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SCHOOL

KISARDENINC

pi W. FRANCIS RANKIIS

SCHOOL GARDENING

BY

W. FRANCIS RANKINE

LONDON

SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E.C BATH AND NEW YORK

- ^

IN the curriculum of the rural, the provincial, or even the urban school, there is no more delightful subject than that which is treated of in the following pages. It is a subject that introduces the scholar to the possibilities of the soil and to those physical forces that in days past have built up our national wealth ; it brings him into contact with the agencies of Nature whereby the plant is induced to yield its contribution to the dietary of the human race. There is no more fascinating work for boys who in their small gardens learn by " seeing and doing."

Of course, as in all things, it is essential that procedure should be carefully directed and both teachers and scholars should derive much useful information and guidance from this small book. School Gardening is gaining in popularity year by year, and county after county is adopting it as a valuable practical asset to the curricula of their schools. In its bearing on the study that is conducted in the class-room it has proved itself of sterling value as a medium for the correlation of the Nature subjects.

It is a subject, however, that demands some amount of experience on the part of the instructor, and where this has been limited through uncontrollable circum- stances the present work should do much to establ teaching upon correct lines.

HORACE J. WRIGHT,

Inspector and Lecturer in Horticulture to the Surrey County Council-

CONTENTS

CHAP.

I. THE SOIL .

II. SOIL CULTIVATION

III. GARDEN TOOLS

IV. THE SCHOOL GARDEN V. MANURES .

VI. GERMINATION AND SEED SOWING

VII. GREEN VEGETABLES

VIII. POD-BEARING VEGETABLES

IX. TAP-ROOTED VEGETABLES

X. THE POTATO

XI. BULBOUS-ROOTED VEGETABLES

XII. MISCELLANEOUS CROPS .

XIII. FRUIT CULTURE

XIV. SUITABLE FRUITS

XV. FRUIT TREE PLANTING

XVI. SMALL FRUIT .

XVII. APPLES, PEARS, AND PLUMS .

XVIII. GRAFTING AND BUDDING

XIX. FLOWERS . GLOSSARY

7 11 19

23

31

37

43

54

62

73

80

84

92

95

98

102

108

115

119

123

ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Soil Formation

2. Digging .

3. Incorrect and Correct

Methods of Digging

4. Bastard Trenching .

5. Full Trenching

6. A Set of School Garden

Tools .

7. Front and Side Elevation

of Tool Shed .

8. Arrangement of Tools on

the Inside Walls of Shed

9. Plan of School Garden

Group .

10. Cropping Plan

11. The Relation of the Plant

to the Soil .

12. Applying Artificials.

13. Germination of the Pea

14. Forms of Drills

15. The Result of Thin Sowing

16. The Result of Thick Sowing

17. Forms of Protection for

Seeds .

18. Planting.

19. Gall Weevil .

20. Club Root

21. Cabbage White Butterfly

22. Nitrogen Nodules

23. Pea Drill

24. Staking Peas .

25. The Pea and Bean Weevil

26. Bean Blight .

27. Crowded Dwarf Beans

28. A Well Developed Dwarf

Bean .

29. Three Methods of Staking

Beans .

30. Root Storage .

31. The Value of Thinning

32. Carrots Growing on Ridges

33. Carrot Fly

34. How to Grow Exhibition Carrots, Beet and Parsnips

PAGE	FIG
9	35.
12	36.
	37.
13	38.
15	39.
16	40.
	41.
19	42.
21	43.
	44.
22	45.
	46.
24	47.
28	48.
	49.
34	50.
36
38	51.
40	52.
40	53.
' 41	54.
	55.
42	56.
44	57.
48	58.
SO	59.
51	60.
55	61.
56	62.
57	63.
58	64.
60 61	65.
	66.
61
	67.
62
64	68.
65	69.
66
67	70.
	71.
68	72.

PACK

Turnip Flea Beetle . . 71

Seed Potatoes. . . 74 How to Divide Large Seed 75 Planting Potatoes in Drills 75

Earthing up Potatoes . 76

Lifting Potatoes . . 77

Potato Storing . . 78

Wireworm . . .80

Ripening Onions . .81

Onion Fly . . 82

Leek Planting. . . 83

Earthing up Leeks . 83

Shallots . . . .84

Vegetable Marrows . . 85

Ridge Cucumbers . . 86

A Rhubarb Crown Ready

for Planting . . '.87

Tomatoes . . .88

Celery Trench. . . 90

Celery Fly . . .91 A School Garden Fruit Plot 92

Fruit Tree Planting. . 99

Cuttings . . .102

A Trench for Cuttings . 103

Pruning Red Currants . 105

Training Raspberries . 106

Strawberry Runners . 107

Forming a Bush Apple . 108

Pruning Cuts . . .109

Fruit Spurs . . .110

Forming a Cordon Tree . Ill

Forming a Pyramid. . 112

American Blight on Canker

Wound . . .113 Apple Attacked by Codlin

Moth . . . .114 The Effect of the Canker

Fungus . . .115 Whip Grafting . .116 Crown Grafting . .117 Saddle Grafting . .118 Budding. . . .119

SCHOOL GARDENING

CHAPTER I THE SOIL

is the oldest and at the same time the most interesting industry in existence. It offers pleasure to all and profit to many ; there is a pleasure in the beauty of the flowers that may be grown ; there is a great profit in the health-giving exercises it affords us, and in the knowledge that the observant gardener acquires in the course of his work. Further, it is an art which demands intelligence, energy, and patience ; in fact, without these, success cannot be secured.

Success in everything depends on a clear comprehen- sion of the underlying reason of things, and in no work of life is this so true as in gardening. The gardener who understands the reasons that underlie the operations he carries on in the garden has every opportunity of obtaining satisfactory results. On the other hand, it is quite possible to perform these operations in a satis- factory manner without any knowledge of the reasons which explain why they are done ; yet, undoubtedly, a knowledge of the theory of gardening enables the worker to more thoroughly and intelligently carry out his practice. Theory without practice is useless, and practice

7

8 SCHOOL GARDENING

without theory is a drawback. The greatest measure of success is realised by the gardener who possesses a well-balanced knowledge of both.

Year by year, our gardens yield a wide range of produce and from this produce large quantities of nourishing food are derived. To the thoughtful it is clear that the source of this vegetable wealth is the soil ; it is the soil — the Mother Earth — that provides the material, which under the gardener's care and influenced by the forces of nature, is gradually transformed into flower or fruit or vegetable. It is this material, or plant food supply, that must receive our first consideration, for on its correct treatment rests the foundation of all gardening success.

The question of plant food leads us to the discussion of the formation of soil ; this will explain, how plant food finds its way into the soil and, at the same time, illustrate the wonderful and persistent soil -making action that goes on every day in the garden. Soils differ widely, and in a small district it is quite possible that many different types of soil may be discovered ; this is due to the fact that soils are formed in the first place from the rocks of the earth, and in most instances owe their nature to the underlying rocks. Soils are made from these rocks by the weathering action of air, rain, wind, and frost. This weathering action has been progressing since the earliest days ; the production of soil is an operation that proceeds very slowly yet steadily through the years and centuries. It is going on now where the rocks of the mountains and hills are continuously crumb- ling under the action of the atmosphere, rain and wind, and frost. All rocks contain minerals, and these are

THE SOIL 9

attacked by the oxygen of the air ; they are " rusted " or " oxidised " by this soil-making agent. This is the first stage in the decay of the rocks— strong and hard as they appear ; rain enters the rock crevices and carries with it the rock dust and fragments, while the frost performs no small task in forcing the rock fragments apart. Thus, in the course of the ages, soil is prepared

9*&~*i •";,"/ •/;•* 'l^J- '"

j!-5^^-_> ?. ' t'-fZ <~~V-'

^'^^K^f^.

FIG. 1. SOIL FORMATION: ROCK, SUBSOIL, AND SOIL

with its supply of plant food formed from the broken and oxidised minerals of the parent rocks. This weather- ing action, or early stage in soil formation, does not affect the gardener to any great extent, for, on the one hand, the nature of the underlying rocks cannot be changed, and, on the other hand, the action takes a long time in its completion. Yet, it must be remembered that these natural forces — air, rain, and frost — are ever at work ; thus much can be done in treating the soil so that the action of these forces may be carried out as

10 SCHOOL GARDENING

extensively and as thoroughly as possible. The most important soil-making agent is the air with the gases it contains, and on these the gardener depends for the formation of suitable plant food. He must know that the mere presence of plant food is insufficient ; the food must be in a state ready for the support of plant life. It must be available plant food.

A supply of active plant food is only obtained by deep and thorough cultivation, which deepens the soil and allows the gases of the air to enter and carry on their important work. The deeper the soil, the more extensive is the action of these food-preparing agents ; at the same time, it provides the plant an opportunity of extend- ing its root system in search of food. On the other hand, where the ground is imperfectly cultivated, the action of these agents is confined to the surface ; in this way a small supply of plant food is developed. It is on account of this that the farmer ploughs his fields and the gardener digs his garden.

Thus we see that the soil is really the factory in which the plant food supplies are developed ; the quantity of this plant food depends in the first place on the nature of the parent rock, and, secondly, on the thoroughness of the operations of cultivation. The plant can only take into its system the food that has been completely prepared, that is, it can only use active plant food. It must be remembered that while the soil contains plant food, there is a certain part of it that is useless as food to the plant ; however, this serves the very useful purpose of fixing the plant firmly in position.

Throughout the British Isles there is a wide range of

SOIL CULTIVATION 11

rocks, and under this name we include every form of the earth structure such as sand, clay, or granite. Each kind of rock accordingly gives a distinct type of soil. Thus we find sandy soils, clayey soils, and chalky soils, and since the minerals vary according to the rock, we shall expect to find different quantities of plant food in the soils formed from them. This is the fact. In the case of sandy soils, the amount of plant food is very small ; here the gardener must use his intelligence and find out exactly what element must be added to the soil to ensure a sufficient supply for the crops he wishes to raise. In other words, he supplies the soil with suitable manures. These manures contain plant foods which are attacked by the food-preparing agents, and formed into an active food supply.

CHAPTER II SOIL CULTIVATION

IGGING. The object of all digging operations is to enable the forces of nature to carry on their work to the greatest extent ; at the same time weeds are cleared from the garden. The digging Df loams and clays should be done in late autumn or early winter and the surface should be thrown up roughly. This encourages the free admission of water, and as this expands under the influence of frost, the lumps are forced to pieces and the cultivator is able, when the time for seeding or planting comes in spring, to secure a friable, mellow tilth, or " season." The frost also kills many insects and other garden pests. The grower benefits

12

SCHOOL GARDENING

still further by frost action when the soil is thrown up roughly ; numerous air passages are formed, the soil is thoroughly aerated, and the latent food supplies are converted into a rich store of available nutrient matter. No gardener can reasonably expect any measure of success if this winter digging of medium or strong land is neglected or imperfectly carried out.

The ground should be forked again in spring to facili- tate the preparation of suitable seed beds ; if, however,

FIG. 2. DIGGING

The soil from the trench A is taken to B and the earth in C is thrown

forward into the empty trench. When D is reached it is filled with the

soil taken from A. Thus total displacement of soil is achieved.

the winter digging has not been performed, weeds are well established, and the actions of frost and air will be lost.

It is necessary, however, to consider sandy soils whose composition is such that they lack the power of holding moisture, and, consequently, cannot hold plant food in suspension. To dig these deeply and roughly in autumn would mean that the water would pass through them

SOIL CULTIVATION

13

more easily and more rapidly than before, and what little nutrient matter they contained would be washed away. Such light soils should be worked as early in spring as the weather permits.

In digging, great care must be taken to displace the soil. Form a trench, one spade in depth and two feet

FIG. 3. INCORRECT AND CORRECT METHODS OF DIGGING

In Fig. A the spade is inserted too obliquely and hence the soil is moved to a less depth than it is in Fig. B in which the spade is placed

correctly.

in width along one end of the plot, and by the aid of a wheelbarrow take it to the other end, or side if the plot has been divided longitudinally. The reason for this process is quite clear, for, as the soil is moved a spadeful at a time, until the piece of ground is dug, a trench is always open. This is filled with the soil that was taken in the first place from the opposite end of the plot. If

14 SCHOOL (iAKOI-XING

the soil has been evenly turned, tin- fnslily-diig plot will present a level surface ; on the other hand, if the digging has been done unevenly and imperfectly, the surface will be uneven and untidy. The spade should be pressed into the ground so that the blade slants at an angle of about 60° ; the spadeful of earth that is raised should be thrown forward so that the soil is turned completely over. If the spade is inserted too slantingly, the soil will not be worked to a sufficient depth, for, as we have noticed, the deeper is the soil, the greater is its capacity for holding plant food. Shallow digging, therefore, is of little value. It is imperative that the bottom of each trench should be well forked before the next portion of soil is dug in. This increases the depth of soil and generally improves the value of the garden ; a larger supply of plant food is secured, and the roots of the plants ramify more readily and more deeply into the ground. BASTARD OR FALSE TRENCHING. The object of trench- ing is to move the soil to a greater depth than can be done in digging. When it is done efficiently the depth will be two feet or three feet compared with the one foot of good digging. It is most desirable to bastard trench new ground, for, by means of this process, a deep soil is obtained, and the roots of weeds are easily removed. At the outset it is of the utmost importance to remember that in bastard trenching, , the surface soil must not be buried ; neither must the subsoil be brought to the surface. The reasons are these ; the soil contains the plant food that has resulted from the action of the soil- making agents which has been going on for many years ; if this surface soil is buried it is useless, and its food supply

SOIL CULTIVATION

15

is lost. The subsoil contains plant food, but it is unavail- able because it has been buried beyond the essential atmospheric influences, unless, of course, bastard trench- ing has been done regularly, when true or full trenching can be advantageously carried out, as will be explained. At first sight, it may appear difficult to prevent the subsoil from being brought to the surface ; it is, however, quite simple to bastard trench a garden plot so that the surface soil is kept on the surface and the subsoil is kept underneath, while at the same time the entire mass of

soil is moved. This is made clearer by a diagram (Fig. 4) ; in the case of a large piece of garden the line should be placed across the plot so that two equal portions, A and B, are formed. At X dig a trench, two feet to three feet wide, and one spade deep ; these sections C and D, are moved to C' and D' ; this is surface soil. Next, take out E, the subsoil, to a depth of one spade and a width of two spades ; place this earth by itself at E'. Now dig the bottom of the trench E a spit deep, but do not move the soil out ; this ensures that the soil is loosened to a depth of three spits, or nearly three feet. The

16

SCHOOL GARDENING

trenching may now proceed ; move the subsoil in F into the trench E, and the surface section J into C ; dig the soil F in exactly the same way as G was worked. Then K is moved to F. By this method the surface layer and subsoil layer are worked forward section by section, and the relative position of these layers is not changed. However, the cultivation makes it possible for air to penetrate to a greater depth than in the case of ordinary digging, so that in time the subsoil is sweetened by aera- tion. When Y is reached, three sections of soil must

FIG.

FULL TRENCHING

Where a wheelbarrow is not available the plot to be trenched is divided as shown into the two parts A and B. Two spits of 'soil C and D are removed as indicated to C' and D'. The surface layer E is thrown into D and F takes the place of C. G and H are forked over as in Fig. 4. The earth from C' and D' is used to fill the last trench.

be brought from B in order to level the portion A. It is done as follows ; the surface section P is placed in L, and the subsoil section under P is placed in N. Q is then moved to M and the same operations continued until Z is reached and three more sections of soil are required. These ate obtained from the heaps taken from the first trench, but care must be taken to place the sub- soil E in its proper place, viz., underneath. Intrenching

SOIL CULTIVATION 17

a smaller piece of ground the division need not be made, and by means of a wheelbarrow, C, D, and E may be taken to the other end of the plot at once. The natural manure should be either spread on, or worked into the subsoil, but in no circumstances must it be covered more deeply than two and a half feet beneath the surface.

TRUE TRENCHING. When bastard trenching has been consistently and thoroughly done for three or four years the subsoil will have become so much ameliorated that substantial advantages will be secured by full trenching, in which process the positions of the surface and sub- soils are reversed as is clearly shown in the diagrammatic illustration, Fig. 5.

SURFACE CULTIVATION. However energetically the digging and trenching operations have been carried out, the cultivation of the soil is not complete. Before the seed beds are prepared the ground must be forked and raked to remove weeds and secure a level surface of fine soil. When the crops are growing, the soil requires constant attention, and this calls for surface cultivation. The hoe is the implement for this purpose, and the object is to obtain a loose, dusty soil round the growing plants. It is clear to the thoughtful person that soils hold mois- ture, and that evaporation is constantly progressing under the influence of the sun's heat. It should be the gardener's aim to retain the moisture for the benefit of his crops; and surface cultivation, viz., hoeing, is the method he employs. These surface operations are especi- ally necessary for certain crops, but to these attention will be drawn in subsequent chapters. While urging the necessity for looseness of the surface it will be opportune

2 — (803)

18 SCHOOL GARDENING

to insist upon moderate firmness of the soil beneath, for root-hairs (correctly elongations of the cells of the fibrous roots) — true plant feeders — are not produced by the fibrous roots as freely in loose as they are in firm soil. Hence sandy lands must always be thoroughly trodden down before seeding or planting.

DRAINAGE. The presence of excessive moisture in the soil is injurious, retarding the germination of seeds and the development of root-hairs by making the soil cold and sour. Although many of the most important crops are essentially moisture lovers — Celery and Seakale to wit — any approach towards stagnation is fatal to success. Light, sandy soils drain naturally and often to excess unless they are consolidated by treading or rolling. Stronger mediums, however, with their infinitely greater power of holding moisture frequently demand artificial drainage, but it should not be resorted to except under compulsion as the operation is tedious and expensive. Such an elaborate process does not come within the scope of a school garden pupil who places reliance upon runnels and ditches to take away superfluous water. To ascer- tain whether drainage is necessary a hole three feet deep should be dug in the autumn and covered with boards to exclude rain ; if, subsequently, water rises in the hole to within two feet three inches of the surface, the water table lies too high and the soil requires draining. Deep and thorough cultivation by improving the physical condition of the land reduces the necessity for artificial drainage.

GARDEN TOOLS

19

CHAPTER III GARDEN TOOLS

N all gardens it is necessary to have sufficient, strongly made tools ; each implement is designed especially for the work it is intended

to perform. It is also essential that the tools shall be kept perfectly clean, and this is only done by care- fully removing the dirt from them immediately after using. Occasional oiling keeps the steel parts free from rust.

A complete equipment con- sists of spade, fork, Dutch hoe, draw hoe, rake, hand- fork, trowel,dibber and line. To these should be added a wheelbarrow, water - can, and

FIG. 6. A SET OF SCHOOL GARDEN TOOLS

1. Spade. 2. Fork. 3. Draw or cutting Hoe. syringe 4. Rake. 5. Dutch or pushing Hoe. 6. Dibber. J 5 7. Trowel. 8. Reel and Line. I he

greatest

20 SCHOOL GARDENING

amount of work, and at the same time the most important work, is undoubtedly performed with the spade which ought to be constructed of steel and fitted with a strong, ash'shaft. It should have a D-shaped, rivetted handle. The spade is constructed for working the soil to a depth varying from nine inches to a foot ; this depth is usually referred to by gardeners as a " spit." The method of using this tool has been alluded to in Chapter II, yet it is well to repeat the warning against inserting the spade in a very oblique direction, for such a practice means shallow digging, and consequent loss of plant food.

The fork should also be constructed of steel and fitted with an ash shaft ; it is useful for turning the soil over lightly, and on some heavy soils it must be used instead of the spade. For carrying and spreading manure and the removal of rubbish and weeds from the garden or path it is indispensable.

In surface cultivation the rake is of importance, for by its aid a fine top soil or tilth is secured ; it is of special value in preparing seed beds and removing stones, clods, and weeds. In using the rake it is important that the soil should not be drawn to one side of the garden, or an uneven surface is the result.

The hoe is another surface cultivator ; the draw or cutting hoe provides a means of clearing weeds from growing crops when it is undesirable to dig the ground. It also produces a fine tilth, but the disadvantage is that the gardener walks forward and the weeds are often trodden into the soil. The hoe is of great service in the summer months when the surface weeds are flourishing

GARDEN TOOLS

21

and the warm, gentle showers promote rapid growth. For the latter purpose the Dutch or push hoe is invaluable. If it is used in an oblique direction it tends to produce a hard layer of soil just beneath the surface. In order to avoid the formation of a sole the hoe should be used so that it cuts in and acts on two inches of soil. In using this tool the worker walks backwards and the weeds are not trodden into the soil.

FIG. 7. FRONT AND SIDE ELEVATION OF TOOL SHED

Among the smaller implements the dibber is of value in planting ; it is used for making the hole or station for the plant. In order to raise the plant with care a hand-fork or trowel is employed — the trowel is the more suitable. Either of these tools is to be preferred to the

22

SCHOOL GARDENING

dibber for planting. The hand-fork is useful for removing weeds and stirring the soil in the flower border where a hoe cannot be easily employed.

A garden-line is indispensable, or otherwise our gardens would not present that neat, orderly appearance which makes them so attractive. For small plots a line may easily be constructed by cutting two stout pegs and fixing to them a few yards of strong cord. In large gardens a much longer line is essential, and it is easily procured from those firms who supply garden requisites. A line fitted to an iron roller frame is the most satisfactory ; care should be taken to store the line in the tool-shed

directly after it has been used. Its purpose is to enable the worker to draw straight drills for the recep- tion of seeds, and to keep the lines of plants regular.

A garden cannot be con- sidered com- pletely fur- nished unless there is a

The interior is fitted with two wide and thick strips \yh e 6 1 b a rrow ' of wood which are cut so that the shafts of the tools

fit into them as shown in the drawing. the clearing

FIG. 8.

ARRANGEMENT OF TOOLS ON THE INSIDE WALLS OF SHED

THE SCHOOL GARDEN 23

operations of autumn and the manuring work of winter make it necessary that there should be some means of ready transport. A wheelbarrow saves time and labour and secures tidiness.

The housing of the tools is an important question. For this purpose a tool shed is needed, and a wooden one of sufficient size will fulfil every requirement. It should be firmly erected and strongly built ; under the floor three battens must be placed so that the floor is kept dry. This arrangement is shown in the accompany- ing figure. The outside should be painted and the roof felted, tarred, and sanded. The interior should be fitted with racks, so that the tools can be stored neatly and in order. This may be accomplished in several ways, and any method is good provided that the tools can be taken out without inconvenience. Fig. 8 indicates a compact arrangement in which there is no encroachment upon the floor space.

CHAPTER IV THE SCHOOL GARDEN

ARRANGEMENT AND CROPPING

HE general arrangement of the school garden is naturally influenced by the peculiarities of the size, shape, surface, and aspect of the garden site. It is impossible to offer hard and fast rules for the planning of the plots, and we will be content, therefore, with general considerations of the best con- ditions. The principal object of the cultivator must be to make the best use of the ground at his disposal.

24

SCHOOL GARDENING

This is not an easy matter, and some guidance is required.

There are two methods in practice in working school gardens, and there should be little hesitation in the selection of the better procedure. In the first, the com- munal plot system, all the pupils work on one common

< •i M »	\| .			— piui , in tne second, each worker is re- sponsible for his own plot, however small it may be. There is much to be urged in sup- port of each system, yet, where space permits.there must un- doubtedly be greater re- sponsi b i 1 i ty and more occasion for individual — pffort in thp
	I I ta
I
T^acfce. F/of	Tfutetry T/ot
FIG. 9. PLAN OF SCHOOL GARDEN GROTTP On6 ^ One

.

plot system. These plots should be arranged either in a single line

THE SCHOOL GARDEN 25

or double rows according to the shape of the ground. The. latter system enables the instructor to more easily supervise the work of his pupils, and he can also conduct demonstrations with greater ease and more benefit to his class than in the case of the single row arrangement. However, on account of the shape of the site, the double row plan is often impossible.

The aspect of the ground is unalterable, yet naturally a southerly outlook is to be preferred. The length of the plots, however, must run approximately east and west. This ensures that the crops run slightly north-east and south-west in the rows, so that the warmth of the sun is received evenly by the crops throughout the day. Thi> exposure is of great importance, especially in the case of tall-growing plants.

The area of each plot is, of course, determined by the size of the ground at disposal, and here again the best possible use must be made of the space. The size may vary between half a rod and a full rod. At least half- rod plots must be secured, and no boy worker should be made responsible for areas larger than one rod. Gardens ranging between these limits may be made very useful, and it is not necessary to adhere to exact fractional sizes. The age of the pupil must be considered ; juniors or first year boys should be given small plots and seniors made responsible for full-size plots. Where the plots are one rod in extent, a senior and junior may be employed, so that the latter is prepared by his apprenticeship for the unaided occupation of a garden in the following year. This is strictly a dual plot system, and is staunchly advo- cated by a few experienced teachers. The shape of the

'J«> M iiooi GARDENING

plot is of tin- ntmoM importance, lor in view ot the l.u t th.it several representative crops must be thrown, it i- necessary to arrange each plot so th.it it >hall In- narrow in comparison with its length. Tims. ^ ft. by 30^- ft. gives a rod plot, 6 ft. 9 ins. by 30| ft. a three-c|uarter rod plot, and 6 ft. by 23 ft. a half-rod plot. The exact measurement must, however, be governed by the >hape ot the ground to be plotted. Not only does such an arrangement lend itself to siuvessl'ul cropping, but also to ease of working, tor the workers are able to tend the crops and cultivate the soil from either side of the plots.

Care must be taken to prevent the scholars horn treading on the beds when the soil is wet, but when it is dry it is advantageous rather than the reverse, more particularly on light soils.

The paths between the plots should be made two feet in width, or in the case of scarcity of ground, never less than one foot six inches. This means that operations may be carried on without trampling down the edges of the plots. The main or central path should be three feet wide. Abundance of path room means ample working space, yet this consideration is subject to the size of the site. The edges of the plots may be neatlv stoned or set with laths according to the possibilities of local supply. Where no edging is forthcoming, the spade and line must be used to square off the sides of the plots. Perhaps the latter procedure is to be recom- mended since stone edges afford a harbourage to vermin, but at the same time they add a neatness to the garden generally.

TlIH SKI- I) PLOT. In every school garden provision

NIK SCHOOL GARDEN 27

must be m;i<le tor ;i seed plot or a nursery plot, or both. Each should be a rod in area, and reserved for the working of the entire class. Plants that require trans- planting should be sown here, since there is insufficient space for such operations on the ordinary plots.

The propagation of plants by cuttings, layers, and division may be practised in the seed plot or nursery.

THE PRACTICE PLOT. The practice plot must be at least one rod in size, and nothing should be grown in it. The preparatory operations of digging, trenching, and drill-drawing should be taught here ; in fact, all neces- sary work should be rehearsed on this plot. There is nothing more detrimental to school gardening than the wrong use of implements, and the practice plot offers a valuable help in preventing and correcting bad methods. The practice may be carried on prior to the general advance of spring work on the plots, and demonstration should precede each important operation. For the junior students such work is of the greatest value, and secures the conditions that lead to success in the indi- vidual work on the plots. If a plot larger than one rod can be secured for this purpose, so much the better.

CROPPING. The arrangement and variety of the crops grown in the school garden will naturally depend on the size of the plots. On the large plots a representative cropping is easily secured, while in the smaller plots intercropping must be resorted to in order to make the best use of the space at disposal. At the same time crowding must never be permitted. The cropping plan (Fig. 10) indicates how a rod plot may be cropped, and with slight modification in the number of rows of each

28

SCHOOL GARDENING

kind it may be carried out in the case of the smaller plots. On small plots, celery cannot be grown, but it

certainly should find a place in the rod plot ; lettuces may be intercropped with it. Potatoes may be intercropped in al- ternate rows with winter greens, but if the former are tall growing varieties, the system is not to be re- commended. When- ever potatoes are to be intercropped, care should be taken to plant the rows well apart, so that the earthing up and lifting of the tubers is not interfered with. Turnips, Spinach, Let- tuces, and Radishes

FIG. 10. CROPPING PLAN

		- "Brood titans	J
7odbloj-in£		Tfeart.
VfgtiobJtv		113 Tfeas
		S1 Trench "B*ans>
		- Trtnet, "£>tan«,
		'Kok1
F\		"Ttrtatot s>
Tibrous		e. f3a>yni "Tbfdfots	"
footed VfgelobUs.		(RruatL .Jfi.-^r,) Xarlv Turnips	-.
		I ' fc/enorlsl Cauliflower
		•• I l~i«uar.)
c		" Winltr Onions.
Deef>		Sbi-ino Onions
'Rooied		"• Shallots.
Vegetable*.		Par&nibb
		C" parrots (lond)
		*• CarroK (shorU
		C Tbttt
		S Tfc.rs.ltv

This plan is adapted from a suggestive scheme by Mr. John Wright, V.M.H.

may be grown be- tween Peas and Eeans.

SUCCESSIONS. In cultivating and cropping of all gardens it is necessary to consider three important points. Firstly, a succession of crops must be secured so that a continuous yield of produce is obtained ; secondly,

THE SCHOOL GARDEN 29

care must be taken so that the autumn and early winter operations of digging, manuring, and trenching, may be carried out ; and, thirdly, provision must be made for a rotation of crops in successive years so that exhaustion of the soil is prevented. Little difficulty should be experienced in dealing correctly with each of these considerations. Here is a general guide to rotational cropping.

