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SCIENCE
A WEEKLY JOURNAL
DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE : S. NEwcoms, Mathematics ; R. S. WoopwaArp, Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, As-
tronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
J. Le Conte, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MARsH, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks,
Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; 8S. H. ScuDDER, Entomology ;
N. L. Brirron, Botany; HENRY F. OsBoRN, General Biology ; H. P. Bowpircu,
Physiology ; J. S. Bintines, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ;
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
NEW SERIES. VOLUME L.
un « >) - hrs
JANUARY TO JUNE, 1895.
NEW YORK
41 East Forty-NINTH STREET
1895
‘THE NEW ERA PRINTING HOUSE,
41 NorTH QUEEN STREET,
LANCASTER, PA.
ao. | s
CONBENTS AIND INDEX.
N.S
VOL. I—JANUARY TO JUNE, 1895.
The Names of Contributors are Printed in Small Capitals.
ABBE, CLEVELAND, The Needs of Meteorology, 181
Abbot, W. L., Collections from Pamir, 696
Abel, J. J., Disthyl Sulphide, 113; Trichloride of
Acetonic Acid, 113; Cachexia Tyreopriva, 114
Academische Revue, 446
Academy of Science, New York, 28, 84, 220; BAsH-
FORD DEAN, 167, 306; J. F. Kemp, 193, 279,
391, 669, 727; W'LLIAM HALLOocK,447; Texas,
56, 448, 728; Rochester, 83; Iowa, 111; Indi-
ana, 221; Michigan, 250; Philadelphia, 251,
447; National, 449, 477; St. Louis, A. W. Dova-
LAS, 503; Wisconsin, 728.
Adams, Frank D., The Laurentian, 63
Adams, John Couch, Memorial to, 640
Adler, Herman, Alternating Generations, a Biolog-
ical Study of Oak Galls and Gall Flies, C. V.
RILEY, 457 :
Aeronautical Annual, 56
Aero-therapeutics, Charles Theodore Williams, 247
Africa, Map of, 695
African Folk-Lore and Ethnography, 405
Agassiz, A., on the Bahamas, 293, 332
Agricultural Analysis, Harvey W. Wiley, CHARLES
PLATT, 359
Agriculture, Bulletin of Cornell University, 276; Notes
on, Byron D. HAtstTep (I.), 376; (II.), 509;
(III. ), 680; Civil Service Rules in the Depart-
ment of, 640
Alabama, The Chunnenugga Ridge and the Black
Prairies of, 295
Alaska, 219; Gold and Coal Resources of, 470
Aldrich, T. B., Trichloride of Acetonic Acid, 113
Sms J., Model Engine Construction, R. H. T.,
09
ALLEN, HARRISON, Pithecanthropus erectus, 239, 299;
The Classification of Skulls, 381
Allen, Harrison, Member of Council of Philadelphia
Academy of Science, 390; retirement of, 555
ALLEN, J. A., Pocket Gophers, C. Hart Merriam,
241 ; Pocket Gophers, Vernon Bailey, 689
Allen, J. A., On the Species of the Genus Reithro-
dontomys, C. H. M., 720.
Alternating Generations, Herman Adler, C. V.
RILeEy, 457
American, Journal of Science, 112, 195, 308, 420,
532, 700; Chemical Journal, 139, 196, 308, 420,
532; J. Eviiorr GILPIN, 642 ; Anthropologist,
140; Journal of Mathematics, 168, 448; Associ-
ation, 220, 636; its Table at Wood’s Holl Labora-
tory, 249; at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory,
277; Museum of Natural History, 249; Geolo-
gist, 252, 336, 420; Journal of Psychology, 280;
Microscopical Society, 417; Association for the
Advancement of Physical Education, 418; Cul-
ture, The Origin of Native, 456; Metrological
Society, J. K. R., 484; Academy of Medicine, 529;
Meteorological Journal, 570; University, Gift to
the, 615
Amherst, Summer School, 530; State College Entomo-
logical Department, 555
Anatomists, The New York Meeting of the Associa-
tion of American, 295
Anatomy, 165; the Best Order of Topics in a Two
Years’ Course in a Medical School, FREDERICK
HENRY GERRISH, 312
Andrée §. A., To the North Pole by Balloon, 642
Animal as a Machine and Prime Mover, R. H.
THURSTON, 365
Animals and Plants, The Fundamental Difference
Between, CHARLES 8. MINOT, 311
Antelopes, The Book of, P. L. Sclater and Oldfield
Thomas, C. H. M., 389
Anthropo-geography, 255
Anthropological Society, Publications of the German,
363.
Anthropology, 26, 27, 218, 278, 640; Current Notes
on, D. G. BRINTON, New Series (I.), 47; (I1.),
72; (III. ), 126; (IV.), 253; (V. ), 404; (VIL. ), 455;
(VII. ), 488; (VIII. ), 544; (IX. ), 649; The Teach-
ing of, 254 :
Appalachian Mountain Club, 473
Apple Failures, Recent, 510
Archeological News from Switzerland, 456
Archeology, European, 73; A Deductive Science, 127;
of Southern Florida, D. G. BRINTON, 207; Ameri-
can School, 556; American School at Herzeon of
Argos 556; American Institute of, 615
Area of Land and Water, 568
Argon, 55, 417, 444; IRA REMSEN, 309; LoRD
RAYLEIGH, 701; the preparation of, J. E. GILPIN,
582
Arizona, Memorial to Congress, 249
Arnold, Carl, Repetitorium der Chemie, Epwarp H.
KEISER, 526
Art, Primitive, 544
Aryan Cradle Land, 129
Ashmead, W. H., Lysiognatha, 560
Astronomical Society in Brussels, 697, and Physical
Society of Toronto, THomAs LINDSAY, 573
Astronomie und Geophysik, Jahrbuch der, 717
Astronomy, 692; and -Astro-Physies, 56; Native in
Mexico and Central America, 72; Elements of,
GEORGE W. PARKER, C. A. Y., 415
Astrophysical Journal, 56, 168, 224, 336, 474; S. B.
BARRETT, 615
Atmosphere, The Earth’s, William Coutie, EpwArD
Hart, 360
Attraction Spheres and Centrosomes in Vegetable
Cells, John H. Schaffner, ALBERT SCHNEIDER,
189
Iv. SCIENCE.
Auk, The, 196
AUSTEN, PETER T., On Indiscriminate ‘Taking,’ 209
Ayrton, W. E., and E. A. Medley, Tests of Glow-
Lamps, T. C. M., 662
B., D. G., Grundriss der Ethnological Jurisprudenz,
Albert Herman Post, 25; Ethnologische Studien
Zur Ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, S. R. Stein-
metz, 25
B., J. S., Municipal Government, Albert Shaw, 578
B., N. L., Flora of Nebraska, 25; Grasses of Ten-
nessee, Pt. II., F. Lamson Seribner, 55; Field,
Forest and Garden Botany, Asa Gray, 527; Sys-
tematic Botany, E. Warming, 550
B., W. K., Can an Organism Without a Mother be
Born from an Egg, 162
Bach, C., Elasticitat und Festigkeit, MANSFIELD
MERRIMAN, 688
Bacillus, The Influence of Certain Agents in Destroy-
ing the Vitality of the Typhoid and Colon, JoHN
S. Brntrnes and ADELAIDE WARD PECKHAM,
169
Bacteriology, Outline of Diary, H. L. Russell, H. W.
C., 189; A Course of Elementary Practical, A.
A. Kanthack and I. H. Drysdale, 416
Bacteriosis of Rutabaga, 509
BaiLey, L. H., The Plant Individual in the Light of
Evolution, 281
Bailey, L. H., 82; Appropriation for Horticultural
Work, 499; Horticulturalists’ Rule Book, 682
Bailey, Vernon, Pocket Gophers of the United States,
J. A. ALLEN, 689
Baker, Frank, Human Lumbar Vertebree, 531
BALDWIN, J. MARK, The Social Sense, 236
Baldwin, J. Mark, Studies from the Princeton
Psychological Laboratory, 643
Ball, M. V., Streptococcus pyogenes, 447
Ball, Valentine, Death of, 723
Ballard, Harlan H., The World of Nature, Wyatt
W. RANDALL, 553
Ballistic Galvanometer and its Use in Magnetic Meas-
urements, THOMAS GRAY, 533
Balloon Ascent, 500
Barber, H. G., Hypatus bachmanni, 560
Barlow, Alfred E., Huronite, 62
Barnard College, Site for, 695
Barograph Record During a Tornado, 320
BARRETT, 8S. B., Astrophysical Journal, 615
Base Level, Meaning of the Term, 175
Bastian, Adolph, Some of his later Writings, 73
Bastin, Edson §., Laboratory Exercises in Botany, 8.
E. JELLIFFE, 358
Bateson, William, Materials for the Study of Varia-
tion, H. W. Conn, 23
BAUER, L. A., On the Distribution and the Secular
Variation of Terrestrial Magnetism, 673
Bauer, L. A., On the Secular Motion of a Free Mag-
netic Needle, 671
Bayley, W. S., Great Gabbro Mass, 65; Contact Phe-
nomena, 65 :
Bays and Fiords, Submerged Valleys, 259
Beal, F. E. L., Food Habits of Woodpeckers, 304
BEAL, W. J., Teaching Botany, 355
Bean, Tarleton H., Deep Sea Fishes, 501
Bearcamp Water, Frank Bolles; W. T. DAvis, 80
Becker, G. F., Gold Fields, 668
Bedell, F. and A. C. Crehore, Resonance in Trans-
former Circuits, 671
Beet-Leaf Spot, 378
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Behrens, H., Anleitung zur Microchemischen An-
alyse, E. RENOUF, 636
Bell, Alexander Graham, Gift to Volta Bureau Li-
brary, 725
Bell, Robert, Honeycombed Limestones, 67
Bélopolsky, A., Pulkowa Refractor, 616
Benton George Willard, A Laboratory Guide for
a Twenty Weeks’ Course in General Chemistry,
Wik Ol GTi
BeRGEY, Dr. D. H., Summary of Conclusions of a
Report by Drs. D. H. Bergey, 8. Weir Mitchell
and J. 8S. Billings upon the ‘ Composition of Ex-
pired Air and Its Effects upon Animal Life,’ 481
Berlese, A. N., Icones fungorum ad usum Sylloges
Saccardianz accommodate, JOSEPH F.J AMES, 528
Bernthsen, A., Text-book of Organic Chemistry, FE-
LIX LENGFELD, 272
Berthelot, M., Argon, 444; Banquet in Honor of, 500
Berthoumieu, M. G. V., Ichneumonidz, 276
Bertillon, Dr., Identifying Handwriting, 556
Bertkau, P., and the Review of Entomology, 303
Bevier Sheet, Report on, Arthur Winslow, J. D. R.,248
Bibbins, Arthur, Fauna of Potomac Formation, 362
Bickmore, Albert S., Address by, 695
BILLINGS, JOHNS., and ADELAIDE WARD PECKHAM,
The Influence of Certain Agents in Destroying the
Vitality of the Typhoid and Colon Bacillus, 169;
A Card Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 406;
Degeneration, Max Nordau, 465; Summary of Con-
clusions of a Report by Dr. D. H. Bergey, S. Weir
Mitchell and J. S. Billings upon The Composition
of Expired Airand Its Effects upon Animal Life,
481
Billings, John S., Retirement of, 583
Billroth, Prof., Statue of, 668
Biological, 331, 361 ; Society of Washington, 84, 168;
F. A. Lucas, 304, 418, 502, 586, 725; M. B.
WAITE, 334, 531, 698; Laboratory of Cold Spring
Harbor, 166; Lectures, Delivered at the Marine
Biological Laboratory of Wood’s Holl, CHARLES
S. DOLLEY, 244; Wood’s Holl 1894, 418; Lec-
tures and Addresses, Arthur Milnes Marshall, H.
W. Conn, 413; Laboratory, The Marine, 516
Biology, Introduction to Elementary Practical,
Charles Wright Dodge, H. W. Conn, 78; Section
of, New York Academy of Science, 84, 167, 306
Birderaft, Mabel Osgood Wright, C. H. M., 635
Birds, of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey, Wit-
mer Stone, C. HART MERRIAM, 187; Visitors’
Guide to the Local Collection of, inthe Museum of
Natural History, New York City, Frank M. Chap-
man, C. HART MERRIAM, 189; of Eastern North
America, Frank M. Chapman,C. HART MERRIAM,
437; Land and Game, of New England, H. D.
Minot; C. H. M., 495; Our Native, of Song and
Beauty, H. Nehrling, C. H. M., 577; Collection
of W. E. D. Scott, 722
Black Knot of Plums and Cherries, 510
Boas, FRANZ, On Dr. William Townsend Porter’s
Investigations of the Growth of the School Chil-
dren of St. Louis, 225; Growth of First-born
Children, 402
Boedeker, K., Death of, 364
Bolles, Frank, At the North of Beareamp Water, W.
T. Davis, 80
Bologna, Gold Medal of Academy of Sciences, 693
Books for Sale, 166
Bosanquet, R. C.. Craven Studentship, 585
Boston Society of Natural History, 308, 532, 588
NEw SERIFS.
VoLuME I.
Botanical, Books at Auction, 666; Gazette, 82, 140,
252, 364, 503, 642; Society of America, 80;
Society, Italian, 500; Garden Missouri, WM.
TRELEASE, 716
Botanists, Directory of Living, 696.
Botany, Bibliography of American, 139; Teaching,
W. J. BEAL, 355 ; Laboratory Exercises in, Edson
S. Bastin, S. E. JELLIFFE, 358; Memoirs from the
Department of Columbia College, 363; Structural,
An Introduction to, H. D. Scott, ALBERT SCHNEI-
DER, 443; Introduction to, Volney M. Spalding,
W. P. Witson, 496 ; Field, Forest and Garden,
Asa Gray, N. L. B., 527, Systematic, E. Warm-
ing, N. L. B., 550
Bowonircn, H. P., A Card Catalogue of Scientifie Lit-
erature, 182
Boyle, David, Primitive Man in Ontario, 218
BraDBuRY Rospert H., Theoretical Chemistry, W.
