion. Excepting small round billets under 2| inches (7 cm.) thick, the wood should all be split and stump-wood should, as far as possible, be split into small pieces. This is especially necessary for broad-leaved woods, which burn slowly. In order that the wood may be packed closely, all snags and unevennesses should be trimmed off" and fairly smooth, straight pieces set aside on the felling-area for charcoal-making. Crooked and bent branch- wood is only used in short pieces. In piling the kiln, besides the round and split billets, short little pieces of wood are used to fill interstices between the billets. ii. Shape and Size of Kilns. The usual shape of a kiln is that of a paraboloid, the volume of which is ,, X ,: , where {d) is the diameter and {h) the COS WUOIJ-CAKBONISATIOX. height of the kiln ; or, sis it is easier to measure the girth than the diameter of completed kilns, '^y ^ 4 ^ 2 ~ 8" ~ 25'12 nearly. As, however, the shape of a kiln is usually not quite a paral)oloid, but somewhat steeper and more pointed, 4 — 6 % may be deducted. Some useful tables* have been prepared for the cubic contents of kilns. It is easy to calculate the volume of a kiln whenever wood already stacked is used. Kilns vary greatly in size in ditterent districts ; sometimes, as in the Spessart, Thuringia, &c. they contain only 400 — 700 Ptaeked cubic feet (12 — 20 st. cub. meters), whilst in the Harz they may be five times as large, and ten times as large in the Alps. Such large kilns, however, resemble those formed on the Alpine plan, in the common method a kiln of 2,000 — 3,500 St. cub. feet may be considered large and one of 400 — 1,000 st. cub. ft., small. The size of a kiln is not without influence on the way it is fired, on the quality and quantity of charcoal and the cost of carbonisation. Small kilns require comparatively more fuel for kindling and more space than l^rge kilns and also involve more work and supervision ; they are however more easily managed in the forest, the transport of the Avood to them is less costly, they may be burned with less fear of firing and usually yield harder charcoal than large kilns. It is difficult to say whether large or small kilns yield com- paratively a greater or less percentage of charcoal for the amount of wood employed. Each district considers its own form of kiln the best ; in the Harz and Alps large kilns are preferred in this respect, and small kilns on the Khine and in Franconia. The size of the kiln therefore is probably not an important factor in the question of comparative yield, which is chiefly decided by the skill of the burners. The size of the kilns in fact depends on whether every year large quantities of wood are carbonised or there is only a small local demand for charcoal, also on experience as to the comparative cost of large or small kilns. • Bohmt-rle, Tabclkn ziir IJercclmung dcr Kiibiciiilialte sU-liciider Ko1i1iii(.m1(,t. Wien, 1873, 15raumulkT. THE COMMON METHOD. 699 iii. Site for a Kiln. The site for a kiln should be level, sheltered from winds, with water at hand, and either on the felling-area or close to it. Where several hundred stacks of firewood are to be carbonised there should be room for several kilns close together to save the cost of transport. The nature of the ground below the kiln has considerable influence on its rate of burning ; if the soil is loose and porous it admits air to the interior of the kiln, which will burn rapidly ; if heavy, the kiln will burn slowly. A sandy loam is most suitable, as it allows a moderate inlet of air, being at the same time porous enough to absorb the moisture which descends from a burning kiln. The soil should be of uniform nature under a kiln, in order that the inlet of air and the rate of carbonisation may also be uniform throughout. A jiew site for a kiln is prepared as follows — the ground is freed from all sticks, roots and stones ; the grass-sods are then dug up and the soil prepared as smoothly as for a garden- bed. The soil must be carefully freed from all stones likely to heat any part of the kiln excessively. The site is then care- fully levelled, a stake driven in at its centre and a circular line traced as the boundary of the kiln. The centre is then raised 8 — 12 inches (20 — 30 cm.) ; the higher, the stififer the soil and the harder the wood, the site being made to slope off from the centre in all directions towards the external circular line. This arrangement is intended to increase the inward draught of air and allow the liquids from the burning kiln to drain away, also that the piled billets may stand on an edge and not on their section. The site is then firmly trampled down and remains lying unused for some time, generally during winter, in order to settle and allow for any improvement which may be required. Before piling the kiln a heap of dry firewood should be burned on the site to dry it. However carefully a new site may have been prepared, it is always inferior to one repeatedly used for kilns. The loss of Avood in using a new site may amount to 10 — 17 or even 25 % (according to v. Berg). The charcoal-burners therefore always prefer old sites for kilns. In preparing an old site the same 7<;o WOOD-CARBONISATIOX. procedure is adopted as for a new site, and old refuse charcoal- dust is thoroughly mixed with the soil. Although as far as possible suitable sites are chosen for kilns, yet in mountainous forests it is often necessary to make one on a slope, in a narrow gorge or other unfavourable place. An excavation is then made in the hill-side, and an embankment formed downhill so as to secure a horizontal site. It is then better to support the lower side of the site by wattle-work, or logs may be piled on one another and covered with earth to form the lower side of the site. Kilns made on sites like these always have a draught in one particular direction, which the burners must try to counteract by various devices whilst the kiln is burning. There must be round the kiln a cleared space sufficiently large for the burners to work in and aflurding room for the charcoal-burners to stack the wood, for a hut and so on. iv. Krecti(»i of tJtc Kiln. At the centre of the kiln is a flue, which is constructed of three or four stakes driven into the ground about one foot ¥u: 310. ^■•'=^':_ HpHii. I iicy ;iri' i)()nii(l round with withes, torniing a iioilow shaft, which is tilled with very dry, combustible firewood. The way ill which the latter is inserted depends on whether the kiln is to be kindled from above or below. In the latter case a dry board is placed under the flue to keep back the soil- moisture ; highly combustible fuel, such as pieces of resinous wood, shavings, birch-bark. Sec. arc then placed upon the board, THE COMMOX METHOD. 701 the upper part of the flue being somewhat loosely filled with broken branches, half-burned bits of wood, shavings, &c. When the kiln is kindled from above, the flue is filled in the reverse manner. The flue once filled, finely-split pieces of dry wood and partly- carbonised billets are placed round it, the spaces between them being filled with w^ood-shavings, and then the regular kiln is constructed. This is done by piling two tiers of billets, the burner placing dry pieces of wood as closely as possible round the shaft, with their split sides inwards, followed by larger pieces, so that at a distance of about half the radius of the kiln the thickest pieces, which burn most slowl}', are placed, and smaller billets outside these, as shown in fig. 310. After some progress has been made in the lower tier of billets, the upper tier is commenced and the tw^o tiers continued together till the kiln has attained its full circumference. If the kiln is to be kindled from below, a kindling-passage is left communicating with the flue ; this is effected by placino- a thick log on the ground from the opening in the flue to the edge of the kiln, which is gradually drawn away during the piling of the lower tier, leaving a hollow^ passage. The billets placed above this log should be somewhat shorter than the rest, so as to secure a level surface to the lower tier. This passaf^e should always be exposed to windward, but is not required if the kiln is kindled from above. When the two tiers of billets are piled the top of the kiln is filled in, as shown in fig. 310. For this the wood, which should be composed of small dry pieces, is laid very obliqudy or hori- 702 W(JOI)-CAKP>()iNlSATIOX. zoutally. Wliou the kiln is kindled from below, its whole top, includin*j the tlue, is thus covered ; hut when the kindling is effected from above, the Hue runs throu^^i the top of the kiln. Although the burners endeavour in piling the billets to place them as vertically as possible, as they are piled with their thick ends downwards they become gradually inclined outwards, so that eventually the outside of the kiln acquires a slope of 60° or 70°. This slope is necessary to support the covering of the kiln, being greater or less according to the state of the weather ; during summer, in dry weather, it cannot be so great as in damp weather ; whenever the covering does not dry very rapidly, a steeper slope is permissihle. The charging of the kiln is then completed by carefully stop- ping all oi)euings and crevices with small split pieces of wood, in order to prevent too great a draught and save the covering from collapsing. V. Cocerintj tJic Kiln. The next step is to apply the covering, which should be as air-tight and fire-proof as possible. Two coverings are applied, termed the inner and outer coverings ; in order that they may not collapse thoy are supported by pieces of wood, termed the upper and lower supports. Every kiln requires at least the latter, which are formed of stout, short, forked pieces of wood driven into the ground all round the edge of the kiln ; they may be replaced by a row of stones as big as one's head, on which split billets are placed contiguously in a circle a few inches from the ground for the covering to rest on and to admit air to the kiln. In some districts iron pieces are used shaped like circular segments with a support at one end of each piece ; these are placed all round the kiln and are very durable. The upper supports form a similar circle higher up the kiln, resting on vertical billets or forked pieces of wood ; they are placed in position after the kiln is covered. In some districts a third circle of supports is added, but this is not usual. The material used for the inner covering of the kiln consists of sods, leaves, moss, spruce or silver-lir branches, ferns, rushes, THE COMMON METHOD. 703 broom, heather, &c. Thin sods placed like tiles overlapping one another form the densest covering, and leaves or silver-fir branches also aiford a dense covering. The covering is first applied to the top of the kiln, and should be thick enough to prevent the earth of the outer covering from penetrating through it. The outer covering consists of a wet mixture of loamy forest soil and charcoal-dust, the remains of former kilns, for which fresh humus maj^ be substituted. These substances should be thoroughly mixed with a hoe, freed from all stones and water added to form a stiff" paste, which must have sufficient consistency to serve as a dense coating to the kiln without becoming quite crusted by the heat, remaining soft enough during the burning to yield without cracking to the gradual sinking of the kiln, and to allow the steam to escape. This paste is first applied at the foot of the kiln, the upper row of supports are then placed over it and the paste continued up to the top of the kiln, being applied more thickly there than below. Sometimes a ring is left uncovered just below the dome of the kiln, this is covered with paste when there is no longer any danger of bursting. "When the kiln is kindled from below, its lower portion is at first frequently left free from the outer covering, which is applied gradually as the burning proceeds ; usually, however, the kiln is covered with paste before being fired. After the kiln is covered, a wind-break is placed around it at a sufficient distance to allow room for the men to manage the kiln ; it is usually made of coniferous branches at least as high as the kiln and fastened to stakes driven into the ground ; this may be dispensed with in thoroughly sheltered places. vi. Kindlinrj and Burning the Kiln. If the kiln is kindled from below, one of the burners applies a torch made of resinous wood-splinters through the kindling- passage to the kindling material at the bottom of the flue, which is thus fired. When kindled from above a little fire is lighted at the top of the flue. The kiln is always fired on a still morning before daybreak, sometimes whilst its base is open 704 WOOD-CAKBONISATION. iiiuler the lower supports. If the fii-e has caught properly, the tlue and its contents are first thoroughly hurned and then the immediately adjoining wood, the fire rising to the top of the kiln. As soon as the dome becomes very hot, steam mingled with thick flocky smoke issues from it. At this period there is always more or less danger of bursting owing to the formation inside the kiln of an explosive mixture of air and combustible gases, or a sudden development of steam. "Were such a mis- fortune to happen, the covering would be blown oft' and the arrangement of the wood disturbed. Too loose a soil under the kihi or too rapid burning may thus impeiil matters, the risk of bursting being greater with dry than with slightly green wood. After a few hours, the smoke acquires a pungent odour, a sign that the wood is being decomposed and that carbonisation is in progress. Charcoal is already formed in the dome of the kiln and the latter sinks down, carrying with it the covering which should adhere more or less firmly to it. If the carbon- isation proceeds properly, a flame should issue from the top of the chimney in the form of a symmetrical cone, widening out more and more till flames protrude from the base of the kiln. vii. Mode of Condnctintj the J)i(rni)i;i. The normal process of carbonisation just described cannot always be secured uninterruptedly. The draught is sometimes greater in one particular direction and the kiln itself is seldom uniformly built or covered, it may therefore settle down unsymmetrically or burn too quickly or too slowly. Charcoal- burners should know how to secure the kiln against these mishaps, and keep it burning in as normal a manner as possible. This is elfected by the following procedure : — the fire should be gradually led from the top of the kiln to its base, so that the kiln may settle down symmetrically and without burning the charcoal. The space left open at the base of the kiln, which is subsequently closed, may be re-opened if more draught is re- quired and holes made in the upper part of the covering through which flames protrude in order to regulate the burning. On the second or third day after kindling, the first holes are made through both coverings down to the wood on the leeward side of TUE COAJMOX METHOD. 705 the kiln. These are usually in two rows, somewhat below the flame at the top of the kiln. At first, the smoke issuing from these holes contains steam, but the nearer the combustion approaches the holes, the clearer, more pungent and pyroligneous it becomes ; when it finally turns blue, it denotes that the charcoal is burning. Before the smoke turns blue, therefore, the upper holes must be closed with paste and a flat shovel, and a fresh row opened below the lower row. If burning proceeds too rapidly on anv side of the kiln, all vent-holes must be stopped, the covering thickened and water applied if necessary. By means of these simple arrangements, w-hich require the burners' close attention, the wood in the kiln is gradually carbonised. When the carbonisation is nearly over, the fire is at the base of the kiln, ; holes are then opened there through which at length flames protrude showing that the burning is completed. The burners must now be on the watch to extinguish the fire at the right moment, and prevent any cracking or bursting of the covering by applying fresh paste or watering the kiln. During the kindling process, the shaft of the flue, especially in its upper part, burns completely and leaves a hollow space in the kiln. HoUoavs may also form in other parts of the kiln owing to a defective site, to bad piling, kindling or control of the burning, or to the wood being too damp. If these hollows were not filled, they would cause a draught and attract the fire, the normal course of the burning would be hindered and the yield of charcoal reduced. Owing to the continual increase in size of these hollows, the covering might at length fall in and the kiln burst into flames. All hollows must there- fore be promptly filled with short pieces of wood or large pieces of charcoal. The following method of filling hollows is adopted : — when- ever the burners have noticed that owing to a marked collapse of the covering a hollow has been formed, and have placed the wood or charcoal required to fill it alongside the kiln, they should test the extent of the hollow by tapping the covering with a mallet. They then remove the covering over the hollow, press down the contents with a piece of wood and till the hollow rapidly covering it again with branches and paste, and beat VOL. V. z z 706 WOOD-CAIIBONISATION. the covering into a firm condition. All vent-holes should be stopped at least one hour before filling a hollow, for a whole day afterwards the burning should be conducted without any holes in the kiln. The hollow made by the combustion of the chimney is tilled on the first evening of the burning and must often be filled again on the second, third, fourth and even on the fifth evening. This top-filling is often required several times on the same day ; in large kilns, as many as 15 to 20 top- and side-fillings may be required during the burning and several more whilst the kiln is cooling. It is evident that filling hollows in a kiln must waste charcoal, as by opening the covering a draught is caused and the fire unduly stimulated ; charcoal is thus burned owing to the flames breaking out, and in pressing down the contents of the kiln some of the charcoal is broken into small pieces. Filling cannot, however, be dispensed with ; every endeavour should therefore be made to prevent the sides of the kiln from collapsing, and to reduce the number of indispensable fillings to a minimum. viii. W'dtcliiii'i and CooVukj doicn the Kiln. Every evening during the burning of the kiln, the burners should adopt proper measures to secure regularity in the burning, l^laces where the charcoal is already burnt should be beaten down with the mallet, any fillings which may be required should be effected, cracks which may have opened in the covering should be carefully closed and all holes closed if the weather is stormy. Frequent inspection of the kiln at night is necessary. Towards the completion of the carbonisation, when the kiln has sunk considerably and the upper covering is very dry and cracked, it should be well beaten down and covered with damp earth, or watered, so as to exclude the air more and more. As soon as the lower covering burns and flames appear at the foot of the kiln, it is clear that the carbonisation is completed ; all vent-holes must then be stopped and the whole surface of the kiln covered with damp earth. The kiln is then left alone for about 24 hours. Then in order to hasten the cooling, the burners remove the covering in strips and apply fresh earth to the glowing charcoal so as to fill up all crevices. This rapidly extinguishes the fire, an important point when the weather is ALPINE METHOD. 