1. Beans and Peas should be followed by Potatoes,

Turnips and Greens.

2. Potatoes, Turnips, and Greens should be 'followed

by Onions, Parsnips, Beet, and Carrots.

3. Onions, Parsnips, Beet, and Carrots, may be followed

by Beans and Peas.

This rotational arrangement may be followed out in a sectional scheme as shown in Fig. 10, or it may be worked out in the usual way by keeping a cropping plan each year, and planting crops the following season according to the table given.

For successions, viz., for the purpose of obtaining a continuous yield, the following points are useful : —

1 . Peas and Beans may be followed by Lettuce or Turnips

2. Onions may be followed by Broccoli.

3. Spring Cabbage may be followed by Peas or Turnips.

4. Winter Lettuce may be followed by Cauliflower.

5. Peas or Onions may be followed by Spring Cabbage.

6. Early Potatoes may be followed by Brussels Sprouts or Peas.

The following table is a guide for planting the various crops demanded by the school plot. Local conditions will naturally affect the time of sowing ; the nature

30

SCHOOL GARDENING

of the soil will slightly modify the depth of the drills, and all the influences of garden life will have something to do with the period that elapses before the plant arrives at maturity.

Vegetable. Cabbage, Spring Cabbage, Summer Borecole Brussels Sprouts Broccoli Cauliflower Savoy Lettuce Celery Spinach Beans, Broad Beans, Dwarf Beans, Runner Peas Beet Carrots Turnips Parsnips Potatoes Onions Leeks Shallots Radishes

Vegetable Marrow Parsley Tomatoes Cucumber, Ridge Mustard & Cress

U'hen to Sow. August

March and April .March to May Feb. and April Mar. to May Feb. to April March to May March to July Feb. and March March to Sept. Feb., Mar., Nov. May

May and June Feb. and May April and May March to July Feb. to Sept. Feb. and March March to May Feb. to Ap. & Aug. March February Feb. to July March and April March to June Feb. and March March and April March to June

Depth of Drill.	Distance Apart.
£ inch	15 inches
£ inch	18 inches
\ inch	24 inches
| inch	30 inches
•£ inch	18 inches
£ inch	24 inches
£ inch	18 inches
£ inch	9 inches
£ inch	9 inches
1 inch	8 inches
3 inches	6 inches
3 inches	12 inches
3 inches	12 inches
3 inches	3 to 6 inches
1£ inches	9 inches
1 inch	9 inches
£ inch	9 inches
1 inch	12 inches
4 to 6 inches 12 to 15 inches
1 inch	4 to 9 inches
1 inch	12 inches
	9 inches
1 inch	Broadcast
H inch	One plant
\ inch	9 inches
\ inch	24 inches
1 inch	24 inches
Surface	Broadcast

The following table indicates the crops that should be grown in each plot :—

Beet Borecole Beans, Broad 2 Beans, Runner 1 Broccoli

1 Brussels Sprouts Lettuce Cabbage Mustard and Cress Carrots Onions Cauliflower Parsley 2 Celery Parsnips Dwarf Beans Peas

Potatoes Radishes 1 Savoy Shallot Turnips

1 These crops should be grown on a reserve plot where the gardens are very small.

2 On small plots these crops should be omitted, or in the case of Runner Beans, a few plants may be placed at the corners.

MANURES 31

On the nursery plot the following may be grown : — Vegetable Marrow, Ridge Cucumber, Rhubarb, and all Winter Greens.

CHAPTER V MANURES

| HE continuous growing of crops naturally results in the exhaustion of the soil ; day by day each plant is assimilating food from the soil, and at the end of the year the garden is deficient in active plant food. The keen gardener endeavours to prevent this weakening of the feeding power of the soil, and by means of natural and artificial manures, he care- fully maintains and improves the condition of the soil. On the other hand the feeding of the soil may be neglected ; then partial starvation of the plants is inevitable and certain, and the value of the ground is lessened. Money invested on manures is money well spent ; false economy in this direction is the path to failure.

We have already shown that the soil is simply a food storage for the plants, but before the nutrient matter is available it must be soluble, since plants feed by imbibition alone. There may be a large supply of insoluble food matter, but this is of no value except as a reserve supply which, under the combined action of soil working, water and air, is transformed into an active supply.

The three most important constituents of this food supply are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, and manures containing these three important foods are readily obtainable.

32 SCHOOL GARDENING

NATURAL MANURES. These are widely employed, and the best known form consists of farmyard manure or the refuse of the stable. This manure contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in such a state that they are easily formed into a soluble food. One ton of farmyard manure contains about 10 or 12 Ibs. of nitrogen, 4 to 9 Ibs. of phosphoric acid and from 9 to 15 Ibs. of potash. The nitrogen is chiefly present in the form of ammonia, which causes the characteristic smell of farmyard manure ; this compound is very volatile, and on this account a great proportion of this valuable food is lost when the manure is exposed to the atmosphere.

Farmyard manures should be used to the extent of three or four barrow-loads per square rod ; it may be spread over the surface and thoroughly dug into the soil a spade deep, but the best practice is to work it into the second layer or spit when the ground is being trenched. In strong soils this should be done in early winter so that the " breaking-down " action of the food compounds may commence early ; in light, sandy lands it must be done in spring. It is unwise to place fresh stable manure in the ground at any time as it is liable to injure the roots ; it should have been previously sweetened by stacking and turning.

The compost heap provides the gardener with a conve- nient source of valuable plant food. It should be formed in an out-of-the way corner of the garden and built up from time to time of plant refuse mixed with quicklime ; to these may be added dead leaves. In the course of time the vegetable matter decomposes and provides a valuable manure for use during the next trenching operation.

MANURES 33

A similar, yet quicker, method of manuring the garden is provided by " digging in " a quickly-grown green crop ; thus, in autumn, Turnips may be sown on a spare plot and then in the following spring dug deeply into the ground.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES. The question of artificial manures is of great interest and illustrates how completely scientific knowledge is brought to the gar- dener's assistance. It will be observed that natural manure contains plant food in more or less constant proportions, yet, different crops require different foods, and then, again, different soils contain varying amounts of these foods. In this way, by means of "artificials," the gardener who studies the nature of his crops and the peculiarities of his soil is able to provide the particular food that is needed, and also in whatever quantity he pleases. For instance, it has already been stated that nitrogen is an essential plant food ; it is known that the atmosphere contains an enormous supply of this element in a free state, yet, except in the case of one family of plants — Peas and Beans — this air supply is quite inacces- sible to plants. The legumes, or pod-bearers, are provided with nitrogen nodules on their roots ; these nodules contain minute organisms that are able to store up nitrogen for the plant's use. Such nodules are to be found on the roots of Feas, Beans, Lupins or Clover, and they are extremely interesting instances of the action of plants in obtaining food.

The nitrogen of the air is thus unobtainable by the majority of plants ; nitrogen, therefore, must be obtained from the soil, in which it is present in the form of nitrates.

3—1809)

34

SCHOOL GARDENING

A nitrate, of which sodium nitrate is a useful example, is really, as far as the plant is concerned, a nitrogen carrier. In performing this work, sodium nitrate is a most useful artificial manure ; it is easily soluble and therefore available for plant food. It should be remembered that great care is necessary in the correct use of this manure ; it may be placed on the surface when seedlings

Air - oxyofcn nitrodtn - carbon dioxide

TfineraJs from undtrlyino

FIG. 11. THE RELATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL

are developing — soon after they have used up the storage of food contained in the parent seed, half an ounce per square yard being ample at this stage. It is helpful in the growing of all crops at the rate of one ounce to the square yard, or a similar quantity to a gallon of water when utilised in liquid form. In no

MANURES 35

circumstances must it be used on land deficient in potash and phosphates.

Phosphoric acid is carried to the plant's root system in the form of superphosphates, bone dust, and guano. These compounds are extremely useful, and the garden plots should be dressed with it in early spring, for they are not so readily soluble as sodium nitrate. The dress- ings may be scattered into the trenches as digging proceeds, or distributed on the land and raked or hoed in to a depth of two or three inches. Of the first and second named, from three to four ounces to the square yard may be given ; of the third named, two ounces.

Potash is carried to the plant in the form of nitrate of potash, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, and kainit ; it is an indispensable food supply. It is easily retained in the soil and not so easily washed out and lost as is the case with sodium nitrate.

The first named is far more valuable as a stimulant than as a food ; the second and third named are valuable for spring application, the former usually producing the better results ; while the fourth must be applied in autumn when it has substantial value as a fungicide and an insecticide as well as a food.

These chemical manures are mixed in proportions varying according to the crop and also to the amount of lime in the soil. The presence of lime is an important consideration because it helps to a great extent in the proper production of a food supply. Here are tables of mixtures suitable for land rich in lime and also for soils deficient in that substance.

36

SCHOOL GARDENING

A. FOR SOILS RICH IN LIME :—

Phosphates Superphosphate of Lime

Potash Kainit

Nitrogen Nitrate of Soda .

B. FOR SOILS DEFICIENT IN LIME

Potash Sulphate of Potash

Nitrogen Nitrate of Soda .

Phosphates Basic Slag

4 Ibs.

1\ Ibs. \\ Ibs.

8 Ibs. for 1 rod of land

£ Ib.

fib.

2} Ibs.

4 Ibs. for 1 rod of land

It is of the utmost importance that the soil should possess a fine tilth, otherwise the distribution of these artificial manures is not even — their action is local, and it is hindered greatly by lumpy soils.

Lime is of great value on account of its action in producing free ammonia when it comes in contact with nitrogenous matter. In this way it helps the decay of stable manure, but it is imperative that it should be raked into the soil after the natural manure is dug in.

Otherwise, if it is mixed with stable manure before it is used, ammonia is liberated and evaporates, the nitrogen of the manure being thereby lost. Lime also sweetens the soil and performs a useful work in killing many forms of pests.

FIG. 12. APPLYING ARTIFICIALS

A trench is opened at A and the soil thrown to

A' ; the manure is then dusted on the sloping

surface (a) of the trench. Section B is thrown

forward and the treatment continued.

GERMINATION AND SEED SOWING 37

When natural manures are exclusively relied upon to maintain the supply of food in the soil, a heavy dressing of lime must be applied in the autumn or winter at intervals of six years. It will act upon the masses of humus, free the nitrogen contained therein, and restore the ground to a state of fertility.

In general, artificial manures should be applied early in the year, and in many cases a second dressing may be made during the season. Full directions as to these applications will be made in reference to each crop that needs, or benefits by, concentrated foods.

CHAPTER VI GERMINATION AND SEED SOWING

ERMINATION is the first stage in the develop- ment of the plant from the seed ; this develop- fcSL ment is only possible under certain fixed conditions, viz., air, warmth, and moisture. It should be observed that light is not essential, although in the growth of the matured plant it is necessary for healthy development.

The seed is a tiny food store protected by a seed coat ; it contains the growth shoot or germ which is ready to develop when the food store is acted upon, by the influ- ence of air, warmth, and moisture. If these conditions are absent the seed remains dry and hard ; it becomes soft and moist when germination takes place. Place some pea seeds in moistened flannel, store them in a warm place and the following changes will be observed : — •

38

SCHOOL CARD K N I N ( ,

First, the seeds swell, and this is caused by absorption of moisture ; second, after several days the seed coat splits and the tiny root shoot, or radicle, makes its appear- ance and gradually develops ; and, third, soon the stem shoot, or plumule, is seen and rears its curved point

upwards. However, there is a limit to this development, and after a week or so the young pea plant

5 A 6 II dies. Why ? Simply

because it is starved ; the store of the seed is exhausted ; the plant has arrived at the stage when out- side help is required, and there is no food in the flannel for its support.

These stages of

FIG. 13. GERMINATION OF PEA

1. Appearance after immersion in water — the skin of the seed is bursting. 2. Radicle developing. 3. Full view ol 2. 4. Appearance of plumule. 5. The plumule freed from the cotyledons. 6. The radicle and plumule well developed. After this stage the seed disappears germination proceed and the support of the plant comes from the air (as assimilated by the leaves) and from the soil (as secured by the roots).

. a Similar Way in

g ground except

that there is a rich store of food available for the young plant when its roots and leaves are sufficiently developed. Therefore it is essential to prepare suit- able seed-beds so that the germinating process may progress unhindered. The presence of air in the soil is secured by thorough working ; in this way small passages are formed and air can enter freely. Warmth

GERMINATION AND SEED SOWING 39

depends partly on the weather, on the nature of the soil, and the extent of its cultivation. A heavy soil that holds an excess of moisture is a cold soil, and germination is consequently delayed ; and the same may be said of a soil that has been imperfectly cultivated. Moisture is only retained in the soil by creating a fine tilth on the surface of the seed bed ; if a rough surface soil is allowed to remain a great amount of moisture is lost by evaporation.

Thus in preparing the seed beds these considerations must be carefully borne in mind and the work thoroughly carried out. The ground should have been well dug in autumn and thus exposed to frost action. In spring it should be forked deeply and the surface will crumble down into a fine soil ; finally, the surface should be trodden down and evenly raked. These operations are of the greatest importance, for they secure the essential condi- tions of germination. The surface is fine and loose — thus air can enter freely and moisture is retained ; excess of moisture has escaped — thus the soil is warm ; a fine, but firm base has been formed — and in this way the even germination of the seed and the vigorous growth of the seedling are assured.

The seed bed having been prepared, sowing may pro- ceed in due season, and this depends on the nature of the crop that is to be sown. At whatever time of the year the sowing takes place, an endeavour should be made to secure a fine day. Not only can the operation be carried out more cleanly and more pleasantly, but also with more profit, for a wet soil retards germination. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that moisture

40

SCHOOL GARDENING

is essential, and in dry weather water must be applied

as necessary.

Seeds are usually sown in drills at depths varying

with the size of the seed. For this purpose, the line should be fixed firmly across the gar- den ; the drill is then made by

FIG. 14. FORMS OF DRILLS

A. — Triangular drilltas formed for the small seeds. It is made with a hoe, and the soil is arranged means of the evenly on both sides as shown. Its depth varies j_,. ,, i _ ,,-!•,; o with the nature of the seed to be sown. draw-hoe,which

B. — A flat-bottomed drill as made for Peas and is held SO that Beans.

a corner of the

blade displaces the soil. Great care must be taken to secure a straight drill of even depth ; otherwise the plants will grow irregularly. In sowing very small seeds, which require shallow drills, a thin stick may be employed for drilling : e.g., Mustard and Cress may be treated thus in £-inch drills.

The seed should be sown evenly and thinly ; here,

mention must be made of the importance of thin sowing. There is always a tendency, even among gardeners, to sow thickly. This results in sheer wastage, not only of seeds, but also of plants FIG. 15 and labour. Plants require

THE RESULT OF THIN SOWING breathing and feeding space,

t

GERMINATION- AND SEED' SOWING

41

FIG. 16 THE RESULT OF THICK SOWING

and the greater the number of plants crowded into a given space, the less air and food will each obtain. It

is better to grow a small number of healthy, well- developed plants than to crowd the ground with weaklings. The mistake of thick sowing may be corrected to a certain extent by thinning, but this is rarely carried out to a proper extent.

When the seeds are evenly distributed in the drills the soil should be lightly and smoothly raked over ; care must be taken not to rake to such a depth that the seeds are moved, or otherwise an irregular row of plants will result. A planting stick must be placed at one end of the row and a label bearing the name of the seed and date of sowing at the other. In due course the seedlings appear, but before this, in many cases it is necessary to protect the rows from the attentions of birds, slugs, snails, and mice. The birds attack Peas, Cabbage seedlings, and Radishes chiefly, and these should be secured from their ravages by means of wire guards or cotton. Peas should never be left without some form of protection. Slugs and snails are prevented from devouring the succulent leaves of Lettuce or Peas by surrounding the crop with lime or soot. Mice often prove a great source of annoyance and nibble pea seeds below the surface ; they are also fond of Sweet Pea growths. Where these small vermin are present the seeds should be damped and shaken up in red-lead

42 SCHOOL GARDENING

before sowing, and traps must be placed where it is known that they visit the growing shoots of Peas. Often birds are blamed for the havoc worked by mice among the Peas.

As the seedlings develop they should be thinned to the necessary distance apart, a safe rule being that no plant shall touch its neighbours, or, if they are to be

FIG. 17 FORMS OF PROTECTION FOR SEEDS

transplanted, they should be carefully lifted and placed in their new stations. In doing this, earth must be kept on the roots, or else the rootlets will be broken. CROPS FOR TRANSPLANTING :—

Borecole Cabbage Savoys

Broccoli Cauliflower Vegetable Marrows

Brussels Sprouts Leeks Lettuces

CROPS THAT ARE GENERALLY SOWN WHERE THEY WILL MATURE : —

Beans Onions Turnips Cress

Beet Parsnips Parsley Radishes

Carrots Peas Mustard

N.B. — It is possible to transplant Beans, Peas, Beet and Onions.

GREEN VEGETABLES 43

CHAPTER VII GREEN VEGETABLES

CABBAGE, SAVOY, BORECOLE, BRUSSELS SPROUTS, CAULIFLOWER, COLEWORTS

JREEN vegetables are among the most important of garden produce. They are sufficiently hardy to provide a continuous yield of crops which are welcome to the table during each month of the year. Their value does not lie in high nutritive proper- ties, but in the excellent cleansing and purifying effect which they have on the blood.

CABBAGE. This vegetable should find a place in every garden. With good cultural attention and succes- sive sowing and transplanting, well-hearted plants may be obtained from spring to the end of summer. Seed for the former crops is sown late in July and in August, and the plants are transferred to their permanent positions in September and October. It is probable that they will have had to be pricked out from the seed plot to a nursery bed before they are ready for the final positions. It is a good practice to plant out on a freshly prepared piece of ground. During the winter little growth is made by the young plants, yet in the opening of the year the Cabbages make headway. In February, nitrate of soda should be distributed on the surface at the rate of 1 oz. per square yard. This accelerates growth, and tender, firm-hearted Cabbages should be ready in spring, Seed for summer Cabbages is sown in March and April, and the plants are transplanted in May. The nitrate

44

SCHOOL GARDENING

treatment should be carried out in June in precisely the

s;ime way as recommended for the spring crop. SuninuT

cabbage should be ready for cutting in July and August.

The seeds of the several members of the Cabbage

family must be sown thinly, and the young plants should be transplanted directly they are large enough to handle. If the seed beds are crowded and transplanting is delayed, the result is a crop of weak plants. Transplanting demands care- ful work. The young plants should be lifted from the seed beds when the soil is in a moist state, and a little ball of earth must be kept round The young plants are then

FIG. 18. PLANTING

A. — Correct method. B. — A bad method with

cavity left at the roots. C. — Shows how the

dibber is used in planting.

the roots of each plant.

GREEN VEGETABLES 45

placed into a hole, sufficiently deep to accommodate the roots which should be spread with an outward and slightly downward tendency ; the soil must be firmly placed about them. Cabbages should be planted out fifteen to eighteen inches apart, and the rows should be similar distances asunder.

THE BEST VARIETIES TO GROW. For spring cutting :— Flower of Spring and Ellam's Early.

For summer use : — Button's Imperial, Tender and True, and Main Crop.

SAVOYS. The Savoy is an important winter vegetable. It requires a thoroughly prepared soil and ample- space. The seeds should be sown in April or May, and the young plants must be planted out in July. The crisp, firm- hearted produce is ready for cutting in the winter. Dwarf Green Curled is an excellent variety, and the plants should be set fifteen inches apart in rows eighteen inches asunder.

BORECOLE, OR KALE. Borecole is hardy and easily grown, and has the further advantage of not being so liable to club as other members of the family. The seeds are sown in March and April and transplanted in July ; the plants should be quite two feet apart in all directions. A fertile, but not too rich soil is necessary. The sprouts should be picked when they are quite fresh and tender, so that a continuous yield is prompted. During the development of the plants the hoe should be kept at work along the rows. Cottagers' is one of the most useful and prolific varieties.

BRUSSELS SPROUTS. This popular member of the Cabbage family provides the table with a favourite

46 SCHOOL GARDENING

vegetable. It requires deeply and generously prepared soil, and also continuous attention during growth. A sowing should be made in March, and directly the plants are large enough to stand removal plant them out two and half feet apart each way. Especially in the case of Brussels Sprouts the plants become weak and spindly when transplanting is delayed. Hoe continuously between the plants and remove the larger leaves at the base of the stems so that air and sunlight can reach the sprouts. Excellent varieties to grow are Exhibition and Wroxton.

BROCCOLI AND CAULIFLOWER. These two vegetables are very similar in form and habit of growth. Broccoli is a hardy vegetable, and it is obtained in successions for winter and spring use by making sowings from March to May. It demands a firm soil which was heavily manured for the preceding crop ; hence it follows admira- bly upon autumn sown Onions. If the plants are set out in loose, rich, deep land, such as is especially suitable for Cauliflowers, the growth is too rapid in autumn and the consequent soft growth will not withstand the rigours of the winter. On the contrary plants set with a dibber on firm ground grow slowly and hardily and rarely suffer. The distance of planting varies somewhat with the variety, eighteen by twenty-four inches usually sufficing. As has been suggested Cauliflower must have a rich and friable soil as rapid progress is desirable. Seeds should be sown in March and the plants placed in their permanent positions in July. The heads are ready in the autumn. Where summer Cauliflower are desired, the sowings must be made in August, and transplanting should take place

GREEN VEGETABLES 47

as soon as the plants are large enough to be moved. Autumn Giant is the finest variety for general use, and the plants should be allowed twenty-four inches in all directions.

GENERAL NOTES ON THE CULTURE OF THE CABBAGE FAMILY

Great care must be taken to sow the seeds and move the young plants in the proper season ; neglect of these considerations often means a poor, worthless crop. Frequently Cabbages run to seed or " bolt." This may be due to poorness of the soil, or to allowing the plants to remain crowded in the seed or nursery beds.

COLEWORTS. This is an exceedingly useful member of the family, for the plants grow rapidly and turn in in September when the summer cabbages are passed. Seeds should be sown in June or July, the young plants moved in August, a distance of twelve inches being allowed in all directions.

CULTURAL TABLE

Vegetable. Time to Sow. Time to When ready.

transplant.

CABBAGE. For Spring July & Aug. October April, May.

For Summer Mar. & April May Summer

SAVOYS Mar. or April July Autumn & Winter.

BORECOLE Mar. or April July Winter & onwards.

BRUSSELS SPROUTS Mar. or April July Autumn & Winter.

BROCCOLI Feb. to May July Winter & Spring.

CAULIFLOWER Apr. or May July Autumn

COLEWORTS, ROSETTE June & July August Sept. & Oct.

PESTS OF THE CABBAGE FAMILY AND THEIR

TREATMENT

Among the pests that attack the members of the Cab- bage family the best, known are the Gall Weevil, Club

48

SCHOOL GARDENING

Root (Finger and Toe, Anbury), and the Large White Butterfly. The Weevil and Club Root attack the roots

and stems of the plants, and the Large White Butterfly deposits its eggs on the leaves and from these emerge the caterpillars.

THE GALL WEEVIL (Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis}. This pest produces small swellings at the base of the stem and frequently these spherical growths may be found just below the surface of the soil. F The trouble is brought about by a small weevil beetle which places its eggs in the tissue of the outer skin of the stem. This egg develops into a white grub which feeds on the plant tissue. In due course the grub passes into the pupal stage and eventually the perfect insect emerges to carry on its destructive work.

FIG. 19. GALL WEEVIL

(Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis)

A. — A young Cabbage plant with galls shown on lower part of stern at B. C.— Section of gall showing the grub of the weevil inside. D. — Enlarged drawing of the grub. E. —The pupal form. F. — the beetle.

The Cabbage is subject to this pest and little can be done to remedy the evil except lifting the plants when

GREEN VEGETABLES 49

very young, cutting away the galls, and drawing the roots through a puddle of soot and clay. If the plants are again planted little harm follows the operation.

The Gall Weevil is a beautifully marked member of the beetles ; it is quite harmless. It is the larva which makes its home in the plant that causes the mischief. Often in fully developed plants a small hole may be found in the side of the swelling. This aperture is the exit and indicates that the larva has left the plant to take up its pupal quarters in the surrounding soil. In this state it is protected by an earthen case. It is good practice to dress the ground with fresh gas-lime at the rate of 1 Ib. or li Ib. to the square yard, leaving it on the surface for a fortnight and then forking it well in. In no circum- stances must the ground be cropped for six weeks after such an application.

CLUB ROOT (Plasmodiophora brassicae). This fungus causes serious injury when it is established in the garden. It is common to all the members of the Cabbage family (including Turnips) yet the Borecoles are rarely attacked. This pest is caused by spores which are able to rest in the soil in a dormant state for a considerable length of time. If such an infested area is planted with Cabbages, the spores immediately avail themselves of the plants as a means of development. As germination takes place the roots of the plant attacked are contorted into large masses of slimy matter. The presence of this fungoid pest is indicated by the unhealthy appearance of the leaves which, on account of the interference of the spores on root action, are unable to develop.

With care and prolonged exertion the pest may be

4— (809)

50

SCHOOL GARDENING

exterminated. Every infested plant must be burned.

If the plants are thrown on the soil to decay, the spores

pass into the ground and develop when a congenial host plant is grown. When the plants are cleared the ground must be thorough- ly dressed with freshly slaked lime, of which suf- ficient must be applied to cover the surface to a depth of half an inch ; it should be pointed in with a fork at the end of eight days. Gas - lime is also excellent and should Weevil.

FIG. 20. CLUB ROOT

(Plasmodiophora brassicae)

A. — Young Cabbage plant in an early stage of

the disease. B. — Section through root. C. — First

phase of Club Root. D. — The last phase and

complete rotting of roots.

be applied as advised under Gall

GREEN VEGETABLES

51

It is, however, an extremely difficult matter to ensure the destruction of every spore by either of these methods, yet with persistent efforts the pest may be kept well within bounds. No A

^a^^^_^ &

member of the suscep- tible family must be grown on in- fested land for at least two seasons. THE LARGE WHITE BUT- TERFLY (Pie- ris brassicae) . This well- known insect is a less troubles o m e pest than the two forego- ing sources of trouble. Its ravages are carried on above ground. The Large White is a widely distributed species of butterfly, and is familiar to every

FIG. 21. CABBAGE WHITE BUTTERFLY

A. — Female. B. — Eggs deposited on a leaf.

C. — Eggs magnified. D. — Chrysalis suspended

by a silken band.

By permission of the " Agricultural Economist and Horticultural Review."

52 SCHOOL GARDENING

gardener. The female insect is larger than the male, and possesses more black markings than her mate. It is double brooded. The earlier butterflies appear in April and May and the later in July and August, and during these months the eggs are placed on the under side of the leaves of cabbages. These curiously shaped eggs should be sought for and removed ; prevention in this case is easier than cure. If the eggs are not removed they eventually develop into caterpillars, which steadily eat their way into the heart of the plant, riddling the leaves and rendering the vegetable, more or less, worthless. When the caterpillars are full-fed and ready for the change to the chrysalis state they leave the plant and betake themselves to walls, fences, or other protected positions. The chrysalis is white, spotted with black markings, and is safely attached to its pupal site by means of a thin silken belt. In controlling this pest the insect-eating birds work a great deal of good ; the ichneumon fly, which places its eggs in the caterpillar, also helps to keep the number of insects within limits. The gardener should supplement this work by closely inspecting his green crops that are likely to be selected by the butterfly, when the Large White Butterfly appears. Plants that are infested with caterpillars may be sprayed with a brine solution.

LETTUCE, SPINACH. In addition to the members of the Cabbage family there are two other important green vegetables, viz., Lettuce and Spinach. Lettuce is an important salad, and Spinach is a valuable vegetable.

LETTUCE. Lettuce is a deservedly popular salad plant and may be easily grown on the school plots either in

GREEN VEGETABLES 53

rows purposely reserved or as an intercrop between Celery trenches, Beans and Peas. Sowings may be made under glass in February or out of doors from March onwards through the summer at intervals of three or four weeks. The seed bed should be thoroughly pre- pared and the soil must be light and friable. Plant out in showery weather directly the young plants are large enough. If the plants are left too long in the nursery bed, tall, spindly specimens result, and these often have a tendency to " bolt." Each plant should be set nine inches from its neighbour. When Cos Lettuces are nearly full grown tie each plant with a piece of bast or raffia so that the inner leaves blanch and the heart becomes crisp and acquires a pleasant flavour. In August a sowing may be made for planting out to stand the winter, and Bath Cos is useful for this purpose. There are two forms of Lettuce, "Cos" and "Cabbage;" the former are tall and the leaves must be tied ; the latter are smaller and are similar in shape to a cabbage.

THE BEST VARIETIES : — Paris White, Paris Green, Black Seeded Bath Cos, Tom Thumb, Hammersmith (for winter).

PESTS AND THEIR TREATMENT. Birds are often trouble- some when the Lettuce seedlings are developing, especially in dry weather. The best protection is cottoning as in the case of Peas. The slug is a far more serious enemy and lime and soot must be freely sprinkled near the rows to keep this pest from the plants. At the same time rubbish, that may harbour the slugs, should be removed.