Nernst, 579
Brauner, B., Argon, 445
Bray, Wm. L., Amaranthacex, 504
BRINTON, DANIEL G., The Character and Aims of
Scientific Investigation, 3; Current Notes on An-
thropology, New Series (I.), 47; (II. ), 72; (III. ),
126; (IV.), 253; (V.), 404; (VI.), 455; (VII. ),
488; (VIII. ), 544; (1X.), 649; American Folk-
Lore Society, 101; The Archeology of Southern
Florida, 207; The Pygmies, A de Quatrefages,
443
Brinton, Daniel G., A Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics,
27; FREDERICK STARR, 326; Proto-Historie Eth-
nography of Western Asia, 696
Brisson’s Genera of Mammals, 1762; C. HART MER-
RIAM, 375
British, Association for Advancement of Science, 139,
472, 556, 637; Astronomical Association, 692;
Medical Association, 278, 417; Museum, 694
Britton, N. L., Undescribed Ranunculus, 306
Brooker, A. and Slingo W., Electrical Engineering
for Electric Light Artisans and Students, F. B.
CROCKER, 299
Brooks, Alfred H., Crystalline Rocks, 669
Brooks, W. K. An Inherent Error in the Views of
Galton and Weismann on Variation, 121; Der
Monismus, Ernst Haeckel, 382
Brooks, W. K., 166 Environment and Variation, 38
Sensory Clubs of Certain Ccelenterates, 335;
Conrad Gesner, 529
Brorsen, Theodor, Death of, 667
Brown, Addison, Address by, 82
Brummer, Johannes, Death of, 473
Buchan, Alexander, Oceanic Cireulation, 505
Buchanan, Sir George, Death of, 640
Buckland, William, The Life and Correspondence of,
Mrs. Gordon, A. 8. PACKARD, 329
Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 28,
336, 392; of the Torrey Botanical Club, 168,
308; 448, 530, 532; of the St. Petersburg Acad-
emyof Sciences, 220
Bumpus, Hermon C. Laboratory Teaching of Large
Classes Ziology, 41, 260
Butler, N. M., Addresses, 390, 722
Butterflies and Moths, W. Furneaux S. H. §., 443
Byron, John W., Death of, 585
C., H. W., Dairy Bacteriology, H. L. Russell, 189
C., J. T., Science in Canada, 379, 628, 653; Sir
William Dawson, 446
Caddis-fly in the Permian Beds of Bohemia, 220
SCIENCE. V.
California, Appropriation for the University of, 499 ;
Food-products, 584
CALKINS, GARY N.y Systematische Phylogenie der
Protisten und Pflanzen, Ernst Haeckel, 272
Call, Richard Ellsworth, The Life and Writings of
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, G. Brown
GoopeE, 384
Calvin, 8., Geological Photographs, 390
Cambridge, University of, 27; Scientific Instrument
Company, 696
Cameil, Louis Florentin, Death of, 499
Can an Organism without a Mother be Born from an
Egg? W. K. B., 162
Canada, Science in, J. T. C., 379, 628, 653
Canadian, International Exposition, 390; Royal So-
ciety’s Annual Meeting, J. T. C., 653
Cancer, Treatment of, 583
Cape Canaveral, The Migration of, 606
CARHART, Henry S., The Educational and Indus-
trial Value of Science, 393
Carniverous Plants, 165
Carolina, Appropriation for the University of N, 333
Carter, Surgeon-Major, Death of, 615
Casey, Thomas L., Retirement of, 584
Catalogue of Scientific Literature, A Card, H. P.
BowpitTcu, 182; HENRY ALFRED TopD, 297; W J
McGEE, 353; and Congress, An International Sci-
entific, HoRATIO HALE, 324; J. S. BILLINGS, 407
CATTELL, J. MCKEEN, The Princeton Meeting of the
American Psychological Association, 42°
Cattell, J. McKeen, Distribution of Exceptional
Ability 43; Bodily and Mental Tests, 727
Catholic University, Washington, Bequest, 556
Caucasie Linguistic Stock, 455
Cayley, Arthur, Death of, 166; GEorGE BRucE HAL-
STED, 450
Chagas, Manuel Pinheiro, Death of, 615
‘Challenger,’ Report on, 417
Chamberlain, Chas. J., Aster Novee-Angli, 643
Chamberlin, T. C., Glaciation of Newfoundland, 63;
Recent Glacial Studies in Greenland, 66
Chambers, G. F., The Story of the Stars, DAvip P.
Topp, 552
Chapman, Frank M., Visitors’ Guide -to the Local
Collection of Birds in the Museum of Natural
History, New York City, C. HART MERRIAM, 189;
The Mammals of Florida, F. W. T., 219; A
Handbook of the Birds of Eastern North America,
C. HART MERRTAN, 437
Chapman, T. A., Classification of Butterflies, 663
Charities and Corrections, Conference of, 530
Chatelier, H. L., Le Grisou, CHARLES PLATT, 79.
Chemical, Analysis, Fr. Rudorff, Epwarpd Hart,
137, Analysis, Qualitative, of Inorganie Sub-
stances, EpGAR F. Smitu, 415; Society (Lon-
don), Annual Meeting of, W. W. R., 606
Chemie, Carl Arnold, EpbwArpD H. KEISER, 526
Chemischen Dynamik, Eine Discussion der Kriifte
der, Ludwig Stettenheimer, H. C. JONES, 271
Chemistry, Organic, Carl Schorlemmer, EpGAR F.
SmirH, 163; A Laboratory Manual, W. R. Orn-
dorff, FELIX LENGFELD, 469; A Laboratory Guide,
George Willard Benton, W. R. O., 611; A Text-
book of Organic, A. Bernthsen, FELIX LENG-
FELD, 272; A Short History of, F. P. Venable,
W. A. NoYes, 469; Theoretical, W. Nernst, Rob-
ERT H. BRADBURY, 579
Chester, A. H., Crystals, 700
Chicago, University of, Degrees, 722
vi. SCIENCE.
Childhood, International Congress on, 220.
Christie, W. H. M., Honorary Freedom of Spectacle
Company, 641
CLARK, WILLIAM B., The Geological and Natural
History Survey of Minnesota, Vol. III., Paleon-
tology, 658
Clark, William B., Cretaceous Deposits, 64; Marginal
Development of the Miocene, 66
Classification of Skulls, HARRISON ALLEN, 381; G.
SERGI, 658
Cleghorn, Hugh Francis Clarke, Death of, 667
Clouds, The Motion of, 471
Cold and Snowfall in Arabia, 568
Coldspring Harbor Laboratory, A. A. A. 8. Tables, 277
College of the City of New York, Appropriation, 249
Collet, R., The Norway Lemming, C. H. M., 690
Color Association with Numerals, E. §. HOLDEN, 576
Colorado College, Summer School, 722
Colored Race in the United States, The Future of, 256
Composition of Expired Air and its Effects upon
Animal Life, D. H. BerGry, 8S. WEIR MITCHELL,
J.S. BILLines, 481
Congrés des Sociétés Sayantes, 613
Conn, H. W., Materials for the Study of Variation,
William Bateson, 23; Elementary Practical Biol-
ogy, Charles Wright Dodge, 78; Biological Lec-
tures and Addresses, Lectures on the Darwinian
Theory, Arthur Milnes Marshall, 413
Connecticut Sandstone Group, C. H. HircHcock, 74
Conway, William, Karakoram Himalayas, 472
Cook, A. H., A. E. Shipley, F. R. C. Reed, The Cam-
bridge Natural History, III., W. H. Dawt, 610
Coplin, W. M. L., Appointment of, 584
Coppée, Henry, Death of, 364
Correspondence, 182, 239, 297, 324, 353, 381, 406,
433, 457, 490, 519, 546, 575, 608, 632, 656, 682,
716
Cotton States and International Exposition, 557
CovuEs, ELLiorr, The Genus Zaglossus, 610; Ilus-
trations in the Standard Natural History, 682
Coues, Elliott, Zebulon Montgomery Pike, 640
Coutie, William, The Earth’s Atmosphere, EDWARD
HART, 360
Coyille, Frederick V., List of Ferns and Flowering
Plants N. E. United States, 419; A Reply, 504
Cox, C. F., Diatom Structure, 167
Coxe, Eckley B., Death of, 585
Crane, Miss Agnes, Brachiopoda, 555
Craniology, Publications on, 128; Studies in, 405
Crawford, A. C., Cachexia Tyreopriva in Dogs, 114
CROCKER, F. B., Electrical Engineering, W. Slingo
and A. Brooker, 299
Croll’s Glacial Theory, 570
Cross, WHITMAN, Geological Society of Washington,
558, 668
Cross, Whitman, The Geology of Cripple Creek, 559
Crowley’s Ridge, 605
Cuneiform Inscriptions, 455
Cunningham, R. H., Photo-Micrography, 167
Curtis, J. G., Galen’s Treatise on Practical Anatomy
and Experimental Physiology, 114
Cushing, H. P., The Faults of Chazy Township, 58
Cuspate Capes of the Carolina Coast, 605
DAL, W. H., The Cambridge Natural History, III.,
A. H. Cook, A. E. Shipley, F. R. C. Reed, 610
Dana, Charles N., Address of, 26
Dana, James D., 333, 472, 489, 545; A Manual of
Geology; JOSEPH LE CONTE, 548
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Darton, N. H., Peridotite at Dewitt, 65; Sedimentary
Geology, 66; Salina Formation at De Witt, 700
Darwin, From the Greeks to, Henry Fairfield Os-
born; A. S. PACKARD, 21
Darwinian Theory, Lectures on, Arthur Milnes Mar-
shall; H. W. Conn, 413
Darwinism and Race Progress, John Berry Hay-
craft; Gro. Sv. CLATR, 467
Davis, W. M., Current Notes on Physiography (I.),
174 (II.), 257 (III.), 292 (IV.), 318 (V.), 487
(VI.), 505 (VII.), 568 (VIII), 605 (IX.), 651
(X.), 678; National Geographic Monographs,
J. W. Powell, 439; The Education of the Topog-
rapher, 546
Davis, W. T., Bearcamp Water, Frank Bolles, 80
Dawson, George M., Appointment of, 139; Rocky
Mountains, 700
DAWSON, SIR WILLIAM, The Rivers of Eden, 575
Dawson, Sir William, Retirement of, J. T. C., 446
Deaf and Dumb Institution, New York, 446
DEAN, Basurorp, The New York Academy of Sci-
ence, 167, 306
Deane, Walter, My Herbarium, 503
Decerebrized, The Frog not Brainless but, Burt
G. WILDER, 632
Deer, The Earliest Generic
C. HART MERRIAM, 208
Degeneration, Max Nordau, J. 8. BrnLines, 465
Density and Diameter of Terrestrial Planets, E. S.
WHEELER, 424
Desmognathus fusca, The Central Nervous System of,
Pierre A. Fish, C. H. M., 496
Detasseling Corn, 510
Development, National versus Individual, 650
Deyonian Limestone-Breccia in Southwestern Mis-
souri. OscAR H@RSHEY, 676
Dictionary, An Illustrated, of Medicine, Biology and
Allied Sciences; George M. Gould, 216
DILLER, J. 8., Scientific Societies of Washington, 586
Diptheria, The New Serum Treatment of, 48, Milk
in its Relation to, 164
Discrimination of Colors, 471
Distribution of Butterflies, 303; of Animals and
Plants, Merriam on the, 318; of the Blow Gun,
WALTER HouGu, 425; Sledges, Oris T. MAson,
490; and Secular Variation of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, L. A. BAUER, 673
Dixon, 8. G., Actinomyces, 447
Dodge, Charles Wright, Introduction to Elementary
Practical Biology, H. W. Conn, 78
Dolbear, A. E., Magnetic Waves, 165
DOLLEY, CHARLES 8., Biological Lectures delivered
at the Marine Biological Laboratory, 244
d’Orleans Duke, Presentation of Collection, 390
Dorsey, James Owen, W J M, 208
Douetass, A. W., St. Louis Academy of Science, 503
Douglass, A. E., Telescope and Dome, 616
Downing, A. J., Memorial to, 696
Drysdale, I. H. and A. A. Kanthack, A Course of
Elementary, Practical Bacteriology, 416
Dumste, E. T., Volcanic Dust in Texas, 657
Dumble, E. T., The Cretaceous, 65
Duner, N. C., Z Hereulis, 474
Durham, Arthur E., Death of, 640
Name of an American,
Earthquakes, 695
Eaton, Darwin G., death of, 364
Echidna, The Generic Name of the Three Toed
T. 8S. PALMER, 518
New SERIES.
VoLuME I,
Eden, Where was the Garden of, D. G. Brinton,
488; The Rivers of, Str WILLIAM Dawson,
575
Educational, Review, 333; National Association, 722
Egg, Can an Organism without a Mother be Born
from an, W. K. B., 162
Egyptian Publications, 694
Elasticitiit und Festigkeit, C. Bach,
MERRIMAN, 688 —
Electric Measure, Legal Units of, T. C. MENDEN-
HALL, 9
Electrical, Engineers. American Institute of, 28;
Street Railways, The Testing of, 217; Engineer-
ing, W. Slingo and A, Brooker, F. B. CROCKER,
299; Apparatus, 723
Eleetriciens, Société Internationale des, 26
Electricity, and Magnetism, 28; Elementary Lessons
in; Sylvanus T. Thompson, T. C. M., 187; One
Hundred Years ago and to-day, Edwin J. Hous-
ton, T. C. M., 216
Electrification of Air, LoRD KELVIN, 589
Electriques, Les Oscillations, H. Poincaré, Mer
Pupin, 102, 131
Elevation as. a Cause of Glaciation, 679
Elihu Thompson Prize, 190, M., 240
Ellis, Havelock, Normal Psychology, 418
Elmira Reformatory, 26
Elsass, Adolf, Death of, 667
Emotions, 45
Engine, Construction, Model, J. Alexander, R. H. T.
109; The Steam and Other Heat Engines, J. A.