707 dry. About 24 hours, as a rule, after this has beeu done, the charcoal may be removed. ix. Removal of the Charcoal. In order that the charcoal may be of good quality, it should not remain longer than necessary in the glow of the kiln. At the same time it must be gradually removed, so as not to set the kiln in a blaze. A commencement is made in the evening and the work continued all night, when any fire may be more readily seen : each night only a certain quantity of the charcoal is removed, according to the size of the kiln. The method adopted is as follows : — the burner with a long- toothed iron fork opens the kiln on the leeward side, and removes as much charcoal as he can without setting the kiln in flames. The charcoal is laid on one side and usually watered, whilst the hole is filled with earth. The kiln is then opened at another place and so on all round, until there is nothing left but its centre consisting of small pieces of charcoal, earth and ashes, Avhich are eventually raked out and allowed to cool. Once the charcoal has been removed, it is sorted according to size, the smaller pieces being sifted from the ashes. What is left is mixed with the ashes, &c. and serves for covering the next kiln. The partly carbonised pieces may be kept for filling or kindling other kilns, or carbonised in small kilns specially made for the purpose. (b) Alpine* Method of Charcoal-making. The method of charcoal-making employed in many parts of the German Alps differs in some respects from the ordinary method. The Alpine kilns are usually in fixed places near river-booms, in timber-depots or at the base of an extensive mountainous tract. The wood thus carbonised is almost exclusively coniferous (chiefly sprucewood and less frequently that of larch and silver-fir) iind is generally employed in round pieces 2 meters (6^- feet) long. The site for the kiln is prepared as in the ordinary method, except that it is quite flat, a wooden base being supplied to the kiln. This base is formed, as shown in fig. 312, by placing split * [Also termed the Italian method, but Gayer states that Italians usually follow the ordinary method with kindling from above. — Ti:.] Z Z 2 "OS WOOD-CA HBONISATIOX. liillets radially from the flue outwarils, ou them other pieces are jtlaced sufficiently close together, so that all the wood to be carbonised can rest on them, but sufficient intervals are left for a draught of air. The Hue is formed by three stout poles often kept in position by iron rings and is filled, as before, with kindling material. Piling the wood, on account of the size and weight of the pieces. Fig. 312. {a\ represents a space left wl)en kindling is applied from below, as in S. Bavaria. is a heavy piece of work. It is formed of tMo tiers, and "a dome with two thin layers of wood, and is from 5 to 0 meters- (16 — 19 feet) high. The wood should be piled as closely as possible, all the larger interstices being filled with split wood. The kilns are usually larger than ordinary ones, but excessively large ones containing 1,500 to 2,000 cubic meters (50,000 to 70,000 cubic feet) are no longer made. As the heavy pieces of wood can be piled only with difficulty on the base of the kiln, a kind of wooden tramway or sledge- road is constructed, on which the pieces can be brought to the kiln in trucks or sledges. As a rule the kindling is eftected from above, and for this purpose, a central cavity is arranged at the top of the kiln in wliich the flue terminates. When the large pieces of wood are all piled, the interstices arc filled in carefully witli small pieces of split wood. Alpine kilns are usually covered more thickly than common ALPINE METHOD. 701J Fig. 313. kilns. Ordinary material, if found close at hand, is used for the first covering ; usually, however, only a single covering of mixed olay and humus is used, which must be very carefully spread over the wood. Special kinds of props are also used to support the sides of the kiln, which are at gradients of 60° or 70°. These props are either formed as in fig. 313 of planks (in) placed edgeways round the kiln, having niches cut into them at half their length, on which horizontal planks (») rest to support the covering (dd). Or stout T-shaped props are used as in fig. 314. The covering is first plastered on to the base of the kiln, then the lower props are applied and the plastering continued till the upper props are required ; the Fir. 311 dome is then completely plastered, at first only thinly so as to allow the gases to escape. The kiln is kindled by Hghtly filling the still open flue with short thin pieces of split wood, on which comes a layer of glowing charcoal. As soon as the kindling material has thoroughly caught fire, fresh charcoal is from time to time heaped on. The split wood which for a time supports the charcoal burns completely, and the glowing charcoal falls to the bottom of the flue. The flue is then filled with charcoal, which is pressed down. 710 WUOD-CARBONISATION. and tbe kindling cavity also filled with a heap of charcoal. After a few hours the Hue is burned through from below, and must be repeatedly filled, as long as the glowing charcoal continues to sink. "When all danger of explosion is over and the wood in the dome is thoroughly kindled, it is covered with paste, and the burning henceforth conducted as in ordinary kilns. In Alpine kihis the filling which has just been described must be most carefully conducted ; as a rule, only charcoal is used for the purpose. This method then differs from the ordinary method of burning kilns, in the following points : — (i) The large dimensions of the pieces of wood to be carbonised and the fact that they are not usually split. (ii) The wooden base of the kiln to cause a draught of air, which is required owing to the large pieces of usually green wood which are being carbonised. (iii) The large dimensions of the kilns. (iv) Only one covering being ajiplied to the kilns, which is usually thick and requires special supports. (v) By the special mode of kindling employed, which is usually, if not always, from above. 2. Kilits uitJt WooiJ piU'd IlorizoiitaUii. In Sweden and Austria, wood to be carbonised is piled horizontally, but the practice is becoming less frequent than was formerly the case. The following are the chief points of difference between this and the ordinary method. (i) The wood carbonised is chieily coniferous; the pieces arc round logs, barked if possible, and of various dimensions up to 20 feet or (in Sweden) 26 feet in length. The pieces of wood must be quite straight, or they could not be densely piled. As such large pieces may be used for timber, the method is employed only in localities where the timber of the species in question is unsaleable. (ii) The site chosen for the kihi is usually on slightly inclined ground, but otherwise of a similar nature to that described for ordinary kilns. It is also similarly prepared, but often is merely levelled, covered with earth and linulv beaten down. KILNS WITH WOOD PILED HOEIZONTALLY. IL The size of the kiln shoukl also be considered, its breadth being the length of the pieces of wood and its length varying, (usually 13 to 20 feet, but often 25 to 40 and even, according to V. Berg, 60 feet). The site should be a long rectangle, the longer side of which has a slight gradient. Fig. 315. (iii) In piling the wood, the first point is to make the base of the kiln ; it consists of three long straight poles which are placed on the ground at equal intervals, lengthways as regards the kilns (fig. 315, m m). At the lower end of the kiln stout stakes are driven into the ground (figs. 315, 316, p j9 jj), and the piling commences against these stakes. As in the figures, the thickest wood is placed in the middle of the kiln and near its upper extremity, while the smaller pieces are placed above, below and at its foot. The wood should, in this case also, be piled as closely as na WOOD-CARBONISATIOX. possible, iiiul iutcrstices filled iu with split wood. The flue is formed, as may be seen from fig. 315, a, by placing several logs around a cylindrical hole running from side to side of the kiln, or as in fig. 316, a, a kindling chamber is left open, as is customary in Steiermark. (iv) The kiln is now covered ; the inner covering is usually spruce or silver-fir twigs, the lower ends of which are stuck into the wood so that they overlap one anoth(;r like tiles. The outer covering consists of a similar plaster to that used in ordinary kilns, or the same mixed with damp earth. In order that this plaster may adhere to the vertical walls of the kiln the latter are supported by poles placed (5 to 8 inches apart along the two sides of the kiln, and its front (fig. 317), or in Steiermark the whole kiln, is surrounded by planks (fig. 316) resting on horizontal logs (ii n ii, tig. 317) to secure a draught of air. The plaster is applied between these planks and the ends of the logs, and is rammed down. The back of the kiln is in Sweden supported by props (r c c, fig. 315). The roof is at first only thin, and is thickened after the kiln has been fired when there is no longer any danger of its bursting. (v) In order to fire the kiln the kindling flue or chamber is filled with readily combustible material, the filling being con- tinued with an open Hue until the kiln is thoroughly fired." The whole front portion of the kiln must burn if the fire is to con- tinue uniformly throughout. Once this has been secured the kindling flue or (•hiinil)er may be closed, and the combustion PROPERTIES OF GOOD CHARCOAL. 71M continued by opening successive vent-holes in the roof (in Steier- mark also in the sides of the kiln), as in the ordinary method. Carbonisation proceeds obliquely backwards, the fire being always more advanced towards the roof than at the base of the kiln. Thus the base of the back of the kiln is the last to be carbonised, and the process is completed as soon as flames emerge from vent- holes there. The charcoal is cooled by removing part of the roof iind putting earth on it, the walls not being opened. (vi) The charcoal is first removed from the front of the kiln. A portion is removed daily, and the kiln closed again. In Steiermark a commencement is made by removing the charcoal whilst the back of the kiln is still burning. As the front part of the kiln burns longest, and the charcoal there hecomes light, attempts are made to prevent this by its early removal. It should, however, be remembered that this frequent opening increases the draught, and must cause a considerable loss of charcoal. Section III. — Properties of Good Chahcoal, xVND Yield OF the Different kinds of Kilns. 1. Properties of Good Chareoal. Charcoal is a dry, more or less lustrous, porous and fairly hard substance, of low specific gravity, without taste or odour. Difi'erent kinds of charcoal, however, show some variations in these respects which modify their relative value. (a) Specific gravity. — The specific gravity of charcoal is directly proportional to that of the wood from wdiich it is made. Thus, heavy, broad-leaved woods yield heavier charcoal than coniferous softwoods. The amount of moisture in the wood also affects the specific gravity of the resulting charcoal, dry wood yielding charcoal of a higher specific gravity than green wood. The rate of burning is also influential, quickly burned kilns yielding lighter charcoal than kilns slowly burned. This results from the fact that with a quick fire more charcoal is expended in producing tar, kc, than where the chief process is merely carbonisation. Considering the wide range of specific gravity for wood of one species of tree, and the variable amount 714 WOOD-CAllBONLSATIUN. of moisture it may contain as well as difierent rates of burnings, it is evident that there must be a considerable range in the specific gravity of charcoal. Klein states that the specific gravity of charcoal ranges from 0*14 to 0*20, also that green wood loses 70% to 75% of its weight during carbonisation, so that the weight of charcoal is from 25% to 80% of that of the wood from which it has been made. (b) Appearance of charcoal. — Good charcoal should bo black, with a steel-blue, metallic lustre and a conchoidal fracture. "When too long burned charcoal is dark black, without lustre ; if insufficiently carbonised, reddish (foxy), although v. Berg states that occasionally, during dry weather and under other circumstances, perfectly good charcoal may have a reddish colour. "When dark black and dull, charcoal is soft, friable and has been overburned. Good charcoal when struck gives a metallic sound, which is clearly apparent on shaking a basket full of it, whilst overburned eliareoal gives only a dull sound. (c) Absorption of moisture.— Charcoal is extremely absorptive of all liquid and gaseous bodies, many economic uses being founded on this property. From a forester's point of view this property of charcoal is highly important if it be sold by weight, as the absorption of water makes it heavier than before. It does not appear to increase in weight by more than 8 — 12% by absorbing moisture from the air, but by direct contact with water its weight may in a few minutes increase 25 — 30%, according to its greater or less porosity, and this may increase to 60 — 1'^0% after 8 hours immersion in water. A large proportion of absorbed water subsequently passes off as vapour. (d) Heating-power. — A good charcoal should burn without flame or smoke, and give out a more or less prolonged, intense heat. When it has been under-carbonised, charcoal burns with a flame, whilst overburned charcoal is reduced to ashes more quickly than good, heavy charcoal rich in carbon. It is clear that a cubic foot of wood gives out more heat than the charcoal which may be made of it, as much carbon and all its hydrogen are abstracted in the by-products during carbonisa- tion. This loss is about 40%, or the heating-power of the wood is to that of the charcoal made from it, as 100 : 55 or GO. But the volume of the charcoal is hurdlv half that of the wood which YIELD OF CHARCOAL. 715 produced it, so that charcoal, volume for volume, is more heating than wood. Besides, the heat given out by charcoal is more lasting than by wood, and it radiates heat more intensely. These facts explain sufficiently the higher economic value of charcoal than wood as a heating agent. (e) Summary. — A good charcoal may therefore be recognised by the following properties : it must be thoroughly burned without being brittle and show the woody texture distinctly; its fracture should be couchoidal and lustrous, quite black and yet it may be touched without blackening the hands ; it should have few cracks, and give out a clear sound when struck. As regards the inherent qualities of good charcoal, it should have a high specilic gravity, burn slowly without flame or smoke and radiate a strong, enduring heat. Bertier and Winkler state that the heating-power of charcoal made from different woods does not vary much if equal weights are used. As regards equal volumes, heavy charcoal gives out more heat than light charcoal. The amount of ash contained in charcoal is usually small, and according to Yiolette, varies between 0'6% and 3%, according as the wood is taken from young or old parts of a tree, and is in fact the same as that of wood from Avhich the charcoal has been made. 2. Yield of Chain xd. In discussing the quantity of charcoal which a certain volume of wood may be made to yield, the following points should be considered : — the kind of wood, situation of kiln, state of weather, process and duration of burning, and different methods of car- bonisation. (a) Kind of wood. — All wood on being converted into charcoal naturally shrinks. Dry wood shrinks less than green wood, and consequently gives a larger return. Large pieces of wood also yield in volume more charcoal than small pieces, as more of the former can be piled in a kiln. Klein gives 21"6% charcoal for coniferous wood, and '25'4% for broad-leaved wood as the shrinkage in girth after carbonisation. V. Berg found a shrinkage of only 12% in length for billets 2 meters long. 7 1 n woon-cARP.oxi.^ATrox. (b) Situation of kiln. — The nature of the site of a kihi has an important ctlV'ct on the yiekl of charcoal, a new site yielding less than one repeatedly used. (c) State of the weather. — The weather has important efiects on the yield of a kihi. Uniformly still weather, which fre- quently occurs in late summer and autumn, is best ; changeable weather, accompanied by storms, is most unfavourable. Pro- longed dry weather is as unfavourable as continual rain : in the former case the covering is liable to crack, in the latter it may burst or the process of carbonisation be too prolonged. Although in some Alpine districts charcoal-making continues throughout the year, even during winter ; as a rule it is carried on only during summer and autumn, when experience shows that the greatest yield is obtained. (d) Process of burning. — It is evident that the yield must be reduced when the cooling down of a kiln is more than usually prolonged, and the charcoal exposed to a greater total amount of heat than is really necessary. The burner, except under certain unforeseen circumstances, can control the cooling process if he piles the wood correctl}', distributes the pieces in different parts of the kiln according to their size and specific gravity, and con- ducts the burning carefully. Slow, careful progress, especially during the earlier part of the burning, not only yields heavier charcoal but also a larger volume of it. (e) Duration of the burning. — The length of time during which a kiln should burn is very variable and depends on its size, the tlimensions and degree of dryness of the billets, the quicker or slower action of the fire (depending on the site, arrangement of the wood, weather, &c.) and many other circumstances. .Small kilns with small billets will evidently burn more quickly than large kilns with large billets : in windy or moderately damp weather the l-urning can be effected more quickly than in still, dry weather. Kilns of sprucewood containing Aveeks. There is a considerable loss of charcoal when the carbonising process is driven too quickly. YIELD OF CHARCOAL. 