SPINACH. Spinach is not so popular as it should be ; it is easily grown and quite hardy. Sowings may be

54 SCHOOL GARDENING

made from February to May and again in September to stand the winter and provide a spring cutting. Spinach is a strong yielding crop provided that it is not overcrowded in the rows as is so frequently the case.

CHAPTER VIII

POD -BEARING VEGETABLES PEAS AND BEANS

I HE pod-bearing vegetables are more highly esteemed than any others of the general garden crops with the possible exception of Asparagus. This is due to the fact that they are very palatable as well as nutritious. There is a strong resemblance between these members of the Pea family or Leguminosae. The most remarkable feature of the plants is a highly-developed root system, and in consequence the correct culture of Peas and Beans demands a careful preliminary working of the soil. The nitrogen nodules of the roots are extremely interesting developments, and by means of these the pod-bearers are enabled to assimilate and store atmospheric nitrogen.

PEAS. The soil must be previously prepared by very deep digging and manuring some time before the crop is sown. Seeds may be sown out of doors from February until the end of June, and the grower who makes succes- sive sowings over this period will be rewarded with a continuous yield of Peas provided that the climatic conditions are favourable. Early sowings can only be attempted in favoured positions, viz., on sunny borders

POD-BEARING VEGETABLES

55

and in light, well-cultivated soil ; on heavy, imper- fectly drained land, such a course of procedure is imprac- ticable. The principal sowing commences in the end of March, and further main crop sowings may be made until the end of May. In this way a continuous crop of early, second early, maincrop, and late Peas is obtained.

FIG. 22 NITROGEN NODULES

A. — The root system of garden

Pea. B. — Nitrogen nodules on

Broad Bean root.

In sowing, great care must be taken to give each seed ample feeding space. Thick sowing is wasteful and useless and should be discouraged. Often Peas are sown so thickly that the plants form a hedge of spindly weak- lings that experience a difficulty in obtaining sufficient plant food. This weakness of the plant results in diminutive pods and seeds.

The drill should be about eight inches wide and four inches deep, and the seeds must be placed from two to

56

SCHOOL GARDENING

six inches apart in the drill. These are covered with soil to a depth of three inches, and the plants are subse- quently thinned out from three inches to six inches apart.

P. Soon after

- — =•=- sowing, some form of pro- tector must be erected ^ over the row, to keep the birds from ^destroying the young plants. Black B, the cotton is probably the

PEA DRILL

A shows the drill open ready for planting ; drill filled in after planting.

most useful for this work, and is arranged as shown in Fig. 17. Wire mesh pea guards are effectual and more lasting ; they are easily obtainable from ironmongers. In many districts fish-netting is used.

The distance between the rows of Peas is determined by the height of the plant. Thus two feet peas are planted two feet apart ; five feet peas are planted five feet apart, and so on. The rows should run slightly north-east and south-west so that the sun can warm and nourish the plants. In the school garden the two feet or two and a half feet peas are the best to grow on account of the necessarily mixed nature of the crops. The ques- tion of the soil is also of importance in selecting the seed, dwarf peas will do best on light dry soils, and tall peas are best suited for heavv land.

POD-BEARING VEGETABLES

57

FIG. 24. STAKING PEAS

In staking Peas place the sticks so that the develop- ment of the plants may progress unhindered. Often the sticks are inclined inwards so that they meet at the top ; this system should not be followed, for it crowds the tops of the plants and they do not receive sufficient air and sunlight. The sticks should be vertically in the rows so that light and air have free access. Hazel or Chestnut stakes are the best for use. The outwardly sloping sticks allow

PESTS. The most Com- the plants ample room for growth ; , , when the stakes slope inwardly the

mon pests that beset the peas are crowded,

young plants are birds

and slugs, and these injure the crop by removing the leaves and growth shoots. The birds are easily kept off the plants by cottoning, and slugs are prevented from their nocturnal raids on the Peas by the aid of soot and lime. A fine tilth around the growing plants also aids in keeping down the pests, for there is scanty harbourage for them.

PEA AND BEAN WEEVIL (Sitones lineatus). This pest is very different from those already referred to and is not easily dealt with. Often the ravages of the Pea and Bean Weevil are ascribed to birds, or perhaps slugs, and strange to say whole rows of Peas are often destroyed and the cause never really known. This, of course, indicates a weakness in the grower's observational powers,

SCHOOL GARDEN 1X0

for the insect that causes the damage is easily discovered.

It is a grayish- brown beetle about one-fifth of an inch long ; its back is striped, and its underside is of a grayish -clay colour, so that when the Weevil falls off the plant when dis- turbed and turns on its back in its characteristic fashion, it is for a moment in- visible. In time, the weevil places its eggs on the stem of the pea or bean that is below the soil, and soon after- wards a new generation of beetles appears to carry on the Lime or soot mav be used as a

FIG. 25. THE PEA AND BEAN WEEVIL

A. — Enlarged drawing of the beetle showing its scaly appearance, hooked feet, and bristly legs. The Weevil is grayish above and light coloured below so that, when it falls on its back, as it frequently does, it is invisible. B. — Weevil natural size, viz., about J of an inch in length. C. — A Pea plant that has been at- tacked slightly by the Weevil. When the attack is severe the ribs alone of the foliage are left.

By permission of the "Agricultural Economist and Horticultural Review."

work of destruction.

POD-BEARING VEGETABLES 59

remedy against this pest, and it should be sprinkled over the plants after rain, or early in the morning when the plants are moist with dew.

THE BEST VARIETIES OF PEAS :—

Early. — English Wonder, Early Giant.

Maincrop. — Prince of Wales, Sharpe's Queen.

Late. — Autocrat, Gladstone.

BROAD BEANS. These are the hardiest of the pod- bearing vegetables, and will easily stand through the winter months. Thus they may be sown in November, with the result that an early crop is secured in the follow- ing summer. Generally the first sowings are made in February. A drill is drawn twelve inches wide and about four inches deep, and the seeds are set four inches apart down each side, placing them in such positions that those in the one row are not opposite those in the other. The drills are then filled in, and on light soils it is necessary to firm the ground above as well as below them. When the plants are about three feet high — earlier should they become infested with Black Fly — the tops should be pinched out so that further growth is retarded and the development of the pods may proceed rapidly.

PESTS. The Broad Bean is very susceptible to the " blight," which is simply another name for the " Bean aphis " or Black Fly. Aphides are troublesome pests and multiply very quickly, yet they are easily removed by frequent spraying with a soft soap solution. This emulsive wash blocks up the breathing apertures of the aphis, or plant lice, and thus destroys the pests. The aphides spread very quickly from plant to plant, and thus crowded sowings aid the distribution of the pest. In hot, dry

60

SCHOOL GARDENING

weather, the aphides flourish and the plants are least able to withstand their ravages, and the pests, unhindered,

suck the plant juices, and finally, if they are not checked, they invade the pods, and complete the destruction of the Broad Bean crop.

THE BEST VARIETIES OF BROADBEANS: — Ex- hibition Long-pod, Im- proved Broad Windsor. DWARF FRENCH BEANS. Dwarf French, or Kidney Beans, are favourite ad- ditions to the garden, but they demand careful cul- ture if fresh and tender produce is to be obtained. The soil on which the beans are to be planted must be thoroughly pre- pared and deeply dug. The second point for care- ful consideration is the sowing. Many growers crowd their plants, with the natural result, that they are weak and can only produce undersized pods. Not only is there a loss in size, but also in flavour. Kidney Beans are sown in April at a distance of one foot apart ; many authorities quote six inches and nine inches,

FIG. 26. BEAN BLIGHT

(Aphis rumicis)

POD-BEARING VEGETABLES

61

but there is no gain in such procedure, can be stringy pods. THE BEST

VARIETIES:—

Canadian

Wonder Ne

The only result

FIG. 27. CROWDED DWARF BEANS

Plus Ultra.

RUNNER

BEANS. Scarlet Runners are favourites in most gardens. They are sown in May at distances of nine inches to a foot apart, and at a depth of three inches. They may be grown in the seed plot and transplanted to the rows. As soon as twining

the stem

of the bean develops, tall stakes must be provided; these stakes may be arranged in many ways, but

probably FIG ^ A WELL DEVELOPED DWARF BEAN

arran g e m e n t s (Contrast with preceding illustration) shown in Fig. 29

62

SCHOOL GARDENING

are the most useful for the school plot. On small plots there is no room for climbing beans. It is, however,

FIG. 29. THREE METHODS OF STAKING BEANS

possible to cut away the growing shoots and thus obtain a crop from dwarf plants.

THE BEST VARIETIES : — Champion, Ne Plus Ultra, Best of All.

CHAPTER IX TAP -ROOTED VEGETABLES

BEET, CARROTS, PARSNIPS, TURNIPS, RADISHES

ESE vegetables are generally referred to as the " root " crops, and the term, to a certain extent, is a correct one. In the case of Beet, Carrots, and Parsnips, the tap-root is enlarged into a food storage. Turnips are rarely included in this group ;

TAP-ROOTED VEGETABLES 63

sometimes they are referred to as bulbous roots, yet their true position is among the Cabbage family, viz., Cruciferap. For matters of convenience and cultural procedure, I include Turnips among the tap-rooted vegetables.

In general, the tap-roots demand a deep tillage, and constant attention during the period of growth. The nature of the tap-root is such that free growth is essential to the formation of symmetrical and good-flavoured roots. This is only secured by thorough digging previous to sowing. It is useless to move the top three or six inches of soil and expect excellent roots. If the soil were manured for the preceding crop, no fresh manure will be necessary or desirable, but if it is very poor, refuse material may be worked into the second spit. In all cases the manuring operations should have been completed some time prior to the actual sowing, so that the food sub- stances may become evenly distributed in the soil. It is the aim of every grower to produce well-shaped roots, and symmetrical form can only be secured by attending to the points referred to. In many cases badly-shaped roots result from thick sowing and belated thinning, as well as injudicious manuring. These operations will be referred to under each heading.

BEET. Soil which has been freshly manured is not suited to this vegetable, and an endeavour must be made to sow the seeds in a fine soil that has been thoroughly cultivated during the previous season. Coarse soil and fresh manure induce coarseness, fanging, and forking. Sowings should be carried out late in April and in May ; drills two inches in depth and a foot apart should be drawn

64 SCHOOL GARDENING

and in these the seed should be dropped in clusters of three or four at intervals of nine inches. Subsequently the seedlings should be thinned out to single plants,, selecting the weaker ones for retention and the stronger for removal, since these latter often develop into coarse plants.

The seed beds must be protected from the ravages of the birds, who delight to pull out the seedlings for the sake of the succulent seed leaves. It is interesting to note that the green-leaved Beet are not so frequently attacked as those having coloured foliage. The soil between the rows and the plants must be thoroughly and continually hoed. The value of a fine tilth around growing root crops is often underrated ; in the first place it conserves moisture, in the second place it allows growth to proceed unhindered, and in the third place weeds are removed before they are large enough to enter into serious competition with the crop.

.In October the roots should be lifted ; this operation calls for great care, for if the skin is broken or bruised the root loses a great amount of those sugary juices

that give the plant its colour and flavour. This is known as " bleed- ing." The fork

FIG. 30. ROOT STORAGE ° ,

should be inserted

The roots are arranged as shown and com- . ,, proun(j near pletely surrounded with sand.

the root and

driven well below it ; gently press $he handle of the fork downwards and remove the plant. On account of the removal of soil in lifting the first root in the row,

TAP-ROOTED VEGETABLES

65

it is easier to lift the remaining roots. After lifting remove the leaves by twisting off the leaf stems at least three inches above the crown ; arrange the roots neatly in a pit dug in the garden and lined with sand, or in layers alternated with sand in a cellar or outhouse. The roots are withdrawn from the store as they are required for use. If they remain in the ground till the arrival of the frosts the roots will be destroyed.

THE BEST VARIETIES : — Dell's Crimson, Cheltenham Green-top.

CARROTS. Carrots demand, as in the case of Beet, a thoroughly worked soil, and it is not sufficient to perform this operation just before sowing. The ground should be selected for the carrot bed in autumn or early winter and be well dug and manured with refuse if necessary. If manure is applied to the soil in spring, the Carrots will grow fangy and misshapen. A deep soil will ensure that

the roots have sufficient

room for downward growth.

Carrots may be sown from March to July, the seeds being dropped in clusters of three or four at inter-

FIG. 31. THE VALUE OF THINNING

On the left are two Carrots which have grown

excellently since they have had ample space ;

on the right the Carrots could not develop

owing to packing in the row.

vals of six to twelve inches according to the variety ; the drills must be one inch deep, and twelve inches asunder. Subsequently the seedlings should be thinned out to

66 SCHOOL GARDENING

single plants. This thinning is of the greatest importance ; if it is neglected, small, ill-shapen roots will be the result. If small Carrots are required for soups and flavouring purposes, the sowing should be continuous in the drill and the thinning should proceed in two stages, viz., at the first thinning the plants may be left three inches apart and every other one is subsequently pulled for culinary purposes. However, there is no gain in thick sowing or crowded growing.

The roots are pulled in autumn, the leaves should be removed and the crop stored similarly to Beet.

FIG. 32. CARROTS GROWING ON RIDGES

THE BEST VARIETIES : — The selection of Carrots depends on the character of the soil. For light deep soils, New Red Intermediate is recommended, and for heavy soils Market Favourite and Model are good. PESTS. The Carrot crop is often attacked by Wire- worm and the Carrot Fly. The Wireworm is described in Chapter X

TAP-ROOTED VEGETABLES

67

THE CARROT FLY. The presence of this pest is indicated in its early stage of development by the colour of the leaves changing. If such an infested Carrot be pulled, the maggots of the fly may be seen in the root. If the pest has become established the crop is rendered worth- less, while slight attacks produce " rusting " of the roots. The fly itself which produces the trouble may be found in spring ; it is a small two-winged insect about one-fifth of an inch in length. In May it proceeds to place its eggs on the carrot just below the soil surface, and when the maggots hatch "they work downwards into the tender root. The ravages of . this pest may be lessened by pre- viously dressing the soil with gas- lime when the land is trenched. Sprayings of paraffin emulsion should be carried on, and if the soil be kept firm well up to

r r FIG. 33. CARROT FLY

the crowns of the plants the fly (Psila-rosae)

will experience difficulty in placing her eggs on the root.

PARSNIPS. This hardy root crop got' flourishes in a sound loam, and previous to sowing the soil should be most thoroughly cultivated ; no fresh manure must be used. As in the case of the Carrot bed the preliminary operations should be carried out in late autumn or early winter. It must be remembered that this crop in particular

A. — Infested Carrot. B.— Enlarged drawing of mag- C. — Eggs on young plant.

63 SCHOOL GARDENING

requires a great amount of root space, and every effort should be made to provide it. Extra large roots may be grown by boring large holes and filling them with friable

ABC

FIG. 34. HOW TO GROW EXHIBITION CARROTS, BEET, AND PARSNIPS

A. — Hole made with crowbar and filled with compost ; three seeds

are sown as indicated. B. — The strongest seedling is retained and the

others rejected. C. — Root filling the prepared form.

compost. Two or three seeds are sown in such a station and the strongest plant is selected for future growth. Thus the shape of the root is determined by the hole previously made. This practice is of especial value in the case of heavy or strong soils, or where exhibition

TAP-ROOTED VEGETABLES 69

produce is being grown. In general culture, however, this practice is not necessary, and if the soil is moved previously to sowing to a depth of at least two feet, a successful crop should be the result.

Sowings may be commenced in February if the weather permits. Make drills one inch deep and fifteen inches apart, and in these drills sow the seed as advised for Beet. Subsequently the strongest plants are retained at twelve inches apart when the rows are thinned. By no means allow thick sowings. Parsnips can be lifted and stored similarly to Beet, but they are best drawn from the soil as required for use.

THE BEST VARIETIES :— For general garden culture grow Tender and True and Hollow Crown.

PEST. PARSNIP CANKER. This is a fungoid disease that works extensive damage among Parsnips. Infested soils should be dressed with gas-lime at the rate of two Ibs. per square yard in autumn. The dressing should be thoroughly worked into the top layer of the soil, so that it may be brought as much as possible into contact with the spores.

CELERY FLY. The Celery Fly may attack Parsnips, and the same procedure should be followed as recommended in Chapter XII.

TURNIPS. This crop may be sown from March to July. It prefers a shaded station, and on account of this fact, it may be grown between Peas and Beans. Drills are drawn one inch deep and one foot apart, and in these the seed is thinly distributed. The seedlings are thinned out to nine inches apart. The surrounding surface soil must be kept fine and loose so that moisture is retained ;

70 SCHOOL GARDENING

if the crop matures in hot weather the roots become coarse, lose flavour and are generally useless for the table. Another sowing may be made at the end of the summer or at the beginning of autumn. Turnip greens, or tops, are good for food, and are obtained by allowing the roots to stay in the ground.

THE BEST VARIETIES: — Model (for summer), Red Globe (for winter).

PESTS. The turnip belongs to the cabbage family, and in common with the other members of that family it is often attacked by the Club Root fungus. The roots are distorted into curious shapes which have given rise to the name of " Finger and Toe." It should be treated in exactly the same way as recommended for the green vegetables in Chapter VII.

THE TURNIP FLEA BEETLE. The Turnip Fly, or Flea Beetle, causes a great amount of damage to young plants. The riddled seed leaves and foliage leaves indicate the presence of the pest, and a careful examination of the bed will undoubtedly reveal the beetle itself. It is about one-tenth of an inch in length, dark in colour and marked on each wing case with a yellowish stripe. Its strong legs enable it to take long leaps, and its well-developed wings carry it long distances. As soon as the Turnip seedlings push through, the beetles appear, and at once commence to feed on the seed leaves. It then places its eggs on the foliage, or " rough " leaves ; from these eggs emerge the larvae which mine their way into the leaves and feed on the plant juices. These attacks on the young plant naturally rob it of its vigour. When the larvae are full-fed, they drop to the ground and

TAP-ROOTED VEGETABLES

71

change to the pupa form ; in about three weeks from the time of laying the eggs another generation of beetles

FIG. 35. TURNIP FLEA BEETLE (Haltica nemorum)

A. — Young Radish plant attacked by beetle. B. — A rough leaf of

Radish showing the maggots boring into the leaf tissue. C. — Enlarged

view of a maggot at work in the leaf. D. — The beetle. E. — Enlarged

drawing of a portion of a rough leaf showing eggs.

appears to carry on the same scheme of operations. The beetles are able to spend the winter under stones, clods,

72 SCHOOL GARDENING

or in refuse. Hence the first preparation on the part of the gardener is to clear away all rubbish from the neigh- bourhood of the garden. A fine tilth should be formed, since this does not afford harbourage for the beetles, and at the same time the soil is kept moist and the plants are able to make rapid progress. The flea beetle always flourishes in a dry season. Frequent dustings with a mixture of soot and wood ashes when the plants are damp will keep the enemy in check.

RADISHES. This crop provides a favourite salad, and although it is of comparatively small growth, it must be grown on well- worked soil. The most important con- sideration is rapidity of growth, for delicacy of flavour and crispness of flesh depend on quickness of develop- ment. On account of this fact, several sowings should be made at intervals, so that successional crops are secured. On some soils the Radish takes a long time to mature, and consequently the crops are stringy and coarse in flavour. Although apparently the roots or bulbs, do not penetrate very far into the soil, yet it is essential that there is a goodly depth of soil, and also a rich supply of food for their sustenance. It must be remembered that this plant possesses a long, thin, tap- root which penetrates several inches into the soil in search of the food that is eventually stored in the bulb. In the school plot this crop may be sown broadcast along the borders.

THE POTATO 73

CHAPTER X THE POTATO

HE Potato is the most important crop of the vegetable garden, and successful growing demands careful culture and thorough soil cultivation. The introduction of the plant into the gardens of England is a well-known historical fact, yet its subsequent progress as an article of diet in the estima- tion of the people is far more interesting. For several years raisers have experimented upon the tuber with the result that to-day there are numerous varieties upon the market. This cross-fertilisation and hybridisation has been made the more difficult by the fact that the Potato is extremely liable to the attacks of fungoid diseases. Thus the production of a new strain has often weakened the stamina of the plant to such an extent that the susceptibility to the disease has been increased. At present there is no "disease proof" Potato, although there are many varieties that may be grown more or less successfully in spite of potato disease and leaf curl.

Potatoes require a deep and friable soil, which should have been well manured some time previously to planting. Such a medium is obtained in the light loams that often occur in the thoroughly well-cultivated soils in the chalk or limestone districts. In addition to these requisites the Potato in common with the Tomato, its cousin, demands drainage, and little success can result from grow- ing Potatoes in low- lying and imperfectly drained soils. In general the ground should be prepared in autumn, and the manuring must be performed so that the sets,

74

SCHOOL GARDENING

when planted, do not come into direct contact with the manure. To prevent this, place the manure a foot below the surface.

In propagating the potato, "sets" are employed, and their preparation for planting requires much care and attention. In fact, the selection of the "set" is of

paramount importance. If the grower intends plant- ing seed selected from his previous year's crop, he must carefully examine the tubers soon after they are lifted in autumn. The selected " sets " should then be stored under con- ditions that will favour

early development. These conditions are secured by placing them in a well

FIG. 36. SEED POTATOES

A. — A good set. B. — A weakling. .. ,

C.— A potato box for sprouting seed, lighted Shed Which IS

frost-proof. These stored

sets, are placed in shallow boxes or trays, in January, and kept in a dry and perfectly ventilated situation. Shoots soon appear, and one or two of the strongest of these are allowed to develop ; the weaker sprouts are rubbed off. In this way sets with strong growths are prepared for planting. For purposes of planting, whole sets weighing about three ounces are the most suitable. In the case of larger sets, it is necessary to cut them into sections so that each division contains a strong eye. These sliced sets should weigh about three

THE POTATO

75

FIG. 37

HOW TO DIVIDE A LARGE SET

ounces, and, before proceeding to plant, it is a good practice to dip the cut surface in lime as a safeguard against the development of fungoid diseases.

PLANTING. Potato planting may be done from the middle of March to the end of May. In sheltered positions or on borders facing south, planting may be performed late in February. Natur- ally, the time of planting depends greatly on the character of the soil and the aspect of the garden.

There are several methods of planting, but undoubtedly the best is that of drilling. It certainly demands more time, yet by means of the extra pains and time, the crop is planted more evenly and thoroughly than by other systems. Drills from four to six inches in depth are made, and in these the sets are placed about a foot to eighteen inches apart. The drills should be two feet to three feet asunder according to the height of the haulm. Tall growing varieties must be placed three feet apart.

The dibber is often used in planting ; in this case a hole is made and a Potato is dropped in. Quickness is the only argument in favour of this method, and often the shoots of the sets are broken when the Potato is dropped into the hole. Also by this method the tubers

FIG. 38. PLANTING POTATOES IN DRILLS

76

SCHOOL GARDENING

are planted at varying depths with the result that the plants are uneven when the leaves appear.

The depth of planting depends on the nature of the soil, the time of planting, and the forwardness of the set In light soils the sets may be planted eight inches down ; on heavy soils four inches is sufficient. The distance between plant and plant and row and row is determined, as already mentioned, by the height of the Potato to be grown. Short-topped Potatoes can be planted twelve inches apart with a distance of one foot nine inches between the rows. Tall growing varieties require eighteen inches and three feet between the rows.

When the plants are six inches high they must be earthed up, and previous to this operation a dressing of nitrate of soda should be given. This ensures a healthy development of the haulm, and consequently helps tuber develop- ment. Later, when the plants are about a foot high, the final earth- The tubers are borne on ing up should be performed in underground stems which order to prevent the tubers be-

are distinct from the roots.

Earthing up aids the de- coming green through exposure

velopment of the potatoes . lip-ht near the surface and also o

of When the Potatoes are ready for lifting the haulm turns yellow and withers ; this should be removed and burned, especially if the crop has shown any evidence of the presence of fungus. The tubers must be carefully

FIG. 39. EARTHING UP POTATOES

prevents " greening the tubers.

THE POTATO

77

lifted and stored in a dry place. For this purpose

a pit is dug and lined with straw or dried fern ; the

tubers are put in, the pit

is covered with soil so that

it is frost-proof, and a

small opening filled with

straw is left for the escape

of moisture. Such an

arrangement is known as

a potato pit or clamp.

The selection of varieties for planting requires care- ful consideration. The

FIG. 40. LIFTING POTATOES

nature of the soil is of the greatest importance, and often in the case of signal failure of a crop a change of seed will do good. Generally, for early crops, Duke of York may be recommended ; for main crop, British Queen, and for late use and storage, Factor.

DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. The diseases that attack the Potato are mainly fungoid in character, yet much damage can be wrought in the Potato plot by the Wireworm. However, the treatment of insect pests is a very different matter from the eradication of fungoid diseases, and very little, if anything, can be done when the fungus is well established in the Potato plant. Pre- vention is better than cure, but here " prevention is the only cure."

POTATO DISEASE. This dreaded disease is caused by a fungus which develops in early summer. The disease may arise from infected sets or from resting spores in the soil. The first indication of its presence is the

78

SCHOOL GARDENING

appearance of dirty white patches on the under sides of the leaves ; these patches turn brown and the leaf curls. Spores are produced and aided by wind and rain, they

are easily taken into the soil, and they also travel in the air to other plants in the neigh- bourhood. Thus one diseased plant may in- fect a whole district. Warm, damp weather provides the ideal conditions for the develop- ment of the spores. Some

FIG. 41. POTATO STORING

of the spores pass into the

The upper figure represents a pit ; this may be about four feet in depth and width, and there must be ventilators formed of long sound straw at intervals of six feet along the top for the escape of moisture. The lower figure shows a potato clamp in section with the Potatoes and ventilator in position.

soil and attack

the tuber, and thus the destruction of the Potato crop is completed.

When the disease makes its appearance cure is beyond hope, and the only thing that remains to be done is the burning of the crop — tubers and haulm. The next step is the dressing of the soil, and Potatoes should not be grown on the plot the following season. Gas-lime should be spread over the plot, "and after three weeks

THE POTATO 79

the dressing must be worked evenly into the soil. Atten- tion to the selection of seed is also helpful, and when the crop is growing the earthing up operation must be care- fully carried out so that the spores cannot easily reach the tubers. Finally the haulm must be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture early in July, before the appearance of the disease, and again or even three times, according to the weather, at intervals of fourteen to twenty-one days. Late spraying is useless and a waste of mixture and time.

LEAF CURL. This is another fungoid disease that often makes its appearance among the Potatoes. It arises from the set, and its presence is indicated by the curling and discolouring of the leaf. The set remains quite hard, the tuber development is arrested. It is prevented by careful selection of seed. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture early in July should also be resorted to.

POTATO SCAB. This fungus attacks the skin of the tuber, yet its effects are not destructive so far as the eating value of the Potato is concerned. However, a scabbed Potato has an altogether unhealthy appearance, and few growers care to note its appearance among their produce. Scabbed seed will produce a scabbed crop, therefore discard all sets showing any signs of scab. Sometimes the spores of potato scab are present in the soil, and under such conditions potato drills should be dressed with powdered sulphur, or, as it is known commercially, Flowers of Sulphur.

WIREWORM. This pest terminates the long list of troubles to which the tuber is heir. Remedy here is more certain, and in a short time the gardener can rid the soil of a large number of these grubs. The Wireworm

80

SCHOOL GARDENING

is a light yellow, hard-skinned larva, which after three to five years passes into a pupa that eventually produces a beetle known as the Skip Jack or Click beetle. The damage wrought by the larva is extensive, and few roots that grow in field or garden come amiss to this voracious feeder. When Potatoes are placed in a " wire- worm " soil the results are disastrous, and very little can be done at the A U 'Tb ^ time in the way of remedy. The best procedure is thorough cultiva-

FIG. 42. WIREWORM ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ s, hter of

A.— The Wireworm. B. .,

—The Click beetle of every larva that presents itself, which the Wireworm Rougn digging will throw the soil

is the larval form.

open to the birds, many of which are fond of a wire worm diet. A dressing of gas-lime will also help to clear the infested soil of these undesirable pests.

CHAPTER XI BULBOUS-ROOTED VEGETABLES

ONIONS, LEEKS, SHALLOTS

HE members of this group of vegetables flourish in richly manured and deep soil. With atten- tion to these details the bulbous-rooted crops are easily grown.

THE ONION. It is not always recognised that Onions demand a deep soil, yet success in raising this crop is not possible if such conditions are not provided. For this reason it is a good practice to grow Onions on the

BULBOUS-ROOTED VEGETABLES

81

site of last year's Celery trench, or, if this is not possible, bastard-trench the onion plot and work decayed manure into the soil to a distance of a foot. This preliminary preparation is of the greatest importance, but in very many instances the seed is sown in soil that has not been perfectly cultivated. The seeds may be sown direct in the beds, or raised earlier in boxes placed on a gentle hot-bed. Ordinary sowings, viz., outdoor sowings, are made in March and April for autumn and winter Onions, or in August for spring and early summer produce. The drills should be one inch deep, and the rows nine inches to a foot apart. If the seeds are sown in boxes the seedlings are pricked off three inches apart and subsequently planted out one foot asunder in April. The soil of the seed-bed must be made very firm. This favours rapid development of the bulbs.

For crops such as those required in the school garden, it is best to sow direct in the soil. Very thin sowings are made, and the young plants are thinned out to four inches apart. If the rows are at least nine inches asunder the hoe can be kept at work during de- velopment.