Ewing, R. H. THursTon, 136; Steam and the
Marine Steam, John Yeo, R. H. THursTON, 328;
New Quadruple Expansion, 664
Engineering, Magazine, 82; Education, Proceedings
of the Society for the Promotion of, R. H. T., 580
Engineers, American Society of Civil, 84
Engineer’s Pocket Book, The Mechanical, William
Kent, R. H. THurRsTON, 634
Englishmen, the Earliest, 126
Entomological Society, The New York, 84; of Wash-
ington, L. O. Howarp, 560, 726
Entomologists, Daily Post Card, 191; Losses by fire
among, 303
Entomology, 191, 220, 277, 303, 663
Entwickelungsmechanik der Organismen, Archiv fiir,
110
Ethics, Program for the School of Applied, 557
Ethnography of Western Asia, 406
Ethnological Jurisprudenz, Grundriss der, Albert
Hermann Post, D. G. B., 25
Evolution, the Plant Individual in the Light of,
L. H. BAILeEy, 281
Ewing, J. A., The Steam Engine and Other Heat
Engines, R. H. THuRsTON, 136
Experiment Station Record, 680
Fairchild, H. L., Glacial Lakes, 61
Fernald, H. T., Homoplasy, 70
Ferri, Luigi, Death of, 446
Finger Prints, 82
Firth, R. H. Hy giene, 216
Fish Commissioners Report from Michigan, 361
Fish, Pierre A., The Central Nervous System of Des-
mognathus Fusca, C. H. M., 496; Adult Nervous
System of the Salamander, 335
Fiske, John, Lectures on Evolution, 499
Fitch, Robert, death of
Fleming, M., Stars Having Peculiar Spectra, 616
MANSFIELD
SCIENCE.
Vii.
Flora of Nebraska, N. L. B., 25; Origin of Our Vernal,
JOHN HARSBERGER, 92; Harshberger on the
Origin of Our Vernal, CHARLES ROBERTSON, 371
"Fly Belt * in Africa, 568
Feehn-like East Winds in Africa, 570
Folk-Lore, The American, Society, D. G. Brryton,
101; New York Branch, WM. B. Turumy, 473
Fonr: AINE, Wm. M., Mesozoic Plants From Kosuke
Kii, Awa and Tosa, Metajiro Yokoyoma, 525
Forestry and Economie Botany, 275; E. F.S. 3007; For-
estry Association, 586
Forests and Torrents, 680
Fossil, Vertebrates of Argentina, 497; Mammals of the
Puerco Beds, Henry Fairfield Osborn and Charles
Earle, W. B. Scort, 660.
Foster’s, Prof. Michael, Abridged Physiology, 724
Franklin, C. L., The Retina, 46; The Fovea 115
Franklin, Fabian, Retirement of, 695
Franklin, W. 8., Magnetic Properties of Iron, 672
French Opinion, A, 180
Furneaux, W., Butterflies and Moths, 8. H.S., 443
Galton’s Method of Isogens, 257
Galton, Francis, Organic Stability, 498; honorary
degree, 614
Gannett, Henry, A Manual of Topographic Methods,
W. M. Davis, 179; MANSFIELD MERRIMAN, 464
GANONG, W. F., The Laboratory Teaching of Large
Classes in Botany, 41, 230
Ganong, W. F., Cactacez, 503, 643
Geikie, Sir Archibald, Memoir of Sir Andrew Crom-
bie Ramsay, JOSEPH LE ConTE, 490; Member of
Vienna Academy, 724
Geikie, James, The Great Ice Age and its Relation to
the Antiquity of Man, W. M. Davis, 260; C. H.
HitcHcock, 408
Generic Names of the Three-Toed Echnida, T. §,
PALMER, 518
Geographic, Distribution of Life, Laws of Tene
ture Control of the, 53; Monographs, } National,
258; J. W. Powell, W. M. DAVIS, 439; Society”
307; 2 National, Ev PRETT HAYDEN, 501; Annual
Business Meeting, 665
Geographica, Biblioteca, 613
Geographical, Congress, International, 110, 257;
Prizes, 258; Journals, American, 506; Journals,
Foreign, 507
Geographisches Jahrbuch, Wagner’s, 507
Geologie Atlas of the United States, W. M. DAvis,
259; J. W. Powell, ANDREW C. LAW. SON, 717
Geologischer Querschnitt durch die Ostalpen, A,
Rothpletz, ANDREW C. LAwson, 522
Geological, Society of America, the Baltimore Meeting
of the, J. F. Kemp, 57; of Washington, WHITMAN
Cross, 84, 251, 558, 668; Survey, Appropriations
for the U. g., 362; of "Maine, 418; The University of
Kansas, F. H. SNow, 576; Society, 698
Geology, 219, 278; Manual of, James D. Dana, JOSEPH
LE Conte, 548; Columbia Department of, 530;
at the University of Chicago, 725
Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians, 176
GERRISH, FREDERICK HENRY, The Best Order of
Topics in a Two Years’ Course of Anatomy in a
Medical School, 312
Gilbert, G. K., Formation of Lake Basins by Wind,
59, and F. P. Gulliver, The Tepee Buttes, 59;
Cretaceous Time, 64; Gravity Measurements, 583
Git, THEO., The Lowest of the Vertebrates and their
Origin, 645
viii.
Gill, Theo., On the Torpedoes, 502; Ceratodontide, 725
GILMAN, D. C. Seriptoribus et Lectoribus, Salutem, 2
Gilman, D. C., Address of, 39, 390
GILPIN, Extiorr J., The Preparation of Argon, 582;
The American Chemical Journal, 642
Gizycki, Georg von, death of, 364
Glacial Origin of Lake Basins, 651
Glasgow, Gift to the University, 697
Glazebrook, R. T., Heat, Light, T. C. MENDENHALL,
215
Glogau, G., death of, 446
Glow Lamps, Tests of, W. E. Ayrton and E. A. Med-
ley, T. C. M., 662
GoopE, G. Brown, America’s Relation to the Ad-
vance of Science, 4; The Life and Writings of
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, Richard Ells-
worth Call, 384; The Ideal Index to Scientific
Literature, 433
Goode, G. Brown, Deep Sea Fishes, 501, 531; Location
and Record of Natural Phenomena, 725
Gophers, Pocket, C. Hart Merriam, J. A. ALLEN,
241; Vernon Bailey, J. A. ALLEN, 659
Gordon, Mrs., The Life and Correspondence of Wil-
liam Buckland, A. 8. PACKARD, 329
GOULD, B. A.,S. NEwcoms, A. HALL, National Acad-
emy of Sciences Report of the Watson Trustees
on the Award of the Watson Medal to Seth C.
Chandler, 477
Gould, George M., Illustrated Dictionary of Medi-
cine, Biology and Allied Sciences, 216
Graduate Courses, 724
Graf, Arnold, Leeches, 70; The Excretory System of
Clepsene and Nephelis, 306
‘Gran Chaco,’ The Tribes of, 126
Grant, U.S. and H. V. Winchell, Preliminary Re-
port on the Rainy Lake Gold Region, 331
Grasses of Tennessee, Pt. II., F. Lamson Scribner,
N. L. B., 55
Gravity Measurements, HERBERT G. OGDEN, 571; 583
Gray, Asa, Field, Forest and Garden Botany, N. L.
B., 527.
Gray, THomMAS, The Ballistic Galvanometer and
its Use in Magnetic Measurements, 533
Greene, Andrew H., Historic and Scenic Places, 500
Greenhill, Alfred George, A Treatise on Hydrostatics;
R. S. WooDWARD, 269
Gregory, Richard A., The Planet Earth, T. C. M,
243
Grisou Le., H. Le Chatelier, CHARLES PLATT, 79
Griswold, L. S., Nomenclature of Siliceous Rocks, 62
Growth, of the School Children of St. Louis, On Dr.
William Townsend Porter’s Investigations of,
FRANZ Boas, 225; of First-born Children,
FRANZ Boas, 402
Guatamalian Antiquities, 255
Haeckel, Dr. Ernst, 28; Systematische Phylogenie
der Protisten und Pflanzen, GARY N. CALKINs,
272; Der Monismus als Band zwischen Religion
und Wissenschaft; Glaubens Bekenntniss eines
Naturforschers, W. K. Brooks, 382; DAvip
STARR JORDAN, 608
Hageman, S. G., Egyptological Work, 613
Hale, George E., Solar Corona, 475
HALE, Horatio, An International Scientific Cata-
logue and Congress, 324
Hatt, A., S. Newcoms, B. A. Gounp, National
Academy of Sciences; Report of the Watson Trus-
tees on the Watson Medal to Seth C. Chandler, 477
SCIENCE.
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Hall, C. W., The Pre-Cambrian Floor of the North-
western States, 63
HALLOcK, WILLIAM, Physics, 247, 248; Physiolog-
ical Physics, 301; New York Academy of Sciences
447
Hallock, William, Photographic Method of Compar-
ing the State of Vibration of Two Tuning Forks,
221
HALSTED Byron D., Notes on Agriculture, (I.), 376;
(IL.), 509; (III. ), 680
Halsted, Byron D., English Ivy, 530
HALSTED, GEORGE BRUCE, Tchébychey, 129; Original
Research and Creative Authorship the Essence of
University Teaching, 203; Russian Science Notes,
277; Arthur Cayley, 450; The International
Mathematical Congress, 486; James Edward
Oliver, 544
Hansen, Hemimerus, 191
Hanshofer, Karl, Death of, 109
HARKNESS, WILLIAM, On the the Magnitude of the
Solar System, 29
Harrington, Mark W., Rainfall Charts of the United
States, 319; Climatology, 500
Harrison, Charles C., Gift to the University of Penn-
sylvania, 666
Harrison, J. E., Degree of LL. D., 614
HARSHBERGER, JOHN, Origin of Our Vernal Flora,
92
Harshberger on the Origin of Our Vernal Flora,
CHARLES ROBERTSON, 371
HART, EDWARD, Chemical Analysis, Fr. Rudorff,
137; The Earth’s Atmosphere, William Coutie,
360
Hartoe, Marcus, On Certain Habits and Instincts
of Social Insects, 98
Harvard University Infirmary, 614
Haycraft, John Berry, Darwinism and Race Pro-
gress, GEO. ST. CLAIR, 467
HAYDEN, EVERETT, National Geographic Society, 501
Hayes, C. W., Geology of the Cartersville Sheet, 668
HAZEN, H. A., Magnetism and the Weather, 234
Heat, R. T. Glazebrook; T. C. M., 215
Helion, 445, 582
Helmholtz, H., 55, 333; Memorial, 499, 612, 721,
HuGo MUNSTERBERG, 547
Henry Morris, Death of, 641
Herbarium of Rousseau, 614
Herrick, C. L., Modern Algedonic Theories, 672;
Cerebellum, 672
HERRICK, FRANCIS H., Notes on the Biology of
the Lobster, 72, 263, 382
HERSHEY, OSCAR, On a Deyonian Limestone;Breccia
in Southwestern Missouri, 676
Hill, R. T., 249, Rica and Panama, 501
Hirschfeld, Gustay, Death of, 555
History, of Religions, 27; the Five Books of, J. W.
POWELL, 157
Hircucock, C. H., The Connecticut Sandstone Group,
74; The Great Ice Age and Its Relation to the
Antiquity of Man, James Geikie, 408
Hitchcock, C. H, Highland Level Gravels in North-
ern New England, 60
Hobbs, W. H., Borneol and Isoborneol, 700
Hodge, C. F., Growth of Yeast, 116; Daily Activity of
Animals, 116
HOLDEN, EDWARD §S., A Large Reflector for the Lick
Observatory, 457; A General Subject-index to
Periodical Scientific Literature, 520; Color Asso
ciation with Numerals, 576
NEW SERIES.
VoLumeE I.
Holden, Edward S., Mars, 529; Decoration, 615
Holm, Theo., Gdema of Violet Leaves, 354
Horticultural Congress, 697
Horticulturalists’ Rule-Book, L. H. Bailey, 682
Horticulture, Electro, 376
Hospitals, The Cooling of, 192
HovuGuH, WALTER, Distribution of Blow Gun, 425
Houston, Edwin J., Electricity One Hundred Years
Ago and To-day, T. C. M., 216
Howanrp, L. O., Entomological Society of Washing-
ton, 560, 726
Howard, L. O., Some New Seale Parasites, 560
Howe, Henry Marion, Bessemer Gold Medal, 586
Howe, JAMES Lewis, The Liquefaction of Gases—
A Controversy, 542
Hubbard, Gardiner G., Russia, 555, 686
Huber, G. Carl, Loss of Nerve Substance in Periphe-
ral Nerves, 117
Hudson River Palisades, 530
Huggins, William, Modern Spectroscope, 615
Hulke, J. W., Death of, 304
Humanities, The, J. W. POWELL, 15
Humphrey, J. E., Cell Literature, 643
Hyatt, ALPHEvs, The Laboratory Teaching of Large
Classes, 197
Hydrostaties, A Treatise on, Alfred George Greenhill,
R. 8S. Woopwarp, 269
Hygiene, 48, I. Lane Notter and R. H. Firth, 216
Ice Age, The Great, and its Relation to the Antiquity
of Man, James Geikie, C. H. HircuHcock, 408
Icones fungorum ad usum Sylloges Saccardianz Ac-
commodate, A. N. Berlese, JOSEPH F. JAMES,
528
IHERING, H. von, On Marine Mollusks from the Pam-
pean Formation, 421
Tllustrations in the Standard Natural History, ELLI-
orr Coves, C. HART MERRIAM, 682
Index, Medicus, 109; Ideal, to Scientific Literature,
G. Brown GOODE, 433
Indiana Academy of Science, 221 :
Indiscriminate ‘ Taking,’ PETER T. AUSTEN, 209
Infectious Diseases, Explanation of Acquired Immu-
nity from, GEORGE M. STERNBERG, 346
Ingen, C. van, Cambrian Faunas, 670
Inheritance, A Dynamical Hypothesis of, JoHN A.
RypeER, (I.), 597; (II.), 617
Initial Capital, Use of the, in Specific Names of
Plants, F. H. KNowLTon, 423
Insect Life, 584
Insects, On Certain Habits and Instincts of Social,
Marcus HARTOG, 98
Instinct, Lloyd Morgan upon, H. F. O., 712
Institution of Naval Architects, 499
Intestinal Fluke, New Species of, 276
Introductory Note, W. M. Davis, 174
Invention, The Evolution of, O. T. MAson, 50; Sim-
ilar, in Areas Wide Apart, O. T. MASON, 235
Iowa Academy of Sciences, 111
Tron Mountain Sheet, Arthur Winslow, J. D. R.