717 (f) Different kinds of kilns. — The diflerent methods of carbon- isation yield different -volumes of charcoal, but it is difficult, considering the extremely variable conditions in any case, to decide which method is most productive. The yield in the common method varies according as the Idndling is applied from above or below. Although in both cases the fire first develops at the top of the kiln, in kindling from above the fire never consumes the chimney so thoroughly and develops so well in the centre of the Idln as when it is kindled from below. Filling is therefore more difficult to effect in the former case ; hollows then develop which have to be repeatedly filled, a circumstance which must have bad effects on the yield. By kindling from below, the fire in the centre of the kiln, persisting from the first, gradually heats all the wood in the kiln : when, however, the kiln is kindled from above and the fire gradually descends, it constantly meets with cold wood ; this delays the process and reduces the yield. In many districts, therefore, and especially for hardwoods, kindling from below is preferred. The Alpine method is usually applied only to coniferous wood ; the kilns are then exceptionally large, while they are burned for years on the same site. These circumstances have so much influence on the yield that it is difficult to say what are the direct effects of the method. The charcoal from Alpine kilns is not inferior in quality to that produced by the common method ; it may be lighter, owing to the repeated fillings of the chimney, but owing to the large size of the billets it yields larger pieces of charcoal than the latter. There is, however, a falling-o£f in quantity in proportion to the volume of wood burned as compared with the common method, owing to the fact that billets are green, and un split. A good deal of char- coal is also expended in filling the chimney, and the large billets remain exposed to the heat for a longer time than the smaller split billets in a common kiln ; this necessarily reduces the yield. Horizontal kilns are employed only when timber can be spared for charcoal-making, they are therefore comparatively rare in Europe. The construction of these kilns and the process of burning are easier than in vertical kilns, there is no need for 718 WOOD-CARBONISATION. fillinf,', while owing to the thick covering the weather has hardly any influence on the process ; but in spite of these advantages V. Berg has shown that the yield is less than in vertical kilns. As the firing proceeds lengthwise in order that the ends of the logs may burn, one end of the kiln is exposed to the fire too long, and when the charcoal is removed at that end, air is admitted and much charcoal burned. This method therefore yields not only lighter charcoal but a smaller volume in pro- portion to the amount of wood than the others. It therefore appears that the common method, with kindling from below, gives the best results. The comparative outturn of charcoal in quantity and quality, however, greatly depends on the skill and foresight of the burners, which is really the most important of all factors, as experience shows in the case of permanent sites of kilns where the burners are frequently changed. (g) General results. — Charcoal may be measured by weight or volume, the hitter being more usual and large baskets or rectangular measures being used for the purpose. Coniferous wood yields more charcoal than broad-leaved species ; soft, broad-leaved woods less than coniferous wood but more than hardwood. Branchw^ood and wood in the round yield less than split wood. The yield from horizontal kilns is often given as greater than that of common kilns, but these results are of doubtful accuracy. The average yield from forest kilns may be considered good for broad-leaved wood with 48 — 50% by volume, and for conifer- ous wood with 55 — C0%. V. Berg* gives the following percentages : — Species of wocxl. Beech or oak (split billets) Birch Scotch pine ,, ,, Spnice ,, ,, „ (stunip-wood) ,, (round billets ,, (small branchwood) Volume. Weight. 20-22 20— -il 22—25 23-26 21—25 20—24 19-22 52-56 65-68 60—64 65—75 50—65 42—50 38-48 Auleituu"' ziim Verkolileu dcs Ilolzes. YIELD OF CHARCOAL. 719 Bescboren * gives the following percentages as resulting from his experiments. Species. Volnme. Weight. j Oak Beech ... Hornbeam Birch . ' 71-8 73 57-2 68-5 63-6 21-3 22-7 j 20-6 20-9 25 1 ! 1 Grothe, Brcnnniaterialien. 720 CHAPTER IV. DIGGING AND PREPARATION OF PEAT.''' Section I. — General Account. In the cooler parts of the temjierate zone there are numerous areas, frequently of large extent, characterised by an excessively wet soil and a specialised flora, and generally known as peat- moors or bogs. Most of these moors yield peat, sometimes called turf, as in Ireland and the English fens. Extensive peat-bogs are found in all northern countries, but not in southern Europe. They are most abundant in Ireland, Russia and Germany, occurring in river-valleys, along the banks of lakes, on high plateaux and ridges in mountainous districts (such as the Harz, Thiiringerwald, Erzgebirge, Rhone-valley, Schwarzwald, Alps, &:c.), also on the high Swabian plateau in Bavaria bordering the northern declivity of the Alps, where there are at least 600 square miles of peat-bog ; there are also extensive bogs in the plains of North Germany. This latter district, extending northwards into Denmark and westwards into Holland, is the richest peat-producing tract of land in Europe, for bogs over 1,500 square miles in extent, which occur in East Friesland, do not probably exist elsewhere. Germany is thus provided with a supply of fuel much exceeding that of all the German coal-fields. [Tliere are in Ireland 1861 square miles of peat-bog, chiefly in the counties of Mayo, (ialway and Donegal,! but the area of bog in Great Britain is not given in the agricultural returns, though peat is dug for fuel in the Scotch and Welsh hills and mountains, in the York- shire and Lincolnsliirc Wolds ;uk1 moors, and in the fens of East Anglia. — Tit.] * One of the best works on this .subject is : Hausding, Industricllc Torf- (jewinnuixg, Berlin, 1887, by Seydel. t [The area of tlie bog of Allen in Ireland Is about 370 .square miles. — Tli.] DIGGING AND PREPARATION OF PEAT. 7^1 Peat has been utilized from the earliest times, and owing to the high price of fuel in Germany from 1840 to 1870, its utilization was then considerably increased. The present low price of fuel has somewhat retarded measures which were being taken for improving the yield and preparation of peat, but it is still largely utilized in many countries and the question of converting it into improved fuel still attracts attention. Much has been written at different times about the com- position of peat ; recently, Wiegmann, Sendtner and Braun all agree that it consists chiefly of vegetable substances, the decomposition of which is arrested by excessive moisture : the only questions still unsolved being whether the exclusion of air by water alone suffices to retard the decomposition of the vegetable remains, or whether the antiseptic action of free humic acid is also indispensable for this purpose, finally, whether frost in any way affects the formation of peat.* Since, during the formation of peat, air is excluded by the presence of water in excess, the carbon contained in vegetable debris cannot be converted into carbon-dioxide, but plants in the deeper layers of a peat-bog part with their oxygen and become carbonised. The dark brown peaty mud imbedded between the remains of the plants consists of carbon and humic acid. Permanent and excessive moisture causes the formation of peat, and this, according to Sendtner,* may be due to : — (1) A damp climate, as in high mountainous regions. (2) Impermeability of the soil, when the bed of a peat-bog is formed of clay, loam or marl. (3) The hygroscopic nature of the soil. For only thus can the presence of peat be explained on slopes, such as below the summit of the Brocken, on the upper slopes of the Kuiebis and in several places in the Alps. In a forest, the accumulation of masses of undecomposed humus (heather-soil, alder-humus, &c.) often causes the forma- tion of peat, humus being highly hygroscopic. Forest trees, which have been thrown by storms, snow, &c., and thus by their partial decomposition considerably increase the supply of * Vide : Semltner, Vegc'tatioJisverhdHnissc ron Sudhajjcrn, p. 641 ; Sprengel's notes on pp. 37, 41 of Lesquereux, Untersuchunge/i iibcr die Torfmoorf, ; also Braun, Die Humussdurc luid die/ossilen Brennsloffe, Darmstadt, 1884. VOL. v. 3 A 722 DIGGING AND rREPARATION OF PEAT. humus, liesidos iutcrruptin*^ the natural drainage, frequently cause the formation of a peat-bog. (4) The porosity of the soil. When the sub- soil consists of permeable sand or gravel (as in the case of several Dutch and North Cicrman bogs) the situation being low either on a level with a lake or slightly elevated above it, the soil is maintained constantly wet by the subsoil water. (5) Inundations, when repeated annually and lasting for some time. (G) Finally, peat-bogs once established cause water to accumulate and may gradually extend over adjoining land. [Some European peat-bogs are of great age and contain remains of extinct animals (Irish elk, ifec.) and of arctic flora, dating from the close of the Glacial Period. — Tr.] Section II. — Different kinds of Bogs. Peat-bogs vary considerably in appearance, being composed of different plants, and containing ditierent kinds of peat. Thus, in North Germany, high peat-bogs {llnch-moore), are distin- guished from fens {Gr'unlamhmoorc, or JiriicJicr) ; in South Germany, there are high peat-bogs and morasses {Wi<'se7imoon'), while Lesquereux classifies Swiss bogs as super-aquatic and infra- aquatic, corresponding to high peat-bogs and swamps. ]. llifjli Pcat-hofis. High peat-bogs termed also peat-mosses, peat-moors or wolds are chiefly characterised by the prevalence of peat-moss (Sphagnum), and a dense growth of heath plants {CaUiiiia, Erica, Andromeda and Vaccinium) ; in South Germany, also, the mountain-pine (Pinus montana) appears on these bogs. These i)lants grow gregariously on extensive areas and form most of the peat. Such bogs are characterised by a gravelly or clayey subsoil and by the convex arched shape of their surface. Whilst the South German bogs owe their origin to a more oi- less clayey subsoil, in North Germany the latter is more per- meable and water constantly permeates the bogs from the DIFFERENT KINDS OF BOGS. 72:3 numerous watercourses. The flora of these high peat-hogs is the same in hoth cases. The arching of their surface (from which the term high peat-bog arises) consists in a gradual, upward slope from their margins towards their centre. This upward slope is sometimes inconspicuous, hut often reaches 20 to 23 feet, or even 33 feet, as in the Ems-moor and in East Prussia. High bogs originate at their highest point from which they tend to spread in all directions ; this is due to the hygro- scopic nature of the moss {Sjyhagmnn), so that water constantly flows from the margins of a bog, rendering the surrounding land swampy. In this way even permeable soil may become covered with peat, the bog consequently spreading. Most bogs in mountainous regions are high peat-bogs, fens being rare in such localities. 2. Morasses or ]\[eadoic-hogs. Morasses, as in the Bavarian plateau, have a completely different flora from high bogs. In the first place there are no peat-mosses, heath-plants or mountain-pines ; in their place, species of Hypnum and sour herbage appear which are their chief components, while stunted Scotch pines are here and there disseminated. High bogs are readily distinguished, even at a distance, by the appearance of the heather and red-tinted S])lia[i)ium, but morasses resemble extensive sour meadosvs. In the Bavarian plateau, morasses have a subsoil of boulders and gravel brought down from the mountains and usually covered by a thin layer of amorphous calcareous marl, termed locally .'i lin which forms an impermeable base for the bog. The surface of morasses is horizontal, and they are more frequent in low lands near rivers than in depressions among hills, wheie high bogs prevail ; they are more extensive than the latter in southern Bavaria. 3. Fens. The fens of the North German plain have much the same appearance as the morasses of the Swabian pleateau, as they are also foimed of sour herbage, such as rushes, sedges, cotton- sedge {Eriojyhonim) and moss ; but according to Sprengel, they 3 A 2 724 DIOCING AND PREPAKATIOX OF PEAT. do not yield lu-tuiil peat, but a muddy humus which is dredged from them and rests on an impermeable clay-subsoil, so that they may thus be distinguished from the Swabian morasses. These fens are found often of large extent, chiefly near the watercourses, but are much less prevalent in North Germany than the high moors. [The fens in Kast Anglia when near the low chalk hills of that region, as at ]\Iildcnh;ill, sometimes rest on beds of marl formed of the debris of water-plants (Chara) inciiisted with carbonate of lime from the brooks running into them, peat being also found on the Kimmcridge and Oxford clays. In all these cases, the vegetation resembles that of the fens and morasses of Germany. Professor Seeley states that in East Anglia, at the base of the layers of peat there are embedded forests of Scotch pine and yew separated by marine clays. — Tr.] Although, as a rule, the dift'eront kinds of bog preserve their distinctive character, yet there are many intermediate forms. Thus fens and morasses may contain patches of high peat-bog, and frequently pass completely into the latter form, as in many North German districts. Besides the above-mentioned kinds of bog, there are seaside- bogs and forest-bogs. The former are found on low lands along the seaside, which arc either occasionally inundated by the sea or into which brackish water infiltrates, or they are caused by the damming of the mouths of rivers or small water-courses by the tides. Forest bogs are those in which a great number of trunks of trees in more or less good preservation (bog-oak, &c.) are imbedded. These trees are sometimes erect and sometimes lying horizontal [as at Sunningdale in Berkshire. — Tr.]. Both these forms of hog, however, come under one of the headings already mentioned. The peat found in the different bogs varies greatly in its character, according to the degree of decomposition it has under- gone, its greater or lesser contents of humic acid and carbon, the vegetable debris of which it is composed, and finally the compara- tive quantity of earthy material which is mixed with it. Some peat resembles lignite both in appearance and economic value, whilst other kinds can hardly be distinguished from slightly decomposed vegetable remains. So many bogs are intermediate METHODS OF HARVESTING PEAT. 725 to these extreme forms, that it is cliflficult to characterise even a few of them. They are frequeutl}^ distinguished by means of the plants from which they are formed, such as heather-peat, moss-peat, wood-peat, sedge-peat, &c., but no true standard of quahty can thus be obtained, as each variety may represent peat of every possible quality. The best way to judge of the latter is to consider the degree of decomposition of the vegetable debris, the degree of cohesiveness of the particles of peat and their density. In this way, the following kinds of peat may be distinguished : — (a) Amorphous or Black peat, a dark brown or blackish peat with silky lustre on a clean-cut section, heavy, generally rich in carbon, when dry breaking with a conchoidal fracture. This peat is generally found in the deeper strata of a bog, and the plants of which it is formed are scarcely recognisable. (b) Fibrous or Brown peat, of a loose, fungoidal structure, in which the component plants, grass, moss, heather, &c., are generally easily recognisable, it is usually of a lighter colour than black peat (yellowish to dark brown), less heavy, more or less carbonaceous, when dry does not crumble and usually occurs in the upper strata of a bog. (c) Dredged peat, a more or less tenaceous black peaty mud, forming the lowest layer in morasses, showing no visible vegetable structure ; when dry, it has a peculiar lustre and is heavy ; owing to its muddy character it is generally moulded into various shapes. Between di-edged and black peat (the best kinds) and brown peat, there are numerous intermediate varieties, the quality of which is considerably modified by the amount of earthy admix- ture they contain. This earthy matter consists partly of the ash- constituents of the peat-forming plants, and is partly introduced accidentally by inundations, &c. Section III. — Methods of Harvesting Peat. Before undertaking to work a peat-bog, a full estimate should be prepared of its quality and its probable volume, in order to determine Avhether the outlay of capital expended in removing the peat will be covered by its value and that of the cleared land. 726 DIGGING AND PREI'ARATION OF PEAT. 1. Qiiaiitittf of Peat. The followiii^^ data avc required to estimate the quantity of peat in a bo<,' : the area, depth, amount of shrinkafi^e of the dried peat and the loss of peat during its extraction. (a) The area of a hog should be ascertained by surveying it. (b) The depth may vary considerably at different points of a bog, which is not unfrequently intersected with one or more layers of sand, loam or trunks of trees. In order to become acquainted with the nature of the bog, it should be divided into a rectangular network, the points of intersection of which may be about 27 yards (25 meters) apart, and are marked by numbered stakes. Three methods can then be followed ; either strong poles are driven down at each numbered point to the bottom of the bog, pits 2 — 3 yards broad are dug or a peat-borer is used. Driving poles into bogs may lead to false inferences, if beds of marl or trunks and stumps of trees, &c. are imbedded and prevent the poles from reaching the bottom of the bog. Digging pits is often impracticable owing to the accumulation of water and always involves much labour and expense, but this method affords the best possible insight into the nature of the bog and must be employed to ascertain the quality of the peat. It is best to use the peat-borer, as this generally gives satisfactory results and saves much labour. Since, however, few bogs are level at the surface and their bed is often undulating and irregular, levels should be taken all over the surface of a bog, the levels of the bottom and top of each point of intersection being fixed with reference to a horizontal plane through the highest point in the bog. This levelling will show what is the contour of the bog, a knowledge of which is requisite before its drainage can be undertaken. (c) With the help of the above factors, the contents of the peat-bog may be estimated in cubic feet. In order, however, to estimate how much marketable peat there may be, a deduction must be made for shrinkage. For as soon as a bog has been drained, it settles down and shrinks the more, the more thorough the drainage. The amount of shrinkage must be calculated by experiment. METHODS OF HARVESTING PEAT. 727 Thus pieces of peat of the ordinary dimensions are cut from several trenches and thoroughly dried, their volumes being cal- culated before and after drying and the difference between them being the amount of shrinkage. This is generally from 30 to 50% of the volume of freshly cut peat. (d) Finally the loss of peat during extraction must be estimated : this varies in quantity according to the skill of the workmen, the quantity of stumps or stems of imbedded trees and the cohesiveness of the peat ; the better kinds of peat are much more brittle than inferior fibrous peat. During frosty weather in winter, the walls of the open peat- trenches frequently crumble considerably ; besides this waste, ridges of peat remaining between the trenches cannot frequently be utilized. Thus a loss of peat occurs, often 25 or 507o of its whole volume. If, however, this otherwise wasted material can be moulded into turves, no loss need accrue. 