When the bulbs are approaching maturitv the tops are bent over from the neck. This is known as

6 -(809)

FIG. 43. RIPENING ONIONS

^e toPs are ^ent over as slaown- anc^ *n t*1*

way the ripening of the bulbs is hastened.

finishing " Onions, and it

SCHOOL GARDENING

secures full sunlight and warmth for the ripening bulbs.

Eventually the bulbs are lifted and stored in "ropes" or

in thin layers in a damp-proof place.

THE BEST VARIETIES : — Bedfordshire Champion, Ailsa

Craig, Lemon Rocca (for winter). PEST. The Onion Fly. This pest is a very serious

one, and on many soils makes it almost impossible to grow satisfac- tory crops. How- ever, by means of soil dressings it is overcome eventu- ally. Its presence is quite unmistak- able, for the tips of the tubular leaves turn yellow and finally the plant withers. Examination of

FIG. 44. ONION FLY

(Anthomyia ceparum)

A. — An infested bulb. B. — A maggot entering

a young plant. C.— The same plant shown

partly in section.

the bulb brings to view a number of small white grubs, and these are the larvae of the Onion Fly. The fly itself is on the wing at the end of April and during May ; it lays its eggs on the neck of the Onion or at the base of the leaves ; the grubs emerge from the eggs in about a week and com- mence their destructive wanderings through the bulb.

BULBOUS-ROOTED VEGETABLES

83

They pass from plant to plant and finally take up their pupal quarters in the soil.

In order to remove the pest, the Onion bed must be dressed with lime, and every infested plant must be burned. Then, when the plants are developing, paraffin emulsion should be sprayed over the rows. These sprayings must be repeated from time to time. The soil should be brought up to the necks

FIG. 45. LEEK PLANTING

The young plants are placed in

trenches four to six inches in depth

according to the nature of the

soil.

of the plants so that the egg-laying process is rendered difficult. On light soils the pest is much more serious since the conditions are very favourable to the development of the insect.

LEEKS. Leeks are hardy and easily grown vegetables. In common with Onions they re- quire a deep, rich soil. The seed is sown in March in the seed bed and in May, or early June, the plants are placed out in the rows. The plants should be a foot apart and the rows two feet asunder. The best method is to place Leeks in a trench so that the earth can be brought up to them in order to produce white stems. In this state they will stand the winter.

FIG. 46 EARTHING UP LEEKS

84

SCHOOL GARDENING

THH BEST VARIETY: — Musselburgh.

SHALLOTS. This bulbous plant should find a place on every plot on account of its popularity for pickling.

It is easily grown, yet it requires a certain amount of cultural care.

Shallots may be planted in February or March and should be placed in the soil nine inches apart so that only the neck remains above ground. It is neces- sary to plant them FIG. 47. SHALLOTS firmly, and, as the

A.— A bulb planted. B.— A clove nearly growth proceeds, the fully grown showing how the soil is grad- soil should be grad- ually brought away from the bulb.

ually drawn from

the bulbs. This operation aids the development of the young cloves and also keeps them clean. The crops should be lifted in July.

CHAPTER XII MISCELLANEOUS CROPS

|HE preceding chapters deal with the main groups of vegetables that are suitable for school garden plots, yet there are others which may be introduced either to the plot or the nursery bed. For

MISCELLANEOUS CROPS

85

instance, it is obviously impracticable to grow Vegetable Marrows on the individual plot, although the culture of this estimable vegetable may be easily demonstrated on the nursery plot. Thus also Ridge Cucumbers may be grown. On one rod plots, Rhubarb may be placed, but it is quite out of the question in the case of smaller plots. In such circumstances space should be made for a few stools on the nursery bed, or failing that — elsewhere. On the same lines a row of Artichokes may be cultivated. The culture of Tomatoes may also be attempted in the school garden ; one plant can be placed on each plot, or, if local conditions are more favourable, a row of plants may be established beside a warm wall or fence.

VEGETABLE MARROW. This vegetable requires ample

0+

FIG. 48. VEGETABLE MARROWS

space, more than the ordinary school plot can well afford ; therefore it should be placed in some coiner where a full exposure to the sun is secured. A manure heap is the

86

SCHOOL GARDENING

ideal position, and failing this a suitable station should be selected, and a hole dug to a depth of a foot or a little more. This should be filled with well-rotted manure and covered with light soil. For school gardening pur- poses the seeds may be placed in the soil in June, or if a hand-light is accessible the sowing may be done in April. When the plant develops the main shoot should be pinched off so that the lateral shoots are stimulated into growth ; furthermore, this ensures more rapid development of the fruits, and these should be cut when young and tender. Care must be taken that the runners do not grow over one another. One plant of the Bush Marrow may be accommodated on each plot.

CUCUMBERS. Of course, Ridge Cucumbers alone are possible for the school garden, and these are only recom- mended for those plots that are favourably located.

The young plants are raised similarly to marrows, under hand-lights, and are moved out in early June. The bed is made of a ridge of well-decayed manure covered with fine soil, and in the middle of this a young plant is bedded, but not so deeply that the roots are in the manure. After the first week of growth the plants require no special shelter. If a frame is at hand — and by the way, complete garden work cannot be attempted without one — the plants may be hardened off ready for planting.

FIG. 49. A RIDGE CUCUMBER

MISCELLANEOUS CROPS

87

RHUBARB. The space demanded by this plant, com- bined with its exhaustive results on the soil, makes it almost impossible to bring the vegetable into the individ- ual plot. However, on large plots it is possible to culti- vate small stools. Planting may proceed in September or October, and also in March. Dress the surrounding soil with rich manure, and when the crowns are ready to burst they should be covered with straw, litter, or some other suitable covering to foster rapid growth. The large stools should be divided in spring and the strongest crowns replanted. The stalks must be carefully pulled so that the crowns are not injured.

TOMATOES. In large plots, viz., one rod plots, space should be found for one Tomato plant, or failing this a row of plants may be grown against a south wall or fence. Obtain the plants in June, or if a frame is available, raise them from seed sown in pots or boxes in March in gentle heat. Prick off into boxes so that the young plants do not touch one another, and finally transfer to pots. In June, put the plants in good, well-drained soil. Drainage for the roots is of great importance, and for this reason the station may be placed on a slope ; too much moisture favours an excess of leaf growth.

FIG. 50

A RHUBARB CROWN READY FOR PLANTING

88

SCHOOL GARDENING

The side growths must be pinched out so that the energy of the plant is thrown into the main stem. The practice of removing the leaves must be conducted with great care, with due attention to the reason that neces- sitates the operation, viz., exposure of the ripening

tomatoes to sunshine. It must not be for- gotten that leaves carry on an important func- tion in obtaining food, and when they are com- pletely removed, the plant is naturally des- titute. The leaves should never be re- moved until the fruits are set. The ripe fruits must be removed, and those that remain unripened late in the season, should be gathered and packed carefully in soft tissue paper in boxes.

MUSTARD AND CRESS. These two important salad plants are very easily and also quickly raised. Cress takes a day or two longer to mature, and hence should be sown before the Mustard. These plants may be raised in boxes, or introduced in the garden plot. They may be quite easily grown along the paths without interfering with the long-standing crops.

FIG. 51. TOMATOES

Axillary growth are pinched out as shown in smaller figure.

MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 89

The soil must be carefully forked and made quite fine by means of the rake. The seeds may be scattered evenly on the soil and gently patted down by means of a spade. The soil should then be watered.

PARSLEY. A border of Parsley along the central path gives the school plots a neat appearance. It is necessary that the sowings should be thinly made, and that the mature plants should be carefully picked over, so that old leaves do not remain. Crowded borders are fre- quently seen, and dwindled plants of poor quality result. This may appear a mere detail, yet in the economy of the garden, it is an important point. This cultural treatment bears out the teaching of these pages, viz., that each plant shall have ample room for development. There must be in the first case well manured soil, and depth for root growth, and finally there must be leaf room. This can only be secured by careful culture, yet many gardeners fail to recognise this fact. It does not matter what the crops may be, if these principles are observed, viz., rich soil, root depth, and leaf room, then the grower of vegetables is on the road that will finally lead him to success.

CELERY. Celery is a useful and health-giving salad, and wherever possible it should be included in the crop- ping of the school plots. However, it is out of the ques- tion if the plots are small and must only be grown on rod plots, or, of course, those of larger area.

The seeds are sown in gentle heat in February, and the seedlings placed three inches apart in boxes. These are hardened off and in June and onwards they will be ready for the trenches. The soil upon which Celery is

90 SCHOOL GARDENING

to be grown must be thoroughly prepared in the previous autumn. The trench should be from eight inches to a foot in depth, according to the soil, and it may be one foot in width ; deep planting is desirable. The base of the trench must be thoroughly broken up with the fork, and some well-decayed manure should be worked into

FIG. 52. CELERY TRENCH

the soil. A little top soil should be sprinkled into the bottom of the trench in order to prepare a rich bed for the plants. The plants are set out nine inches apart.

In order to obtain blanched sticks, the plants are earthed up as they make progress ; they should be at least three parts developed before this is done. In " earthing " the soil is gradually moved into the trench, and care must be taken that the hearts of the celery are not soiled. Each plant ought to be carefully tied before the " earthing " is started.

THE CELERY FLY. This insect pest attacks Parsnips as well as Celery. The presence of the Celery Fly is indi- cated by the appearance of small gray blisters, or patches, on the leaves of the plant. Inside this small swelling,

MISCELLANEOUS CROPS

91

safely hidden between the leaf-skins, is a small maggot (the larva of the Fly) which mines its way through the leaves and feeds on the plant juice. This greatly inter- feres with the work of the leaves, and consequently the development of the plant is hindered. The Fly appears in April and places its eggs on the upper side of Celery and Parsnip leaves. When the larva emerges it proceeds to take up its quarters in the leaf itself and the grayish brown blisters, al- ready described, are formed.

The treatment of this pest is more or less one of prevention. The pupas of the fly spend the winter in the soil, and therefore the top layers of the soil should be treated with gas-lime. Infested leaves must be carefully picked off and burned, and the plants may be sprayed with a weak paraffin emulsion in April, or dusted when damp from the earliest stages with a mixture of soot and wood ashes.

FIG. 53 CELERY FLY (Tephritis onopordinis)

The drawing shows a parsnip leaf at- tacked by the fly (A). B. — An infested area (natural size). C. — The maggot.

SCHOOL GARDENING

CHAPTER XIII FRUIT CULTURE

HE FRUIT PLOT. Wherever possible, a fruit plot should be established in the school garden, in fact, no system of school garden teaching can be considered complete if no provision is made for elementary training in fruit culture. The provision of space is the only serious difficulty ; the question of expense may be passed over, for it should be remembered

	C-UT-rants.
•	^ ^ f f f	f	it t «
»	7 2 3 * J	6	»?
	ill'		tf
ft"	\k u/- ity		«»
«" s,	\V Xr v 7- A I A	J	^
t.	7 ^ S>	« «	(9
cr
>
	^ ^ ^ ^' tfr	f.	<
•1*	/o >/ /e 75 *L	ff
PSH
X	G-oo&c.'bc rr/ifs.		*

FIG. 54. A SCHOOL GARDEN FRUIT PLOT

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 15. Bush apples. 8. Half standard apple. 4. A

Bush plum. 7, 9. Half standard plums. 11, 14. Pyramid pears.

R = Raspberries.

that the stock of healthy and carefully selected fruits planted will not require replacing year by year as in the

FRUIT CULTURE 93

case of the vegetable crops. The expense may be reckoned as an outlay of ten shillings to fifteen shillings per rod, and if the trees are correctly managed from the first there is no call for further expense for some years. An occasional inevitable death may cause incidental expense. The question of space may be overcome, since it is not essential that large areas shall be utilised. A few trees on a small plot will furnish all that is required for one class of fourteen boys. Thus even two rods of ground may be transformed into a very useful although small fruit plot. A much more convenient plot can be acquired by using four rods of ground, and the accompanying diagram, Fig. 54, represents such a plot in actual use in a Surrey school garden. The planting plan, as shown, was specially prepared by Mr. John Wright, V.M.H., and is an object lesson in the economy of using space. It will be noted that by an ingenious arrangement of group- ing and spacing the representative fruits are planted so that each commands sufficient room for development. The taller fruits are given central positions in order that sunshine and light have full access to the whole, without interfering with the bush varieties. The bush or berry fruits form the boundaries. The great danger rests in the fact that many growers endeavour to accommodate more trees than can develop under satisfactory conditions. Promiscuous planting and overcrowding are inimical to success and leads to failure as well as waste of time and money. Therefore, when the available space is limited, the number of trees introduced must be correspondingly restricted as tending to ensure success and thus accom- plish the object and aim of school gardening. If. however,

94 SCHOOL GARDENING

the plot at disposal is unlimited, a larger number and a wider variety of trees may be planted, yet, always with due attention to the question of root space and leaf room. There is no economy in overcrowding ; on the contrary, it is extravagant waste.

Another reason in favour of the formation of a fruit plot is the value of the winter occupation afforded when the vegetable garden operations are completed or sus- pended. On favourable days in winter the trees can be given the important attention they require, and much instructive and interesting work may be performed.

The selection of the situation of the fruit plot must be based on several considerations. A sunny position and a southerly aspect are desirable. The soil demands thorough cultivation, and this is best accomplished by bastard trenching. It must be borne in mind that the root development of the fruit trees is more important at the outset than the growth above ground, and that freedom of root growth cannot be obtained in a neglected soil. The question of drainage is of the greatest import- ance, and success in fruit growing, even on the most modest scale can never be realised in a badly drained soil. The presence of excessive moisture means a lowering of temperature, and provides -all the conditions that retard root extension. Although the roots are out of sight, yet it is fatal to the tree if they are out of mind. Therefore, everything that is possible in the direction of deep cultivation must be completed before planting is attempted. The bastard trenching must be carried out with the same thoroughness, but deeper than that recommended in Chapter II, yet due attention must be

SUITABLE FRUITS 95

given to the warning against bringing the rank, foodless subsoil to the surface. Be it also clearly apprehended that the establishing of young trees is the most important stage in the work entailed by the fruit plot. Carelessness in this work will result in endless worries in subsequent work ; it will call* for replanting and probably the dis- carding of those trees that have failed through the negli- gence of the grower. The manuring of the fruit plot must be judiciously carried out, and on no account must fresh, rank manure be placed in such positions that it will be in direct contact with roots of newly planted trees. Such treatment stimulates excessive root growth and causes the production of coarse and fruitless shoots. Due attention must be given to the manner in which roots carry on the work of supporting the tree. This important function is shared by roots, rootlets, and root- hairs alike and consists in extracting plant food from the soil and passing it into the plant system. Thus the fibrous roots of the tree are of as much importance as the main roots, and require attention accordingly, and they cannot extend sufficiently in a badly cultivated soil.

CHAPTER XIV SUITABLE FRUITS

HE selection of fruits will naturally depend on trie size of the plot, and it is not surprising in the case of small-sized plots that the larger forms of trees must be omitted. In some instances the bush fruits alone are possible, but these will suffice until

96 SCHOOL GARDENING

it is possible to extend the plot so that Half-Standard and Bush Apples and Plums, and Pyramid Pears may be grown.

In this chapter I shall deal with the stocking of a typical plot, viz., about six rods in extent, but, of course, a piece of a greater area than this need not be discarded as too large.

On such a plot the following fruits should be grown :—

Strawberries. Bush Fruits : Currants, Red, White and Black.

Gooseberries.

Raspberries.

Bush Apples.

Pyramid Pears.

Bush Plums.

Half-Standard Apple. Plum.

It will be found best to place the Strawberries on the margins, but they can be planted in rows between the trees until the latter attain to such dimensions as to deprive the ground fruit of sunshine. In the event of this position being chosen, the scholars must be impressed with the importance of most careful surface culture.

Small fruits, viz., Currants, Gooseberries, and Rasp- berries, must be included, and in addition to the bush forms of the first and second, Cordon Red Currants and Gooseberries ' may be added. It is possible, of course, to raise Currant and Gooseberry bushes from cuttings, yet in the majority of cases the results will not be very satisfactory. It is better to obtain two or three year old trees from the nurseryman for the reason that a good form of tree can only be obtained by skilful and

SUITABLE FRUITS 97

careful attention. It is easy to strike cuttings, but it is a very different thing to transform them into well-formed bushes.

This matter will .be referred to in Chapter XVI.

In the matter of Apples and Pears it is necessary to consider the form of the trees, and this can be regulated in the infancy of each tree by the judicious application of the pruning knife. It is clearly out of the question to attempt the training and culture of standard trees since these take up so much space. For apple growing the half-standard and bush forms are best, and for Pears the pyramidal shape is most suitable. A single or double horizontal Cordon Apple may be trained along one side of the plot, but if the arrangement suggested in Fig. 54 is adopted, this cannot be done. One Half-Stan- dard Apple may be placed in the centre of the plot, and in the same row two Plums, necessarily half-standards, may also be grown.

Bush Apples and Pyramid Pears make it possible to bring the work within the power of the boys. The trees are received from the nursery properly formed, and each year's work consists in careful training and priming so that these forms are preserved. There is a common belief that fruit trees are only possible in large gardens, but a year's training in the school fruit plot will convince the scholar that small fruit trees are profitable additions to small gardens.

Then again many growers obtain bush forms and expect them to retain the same shape without pruning, with the result that the tree becomes an entangled mass of branch and leaf. Of course, such neglect can never produce

7— (809)

98 SCHOOL GARDENING

a good yield of fruit, much to the surprise of the

thoughtless grower.

A SUGGESTED SELECTION OF FRUITS :—

Strawberries. — Sir Joseph Paxton, Royal Sovereign, Fillbasket.

Red Currants. — Fay's Prolific,

White Currants. — White Dutch.

Black Currants. — Lee's Prolific.

Gooseberries. — Crown Bob Leader, Red Champagne.

Raspberries. — Hornet, Carter's Prolific.

Apples. — Prince Albert, Mank's Codlin, King of the Pippins, Cox's Pomona, Stirling Castle, Cox's Orange Pippin.

Pears. — Emile D'Heyst, Louise Bonne of Jersey.

Plums. — Monarch, Early Prolific, Victoria.

CHAPTER XV FRUIT TREE PLANTING

JORRECT planting is the first step towards success in fruit culture. There are many people who regard planting as an absurdly easy operation, yet it must be stated in justification that few of these have any idea of the function of roots and rootlets. Fruit tree planting is quite an easy matter if it is followed out in the proper manner, and in fact it is much easier — and more profitable — to plant a fruit tree correctly than it is to place it carelessly in the ground. We are reminded from our junior days that there is a right and a wrong procedure for every operation, yet

FRUIT TREE PLANTING

99

probably, in ordinary gardening, there is no more emphatic illustration of this truth than in the planting of a fruit tree.

In the first place, it is necessary to select the station for the tree, and we will suppose that thorough cultiva- tion has been carried out. Dig a circular hole about eighteen inches deep and three feet to four feet in dia- meter. Now take the tree and examine the roots, and if these have been bruised or abrased trim off the damaged portions with a sharp knife. Place the tree in the hole and arrange the roots carefully so that they are in a natural position, viz., radiating from the stem and always having a slight downward tendency. Attention to root position is the most important matter. Any able-bodied man can dig the hole but only the able-minded gardener can see that the roots are arranged so that they are able to develop. By this we do not mean that the operation can be per- formed by the privileged few, but that it may be done by everyone who cares to take the trouble. When the planter is con- vinced that the roots are properly arranged, the next step is to replace the soil. This process demands much care, and it must be accomplished gradually. If is useless to fill in the hole at once, for the soil must be placed firmly around the roots. This can

FIG. 55 FRUIT TREE PLANTING

The slightly convex base of

the station prevents water from

accumulating round the roots.

100 SCHOOL GARDENING

only be done by gently pressing the soil about them, and under no consideration must the soil be rammed down, for this only results in bruising the roots.

In the case of the smaller trees such as the Currant and Gooseberry, the same process is repeated, although smaller holes are necessary — the same care in the arrange- ment of the roots and the filling in of the soil should be observed. Raspberries should be treated in the same way. Often the fault of the novice lies in loose planting, so that it is quite easy to uproot the tree after finishing, and this is invariably followed by coarse, unfruitful shoots. This is undesirable, and can never happen if the above instructions are explicitly followed out.

Bad planting may be traced to one of two causes, carelessness or ignorance, and the former is quite un- pardonable. The results may be the death of the tree, retardation of growth that takes years to correct, or excessive development, which entails root pruning. Bad planting may be described as " sticking the tree in the ground," and correct planting as the careful placing of the tree in the soil, so that the roots, which are the funda- mental support of the tree, have every opportunity of extending. After planting, the trees should be at- tached to the stakes. These should always be placed in the station as soon as it is prepared for the reception of the roots, and prior to the actual planting, for the driving of the sharply pointed stake through the root system cannot be considered as conducive to healthiness of the root fibres.

Strawberries, although these are not fruit trees, demand especial care in planting, and much depends on the proper

FRUIT TREE PLANTING 101

arrangement of the root system when they are placed in the ground. Often they are placed in the soil in such a manner that the roots are matted together, and weak plants are the result. The same care that is taken of large trees is necessary here, the roots being spread out and the plant sunk to such a depth that the crown is just above ground. Then press the soil round the roots so that the plant is firmly supported.

The planting of a fruit tree or a strawberry plant may appear a troublesome process in reference to the detail that must be observed, yet, " what is worth doing is worth doing well," and it is far better to throw the trees and plants on the rubbish heap than to place them in the ground in a slovenly way. Nothing of real good can result from such treatment, for if the trees and plants are started badly, the most expert gardener will experi- ence the greatest difficulty in bringing them back to the path of righteousness. The roots are vital organs, and they are ever ready to carry on their functions correctly and persistently, and no blame can be attached to the nurseryman who supplied the tree or to the soil — be it well cultivated — if the planting is improperly performed. The only remedy for this is replanting, and if a tree has been " stuck " in the ground, the only recourse is to lift it and replant it with due observance of the advice laid down in this chapter.

102

SCHOOL GARDES' I NO

A

B

CHAPTER XVI SMALL FRUIT

CURRANTS, GOOSEBERRIES, RASPBERRIES, AND STRAWBERRIES

lURRANTS and Gooseberries are known as " bush " or " small " fruits, and although Raspberries are borne on canes and not on bushes, it is better for the sake of easy classification to extend the term to embrace this latter small fruit.

SOIL. In the first place it is essential to prepare a deeply culti- vated and thoroughly drained site. This advice in reference to prepara- tion of the fruit plot applies also to Apples, Pears, and Plums. The roots can only develop properly in a friable soil, and therefore the fruit grower must ensure this condition of growth by careful cultivation.

PROPAGATION. Currants and Gooseberries are propagated by cuttings, and Raspberries by suckers or division. Firm shoots of the first and second named must be selected in October or November. FIG. 56. CUTTINGS Make a clean horizontal cut across

A.— Currant cutting. the bage Qf the cutting just below B. — Gooseberry cutting. J

a bud ; cut away the top of the shoot and remove all the buds except three or four at the

SMALL FRUIT 103

top ; the cuttings should be from a foot to fifteen inches long when ready for insertion. If many cuttings are made, open a trench with a spade and insert them six inches asunder so that from one-half to three-quarters of the length of each cutting is in the ground ; press the soil firmly up. Red and White Cur- rants and Gooseberries are treated in this way. Black Currants are propagated by cuttings of one year old wood with a heel attached,

.,,... , , . FIG. 57. A TRENCH FOR CUTTINGS

and this is planted in

the manner recommended above ; they should be about six inches long, and no buds must be removed. After the cuttings have made a year's growth, the growths should be cut back to two or three buds. They should then be lifted and replanted about two feet apart. Another season's growth is allowed, and the buds will have grown into branches, and the bush has commenced to assert its form. These branches, or shoots, are pruned to about one-third of their length, and the cut should be made just above a bud that will lead the growth away from the centre of the plant. The cut should make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the direction of growth. Propagation by cuttings should certainly be incorporated in the scheme of work carried out in the fruit plot.

Raspberries are propagated from young canes divided

104 SCHOOL GARDENING

from established stools, and only well-rooted ones should be selected, or by rooted suckers. The Raspberry root system is characteristic, and is composed of a mat of very fine fibres. In planting, these must be arranged with the greatest care, and firmly covered with soil. Planting is done in late autumn and the canes are cut down in the following spring so that only five to eight inches remain. During the summer young canes are formed, and these bear fruit in the following season. As soon as the fruit has been gathered the canes are cut out from the base so that the new ones will have the benefit of more light, air, and food.

BLACK CURRANTS. Black Currants bear fruit on new wood, and therefore in pruning, the old wood must be removed. The young shoots must be encouraged, and in this matter the culture of Black Currants differs materially from that of the Red and White varieties. New growth is required, and hence the surrounding soil must be kept well supplied with half-rotted manure, and in pruning, old branches should be removed.

In recent years the Black Currant Mite has caused wholesale destruction among the plants. It is generally known as " big bud," and the appearance of abnormally enlarged buds indicates that the mite is present. Badly infested trees must be destroyed, and whenever the abnormal buds are noticed they must be removed and burnt — do not throw them on the soil.

RED AND WHITE CURRANTS. On these, fruit is borne on the old wood, and consequently the new shoots must be cut into spurs when the pruning-knife is used. Some extension of the main branches should be encouraged

SMALL FRUIT

105

each season until the whole of the available space is occupied.

GOOSEBERRIES. Gooseberries have a strong tendency to form thick, impenetratable bushes, and once this state is reached, the grower is face to face with trouble. Under such conditions a heavy crop of small fruit results, and the trouble of gathering it is great. Hence, close attention must be given to pruning, and generally speaking, the advice given under Red and White Currants should be followed. The young growths should be cut back to three or four leaves, but one or two young shoots may be retained on the branches of well-established trees, as they will produce a few exceptionally FIG. 58. PRUNING fine fruits ; at the same time, the fact RED CURRANTS that Gooseberries carry the bulk of The new wood is cut

back as shown so

their crop on spurs must never be that the spurs may

Overlooked. develop fruit buds.

THE MAGPIE MOTH (A braxas grossulariata) . The cater- pillar of this moth is very destructive to the foliage of Gooseberries and Currants. The moth itself is a familiar object in most fruit gardens, appearing in July and the beginning of August. Eggs are placed on the leaves and the caterpillars which eventually appear are able to hibernate. For this purpose they may enter the soil below the trees or avail themselves of shelter as it offers itself in crevices. In the following spring, when the young leaves appear, the caterpillars carry on their destructive

106

SCHOOL GARDENING

work. In June they enter the pupal state and the striped chrysalis may be found suspended from the underside of the leaves or under the eaves of outhouses in the vicinity of the bushes. In order to keep this pest under control pruning helps to dislodge some of the caterpillars ; others that have reached the soil may be exterminated by liming and hoeing. The larvae may be removed by hand, and if the bushes are gently yet firmly shaken many of the caterpillars are dislodged. It might be remembered in the interests of our feathered friends that birds help to remove numbers of this pest.

RASPBERRIES. Pruning detail is not required in the

culture of Rasp- berries, and all that is neces- sary is close attention to the annual thinning of the stools, and the feeding of the roots. After the crop _ has been picked,

FIG. 59. TRAINING RASPBERRIES

remove the old canes, and in the following winter cut out the weaker canes formed during the preceding summer. Four or five strong canes are better than twice the number' of weak ones. The selected canes should be tied either to single stakes or to a trellis according to the disposition of the stools. It is all-important to remember that freshly planted canes

107

must be cut back so that the energy of the plant is thrown into the formation of new roots and canes and not wasted on the formation of fruit which, by the way, is sure to be of inferior quality.

FIG. 60. STRAWBERRY RUNNERS

A shows the roots developing and B represents a more strongly established root system.

STRAWBERRIES. This fruit demands a deep rich soil, and such conditions are best secured on a good sound loam. The plants are placed at distances apart varying from two feet to two feet and a half and should be sur- rounded by a mulch. It is a good plan to remove the flowers during the first year and thus prevent fruition until

108

SCHOOL GARDENING

the second year. Propagation is carried on by means of runners which are thrown out by the adult plants. These, if left to themselves, take root in the adjacent soil. They should be removed as soon as roots are formed and bedded out. Rooting is aided by means of pegs which are placed over the stem of the runner. Or, if desired, the runners may be trained to take root in pots.

CHAPTER XVII APPLES, PEARS, AND PLUMS

PLES. Bush Apples are the best form of tree for the school fruit plot. They are not out of reach when the scholars are at work, and the principles of management, after the foundation has been laid, are almost identical with those required for standards. As a rule the young trees are purchased already formed,

A

FIG. 61. FORMING A BUSH APPLE

and all that is necessary is close attention to the prun- ing year by year, so that the compact habit is preserved. A Bush Apple may be formed by heading back a maiden tree one year old (from the bud or graft) so that about

APPLES, PEARS, AND PLUMS

109

A

£>

C

three buds remain. The shoots that are thrown from these are cut back the next season and the six or eight resultant shoots form the foundation branches ; if these are subsequently pruned so that the growth is led outwards, an open bush is the result. Planting should be done in October, November, or in March, and it is necessary to carry out this operation when the soil is easily worked — it must neither be sodden with wet, dust dry, nor frozen.