330
JAMES, JoserpH F., Descriptions des ravageurs de la
vigne, Henri Jolicoeur, 527; Icones fungorum
ad usum Sylloges Saccardiane Accommodate,
A. N. Berlese, 528
James, Joseph F., Daimonelix and Allied Fossil, 420;
James, W., Unity of Consciousness, 44
Janet, Ch., Myrmica rubra, 303
SCIENCE. sd
Japan, Journal of the University, 696
Japanese, The Ethnic Affiliations of, 47
JELLIFFE, S. E., Laboratory Exercises in Botany, Ed-
son S. Bastin, 358
Jenny, W. P., fossil plants, 137
Jewell, Lewis E., Spectrum of Mars, 475
John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry, Sir
Henry E. Roscoe, EDWARD H. KEISER, 686
Johns Hopkins University, Circular, 166; Degrees,
695; Appointments in, 697; Prize, 723 ; Lectures
at, 723; Giftsin Memory of Prof. George H. Wil-
liams, 723
John, J. P. D., Resignation of, 615
Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of Wash-
ington, 333; program of the, 390
Jolicceeur, Henri, Descriptions des ravageurs de la
vigne, JOSEPH F. JAMES, 527
Jones, H. C., Eine Discussion der Kriifte der Chem-
ischen Dynamik, Ludwig Stettenheimer, 271
JORDAN, DAvrp STARR, Haeckel’s Monism, 608
Journal, of the American Chemical Society, 252, 280,
392; of Geology, 252, 448; of Morphology, 335;
of Comparative Neurology, 672
Julius, P., Systematic Survey of the Organic Coloring
Matters, IRA REMSEN, 186
Kansas, Permo-Carboniferous and Permian Rocks
of, CHARLES S. PRrosseR, 275; University Field
Work of, 500
Kanthack, A. A. and I. H. Drysdale, A Course of
Elementary Practical Biology, Including Bacteri-
ological Analyses and Chemistry, 416
Karakoram Himalayas, 472
KEELER, JAMES E., Spectroscopic Observations of
Saturn at the Allegheny Observatory, 519.
Keeler, James E., Saturn, 616
KEISER, Epwarp H., Repetitoriam der Chemie,
Carl Arnold, 526; John Dalton and the Rise of
Modern Chemistry, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, 686
Keith, Arthur, The Appalachians, 58
KELVIN, Lorp, On the Electrification of Air; On the
Thermal Conductivity of Rocks at Different Tem-
peratures, 589
Kelvin, Lord, Popular Lectures and Addresses,
T. C. MENDENHALL, Vol. II., Geology and Gen-
eral Physics, 50
Kemp, G. T., Extraction of Blood Gases, 117
Kemp, J. F., The Baltimore Meeting of the Geo-
logical Society of America, 57; The New York
Academy of Sciences, 193, 279, 391, 669, 727
Kemp, J. F., Crystalline Limestones, 63; Petrography
of Peridotite at DeWitt, 65; Iron Ore Bodies, 669
Kent, William, The Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket
Book, R. H. THurston, 634
Keyes, Charles R., The Ozark Uplift, 59
Kingsley, J. S., Bibliographical Project, 39; Pauro-
pida, 71
Kirkwood, Daniel, Death of, 694
KNOWLTON, F. H., Use of the Initial Capital in Spe-
cific Names of Plants, 423
Konig, Arthur, Discrimination of Colors, 471
Kriifte der Chemischen Dynamik, H. C. JONEs,
271
Kreider, D. A., Perchlorie Acid, 700
Kulz, Prof., Death of, 220
KiimMeL, Henry B., Some Meandering Rivers of
Wisconsin, 714
Kundt, death of, 55
Kunz, George F., 109; Seals, 279
bth SCIENCE.
Laboratory Teaching of Large Classes, ALPHEUS
Hyatt, 40, 197; In Botany, W. F. GANONG,
230; Zoology, HERMON C. Bumpus, 260
Ladd, G. T., Double Consciousness, 43; Ethical Semi-
nary, 723
Lagoa Santa, ERWIN F. Situ, 510
Lake Superior Mining Institute Excursion, 418
Lake Zurich, the Origin of, 651
Land-Birds and Game Birds of New England, H. D.
Minot, C. H. M., 495
Landes und Volkeskunde, Forschungen zur Deutsch-
es, 508
Lane, ‘Alfred C., The Relation of Grain to Distance
from Margin in Certain Rocks, 61; Crystalized
Slags from Copper Smelting, 62
Langley, S P., Hodgkin Fund "Prizes, 109
Language, the ‘Origin of, 404
Lankester, E. Ray, Lectures at Royal Institution, 614
Latitude, ‘Variation of, J. K. Rens, 561
Lauth, Prof., Death of, 304
Lavoisier, Monument to, 697
Lawrence, George N., Death of, C. Hart MER-
RIAM, 268
Law Schools of New York, 557
LAwson, ANDREW C., Die Ost Alpen, A. Rothpletz,
522; Geologic Atlas of the United States, 717
Leaming, Edward, Micro-photographs, 167
Lr Conte, JOSEPH, Memoir of Sir Andrew Crombie
Ramsay, Sir Archibald Geikie, 490; A Manual of
Geology, James D. Dana, 548
LEE, FREDRICK §., Carl Ludwig, 630
Lee, Frederick §., Equilibrium in Fishes, 118; Ap-
pointment of, 585
Leidy, Joseph, Bust of, 724
Lemming, The Norway, R. Collett, C. H. M.,690
LENGFELD, FELIX, Organie Chemistry, A. Bernthsen,
272; A Laboratory Manual in Organic Chemistry,
W. R. Orndorff, 469
Ley’s Cloudland, 678
Libraries of New York, 304, 555
Library Building at Harvard University, 417
Lick Observatory, A Large Reflector for, EDWARD S.
HOLDEN, 457; 555
Light, R. T., Glazebrook, T. C. M., 215
Lillie, Frank, Embryology of the Unionidiz, 335
Lindgren, Waldemar, Gold Quartz Veins, 68
LinpsAy, THOMAS, The Astronomical and Physical
Society of Toronto, 573
Linnean Society, 83, 696
Liquefaction of Gases—A Controversy, JAMES LEWIS
Howe, 542
Lister, Sir Joseph, Presentation of Albert Medal,
Lobachéysky, Nicolai Ivanovich, A. Vasiliev, ALEX-
ANDER ZIWET, 356
Lobster, Notes on the Biology of, FRANCIS H. HER-
RICK, 263, 382
Loey, William A., Primitive Metamerism, 68; Pineal
Sense Organ, 69
Locusts in Cyprus, 446
LOMBARD, WARREN P., Proceedings of the American
Physiological Society, 113
Lombard, Dr., Death of, 249
Lotsy, J ohn ee Gift of Herbarium, 723
Low, President Seth, A City University, 528; Gift to
Columbia College, 504
Lowest of the Vertebrates and their Origin, THEo.
GILL, 645
Lowell, Perciy al, Mars, 529, 616, 640
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Lucas, F. A., Biological Society of Washington, 304,
418, 502, 586, 725
Lucas, F. A., Abnormal Feet of Mammals, 305
Ludwig, Carl, Death of, 528; FREDERIC S. LER,
630
Lydekker, Richard, The Royal Natural History, C.
HART MERRIAM, 387
M., The Elihu Thompson Prize, 240
M., C. H., The Book of Antelopes, P. L. Sclater and
” Oldfield Thomas, 389; The Land Birds and Game
Birds of New England, H. D. Minot, 495; Des-
mognathus fusca, Pierre A. Fish, 496; Our Native
Birds, H. Nehrling, 577; Birdcratt, Mabel Osgood
Wright, 635; The - Ornithology of Hlinois, Robert
Ridgway, 661; The Norway Lemming, R. Col-
lett, 690; The Genus Reithrodontomys, J. A. AL-
LEN, 720
M., T. C., Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism, Sylvanus P. Thompson, 187; Elec-
tricity, One Hundred Years Ago and To-day,
Edwin J. Houston, 216; The Planet Earth,
Richard A. Gregory, 243; Loss of Professor
Milne’s Seismological Apparatus, Library and
Collection, 431; The Physical Review, 475; Tests
of Glow Lamps, W. E. Ayrton and 'E. A. Med-
ley, 662
M, W J, James Owen Dorsey, 208
McCuintock, Emory, Past and Present of the
American Mathematical Society, 85
McDonald, J. Donnell, Expedition of, 139
McDonald, W. C., Gift to McGill University, 555
McGerx, W J, A Catalogue of Scientific Literature,
353
McGee, W J, Geology of Arizona, 59; Topoyraph-
ical Development of Sonora, 568
MeMurrick, J. Playfair, A Text-Book of Inver-
tebrate Morphology, A. S. PACKARD, 493, 632
Macdonald, A., Sensitiveness to Pain, 43
MacFarlane A., on the Units of Light and Radiation,
248; Space Analysis, 302
Mackenzie, A. S., Attraction of Crystalline and Iso-
tropic Masses, 475
MACMILLAN Conway, The Scientific Method and
Modern Intellectual Life, 537
Magnetic Waves, 165
Magnetism and the Weather, H. A. HAZEN, 234
Malarial Map of Italy, 556
Mammals, Brisson’s Genera of, C. HART MERRIAM,
375; of Florida, F. W. T., 219
Marine Biological Laboratory, 516
Markham, Clemens R., Antarctic Expedition, 557.
Marshall, Arthur Milnes, Biological Lectures and
Addresses, Lectures on the Darwinian Theory,
H. W. Conn, 413
Martin T. C., Herman von Helmholtz 333
Mason, O. T., Similar Inventions in Areas Wide
Apart, 235; The Distribution of Sledges, 490
Mason, O. T., Origin of Culture, 640
Masouty, General de, death of, 390
Mathematical, Society, Past and Present of the Ameri-
can, Emory McCuiyTocK, 85; Annual Meeting
of the American, 110; The International Con-
gress, 110; GEORGE BRUCE HALSTEAD, 486;
Papers for the, at Kazan, 664
Mathematics, American J ournal of, 168, 448
Matter, The’ World of, Harlan H. Ballard, Wy ArT
W. RANDALL, 553
Matthew, W. D., Effusive and Dike Rocks, 670
New SERTEs.
VoLumE I.
Matthews, A. P., Pancreatic Cell, 71, 118; Excretory
Nerves, 118
Matthews, Edward B., Granites of Pike’s Peak, 62
Mayan Hieroglyphics, Daniel G. Brinton, FREDERICK
STARR, 326
Mazamas, 499
Maze, Abbe, Meteorological Observations, 501
Mearns, Edgar A., Hares of Mexican Border, 698
Mechanics, A Treatise on Theoretical, Alexander
Ziwet, R. S. W., 20; An Historical Survey of the
Science of, R. S. Woopwarp, 141
Medical Schools, 556, 695; Journals in Russia, 584.
Mediterranean, The Eastern, 506
Medley, E. A., and W. E. Ayrton, Tests of Glow
Lamps, T. C. M., 662
Meehan, Thomas, Carniverous Plants, 165
Meissel, E. D. F., death of, 500
Meltzer, S. J., Cardio-cesophagogeal movements, 118
MENDENHALL, T. C., Legal Units of Electric Meas-
ure, 9; Popular Lectures and Addresses, Vol. IL.,
Geology and Physics, Lord Kelvin, 50; Heat,
Light, R. T. Glazebrook, 215
Mental Development in the Child and in the Race,
28
MERRIAM, C. Hart, Zodlogical Nomenclature, 18;
Unity of Nomenclature in Zodlogy and Botany,
161; Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New
Jersey, Witmer Stone, 187; Birds in the Museum
of Natural History, New York City, Frank M.
Chapman, 189; The Earliest Generic Name of an
American_Deer, 208; Brisson’s Genera of Mam-
mals, 378; The Royal Natural History, Richard
Lyddecker, 387; Birds of Eastern North America,
Frank M. Chapman, 437; The Illustrations in the
Standard Natural History, 682
Merriam, C. Hart, Environment and Variation, 38;
Temperature and Distribution, 53; Monographic
Reyision of the Pocket Gophers, J. A. ALLEN,
241; Distribution of Plants and Animals, 318;
Mammals of the Pribilof Islands, 698; Short
Tailed Shrews, 725
MERRIMAN, MANSFIELD, A Manual of Topographic
Method, Henry Gannett, 464; Elasticitat und
Festigkeit, C. Bach, 688
Merritt, Ernest, Absorption of Certain Crystals in the
Infra-Red, 671
Mesopotamian Culture, The Antiquity of, 254
Mesozoic Flora of Portugal compared with that of the
United States, LESTER F. WARD, 337
Mesozoic Plants from Kosuka Kii, Awa and Tosa,
Metajiro Yokoyama, WM. M. FONTAINE, 525
Meteorological Reports, Argentine, 321
Météorologique, Bureau Centrale, 678
Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 569
Meteorology, The Needs of, CLEVELAND ABBE, 181;
A. L. Rotcu, 302
Mexican Boundary, Remarking the, O., 349
Mexican National Exhibition, 390
Meyer, Lothar von, death of, 530
Michigan, Academy of Sciences, 250; Bequest to the
University, 584
Microchemischen Analyse, Anleitung zur, H. Beh-
rens, E. RENOUF, 636
Microscopical Society of Washington, 641; New Jer-
sey State, 699
Mills, Wesley T., Psychic Development of Young
Animals, 43; Cortex of the Brain, 118
Mineralogical Club, New York, 474
Minerva, 27
SCIENCE. Xi.