2. Quality, The quality of the peat is ascertained in the above-mentioned manner, both as regards its efficiency as fuel, and the possibility of thoroughly draining the bog. It has already been remarked that the quality of the peat varies in the difierent strata of the bog, the best j^eat being, as a rule, at the base of the bog and the inferior kind at its surface. In order to ascertain the nature of the peat throughout the bog, several experimental trenches are dug : the refuse is set aside and the fibrous peat stacked apart from the black peat, the relative proportion of each kind being calculated ; the muddy peat at the base is then dredged out and each kind analysed. As the value of peat depends on the quantity of combustible matter in it, which is greater the less water or ash the peat con- tains, the analysis is chiefly directed to ascertaining the quantity of water and ashes in the peat. The contents of the peat in bituminous substance and uncombined carbon, which is always a test of its value, may be found by extracting them with ether. The value of a peat-bog also depends on the possibility of draining it. If a bog can be thoroughlv drained within a vcar 728 DIGGING AN1> IMlKPARATIOX OF PEAT. from the commencement of working it, the admission of oxygen from the air will more or less quickly convert the insufficiently decomposed and less valuable peat into rich black peat which is the most valuable kind. Well drained peat also crumbles far less than when the bog is uudrained. It is evident that if a bog is to be properly utilized, it should be worked in accordance with a fixed plan prepared beforehand ; this plan specifies how much peat should be dug yearly, where the digging is to be commenced, in what direc- tion it is to be continued, according to what principles it is to be drained and the best lines for transport. Wherever there is an intention of utilizing the peat and then converting the bog into a forest or meadows, so much of it will be dug each year in accordance with the purpose in view, to which the utilization of the peat is merely subsidiary. If, however, it is intended to have a permanent supply of peat, only so much should be dug yearly as the bog produces in a year. Fresh peat is produced regularly in all bogs where the condi- tions remain unaltered. Thus some bogs produce annually layers of peat 5 or 6 inches thick, or even thicker; others a mere film of new peat, and others none at all. The first condition for a renewal of the peat is a drainage system by means of which the parts of the bog from which the peat has been dug can be properly irrigated. If these portions can be kept submerged continually, but not too deeply (about 2 to 4 inches), whilst here and there ridges and mounds remain above water-level, the water containing humus and the base of the bog not being complelely freed from peat, a continual production of peat may bo confidently anticipated. In order to secure these conditions, the useless upper layers of peat and other refuse are thrown on the cleared areas and trenches, care being taken to keep these latter inundated. The mode of reproduction of a bog cannot be explained in a general manner, but only observed on individual bogs, whilst any change in the drainage of the surrounding land may greatly allect matters in this respect. As, therefore, a long period is required for such observations, during which changes in the water-su])ply may occur and the rate of production of DRAINAGE OF BOGS. 729 peat vary in different parts of the bog, it is rare that working plans for a bog take into consideration its reproduction. It is, therefore, considered sufficient to prepare a plan for from 50 to 100 years, according to the extent of the bog, the demand for the peat and amount of labour available ; a fixed quantity of peat is thus supplied annually, whilst the cutting proceeds in a proper direction. In the latter respect, it is customary to com- mence operations at the highest part of the bog, if it is intended that the peat shall be reproduced, and thence to proceed gradually to its lower parts. Section IV. — Drainage of Bogs. 1. General Account. Peat can be utilized only after a bog has been partially drained. It is chiefly small bogs resting on a sloping bed which can be worked without draining. Drainage is always necessary in the case of large bogs. The object is not to drain the entire bog, but only that portion which it is intended to work immediately' and to such an extent that the peat may be readily dug and dried. The remainder of the bog should be kept thoroughly wet in all cases where the reproduction of the peat is intended, and also to protect the peat from being frozen * ; this is also frequently useful when the land already freed from peat is to be cultivated. All parts of the bog which are not being utilized should be kept thoroughly wet during winter, or the peat will be seriously injured by frost. When wet or damp peat is frozen it does not become compact again on being dried, but crumbles. If the cleared bog is to be planted with trees or converted into meadow-land, it is not advisable to drain the bog completely, but only to remove the superfluous water. The method of draining a bog depends essentially on its situation and nature ; one or other of the following methods being adopted : — leading water away in drains, cutting off the water-supply, collecting the water in drains or tanks, or causing the water to sink through an impermeable subsoil. * [Cranlieny bogs in N. America are regularly inundated when threatened by frost, in order to protect the plants. — Tii.j 730 DIGGING AND PREPARATION OF PEAT. 2. OnUiiary Drains. The usual method of draining is to lead the water from the bog in ordinary open drains. It is then essential that some land near the bog is on a lower level than its bed ; this generally occurs. The levels taken of the bog and the immediately surrounding country show the difference of altitude between the lowest point of the bed of the bog and that of the external land, and the gradient of the line joining these two points. This is the line of greatest fall, and should be the direction of the principal drain. It should be noted that a steep gradient is desirable only out- side the bog ; within the bog the gradient of the drains should be less the more water the bog contains. Digging the principal drain is commenced at its lowest point outside the bog; it often suffices to continue this drain up to the bog, but, as a rule, it should be conducted to the lowest point within the bog. In case a brook runs through the bog it may often be used as the principal drain after some cuts have been made in it to improve the flow of water. If the bed of the bog slopes down towards a neighbouring river or brook, this slope affords the best gradient for the drainage. If, however, the bog lies in a depression sur- rounded by higher land, it is a question of expense whether to cut through the latter or construct a tunnel to serve as a drain. The dimensions of the main drain depend on the gradient and the quantity of water to be removed. It is not generally necessary to drain down to the bed of the bog. Too broad or deep drains often injuriously dry up the bog and are extremely costly both in construction and maintenance. Where the drain leaves the bog a simple sluice-gate should be constructed in order to retain sufficient water in the bog during winter. In the case of small bogs and drains, instead of a sluice-gate the inlet into the main drain is blocked in autumn with peat. If there is much change of gradient in the bed of a large bog, several draining trenches are cut through the latter. It is often advisable to cut these drains from a certain point in the bog, and then lead them outwards in diverging directions, which generally cross one another at right angles. "Whilst the main drain is generally completed once for all, the DRAINAGE OF BOGS. 731 subsidiary drains are dug gradually during the progress of removal of the peat. They are generally at right angles to the main drains and are intended to drain onl}'' that portion of the bog which is being worked. They are naturally smaller than the main drain. In the extensive bogs of Holland, Friesland and Bremen the main drains serve not only for drainage, but also for the purpose of communication by barges and conveyance of the peat ; they are frequently 26 to 32 feet broad. 8. Drains for Cutting off the Water from Bogs. There are frequently small watercourses which run into a bog, or water runs down a slope into it. If then trenches can be dug so as to cut oif the water-supply from the bog, they are very serviceable as an aid to ordinary drains, but will not alone suffice to drain the bog. 4. Collecting-Drains and Tanks. A large number of bogs are supplied with water by infiltration from neighbouring watercourses. If then the bog lies above the level of the water it is possible to drain it in the ordinary manner ; this cannot be done if it is on about the same level as the water. More extensive works are then usually required (which are too costly where peat-digging is concerned) in order to exclude inundations from the bog, or remove the water from collecting drains by means of pumps and hydraulic engines. Only when the inlet of water is inconsiderable can water which collects in the drains during the night be removed by manual labour. The construction of a sufiicieutly large tank near the bog to receive the water can be only exceptionally undertaken. 5. Piercing an Impcrmeahlc Pan. If a bog should rest on a thin bed of loam or clay, below which is an impermeable stratum, or pan, of gravel or sand, the simplest method of draining it is often to bore or break through the pan and thus allow the water to sink belo\v it. If, however, T-i-Z 1)I(]GIN(; AND PREPARATION OF PEAT. the shaft throug^h the pan is made at the deepest part of the bog its drainage may be too thorough, and thus injuriousl}' affect the peat. Section V. — Harvesting the Peat. The removal of the peat may be effected in various ways. A distinction is thus made between peat dug by manual labour {Sticli(tirf), peat which is moulded into shape {Modvltorf) and peat removed and prepared by machinery {MaHchincniorf). 1. Peat DiKj }ii) Manual Labour. Only fairly compact peat can be dug by means of spades and the pieces, termed turves, are then dried in the sun and by exposure to the air. The different operations in this case are the preliminary works, and digging, drying and storing the peat. (a) Preliminary Works, (i) Snhsidmry Draiiianc After the main drain and the most important side-drains have been dug, further subsidiary drainage must be done annually. This is effected by making a trench a little way from where the peat is to be dug, parallel to the line of digging and per- pendicular to the main drain, so that either the whole or a portion of the area to be dug in a year may thus be drained. As soon as the season's digging is over, the junction of each of these drains with the main drain is closed in order to keep the bog sufficiently moist. (ii) Lai/iiifi Out the Line for Digging. The area where the peat is to be extracted in accordance with the plan of operations, should then be measured and marked out with shallow trenches, so that the workmen mav know where to dig. As a rule, the peat should be dug in successive years from immediately adjoining areas and no wall of peat left standing between them, which is usually a sign of bad management HARVESTING THE PEAT. 733 though sometimes necessary where there is a superfluity of water. Each year's area should consist of a long, narrow^ strip, parallel lengthwise to the subsidiary drain. Such a shape allows a number of men to W'ork simultaneously, renders drainage by means of a single trench possible and allows sufficient room for drying the turves, which are generally piled on a strip of land pre\'iously marked out and adjoining the digging trench. All vegetation should be cleared from this strip, so that the turves may be easily piled and thoroughly exposed to the air. (iii) Laijinfi out Roads. The turves must either be dried on land adjoining the bog, or on the bog itself and then removed. In either case roads are necessary, which should be made on the driest part of the bog, be as permanent as possible and cross the drains only when this is unavoidable, in order to avoid the expense of bridges. Eoads should be made of fascines and sifted gravel whenever they traverse wet ground. If the turves are removed in wheelbarrows from the digging-trench to the drying-ground, only a narrow pathway is required. (iv) Removal of Wood, On many bogs a certain number of trees are growing (moun- tain or Scotch pine, alder, birch, kc), and their usually spreading roots often interfere considerably with the digging. These trees should be felled a year before the turves are dug, and their main roots extracted. (vj Manaf/ement of Lahour. Labourers employed in digging turves should be divided into parties, as in the case of forest Avork. According to the methods employed for digging and drying the turves, three, four or even more workmen form a party. The digging-ground is then sub- divided into as many sections as there are parties of labourers, provided a certain length is not exceeded, in North Germany usually 2 or 3 yards (meters), and in South Germany 4 or more yards, per man. These measured lengths are staked out, num- bered and distributed by lot among the parties. 7.U KICCIXG AND PllKPARATIOX OF PEAT. (b) Digging the Turves, i. Season. it has already been stated that peat is damaj^ed by frost, and this is the case both with uncut peat and turves. One or two degrees below freezing point is sufficient to do the damage. Frozen turves do not shrink after thawing, but dry the same size as when frozen ; they are therefore very porous, form inferior fuel and crumble easily. Digging turves should not therefore commence until there is no longer danger from late frosts. Although it may appear profitable to dig turves during dry spring weather, yet experience proves that a single late frost will damage the turves, so as to nullify all the advantage of early work. In countries therefore with a mild climate, digging turves should be commenced about the beginning of May, in mountainous and northern countries, from the middle to the end of May. The work should stop sufficiently early to allow the turves to dry thoroughly. This also depends on the local climate and especially on the humidity of the air. Digging turves generally terminates about the end of August, if the turves are dried out of doors. When they are dried artificially, the work may continue for a longer period. ii. Size of the Turves. The size of the turves depends on the compactness of the peat and the time required for drying them. The lighter and looser the peat, the better it holds together during digging and drying, the more quickly can the turves be dried and the larger they may be. In the case of black, amorphous peat, the turves are sniiillcr than with brown peat. iii. Implements. All the iiu[)leni 'Uts used for digging turves are modifications of the garden spade. The Frisian spade (fig. 317) is used for digging vertically; the spades (figs. 818, 319) are used for digging horizontally, they have short handles, but very sharp and perfectly flat blades. The peat-spado (fig. 318) is in common use. Fig. 319 is a HARVESTTXG THE PEAT. '35 two-bladed spade with one blade at right angles to the other, in order to loosen the turves on both sides at once ; it is used in the Rhine provinces. Fig. 320 is a spade used for vertical digging in Upper Bavaria, the turves being cut on all sides with Fig. 321. Fig. 317 it. Fig. 321 represents a spade used in North East Germany to remove the useless superficial turf and sods of earth. A three- pronged fork resembling an ordinary dung-fork is generally used for putting the turves into barrows or carts for transport. iv. Digging Turves. There are two methods of digging turves, termed respectively the horizontal and vertical methods. The former method is almost universally employed in North Germany and is common in the Rhenish Provinces, and South Germany. The vertical method is practised in some Upper Bavarian bogs and in the Baltic Provinces. In the horizontal method, a workman begin- ning at the top edge of the wall of peat, cuts the vertical lines of a turf with the Frisian spade, whilst another workman standing in the trench, cuts the turf horizontally and sideways from the bank of peat. In the vertical method, the workman standing on the top of 7-iG 1>IG(;1NG AND PKErAKATIUX OF PEAT. the bank of peat cuts each turf free by one vertical or slightly oblique stroke of the spade (fig. 319) and tears it ofl" from below, raising it with the same spade on to the bank of turf. As by this method the turf is broken off above and below, it has not a regular cubical shape ; control is thus rendered more diffi- cult, while there is more refuse from crumbling than in the horizontal method. At the same time the vertical method is less Inborious and cheaper than the other. According to the skill of the workmen and the difficulty of cutting the peat, with horizontal cutting, 3,000 to 5,000 turves may be cut in a day, and with vertical cutting under favourable circumstances 6,000 to 7,000 tui-ves. The vertical method is obligatory whenever the bog is insufficiently drained. Before beginning to cut the turves the topmost layer of soil must be dug up in sods, as long or double the length of the turves, by means of the Frisian spade, or the spade shewn in fig. 321 ; these sods should be removed from the bog in wheel- barrows or carts. The methods of cutting turves also vary, in the case of either horizontal or vertical cutting, according as the peat-bank is cut in continuous or alternate strips. When the turves are cut in continuous strips, a commence- ment is made on the longer side of the area marked out for the year's cutting and strip after strip of peat is removed until the work has been completed. In this case, the work going on continuously down to the bed of the bog, there is either a vertical bank of peat left, or this bank may be in steps and the work proceed by cutting first from the top-most step, then from the second step, and so on. In this case the turves are removed from the bog as soon as they are cut, so as to leave room for the workmen to dig. When the turves are cut in alternate strips, they are stacked close to the cut, like a wall, the strip on which they stand being left uncut and a new strip commenced immediately beyond it. In this case also, a deep bog cannot be at once cut to its full depth, but the work must be done in two operations. As soon as the stacked turves are dry and have been removed, the work of cutting the intermediate strips is undertaken. Cutting in alternate strips is cheaper than in continuous strips, as a separate labour force is not then required for removing HARVESTING THE PEAT. 737 the turves to the drying ground ; this method is also especially applicable when the bog is wet or insufficiently drained, also when it is superficial and can be cut in one operation. It has, however, the disadvantage that the turves are all from the same level and is not advisable for deep bogs. V. Obstacles to Cuttinf/. Besides the water, which may prevent the cutting going down to the bed of the bog, various foreign bodies are imbedded in the peat forming so many obstacles to the digging ; among these are stones, beds of sand or marl, roots and stems of trees, &c. Stones are frequently found in morasses and fens, besides interrupting the cutting they injure the implements. Layers of sand and marl often cause temporary flooding and must be cut through to let the water pass. Imbedded roots and stumps of trees are often serious obstacles in high peat-bogs. When these are stumps of resinous conifers, they are usually quite undecomposed* and must be completely removed. Large quantities of peat are sometimes wasted owing to the presence of stumps and long side-roots. Superficial roots of birch, alders, &c., in the upper layers of a bog are not so prejudicial, as they are generally rotten and can be severed with a spade. Machines have recently been constructed, to replace manual labour in cutting turves, one invented by Browowsky 1^ is used in North Germany, and cuts turves 3 to 6 yards long and l|x25- feet in section, even from undrained bogs. These large turves are then cut into smaller sizes by manual labour. (c) Drying the Turves. As much care should be taken in drying as in digging turves, for their value as fuel depends greatly on the thoroughness with which they are dried. The air dries the interior of turves better than solar heat, which quickly hardens their surface but leaves them still wet internally. Turves may be dried either out of doors, or under cover. * In the Landstuhl bog, near Kaiserslantern, there are three layers of Scotch pine-stumps separated by peat, which yield annually 28,000 cubic feet of stump- wood. Thej"^ are converted into tar. t Hausding, Indust. Torfgcwinnung, p. 25. VOL. v. 3 B 738 DRiGING AND PKEPARATION OF PEAT. i. Dri/iii;i Turn's out of doors. The drving-j,'round is either on the bog itself, or on an adjoin- ing plot when the latter is too wet ; as already stated it should be prepared before digging the peat. The turves are stacked in various ways, according to the space available for drying them, their comparative wetness and rate of drying, and the available labour-force ; in order to dry them properly, however, they should always be turned over several times. As soon as they are cut, the turves are usually removed by the workmen, either in wheelbarrows, or by the men forming a chain Fio 322. and passing them from hand to hand. They are then placed singly and on their edge. Hke bricks, at short intervals, or piled in little stacks of five turves each (fig. 322) ; or as in fig. 323 round a stake, up to a height of 3 to 4i feet, a method usual in Swabia and around Lake Constance ; or, as in some parts of Austria, stakes are driven into the ground with 9 or 10 pointed transverse sticks attached crosswise to their ends, on which the turves are impaled. After a preliminary drying, the turves are turned over once or several times, the lowest ones being brought to the top of the stack, and vice versji. As already explained, when space is limited the turves are first dried on the top of the bank of peat, which is then cut in alternate strii)S. It is evident that the turves when stacked for drying do not dry so quickly or thoroughly as when placed singly on the ground. The lower turves must therefore be further HARVESTING THE PEAT. 739 dried on the drying-ground and for this purpose may be placed in circular rings of 5 or 6 turves on the ground, over which 4, 6 or 8 rings are placed, the space between two turves in a lower ring being covered by a turf in the ring above it. When the turves are thoroughly dried — for which 4, G or 10 weeks are required, according to the weather, mode of drying and quality of the peat — if they are to be at once sold and removed, they are piled in the usual rectangular or conical sale-stacks, each containing 1,000 turves, or else in stacks similar to those used for fire-wood. ii. Drying under Cover. Sheds for drying turves are similar to those used for bricks, being very long and narrow and formed of laths which are covered with a light roof and in which the turves are stacked one above the other. These sheds offer the great advantage that the drying process is independent of the weather, but they are too expensive for general use. Drying is, however, much more rapidly and thoroughly conducted in sheds, than in the open air, observations at Waidmoos having shown that in four weeks turves thus dried lost about 20% more moisture than in the open. iii. Shrinkage. From 70 to 90% of the weight of freshly cut turves is water ; most of this is lost in drying, but air- dried turves still contain 26 — 30% of water. In passing to the air-dried condition, turves shrink considerably, the more so the better their quality. Some peats lose 70 — 75% of their volume by shrinkage, so that a volume of 100 cubic feet of wet peat becomes only 25 to 30 cubic feet when dried. Fibrous peat on the other hand does not shrink much, but loses much more in weight than good peat, weighing frequently only one-fifth, or even less, of its weight when freshly cut. (d) Storage of turves. — The turves cannot always be at once sold and removed, but must sometimes be stored through the winter. This is done either in the open, or in covered stacks. 3 B 2 74-0 DIGGIXd AND PIlEl'AKATION OF PEAT. The cheapest method is to pile the turves in either conical or prismatic stacks sloping at the top. Turves which are not thorouj^'hly dried may, however, be easily spoiled in this way. The stacks should he erected in a dry and somewhat elevated place and carefully piled. The turves are much better protected from damafje when the stacks are thatched. Straw, reeds, spruce-branches or bracken will serve the purpose ; better still, a light plank roof supported by four posts may be erected with a slope towards the rainy quarter, or the turves may be placed as follows — in the centre of a cleared space a strong stake is driven vertically into the ground, and billets placed radiating in a circle from the stake (as in the base of an Alpine charcoal-kiln) and covered with planks ; the turves are then piled on this floor in a truncated cone thatched with straw. From these thatched stacks the turves can Ije taken during winter according to requirements, this can be done from uncovered stacks only at the risk of spoiling them. Whenever the value of turves is sufficiently high, it is best to store them in sheds, which should have their greatest length perpendicular to the direction of the prevalent wind, and be lightly built of planks or laths, so that the wind may blow through them, the rain being kept out by a roof. 2. Moulded Peat. Some peat is not sufficiently compact to be cut into turves, but must be moulded. This is the case with bogs containing much imbedded wood, or so dry that the peat crumbles into dust, or excessively wet so that the peat must be dredged ; also where the peat is only ordinarily moist, but cannot be cut into turves owing to the presence of numerous undecomposed roots. In ordinary peat-bogs, however, where turves are cut, there is always a large percentage of waste peat resulting from the digging, drying or transport of the turves, which can only be utilized by moulding it. This waste frequently amounts to a fifth or a quarter of the annual yield of peat. The diflV'rcut works in question are — preparing the peat, and moulding and drying the turves. HARVESTING THE PEAT. 741 (a) Preparing the Peat. — Peat which is to be moulded should form a homogeneous mass, containing a suitable amount of water, and capable of being kneaded. If the peat is naturally powdery and dry, it should ^be mixed with water in a pit or a wooden bin with holes in its base ; if it is muddy peat with a superfluity of water, it must be dredged out of the bog with a hollow shovel or in a purse-net, and poured into the bin or on straw laid on the ground, so that the superfluous water may drain away. In what- ever way it is collected, the mixed peat and water must now be thoroughly kneaded and worked together until they form a fairly homogeneous mass. This is generally done by men trampling on it with bare feet or with flat clogs, less frequently with the help of hoe or spade. When the peat is of the ordinary consistency and moisture, the workmen place planks in the trench in front of the bank of peat, and cut the peat away from the bank with a sharp cutting mattock, letting it fall on the planks, and watering it sufficiently by means of wooden buckets. In Holland and several places in North Germany (especially Hannover), the peat-pulp is left alone to dry for a few days, and then again kneaded. In South Germany, it is moulded while still very wet, the second operation being omitted. (b) Moulding the Turves. — The turves should be moulded at a place close to where the peat has been dried. If this is at any great distance from the bank of peat, the peat-pulp is removed in baskets or bins which are placed on wheelbarrows ; it is then thrown on to straw or planks, and is either cut or moulded into shape, the moulds containing several compartments or being similar to those used for brickmakiug. Peat-pulp is cut into shape in Holland, Friesland or Hannover, being spread out in layers, often half an acre in extent, and beaten flat with flat wooden shoes, planks or shovels. The pulp is allowed to lie for several days, and when sufficiently dry and consolidated is cut with sabre-like blades or sharp spades in parallel strips as broad as the turves are long. After a few more days' exposure, these strips are cut into turves. When on account of its watery condition, the peat-pulp is collected in perforated bins, in which it is worked up, it is moulded into turves bv means of wooden frames without bases ; 712 DIGGING AND PIIHI'ARATION OF PEAT. these are placed on the pround or ou a bench, and the pulp l)oured into them. Its surface is levelled by means of a board which is also pressed down on the pulp in the frame to expel the water. Moulds of several compartments are composed of rectangular wooden frames open above and below, and divided into 16, 28, 80 or more compartments, each the size of a turf. A mould is then placed on a bench, or on a substratum of straw, reeds, &c. ; the peat-pulp is poured into its compartments by a shovel, pressed down, and the mould is then removed. In order that the turves may not stick to the sides of the compartments, they are lined with tin, or their bases are somewhat wider than their tops. Simple moulds resembling those used in brick-making are used by a workman standing before a bench, often made of cast-iron, on which the mould is placed. The mould is of wood, open at top and base, its interior the size of a turf and generally lined with tin. The workman from a heap of peat-pulp on his bench, takes sufficient with both hands to fill the mould, strikes off the superfluous peat with a board, the size of the base of the mould; he then places the board over the mould, turns the latter over, raises it and leaves the turf resting on the board. A second workman takes the board and turf to the drying-ground, and biings back the board. In the meantime the former workman continues to make turves with the mould and other boards. Experience shows that a simple mould is at least as expeditious as a multiple one, a man, wdth a boy to remove the turves, preparing 1,000 to 1,500 turves in a day. As moreover the peat-pulp passes again through the workman's hand, and all foreign matter can thus be removed, the turves in that case are more uniform and free from extraneous matter, and as the peat is not poured but pressed into the mould, the turves are denser than in the former method. (c) Drying Moulded Turves. — Moulded turves must be more gradually and carefully dried than those which are cut directly from the bog. When peat-pulp is cut, the turves are left to dry for a few days, and then turned on to their narrow sides ; they are then generally piled in superposed rings (as described above, J). 73i)). They must be turned again once or twice, according to the state of the weather and are stacked when completely dried. HAEVESTING THE PEAT. 743 Moulded turves generally dry more quickly than cut turves, especially when they are moulded like bricks and dried like ordinary turves. When the peat is very watery and moulds of several compart- ments used, it is better, after the preliminary drying on the ground (which is not required for brick-moulded turves) to place the turves under cover, as they cannot withstand prolonged rain. Turves made in multiple moulds may be entirely destroyed by rain, so that this method can only be adopted in fine weather. (d) Quality. — Moulded turves generally afford a better fuel than cut turves, in ratios of 5 : 3 or 5 : 4. This is due to their greater homogeneity, the removal of extraneous matter, greater density and the use of amorphous peat, which is often wasted when the turves are cut from the bog. 3. Manufactured Peat* Manufactured peat is so prepared as to be capable of compet- ing with other fuels in the market. Turves cut from bogs or moulded by hand will not bear distant transport, firstly, on account of their large volume compared with their value as fuel, and secondly, on account of their brittleness and property of absorbing much moisture in damp air and of falling to pieces when frozen. These turves are, therefore, saleable only in the immediate neighbourhood of the bog ; the price obtained for them being low does not encourage an extensive working of the bog. Owing to the high price of fuel which prevailed a few decades ago, the large demands for industrial purposes and the extensive supphes of peat available in certain districts, the question arose as to whether peat might not be so improved by machinery as to yield a fuel approaching coal in value. Owing to the subsequent depression in the price of fuel, the demand for manufactured peat has somewhat abated, but the industry is still carried on in many places. In order that manufactured peat may compete with coal and wood, it must be utilizable for heating boilers, preparing gas and * Au interesting account of peat manufactured at Schussenried in "Wurttemberg, is given in Baur's Centralblatt, 1881, p. 88. 