PRUNING. By means of pruning, it is possible to concentrate the energy of the tree and at the same time control its form. The use of the knife or secateurs is essential, and the methods of using these tools are of the greatest importance. Pruning cannot be suc- cessfully carried out with- out careful consideration on the part of the cultivator of the habits of the tree to be treated. Generally, Apples and Pears present little difficulty in this respect. In the case of Apples, the fruit is usually borne on spurs on the old wood, yet there are instances in which the fruit appears on the extremities of the young wood, and consequently in such cases the new growths must not be pruned in the following winter, but these examples are exceptional. The aim in pruning Apples must be to remove young growths,

FIG. 62. PRUNING CUTS

A. — Bad cut leaving a snag. B. —

Good cut. C. — Bad cut injuring

bud.

110

SCHOOL GARDENING

and this must be done in such a way that exuberant wood is removed in order to open the tree fully to the influences

of sunlight and air. In the case of Bush Apples grown on the school plot, exten- sion growth must be care- fully controlled, and the pruning knife must be run over the trees in the spring following the autumn of planting. The branches should be cut back to a wood bud, so that about two-thirds of their length remains, and the cut must be made to a bud which points outwards — this en- sures that the centre of the tree is not choked by consequent growths.

In the case of trees making excessively luxu- riant growth lifting and replanting must be had recourse to, and at the same time the roots should be pruned with a very sharp knife.

FIG. 63. FRUIT SPURS r, ^, . r ., „

PEARS. This fruit offers

less difficulty, since the yield is borne on the old wood, and pruning is carried out in order to remove the young

APPLES, PEARS, AND PLUMS

111

shoots. As in Apples, this operation may be executed in

two stages. The first step is to reduce the young shoots

in summer and the second is

to cut back in winter to two

or three buds. The summer

pruning must not be too severe,

and only the summer shoots

are removed so that six to

eight leaves remain.

PESTS. Apples and Pears are subjected to numerous pests, and careful cultivation is very necessary in order to safeguard the trees from the ravages of certain insects and fungi. Among the former are American Blight or Woolly Aphis, the Codlin Moth, Winter Moth, and Apple Blossom Weevil, while the chief among the latter is canker.

AMERICAN BLIGHT OR WOOLLY APHIS (Schizoneura lanigera). One cannot mistake the presence of American Blight, because of the patches of white, downy flakes that develop on infested trees. These white, woolly appearances are the aphides themselves, or at least the quaint covering which they bear. Directly these signs of invasion are detected, steps must be taken to ensure the removal of this insidious pest. If it be neglected, serious

FIG. 64. FORMING A CORDON TREE

The laterals are cut back in

summer to six leaves as

shown and in winter to two

good buds.

112

SCHOOL GARDENING

harm to the trees is assured, for not only does the Woolly Aphis cause direct destruction, but it predisposes the

A

FIG. 65. FORMING A PYRAMID

A. — Maiden tree headed back. B. — Laterals cut back to three buds. C. — Pyramid or upright bush tree.

infested parts of the bark to attacks of canker when its ravages assume serious proportions. The best treatment is the application of a brush, dipped in sweet oil, methy- lated spirit, paraffin, or petroleum, to the colonies of aphides, or spraying with a solution of paraffin, soft soap, and quassia. This operation must be carefully done and repeated directly fresh developments of the pest occur.

THE CODLIN MOTH (Carpocapsa pomonella). The Codlin Moth is a serious pest to apple growers, and its ravages, if unchecked, may render the orchard worthless. The moth places its eggs in the eye of the fruit in late spring, just before the eye closes. The egg hatches, and a small caterpillar, familiar to most people, commences its journey in the course of which the pips are eaten, the fruit falls, and the enemy promptly leaves it to take

APPLES, PEARS, AND PLUMS

113

FIG. 66 AMERICAN BLIGHT ON

up its pupal quarters in the ground. In conse- quence of this destructive work the Apple is rendered more or less unfit for consumption. All Apples which fall should be consumed at once or destroyed so that the larvae occupant does not complete its cycle of changes to appear as a new enemy.

The best remedies are sprayings of Paris Green, and liming the bark of the tree. The spraying must be carried out before the eye of the fruit turns down, so that the egg or the larvae is destroyed. After this time spraying is useless and the larvae develops unhindered.

WINTER MOTH (Cheimatabia brumata). CANKER WOUND The females of this species are wingless American Blight and crawl up the tree to place their eggs °£ Woolly Aphis

(Schizoneura lam- in crevices in the bark and on spurs, gem) on cankered

When the larvae appear they feed on the J™jf Th°ef whftne buds. The male moth is commonly seen patches are the

. ... aphis colonies.

on the wing during the evenings in the last week or so of the year. Before October the trees may be grease-banded in order to intercept the females on their journey up the tree. The stems or shoots should be sprayed in order to destroy the eggs and larvae of the pest. Moss or lichen aid in harbouring the eggs of the moth. Spring sprayings with Paris Green are effectual checks ; while winter washings with a solution of caustic soda and commercial potash are excellent.

CANKER. This is a fungoid pest, persistent in character, and difficult to exterminate. The spores attack unhealthy

8— (8or)

114

SCHOOL GARDENING

FIG. 67

APPLE ATTACKED BY CODLING MOTH

portions of the bark, and on account of this, great care must be exercised in order to avoid wounds on the outer

covering of the tree. The rubbing of one branch on another when pruning is ne- glected, or the wounds caused by frost are a few of the in- direct causes of the appearance of canker. The infested areas, when small, may be carefully cut away and the wound smeared with Stockholm tar. When the disease is acute the tree should be either removed or headed back and grafted

Section of an apple to show y

the destructive effect of the with a strong strain such as larva of the Codlin Moth. Bramley-s Seedling in the case

of Apples, and Pitmaston Duchess in Pears.

PLUMS. The directions already given in reference to preparing the soil, manuring, and planting, must be carefully followed out in the culture of stone fruits. Plums, however, . differ in habit of growth and fruit- bearing from Apples and Pears. In the latter, the fruits are borne on spurs, while in the case of stone fruits, the crop appears on spurs and extension shoots. There is a wide variation in the habits of fruition, yet, since Apricots, Cherries, Nectarines, and Peaches, for various reasons, are not likely to find their way into the school plot, it will suffice to state that Plums bear on wood from two to six years old. Hence, care must be taken in pruning the trees not to remove the older wood that

GRAFTING AND BUDDING

115

will immediately yield fruit. At the same time it will be found necessary, ior the sake of shape and in order to keep the tree open, to remove young wood. This operation calls for great care.

DISEASES. In addition to the cater- pillar pests that often attack the foliage, the Plum is liable to a disease known as gumming. It is common to Plums, Cherries, and Peaches, and it generally results in the loss of the tree when the disease is acute. Hard pruning is one cause of gumming, and undoubtedly poorness of soil has a great influence in its development. Should it appear in a FIG. 68 young tree cut the infested growth clean THE EFFECT OF

, , , , , , THE CANKER

out and feed the tree generously but FUNGus very carefully with some stimulating food with a view to encouraging it to grow out of the disease. In the case of badly-infested old trees the best course to pursue is removal to the fire since these cannot be cured.

CHAPTER XVIII GRAFTING AND BUDDING

RAFTING and Budding are methods of propa- gating fruit trees, and the simple process of grafting, with the not at all difficult opera- tion of budding, must be introduced into the scheme of work on the school fruit plot.

116

SCHOOL GAKIM.NIM;

(iK.\i n\(,. The possibilities of grafting are numerous, but in the main they may be stated as aiming at the

increasing and improving of varieties of fruit trees. For this purpose ripened shoots of a season's growth are selected ; these are known as the scions. The rooted stem to which the scion is affixed is called the stock. The only necessary conditions are : — (1) That the scion shall be a ripened young shoot. (2) That the stock shall be well rooted. (3) That the stock and scion shall belong to the same generic order — and finally that the operator shall possess a certain amount of skill.

There are many forms of grafting, and of these, whip

Second cut forming a wedge-shaped grafting is the most Com-

tongue. D. — Second cut on scion. '

E.—Graft completed and bound mon. It is Only possible

FIG. 69. WHIP GRAFTING

A. — First cut made on stock. First cut made on scion.

B.—

with bast or raffia ; finally air is

excluded by means of clay, or wax,

as indicated by dotted lines.

when the stock and scion are of nearly the same thickness. When the stock is much thicker than the scion, crown grafting is

GRAFTING AND BUDDING

11?

reported to; thus badly cankered apple trees may be crown grafted in order to improve the growth.

The object in all grafting operations is to bring the cambium tissue layer of the scion to fit exactly with the corresponding layer of the stock. Therefore it is essential that the cuts shall be prepared very carefully.

WHIP GRAFTING. In whip grafting, a long sloping cut is made through the scion and the stock. A second cut is made in each and a wedge-shaped portion removed from the stock, and the same process is carried out with the scion. The tongue, thus formed in the scion, is fitted into the stock and the graft is firmly tied with bast or raffia and grafting wax or clay is carefully placed round it so that air is excluded. The operation is clearly shown by the diagram in Fig. 69.

CROWN GRAFTING. This is of value in extensive fruit growing, but will hardly find general acceptance in the school plot. However, it is interesting as an experiment in grafting. The scions are prepared by cutting the bases into wedge shapes and these are placed into slits made in the stock. The whole graft is held firmly together by bast or raffia, and clay or grafting wax is placed over it. This is removed when the growth commences in the scions.

FIG. 70 CROWN GRAFTING

A.— Stock. B.— Scion.

118

SCHOOL GARDENING

In all kinds of grafting the selection of the scion is of the greatest importance. Healthy, strong shoots must be chosen, and these may be preserved after cutting by placing them in a moist soil in a shaded station. The grafting is carried out in spring, just as the sap is rising in the stock, and while the scions are still dormant.

BUDDING. This operation is carried out in July or August, and provides a means of improving fruit trees and roses by bud insertion. Practice in budding may be well demon- strated in the case of the brier. Strong stocks should be selected in October or November and planted firmly in the practice plot ; in the following July obtain some matured growth buds of good rose varieties. The usual procedure is made clear by Fig. 72. The woody part of the bud is removed and the bark cut into a lozenge or shield shape. The " pin " of the bud, which is visible on the inner side of the shield, must not be injured. In the bark of the stock, £-~stc£u'

Scion. The graft is

make a T-shaped cut and gently raise eventually tied firmly the bark on each side with the handle y flayed"" of the budding-knife. When this has been carefully done insert the shield, close the bark, and bind the bud firmly in with bast or raffia. The ligature

FIG. 71 SADDLE GRAFTING

KLOVVKRS

119

is removed when active growth is evident. In the following March the branch of the brier stock is cut back.

FIG. 72. BUDDING

A. — Selected bud. B. — Front view of bud and shield

with leaf removed. C. — Shield inserted in the bark.

D. — The bud securely held by a bast or raffia

ligature.

CHAPTER XIX FLOWERS

T present the culture of flowers in the school garden is, generally speaking, in its infancy ; yet undoubtedly, with the widening of this important branch of school work, flowers will receive the attention which undeniably is due to them. Apart from the floral charm and pleasure that are associated with the culture of our commonest garden flowers there is an additional value inasmuch as these furnish the Nature lessons with ample material for plant study. In

120 SCHOOL GARDENING

the flower plot the scholar may observe the plant accom- plishing its life history and to a certain extent he is able to control the conditions of its growth. Both in America and Germany such gardens have clearly demonstrated their value as educational adjuncts and the benefits realised are available for girls as well as boys.

Except in those school gardens which command especi- ally favourable supplies, the flower border must be con- tent with Hardy Annuals. Yet even with these it is possible to develop a pleasing spectacle of floral beauty. Wherever it is practicable, the border should have a situa- tion to itself, so that there is no interference with the culture of the vegetable crops. However, in many instances the annuals will be sown at one end of the plots and although the effect is not comparable with that obtained from a wider border the result is good. If a long strip, about two yards wide, be available it will be possible to establish herbaceous plants. Consequently propagation by division and cuttings may be demon- strated. Carnations, Pinks, Phloxes, and Chrysanthemums may be grown ; bulbs may be introduced, so that a monthly procession of blossoms is secured. Such an endeavour, commendable as it is, lies, possibly, beyond the power of the average school garden.

HARDY ANNUALS. The culture of Hardy Annuals may appear a very easy matter, and so it is if it is carried out carefully ; often the grower presumes on the hardi- ness of these plants. As with the culture of ah1 plants preliminary operations are demanded, and consequently the soil must be carefully prepared, manured, and made fine in texture. The seeds should be sown thinly and

FLOWERS 121

covered with soil to a depth of about half an inch, more or less according to the size of seed. When the seedlings appear, they must be thinned so that each commands ample space rfor development both above and below ground.

A selection of annuals suitable for the school flower border may include Candytuft, Coreopsis, Linum, Lupin, Mignonette, Nasturtium, Nemophila, Shirley Poppy, Sunflower, and Sweet Peas. In arranging the relative positions of these plants in the border due attention must be given to height of plant, habit of growth, and colour of flower. The culture of each of these annuals should be conducted along the lines laid down in the general culture notes given.

SWEET PEAS. These beautiful and easily grown flowers lend themselves pre-eminently to the decoration of the border. They are best grown in clumps for this purpose, and a pleasing effect is secured if the clumps be arranged alternately with tall-growing Sunflowers. The stations must be prepared in autumn and the soil must be worked to a depth of two to three feet. At the base a layer of weU-decayed manure should be placed and the hole is then filled with fine, friable soil. In mild localities the seeds may be sown outdoors in September or October, but generally the sowing must be deferred until March. The seeds should be placed at least four inches apart, and where exceptionally strong plants are desired, one and a half feet is not too much to allow the plants. When the seedlings are about four inches high thin twigs should be fixed beside them so that the tendrils may secure a hold and thus prevent the plant from falling

122 SCHOOL GARDEN IXC;

to the ground. Later, strong hazel sticks must be obtained for staking, and a mulch of manure should be placed on the soil round the plants in order to conserve moisture.

BIENNIALS. It may be found possible to introduce a few Biennials into the border in order to supplement the Annuals. Of these, Wallflower, Canterbury Bell, Evening Primrose, and Sweet William present them- selves as suitable subjects for culture. Sowings in beds may take place in March with due attention to the cultural notes given under Annuals ; the plants are moved out to the border when required. These come into flower in the second year of growth, hence sowings are made annually in order to secure plants for the following year.

GLOSSARY 123

GLOSSARY Annuals — These are plants which develop from seed, flower, and

produce seed in one year ; in other words they complete their life

history in one season, e.g., Peas and Broad Beans. Aphis — This is a small insect that obtains food from the juices of plants ;

they are generally known as " plant lice " and belong to the order

of insects called the Hemiptera or half-winged insects. Artificials — These are chemical manures, such as Nitrate of Soda. Axillary growths — These are the shoots that grow in the axils on the

stem ; viz., in the angle formed by the stem and leaf. Biennials — These are plants that take two years to complete their life

history, e.g., Turnip and Beet. Budding — A process by which fruit trees and Roses are propagated.

See page 118.

Bush — A name applied to a compact form of fruit tree. Blight — A general name which is given to insect and fungoid pests. Bordeaux mixture — This is used as a spray or wash for fungoid pests,

especially Potato disease, and is made as follows : — Dissolve 2£ Ibs.

of sulphate of copper in hot water and 1£ Ibs. of fresh quick-lime' in

cold water ; add the solutions and make up to 20 gallons by the

addition of water.

Compost — A mixture of leaf mould and manure. Cotyledons — The seed leaves or lobes of the seed. Cruciferae — An important order of plants of which the most familiar

member is the Cabbage. Clamp — A storage for root crops. (Saxon clam, a bandage, viz., that

which holds anything.) Dibber — A tool used for planting. Friable — A term applied to soils which are in good physical condition

and therefore can be easily broken up. Fungicide — Sprays or washes that are used for the destruction of

fungoid pests.

Grafting — A means of propagating fruit trees. See page 115. Haulm — A term applied to the stems of Potatoes, Beans and Peas. Ichneumon — A small insect that places its eggs in living caterpillars,

and as the grubs develop the host larva is gradually killed. Insecticide— Remedies employed for the destruction of insect pests. Kainit — A chemical manure.

124 SCHOOL GARDENING

Larva — A caterpillar or grub.

Legumes — Pod bearing vegetables.

Leguminosae — The Pea family.

Ligature — The bast, rush grass or raffia which is tied round grafts

and buds. A ligature is also employed for attaching a tree to a

stake.

Muriate — An old name for a chloride. Mulch — A dressing placed on the soil in order to prevent rapid

evaporation. Paraffin emulsion — This mixture is made as follows : — In 1£ gallons of

water place 4 ozs. of soft soap and 4 ozs. of quassia and boil ; while

the mixture is boiling add a wine-glass full of paraffin. Plumule — The" stem shoot which appears in germination. Perennials — Plants which live a number of years. Pruning — The removal of the growth shoots from fruit trees for the

purpose of promoting fruitfulness. See page 109. Pyramid — A name given to a certain form of fruit tree. Pupa — The chrysalis. Paris Green — This mixture, which is a dangerous poison, is prepared

as follows : — One oz. of Paris Green is mixed with 20 gallons of water. Quassia — This is an insecticide, and is made by allowing £ Ib.

of quassia chips to soak in one gallon of water.

Raffia — This is tying material which is indispensable to the gardener. Radicle — The root shoot, which is seen in the early stages of germination. Scion — The ripened shoot which is used in grafting. Stock — The stem of the fruit tree on to which the scion is fixed. Secateurs — An instrument especially constructed for pruning. Standard — A tall growing fruit tree with a clean stem. Spores — The small bodies which develop on matured fungi and ferns,

and by means of which new plants are reproduced. Spit — The depth of soil moved in digging. Subsoil — The layer of earth found below the surface soil. Tap-root — The main root of a plant. Tilth — The condition of the surface soil secured by very careful

cultivation. Trenching — Deep digging by which the subsoil is brought up and

becomes surface soil ; in bastard trenching a similar depth of soil

may be moved, but the layers retain their positions. See page 14.

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Evening Schools. Cloth, 96 pages. Price Is. net.

Pitman's Lessons in English

An entirely new set consisting of seven books, embodying every useful feature of the most approved methods of teaching English, e.g., Exercises in Spelling, Word Building, Grammar and Composition. Book I

II

Ill

IV

V

VI. ..

VII

Pitman's Illustrated Aids to Composition

By H. J. BARNELL. Two series of cards, each demy 6to, with Notes

and Illustrations — white upon black — dealing with some subject suitable for an exercise in composition.

FIRST SERIES. — Bees, Migratory Birds, Birds' Feet, Birds' Beaks, Bones, Coal, Crossing a Desert, The Cat, The Dragon-Fly, etc.

SECOND SERIES. — A Miner's Life, The Crimean War, Catkins, Coral and Coral Islands, Canadian Pacific Railway, etc.

First Series. 32 Cards. Price 3s. ) Each Series enclosed in a

Second Series. 32 Cards. Price 3s. i strong cloth case.

The two series are also published in book form, with ruled paper inter- leaved fcr Additional Notes, etc. Price, each series, 2/6 net.

Price, paper 2d.	cloth 3d.
		3d.		4d.
		3d.		4d.
		4d.		5d.
		4d.		5d.
		4d.		5d.
		4d.		5d.

LONDON: SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E.G.

PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL READERS

INTERMEDIATE BOOK

—Our Manufacturing Industries -

Suitable for Standard V or VI. Price Is. 9d.

A SPLENDIDLY illustrated reading book, dealing with the chief branches of modern industry, such as paper-making and the production of books and newspapers ; steam and machinery ; shipping ; mining and metal works ; electricity and its uses ; cotton and what is made from it ; woollen manufactures ; flax and linen ; the silkworm and the silk industry ; straw hats and bonnets ; leather and furs.

" Full of useful and interesting information, presented in language and style eminently suit- able for a class reader in the upper part of a good elementary day school. The list of illustrations fills two closely printed pages, and there is not a picture that is not educative." - the Schoolmaster.

SENIOR BOOK

An Introduction to Modern Commerce

Suitable for Standard VI or VII. Price 2s.

With upwards of 160 illustrations and large map of the British

Empire, showing Trade and Cable Routes. Glossary. THIS Reader is intended for use in the Upper Standards of Day School; and in Evening Continuation Schools. The book is divided into nine sections containing in the aggregate fifty lessons, which cover the whole range of commerce, and include life stories of successful and representative business men.

"This admirable and extremely useful book is exceedingly well illustrated, and should be in the hands of every boy who is intended for commercial work." — Head Teacher.

THE MODEL CITIZEN

A Simple Exposition of Civic Rights and Duties, and a Descriptive Account of British Institutions — Local, National, and Imperial

A most useful and interesting reading book for use in the Upper Classes of Day Schools, and in Evening and Secondary Schools.

By H. OSMAN NEWLAND, F.R.H.S.

Member of Council of the Sociological Society of Great Britain ; Special Lecturer in Citizenship to the London County Council; Author of " A Short History of Citizenship," fife.

WITH A FOREWORD BY LORD MEATH

Numerous instructive Illustrations. In crown 8vo, 216 pp., cloth Is. 6d. A VERY full Glossary at the «nd explains the most important terms relating to citizenship and politics, and contains much information that could not be properly introduced into the text of a reading book ; it will be found of great value both to the general reader and to those who have to make a special study of such subjects for examination purposes.

" It deserves a leading place in a class of books that should be represented in every school." — Schoolmaster.

LONDON : SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E.G.

-New Era Geography Readers -

With specially written Chapters on the History of the Chief Countries, thus combining the Teaching of History and Geography.

s. d.

GEOGRAPHY CORRELATED WITH OBJECT LESSONS— Bk. I 0 10 „ „ „ „ Bk.II 1 0

ENGLAND AND WALES, 191 pp 13

EUROPE (WITH BRITISH ISLES), 208 pp 16

THE BRITISH EMPIRE, 240 pp 18

AFRICA, 240 pp 16

ASIA, 240 pp 18

AMERICA, 240 pp 18

THE WORLD (SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BRITISH POSSES- SIONS), 312 pp 1 10

These books are splendidly illustrated in Colour and in Black and White, and contain a selection of the Principal National Songs in Tonic Sol-fa.

Handbooks to the above, each 3d. ; The British Empire and the World, each 4d.

—King Edward History Readers

Partly on the Concentric Plan. With Illustrations in Colour or Sepia

s. d.

STORIES FROM EARLY ENGLISH HISTORY. 128 pp. . . 010

STORIES FROM MODERN ENGLISH HISTORY. 144 pp. . . 1 0 THE INTRODUCTORY HISTORY OF ENGLAND, for Standard

III. 192 pp 13

THE STORY OF ENGLAND, for Standard IV, or a grouped class

of Standards III and IV. 208 pp 14

THE COMPLETE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, for Standards V and

VI. 256pp. Maps in Colour 16

THE STORY OF OUR OWN TIMES, for Standards VI and VII.

240 pp 16

THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF ENGLAND : ITS PEOPLE

AND INSTITUTIONS, for Standards VI and VII. 272 pp. 1 10

Handbook to the History of England. 32 pp 03

-Tower History Readers—

CHILDREN OF HISTORY. EARLY TIMES. From B.C. 800 to s. d. A.D. 1000. 142 pp. For Standard II or an Advanced Standard I class. Price . . . . .... ..10

CHILDREN OF HISTORY. LATER TIMES. From A.D. 1000

to 1908. 190pp. For Standard III. Price .. ..13

With Coloured Plates and numerous Black and White Illustrations by

LANCELOT SPEED and others. " Well and clearly printed in bold type, with good illustrations and

strong binding. A good collection of interesting tales pleasantly

written." — Head Teacher.

LONDON : SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E.G.

Pitman's Correlated Arithmetics

by

T. W. TROUGH!, B.A.

Author of Pitman's "Scheme B Arithmetics.'

This new set of Arithmetics conforms to the spirit under- lying Scheme II of the Board of Education's Suggestions to Teachers.

The principal features distinguishing this set from all others are as follows :

(1) There are numerous coloured pictures and diagrams to help little children in the early stages of a difficult subject.

(2) The fundamental processes, addition, etc., are visualised by means of novel diagrams.

(3) The Correlation of Arithmetic with the teaching of Hand and Eye Work, Drawing, Geography, Thrift, etc., is more complete than in any other set of books known to the Author.

(4) Provision is made for the five kinds of Arithmetical exercises enumerated in the Suggestions to Teachers.

Whilst in addition to the above features there are :

(5) Practical and experimental work in great variety.

(6) Many original questions, number stories, etc.

(7) Ample provision for recapitulation, revisal, and testing.

The scholars' books are arranged in seven books corresponding to the seven years indicated in the various schemes of teaching.

Book I. Paper 3d., cloth 4d.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

3d., 3d.,

4d. 4d.

4d. 4d.

Answers to the Correlated Arithmetics.

To go with these Scholars' books there are seven Teachers' Guide books, each of which contains respectively :

(1) The pages of the corresponding scholar's book.

(2) The answers to the sums in the scholar's book. (3} Oral Work in great variety.

(4) Teacher's notes on the teaching of Arithmetic. Books I- VII, each 84 pp. Cloth Is. net.

PITMAN'S

EDUCATIONAL

BOOKS

CONTENTS

PAGE

ALGEBRA . . . . . . 23

ARITHMETIC . . . . i )-23, 41

ATTRACTIVE SERIES 44

AVON GEOGRAPHY READERS . . 5

„ HISTORY READERS . . . . 11

„ LITERARY READERS . . 18

„ NATURE STUDY READERS . . 25

„ OBJECT LESSON HANDBOOKS 25

BLACKBOARD CLOTH . . . . 33

BOOK-KEEPING.. .. .. ..41

BUSINESS TRAINING .. .. 41

CHEMISTR\ 44

CHILDREN OP HISTORY .. .. 10

CITIZENSHIP . . . . . . ... 14

COMMERCIAL READERS . . . . 12-13

COMPOSITION 26, 31 44

COPY BOOKS . . . . 33, 34, 41, 43 CORRELATED ARITHMETIC .. 19

CORRESPONDENCE 42

DICTIONARY, SCHOOL . . . . 32

DOMESTIC ECONOMY 33

DRAWING COURSE, CARDS AND BOARDS

3«. 33, 44

EDUCATION 37-38

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE . . 30

ENGLISH .. .. .. 26, 31, 44

ENGLISH READERS .. .. 15-18, 44

FAIRYLAND LANE . . . . 34

FOREIGN LANDS 6

FRENCH 39, 43

GEOGRAPHY READERS . . . . 2-6

GEOGRAPHY, COMMERCIAL . . 42 GERMAN . . . . . . • • 43

GRAMMAR, ENGLISH .. 26, 31, 32 GUIDE TO CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS 30 HANDBOOKS FOR TEACHERS.. 25-29

HISTORY READERS .. . 7-11

HISTORY, COMMERCIAL . . . . 42

„ SOURCE BOOK . . . . 10

IDEAL GEOGRAPHY READERS .. 5

IDEAL HISTORY READERS . . n

IDEAL LITERARY READERS ,. . . 18 KING EDWARD READERS . . 7-9

LANGUAGES LAW, COMMERCIAL LOCAL READERS LONDON READERS MODEL CITIZEN

PAGE

26, 31, 32, 39

42

3

15 ..14

MONTHS AND MELODIES . . . . 29 MORAL INSTRUCTION ESSAYS . . 32

NATURAL HISTORY READERS. . .. 24

„ „ PICTURES . . 39

NATURE NOTES AND NOTIONS . . 30

NATURE STUDY READERS.. .. 25

„ „ HANDBOOKS . . 25-29

NEEDLEWORK . . . . . . 38

NEW ERA GEOGRAPHY READERS . . 2-4 NOTES OF LESSONS SERIES . . 26-29 OBJECT LESSONS . . . . 25-29, 44

OFFICE ROUTINE . . . . . . 42

PAPER FLOWER MAKING . . • • 37 PICTURES, NATURAL HISTORY ... 39 POETRY BOOKS . . . . 10, 16, 31

PRIMERS FOR INFANTS .. 15, 44 RECITATIONS . . . . . . 16, 31

REGISTERS 35

REPORT BOOKS . . . . . . 36, 44

SCHOLARSHIPS GUIDES . . . . 32

SCHOOL GARDENING . . 17

SCRIPTURE . . . . . . 39

SELBORNE NATURE READERS . . 24

SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS . . 16, 17

SHORTHAND 42, 43

STORIES FOR LITTLE READERS . . 16

„ FROM THE CLASSICS . . 16

SUPPLEMENTARY READERS ... 16

TALES OF OUR FOREFATHERS . . 17 TEACHERS' WORK BOOKS 36, 44

,, COURSE OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 30 " TEACHER, THE " . . .... 40

„ CERTIFICATE GUITE 30

TECHNICAL BOOKS . . . . .,.43

TEST CAKDS . _ . . . . 22-23

TOWER HISTORY READER . . . . 10

TYPEWRITING . . . . . . 44

Adopted by the London County Council and important Provincial Education Committees.

PITMAN S

NEW ERA

Points to be noted.

(1) Each book contains specially written chapters dealing with the history of the countries treated, thus combining the teaching of History and Geography.

(2) Simplicity and clearness of diction, the Books having been written by practical educationists of high repute, who know children and the best methods of appealing to them.

(3) High class illustrations really illus- trative of the text — the coloured ones true to life.

(4) Accurate maps.