Minnesota, Academy of Sciences, 473, 588; Publica-
tions of, 218; Fortnightly Scientific Club, Uni-
versity of Minnesota, 251; Grant to the Medical
Department of the University, 584
MINoT, CHARLES §., The Fundamental Difference
between Animals and Plants, 311
Minot Charles S., Work of the Naturalist in the
World, 39, 530; Olfactory Lobe, 70; The Structu-
ral Plan of the Human Brain, 249
Minot, H. D., Land Birds and Game Birds of New
England, C. H. M., 70, 495
‘Missing Link’ Found at Last, 47
Mississippi, Origin of, 294; Local Displacement of, 487
Missouri Botanical Garden, 638
MITCHELL, 8. WErR, Summary of Conclusions of a
Report by Drs. D. H. Bergey, 8. Weir Mitchell
and J. S. Billings upon ‘The Composition of
Expired Air and its Effeets upon Animal Life,’
481
Mole, Brewer’s, The Proper Scientific Name for,
FREDERICK W. TRUE, 101
Mollusks, On Marine, from the Pampean Formation,
H. VON IHERING, 421
Monistic Creed, The Tyranny of the, W. K. Brooks,
382
Montague Hyman, Death of, 304
MontTGoMERY, HENRY, Volcanic Dust in Utah and
Colorado, 656
More, A. G., Death of, 473
Morgan, C. Lloyd, Lectures on Instinct, 693
Morgan, T. H., Unsegmented Eggs of Sea Urchins,
71
Morphologie der Erdoberfliiche, Penck’s, 508
Morphology, A Text-book of Invertebrate, J. Play-
fair McMurrick, A. 8. PACKARD, 493, 632
Mother, Can an Organism without a, be Born from an
Egg, W. K. B., 162
Munich, The Region about, 652
Municipal Government in Great Britain, Albert
Shaw, J. S. B., 578
MUNSTERBERG, HuGO, Helmholtz Memorial, 547, 612
Murray, John, Report on Challenger, 417; Honorary
Degree, 697
Muscardine, Disease of Chinch Bugs, 509
Naples Zodlogical Station, 249; American Students at
the, H. F. OsBorN, 238
National Academy of Sciences, 449; Report of the
Watson Trustees on the Award of the Watson
Medal to Seth C. Chandler, 8. Newcoms, B. A.
GouLp, A. HALL, 477
National, University, A Proposed, 278, Ethnological
Exposition, 499
Natural History, Boston Society of, 84; The Royal,
Richard Lydekker, C. HART MERRIAM, 387;
667; The Cambridge, III., A. H. Cook, A. E.
Shipley F. R. C. Reed, W. H. DAL, 610
Natural Science, 498
Naturalists, The Baltimore Meeting of the American
Society of, W. A. SETCHELL, 34; Philadelphia
place of next meeting, 499; German Society of,
556; Directory, 695
Naturforscher und Aerzte, Versammlung der Gesell-
schaft deutscher, 82
Nehrling, H., Our Native Birds of Song and Beauty,
C. H. M., 577
Nernst, W., Theoretical Chemistry,
BRADBURY, 579
Neumann, Franz, Death of, 668
Ropert H.
Xil.
New Books, 28, 56, 84, 112, 140, 168, 196, 224, 252,
280, 308, 336, 364, 392, 420, 448, 476, 504, 532,
560, 588, 616, 644, 728
Newark System, ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, 266
Newbold, W. R., Associate Editor, 390
NeEwcomp, S., To Our Readers, 1; B. A. GouLp, A.
HALL; National Academy of Sciences, Report of
the Watson Trustees on the Award of the Watson
Medal to Seth C. Chandler, 477
Newcomb, Simon, Associate of Académie des Sciences
724.
Newell’s Report on Agriculture by Irrigation, 258
Newell, H. F., Argon, 616
Newton, John, Death of, 528
New York, Academy of Sciences, 28, 84, 220; BASH-
FORD DEAN, 167, 306; J. F. Kemp, 193, 279,
391, 669, 727; Annual Reception of, HENRY F.
OsBoRN, 321; WILLIAM HALLOocK, 447; Gift to
the University of the City of, 640
Nichols, E. S., and Mary C. Spencer, Influence of
Temperature on Transparency of Solutions, 476
Nomenclature, Zodlogical, C. HART MERRIAN, 18;
Unity of, in Zodlogy and Botany, C. HArRt
MERRIAM, 161
Nordau, Max, Degeneration, JOHN S. BILLINGS, 465
North Dakota State University, 417
Notes and News, 26, 55, 80, 109, 137, 164, 190, 217,
249, 275, 303, 331, 361, 390, 416, 444, 470, 497,
528, 554, 581, 612, 636, 663, 692, 721
Notter, I. Lane, Hygiene, 216
Noyes, W. A., A Short History of Chemistry, F. P.
Venable, 469
O., Remarking the Mexican Boundary, 349
O., H. F., Joints in the Vertebrate Skeleton, 581;
Lloyd Morgan upon Instinct, 712
O., W. R., Laboratory Guide, General Chemistry,
George Willard Benton, 611
Oceanic Circulation, Buchan’s Challenger Report 505
ODGEN, HERBERT G., Gravity Measurements, 571
Oliver, James Edward, GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED, 544
Onomatology, American, 72
Organic Coloring Matters, A Systematic Survey of,
G. Schultz and P. Julius, IRA REMSEN, 186
Original Research and Creative Authorship the Es-
sence of University Teaching, GEORGE BRUCE
HALSTED, 203
Orndorff, W. R., A Laboratory Manual Arranged to
Accompany Remsen’s Organic Chemistry, FELIX
LENGFELD, 469
Ornithology of Illinois, Descriptive Catalogue, Rob-
ert Ridgway, C. H. M., 661
Orthoptera, The Need of a Change of Base in the
Study of North American, SAmuEL H. Scup-
DER, 19
OSBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, American Students at
the Naples Zodlogical Station, 238; Annual Re-
ception of the New York Academy, 321
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, From the Greeks to Darwin,
A. §. PACKARD, 21; Environment and Varia-
tion, 35, and Charles Earle, Fossil Mammals of
Puerco Beds, W. B. Scorr, 660
Owen, Richard, The Life of, Rey. Richard Owen, A.
S. PACKARD, 209
Oxford, University of, 27, 640, 697
Oysters asa Means of Transmitting Typhoid Fever, 49
PACKARD, A. §., From the Greeks to Darwin, Henry
Fairfield Osborn, 21; The Life of Richard Owen,
SCIENCE.
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Rev. Richard Owen, 209; The Life and Corre-
spondence of William Buckland, Mrs. Gor-
don, 329; Invertebrate Morphology, J. Playfair
MeMunrick, 493, 652
Packard, A. S., Observations on Siphonaptera, 191
Paleobotany, 137
Paleontology, 445, The Geological and Natural His-
tory Survey of Minnesota, Vol. III., WILLIAM
B. CLARK, 659
PAuMeER, T.S., The Generic Name of the Three-toed
Echidna, 518
Parker, George W., Elements of Astronomy, C. A. Y.,
415
Parkman, Francis, Memorial to, 304
Paronymy, The Progress of, BURT G. WILDER, 515
Passaic, The Extinct Lake, 487
Payer, Julius von, Expedition for Polar Research, 640
Pear Blight,-M. B. WArtE, 721
Pearson, D. K., Gift to Mt. Holyoke College, 667
Peary Relief Expedition, 614
Peck, Dr., Death of, 500
PECKHAM, ADELAIDE WARD, and J. S. BILLINGs,
The Influence of Certain Agents in Destroying
the Vitality of the Typhoid and of the Colon
Bacillus, 169
Peckham, Mr. and Mrs., Spiders, 191
Penck’s Morphologie der Erdoberfliiche, 508
Peruvian Civilization, The Sources of, 650
Pestalozzi, Letters of, 697
Pfaff, Franz, Rhus toxicodendron and Rhus venenata,
119
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 251, 447
Philips, Jr. Henry, death of, 697
Philosophical Society of Washington, 251, 307
Physical Education, Association, 530
Physical Review, 28, 55, 139, 364; T. C. M., 475, 670
Physics, 26, 55; WILLIAM HALLOCK, 247
Physiography, Current Notes on, W. M. Davis (I.),
174; (IL), 257; (IIL. ), 292; (IV. ), 318; (W-.), 4875
(VI.), 505; (VIL. ), 568; (VIII. ), 605; (IX), 651;
(X), 678
Physiological Physics, WILLIAM HALLOCK, 301
Physiological Society, Proceedings of the American,
WARREN P. LOMBARD, 113
Physiologie, Dictionaire de, 110
Physiology, An American Textbook of, 110; Interna-
tional Congress of, 697
Pickering, E. C., T Andromede, 474; Eclipse of
Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite, 475
Pithecanthropus erectus, 193; HARRISON ALLEN, 239,
299
Plains, Winslow’s Explanation of the Missouri, 178
Planet Earth, Richard A. Gregory, T. C. M., 243
Plants, Length of Vessels in, ERWIN F. SMITH, 77
PLATT, CHARLES, Le Grisou, H. Le Chatelier, 79;
Agricultural Analysis, Harvey W. Wiley, 359
Poincaré, H., Les oscillations Glectriques, M. I.
PuPIN, 102; II., 131
Popular Lectures and Addresses, Vol. II., Geology
and General Physics, Lord Kelvin, T. C. MEN-
DENHALL, 50
Popular Science Monthly, 336, 529, 530
Porter, W. T., Physiology of Respiration, 119
Posepny, Franz, Death of, 530
Positions in Toronto, Application for, 694
Post, Albert Hermann, Grundriss der Ethnologischen
Jurisprudenz, D. G. BRINTON, 25
POWELL, J. W., The Humanities, 15; The Five Books
of History, 157
_ iil
New SERIES
Votume I.
Powell, J. W., National Geographic Monographs, W.
M. Davis, 439; History of Culture, 640; Geo-
logic Atlas of the United States, ANDREW C.
LAWSON, 717
Pre-historic Tribes of the Eastern United States, 256
Preservation of Animals and Plants, 640
Price, James, Death of, 585
Price, L. L., The Colleges of Oxford and Agricultural
Depression, 697
Prosser, Charles S., Permo- Carboniferous and Per-
mian Rocks of Kansas, 275
Protolenus Fauna, 452
Psyche, 196, 448
Psychological, Association, The Princeton Meeting of
the American, J. MCKEEN CATTELL, 42; Re-
view, 55, 82, 335, 643; Index, 473
Psychology, At Chicago, 81; E. B. TITCHENER, 426
Publications of the University of Wisconsin, 279
Publishers’ Circular, 109
Pupry, M. I., Les oscillations électriques, H. Poin-
earé, 102, IT. 131
Pupin, M. I., Automatic Vacuum Pump, 221
Purdue University, 585
Pygmies, A de Quatrefages, D. G. BRINTON, 443
Quatrefages, A. de, The Pygimes, D. G. BRINTON, 443
Quick, R. W., C. D. Child, B. S. Lamphear, Ther-
mal Conductivity of Copper, 670
R., J. D., Bevier Sheet, Arthur Winslow, 248; Iron
Mountain Sheet, Arthur Winslow, 330
R., J. K., American Metrological Society, 484
Rk. W. W., Annual Meeting of the Chemical Society
(London), 606
Raffalovich, M. A., Uranism, 672
Rafinesque, The Life and Writings of Constantine
Samuel, Richard Ellsworth Call, G. Brown
GOODE, 384
Rainfall, Charts of the United States, Harrington’s,
319; Central American, 569
Rainy Lake Gold Region, H. V. Winchell and U. 8.
Grant, 331
Ramsay, Memoir of Sir Andrew Crombie, Sir Archi-
bald Geikie, JosEPH LECONTE, 490
RAMSAY, Pror, Helion, 582
RANDALL, Wyatt W., The World of Matter, Harlan,
H. Ballard, 553
Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 304
RAYLEIGH, Lorp, Argon, 701
Rayleigh, Lord, Waves and Vibrations, 304; Faraday
Medal, 418
Readers, To Our, S. NEwcome, 1
Redfield Memorial, 470
Rees, J. K., Variation of Latitude, 561
Rees, J. K., Penumbree of Sun Spots, 221; Astron-
omy during 1894, 447; Geodetic Theodite, 727
Reforestation, The Specious Term, 321
Regressian and Organic Stability, 498
Reid, Harry Fairfield, Variations of Glaciers, 60
Reighard, Jacob, The Wall-eyed Pike, Artificial
Fertilization, 361
Reithrodontomys, The Genus, J, A. Allen, C. H. M.,
720
Religious Symbolism, The Analogies of, 47
REMSEN, IRA, Systematic Survey of the Organic
Coloring Matters, Drs. G. Schultz and P. Julius,
186; Argon, 309
pen, Ira, Colorides of Orthosulphobenzoie acid,
9
SCIENCE.
xiii.
RENOUF, E., Anleitung zur Microchemischen Analyse,
H. Behrens, 636
Research, Degrees for, 614
Ridgway, Robert, The Ornithology of Illinois; De-
seriptive Catalogue, C. H. M., 661
Ries, Heinrich, Harrison Granite, 279
RIvey, C. V., Alternating Generations, Herman Ad-
ler, 457
Ritual Calendar of Central America, 649
Rivers, Graded, 176; Some Meandering of Wisconsin,
HENRY B. Ki'MMEL, 714
ROBERTSON, CHARLES, Harshberger on the Origin
of Our Vernal Flora, 371
Robertson, Charles, Flowers and Insects, 503
Rochester Academy of Science, 83
Rockhill, W. W., Delegate to the International Geo-
graphical Congress, 667
Roscoe, Sir Henry E., John Dalton and the Rise of
Modern Chemistry, EDWARD H. KEISER. 686
Rotcn, A. L., Meteorology, 302
Rothpletz, A., Die Ost Alpen, ANDREW C. LAWson,
522
Rowland, H. A., New Forms of Galvanometers, 120;
Solar Spectrum Wave Length, 474, 616
Royal Society, 362, 557, 585,- 612, 614; Meteorolog-
ical Society, 529; Botanical Society, 586, 694; In-
stitution, 692; Astronomical Society, 639; Geo-
graphical Society, 665, 694; Institute of London,
446
Royce, Josiah, Psychology of Imitation, 44, 643
Rudorf, Fr., An Introduction to Chemical Analysis
for Beginners, EDWARD HART, 137
Runic Inscriptions in Eastern America, 488
Russell, H. L., Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology, H. W.