7 It DIGGING AND PREPARATION OF PEAT. liarnffiii, in mt-tallur^'y, Sec, and should fulfil the following: conditions : — Density. — The turves must not merely be dense superficially, nor so dense at the surface that the air cannot reach their interior, but be uniformly dense throughout. Compactness. — The turves must be compact enough not only to retain their shape during transport, but also while being burned. High combustible power. — During manufacture, the most com- bustible parts of the peat must be carefully preserved, especially the amorphous peat. Drjmess. — The peat must be thoroughly dried, not only super- ficially, but also internally ; it should, as far as possible, lose its great hygroscopicity and not swell considerably when exposed to damp and thus become unserviceable. Quantity. — The manufacture must be so conducted as to yield large quantities of material and be independent of the weather. The cost of production, including that of supervision, must be sutiiciently low to allow the material to compete with other locally used fuels. The following methods have been undertaken to secure the above conditions : — contraction, dry pressure, wet pressure and destruction of structure with or without pressure. All these methods are, however, too costly to repay the expense unless the price of fuel is as high as during the forties of this century. Several of these methods have fallen into disuse, whilst others have been adopted. The former will, there- fore, only be shortly considered, more attention being given to those still in vogue. (a) Contraction. — Chnlleton at Paris, and Hay at Neuchatel adopted the following method of increasing the density of peat. The turves were cut from a bog, brought to the factory and then cut to pieces by a system of rollers with blades fixed on them ; the material was then treated with running water so as to form a thin pulp, which runs over fine sieves in order to remove all coarse fibres. This fine pulp is then led in canals to a trench one to two feet deep, the bottom of which is covered with reeds or rushes. In this trench the pulp sets firmly, the water drain- HARVESTING THE PEAT. 745 ing off through the reeds, and after a few days it can be cut into turves by means of a wooden lattice-frame as broad as the trench, which is pressed down on the peat. The specific weight of Challeton's peat, according to Schenk 1-1 to 1-2, and to Dullo 1-8, is equal to that of coal. But it is not suitable for fuel, as it burns like charcoal, without any flame, the turves also fall to pieces in the fire and block up the grate. (b) Dry pressure. — In this case the peat is subdivided as finely as possible, thoroughly dried and pressed into turves. The experiments of Exter made a few years ago at Haspelmoor near Munich and some other places, give the best known results of this method. The bog was superficially ploughed by a steam- plough. All the refuse peat was finely subdivided, dried and conveyed to the factory. It was then sifted and thoroughly dried in a specially designed hot-air chamber, which it left with only 10% of moisture, and was then converted into turves by a powerful press. This product, however, did not answer the purpose intended, as it fell into dust while burning, and was scarcely superior, as fuel, to the best ordinary turves. (c) Wet pressure. — Owing to the obvious advantage resulting from pressing the wet peat, and thus increasing its density, and at the same time its compactness, more attempts have been made in this direction than in any other. No attempt, however, to press raw peat has succeeded, partly on account of the fibrous nature of the peat, which caused it to swell again after the pressure had been removed, and partly because the valuable humus-carbon escaped Avith the water, and thus the product deteriorated as a combustible. Other kinds of pressed turves were too dense externally, and their interior either did not burn well or else retained too much moisture. (d) Destruction of the structure of the peat, with or without pressure. — It is now everywhere recognized that the structure of the peat must be destroyed before the turves are formed, and that only a moderate pressure, if any at all, is advisable. The apparatus of Schlickeysen and Geysser, Gratjahn and Pilau, Thecke and Sander, Weber and Mattel, are those best known for this method. i6 DIGGING AM) PREPARATION OF PEAT. (i.) Method of Schlickeysen ' and Geysser. — A vertical axle is moveabk' by steam-power iu a vertical, hollow, cast-irou vessel, with a funnel-shaped top. On the axle are 6 sharp horizontal knives, fitted to it like the thread of a screw, while G corresponding knives ai-e on the walls of the vessel. There is also a moveable base, which is attached to the axle and rests on the real base of the vessel, and immediately above it are two holes on opposite sides of the vessel through which the prepared peat passes. The peat placed in the vessel while the axle is iu motion is cut into shreds by the knives, which also cut through all pieces of roots ; Fio. 324. Fio. 325. it is at the same time pressed slightly downw^ards by their screw- like action, and finally passes out through the holes in a round rope-like mass of stift' paste. This runs out continually on to a bench, and is cut into pieces and dried. Although no water is added to that originally in the peat, the latter is quite plastic. The fresh turves are only moderately dense, though covered superficially with a smooth gelatinous coating they are yet capable of being easily and thoroughly dried. There is no loss of humus-carbon, which during the macerating process becomes attached to the walls of the vessel and issues from it as a glazed coating to the turf. In 12 hours, 15,000 * Leo, Die Koinjuossioii iles Torfes. HAEVESTIXG THE PEAT. 747 turves, each a foot long can be cut from each side of the vessel, and in favourable weather they dry rapidly with a con- siderable shrinkage. This turf can be used not only as ordinary fuel, but also in the manufacture of glass and porcelain, it must then be dried in kilns. Geysser has invented hand- machines of a similar description to the above, as represented in figs. 324 and 325, and capable of turning out 2,500 to 3,000 turves in a day. These hand-machines have the advantage over Fig. 326. ^-I'B^^Nl^Ii^ ^•''■■' that of Schlickeysen, of saving the transport of the wet peat, besides saving fuel, and can be worked on the bog ; at the same time they are not applicable in the case of very fibrous peat, or where there are many roots. Geysser dried the peat in an excellent manner in portable drying sheds, consisting of frames like hurdles placed one above the other, and covered with a roof. (ii.) Method of Grotjahn- Pilau. — Figs. 326 and 327 show the machinery constructed by G. Krauss & Co. of Munich. 7 48 DIGGING AND PKEPARATIUN OF PEAT. The elevator a h (fig. 320) raises the irregularly shaped pieces of peat to h, where they fall into a bin c, and hence into the hori- zontal macoratin*; machine, the interior of which is shown in fig. 32 This is of somewhat similar construction to Schlick- eysen's vessel containing a moveable axle with revolving knives. The peat is thus finely subdivided, uniformly mixed together, and finally issues through the orifice h (fig. 327), on to a plank d c, which is pushed forward on rollers. A workman stands at the orifice of the machine, and cuts the issuing part into turves with a sharp instrument. The elevator and macerat- ing cylinder are driven by a locomobile m, and they both stand on a frame A li, which can be moved by means of small wheels along a tramway as the digging-ground advances. The plank d is taken with the turves on it to the drying-ground, and turned over carefully, and then brought back to the machine. This mode of preparing turves has been extensively employed both in North and South Germany. [Some other methods are given by Gayer.— Tr.] Some progress has certainly been made in the quality of machine-made turf. Hausding* states that air-dried machine- turf, with at most 10% of ash has jjrds the heating power of sui)erior coal, so that one cwt. of machine-turf is equivalent to i — t cwt. of coal, whilst ordinary turves are equivalent to only ■ff — i cwt. of coal. * Op. cit. p. 720. HARVESTING THE PEAT. 749 It may here be noted that several attempts have also been made to carbonise peat and produce peat-charcoal in order to increase its market value as a fuel. 4. Peat-Litter* Peat is not used for many other purposes besides fuel. Its use, however, for stable litter is increasing in importance, and is especially noticeable here, as there is a hope that by this means the disastrous use of forest litter may be stopped. Peat forms a much better stable litter than either forest litter or straw, for it is t 3 — 5 times as absorptive of fluids as the latter, and thus prevents any waste of animal manure, either in the form of urine or ammonia. The humic acid in peat also acts benefi- cially on the salts, alkalis and alkaline earths of the soil. Peat also improves the soil physically more than other litter, retaining moisture in loose soil, loosening binding soil and especially in promoting j)orosity. Its capacity for heating the soil has been clearly shown in vineyards. The air in stables in which peat- litter is used is free from ammonia and is thus made healthy ; the beasts have a dry, soft bedding, the litter is also prefer- able to other kinds for horses, cattle, sheep, pigs or poultry. Peat is also used in the dry-earth closet system. Only loose textured, mossy or fibrous peat, forming the superficial layer of bogs, is used for litter. In some bogs layers of the fibrous peat and amorphous black peat alternate, preparation of peat for fuel and litter should then proceed simultaneously. The peat should be dried and then finely subdivided in a peat-mill (fig. 328) and pressed into rectangular bales weighing 2 to 3 cwt. each. [Such bales of peat-litter are now largely imported from Holland into London, for Omnibus and Tramway Stables. — Tr.] * Vide Dr. Fiirst, die Toifstreu ; aud also Bayerische's Torfstreuund Mulhverk, Haspelmoor. t According to experiments made by \A^olln}% Classen and Petermanu, the following are the absorptive capacities of different substances. Percentage of | Percentage of weight. ' ■weight. Spruce-needles 161 i Mo.ss 409 Scotch jjine ,, 207 > Spruce saw-dust 440 Oak dead leaves 242 Haspelmoor peat-litter 636 Beech,, ,, 257 Oldenburg peat 659 Wood-wool 285-440 Haspelmoor prepared peat- Rye straw 304 meal 690 7.')0 DIGGING AND PREPARATION OF PEAT. Machines have been constructed for subdividing peat, the commonest of which are represented in figs. 328, 329, the latter Fio. 32^. Fio. 329. being termed the peat-mill. The subdivided peat falls from the machines on to a wire sieve, which separates the powdery from the fibrous peat. The latter is used in dry-earth closets. In order to preserve the bales during transport, pieces of undivided peat and laths are placed along their edges. About 70 or 80 bales can be carried by an ordinary railway truck. From fibrous peat excellent antiseptic dressing for wounds is prepared ; the future will show whether it can be used as fill- ing material for walls, roofs, cV'c. 751 CHAPTER y HUSKING AND CLEANING CONIFEKOUS SEEDS. In order to obtain coniferous seed it is generally necessary to open cones artificially by means of heat or mechanism. Cones of Scotch pine and spruce open in hot, dry air ; larch cones can- not, however, be opened by means of heat without danger of destroying their germinative power, they must therefore be forced open mechanically. Cones of Weymouth and black pines fre- quently open after merely drying them in the air. It is well- known that silver-fir cones open as soon as they are ripe [so also cones of Deodar and other cedars. — Tr.] The forest owner was formerly obliged to arrange for his own supply of seed ; cones were then sown entire, or were opened by exposure to the sun or more frequently by the use of simple heating apparatus, which were constructed by States or private forest owners. When more recently, artificial reproduc- tion gradually displaced natural regeneration and broad-leaved species made way for conifers, while much waste-land has been planted, the demand for seed has increased so considerably that its supply has become an object of trade which competes with the State seed establishments. Many States and private forest owners, therefore, no longer collect their own seed, and seed- husking is now chiefly managed by traders. [There are several State seed-establishments in France ;* at Murat (Cantal) and Puy (Haute Loire), for a variety of Pinus sylvestris (Pin d'Auvergne) ; Modone (Savoie) and near Mont Louis (Pyrenees orieutales) for mountain-pine, largely used for mountain-reboisement ; also at Moutiers (Savoie) for spruce. — Boppe.] * For a good description of these, vide Achat, recolte ct 2)r£paration des graines rdsincuscs, par Andre Thil, Inspecteur des forets. Rothschild, 14, Rue des S. Pkes, Paris. 75-2 HUSKIN(; AND CLKANING CONIFEROUS SEEDS. Section I. — Scotch Pine and Spruce Seed. There are various methods for obtaining Scotch pine and spruce seed which are all based on the application of heat to open the cones, and thus allow the winged seeds to escape. Either solar heat, hot-air chambers or steam may be employed. 1. Solar heat. Cones to be opened by solar heat are placed on wire-gratings, arranf^ed one above the other and freely exposed to the sun's rays, or in portable bins covered by wire-gratings. By occasionally shaking the gratings the seeds are made to fall on cloths, or into portable bins, placed beneath them. A simple method is to place the cones on large cloths spread in 11 dry place exposed to the sun's rays. The seeds can then easily be sifted from the cones. Although the success of methods employing merely solar heat depends on favourable weather, and the seeds must remain unutilized for a whole summer and consequently fresh seed is not available for sowing, yet this sufficed for the small demand of earlier times. It is at present rarely employed,* although certainly preferable to all other methods as regards quality of the seed. 2. Hot-air Cliamhers, or Seed-Jdlns. \yhenever the cones are opened by means of artificial heat, they are exposed on wire-gratings in hot-air chambers to tem- peratures of 100°, 112° and 145° F., the air being kept as dry as possible until all the seed has been separated. The heat is supplied either from furnaces in the chambers themselves, or by heating apparatus in another chamber from which hot air passes into them. Most German seed-husking establishments follow this method. It may be objected, that seed when exposed too long to a heat of 100- F. and more, becomes overdried and loses its germinative power. This often happened formerly when the * [Tlic Frcncli secd-cstablisliiuent at Moutiers employs solar heat for spruce seed.— Boi'i'i:.] SCOTCH PINE AND SPRUCE SEED. 753 arrangements were defective, but is no longer to be feared, owing to improvements in the system. The essential conditions of a good seed-kiln are that all the seed may leave the cones and a large percentage of it be fit for germi- nation. The latter condition is secured, if the cones are good, by not subjecting the seed to the hot air any longer than is neces- sary to separate it from the cones. If this cannot be otherwise secured, the seeds should be allowed to fall on a cool floor. As regards germinative power, the result may be considered satisfactory, when the following percentages of good seed are obtained : — Spruce 75% Black pine 75 ,, Scotch pine 70 ,, Larch 30-35 „ In the interests of economy it should be so arranged that the requisite amount of heat is aftbrded with the least possible expenditure of fuel and is equally distributed through the hot chamber. Quality of seed is more important than quantity, if 90% of the resulting seedlings are a centimeter long in eight days a pound of seed will go much further than two pounds of seed of ordinary quality, only 60 to 70% of which germinates in 14 days. Whenever the quantity of cones to be opened annually is not very considerable and sufficient capital is not available for a large establishment, the simplest kind of seed-kiln will suffice. A spacious chamber, which can be suitably closed, containing a tiled Dutch stove, is then sufficient. Round the stove are stands, the upper portions of which support easily accessible wire-trays, or the cones are hung in nets from the ceiling. If the floor is paved, ventilators supplied at the four corners ol the ceiling for the escape of the vapour from the cones and the heat regulated, good results may be expected. If there is sufficient space, the stove may be enlarged into a horse-shoe shaped heating-apparatus round the interior of the chamber and sometimes partly sunk into the floor. The stove must be made of brick-work or trachite {BacJistein) ; otherwise a steady temperature is not obtainable. VOL. V. 3 c 7.')! msKING AN1> CLKANINC; CONIFKROUS SEtDS. ■\Vhei). however, hot air is admitted into the seed-kihi, an iron stove and liot-air pipes are placed in a separate chamber, from which the hot air passes, as required, into the hot chamber bein-,' replaced by the admission of cool air. Most large seed- kilns are made on this principle. As the heating is eft'ected more rapidly the more directly the stove communicates with the air, the apparatus is generally arranged so that the hot chamber is traversed by a long series of hot-air pipes, which only after many convolutions communicate with the chimney of the stove. Although all seed-husking establishments more or less follow the above plan, they differ from one another in their heating apparatus, arrangement of the gratings, &c., so that hardly any two of them are alike. They may, however, be arranged in groups, according as the wire -trays are moveable, fixed or cylindrical. (a) Moveable trays. — In this cuse, the light wooden frames ot the trays are moveable and not too heavy for a man to lift easily; they are placed pretty close one above the other, generally on supports above the hot chamber. They can thus easily be removed and replaced for changing the cones. Hundreds of these frames are used in large establishments. One of the older establishments is at Eberswald (figs. 330, 331) : A is the chamber for heating, 7i for drying, C,C for cooling. A is surrounded by thick stone walls ; within it are two iron pipes (/.) which are bent back on themselves, their lower piirts resting on the stove and their upper ends opening into the chimney {j>) and they can be cleaned at [ir). The air in A, heated by these pipes, pours through openings c,c,c which can be closed by valves under the trays (a), the latter being placed above the cooling-chambers (',('. The cool air passes into the chamber A through tubes (o,o). The trays {a,a) rest on supports, and when once the cones are placed on them can be isolated by means of shutters from the action of the hot air except when it comes from below. Between the rows of trays and immediately above the heating-chamber is an open space for workmen, who can thus remove and change the trays. Fresh cones are sui)plied through leather tubes descending from the ceiling on to the trays. J^)y constantly stirring the cones with rakes, the seeds are yCOTCH PINE AND SPRUCE SEED. 755 made to fall from tray to tray down to the cooling-chambers C,C : a supply of cool air is always admitted into the latter in order Fia. 330. Fig. 331. that their paved floor may cool the seed, which is from time to time swept out of the cooling-chambers. 