(5) Novel features of real value, e.g., National Songs in Tonic Sol-Fa for class singing.

(6) Strong binding.

(7) Moderate price.

Geography & Elementary Science, "Book I.

By ROBERT BUNTING. 128 pp. Price lOd.

Simple Ideas of Geography and Elementary Science derived from Observation of Common Natural Objects. Six coloured and a large selection of black and white illustrations, printed in bold, clear type.

Geography & Elementary Science, "Book II.

By ROBERT BUNTING. 144 pp. Price l/-

A Series of new and interesting lessons, based upon, and teaching indirectly, the simpler facts of Physical Geography. Eight coloured and about 40 pp. of black and white illustrations. Printed in same type as Standard I. book.

The aim of Books I and II is to explain the simple elements of Geography in easy language that the children already understand. Book I. pleasantly and attractively shows them how to secure know- ledge from observing the natural objects around them. Book II. uses this knowledge as a foundation upon which to commence a study of the physical definitions of Geography.

England & Wales. 192 pp. Price 1/3.

Six coloured insets, coloured maps, many black and white illustra- tions, summary, and some new features, e.g., reproductions of armorial bearings of Chief Counties, Towns, and Bishoprics, selections of typical British Songs, etc.

" For brightness of text this book is most commendable. The lessons cover a wide range of up-to-date matter, and are interspersed with many excellent illustrations in black and white. There are, too, several well produced maps and pictures in colour. The Summary is very cleverly compiled, and the idea of including songs between the reading lessons is a good one. The book as a whole is exceedingly smart." — Practical Teacher.

" A very good book indeed. An interesting reader. Very profusely and usefully illustrated. The Summary is full and forms a capital text-book." — Head Teacher.

" It is one of the best books we have seen." — Finsbury and City Teachers' Journal.

" It is impossible to speak in too high terms of this excellent book, which should be in every child's hands. The illustrations are wonderfully good, and in every way the book is up-to-date. With such assistance as it affords geography cannot fail to become a fascinating study. ' ' — Schoolmistress.

Special Local Editions of "England & Wales"

232 pp. Price 1/6. MIDDLESEX EDITION, 1/8

Containing supplementary chapters on the History and Geography of a county or a group of counties. Teachers can get either the general edition or that which also treats of their own district. (For list see below.)

Local Readers.

The supplementary chapters are also published separately as a series of Local Readers. Price, paper, 3d. ; cloth, 4d. MIDDLESEX, paper 4d., cloth, 5d. The series at present includes the following : —

The Birming-ham Midlands. Including the Counties

of Warwick, Worcester and Stafford. Lancashire.

Middlesex and London North of the Thames. Essex, including London over the Border.

Westward Of the Wash, including the counties of

Lincoln, Huntingdon, Rutland and Northampton.

Northumberland and Durham. Europe & the 'British Isles. 208 pp. Price 1/6.

" We have seen few Geography Readers equal to this." — Schoolmaster. " The lessons are readable and educative, the paper is good, the type is very clear, and altogether there is not a more attractive Geography Reader in the market." — Educational News.

Africa. 240 pp. Price 1/6.

" I heartily congratulate you on the excellence of your maps." — 5»> H. M. Stanley.

" This is one of the very best Readers we have seen. It presents geographical facts in a manner intelligent and attractive — we might even say fascinating. The book is exactly what a ' Reader ' should be." — Practical Teacher.

Asia. 240 pp. Price 1/8.

" A strikingly original Reader, with up-to-date information and more freely illustrated than any we have yet seen. We know of no Geography Reader we can more cordially recommend." — Teachers' Aid.

" This excellent Reader extends to over 240 pp. The illustrations in colour (6 plates and 3 maps) are very much superior to any pre- viously produced in Readers, being true to life and colour. We know of no similar Reader which has so well attained the object of making the geography lesson one for the scholars to look for- ward to with eagerness and pleasure." — Educational News.

America. 240pp. Price 1/8.

"Well written; history judiciously introduced; made attractive

by 150 illustrations." — The Board Teacher.

" ' America ' is as well got up as its predecessors in the ' New Era '

series. Replete with up-to-date information and abounding in

maps, diagrams, and illustrations, it leaves nothing to be desired

as a first-rate Reader for the upper classes." — Teachers' Aid.

" This is one of the finest books of its kind we have ever seen. The

matter has been chosen with the utmost care." — Practical Teachsr.

The World. 312pp. Price 1/10.

Ten coloured insets, eight 4to coloured maps, and numerous illustra- tions in black and white. A special feature is the series of fine photographs illustrating animal life.

A capital geographical reader, well suited to the upper standards." —Teacher's Aid.

" The matter is particularly bright and interesting, and the illustra- tions are of just the character to arrest the interest of scholars." — Practical Teacher.

The British Empire. 240 pp. Price 1/8.

Ten coloured pictures, many coloured maps, and a large number of excellent black and white maps and illustrations. The intro- ductory chapters give a general account of the Empire and its growth, and of the heroes who have made it. Then follows a more detailed description of the various Colonies and other parts of the Empire, their geography and history being treated in a judicious and highly interesting manner.

Pitman's Geography Handbooks. — With maps in colours and black and white. ENGLAND and WALES, AFRICA. EUROPE, ASIA, and AMERICA. Paper covers, each 32 pp. Price 3d. THE WORLD and THE BRITISH EMPIRE, each, cloth covers, price 4d.

4

Geography Readers.

PITMAN'S "AVON" GEOGRAPHY READERS.

'Book I. — The Meaning and Use of a Map.

120 pp. Price lOd.

'Book II. — Geographical Terms. 144 pp. Price l/- Boofc III.— England & Wales. 208 pp. Price 1/3

'Book IVa.— Scotland, Ireland & Australasia.

224 pp. Price 1/4

Boofc I Vb.— Scotland, Ireland €r 'British N. America 224 pp. Price 1/4

Boofc V.— Europe. 240 pp. Price 1/6

Book VI.— The 'British Empire Abroad.

240 pp. Price 1/6

'Book VII.— The United States, etc.

240 pp. Price 1/8

The "Avon" Geographical Summaries.

STANDARD III. 20pp. 11 additional maps; cloth. Price 3d.

IV. 48 „ 14 „ „ ,. „ 4d.

V. 32 „ 11 „ „ „ „ 4d.

VI. 20 „ 15 „ ., paper. „ 3d.

VII. 16 „ 16 cloth. 4d.

PITMAN'S "IDEAL" GEOGRAPHY READERS.

(for Upper Standards)

'Book IV.— Geographical Terms. 208 pp. Price 1/4 'Book V.—The 'British Isles. 232 pp, PriceAl/6

'Bock VI.— Canada, Australia, India, South Africa. 240 pp. Price 1/6

Boofc VII.— "British Colonies & 'Dependencies.

248 pp. Price 1/9

An entirely NeW Geographical Reader

PITMAN'S GEOGRAPHY READER

"Foreign Lands/' Or, the World Outside Europe and the British Empire.

Ten coloured plates, four coloured maps, and numerous illustrations in Black and White. 290 pages. Price Is. 9d.

This book has been produced in response to an oft-repeated demand for a Reader to follow Europe in Standard V and the British Empire in Standard VI, thus covering the whole world in Standard III to Standard VII. The reader is written in an attractive style, beautifully illustrated, and contains a Review of Europe, followed by a descriptive account of the non-British portions of Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania, with an appendix on Latitude, Longitude, Day and Night, and The Seasons, etc. This method of treatment renders it possible to deal, at much greater length than is usual in a book of this char- acter, with such important states as China, Japan, the United States, and Argentina, and to show their commercial importance with regard to the British Empire. The aim of the book is not so much to give facts and figures, as to arouse a real and living interest in the minds of the children who read the story of life in foreign lands, or of the daring of such discoverers and explorers as Vasco da Gama, and Livingstone.

Handbook to the Geography of Foreign Lands,

With a section on Mathematical Geography — Latitude, Longitude, Day and Night, the Seasons, etc. With numerous coloured and black and white maps. 32 pages. Cloth cover. Price 4d.

History Readers (Concentric)

THE "KING EDWARD" SERIES

Adopted by the London County Council and Provincial Education Committees.

PITMAN'S

KING EDWARD HISTORY READER

Book /. — " Stories from Early English History."

128 pp. Price lOd.

By Mrs. HANCOCK, Member of the Sunderland Education Committee. Six coloured plates, and a large selection of black and white illustra- tions.

"The contents consists of stories from early English History. They are simply and pleasantly told, attractively illustrated, and make a very good reader for the class which corresponds to Standard I." — The Schoolmaster.

" A capital collection of ' Stories from Early English History,' em- bracing the leading events from the times of the Britons to the Murder of the Princes in the Tower, and written in simple and picturesque language that little ones will easily comprehend. The type is very bold and clear, and the illustrations are both numerous and good. A better book for the juniors could not be wished for." — Teachers' Aid.

'Book II.— "Stories from Modern English History." 144 pp. Price Is.

By Mrs. HANCOCK. Eight coloured plates and a great variety of

excellent black and white sketches.

" Written in the simplest language, in a most charming style, and

beautifully illustrated both in colour and in black and white. Teachers

who desire an historical reading book for Standard II. will certainly

be pleased with this." — The Schoolmaster.

" Well written, admirably printed, and illustrated." — London

Ttacher.

" This new reader should speedily become popular. The printing

is unusually bold and clear, and such simple language is used that

the Lower Standards can easily read and comprehend." — Teachers'

Aid.

7

For Standard III.—" The Introductory History of England." 192pp. Price 1/3

With six three-colour plates, numerous line and 'half-tone illustra- tions, written in a simple style easily within the grasp of a Standard III. child.

" The letterpress is not overburdened with details, and only important dates are noted. The illustrations are very numerous, well drawn, and many are in colour. Without doubt it is an excellent and attractive Reader." — Teachers' Aid.

" The subjects have been judiciously selected and are treated in a simple and interesting manner. The letterpress is exceedingly clear and the illustrations very numerous. It can be warmly recommended to the notice of Teachers needing an introductory Reader in History." — Teachers' Times.

" This is a capital introductory history of England. Children will read the book with pleasure, it is so very simply and attractively wri t ten . " — Schoolmaster.

" The matter is useful and interesting, the printing and arrangement excellent, and nearly every page contains a good picture." — Practical Ttacher.

For Standard IV. (or II I. and IV., When grouped) "The Story of England." 208pp. Price 1/4

By Mrs. HANCOCK.

"'Fortunate will be both teacher and taught who secure this book for their historical reading lessons." — Board Teacher.

" An excellent Reader, containing 68 lessons, in which the story of our country from B.C. 66 to the present time is admirably depicted. The book is crammed with delightful illustrations. It is undoubtedly one of the best books for its purpose that we have ever seen." — Teachers' Times.

"It is a book that the teacher will find most useful and the scholar most attractive." — Teachers' Aid.

For Standard V. or VI. — " The Complete History of England." 256pp. Price 1/6

"This book possesses some excellent features. The text is profusely illustrated, and the leading events are graphically described in language that can be grasped by children in the upper classes." — Schoolmaster.

"This is an admirable reading book, dealing with our country's affairs from 65 B.C. to the spring of 1901. Nothing has been omitted to make the volume acceptable and useful alike to the teacher and scholar." — Teachers' Aid.

" This historical Reader provides a very complete and efficient apparatus of maps, illustrations, plates, synopses, and historical tables. It is strongly bound, well written, and in evary way suited for class use." — Educational News.

8

For Standard VI. or VII.- " The Evolutionary History of England." 272 pp. Price 1/10

Edited by OSCAR BROWNING, Fellow of King's College, Cam- bridge. 126 illustrations, beautiful reproductions of eleven famous historical paintings, genealogical tables, glossary, summary.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

"The People," by the EDITOR. "Law," by (. A. SLATER, Barrister-at

" The Church," by the Rev. Preben- j Law, and Lecturer under the London

dary REYNOLDS, IYI.A. (Secretary to the i County Council.

Diocesan Board of Education and "Trade, by J. R. V. MARCHANT,

Diocesan Inspector). Barrister-at-Law, and Examiner to the

'Foreign Affairs "and "Expansion , Chamber of Commerce for London.

of the Empire," by Dr. S. S. " Language and Literature," by

FLETCHER, Master of Method, Day Dr. HEATH, University College,

Training College, Cambridge. London, Etc.

'Parliament," by W. F. REDDAWAY, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, by

M.A., Fellow of King's College, the EDITOR.

Cambridge.

" We strongly recommend the book, filled with most useful and

interesting information, as an excellent Reader for the Upper

Standards." — Practical Teacher.

"Constructed on a novel but well conceived plan, this useful

Reader deserves to secure a foremost and fixed place in the

literature equipment of our schools. ' ' — Teachers' Times.

" A goodly number of excellent History Readers for higher classes

have been issued of late, and we say unhesitatingly that this is the

best we have seen." — Educational News.

"The Story of Our Own Tim es."- Alternative Reader for Standards V. to VII. 240 pp. Price 1/6

Dealing with events occurring during the Lifetime of King Edward VII., with 6 coloured plates and a large selection of black and white illustrations, summary. Special attention is given to the Expansion of the Empire, Social and Political Movements, Great Statesmen, the Progress of Science, Education and Literature, with two concluding chapters on " How we are Governed." " Children will read it with delight and the excellent illustrations will impress upon the mind the information conveyed by the letterpress." — The Schoolmaster.

" The book is crammed with information, but the language is every- where simple and engaging. The book should do capital service as a reader for continuation schools, or for the upper standards." — Practical Teacher.

" ' The Story of our own Times ' is* graphically told in this capital book. It is an Al production, and deserves to be widely used." — Teachers' Aid.

Pitman's Handbook to the History of England.

32 pp. Price 3d.

55 B.C. to the present day. With coloured maps, stout paper covers ; strongly sewn.

History Readers.

PITMAN'J "TOWER" HISTORY READERS

Children of History. Early Times. From B.C. 800

to A.D. 1000. Suitable for Standard II or an advanced Standard I.

142 pp. Price, cloth, l/-

By Mrs. HANCOCK, Member of the Sunderland Education Committee. Eight coloured plates. Also numerous black-and-white illustrations by LANCELOT SPEED and others.

These are stories of the childhood of famous men and women, written in the simple and charming style of Mrs. Hancock's " Stories from Early English History " (in Pitman's KING EDWARD SERIES). The subjects are drawn from Persian, Greek, Roman, British and Scan- dinavian sources, and nearly all are spread over several lessons.

Children of History. Later Times. From A.D. 1000

to 1908. Suitable for Standard III, or Advanced Standard II.

190 pp. Price Is. 3d.

Six coloured plates. Also numerous black-and-white illustrations, including beautiful reproductions of celebrated paintings. The stories have been written by Mrs. HANCOCK, who has brought together many interesting details about people who have acquired fame in European History. While such leaders of men as William the Conqueror and Napoleon are given due prominence, the more peaceful spheres of human activity, literature, philanthropy, science, travel, etc., have not been neglected, and the stories of the early life of Elizabeth of Hungary, Marco Polo, John Milton, Isaac Newton, and others, will help to repel the erroneous notion that history is concerned solely with deeds of heroism on the battlefield.

Poems and 'Ballads of English History.

A unique collection of poems and ballads suitable for reading before or after the History lesson. Each' book covers the whole ground and is divided into periods ; footnotes are inserted explaining difficulties and where necessary the circumstances and meaning of a poem are made clear in a brief introduction. The books have been carefully adapted for use as Supplementary Readers.

JUNIOR BOOK (Standard IV or V). In crown 8vo, 88 pp.

Price, paper 5d. ; cloth 6d.

INTERMEDIATE BOOK (Standard V or VI). In crown 8vo,

88 pp. Price, paper 5d. ; cloth 6d.

SENIOR BOOK (Standard VI or VII). In crown 8vo, 88 pp.

Price, paper 5d. ; cloth 6d.

History Readers

THE "AVON" HISTORY READERS.

'Book I. —Simple Stories. Before 1485. 128pp. Price lOd 'Book //.— Simple Stories. After 1485. 144pp. Price l/-

Boofc III.— Twelve Stories doton to 1485.

208 pp. Price 1/3

'Book IV.— Twenty Stories from 1485 to 1688.

240 pp. Price 1/4

'Book V.— Thirty Stories from 1688 to the Present Time, including the Growth of the Colonies. 256 pp. Price 1/6

Boofc VI.— 'British History down to 1603.

256 pp. Price 1/6

Boofc V 1 1. —'British History from 1603.

272 pp. Price 1/8

PITMAN'S "IDEAL9 SERIES.

(For Upper Standards)

'Book IV.— Twenty Stories and "Biographies of "British History down to 1603. 232 pp. Price 1/4

'Book V.—Twenty=one Stories and "Biographies from 1603 to the present time. 248 pp. Price 1/6

"Book VI.— The Reign of Queen Victoria.

296 pp. Price 1/8

Note. — The Ideal Historical Reader, Book VI., can be had in a distinct binding under the title of The Victorian Era, 1837-1901.

'Book VII.— The Acquisition and Growth of the Colonies and Foreign Possessions of Great Britain.

256 pp. Price 1/9 A'Brief History of Greater 'Britain. 256pp. Price 1/9

N.B. — This is the same book as the Ideal History Reader Book VII., but is bound in a specially designed cover.

11

Pitman's Commercial Readers

SENIOR 'BOOK

An Introduction to Modern Commerce.

272 pp., crown 8vo. Price 2/-

With upwards of 160 illustrations and large map of the British Empire, showing Trade and Cable routes. Glossary. Adopted by the London County Council for use in both Day and

Evening Continuation Schools.

This Reader is intended for use in the Upper Standards of Day Schools and in Evening Continuation Schools, and will be found specially adapted to boys who are shortly to exchange the curriculum of the school for the larger life of Commerce. The book is written throughout in a bright and attractive style by authors of repute, and is divided into nine sections containing in the aggregate fifty lessons, which cover the whole range of com- merce, and include life stories of successful and representative business men.

Some Press Opinions

" This admirable and extremely useful book is exceedingly well illustrated, and should be in the hands of every boy who is intended for commercial work" — Head

" The conception of this new book is ex- cellent, and it has been excellently carried out. We know of no Reader we would sooner recommend." — Pinsbury and City teacher's Journal.

' As an introduction to commerce, nothing

Teacher.

1 It is a book that we can unhesitatingly

could be better than Pitman's " Commercial recommend for elder scholars. Evening

Reader —50 lessons of engrossing interest, schoolteachers will find it invaluable."—

exhibiting the mam aspects of business, feachers' Aid

public and private, and effectively and , iU

lavishly illustrated. This book must come . This 's certainly one of the most useful

to the hot*." -Educational times. books which can be put into the hands oj

"Something absolutely unique in con- boys, espec.ally those likely to be engaged

ception. Nothing could be better for senior '" a7 capacity in commercial pursuit*—

classes/'-JBoflrd 'teacher. Schoolmaster.

"The book, the information, and the "This is far and away the best book of

pictures are all new."— Educational Record, its kind we have seen. . . . We heartily

" The very book for a good evening commend it to all our fellow-teachers."—

school in Belfast or some of our other Our School Magazine (Scotch), cities, " — Irish School Monthly.

INTERMEDIATE 'BOOK

Our Manufacturing Industries. In crown 8vo. 240 pp. With Glossary. Price 1/9

A splendidly illustrated reading book written on the same general plan as the Senior Book, and dealing with the chief branches of modern industry, as a glance at the contents on the next page will show. The whole book is rendered attractive by its unusual wealth of illustrations, among which are included reproductions of several celebrated paintings by well-known artists. "Full of useful and interesting information, presented in language and style eminently suitable for a class reader in the upper part of a good.elementary day school. The^list of illustrations fills two closely printed pages, and there is not a picture that is'not

Contents of Intermediate 'Book

SECTION I.

1. The Treasures of the Earth,

and thek Uses.

2. The Story of Paper.

3. How Paper is Made.

4. How Printers' Type is Made.

5. The Story of the Newspaper.

6. How Books are Produced.

7. The Life Story of a Famous Publisher, Daniel Macmillan.

SECTION II.

8. Steam and its Uses.

9. The Steam Engine.

10. The Story of the Locomotive.

11. Where Engines are Made.

12. The Life Story of James Watt.

SECTION III.

13. The Story of Rafts, Boats, and Ships.

14. Varieties of Ships.

15. How Ships are Built.

16. The Navy.

17. How Ships Assist Trade and Commerce.

18. The Life Story of a Noted Shipbuilder, John Laird.

SECTION IV.

19. The Story of Coal.

20. How Coal is Obtained.

21. The Useful Metals.

22. In a Large Ironworks.

23. The Value of Coal and Metals

to Commerce.

24. The Life Story of Sir George

Elliot.

SECTION V.

25. Electricity— What it is and how it is Harnessed.

26. The Electric Light.

27. Electric Tramways and Rail- ways.

28. The Telegraph and the Tele- phone.

29. The Value of Electricity to Trade and Commerce.

30. A Great Electrician, Lord

Kelvin.

SECTION VI.

31. How Raw Cotton is Obtained.

32. The Story of the Cotton

Manufacture.

33. How Calico is Made.

34. How Cotton Thread Is Made.

35. A Visit to a Large Cotton Factory.

36. Life Story of Samuel Crompton.

SECTION VII.

37. How Wool is Obtained.

38. The Story of the Woollen

Manufacture.

39. How Wool is made into Cloth, Flannels and Blankets.

40. The Making of Worsted Cloth, Shoddy, Carpets, Felt and Hosiery.

41. In a Large Woollen Factory.

42. Life of a Great Woollen Worker, Sir Isaac Holden.

SECTION VIII.

43. Flax and Linen.

44. The Silkworm and the Silk

Industry.

45. Straw Hats and Bonnets.

46. How Leather is Made.

47. Fur and its Uses.

48. A Romance of the Fur Trade : The Life Story of Lord Strathcona.

SECTION IX.

49. Our Factories and Workshops.

50. What is Meant by a Patent.

51. How Goods are Sold and Exchanged.

52. The Uses of the Sea, of Har- bours, Rivers, and Warehouses.

53. What is Meant by Business.

54. Banking and Insurance.

55. The Choice of a Profession or Occupation.

Pioneers of Commerce : Life Stories of Britain's Merchant Princes.

Crown 8vo, 48 pp. Price, paper 3d. ; cloth 4d. The book contains the chapters on noted financiers, captains of industry and successful business men, reprinted from the " c~~ s"~ Commercial Reader."

13

Senior

Citizenship

The Model Citizen In crown 8vo. Price, cloth 1/6.

By H. OSMAN NEWLAND, Fellow of the Royal Historical Society ; Member of Council of the Sociological Society of Great Britain ; Special Lecturer in Citizenship to the London County Council ; A uthor of " A Short History of Citizenship," etc.

A simple, and accurate exposition of the rights and duties of the citizen, with a descriptive account of public institutions, local and national, in their relation to the life of the individual and the com- munity. Written in a style and language that will appeal to young scholars and it forms a most useful and interesting reading book for use in the upper classes of Day Schools and in Evening and Secondary Schools.

CONTENTS

SECTION I. Citizen Rights and Duties,

1. An Election Day.

2. What is a Citizen ?

3. Rights and Duties of the Citizen.

i. Government and Self-govern- ment.

SECTION II. Our Local Institutions.

5. The Parish Bounds.

6. The Parish Church.

7. The Parish Council.

8. The Voters' Lists.

9. The Rates.

10. The School.

11. The Public Library and Museum

12. The Public Baths and Wash-

houses.

13. The Public Health.

14. The District Council.

15. The Workhouse.

16. Commons, Parks, and Recrea- tion Grounds.

17. The County Council.

18. The Coroner, The Lord Lieu-

tenant and the Sheriff.

20. The Assizes.

21. Trial by Jury.

22. The City and the Borough.

23. The Town Council.

SECTION III. Our National Institutions (Parliamentary).

24. The Story of Parliament.

25. The Power of Parliament.

26. The Cabinet.

27. The Party System of Govern-

ment.

28. The King.

29. The King's Speech.

30. The King's Place in the

Constitution.

31. What the King may do.

32. Why our Kings are Hereditary

Monarchs,

33. The Peerage and the House of

Lords.

34. How the Lords Work.

35. The House of Commons.

36. How to Become a Member of

Parliament.

37. Privileges of the House of Commons.

38. How our Laws are Made.

39. How and Why we Pay Taxes

19. The Police Court.

SECTION IV. Our National Institutions (The Civil Service) .

SECTION V. Our National Institutions (The Army and Navy).

SECTION VI. Our Imperial Citizenship.

A very full GLOSSARY at the end, explaining the most important terms relating to citizenship and politics, contains much information that could not be properly introduced into the text of a reading book, and will be found of great value both to the general reader and to those who have to make a special study of such subjects for examination purposes.

14

Pitman's NeW Series of English Readers

THE LONDON JERIEJ

Adapted to the "Suggestions" o/ the "Board o/ Education. Symbol, Sound and Idea Correlated. Illustrations in three colours of a superior character.

In the Word-building Exercises (which precede the Lessons), most of the words are previously illustrated, and thus symbol, sound and idea are correlated. This plan is in accord with the advice contained in " The Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers " issued by the Board of Education.

Reading Sheets. Price 12s. 6d. net per set.

Compiled on a novel plan, as a preparation for the FIRST PRIMER.

Consisting of 16 sheets, each^SS by 23£ in. Mounted on Roller, and

each sheet with duplex edges to prevent tearing. Back cover on

linen.

The 16 sheets may also be had mounted on boards, two

on a board, cloth-edged. Price 20s. net per set. First Primer. 32 pp. Price, cloth, 3d.

In this Primer, only short vowel sounds are used (with such obviously necessary exceptions as in so, go, etc.), and only those words that come well within the vocabulary of young children have been employed. The aim in each lesson has been to construct something akin to a " short continuous story," and so avoid mere strings of disjointed sentences.

Second Primer. 40 pp. Price, cloth, 4d.

The plan of the First Primer has been extended in this book to words of similar sounds containing, as a rule, final double-consonants, with some examples of the initial combined -consonants.

Infants' Reader I. 64 pp. Price, cloth, 6d.

Interesting fresh stories, printed in bold, clear type. Illustrations mostly in three colours.

Infants' Reader II. 80 pp. Price, cloth, 7d.

The stories aim at stimulating the interest of children in their surroundings and incidents of daily experience.

Introductory Reader (for Standard O). 96 pp.

Price, cloth boards, 8d.

London Reader. 'Book I. 130 pp. Price lOd.

Matter fresh and interesting, with new and continuous Fairy Tales included.

London Reader. Hook II. 144 pp. Price Is.

Large, clear type, many beautiful coloured plates.

15

Pitman's Supplementary Readers.

Stories for Little Readers.

Chiefly in words of one syllable. Suitable for First Class in Infants ' Schools. By ALICE GIBBONS.

Book I. THE BEAR IN THE WOOD AND OTHER STORIES

Price, paper 3d., cloth 4d.

„ II. BY THE SEA AND OTHER STORIES „ 3d., „ 4d. „ III. ON THE ICE AND OTHER STORIES „ 3d., „ 4d. „ IV. THE SUN FAIRY AND OTHER STORIES „ 3d., „ 4d.

Illustrated Poetry Hooks for Schools.

Bright and Easy Selections of Poetry, which the numerous Illustra- tions— two or three on every page — will help the scholar to understand and realise.

Book I, 32 pp., price 3d. Book II, 48 pp., price 4d. Book III, 64 pp., price 5d.

Stories from the Classics. (Suitable for Standards IV, V or VI.)

By EMILY ISABEL SLATER. Written in simple language and suitably illustrated.

JASON AND THE GOLDEN FLEECE. 40 pp., price 3d. THE HEROES OF TROY. 40 pp., price 3d.

Shakespeare's Plays.

Carefully edited for use in the Upper Classes. Each Play is preceded by a short Introduction and the Story of the Play adapted from Lamb's " Tales from Shakespeare." A Glossary at the end explains the more difficult words and allusions.

KING LEAR. 64 pp., price, paper, 4d., cloth 5d.

THE MERCHANT OF VENICE. 64 pp., price, paper 4d., cloth 5d.

Pioneers of Commerce. Life Stories of Britain's Merchant Princes.

In crown 8vo, 48 pp. Price, paper 3d. ; cloth 4d.

The book contains the life stories of noted financiers, captains of industry and successful business men, reprinted from " Pitman's Commercial Reader — Senior Book."

16

Supplementary Readers

(for the Upper Classes)

OliVer Twist. 255 pp. Limp cloth. Price 7d. net. Woodstock. 320 pp. Limp cloth. Price 7d. net. The Little SaVage. 256 pp. Limp cloth. Price 7d. net.

These books will be found far superior to any of the cheap kind of Supplementary Readers now in the market, being printed on excellent paper in clear, readable type, and well illustrated.

Tales of our Forefathers. In crown 8vo, cloth, 224 pp. Price Is. 6d. With 23 full-page illustrations in sepia.

A literary and patriotic reading book for use in the schoolroom, and constructed on a novel plan. A series of stories has been collected, chosen from literature of a high order, giving a picture of the char- acter and heroic deeds of each of the peoples who have combined to form the English nation. Each story has, as a central figure, one of our national heroes ; and the whole presents, in a striking manner, the noble line of ancestors who are the pride and boast of our nation. A short Introduction precedes each story, linking one up with another, establishing the historical connection, and giving the book unity of thought and purpose. The illustrations, printed in sepia, are in keeping with the literary value of the book, and play their part in making the whole a really artistic production.