C., 189
RvusSELL, ISRAEL C., The Newark System, 266
Ruschenberger, William 8. W., Death of, 417
Russian Science Notes, GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED,
277
Russian Thistle, 377
RYDER, JoHN A., A Dynamical Hypothesis of In-
heritance, 597, II. 617;
Ryder, John A., Death of, 417; Unpublished MSS. of,
500; Meeting in Memory of, 613
S. E. F., Biltmore, 557
S. H. S., Butterflies and Moths, W. Furneaux, 443
Sachsse, Rob, death of 615
St. Andrew’s University, 446
Sr. CLATR, GEO., Darwinism and Race Progress, John
Berry Haycraft, 467
St. John’s River, New Brunswick, History of, 294
St. Louis Academy of Science, A. W. DouGLAs, 503
St. Paul Academy of Science, 473
SALIsBuRY, ROLLIN D., The Water Supply; Geolog-
ical Survey of New Jersey, Cornelius Clarkson,
Vermeule, 684
Salisbury, Rollin D., Surface Formations of Southern
New Jersey, 67
Sanford, E. C., Psychological Studies, 42
Saturn, Spectroscopic Observations of, JAMEs E.
KEELER, 519
Savory, Sir William, Death of, 364
Schaffner, John H., The Nature and Distribution of
Attraction Spheres and Centrosomes in Vege-
table Cells, ALBERT SCHNEIDER, 189
Schermerhorn, W. C., Gift to Columbia College,
554
Schmidt, E. E., Member of Prussian Academy, 446
X1y.
Schmidt’s, Dr. Emil, Recent Works, 406
Schmitz, F. N., Death of, 279
SCHNEIDER, ALBERT, Attraction Spheres and Cen-
trosomes in Vegetable Cells. John H. Schaff-
ner, 189. An Introduction to Structural Botany,
H. D. Scott, 443
Schneider, Albert, Rhizobea, 306
Schorlemmer Carl, The Rise and Development of Or-
ganic Chemistry, EDGAR F. SMITH, 163
Schultz, G., Systematic Survey of Organic Coloring
Matter, IRA REMSEN, 186
‘Science,’ 352
Science, America’s Relation to the Advance of, G.
Brown GoopeE, 4; (popular), Articles on, 81,
303; The Nature of, and its Relation to Philo-
sophy, E. W. ScRIPTURE, 350; In Canada, J. T.
C., 379, 628, 653; The Educational and Indus-
trial Value of, HENRY 8. CARHART, 393;
Scientific, Investigation, The Character and Aims of,
DANIEL G. BRINTON, 3: Literature, 20, 50, 78,
102, 131, 162, 186, 209, 241, 269, 299, 326, 356,
382, 408, 437, 457, 490, 522, 548, 577, 610, 634,
658, 684, 717; Societies, of Washington, 26; Sec-
retaries of, 499; J. S. DILLER, 586; Joint Com-
mission, 333; Journals, 28, 82, 112, 139, 168, 195,
224, 251, 280, 308, 335, 364, 392, 420, 448, 474,
503, 532, 615, 642, 670, 700; Method and Modern
Intellectual Life, CONWAY MACMILLAN, 537.
Sclater, P. H., and Oldfield Thomas, The Book of
Antelopes, C. H. M., 389
Scott, D. H., An Introduction to Structural Botany,
ALBERT SCHNEIDER, 443
Scorr, W. B., Fossil Mammals of the Puerco Beds,
Henry Fairfield Osborn and Charles Earle, 660
Seribner, F. Lamson, Grasses of Tennesse, N. L. B.
55
Seriptoribus et Lectoribus, Salutem, D. C. GILMAN, 2
Scripture, E. W., The Nature of Science and its
Relation to Philosophy, 350
Scripture, E. W., Lecture on Psychology, 722
ScuDpDER, 8. H., The Need of a Change of Base in the
Study of North American Orthoptera, 19
Seebohn, Henry, Eggs of British Birds, 529
Seeley, H. G., Skeleton of Pareiasaurus Baini, 331
Seeley, H. J.. Reputed Mammals from Karroo For-
mation, 445
Seelye, J. M., Death of, 583
Seismological, Apparatus, Library and Collection,
Loss of Professor Milne’s, T. C. M. 431; Society
in Rome, 697
SERGI, G., The Classification of Skulls, 658
SETCHELL, W. A., The Baltimore Meeting of the
American Society of Naturalists, 34
Shaler N. 8., Lower Silurian Limestones, 58
Shaw, Albert, Municipal Government in Great Brit-
ain, J. S. B., 578
Sheldon, Samuel, H. W. Litch and A. N. Shaw, Elec-
trolytic Condensers, 670
Shepard, Willam A., death of, 668
Shields, T. E., Apparatus for Plethysmographic Study
of Odors, 120
Simpson, Charles T., Naiad Classification, 419; Geo-
graphical Distribution of Naiades, 587
Skeleton, Variations in the Human, 253
Skulls, Classification of, HARRISON ALLEN, 381, G.
SERGI, 658
Slingo, W., and A. Brooker, Electrical Engineering,
for Electric Light Artisans and Students, F. B.
CROCKER, 299
SCIENCE.
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
SmitH, EpGAR F., Organic Chemistry, Carl Schor-
_ lemmer, 163; The Qualitative Chemical Analysis
of Inorganic Substances, 415
SmitH, Erwin F., Length of Vessels in Plants, 77;
Lagoa Santa, 510
Smith Erwin F., Nomenclature Question, 587; Biol-
ogy of Bacillus-tracheiphilus, 699; Associate edi-
tor, 724
Smith, John B., A Flat-headed Borer, 27
Smith, Theo., Entero-hepatitis of Turkeys, 531
Smyth, C. H., Crystalline Limestone, 63
Smyth, E. A., Jr., Hawks and Owls, 276
Soil treatment of Orchards, 577
Snow, F. H, Kansas, State Geological Survey, 376
Social Sense, J. MARK BALDWIN, 236
Société, Internationale des Electricians, 26
Societies and Academies, 28, 56, 83, 110, 166, 193,
220, 250, 279, 304, 334, 391, 418, 447, 473, 501,
531, 558, 586, 668, 698, 725
Society of Naturalists, The Baltimore Meeting of the
American, W. A. SETCHELL, 34
Sociology, Am. Jour. of, 722
Solar System, On the Magnitude of the, WILLIAM
HARKNESS, 29
South American Tribes and Languages, 457
Space Analysis, 302
Spalding, Volney M., Introduction to Botany, W. P.
WILSON, 496
Spectroscopic, Observations of Saturn, JAMES E.
KEELER, 519
Spelzeological Society, 544
Spencer, Cornelia Phillips, Degree, 724
Spencer, Herbert, Professional Institutions, 499
Spencer, J. W., Geographical Evolution of Cuba, 59
Stanford University, 585, 667
STARR FREDERICK, A. Primer of Mayan Heiro-
glyphics, Daniel G. Brinton, 326
Starr, Frederick, Notes on Mexican Archeology, 219
Stars, The Story of, G. F. Chambers, DAvip P. Topp
552
Steinmetz, S. R., Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwicklung der Strafe, D. G. B., 25
Steam Power and Mill Work, Geo. W. Sutcliffe,
R. H. T., 581
STERNBERG, GEORGE M., Explanation of Acquired
Immunity from Infectious Diseases, 346
Sternberg, George M., Explanation of Natural Im-
munity, 121; President of Association of Mili-
tary Surgeons, 530
Stettenheimer, Dr. Ludwig, Eine Discussion der
Kriifte der chemischen Dynamik, H. C. JONEs,
271
Stevenson, J. J., Pennsylvania Anthracite, 391
Stiles, C. W., Cestodes, 68, 334, 419
Stone Age, Divisions of the, 254
Stone Age, Subdivisions of, 404
Stone, Witmer, The Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania
and New Jersey, C. HART MERRIAM, 187
Strate, Ethnologische Studien zur erster Entwicklung
der, 8. R. Steinmetz, D. G. B., 25
Strasburger, Eduard, Botany in Germany, 642
Strong, O. §., The Use of Formalin in Golgi’s
Method, 166; Cranial Nerves of Amphibia,
335 :
Stumpf, Carl, Member of Prussian Academy, 446
Subject Index, A General, to Periodical Scientific
Literature, EDWARD 8S. HOLDEN, 520
Surface Currents of the Great Lakes, 505
Survey of Michigan, 219
New SERIES.
VoLemeE I.
Sutcliffe, Geo. W., Steam Power and Mill Work,
R. H. T., 581
Sutherland, Charles, Death of, 585
Swinburne, Ralph, Death of, 697
Syracuse University, Appointments in, 696; Gift to,
722
Systematische Phylogenie der Protisten und Pflan-
zen, Ernst Haeckel, GARY N. CALKINS, 272
T., F. W., The Mammals of Florida, 219
T., R. H., Society for the Promotion of Engineering
Education, 580; Steam Power and Mill Work,
George W. Sutcliffe, 581
Tarns of the English Lake District, 652
Tartars, The Orotchi, 254
Tchébychev, GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED, 129
Teaching Botany, W. J. BEAL, 355
Technologisches, Worterbuch, 363
Telescope, for Berlin Industrial Exhibition, 333; for
American University, 557
Temperature. Control, Laws of, of the Geographic
Distribution of Life, 53
Tesla, Nikola, Laboratory destroyed by fire, 390
Texas Academy of Science, 56, 448, 728; Volcanic
Dust in, H. W. TURNER, 453
The Evolution of Invention, 50
Thermal Conductivity of Rock at Different Tempera-
tures, LORD KELVIN, 596
Thiersch, Carl, Death of, 584
Thomas, Oldfield, and P. L. Sclater, The Book of
Antelopes, C. H. M., 389
Thompson, Sylvanus P.; Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism, T. C. M., 187.
Thomson, E., Inter-communication among Wolves,
Tuurston, R. H., Model Engine Construction, J.
ALEXANDER, 109; The Steam Engine and Other
Heat Engines, J. A. Ewing, 136; Steam and the
Marine Steam Engine, John Yeo, 328; The Ani-
mal as a Machine and Prime Mover, 365; The
Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket Book, 634
Thurston, R. H., Debt to Inventors, 641
TITCHENER, E. B., Psychology, 426
Toads on the Seashore, FREDERICK W. TRUE, 166
Topp, DAvip P., The Story of the Stars, G. F. Cham-
bers, 552
Topp, HENRY ALFRED, A Card Catalogue of Scien-
tifie Literature, 297
Todd, J. E., South Dakota Geological Survey, 219
Tomsa, Dr., Death of, 556
Topographer, MANSFIELD MERRIMAN, 464; The Ed-
ucation of, W. M. DAvis, 546
Topographic Methods, Gannett’s Manual of, 179
Topographical Atlas, 138
Torrey Botanical Club, 28
Tree and the Cone, 650
TRELEASE, WM., Missouri Botanical Garden, 716
Trouvelot, Léopold, Death of, 585
TRUE, FREDERICK W., The Proper Scientific Name
for Brewer’s Mole, 101; Toads on the Seashore,
166
~ Tsetsauit, 218
Tubereular Consumption, Prize for Best Essay, 27
Tuke, D. Hack, Death of, 304
TURNER, H. W., Volcanic Dust in Texas, 453
TUTHILL, WM. B., New York Branch American Folk-
Lore Society, 473
Uline, Edwin B., Amaranthacez, 504
Units of Light and Radiation, A Macfarlane, 248
SCIENCE. XV.
University Extension, 724
Upham, Warren, Discrimination of Glacial Accumu-
lation and Invasion, 60; Climatic Conditions, 61;
Uplift of the Existing Appalachians, 180
Van Gieson, Ira, Formalin, 167
Vannic Language, 128
Variation, Materials for the Study of, William Bate-
son, H. W. Conn, 23; An Inherent Error in the
Views of Galton and Weismann on, W. K.
Brooks, 121; in Crabs, 498; of Latitude, J.
K. REEs, 561; Mechanical Interpretation of, 638
Vasiliev, A., Nicolai Ivanovich Lobachéysky, ALEX—
ANDER ZIWET, 356
Vegetation of the Ancient World, 138
Venable, F. P., History of Chemistry, W. A. Noyes,
469
Vermeule, Cornelius Clarkson, Water Supply; Geo-
logical Survey, New Jersey, RoLLIn D. SA.ts-
BURY, 684 e
Vertebrate paleontology, Field exploration, 693
Vertebrate Skeleton, H. F. O., 581
Victoria Institute of London, 472, 667
Vienna, Academy of Sciences, Bequest, 278; Histor-
ical Exhibition, 303
Vigne, Description des Ravageurs de la, Henri Joli-
eceur, JOSEPH F. JAMES, 527
Vogel, H. C., Spectra of the Planets, 474
Vogt, Carl, death of, 555
Voleanic Dust, In Texas, H. W. Turner, 453; In
Utah and Colorado, HENRY MONTGOMERY; 656
In Texas, E. T. DUMBLE, 657
W., R.S., Theoretical Mechanics, Alexander Ziwet, 20
WAITE, M. B., The Biological Society of Washington,
334, 531, 698; Remedy for Pear Blight, 721
Waite, M. B., Flora of Washington, 305
Walcott, Charles D., Appalachian Type of Folding,
58; Lower Cambrian Rocks, 64; Bigsby Medal
Awarded, 304; U. 8. Geological Survey, 530
Waldo, Frank, Wind Velocities, 700
Waltenwyl, Brunner von, Monographie der Pseudo-
phylliden, 663
Walter, Miss Emma, Delaware Water Gap, 390
WARD, LESTER F., The Mesozoic Flora of Portugal
compared with that of United States, 337
Ward, Lester F., Vegetation of the Ancient World,
138; Marquis Saporta, 390; Red Hills and Sand
Hills of South Carolina, 669; Gama Grass, 725
Warming, E., A Handbook of Systematic Botany,
N. L. B., 550
Washburn, L. F., Laboratory Studies, 696
Water Supply, Geological Survey of New Jersey,
Cornelius Clarkson Vermeule, ROLLIN D. SALIs-
BURY, 684
Weather Service, New York State, 320
Weed Seeds in Winter Winds, 509
Weed, Walter H., and Louis V. Pirsson, Geology of
the High Wood Mountains, Montana, 59; The
Shonkin Sag, 559
Weidman, Samuel, Quartz-keratophyre, 67
Weierstrass, Prof., Election of, 363
Weights and Measures, 304
Welding of Iron, 332 ;
Weldon, Prof., Variation, 27
Wellington, Arthur M., Death of, 614
WHEELER, E. S., Density and Diameter of Terrestrial
Planets, 424
Wheeler, Dr., Fertilization, 335
Xvi.