3 c 2 756 HISKIN(; AND CLKANING CUNIFEROUS SEEDS. Mr. Schott, a seed-merchant of Ascbaffenburg, bas an establishment somewhat similar to that just described (figs. 382, 833). A is the beating-chamber containing the convoluted iron pipes and surrounded by a thick masonry wall which is pierced on two opposite sides by doors opening into the drying-chamber B, through which the trays can be removed and fresh ones supplied. As both the beating- and drying-chambers are sur- rounded by the moderately cool air of the building, the heat is Fio. 332. as much as possible concentrated. The stove is at (a), the smoke escaping through {nt). The wooden trays {Ji,h,h) are provided with a base of thin wooden bars, except the lowest of them which have fine wire-bottoms, to prevent the seed from falling into the heating-chamber. Only a very inconsiderable portion of the seed, however, ever reaches these lowest trays ; most of it remains on the upper trays which are not shaken or disturbed in any way until they are removed. When once the cones are opened, the trays on which they lie are removed and the cones shaken on to a fioor of wire-grating which is imme- diately above the revolving hollow siive (/>). The cones are Hiked up and down over ibis lloor so that the seed may all l)e SCOTCH PINE AND SPRUCE SEED. 757 removed. The vapour from the cones escapes by means of shafts (d/l) which can be closed if required ; fresh air is supplied by the vent-holes {0,0,0). This simple apparatus may be taken as a type of numerous private seed-husking establishments, as Geigle's in Nagold, Steiner's in AViener-Neustadt, &c. The large establishment of Appel, in Darmstadt, is on the same principle. The frames supporting the trays are made of iron ; four large stoves in the lower story supply the hot air. Numerous openings with valves regulate the temperature. Fig. 333. (b) Fixed trays. — Fixed trays are used in buildings with several stories ; the heating-apparatus being on the ground-floor, above which are two or more drying-chambers. The floor of each of these is of grating (in the newest establishments of the kind, of thick iron wire, in the older ones of wooden bars), but close enough to allow only the seed and not the cones to pass. The cones are piled a foot deep on the gratings and are con- stantly stirred, so that they part with all their seeds. The seed falls into the seed-chamber on to a paved floor kept constantly cool by the admission of cold air, and from which it is removed. In the older establishments of this kind, the floors are not completely covered with gratings, but the gratings are sur- rounded by planked floors and enclosed with planks a foot high. Although in this system, the different establishments are not so variable as in those with moveable trays, they differ in their respective heating-apparatus. Sometinif s the hot air is distributed by means of masonry 7."jS JJISKING AM) ('LKANING CUNIFEUOUS SEEDS. pipes which hraiich into the ditiereiit dryiug-chambors. These pipes contain numerous openings through which the hot air passes. Several South German establishments are thus con- structed. They have the advantage of regulating the tempera- ture, so that even if heat is carelessly applied, there is not much danger of the seed being ovcrdried ; they are not, however, Ki,<>) are ventilating tubes arranged so as to keep the i)avcd floor cool. B, C, and D are drying chambers. (c) Driun-sieves. — Apparatus with drum-sieves dift'er com- p],h) which revolve in pairs on a common axle ; they are turned by handles in the room (' so that the seeds may fall through as soon as the cones have opened. The drum-sieves are of wood with wooden gratings secured by several iron hoops. Each drum can be opened (fig. 336, [i) in order to insert and remove the cones ; under each pair of drum- sieves is a masonry or concrete trench {}>} into which the seed falls, and from which it is removed by wooden scrapers into the chamber C, into which the trenches lead. After the seeds have all been removed, the drums are opened downwards and the "^ ' empty cones removed by the same means iis the seed. The drums are turned at intervals of a quarter of an hour, so that the seed soon falls into the cool trenches and being at once removed is not exposed to the hot air longer than is absolutely necessary. This rapid action allows much greater heat to be applied to the cones than in other establishments ; recent experience, however, shews that they are not more efl'ective than the latter, which ure on the whok' preferable. 3. SejHiratioH of Scnl from the Couch hy Steam. C'ones arc opened by steam, when the air round the trays in wliich they are placed is heated by means of condensed steam. SCOTCH PINE AND SPRUCP: SEED. 701 Steam from a boiler outside the seed-kiln is supplied in pipes running under the trays, it then becomes condensed owing to the comparative coolness of the chamber containing the trays. The steam-pressure being then considerably increased, the heat acquired in the boiler is radiated into the drying chamber by the pipes. In order to increase the heating effect of the pipes, their surface is considerably increased by conducting them repeatedly up and down the drying-chamber, Keller's well-known wholesale seed-establishment at Darmstadt was the first to carry out this invention of Oberforstrath Braun, and has been working successfully for many years. The first of these seed-kilns was burnt in 1865, and up to that time there were three tiers of piping under all the trays. This, however, did not heat the air sufficiently ; in the new works erected therefore, two tiers of piping were placed under the trays, and the other tier moved higher up between them. This gives excellent results. The pipes are of wrought iron and are 200 meters long, with an exposed surface of 87 square meters. The boiler is in a detached house, and also serves to drive machinery used in separating seed from larch-cones ; it supplies steam for heating the pipes and the resulting condensed water flows back into the boiler. The advantages of steam drying over hot air drying are as follows •• — There is no fear of a conflagration in the seed-kiln ; by means of in and out draughts, heat can be supplied according to re- quirements, and the amount necessary for opening the cones is attained in one third the time required by the hot air apparatus, whilst the whole time occupied by the process is shortened by one quarter; the temperature cannot exceed 133' F., so that there is no danger of over-heating the seed. Keller's process gives from 87 to 97% of germinating seeds, which, according to Braun are not only considerably superior in germinative power to seeds from hot air kilns, but can also be kept longer. 4. Management of Seed-husJdng Worhs. The system followed in the different seed-husking estab- lishments is of a simple nature. The cones from the store-house are placed in sacks or otherwise brought to the seed-kiln and 7(i-2 JUSKINC .\M> < |.i;AMN(i (ONIFEItoUS SEEDS. placed on the trays. Alter the heat has been applied and the cones bcfjin to steam, all vent-holes must be opened. As soon as the air becomes drier and the cones have been exposed for some time to the heat, they begin to open. This does not jjenerally happen simultaneously on all the trays ; the current of hot air is then turned in the direction of the backward trays l»y opening certain vent-holes, or changing the places of those trays with those where the cones have opened and thus exposing them to the hottest blast. Management of the heat is the most important point in the kilns. The heat should rise as uniformly and quickly as possible to the temperature most suitable for the apparatus and cone in question. Scotch pine cones require the greatesi heat, usually 100-112- F. ; spruce, 90-100"-" F. ; Weymoutli-pine and alder, ()G' -77^ F. If the apparatus works so well that the seed falls straightway from the cones on to the cool floor and is then i-emoved as soon as possible, higher degrees of heat are admis- sible ; thus in the case of Scotch pine cones, temperatures of 140^^-145'^ may be attained without impairing the germinating power of the seeds, provided that the high temperature is at once reduced to 110° or 120°, as soon as the cones begin opening and this temperature maintained until the end of the operation. In many places, a temperature of 160° is applied, but this is permissible only in the drum process, where the workman is not obliged to turn over the cones inside the kiln, which would be impossible at such a temperature. As empty cones are generally used for fuel and give out heat quickly, a few cones should be added to the fire every 15 minutes or so. The stoker must attend carefully to the direction of the wind, &c., and endeavour as much as possible to supply the requisite amount of heat. The time required to opi-n the cones thorouglily depends on several conditions. First, the species of cone ; Scotch pine cones require the highest temperature, whilst cones of other species open more readily. Cones open more readily when collected after November ; frost has a considerable effect on the opening of the cones ; thus, in mild winters with little frost, the business of seed-kilns is considerably delayed ; cones open more freely when they are brought damp and cold from the store-room into SCOTCH PINE AND 8PRUCE SEED. 763 the heat of the kiln, and have not been preliminarily heated. Finally, the kind of seed-kiln in use and the manner of conducting the business influences the time required for opening the cones ; if the work proceeds day and night without inter- ruption and the kiln is properly heated, Scotch pine cones require 10 to 12 hours, on the average, before they open. Some- times they require fully 24 hours and under the most favourable conditions eight hours. In order to guard against over-heating by the workmen, Keller in Darmstadt has an electric bell in his office communicating with a metallic maximum thermometer in the kiln. The cones on removal from the trays are usually thrown on to a grating so that the seeds may be separated from them ; they then always retain a few seeds and in order to secure these, they are placed in a drum-sieve (fig. 835, b), which is made to rotate. This consists of a cylinder with wire sides, open at both ends, and there are often projecting bars fastened here and there to its axle inside the cylinder which assist in shaking the cones. It is turned slowly by means of a pulley and belt. The cones are poured into the drum-sieve through a hopper and are so thoroughly shaken within it, as to part with all their seeds. The seeds fall on to the floor and the empty cones pass out at one end of the drum-sieve which is slightly inclined in that direction, through a second funnel, into the store-room for empty cones. Seeds of conifers are winged ; it is however preferable to sow them without wings, sowing being then more uniform and the seed better covered with soil, the projecting wings are also more readily seen by birds than the little seeds. The wings must therefore be removed in order to prepare seed for the market. All seeds, however, cannot be completely deprived of their wings, for in many cases the union between seed and whig is so close, that the latter can be only forcibly removed, which may notably reduce the value of the seed. This is the case with silver-fir and larch seed. The wing is not closely united to the seed in Scotch pine and spruce seed and is easily removed (fig. 337). Removal of the wings of Scotch pine and spruce seed may be effected in various ways. On a small scale and if it is considered ■t;i. lIUSKlXf: AND CLEANING CONIPEKOIS SEEDS. sufficient to remove the greater part of the win<,s leaving a small fragment attached to the seed, the dry process is employed. In this case linen sacks are half tilled with seed (the mouth of each sack being tied) and beaten with light flails, being turned and shaken and rubbed until the wings are removed. In wholesale establishments a different method is usually employed, termed the wet process, which gives quicker results. The seed is then piled 0 to K inches high on a paved or planked floor, sprinkled ^ Winded Seeds. 2 3 Seeds ineijnrcd for sale. 1. Silver Fir. 2. Scotch Pine. 3. Larch. Drawn by R. S. Troup. ) 4. Spruce. lightly with water from the rose of a watering-pot and then energetically beaten with leather flails. In many seed-depots hardly any water is used and yet the wings are completely removed. In order to obtain clean silver-flr seed, more trouble must be taken. The moistened seed must then generally be heated, so that very clean silver-fir seed is regarded with suspicion. Objection is frequently made to the wet process, that it prejudices the germinative power of the seed. This objection is justified, if the damp seed is kept in heaps and allowed to ferment so that the wings may separate from the seed without any further mechanical treatment. If, however, the method already described is followed and no fermentation allowed, the LARCH SEED. 765 damping being merely auxiliary to the threshing, clean seed with good germinative power is obtained. An excellent method for nearly all winged seeds is to put them between the stones of a flour-mill, placed the right distance apart. As then the process is merely a dry one, there is no danger of the germinative power of the seed ; it is, however, difficult in this way to produce thoroughly clean seed. Once the wings have been severed from the seed, they must be removed in order to obtain clean seed. This is effected either by swinging the seed on a wooden tray, or tossing it with a wooden winnowing-shovel, which removes both the wings and light worthless seeds. As a rule, however, the seeds are placed in a modern corn-sifter, provided with several graduated fine wire-sieves. This completely separates all impurities and the worthless seeds from the good seed, the workman being careful to turn the machine slowly. Section It. — Separation of Seed from Larch Cones. The method described in Section I. refers only to Scotch pine and spruce ; it is not applicable to larch cones, which cannot be completely freed of seed by artificial heat without damaging its germinative power. Only the upper part of larch cones opens when subjected to heat, the base of the cones, which contains most of the seeds, remaining closed. Larch cones must there- fore be torn open in machines, clean seed being obtained only after much troublesome manipulation. Formerly, larch cones were placed in stamping-mills, where they were completely crushed, or apparatus used somewhat resembling turnip-cutting machines. In these, two rollers of diflereut diameters, provided with fairly contiguous., sharp knives, an inch long, are turned in the same direction on their axles, leaving only space enough between them and their correspond- ing knives for the wooden axes of the cones to pass. The scales and seeds of the cones, which enter the machine from above the rollers, are thus separated from their axes. This process, how- ever, destroys much seed. More recently use has been made of hand-machines of similar structure to the above, but in which the knives are replaced by 760 HU8KIN(; AND rl,KAMNC; coMFKKorS SEEDS. stout iron pins, the ends of which are bent into hooks, and inserted on two rollers, one of which is 8 to 10 inches larger in diameter than the other. The cones are then torn instead of being cut, and there is not so much refuse mixed with the seed, and less seed is destroyed than by the machine with knives. Much larch seed is exported regularly from the Tyrol. In order to remove the seed, little water-wheels are suspended in the rapid torrents, on the axles of wdiich are rapidly rotating tin cylinders. The cones enclosed in these cylinders are violently rubbed against one another, and the seed set free. In order to remove the last few seeds from the cones, the latter are simply pounded. One of the best stores for Tyrolese larch seed is that of Jennewein, at Insbruck. [In P^ench Savoy and Dauphiuy, larch seed is collected by peasants between December and February; during the prevalence of the con.- paratively warm south wind, the cones drop their seeds on to cloths spread under the trees on the snuw. This seed is said to germinate much better than that purchased from seed-establishments. — BOPPE. ] The apparatus employed by Appel, at Darmstadt, which re- sembles that used by the Tyrolese, consists of wooden drums, which are driven by steam and made to rotate rapidly on their axles. Their internal surface, as shown in fig. 338, is covered with little sharp, i)rojecting cones, against which the larch cones are rubbed, but the mutual friction between the cones is more effective than the action of the internal surface of the drums. Apparatus worked by steam for opening larch cones is generally based on a continual friction between their scales, and consequent removal of the seed without injuring it. That used by Keller at Darmstadt consists of a hollow wooden drum (fig. 339), which is firmly fixed in a vertical position, and at its axis is an iron rod provided with four arms a, which support four closely-toothed iron rakes I), parallel to the internal surface of the drum. This revolves rai)idly on its axle ;// //, larch cones sujiplied from above are so thoroughly rubbed together and to a certain extent torn to pieces, that they part with all their seed which collects at th<' bottom of the drum, from which it is then removed. The sides of this drum are composed of plates of iron which are not quite juxtaposed, finer refuse therefore escapes through LARCH SEED. 767 the slits between them. Under the drum large sieves are kept in constant motion backwards and forwards. This apparatus of Keller's is preferable to all others yet invented, as it removes the seed in less than half the time taken, for instance, by the Tyrolese method. Larch seed, when freed from the cones, is mixed with pieces of wood and scales of various sizes, and any amount of dust, from which it must be cleaned. The process of cleaning is therefore a most difficult and tedious business, for there are in the mixture pieces of scales of the same size and weight as the seeds ; up to the present time, therefore, it has not been considered possible Fig. 338. Fig. 339. to obtain really clean larch seed. In order to sift the seed hand- sieves are first used and then a corn-sifter. The sifting process is therefore tedious and the workmen must show much patience. In some places (the Tyrol, for instance) the broken-up cones are placed with water in a tub ; the pieces of wood and scales sink to the bottom, whilst the seeds float on the surface and are then scooped off and dried, the dried seeds finally passing through a corn- sifter. This wet process of cleaning is often regarded with suspicion from fear of injuring the germinative power of the seed, but there appears to be no ground for this, provided the seeds are afterwards thoroughly dried. In Keller's seed-depot a small mill is used for removing the wings from larch seed, the grinders being made of vulcanised caoutchouc and as far apart as the leugth of the seeds ; the wings are thus removed by friction. A fly-wheel working under 7r,s }|ISK1N(; AND CLEANING C'ONIKEIIOIS .SEEDS. the cxit-luinu'l tlioroiii^'bly separates the wings, dust and worth- less seed from the good seed. Another method for husking hirch seed is that of Ober- forstcr Krumbelbein at Varel in Oldenburg. Cones plucked late in the season from healthy larch trees, which have been subjected to winter frost, are exposed to the sun's rays in bins covered with wire frames ; seed is thus obtained from the upper part of the cones. In order to open the hard, resinous base of the cones they are submerged in water for 24 hours in covered baskets and after exposure to the air are again placed in the sift- ing bins. This process is repeated till all the seed has been separated. It is, however, clear that this method, which gives excellent results, can only be adopted on a small scale. Section III. — Net Yield of Seed. The net yield of seed obtained from a certain quantity of cones depends on several circumstances. The system of husking followed is most decisive in this respect ; then the condition of the cones (whether harvested in autumn, mid-winter, or in dry, spring weather, after some of the seeds have left the cones). The size of the cones and the number of seeds they contain also vary in different years, for in really good seed-years cones are often smaller than usual and yet contain more than the usual number of seeds. Lastly, the method employed for removing the wings, and the comparative thoroughness with which this is done, greatly afiects the yield. It is not, therefore, surprising that the yield of diflerent seed establishments in diilerent years should vary considerably. The following table gives the average weight of diflerent quantities of <5ones and seed : — Si>.;cic.s. Weight of fresh concB. Weight of sifteil .seed from— Weight of sifted seed. 100 literu. One bushel. 