School Gardening.

By W. FRANCIS RANKINE. With 75 diagrams and illustrations.

In crown 8vo, cloth, 120 pp. Price Is.

Though the title of this book indicates the public for which it is primarily written, it is a work which will appeal to a very much wider circle of readers — more especially on account of the clear and lucid way in which matters are explained, and the absence of unnecessary scientific terms.

In the Open Air.

A Series of Out-door Lessons in Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, etc., for Primary and Secondary Schools. By J. EATON FEASEY, Headmaster of the Ranmoor Council School (University Primary Demonstration School), a Lecturer in Education in the University of Sheffield.

A striking and original work which shows how the playground and the school garden can with great advantage be utilized for many lessons now given in crowded class rooms.

17

English Readers.

PITMAN'S "IDEAL" SERIES.

IDEAL

READERS.

Features •worthy of remark.

(1) They are fully illustrated with Col- oured Plates and Pictures in Tints, as well as by Black and White drawings.

(2) The books for the lower standards contain an excellent selection of Fairy Tales, calculated to awaken interest in young minds and set the imagination working.

(3; Each book contains a connected series of lessons in order that the interest of the scholars, especially those in the upper standards, may be sustained throughout their reading.

(4) The style is simple, the vocabularies for the different standards carefully graded, and the matter attractive.

(5) The binding of the books is good and will bear much use

'Book I.

160 pp. 176pp. 192 pp.

Price l/- Price 1/3 Price 1/4

Nursery Stories and Poetry.

112 pp., crown 8vo. Price 9d.

Boofc //. Stories and Poetry. 128 pp. Price lOd. 'Book III. Stories and Poetry. 'Book IV. Stories and Poetry. 'Book V. Stories and Poetry.

'Book VI. Round the Year.

224 pp. Special cover. Price 1/6

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. — The Almanac, with accounts and descriptions of the festivals, sports, pastimes, and historical associations proper to each month of the year.

PITMAN'S "AVON" READERS.

Boofc /. 136 pp. Price 8d. Boofc //. 144 pp. Price 8d. 'Book III. 168pp. Price lOd, 'Book IV. 128pp. Price l/-

Boofc V. 192 pp. Price 1/2 The " AVon " Literary Reader. 282 pp. Price 1/6

NeW Arithmetics

PITMAN'S CORRELATED ARITHMETICS.

By T. W. THOUGHT, B.A. Author of Pitman's " Scheme B Arithmetics."

This new set of Arithmetics conforms to the spirit

underlying Scheme II of the Board of Education's

Suggestions to Teachers.

The principal features distinguishing this set from all others are as follows :

(1) There are numerous coloured pictures and diagrams to help little

children in the early stages of a difficult subject.

(2) The fundamental processes, addition, etc., are visualised by

means of novel diagrams.

(3) The Correlation of Arithmetic with the teaching of Hand and

Eye Work, Drawing, Geography, Thrift, etc., is more complete than in any other set of books known to the Author.

(4) Provision is made for the five kinds of Arithmetical exercises

enumerated in the Suggestions to Teachers. Whilst in addition to the above features there are :

(5) Practical and experimental work in great variety.

(6) Many original questions, number stories.

(7) Ample provision for recapitulation, revisal, and testing.

The scholars' books are arranged in seven books corresponding tc the seven years indicated in the various schemes of teaching.

Book 1 40 pages. Paper 3d., cloth 4d.

II 40 , 3d., 4d.

III. IV. V. VI. VII.

48 56 56 64 64

3d.,

4d., 4d.,

4d.

5d. 5d.

Answers to the Correlated Arithmetics.

To go with the Scholars' books there are seven ANSWERS BOOKS, each of which contains respectively :

(1) The pages of the corresponding scholar's book.

(2) The answers to the sums in the Scholar's book.

(3) Oral Work in great variety.

(4) Teacher's notes on the teaching of Arithmetic.

Book I. 88 pp. Cloth Is. net.

II. 88 Is.

III. IV. V. VI. VII.

100 116 116 130 130

Is. 3d. net. Is. 3d. „ Is. 3d. „ Is. 6d. „ Is. 6d.

19

Pitman's "Method" Arithmetics.

Containing Interesting and Accumulative Examples in Arithmetic for all Classes, and illustrating the Principles explained in the Handbook for Teachers, " Method in Arithmetic."

This is a new series of Arithmetics for use in schools, the special features of which are : —

(1) The questions are interesting and are based on possible events.

(2) All the examples are expressed in words. Formal sums are not included.

(3) The numbers in the examples are carefully graduated, so that the difficulties of arithmetical processes are lessened.

(4) " Accumulative " examples are used, thus allowing of revision being concurrent with new teaching.

PART 1. Addition and Subtraction . . Price 2d. ; Cloth 3d.

„ II. Multiplication and Division . . „ 2d. ; ,, 3d.

„ III. Long Division, Simple Reduction, of Money, Addition and Sub- traction of Money . . . . „ 2d. ; „ 3d.

„ IV. Multiplication, Division, and Re- duction of Money, and some Weights and Measures. . .. „ 3d.; „ 4d.

„ V. Bills, Easy Fractions, Simple and Compound Practice, Simple Proportion . . . . . . „ 3d. ; „ 4d.

„ VI Practice, Proportion, and Vulgar Fractions, Decimal Fractions, Simple Interest and Simple Mensuration . . . . . . „ 4d. ; „ 5d.

„ VII Fractions, Proportion, Interest, Percentages, Mensuration, Pro- fit and Loss, Averages, Stocks, Miscellaneous Problems, the Metric System.. .. .. „ 4d. ; ,, 5d.

ANSWERS. Parts I., II., III., and IV., limp cloth, each 3d. net. Parts V., VI., and VII., each 4d. net.

Pitman's " Method " Arithmetic.

Crown 8vo. 324 pp. Price 3s. Containing the above seven books together. ANSWERS. 2s. 6d. net.

Method in Arithmetic, Crown 8vo. 87 pp. Price 1/6.

An aid to the intelligent treatment of the Earlier Stages. By GEO. R. PURDIE, B.A., with a Preface by the Rev. A. C. HEADLAM, D.D., Principal of King's College, London.

" A very carefully graduated little manual, intended to guide the teacher who desires to base his instruction upon a clear conception by the pupil of the rationale of the fundamental processes of Arithmetic."

Pitman's "Proficiency" Arithmetics.

Compiled to meet the requirements of Schedule VI of the Codes of 1907 and 1908 (English and Welsh.)

2d.

PART I Simple Quantities: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

„ II. Simple Quantities : Extension of the work of Part I. Compound Quantities : Addition, Sub- traction, Multiplication and Division applied to Money (the questions only deal with small sums of money)

„ III. Simple Quantities : Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division. Compound Quan- tities : Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division of Money

„ IV. Simple Quantities : Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division (extended). Com- pound Quantities : Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division of Money (extended), and of Weight, Length, Cap- acity and Time

„ V. Simple and Compound Quantities (extended) with Vulgar Frac- tions, Mensuration of Rect- angles and Rectangular solids (areas and volumes) . .

„ VI. Simple and Compound Quantities, Vulgar Fractions and Mensura- tion of Rectangles and Rect- angular solids (extended) with Simple Proportion, Bills of Parcels, Decimals and Mensu- ration of Triangles whose bases and altitudes are known.

,, VII. Simple and Compound Qualities, Vulgar Fractions, Mensuration of Rectangles and Rectangular Solids and Triangles whose bases and altitudes are known, Simple Proportion, Bills of Parcels, Decimals (extended) with Peicentages and Interest ,, 4d.

ANSWERS. Parts I, II, III, and IV. Cloth 3d. net. Parts V, VI, and VII. Cloth 4d. net.

21

Price 2d. : Cloth 3d.

3d.

3d.

3d.

4d.

4d.

5d.

5d.

Pitman's Scheme B Arithmetics.

By T. W. THOUGHT, B.A., Headmaster of Camden Street Council School, Birmingham, formerly Lecturer in Mathematics at the Training College, Chester. Sale one million copies.

STANDARD I. 36 pp. Price 2d. ; cloth 3d

II- 36 ,. „ 2d.; 3d!

HI- 36 .. „ 2d.; 3d.

IV. 48 ,. „ 3d.; 4d.

V. 48 „ .. 3d.; 4d.

VI. 56 „ „ 4d.; 6d.

VII. 56 „ ,. 4d.; 5d.

These Arithmetics are unrivalled for grading, variety, problematic

wo^k, and originality; in addition they contain a series of tots, and

are arranged to suit either a thiee or four term year.

" The hand of the practical teacher is witnessed on every page." —

The Teachers' Aid.

" A very good series with plenty of good problems." — The Head Teacher.

" We congratulate the author, Mr. Trought, on the production of an excellent set of books." — The Schoolmaster.

The Answer Books to the above are entitled

Pitman's Guides to the Teaching of Scheme B.

Containing the pages of the Scholars' books, with Answers Memoranda, Oral Work, and an excellent selection of Mental Arithmetic Questions. STANDARD I. )

II. > Price 9d. euch, net. III. )

IV ^ v' > Price lOd. each, net.

yjj' j- Price I/- each, net.

N.B. — These Guides may be ordered as " Answer Books to Pitman's Scheme B Arithmetics."

Pitman's Three Term Test Cards Scheme B.

By T. W. TROUGHT, B.A.

Whilst the tests are based on Mr. Trought's well-known Arithmetics, they may also be used with advantage in conjunction with any other standard Arithmetics. There being five sums for each term most of the packets contain nearly a thousand tests. Terms I. and II. have recapitulatory work in every instance, so that the work of previous standards is never allowed to lapse. Metric sums are included in every packet above Standard III. Standards I., II., III., IV., and V. 48 cards. Standards VI. and VII. 36 cards. In strong cloth case with duplicate answers. Price 1/3 net each Standard. " We can cordially commend these cards. The examples are fresh and stimulating to the scholar. The answers are full. They are printed in such a way as to be helpful to the busy teacher in the tedious process of marking." — Practical Teacher.

\

48 cards. & 32 cards.

VII. )

Pitman's Scheme B Arithmetical Test Cards

By H. A. DICKINSON, A.C.P., Head Master ui Korster Street Council School, Nottingham.

Suitable for end of year tests. STANDARDS II.

III.

IV. V.

In strong cloth case with duplicate Answers. Pnce J/4 each Standard.

Teachers will find these Cards exactly what they want to thoroughly test the children's knowledge after they have worked through the Scheme B Arithmetics. They possess the following advantages : (1) They provide in all standards a test of intelligence rather than mere ability to do mechanical work — the essence of Scheme B ; (2) The mental sums are framed so as to be preparatory to the script work which follows; (3) Back work in more difficult form is set for revision ; (4) Future work in easy and graduated form is anticipated ; (5) The problems are all of practical utility ; (6) The form and presentation of problems are suggested by 25 years' experience.

Rapid Methods in Arithmetic.

In crown 8vo. 87 pp. Price I/- net.

By JOHN JOHNSTON, Headmaster of the Boys' High School, Wolver- hampton. Designed for the use of the Commercial Student and the Business Man, this book gives the principal short cuts in Counting, and the quickest methods of obtaining arithmetical solutions to questions that frequently arise in the course of business.

Arithmetic for Pupil Teachers.

Cr. 8vo. 230 pp. Price 3/6.

By GEORGE RICKS, B.Sc., late Inspector of Schools: London County Council. Fifteenth Thousand.

Elementary Arithmetic and how to Teach it.

A Manual for Teachers and Pupil Teachers. By G. KICKS, B.Sc.

Crown 8vo. 356 pp. 4/6. A Textbook of A rithmetic.

Cr. 8vo. 368 pp. Price 4/6.

By THOMAS MUIR, LL.D., Superintendent-General of Education, Cape Colony, formerly Mathematical Master, High School, Glasgow. Fourteenth Edition.

This is a complete text-book for the use of students and of pupils in Higher Class Schools. In the compilation of it great stress has been laid on accuracy and the rational treatment of arithmetic cal principles. While prominence is given to essentials, no part of the subject has been neglected. As presented here, Arithmetic is equally adapted as a means of general mental training and as a preparation for the practical business of life.

The AVon Exercises in Algebra.

Each containing a large number of carefully graduated exercises and 48 examination papers. In three stages. Cloth covers.

Prices 4d., 4d. & 6d. Answers 6d. each stage.

Nature Study.

SELSBORNE NATURE READERS.

Introductory "Book. In cr. 8vo. 130 pp. Price 10cL

A novel and interesting reading book for young children 'Standard I.), written in the form of a Nature story, by Margaret Cameron, I I. A late Head Mistress, Harehills Council Infants' School, Leeds. With six coloured plates and numerous illustrations in black and white, chiefly from photographs.

" Charming little stories are woven round various plants and animals, and the book is copiously illustrated with most beautiful photographs. The photographs indeed are a feature of the book, and we congratu- late the publishers heartily upon having secured such artistic illustrations. " — Sch o olmaster.

" No child will read Miss Cameron's lovable tale without profit and pleasure. It is daintily illustrated." — Finsbury and City Teachers' Journal.

" A capital little Introductory Reader, very clearly printed and strongly! bound." — Teachers' Times.

*** Others in preparation.

NATURAL HISTORY READERS.

A -Series of Reading "Books dealing With Animal and "Bird Life. By the late Rev. ]. G. Wood, M.A.

First Reader. 96 pp. Price 7d.

Second Reader. 128 pp. Price lOd.

Third Reader. 190 pp. Price 1/2.

Fourth Reader. 285 pp. Price 1/6.

Fifth Reader. 251 pp. Price 1/6.

Sixth Reader. 236 pp. Price 1/6.

24

THE AVON NATURE STUDY READERS.

Three books suitable for classes corresponding to Standards I., II. & III.

Profusely illustrated, both in Colour and Black and White.

CONTENTS. Book I., price lod.

LIVING THINGS. — Trees, Seeds and Fruits ; Bread, Milk, Tea and

Coffee ; Cotton ; The Snail, Bees, Fishes and Birds ; Kittens, The

Fox ; Wool, Silk ; Coal ; Rain ; Poetry, Fables.

THE DAY. — Morning, Evening, Night ; Poetry.

THE YEAR. — Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn ; Poetry.

Book II., price is.

PLANT LIFE. — Roots, Stems, Buds, Leaves, Weapons, Traps ; The Story of the Leaf, Flowers, Fruits, Seeds ; Poetry. COMMON OBJECTS. — Wheat, Flour, Bread, Milk, Cheese, Cream, Butter, Salt, Soda, Starch, Candles, Soap, Paper ; Poetry. ANIMAL LIFE. — Common Animals, Sounds made by Animals, the Weapons of Animals, Kindness to Animals ; Word Building ; Poetry.

Book III., price is. 3d.

PLANT LIFE. — A Broad Bean, a Grain of Wheat, Young Plants, Ferns, Mosses, Lichens, Sea Weeds, Funguses ; Flowers with many Stamens ; Cross-shaped Flowers ; Butterfly Blossoms ; Umbrella Flowers ; Compound Rowers ; The Nettle, A Hazel Bush, Living Things ; Poetry.

ANIMAL LIFE. — Lowly Animals, Snails and Slugs, Jointed Animals, Lobsters, Crabs, and Shrimps, Spiders, Parts of Insects, Growth of Insects, Bees and their Hives, the First Paper Makers, Fishes, Double Dwellers, the Story of a Toad, Reptiles, Back-boned Animals, Birds of Prey, Perching Birds, Poetry, Climbers, Scratchers, and Waders, Swimming Birds, Gnawers, and Hoofed Animals, Insect Eaters, Bats ; Poetry.

Air, Water, Steam, Light, Chalk, Lime-stone, a Peat Bog, Coal ; Word Building.

OBJECT LESSONS.

The AVon Object Lesson Handbooks for Teachers.

These books will be found of immense help to young Teachers. The Lessons are well arranged and lavishly illustrated, and much sound practical advice is given. The subjects correspond with the contents of the Avon Nature Study Readers, so that the Object Lesson and the Reading Lesson may be correlated.

Volume I., price is. 6d. Volume II., price is. 6d. Volume III., price is. 6d.

25

"Pitman's Notes of Lessons Series

Notes of Lessons on History. In two vols. Crown 8vo, cloth. Price Vol. I., 3s. ; Vol. II., 3s. 6d.

Vol. I deals with the Early Period, from British Times to 1603, and Vol. II with the Modern Period from 1603 to the Present Day. These NOTES OF LESSONS can be conveniently used in connection with any of the schemes of history teaching now in general use, whether "periodic," "concentric" or " biographical." " We like these lessons very much. They are out of the conventional rut, and explain and illustrate the great movements in history in a very able manner. . . . Should provide every thoughtful teacher with an abundance of matter with which to enrich his oral lessons." — Teachers' Aid.

An Elementary History Source "Book. Price 3s. 6d.

By the Author of PITMAN'S NOTES OF LESSONS ON HISTORY. Consisting of extracts from the Original Authorities of English History. Intended for use in connection with PITMAN'S NOTES OF LESSONS ON HISTORY, or with any scheme of History teaching.

Notes of Lessons on English. Crown 8vo.

Price 3s. 6d.

A comprehensive series of lessons intended to assist teachers who wish to give systematic instruction in English Composition and Grammar. Composition is regarded by the author not only as a very valuable exercise in mental training, but as the essential founda- tion of all sound language teaching. During a wide experience, however, he has found that many teachers spend most of the time allotted to the subject in correcting mistakes, the same error in com- position constantly occurring in different forms, and this fact has impressed upon him the need of a definite grammatical basis for the teaching of Composition. In these NOTES OF LESSONS prominence is therefore given to the teaching of general rules for the correction of common errors in composition. The amount of formal grammar is reduced to a minimum, while as great variety as possible of exercises for composition is provided.

Practical Object Lessons from the Plant World.

BY HERBERT J. BARNELL. Price 3/.

A new series of Nature Study Lessons. In their compilation the author has kept in mind that the correct method of procedure is to lead the scholars to make their own deductions from the observation of actual objects placed before them. The book contains 23 pages of white on black illustrations, which can be easily reproduced by the teacher on the blackboard and copied by the scholars into their note-books.

Notes of Lessons on Hygiene and Temperance.

Two volumes. In crown 8vo, each 180 pp. Price 3s. By Mrs. ELLIS H. CHADWICK. With an Introduction by Professor SIMS WOODHEAD, M.A., M.D.

These NOTES OF LESSONS are based upon the scheme outlined in the Syllabus issued by the Board of Education. Few technical terms are used, and where experiments are suggested, they are such as can be con- ducted in an ordinary class-room. Vol. I deals with the Hygiene of the Person, Food (including Air and Water) and Clothing ; and Vol. II with the Home, Simple Ailments, Sick Nursing and Mother-craft.

Notes of Lessons on Science.

In crown 8vo, 208 pp. Price 3s. 6d.

By ROBERT BUNTING, Headmaster of the " Acland " Higher Elementary School, London, N.W.

In the present volume, the acquisition of knowledge is looked upon as of secondary consideration, the method of obtaining it being of far greater importance than the knowledge itself. The material of the book is distributed over five sections, the first dealing with physical measurements of a general character and progressive in arrangement. The last two consider various chemical and physical forces and their application to industry. While the former sections are well adapted to the lower classes of any school, the latter would suit excellently the upper classes of a good school in an industrial neighbourhood.

Notes of Lessons in Geography. Two volumes. In crown 8vo, each 176 pp. Price 3s.

By LEWIS MARSH, M.A.

The aim of this book is to indicate a method whereby geography may be taught in an educational and scientific manner. The Lessons are carefully graduated, each depending on those that precede it. The ground covered is sufficient to supply the whole geographical teaching of all seven standards of an elementary school. The scheme is a combination of those mentioned in the " Suggestions for Teachers," and is based on the Code of the Board of Education. Volume I consists of Lessons on Elementary Notions, Plans and Maps, and the study of the British Isles. Vol. II contains the geography of the World outside of the British Isles, with special regard to British Possessions ; there are also a few lessons on the more difficult physical phenomena.

In the study of countries, the regional method is adopted. It is shown how the teacher can train his pupils to observe the physical features of a district, and to deduce from them the political and commercial conditions.

Notes of Lessons on Arithmetic, Mensuration, and Practical Geometry.

Two volumes. In crown 8vo. Each 176 pp. Price 3s. By C. W. CROOK, B.A., B.Sc., Headmaster of the Higher Grade School, Wood Green, X.

The author has provided a series of suggestive lessons, by means of which the teacher may be enabled to secure that alertness in the pupil which is so properly insisted upon in the Suggestions to

27

Teachers. The Metric System and Mensuration are treated very fully and Practical ( iconu-try, including graphs, is a feature of the book. Each lesson begins with oral work leading up to the subject of the lesson, which is next treated practically, and as far as possible from the work of the class itself. After each lesson, suggestions are given as to the various types of problems and other lessons which should naturally follow it.

Talks With Tinies. Price 3/6

A Series of Lessons for the Babies, with Suggestions at the end of each Lesson for Co-related Lessons and Occupations. By Mrs. ALYCE L. SANDFORD, Head Mistress of Christ Church Endowed Infants' School, Southwark ; late Mistress of Method at S. Maryle- bone P. T. Centre ; Lecturer on Theory of Education at the National Society's School of Cookery.

The book contains over 60 pages ot illustrations, which can be easily drawn on the blackboard by the teacher, and instructions are given with each drawing for co-related work — Colouring, Per- forating, Modelling, Stick laying. Freehand and Free-arm Drawing, etc.

A Year's Work With Mother Nature

An Easy Series of Co-related Nature Studies for Little Children, based on the Seasons. By Mrs ALYCE L. SANDFORD. With a Foreword by Lord AVEBURY.

In f'cap 4to. 203 pp. Price 3/6

The Book contains over 40 pages of illustrations suitable for drawing on the blackboard.

CONTENTS. SECTION I. SPRING

Fair Maids of February. A Bunch of Violets. Bird-Cradles. Spring's Crocus Crown. " Baby Buds."

" Little Men in Green " (The Hyacinth) Persephone's Flower (The Daffodil). "The Peering Primrose." A Lowly Householder (The Snail). "The Flower in the Crannied Wall." •The Life of a Bean.

SECTION II. SUMMER.

" The Little Children's Dower " (The

Buttercup).

"Small Green Feathers" (Grass). " Daisy Stars that Never Set " (The

Daisy). " The Guest of Summer " (The

Swallow).

" Downy Dandelions." The Friend of Arachne (The Spidei). " The Queen of Flowers " (The Rose). " Crimson Fruit like Rubies " (The

Strawberry). •Red Geraniums. " Friend of our Summer Gladness "

(The Butterfly). " Regal Red Poppies."

* These lessons have original songs

9S

SECTION III. AUTUMN.

" Golden Grain."

"Autumn's Fruit" (The Blackberry).

"Plant Helpers" (Stems of Plants)

" Clytie's Flower" (The Sunflower). •A Hop Vine *Nuts (illustrated by the Walnut).

Trees in Autumn (illustrated by the Oak and Acorn).

" Nature's Nut Gatherer " (The Squirrel)

" Purple Plums."

Birds who Leave us.

" Winter Storehouses " (Bulbs).

SECTION IV. WINTER.

* ' Hot Potatoes."

'A London Visitor" (The Seagull). A " Head " of Celery.

3old Countries.

' Black Diamonds."

' Winter Evergreens."

' lyy Green."

' Our Little English Robin."

' Golden Globes " (Oranges) Holly. A Christmas Pudding

with pianoforte accompaniment.

A Second Year's Work With Mother Nature.

In f'cap 4to. 203 pp. Price 3/6

Being another Series of Easy Co-related Nature Studies for Little Children, based^on the Seasons. By Mrs. ALYCE L. SANDFORD. With Foreword by Sir JOHN COCKBURN, K.C.M.G., and 44 pp. of illustrations. CONTENT$.

SECTION BUD TIME Tree Tassels (Catkins). Polliwogs.

Furry Friends (Rabbits). *A Digger of the Soil (the Mole). Wriggling Worms. " Freckled Cowslips." Cool Cresses. Golden Buds. Deep Tulips. Blossoms Blue Warm Red Clover.

SECTION II. BLOSSOM TIME A Self-invited Guest (Daddy Long-legs). Creeping Caterpillars. Busy Bees.

A Summer Stinger (The Gnat). White Lilies. Rainbow Flowers. Flower Faces. Cherry Ripe.

•The Prickly Gooseberry. Winged Seeds. A Summer Songster.

SECTION III. BERRY TIME. Gold Blooms. Flower Flames. *Heather Bells. Mushrooms. Hips.

" Rosy and Ripe " (Apples). " Later Fruits " (Pears). Speckly Wings (Lady-Birds)* Love Apples (The Tomato). White Balls (Turnips). The Hedgehog.

SECTION IV. BED TIME. " Later Flowers " (Chrysanthemums). A London Resident (The Sparrow). Slim Red Roots (The Carrot). Ruby Roots (The Beetroot). Covers and Cases (Nuts). *Golden Fingers (Bananas). Juicy Lemons. A Winter Sleeper. The Mistletoe Bough Bare Branches (Trees in Winter). The Wonder Tree (Christmas Tree).

* These lessons have original songs with pianoforte accompaniment.

Nature Notes and Notions : Being a Third Year's Work with Mother Nature. By Mrs. A. L. SANDFORD. With about 40 pages of illustrations.

In foolscap 4to. 204 pp. Price 3s. 6d.

This is a book of Nature Lessons written on the Herbartian plan, with suggested co-related applications. The lessons are rather more advanced than those contained in the two preceding voiumes of the series. Every lesson has been selected with a view to simplify the difficulties of procuring the necessary apparatus and as far as possible to be of service to both town and country teachers.

Months and Melodies : An Entirely New Series "V>f Original Stories, Songs and Recitations, based on the months of the year. By BESSIE HAWKINS. Music by R. W. HAWKINS. In foolscap 4to. 128pp. Price2s.6d.net.

The book is arranged in three parts, the first containing a story for each month to be read or told to the children in which much useful information is given in the form of " fairy fancies," such as little folks revel in. Each story is followed by a suitable song set to taking and easy music. The Second Part consists of Nature Study recitations (also arranged to suit the months), some easily lending themselves to action. The Third Part is devoted to a miscellaneous collection of children's games and recitations of varying difficulty.

29

Natural History Object Lessons. Price 4/6.

By GEORGE RICKS, B.Sc., (Lond.) Inspector of Schools, London County Council.

A Manual for Teachers and Pupil Teachers. With numerous Diagrams, Illustrations, and Specimen Drawings for the Blackboard.

Object Lessons and hoto to give them.

By GEORGE RICKS, B.Sc. (Lond.).

First Series. FOR INFANTS' SCHOOLS. Price 3/6.

Second Series* FOR JUNIOR AND SENIOR CLASSES. Crown 8vo. Price 3/6

" The Teacher " Guide to the Certificate Examinations of the "Board of Education.

Compiled by JAMES BELL, B.A., Director of Certificate Classes, Stockport. In crown 8vo. 104pp. Pricels.net.

This " Guide " contains information in detail upon all\points that are likely to give trouble to students^reparing for the Preliminary Certificat" and the Certificate Examinations. The Questions set in 1907 are also inserted, with model solutions to the Papers in Mathematics.

The Teacher's Course of Elementary Science.

By FRANK BELTON, B.Sc.

Part I. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

In crown 8vo. 240 pp. Price 3s. 6d.

Part II. PLANT LIFE.

In crown 8vo. 220 pp. Price 3s. 6d.

The course provided in this book follows the syllabus for the Certifi- cate Examination. The work of the Teacher is kept in view through- out and the simple scientific truths associated with familiar every-day facts are given a prominent place, for they form part of the organized scheme of work and are continually met with in the ordinary lessons. Students' difficulties receive careful attention and simple experiments, with apparatus that can be fitted up from the stock of any properly equipped school, together with numerous illustrations and diagrams, form a special feature of the book. It will be of great use to the working Teacher, seeking aid in the school Science Lessons, as well as to the Student preparing for the Certificate Examinations of the Board of Education.

30

English*

Pitman's Lessons in English.

An entirely new set consisting of seven books, embodying every useful feature of the most approved methods of teaching English, e.g. Exercises in Spelling, Word Building, Grammar and Composition. Book I. ... ... Price, paper 2d. cloth 3d.

in.

IV.

V.

VI. VII.

W

3d-		4d.
3d-		4d.
4d.		5d.
4d.		5d.
V-		5d.
it c instruction	n spelling, word-

" enae even pup teacers to gve systemat c ins

building, grammar and composition." — The Schoolmaster.

" A well-conceived series of exercises designed to meet the present requirements ot the Code. The exercises are varied and touch on most of the difficulties ot the subject, and by the time the children reach the end of the book, they should be able to express their ideas in clear and correct language." — Practical Teacher.

Pitman's Illustrated Aids to Composition.

By H. J. BARNELL. Two series of cards, each demy 6to, with Notes and Illustrations — white upon black — dealing with some subject suitable for an exercise in composition.

FIRST SERIES. — Bees, Migratory Birds, Birds' Feet, Birds' Beaks Bones, Coal, Crossing a Desert, The Cat, the Dragon-Fly, etc.