White, David, The Pottsville Series 64
White, Gilbert, Natural History of Selbourne, 614
Whitfield, R. P., New Forms of Marine Algae, 67
Whiting, Harold, death of, 667
Whitman, C. O., Utilities of Biology, 641
WILDER, Burt G., The Progress of Paronymy, 515;
The Frog was not Brainless, but Decerebrized, 632
Wiley, Harvey W., Principles and Practice of Agri-
cultural Analysis, CHARLES PLATT, 359
Willey, Arthur, Amphioxus, 645
Williams, Charles Theodore, Aero-therapeuties, 247;
Williams College, bequest to, 584;
Williams, George Huntington, Memorial to, 219, 723
Williams, H. S., Devonian Fossils, 64
Williams, H. W., Death of, 724
Williston, 8S. W., North American Diptera, 362
Wilson, E. B., Environment and Variation, 38; Cen-
trosomes, 69; Polarity of the Egg in Toxopneus-
tes, 69; Fertilization, 335; Atlas of Fertilization
and Karyokinesis, 666
WILSON, W. P., Introduction to Botany, Volney M.
Spalding, 496
Winchel, H. V., and U. 8. Grant, Rainy Lake Gold
Region, 331
Wine and Beer, Consumption of, 165
Winslow, Arthur, the Bevier Sheet, J. D. R. 248; the
Tron Mountain Sheet, J. D. R., 330 i
Winter Storms in the North Sea, 679
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,
728 %
Women at Oxford, 473
Wood’s Holl, Biological Lectures Delivered at the
Marine Biological Laboratory, CHARLES S. DoL-
LEY, 244; Biological Laboratory, A. A. A. S.
ERRATA :—p. 144, col. 2, line 34: for these, read three.
p. 212, col. 1, line 11: for plan, read phase.
p. 457, col. 2, line 23: for cinipide, read Cynipide.
Maupertuis.
p. 334, col. 1, line 23: for Styles, read Stiles.
SCIENCE.
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Tables at, 249; Biological Lectures for 1894,
418
Woopwarp, R. 8., An Historical Survey of the Sci-
ence of Mechanics, 141; A Treatise on Hydro-
statics, Alfred George Greenhill, 269
Woodward, R. S., Condition of the Interior of the
Earth, 193; Smithsonian Geographical Tables,
292; Variation of Latitude, 638
Wortman, J. L., Devil’s Corkscrews, 306
Wright, Frederick G., Glacial Phenomena, 60
Wright, Mable Osgood, Birderaft, A Field Book of
Two Hundred, Song, Game and Water Birds, C.
H. M., 635
Wylie, Theophilus A., Death of, 723
Y., C. A., Elements of Astronomy, George W. Parker,
415
Yeo, John, Steam and the Marine Steam Engine, R.
H. THURSTON, 328
Yokoyoma, Metajiro, Mesozoic Plants from Kosuke,
Kai, Awa and Tosa, WM. M. FONTAINE, 525
Zaglossus, The Genus, ELLIOTT Cours, 610 _
ZIWET, ALEXANDER, Nicolai Iv4novich Lobachéy-.
sky, A. Vasiliev, 356
Ziwet, Alexander, An Elementary Treatise on Theor-
etical Mechanics, R. S. W. 20; Card Catalogue,
557
Zoological Nomenclature, C. HART MERRIAM, 18;
Picture Puzzle, 55; Congress, International, 217,
585; Station, American Students at the Naples,
H. F. OsBorn, 238; Garden in New York, 446,
530; Zodlogical Society, German, 500; London,
586
p. 153, col. 2, line 59: for Maupertius, read
p. 213, col. 1, line 13: for cooking, read working.
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ArTer.a brief period of suspension this
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there is room for a journal devoted to the
promotion of intercourse among those inter-
ested in the study of nature. The separa-
tion of our investigators around many
widely separated centres, and the conse-
quent lack of communication between them,
increases the necessity of such a journal, as
well as the difficulty of adapting it to the
wants ofall classes of subscribers. The expe-
rience of centuries shows that great success
in advancing scientific knowledge cannot be
expected even from the most gifted men, so
long as they remain isolated. The attrition
of like minds is almost as necessary to intel-
lectual production as companionship is to
conversation. In saying this I am not un-
mindful that such men as Copernicus, Kepler
and Leibnitz were little stimulated by the
companionship of other minds while think-
ing out their great works. Butif the age for
discoveries of the kind which these men
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and to think. How imperfectly they thought,
and how little they knew the way to learn, is
shown more fully by the history of their de-
bates and by the questions discussed at their
—
2 SCIENCE.
meetings than by anything contained in the
ponderous volumes of their transactions.
At the present day one of the aspects of
American science which most strikes us is
the comparative deficiency of the social
element. We have indeed numerous local
scientific societies, many of which are meet-
ing with marked success. But these bodies
cannot supply the want of national codp-
eration and communication. The field of
each is necessarily limited, and its activi-
ties confined to its own neighborhood. We
need a broader sympathy and easier com-
munication between widely separated men
in every part of the country. Our journal
aims to supply the want of such a medium,
and asks the aid of all concerned in mak-
ing its efforts successful. It will have little
space for technicalities which interest only
the specialist of each class, and will occupy
itself mostly with those broader aspects of
thought and culture which are of interest
not only to scientific investigators, but to
educated men of every profession.
the first character. Such cases pave the
way to a rational conception of epigenesis,
by showing the multiplication of effects in
ontogeny and the complicated results that
may follow from a single and apparently
insignificant condition of the environment.
Even more striking results are those ob-
tained (by Herbst) by the addition of a
minute percentage of lithium chloride to
the sea-water. The primary result is to
cause exogastrulation (like the eftect of
raised temperature). Beyond this, how-
ever, the entoderm area (7. e., archenteric re-
gion) often becomes abnormally large. The
entoderm may then be reduced to a mere
knob consisting of only a few cells, or may
even disappear altogether so that a blastula
is formed that consists entirely of entoderm !
This extraordinary result, if it can be ac-
cepted, shows that even so fundamental a
process as the differentiation of the germ-
layers stands in a vital relation to the
chemical environment. It is a revelation
of the importance of environmental influ-
ences in development and it shows that we
must readjust our conceptions not only of
development but also of inheritance, of
which development is an expression. Our
attention has been focussed too closely upon
the formal morphological aspect of develop-
ment which we have regarded too largely
as the result of a pre-organized germ-
plasm operating like a machine. Embryo-
logical development must be thoroughly re-
examined from a physiological point of
view, full weight being given to the essen-
tial part played by the environment. This
point of view in no way sets aside the ne-
cessity of assuming a specifically organized
germ-plasm for every species as the basis
of inheritance. It simplifies the problem,
however, and opens the way for further in-
vestigation, which is practically barred by
the artificial and formal theories of devel-
opment advocated by Roux and Weismann.
The third paper read was by Professor
38
W. K. Brooks, of the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity. The subject was: An Intrinsic
Error in the Theories of Galton and Weismann.
It will be published in full later. The
principal point taken was against the theory
of variation springing from a mixture of an-
cestral characters. It was shown that many
lines of descent may arise from a very small
number of parents and represent a slender
thread, consisting of very few strands, many
individuals of the same species having an
identical remote ancestry. In other words,
sexual environment instead of being unlim-
ited is very narrow, and as we pass back-
wards the number of ancestors imereases
rapidly fora number of generations, and then
decreases instead of increasing indefinitely.
The causes of variation are therefore to be
sought rather in modern conditions of organ-
isms than in the remote past.
Dr. C. Hart Merriam, of the United
States Department of Agriculture, contri-
buted an exhibition and discussion of a
beautiful series of mammal and bird types
exhibiting protective coloring and a number
of dynamic variations. The origin of pro-
tective colors is to be sought in fortuitous
variation preserved by selection. The the-
ory of the direct action of environment in
modifying color as in the bleached types of
the desert regions is not borne out by obser-
vations and is disproved in the case of noc-
turnal types. A second and distinct class
of facts comes under the head of Dynamic
Variation, and to this class we refer to
modifications of the beak, of the feet and
limbs as due primarily to the habits and
activities of the animals themselves.
At the close of the afternoon session, Pro-
fessor E. B. Wilson, of Columbia College,
exhibited by means of the stereopticon, lan-
tern slides, prepared from photographs
taken from sections, illustrating the cytolo-
gical changes during maturation, fecunda-
tion, and segmentation. The different ef-
fects of the various killing, fixing and stain-
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 2.
ing agents upon the ultimate details of cell-
structure, were admirably brought out.
At eight o’clock the Society had the
pleasure of listening to Professor William
Libbey, of Princeton, who told of his expe-
riences during Zwo Months in Greenland.
The lecture was illustrated by a large num-
ber of magnificent views of Polar Scenery.
After the lecture the members were en-
tertained by the authorities of the Johns
Hopkins University and the citizens of Bal-
timore at a most pleasant assembly in Mc-
Coy Hall.
The Society reassembled at nine o’clock
on Friday morning, Dec. 28th.
Officers for the year 1895 were chosen as
follows :
President—Professor EH. D. Cope, Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania.
Vice Presidents—Professors Wim. Libbey,
Jr., Princeton University ; W. G. Farlow,
Harvard University; C. O. Whitman, Chi-
cago University.
Secretary—Professor H. C. Bumpus, Brown
University. ‘
Treasurer—Doctor E. G. Gardiner, Bos-
ton, Mass.
Committee-at-Large—Professors E. B. Wil-
son, Columbia College; W. H. Howell,
Johns Hopkins University.
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Society :
William Ashmead, U. 8. Dept. Agricul-
ture, Washington; Severance Burrage,
Mass. Inst. Tech., Boston; W. E. Castle,
Harvard University ; H. HE. Chapin, Uni-
versity of Ohio, Athens, Ohio; J. E. Hum-
phrey, Johns Hopkins University ; M. M.
Metcalf, Woman’s College, Baltimore; H.
C. Porter, University of Pennsylvania; W.
H. C. Pynchon, Trinity College, Hartford ;
Charles Schuchert, U.S. National Museum;
Norman Wyld, late of Bristol, England.
The report of the Treasurer showing a
balance of somewhat over $200 was ac-
cepted by the Society.
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
The Society, on motion of Professor Bum-
pus, appropriated a sum not to exceed $150
to equip the American table at the Naples
Station with proper microtomes, and a com-
mittee of three was appointed to attend to
this matter.
Professor J. S. Kingsley detailed a ‘ bib-
liographieal project’ originating with Pro-
fessor G. W. Field of Brown University.
This proposes to put into the hands of
workers in zodlogy a bibliography of cur-
rent literature, in such a form as to be
readily accessible, the latter to be readily
combined with the earlier, and to present
the matter both as to subjects and as to
authors. By a vote of the Society, a com-
mittee of five was appointed to consider
this ‘project’ and to report in print both
in Scrence and in The American Natural-
ist.
President Gilman, in a very pleasant and
cordial way, then welcomed the members
of the visiting societies to Baltimore, speak-
ing on behalf of the authorities of the Johns
Hopkins University and of the citizens of
Baltimore.
President Minot chose for the subject of
his address ‘The Work of the Naturalist in the
World” The object of the naturalist is to
discover the truth about nature and to pub-
lish the results of his work to the world.
The conditions of success are readily to be
observed. First and foremost is truth. The
naturalist’s first business is to get at the
truth, and the obstacles which stand most
prominently in his way are: (1) the limita-
tions of his own abilities, and (2) the limi-
tations of accessories for carrying on his
work. The naturalist must observe, experi-
ment and reason, and his training must
necessarily be along these lines. Experi-
mentation is necessarily more difficult than
observation, for in the former case the
naturalist asks why, not how. The great
work of the future, as is already being
shown, is to be done by the experimenters.
SCIENCE. 39
Our notion of causation is still in a very
rudimentary condition.
Again, the reasoning faculty is one of our
weakest points. The naturalist must learn
to carefully distinguish between discussion
and controversy, and while being led and
taught to indulge freely in the former with
all the intelligence at his command, he must
also be taught to avoid the latter.
The naturalist is naturally exposed to
many evils, such as this matter of contro-
versy, which tend to cause him to depart
from his proper mission, viz., of getting at
the truth. He is especially likely to be led
astray by impatience to get results. Pre-
liminary communications are a very great
as well as a very prevalent evil. The opin-
ion of the speaker was very pronouncedly
adverse to this form of publication. The
greed for priority leads many even fine
workers far astray.
The tendency to speculate is a third evil,
and this has perhaps reached its culmina-
tion in the doctrines of Weismann. An-
other evil is the one which leads us to ac-
cept too readily simple and well finished
conceptions.
with an illustrious example of the effects of
this.
In the matter of publication, four classes
may be distinguished: (1.) Original Memoirs;
(2.) Handbooks ; (3.) Text Books ; (4.) Biblio-
graphies. The last three are important
both in form and in the matter. The first
are like digestive organs. It is their func-
tion to assimilate crude facts and render
them digestible. Advice to prune and di-
gest such matter for publication is much
needed. Details not bearing directly upon
the subject should be carefully excluded.
Most original papers could be ‘boiled
down’ to one half, and some even to one
tenth of the amount that is really published.
The English write best and this may be
owing to the example of Huxley. The
Germans and Americans who copy after
Herbert Spencer furnishes us
40)
them come next, and the French are the
greatest sinners in the matter of verbiage.
The effect of the work of the naturalist
upon his own character is especially shown
in his optimism. Literary men seem much
inclined to grow pessimistic. This point is
well illustrated .by a comparison of the re-
cently published letters of Asa Gray and of
James Russell Lowell. Lowell’s letters
show increasing pessimistic views toward
the end of his life, while those of Gray re-
main uniformly optimistic. Something of
this was undoubtedly due to the different
temperaments of the two men, but much
was also due to the different nature of their
work. Gray could always see new things
unfolding before him.
One drawback in the naturalist’s life is
his comparative loneliness and isolation.