100 liters of cones. 1 bushel of cones. 1 liter. 1 (iimrt. Scotch pino Simice Larch Silver- fw... CO— 55 25—30 36 25-30 lb. 1 kg. ' lb. ' grauKs. 40—44 0-75-0^90 , -CO— -72 | 500—510 •JO— 24 1-23-1 -70 1 -98- 1-36 560—570 29 , 1-80-2-70 1^44— 216 500—510 20-24 1-50- 2-25 1 1-20— 1^80 300—410 lb. •96— ^98 1 •08—1-09 •P6— -98 •58— ^79 NET YIELD OF SEED. 769 The concluding table gives the weight of sifted seed without wings of the different species obtained from a certain weight of winged seed, and the number of seeds in a fixed weight of sifted seed. Species. Weight of sifted seeds. Average number of seeds. from 1 kilog. of winged seed. from 1 lb. of \vinged seed. in 1 kilog. in lib. Spruce Silver-fir Larch Scotch pine Bkek pine Mountain pine Weymouth pine ... 0-55 0-80 070 0-60 0-65 0-50 oz. 9-6 12-8 11-2 9-6 10-4 8 120,000 22,000 165,000 1.50,000 48,500 125,000 61,000 54,500 10,000 75.000 68,000 22,000 56,700 27,700 [The figures for Black, Mountain and Weymouth pines were kindly supplied by Mr. Appel of Darmstadt, those for larch partly by Dr. Schlich ; the rest are from Gayer. — Tr.] 770 CHAPTER VI.* EXTRACTION OF OIL OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN FROM CRUDE RESIN. Section I. — Process of Manufacture. Casks of crude resin continue to reach the factories at La Teste from March to October, the last consignments being dark- coloured and inferior in quality. From it, oil of turpentine, the chemical formula for which is CioHig is distilled, leaving deposited an oxidised substance which is solid at ordinary temperatures and termed rosin, or colophany. These substances are separated from one another in the following way : i. By melting and filtering the crude resin, so that the water, sand, pieces of bark and other impurities -f are separated from it. ii. By distilling the crude resin, the oil of turpentine and colophany are separated from one another, as these substances have different boiling points. The crude resin, after being passed through straw filters, if sufficiently fluid for this to be done, is placed in an uncovered vat (fig. 340, No. 1) and heated until it is completely liquefied. This allows heavy substances, such as sand, &:c., to fall to the bottom of the vat, while light impurities, chips of wood, bark, itc, float on the surface of the melted resin. This is a very delicate operation, as if heated unequally, the resin is liable to catch fire. The impurities are then separated from the resin, either by ladling it through straw-sieves, or passing it through a grating * [This account is mainly taken from papers by N. Hearle and E. McA. Moir in the Indiun Forester, June and July, ISSf). Both these gentlemen as well as the translator in 1894 visited a resin-factory at La Teste, near Arcachon, belonging to Mr. Lcsca, ami the information given in this chapter has all been supplied through his kindn<"ss. — Tr.] t Chiefly larvae of insects. PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. 771 into a second vat. The operation of beating and filtering goes on a day in advance of the distillation, so that three vats are required, No. 1 vat being always used for boiling and the other two vats, alternately, as reservoirs from which the resin is ladled into a small tank from which it is passed through a tap to the retort shown in fig. 340. This is the method employed late in autumn, when the resin contains many impurities. Earlier in the year, it is passed directly from vat No. 1 to No. 2, a retort in which it is distilled, the arrangement of the vats then being as shewn in fig. 340. The resin in the retort is heated to a temperature of about 185° F., steam (by the use of which 30% more turpentine is Siphon (After Heaile. ) obtained) being admitted through a pipe. From this retort, vapour of the oil of turpentine and water-vapour pass through a coil of tubing into a cooling tank, where they are condensed ; they are then drawn off into a smaller tank, the water remaining below with the turpentine floating on it, owing to the lower specific gravity of the latter. The oil of turpentine is then run through an over-flow pipe into a zinc vessel mounted on a truck, and conveyed by means of a tramway to the turpentine shed, where it is pumped into large metal tanks, measuring 10 feet by 6 feet by 6 feet, from which it is drawn, as required for sale, into old Spanish wine-casks. No system of purifying is in practice, and it is sold just as it issues from the still. The water, which is removed by a siphon from below the turpentine, passes after use through a series of shallow open tanks in a court-yard, from which it is pumped by a small steam 772 EXTRACTION OF TDRPEXTIXE AND ROSIN. engine into an elevated reservoir ; it is then used again for cooling the turpentine. The engine also drives steam into the distilling retort. The liquid colophany, after distillation of the turpentine, is allowed to flow from the base of the retort by removing a wooden plug stamped with clay. It runs into a straining tank, passing over a very fine copper wire-sieve, which catches most of the impurities it has still retained ; the rest falls to tlie base of the straining tank, in the form of a black deposit resembling pitch. The straining tank has a tap placed about half-way down, through which the liquid colophany passes during autumn into another vat, from which it is ladled into large casks containing about 800 lbs. During summer, how^ever, after a sample has been taken out in a tin mould, the rest of the colophany is at once ladled from the straining tank into buckets ; it is then carried to an open court-yard, where it is poured into open shallow metal pans about two inches deep and slightly smaller in diameter than the casks in which it is finally packed for sale. It there cools into cakes which are exposed to the sun till sufficiently bleached ; they are then placed, one above the other, in the casks and eventually unite into a single mass. Great attention is paid to uniformity of colour in each cask, the sample shown to the purchaser being the worst coloured in the cask. The colophany goes into four main classes, for spring, summer, autumn and winter, the first being lightest coloured and most transparent ; and the last, made chiefly of harraa, being darkest. The tints vary from very pale transparent yellow to dark amber. When nearly black it is termed hrais. Great stress is laid on transparency, denoting purity of the samples, as well as on their light colour. The dark amber- coloured colophany is worth only one third the value of the palest l)rand, the prices varying from 4s. to 12s. 9d. per 100 lbs. Besides the main classes of colophany, the commercial grades range from A. the darkest, to N, extra pale, superior to which are \V. window- glass and W. W. water-white. These are American brands which have been adopted in France. A barrel of 520 lbs. of crude turpentine yields 3G4 lbs. colophany, 110 lbs. oil of turpentine luid 4G lbs. refuse. The COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS FROM CRUDE RESIN. 773 oil of turpentine sells at about 25s. per 100 lbs. Most of tbe manufactured produce goes to Bordeaux, whence it is shipped to the principal European countries, or used in France. Most of the British supply of rosin at present comes from America, being 1,429,431 cwt. in 1891, while 31,261 cwt. came from France, and 2,797 cwt. from other countries, the whole being valued at 331,486/. The quantity of oil of turpentine imported into the United Kingdom in 1894, was 406,877 cwt. valued at 481,382/., also chiefly from America. Section II. — Commercial Products from the Crude Resin OF THE Maritime Pine.* The different products of crude resin are : — Galipot. Brais. Oil of turpentine. Turpentine paste, Colophany. Pitch. Galipot is dried resin picked from the tapped trees, and is used in certain varnishes, also in naval construction, especially in Holland, for painting ships and masts. Oil of turpentine is distilled from crude resin, and is used chiefly in oil colours, varnishes, and medicine. Colophany is the best part of the residue after distillation of crude resin, and is used for papier-mache, sealing-wax, &c. Brais is obtained by heating in a retort the straw sieves used in filtering the resin and also pine-roots. It is used in making torches, and is run into small square boxes round four or five wicks, and these are lighted on frosty nights, burning with a dense smoke, which protects vineyards from frost ; it is also used for soldering metals, or may be made into pitch. Turpentine paste is used for varnish, sealing-wax, lithographic ink, &c. There are three kinds:— The ordinary quality is obtained after crude resin has been filtered but not distilled. Pate au soldi is obtained when crude resin is exposed to the sun's heat in vessels filled with holes, through which the more * From JJopjie, op. cit. 774 FINIS. fusible portions exude, forming the paste in question. When casks full of crude resin are exposed to the sun, the portion exuding through the staves is termed Pate de Venisc. The comparative values of these three kinds are as 37 : 40 : 250, these numbers in francs representing the value in each case of 100 kilograms. ]ij burning the roots and stumps and the residue from the factory, in closed masonry chambers separated by metallic walls, lamp black is obtained. Finally, by distilling pinewood, pine oil is obtained, which may be used for lighting purposes, or as an antiseptic for preserving wood when used in the open. INDEX. A. Absorption of water by wood, 52 Acorns, date of ripening, 550 ,, used for pannage, 564 Advertising sales of wood, 478 Air-dried wood, 27 Alburnum, 15 Anatomy of wood, 5 Anobium sp., 87 Antiseptic treatment of wood, 6'A Anvil stocks, 125 Auctions of timber, 455 Autumn wood, 9 Axe, resistance of wood to, 36 Axes, 193, 211, 227 B. Bahla, 484 Balks, 107 Bamboos, 87, 163 Bandboxes, 150 Band-saws, 689 Bark, other uses besides tanning, 51: ,, removal of, 257 ,, for tanning, 483 Barrels, 146 Bast, lime, 656 Battens, 109 Bean -sticks, 165 Beech-nut oil, 569 Beech-nuts for pannage, 564 ,, date of ripening, 550 Bentwood for furniture, 46 Bilberries, collection of, 655 Bilberry bushes for litter, 601 Bill-hook, 198, 228 Birch-bark, 509, 515 Birch oil, 515 Birdseye maple, 65 Blasting stumps and roots, 259 Blythe's system of injection, 663 Boards, 110 Boat-building, 125 Bogs, 720 Bole, cleanness of, 21 Booms in timber floating, 383, 385 Boucherie, 661 Bracken, 618 Branches for litter, 602, 613, 618 Briar- wood for pipes, 157 Bridges, timber for, 122 Broom for litter, 600 Brooms, 156, 166 Brushwood, 250, 272 Burnettising wood, 661 Burrs, 65 Butchers' blocks, 141 Butts, 249, 270 Cabinet-making, 133, 134 Canals, influence on timber-transport, 428 Carbonisation of wood, 693 Carriage-poles, 140 Cart traffic, 321 Casks, 142 Catechu, 484 Cellulose, 162 Charcoal. 693 Children's toys, 157 Chutes, timber, 288 Cigarboxes, 173 776 INDEX. Circular saws, 688 Cleanness of bole, 21 Cleaving-axe, 211 Climbing-irons, 75, 238, 553 Cloven timber. 111, 258 Colophany, 28, 770 Colour of wood, 59 Compass timber, 129 Cones, collection of, 555 Coniferous seeds, 751 Contract, sale by private, 46 Contractors, timber work by, 189 Conversion of wood, 243 ,, general rules for, 264- Coopers' wood, 142 Cord wood, 167, 295 Cranberries, 655 Crate- wood, 165 Credit in sales of wood, 477 Creosoting wood, 662 Cubic contents of wood, 302 Cup-shake, 64, 247 Curls, 65 Curved timber, 129 Cylindrical shape of bole, 5^2 D. Damage to wood by fungi, 71 ,, ,, ,, game, 69 ,, ,, ,, insects, 86, 95 Dams for timber floating, 361 Dead wood, 572 Deals, 110 Death-watch beetle, 87 Decay in wood, 77 Defects in wood, 61 Depots for timber, 274, 397, 429 Disposal of wood, 441 Divi-divi, 484 Durability of timber, 79 Dry fallen wood, 572 Dry rot, 93 ,, wood, 27, 572 Dynamite for splitting stumps and roots, 261 E. Ebony, 28 Elasticity of wood, 40 Epping Forest, 563 Even-giained wood, GO Faggots, 252, 262, 298 Fascines, 313, 379 Felling rules, 236 ,, trees, 175 Ferns, 600, 618 Field-crops in forests, 536 Firewood, 167, 212. 251, 257, 29; Fissibility of wood, 39 Flexibility of wood, 42, 59 Floating wood, 357, 421 Flutes, wood for, 157 Forest devil, 216 „ litter, 579 ,. of Dean, 503, 600 roads, 309 tramways, 340, 421 Frost-crack, 62, 74 Fruit, edible forest, 655 ,, of forest trees, 546 G. Galls, oak, 485 Game in forests, 482 Glaziers' wood, 154 Grass-cutting in forests, 530 Grass-seeds, 649 Gravel, 576 Grazing, forest, 516 Green timber, 27 Grubbing up stumps, 231 (luaiacum wood, 67 Gunpowder for blasting stumps and roots, 260 Gun-stocks, wood for, 150 INDEX. 777 H. Handles of tools, 141 Hardness of wood, 34 Hardwoods, 16, 34, 168 Hawkeye machine, 214, 232 Heartshake, 61 Heartwood, 9, 15 Heating-power of wood, 97 Herbage in forests, 651 Hook-lever, 277 Hoops for barrels, 147 Hop-poles, 165, 256, 271 Humus, 580, 590 Hurdle wood, 165 Implements, felling, 192 Injection of wood, 659 Instruments, action of, ou wood, :^6 Internal bark, 70 Jarrah wootl, 89, 117, 127 Jhuming, 537 Joiners' wood, 133 K. Knee-pieces, 130 Knoppern-galls, 485, 654 Knottiness, 67 Krempe, 277 Kyanising wood, 662 Lamp-black, 168 Land-transport, 308 Larch bark, 509 Laths, 110 Lead pencils, 153 Leaf- fodder, 533 VOL. V. Length of stem, 19 Lime-bast, 656 Litter, forest, 579 Logs, 107, 249, 268 Lopping branches, 238, 613 Lucifer matches, 150, 152 Lyniexylon navale, 87 M. Machines for uprooting stumps, 214 Jlachine saws, 205, 684 Jlanual labour, 176 Markets for timber, 470 Mast, oak and beech, 563 Masts for ships, 131, 133 Matches, lucifer, 150, 152 Alerulius lacrimans, 93 Mining timber, 121 Minor forest produce, 481 ilistleto, damage by. 70 Model-making 136 Mosses, 596, 653 Moss-litter, 596 Myrobalans, 484 New Forest, 563, 600, 602 Numbering hammers, 300 Oak-bark, 486 Oars, wood for, 149 Occlusion of wounds, 65, 75, 76 Oil of turpentine, 28, 83, 77W P. Packing-cases, wood for, 137 Pannage, 563 Paper manufacture, 160 Paper-pulp, 160 Park-palings, 166 3 E 78 INDEX. r.-irquetry, 134 Pasture, 516 Piivements, woo'l for street, 118 Pea-sticks, 165 Peat, digging, 720 ,, litter, 749 Piano-fortes, wood for, 137 Pigs in forests, 564 Pitch pine, 116, 633 Pit-props, 93, 121, 168, 269, 643 Planing machines, 691 Planks, 110 Pliabilit}- of wood, 42 Poles, 200, 271 Pony saws, 687 Private contract, sale by, 463, 467 Ptilinus sp., 87 Pyngado wood, 117 Pyroligneous acid, 168 Q. (Quarrying stone, kc. R. Rafting timber, 408, 411 Railway-carriages, wood used for, 141 sleepers, 91, 92, 118, 330, 660, 669, 673 Railways, iniluence on the timber trade, 427 Red-rot, 71 Reserve material in wood, 28 Resin-galls, 71 ,, in wood, 28, 43, 101 ,, tapping, 632 Resistance to strains, 47 Rhytidome, 41 Roads, 309 Root- rot, 73 Rosin, 28, 35, 83, 770 Royalty on wood, 451 Rudders, 149 Sabots, 155 Sales of wood, 441, 447 Sale-lots, 292, 475 Salep, 656 Sand, pits for, 576 Sapwood, 15 Saws, 199, 288 ,, resistance of wood to, 37 Saw-dust, 164 ,, mills, 85, 199, 254, 288, 446, 676 ,, sets, 208 Scantlings, 110 Sealed tenders for wood, 461, 466 Season for felling, 219 Seasoning wood, 50 Seeds of conifers, 751 ,, ,, other forest trees, 546 Seed-kilns, 752 Shingles for roofs, 148 Ship-building, 125, 269 Shoemakers' pegs, 153 Shrinkage of wood, 53 Sided timber, 107 Silver grain, 61, 134 Slack barrels, 146 Sledges, 140, 280 Sledge-roads, 314, 322 Slides, timber, 324 Sliding logs, 285, 288, 324 Softwood, 16, 34, 168 Sorting wood, 267 Sounding boards, 43 Soundness of wood, 102, 114 Spars, 131 Specific gravity, 23, 80, 98 Split wood, 147 Spokes for wheels, 140, 167 Spring-wood, 9 Stacking wood, 267 Stacks of wood, 295, 439 Stakes, 165 Star shake, 61 Staves for casks, 142 Steaming wood, 46, 59 Stone quarries, 576 Storing seed, 557 Straightness of stem, 20 INDEX. 779 Street pavement, 118 Strength of timber, 46, 48, 49, 113 Stumps, 231, 234, 251, 259 Sumach, 485 Summer- felling, 52, 224 ,, wood, 9 Superstructure, 111 Swelling of wood, 57 Swine in forests, 564 T. Tanks, 373 Tanning bark, 483 Tap-roots, 18 Tar, 168 Teak wood, 127 Telegraph-posts, 256, 271, 660, Tenacity of wood, 47 Teredo, 89 Texture of wood, 59 Timber-assortments, 248 ,, chutes, 288 ,, slides, 324 ,, trade, 471 Tools, wood for handles of, 136 Toys, children's, 157 Tramways, forest, 340 wire, 352, 421 Transport, 308, 357, 479 Transverse strength of wood, 48 Tree-props, 161 Trenails, 153 Truffles, 654 Turf, 720 Turnery, 158 Turpentine, oil of, 770 Twisted fibre, 66, 247 U. Unsound wood, 61 V. Valonea, 484 Valuation of wood, 305 Vanillin, 653 Veneer, 135, 690 Venetian blinds, 138 Vine-stakes, 92, 166 Violet powder, 656 Violins. 138. 154 W. Wages, 181 Warping of timber, 58 Water-pipes, 117 ,, transport, 357 Wattle fences, 124 Wavy wood, 65 Wedges, 210 Weight of wood, 33 Weirs, 374 Wheels, 139 Wheelwrights' work, 139 White ants, 88, 659 ,, piped wood, 74 „ rot, 71 Wind-mills, 124 Windsor Forest, 600, 602 Winter felling, 82, 223 Wire-tramways, 352, 421 Withes, 166 Wohmann's machine, 217, 233 Wood-assortments, 268 ,, carbonisation, 693 ,, carving, 155, 157 ,, depots, 429 ,, engraving, 158 ,, gas, 168 ,, plaiting, 160 ,, sap, 81 ,, transport, 308 ,, tapestry, 149 ,, wool, 653 Wooden shoes, 155, 157 Worm-eaten wood, 86, 95 BRADBVHV, AGNF.W, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, WHITEFRl library