SECOND SERIES. — A Miner's Life, The Crimean War, Catkins Coral and Coral Islands, Canadian Pacific Railway, etc. First Series 32 Cards. Price 33. ) Each Series enclosed

Second Series. 32 Cards. Price 33.) in a strong cloth case

The two series are also published in book form, with ruled paper interleaved for Additional Notes, etc. Price, each series, 2/6 net.

Pitman's Illustrated Poetry 'Books for Schools.

Bright and easy Selections of Poetry, with numerous illustrations. Book I., 32 pp., 3d. Book II., 48 pp., 4d. Book III., 64 pp., 5d.

" Without exception the best little book of recitations with which we are acquainted."— The Teachers' Times.

Self= Help Exercises in English (Reform Method}. In cr. 8vo. 80 pp. Price I/- net.

This is an application of the " Reform " method of teaching modern languages to the study of English. The book contains 32 passages from great English authors, which are made the basis of numerous and varied exercises in Reading, Dictation, Punctuation, Grammar, and Composition, designed to increase the student's power of under- standing and appreciating the passages as well as extend his general command over the mother tongue. The book will be found specially valuable for Evening Schools, for the Upper Classes of Elementary Schools, and for Pupil Teacher and Secondary Schools.

31

Tne Scholar's 'Book of Moral Instruction Essays.

Being 30 outline Essays lor the Incidental Teaching oi Moral Subjects by English Composition. By JOHN HOLLINGWORTH, B.A., Headmaster of St. Margaret's Boys' School, King's Lynn. SUBJECTS — Human Nature, Conscience, Honour, Duty, Purity of Mind, Cleanliness, Habits, Temperance and Moderation, Politeness, Good Taste, Contentment, Perseverance, Fair-Play, Truthfulness and Honesty, Self-Respect, Humanity to Animals, etc.

48 pp. Price 4d. Punctuation as a Means of Expression :

Its Theory and Practice. In crown 8vo. 80 pp. Price 1/6 A complete Manual, by A. E. LOVELL, M.A., Director of Education for the City and County Borough of Chester. An interesting^and helpful manual of the subject, that will greatly impress the intelligent student and be much appreciated by all who value clearness and thoroughness in writing.

Pitman's School Dictionary. 18 mo. 161pp.

Price 4d. net ; cloth 6d net.

This has been compiled with the object of supplying a clear and concise definition of difficult English words likely to occur in school books. Lists of Prefixes, Suffixes, Latin, Greek and English Roots, Foreign Words and Phrases, Abbr ,v:c.t;ons and Metric Tables are given.

English Grammar. 96 pp. Price, paper 6d. ; cloth 9d.

For the Upper Classes and P.T.'s. By Sir T. MARCH ANT WILLIAMS. Very clearly written and compactly arranged, this contains in small compass all the essentials of English grammar.

The Avon English Grammar Primers.

STANDARD III. 32 pp. Price, cloth 3d. i Avon English

IV, V, VI, VII, 48 pp. I Grammar Primer

Price 3d. ; cloth 4d. complete, l/-

Pitman's Guide to Minor Scholarships and Merit Exams.

Quarter cloth, 136 pp. Price I/- With Answers to Arithmetic, Algebra, and Mechanics, cloth, 1/6 Teachers preparing pupils for County Council and other Scholarship Examinations will find this book invaluable.

Pitman's Guide to Intermediate and Advanced Scholarship Examinations.

Quarter cloth, 132 pp. Price 1/6. With Answers to the Mathematical Questions, cloth, price 2/- Fort Students preparing f or ^Scholarship Examinations instituted by various Educational Authorities.

Drawing.

A Drawing Scheme for Country Schools.

By ALBERT E. D. LOWDEN.

The aim of this book is to present a scheme on sound principles and practical lines. With 24 large page drawings. Price 2s. 6d.

The Ideal Drawing Cards. Price 2/- per case.

Printed in red and black, on pale green cards. 32 cards (con- taining 64 copies, Freehand on one side, Geometry, etc., on the other), in novel cloth case, so that cards can be easily withdrawn. STANDARD III.. Freehand and Ruler Drawing ; IV., Freehand and Drawing to Scale ; V. VI. and Vila., Freehand and Plane Geometry ; VII6.. Freehand and Solid Geometry.

"Blackboard Cloth.

Pitman's 'Blackboard Cloth

is undoubtedly the best thing of its kind now on the market. Its surface has just sufficient roughness to grip the chalk, is wholly free from grease, and will bear frequent use and obliteration without losing its colour. It is done up in the following styles : — Mounted on Rollers, size 30 in. by 23 in. (One Sheet), 2/- ,, 46 in. by 36 in. ., 3/-

In rolls 6 yards long by 46 in. wide, 14/-

Pitman's "Blackboard ^Sheets.

Six Sheets of Pitman's Blackboard Cloth, 30 in. by 23 in., mounted at top with strong wooden clips, every sheet bound with metal at bottom to prevent curling, and so arranged that the sheets can be turned over. 10/6 net each set.

Ditto ditto ditto 46 in. by 36 in., 16/6 „

Pitman's Free Arm Drawing "Boards.

Very stout straw boards, cloth covered both sides, rounded corners and eyeletted. Size 15 by 11 in. 7£d. net each; 7/6 net per doz.

Domestic Economy,

The Ideal Domestic Economy. 192 pages.

12 coloured plates. Cloth,' 1/6

This book may also be obtained in three parts, each containing 64 pages and four coloured plates ; limp cloth covers. Price 6d. PART I. — Food, its composition and nutritive value;

Clothing and Washing. PART II. — Functions of Food, Warming, Cleaning, and

Ventilating the Dwelling. PART III.— Preparation of Food— Simple Dishes, Rules

for Health, and the Management of a Sick Room.

'Pitman's Domestic Copy 'Book for Girls.

Introducing Social Letters, Tradesmen's Bills, etc. 24 pages, post 4to. Price 3d.

33

Pitman's NeW Era Copy 'Books

Proper Proportions of the Letters maintained.

The style of writing adopted in these books is simple, uniform, and entirely without exaggerations. It is designed to produce

CLEAR, BOLD, AND RAPID WRITING.

There are no nourishes or fanciful peculiarities. It is further recommended by the fact that it can be

EASILY LEARNED, EASILY WRITTEN, AND EASILY READ. The letters can be formed without lifting the pen, and continuous high speed can be attained. The slope adopted is 1 5 degs. from the vertical. There are at least two head-lines on every page, so that the risk of the scholar copying his own writing is reduced to a minimum. The series consists of 15 books, and each book contains 24 pages.

INTERESTING FACTS, MEMORABLE DATES, USEFUL INFORMATION.

Great care has been taken in the preparation and arrangement of the head-lines. In the higher books the-head lines consist of useful facts from the Code Subjects.

TWOPENCE EACH.

1. LARGE HAND.— Elements. Easy Letters. Short Words. With aids in the form of outlined letters, space-marks, etc.

2. LARGE AND HALF-TEXT.— Elements. Long Letters. More

difficult Short Words of Long and Short Letters. With aids.

3. SPECIAL ARITHMETICAL NUMBER.— Arithmetical Copies and

Exercises. Half-Text Hand. With Easy Capitals.

4. LARGE AND HALF-TEXT.— Short Words and Easy Capitals.

Grammatical Definitions Simple Poetry.

5. LARGE AND HALF-TEXT.— Capitals and more difficult Words.

Elementary Geographical Definitions and Information.

6. SPECIAL ARITHMETICAL NUMBER.— Arithmetical Copies and

Exercises in the Four Simple Rules. Tables.

7. INTRODUCTION TO SMALL HAND.— Grammatical Definitions

and Poetry.

8. FIRST SMALL HAND.— Physical and Political Geography of

England and Wales. Facts and Dates in Early English History.

9. SPECIAL ARITHMETICAL NUMBER— Arithmetical Copies and

Exercises. Four Simple Rules, with Long Division. Money.

10. SMALL HAND. — Grammar Parsing Models. Geographical Terms

simply explained by reference to the Map of the World.

11. SMALL HAND.— British History and Biography down to 1603.

12. SMALL HAND.— British History and Biography from 1603.

Geography of the British Isles. Advanced Writing.

13. SMALL HAND. — Ordinary and Commercial Correspondence,

Letters, and Addresses. Invitation and other Forms.

14. SMALL HAND.— Modern English History. Reign of Victoria.

15. SMALL HAND. — British Colonies and Possessions.

34

School Registers.

PITMAN'S SCHOOL REGISTERS

An entirely new and complete set of Registers (Admission, Summary, and Attendance), constructed in accordance with the latest regulations of the Board of Education (Code 1907).

Special Features of each Register.

New in Design. Right up to Date.

Convenient in Size. Carefully Ruled.

Suitable for any Type of School, Boys', Girls', Mixed, or Infants'.

Attendance Register. Thick Boards. Price 1/4

(1) A mistake in ordering is impossible, as there is only one Attend- ance Register, which provides equally well for all classes, including children under 5 in Infants' Departments, and over 15 in Senior Departments.

(2) It contains a " Partial Exemption " Register.

(3) It is equally suitable for Fee-paying Schools as for Free Schools.

(4) It provides for the addition of attendances under Schedule IV. of Code, Art. 20.

(5) Clerical work is reduced to a minimum.

Summary Register. Strongly bound in cloth. Price 10/-

(1) This provides all that is necessary for the returns required for Form IX., and is arranged to save labour.

(2) Provision is made for separate returns of children under 5 if used for Infants' Departments and of those over 15 when used for Senior Schools.

(3) Provides for Local Needs.

Admission Register. Strongly bound in cloth. Price 10/-

(1) The division of the Index pages is in proportion to the frequency in use of the individual letters as Initials.

(2) Provision is made for Cross Reference on re-admission.

(3) Space is provided for recording the progress of a child through the school or for other school records

(4) All the usual features are also included.

Attendance Register for "Boys' or Girls' Classes. Price 1/4.

Without Fees Columns. For use where the School Year is divided into Four Quarters.

%* Full Prospectus post free on application. 35

Teachers' Report and Work 'Books.

Head Teacher's Report 'Book and Examination Register. Fcap. folio, strongly bound. Price I/-

Compiled by J. E. ELLSON, Headmaster "Hugh Myddleton " Higher Grade School, Clerkenwell, London, E.G., and E. BOLUS, B.A., Headmaster Wilmot Street Council School, Bethnal Green, London, E. CONTENTS. — Course of Work for the Year, pages 2 and 3 ; Syllabus of Work and Report on the same for the customary periods of one, two, three, or four months, pages 4 to 26 ; Individual Results of Periodical Examinations, pages 26 to 31 : Memoranda — Schemes of Work. etc.. pages 32 to 40.

BY THE SAME AUTHORS.

Class Teacher's Work 'Book and Syllabus.

Fcap. folio, strongly bound. Price 1/6

Printed on excellent paper and bound in extra strong covers. By a simple arrangement one entry of subjects serves for the whole year. CONTENTS. — Specimen pages, i. and ii. ; Syllabus of Work for cus- tomary periods of one, two, or three months, pages 2 to 12 ; Weekly Records of Work done, pages 13 to 60; Brief Notes of Oral Lessons ' in History, Grammar, etc., pages 61 to 86; Memoranda, pages 87 to 90; Diagrams, Sketch Maps, Press Cuttings, etc., pages 91 to 93; Class Time Table Form, page 94.

'Pitman's Ideal Syllabus, "Progress, and Report 'Book (Three Terms}, by J. E. ELLSON.

Strongly bound. Price 1/6

CONTENTS.— Course of Work for the Year, pages 2 and 3: Syllabus of Work for the Terms, Weekly Records of Work done, and Head Teacher's Reports on same, pages 4 to 15; Individual Results of periodical Examinations, pages 16 to 19; Memoranda — Schemes of Work, etc., pages 20 to 28; Brief Notes of Oral Lessons in History, Science, etc., pages 29 to 41 : Diagrams, Sketch Maps, Press Cuttings, etc., pages 42 to 43 ; Class Time Table Form, page 44.

Pitman's Ideal Syllabus, Progress, and Report

Hook for Infants' Schools. By J. E. ELLSON.

Contents mostly as above. Strongly bound. Price 1/6.

*»* Full site specimen pages Post free nn application.

Pitman's Evening School Record = Svllabus Book.

Adapted to ' the Codal Requirements of both Rural and Urban Evening Schools.

Price l/- 36

Education.

Pitman's Paper Flotoer Making. Price 2/- net.

By Miss F. E. MANCHESTER, Head Mistress, Council Infants' School, Central Hendon, N.W. Four coloured plates and about 160 illustrations, examples, etc.

"The introduction to this useful little work convinces us that Miss Manchester has, in compiling these pages, kept v/ell in mind the desirability of making this pretty occupation a stepping stone to higher things. . . We proceed with pleasure to congratulate the Authoress upon her very definite instructions to the class- teacher. The illustrations are good, the text pleasant to read, and teachers who are about to introduce this popular Kindergarten occupation would do well to secure for themselves a copy of Miss Manchester's book." — Schoolmaster.

The Kindergarten Principle. Sm.4to. 190pp. Price 4/6

Its Educational Value and Chief Applications. By M. J. LYSCHINSKA, With Diagrams and Illustrations. Ninth Edition. PART I. — A GERMAN KINDERGARTEN. The Place of Nature in Early Education. The Co-ordination of Certain Educational Practices. The Teaching of Pestalozzi and Frobel. Some Difficulties of Introducing the Kindergarten into Infant Schools and Suggestions as to their Removal. PART II. — A FEW OCCUPATIONS EXPLAINED AND USED. Paper-folding, Mat-plaiting, Stick-laying, Drawing, Pricking, Sewing.

Education. Crown 8vo. 548 pp. Price 6/-

An Introduction to its Principles, and their Psychological Founda- tions. By H. HOLMAN, M.A., formerly Professor of Education and Master of Method at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

Teachers will find this book very suggestive. It is the result of con- siderable experience in lecturing and of a very varied acquaintance with the practical teaching of university students — men and women — private students, and pupils of both sexes, in elementary and grammar schools.

" We so heartily agree with nearly all its conclusions that we can only congratulate the author." — Educational Times.

Varied Occupations. 94 pp. Paper, sewed. Price l/-

Their Principles and Purposes. By H. HOLMAN, M.A., formerly Professor of Education at the University College ol Wales, Aberystwyth.

" This is a very thorough little book." — Saturday Review. " We advise teachers to get and read this book, for there is much that is valuable and suggestive within its pages." — Schoolmaster. " Admirable from every point of view." — Educational Times. " The book contains practically all that need be said upon the subject. It is written in a most interesting and highly practical manner, and we advise our readers, one and all. to obtain a copy." — The Practical Teacher.

37

Cane Weaving for Children : or an Educa- tional Method of Hand Training.

Fourteenth Edition. Piice 6d.

By Miss LUCY R. LATTER, late Assistant Superintendent of Method in Infant Schools under the School Board for London

The Student's Froebel. Crown 8vo. Price

2/6 each Part.

By W. H. HERFORD, B.A. Part I.— Theory. 128pp. Part II.— Practice. 144 pp.

The two parts together give a full exposition of Froebelian Principles and Methods, adapted from Froebel's " Education of Man," and following the language of the original as far as possible. " Should have a very wide circulation." — British Weekly.

Home Gymnastics. Crown 8vo, sewed. Price 1/6.

Translated from the Swedish by CONCORDIA LOFVING. Fourth Edition. With 32 explanatory Woodcuts.

Needlework

Needlework for Student Teachers Price 4s. net.

6th Edition, completing 30,000. Revised and re-arranged. By Miss AMY K. SMITH, Diplomee of the London Institute for the Advancement of Plain Needlework, Specialist under the London County Council ; and at the Day Training College, Moorfields ; Examiner in Dressmaking and Needlework to the City and Guilds of London Institute ; late of St. Gabriel's College, Kennington. S.E. With Introduction by The Lady WOLVERTON.

This book contains about 230 pages, demy 8vo, and is illustrated with nearly 200 diagrams.

" A most exhaustive manual. The diagrams are excellent. It is a valuable book of reference, and the clearest and most exhaustive treatise that has yet appeared." — Schoolmaster.

Cutting*Out for Student Teachers. Price 5s. net.

By Miss AMY K. SMITH. With Introduction by The Countess of CARLISLE.

This book contains upwards of 260 pages, quarto size, and is illus- trated with over 360 diagrams. The most comprehensive book devoted exclusively to cutting out yet published in this country. " All who are acquainted with that xcellent book ' Needlework for Student Teachers ' will heartily welcome another work by the same careful and methodical writer. The book is profusely illustrated, and affords every conceivable help to those for whom it is written. We can most heartily recommend it." — Schoolmistress, " Miss Smith has not only conferred a distinct benefit on the class of readers for whom the book is specially designed, but she has given a most valuable addition to needlework literature. This work only needs to be known to be appreciated by a wide class of readers." — Teachers' AM.

38

Pitman's Natural History Pictures.

Thirteen Pictures of Animals and Birds, in Black and White, mounted on thick Cardboard and Varnished, and supplied with cord ready for hanging. With Descriptive Notes by R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S.

Size 20 in. by 16 in. Price I/- each picture.

This fine series of Natural History Pictures possess many features to commend them to those seeking suitable pictures for schools.

1. CHEAP. They are issued at the lowest price at which a work of art of this kind can|be produced.

2. USEFUL. Utility has been considered, and all the subjects are such as will be likely to be useful in giving object or information lessons in the ordinary course of instruction.

3.VARTISTIC. A high standard of art is maintained. Quality has not been sacrificed to either cheapness or utility. The pictures have been reproduced from a unique series of photographic studies by an expert, and the subjects are all placed in their natural environment.

4. ACCURATE. The services of an eminent naturalist, Mr. R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S. , were obtained to write the descriptive notes, which may, therefore, be relied upon to be accurate in every respect.

The Subjects. The Set at present consists of the following 13 pictures, but the number will be added to from time to time: —

The Owl The Bison The Llama

The Elephant The Camel The Tiger

The Zebra The Lion The Reindeer

The Eagle The Polar Bear The Kangaroo

And, , the Ostrich.

Languages.

French Translation and Composition.

Crown 8vo. 187 pp. Price 2/6.

For Teachers' Examinations (including the Preliminary Certificate, the Certificate, and Matriculation Examinations). By LEWIS MARSH, B.A. (Hons.), Cantab., Med. and Mod. Languages Tripos/ Late Exhibitioner of Emmanuel College ; White Prizeman ; Assistant Master, City of London School ; and Special Instructor in French and German to the London County Council.

39

feartar

Full of Bright, Helpful, and Attractive Reading. 28 pages.

PRICE ONE PENNY.

The Organ of the National Association of Head Teachers*

Regular Features.

Educational News, General, London, and Provincial ; Nature Study Articles, Illustrated Nature Lessons, by C. G. KIDDELL, B.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. ; Preliminary Certificate and Certificate Courses, conducted by a Tutorial' Board, under the direction of Mr. J. B. HUGHES, Principal P.T. (Centre, Nottingham ; Personalia ; Reviews of New Books ; Practical Teaching ; Notes of Lessons, Tests, etc. ; Young Students' Difficulties, weekly solutions to problems sent by students ; Recitations and Original Poetry ; Specially Contributed Leading Article ; At Russell Square, Notes on N.U.T. Activities ; Drawing for Teachers and Schools ; Educational Institutions, illustrated interviews with heads of P.T. Centres, Training Colleges, Polytech- nics, etc. ; Illustrated articles on Places of Educational Interest ; Holiday Papers, etc. ; Nature Study co-related with the ordinary work of an Infant School ; Chess ; Replies to Correspondents, by educational experts.

In addition to these Regular Features, Articles appear on all topics of interest to Teachers, and by means of Notes of Lessons, Children's Songs, Maps, etc., etc., practical help is given in the work of the school.

Education Committees will find " THE TEACHER " a valuable medium for advertising school vacancies.

Specimen Copy sent post-free on application.

Published by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.C. And at Bath and New York.

40

ABRIDGED LIST OF

Pitman's Commercial Series

Office Routine.

A Simple Course of Office Work. In three Stages. 64 pp. each. Illustrated. Paper covers. ... ... ... Price 6d.

Office Routine Copy "Books.

In three numbers, each 24 pp. large post 4to ... Price 3d.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS OF No. 1.

Addresses ; Railway Consignment Note ; Postal Account Book ; Petty Cash Book ; Advices of Remittances : Delivery Book ; Application for Situation.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS OF No. 2.

Invoices ; Credit Notes ; Statements ; Receipts ; Telegrams ; Telephone Messages; Cheques, etc.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS OF No. 3. Commercial Letters of various kinds.

"Book-keeping.

Pitman's Primer of Book-keeping, 144 pp., printed in two colours. Is. Also in separate parts, 1, 2, and 3, 48 pp., 6d. each.

Book-keeping Simplified, 232 pp. printed in two colours, 2s. 6d.

Advanced Book-keeping, 187 pp. „ „ „ 2s. 6d

Complete Book-keeping, crown 8vo, 400 pp., cloth gilt 5s.

Hotel Book-keeping, 70 pp. 2s. 6d.

How to Teach Book-keeping, 200 pp., cloth gilt 2s. 6d. net.

Book -keeping Test Cards, in three sets, Elementary, Intermediate, and Advanced. Each set consisting of 20 cards with duplicate Answers in book form, price per set ... ... Is. 6d.

Ruled Exercise Books, for use with above 2d., 3d., and 6d.

'Business Training.

Counting House Routine, 1st Year's Course, 144 pp. Is.

Counting House Routine, 2nd Year's Course, 144 pp. Is. 6d. Pitman's Manual of Business Training, 236 pp. ... 2s. 6d.

How to Teach Business Training, 144 pp. 2s. 6d. net.

Pitman's Commercial Copy Book, for use with above, Nos. 1 and

2, each 32 pp. ... ... ... ... 6d.

Business Handwriting, 84 pp. ... ... ... Is.

Business Terms and Phrases, 164 pp., with facsimile forms, 2s. 6d. Pitman's Commercial Speller. Royal 32mo. 150 pp., limp cl., Is.

Commercial Arithmetic.

Pitman's Business Arithmetic, 120 pp. (Elementary) Is.

Pitman's Business Arithmetic, 144 pp. (Intermediate) Is. 6d.

Pitman's Complete Commercial Arithmetic, 264 pp. (containing

the above 2 vols.) ... ... ... ... 2s. 6d.

*** For Keys, published together or separately, see Catalogue.

41

Commercial Correspondence.

Pitman's Guide to Commercial Correspondence and Business Composition ... ... ... 146 pp. Price Is. 6d.

Pitman's Commercial Correspondence and Commercial English.

272 pp. Price, cloth 2s. 6d.

Commercial Geography.

Pitman's Commercial Geography of the British Isles, 124 pp., Is.

Pitman's Commercial Geography of British Colonies and Foreign Countries, 135 pp. ... ... ... ... Is. 6d.

Pitman's Commercial Geography of the World, 276 pp. (Revised to a recent date) ... ... ... ... 2s. 6d

The World and its Commerce. A Primer of Commercial Geo- graphy. Contains simply-written chapters on the general geography of the world, the seven great industries, the com- mercial geography of the British Empire at home and abroad, and of foreign countries. The information conveyed is quite up to date. Crown 8vo, 128 pp., with 34 additional maps.

Price, quarter cloth, Is.

The World's Commercial Products ... Cloth 2s. 6d.

Commercial History.

Pitman's Commercial History, by J. R. V. Marchant, M.A., Examiner in Commercial History to the London Chamber of Commerce. With coloured and other maps and plates. A text -book for Evening Classes, Chamber of Commerce and other Examinations. Crown 8vo.

Part I. (Earliest Times to A.D. 1500) Price, qr. cloth Is. 6d.

Part II. (A.D. 1500 to the Present Day) ... ... Price 2s.

Commercial History (complete) ... ... ... „ 3s.

Commercial Law.

Commercial Law of England. By J. A. Slater, LL.B., Barrister - at-Law, and Lecturer under the County Council for London. A text-book for the Chamber of Commerce and other Exam- inations. Crown 8vo. ... ... Price, cloth 2s. 6d.

Shorthand.

Pitman's Shorthand Primers, Books I., II., III., each 40 pp.

(Keys, price 6d. each) ... ... ... 6d.

Pitman's Phonographic Teacher, 46 pp. ... ... 6d.

„ Complete Shorthand Instructor, 248 pp. (Twentieth

Century Edition) ... ... ... ... 3s. 6d.

Reading Books — ^Esop's Fables, Learner's Shorthand Reader,

each 48 pp. ... ... ... ... 6d.

Shorthand Reading Lessons (Graduated Readings), No. 1 in

" The Phonographic Teacher " ... 6d. Key, 2d.

Shorthand Reading Lessons (Graduated Readings), No. 2 in

"The Manual" ... ... ... 9d. Key, 2d.

42

Shorthand (continued).

Exercises in Phonography ; a series of Graduated Sentence Exercises illustrating the principles of the art as developed in the " Phonographic Teacher " ... ... Price Id.

Pitman's " Fono " Headline Shorthand Copy Books. The use of these books will ensure that every illustrative word shall be neatly written twice. Fcap 4to. ... Price 2d. each.

Book A 1 No' 1 ^ For " Pitman's Shorthand

B !- For the " Phono- „ 2 I

r * iL » ' "I Primer," Book I.

„ C J graphic Teacher ,, 3 J

Pitman's Shorthand Charts (fourteen on a roller) 7s. 6d.

French.

Pitman's First French Course, 94 pp. Paper 6d. ; cloth 8d.

Pitman's Second French Course, 112 pp. Paper 8d. ; cloth lOd. Pitman's Complete French Course, 206 pp. ... Is. 6d.

(Keys to these Courses are published for Teachers' use.) A Child's First Steps in French (illustrated), 64 pp. 9d.

French Business Letters, 32 pp. 4to ... ... 6d.

Pitman's French Commercial Phrases, 32pp. 8vo. 6d.

Pitman's French Business Interviews. Cr. 8vo. Is.; cloth, Is. 6d, Pitman's French Commercial Reader. Cr. 8vo, 200 pp. 2s. 6d.

German.

Pitman's First German Course, 94 pp.... Paper 6d. ; cloth 8d.

German Business Letters, 42 pp. ... ... 6d.

Pitman's German Commercial Phrases, 32 pp. ... 6d.

German Business Interviews, 100 pp. ... ... Is.

Pitman's German Commercial Reader. Cr. 8vo, 200 pp. 2s. 6d.

Elementary German Commercial Correspondence, by Lewis

Marsh, B.A. 143 pp. ... ... ... Price 2s.

Typewriting.

Pitman's Typewriter Manual, 158 pp. ... ... Cloth 3s.

Modern Typewriting and Manual of Office Procedure. 192 pp.

2s. 6d. net ; post-free 2s. lOd. Teachers' Handbook and Key to Modern Typewriting. 77 pp.

3s. 6d. net.

Remington Typewriter Manual, 67 pp. Quarter cloth Is.

Pitman's Backing Sheet ... ... ... 2d.

Pitman's Typewriting Examples, 24 cards in stout envelope, can be used with any typewriter. F'cap folio ... 2s. 6d.

Technical.

Insurance : a practical exposition for the Student and Business Man, by T. E. Young, B.A., F.R.A.S. Demy 8vo, 339 pp. 7s. 6d.

Insurance Office Organization, Management, and Accounts, by T. E. Young, B.A., F.R.A.S., and Richard Masters, Cert. Chart. Accountant. 250pp. ... ... ... 3s.6d.net.

43

The Attractive Readers.

Profusely illustrated in black and white and colour.

Primer I. . . Price 4d.

„ II. , 5d.

Infants' Reader . . 6d.

Preparatory Reader (Standard 0) 7d.

Book A (Standard 1) 8d.

„ B (Standard 2) 9d.

„ G (Standard 3) . lOd.

E " Oliver Twist " (Standard 4 or 5) . Is. 4d.

„ F "The Little Savage " (Standard 5 or 6) Is. 6d.

G " Woodstock " (Standard 6 and 7) .. Is. 6d

E, F and G have been carefully edited for continuous Readers.

Composition by Easy Stages.

32 Cards in cloth case.

Price 2/-

Neto Object Lesson and Conversational Pictures.

Cloth, mounted on rollers and varnished. Price 4/6 each Each picture is 40 in. by 30 in., and is beautifully printed in many colours. No. 1, The Royal Mail (with No. 3, The Cultivation of Wheat.

Motor Cars, etc.) No. 4. War (with South

No. 2, Rice and Rice Cultivation. African incidents).

Freehand Drawing of Ornament.

With full instructions, 2/6 Also mounted on 22 cards in case, 5/-

NeW Object Lessons (for Teachers' use).

In four volumes, each profusely illustrated with white line

drawings.

Vol. I.. Animal Life, by F. W.

Hackwood. 191 pages. Vol. II., Plant Life, by G. Bacon

and R. Bunting. 191 pages.

Each volume contains about 30 Lessons, a coloured frontispiece reproduced from a blackboard drawing, and 30 pages of white on black illustrations suitable for class teaching.

Price per volume, 2/6 VoL III., Earth, Air and Sky, by

R. Bunting. 223 pages. VoL IV., Food, Clothing, etc..

by R. Bunting. 224 pages.

Chemistry

By T. Alex. Hill, B.Sc. (Lond.). 272 pp., cloth. Price 2/6

School Record and Progress Register.

Demy 4to. boards. Price I/-

44

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