Seldom has he in his own neighborhood an-
other interested in the same particular line
as himself. Reunions of naturalist societies,
such as those at the time meeting in Balti-
more, counteract this to a considerable ex-
tent, but there is need of even greater affili-
ation.
The influence of the naturalist upon man-
kind in the way of teaching them compe-
tence had not been considered sufficiently.
In political questions competency comes in,
and the solution of much of our present
trouble lies not so much in restricting the
right to vote as it does in restricting the
right to become a candidate. We, as na-
turalists and as citizens, should uphold com-
petence. Our schools, even the best of
them, judging by their results, do not edu-
cate properly. The naturalist should see
to it that our schools educate, with science
in its proper place. It is the duty of the
naturalist to advance the development of
the university. The schools use elementary
knowledge to advance the mind in aecquisi-
tiveness, and the college uses advanced
knowledge in the same way, but the uni-
versity attempts to advance the mind in
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 2.
independent work, to develop and discipline
originality.
To carry on its proper work the univer-
sity needs a large endowment, at least $10,-
000,000. It is not possible to teach zodlogy
unless the proper instruments and books
are proyided. The university, above all,
needs proper professors. The qualifications
of a professor in a university should be : (1)
the ability to carry on original researches
himself, and (2) to train others to carry
out original work.
The annual discussion on ‘ Laboratory
Teaching of Large Classes’ followed Pro-
fessor Minot’s address. Professor Alpheus
Hyatt, of the Boston Society of Natural
History, introduced the subject somewhat
as follows :
Teaching has two objects in view: (1) to
train the faculties of individuals, and (2) to
increase the store of information. The im-
portance in laboratory teaching of bringing
the pupil into contact with the organisms
themselves is absolutely necessary. The
term, ‘large classes,’ is relative. It may
mean twenty, thirty, forty, up to several
hundred. In teaching large classes, there
must be taken into account the matter of
division into sections, rooms, assistants, ap-
paratus, ete. The first point to be insisted
upon is the matter of personal contact be-
tween the pupils and the instructors. In
experience with Boston teachers, the classes
numbered five hundred. Tables were pro-
vided for the whole number, and on these
tables were placed the trays of specimens —
on which the exercise was to be given. The
specimens were thus arranged before the
exercises by assistants. The lecturer then
proceeded to demonstrate the various points
upon his own specimens, and the pupils fol-
lowed him by working out the same points
on the specimens in the tray. The speci-
mens kept the lecturer down to his subject
and also kept the pupils at work. Of course
the field was necessarily limited.
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
The initial expense for providing the ma-
terial was small, being about $10 for geo-
logy, $15 for botany, and $25 for zodlogy.
Diagrams and crayon sketches, magnifying
glasses, and various methods of a simple
kind were made use of. These methods
were afterwards used with smaller sections
with even more satisfactory results. Ex-
aminations were given to test the pupils’
proficiency, not only in knowledge of the
subject but also of methods of study. For
this purpose test objects were given the pu-
pils to examine and deseribe. At the close
of his paper, Professor Hyatt exhibited
some specimens of these examinations.
Professor H. C. Bumpus, of Brown Uni-
versity, spoke upon the subject from the
zoological point of view. The value of
laboratory work depends largely upon good
material, which should be supplied in abund-
ance and in excellent condition. At the
present time there is no excuse for supply-
ing poor or scanty material, since abundance
of excellent material can be obtained at
small cost. The importance of having the
best dissections and best drawings obtain-
able in the laboratory itself cannot be over-
estimated. It does not induce the laziness
and attempts at shirking that seem to be
the fear of somany teachers. Ifthe student
desires to copy a fine dissection he is to be
encouraged to do so, and any teacher can
readily detect the sketches copied from a
chart or diagram. The speaker said also
that he had found it an excellent plan in
certain difficult cases to supply blanks
on which the outlines of important struc-
tures were laid down, the details to be
added by the pupil. A printed outline of
the order of work, directions for manipula-
tion, and questions to be answered from the
specimens are a great help. The need of
competent assistants is obvious.
The botanical side of the question was
considered in a paper by Professor W. F.
Ganong, of Smith College. The experience
SCIENCE. 41
given was obtained in managing classes of
about 200 men at Harvard, and the plan
given was worked out under the guidance
of Professor G. L. Goodale. The conditions
under which the instruction was under-
taken were: (1) The classes were too large
for individual teaching by the instructor;
(2) laboratory hours must be adjusted to
other academic work, to insuflicient ac-
commodations, and sometimes even to yet
other considerations; (3) many students of
diverse attainments must be taught how to
work and to think scientifically, and must
be kept progressing together through the
stages of a logically graded course, and (4)
large quantities of special material must be
provided for at unfavorable seasons.
In conducting such classes competent
assistants were necessary, each to have not
more than twenty men under him, and
these were to remain under his special
charge throughout the course. Such as-
sistants may be readily recruited in any
large university where there are special
students doing advanced work. The assist-
ants met the instructor to talk over plans
and details of coming work. Uniformity of
plan was insisted upon, but details of me-
thod were left to the assistant. The in-
structor did not devote himself to any one
section, but visited each one as often as was
possible. Weekly guides were printed for
the use of the student, indicating the points
to be studied, their relative importance, and
any necessary information given. They
were intended to supply just enough data
to enable the student to progress to correct
conclusions.
The materials required were arranged in
the course, so that in the winter such things
as could be grown easily or procured out of
doors, as seeds, seedlings and buds, came
first, and then followed the succession of
opening buds, leaves, flowers and fruit made
accessible by the advance of spring. In other
words, the time of giving the course and the
42
grouping of the subjects was so arranged
that the material for each subject was in
proper condition when it came before the
class. Some of the weekly guides accom-
panied the paper, for examination.
Discussions were presented by Professors
H. W. Conn, Marcella O’Grady, E. 8. Morse
and C. §. Minot, and the additional fact was
brought out that a good synoptic collection
was a desirable feature of the laboratory
equipment, in order that the pupil might
not have too narrow a view of each group
of organisms, such as he is likely to carry
away from the study of a single type.
After passing a vote of thanks to the au-
thorities of the University, the citizens of
Baltimore and the University Club for the
hospitality extended to it, the Society ad-
journed.
The annual dinner of the affiliated So-
cieties took place at ‘The Stafford’ at 7:30
on Friday evening. No set toasts were
given, but informal speeches formed a very
. pleasurable close to this reunion.
W. A. SercHEy, Secretary.
YALE UNIVERSITY.
THE PRINCETON MEETING OF THE AMER
CAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.
Tue third annual meeting of The Ameri-
can Psychological Association was held at
Princeton College on Thursday and Friday,
December 27th and 28th, under the presi-
dency of Professor William James, of Har-
vard University. Psychology is the young-
est and likewise one of the most vigorous
of the sciences. Although the Association
is small, consisting of those only who are
actively engaged in psychological investi-
gation, and the members are widely scat-
tered, there were sixteen papers read, ex-
elusive of those presented in the absence of
their authors. Indeed, the only drawback
to the pleasure of the meeting was the fact
that the program was so crowded that there
was not sufficient time for discussion and
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 2.
social intercourse. The short intervals be-
tween the meetings were, however, pleas-
antly filled, owing to the hospitality of
President Patton and Professor Baldwin,
and the excellent accommodations of the
Princeton Inn.
The Association was welcomed to Prince-
ton by President Patton in a fitting address
in which he alluded to the importance of
such meetings, not only for the advance-
ment of science, but also for the cultivation
of inter-university friendliness, to the death
and life-work of President MeCosh, and to
the prominent place always given to philo-
sophy and psychology at Princeton.
The papers presented covered a wide
range of psychological topics. Experimen-
tal psychology proper was not so fully rep-
resented as in the Philadelphia and New
York meetings, owing to the detention of
several members, but all the communica-
tions were strictly scientific in method.
The first paper, Minor Studies and Appa-
ratus, by Professor Sanford, was, indeed, of
purely experimental character, coming from
Clark University, where President Hall has
given such a prominent place to experi-
mental psychology. Professor Sanford first
showed charts demonstrating that the reti-
nal fields for color are relatively smaller in
the case of children than in the case of
adults. In the second study he reported
experiments on the aceuracy with which an
observer can distinguish by different senses
which of two stimuli is first presented. A
flash of light is perceived relatively earlier
than a sound—contrary to results formerly
published by Exner. In a third study pri-
mary memory was investigated. Ina fourth
study questions were asked students con-
cerning the confusion of related ideas, for
example:—How do you distinguish your
right from your left hand? How do you call
up a forgotten name? How do you collect
the attention? What were your favorite
games when a child? What is the earliest
—"'%
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
thing you can remember and how old were
you? The distinction between motor and
sensory types and other psychological ques-
tions were discussed in connection with the
answers, and the method of securing mental
statistics by asking questions was criti-
eized. In conclusion, an instrument was
shown for presenting objects alternately to
each eye, and charts and photographs illus-
trating illusions of size, Listing’s Law
and the Horopter. These studies will be
published in the forthcoming number of the
American Journal of Psychology.
Professor Ormond, Professor Baldwin and
others took part in the discussion that fol-
lowed the reading of the paper. The dis-
cussion of the different papers was of nearly
as great interest as the papers themselves,
but to report it would carry us too far into
details.
The second paper was on The Psychie De-
velopment of Young Animals and its Physical
Correlation, by Professor T. Wesley Mills,
of McGill University. The speaker em-
phasized the importance of comparative and
genetic psychology —that is the study of
the mental life of the lower animals and of
children. He had observed the dog, cat,
rabbit, guinea-pig and birds. They were
watched from their birth, and notes were
made several times during the day. The
method was emphasized rather than the
results, which will be published later.
Following Professor Mills’ paper was one
On the Distribution of Exceptional Ability, by
Professor Cattell. The speaker explained
how he had selected the 1,900 most eminent
men by an objective method, and how this
enabled him to measure and express num-
erically their mental traits. Curves were
shown giving the time and racial distribu-
tion of great men. These demonstrate the
rise and fall of leading tendencies in the
past, and enable us, to a certain extent, to
predict the course of civilization in the
future.
SCIENCE. 43
Dr. A. Macdonald, of the Bureau of Edu-
cation, presented a report on Sensitiveness
to Pain. He exhibited the instrument used
and described his method for
ing sensitiveness to pain. Women are more
Sensitive than men in the ratio of 7:5.
Men taken from the street are not half so
sensitive to pain as professional men.
Americans are more sensitive than English-
men or Germans. The right-hand side of
the body is less sensitive than the left-hand
side. Some instruments for anthropometric
tests were also exhibited and described.
At the close of the morning session
Brother Chrysostom, of Manhattan College,
read a paper on Freedom of the Will. This
time-honored problem was discussed from
the point of view of St. Thomas Aquinas,
with due recognition of recent writers.
The Catholic Church certainly deserves
honor for finding or putting modern science
in the works of the great Schoolman.
The afternoon session was opened by the
longest and most carefully prepared paper
of the meeting, Consciousness of Identity and
So-Called Double Consciousness, by Professor
Ladd, of Yale University. Professor Ladd
began by defining identity in material
things and in minds. Changes heighten
rather than diminish the consciousness of
identity. A metaphysical ego is not needed
—minds vary in their unity and reality.
Double consciousness and hypnotic states
should be treated in their relations to nor-
mal mental life, as it is not likely that the
principle of continuity is violated in this
ease. Psychical automatism should be care-
fully studied—a man is not only that of
which he is conscious. We can consider
our automaton as well as our ego; one or
the other may be predominant; they may
be in conflict or act in coéperation. The
automaton is evident in our daily life—in
games, in dreams, in dramatic composition
and acting, in prophecy. Ethically con-
sidered, a man is usually two or three,
measur-
44
rather than one—hence the categorical im-
perative of Kant. The sanest minds are at
times divided into two or more selves, as
much as are the most extreme cases of hyp-
notice or pathological double-consciousness.
Prof. Ladd’s paper is included in his forth-
coming work on Psychology, in the press of
Charles Seribner’s Sons. It excited much
discussion and some criticism.
The remainder of the session was taken
up by a paper on A Preliminary Report and
Observations on a Research into the Psychology
of Imitation by Professor Royce, of Harvard
University. He began by noting the diffi-
culty of defining imitation from other men-
tal functions. He then described experi-
ments now in progress in the psychologi-
cal laboratory of Harvard University. An
observer listens to a rhythmic series of
taps which are later repeated or imitated
by movements. The record was taken ona
kymograph, and the impressions of the ob-
servers were noted and studied. The objec-
tive records have not been collated, but
Professor Royce reported the subjective
state as described by the observer, and its
variations with different rhythms. In fur-
ther discussion of the subject Professor
Royce considered different kinds of imita-
tion, and their relation to the rest of mental
life and to the physical organism. The
subject of imitation has recently become
* prominent and is evidently of the utmost
importance in social psychology—not only
the development of the child but also the
thoughts, feelings and actions of men de-
pend largely, if not chiefly, on imitation,
and our theoretical knowledge has impor-
tant practical applications.
The address of the President, Professor
James, of Harvard University, occupied
the evening session. The subject, The Unity
of Consciousness, was treated with the speak-
er’s unvarying clearness and literary skill.
Professor James once said that meta-
physics in a natural science ‘spoils two
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 2.
good things,’ but no natural science, be it
physics or psychology, can draw a sharp
line between its facts and its philosophy.
It is also worth noting that what the phy-
sicist considers part of his science may be
regarded as metaphysics by the psycholo-
gist, and conversely. The question of the
unity of consciousness is, perhaps, as much
a part of scientific psychology as the doc-
trine of the conservation of enery is a part
of the science of physics. . Professor James’
address was largely made up of a review of
the various theories proposed to account for
the principle of union in the mind when
many objects, susceptible upon occasion of
being known separately, are brought to-
gether in the mind and known all at once.
The Associationists say that the ‘ideas’
of several objects ‘combine.’ The Anti-
Associationists say that such a process of
selfcompounding of ideas is incomprehen-
sible, and that they must be combined by a
higher synthetic principle, the Soul, the
Keo, or what not. The speaker expressed
dissatisfaction with the both these views.
He said that his own aversion to the doc-
trine of the ‘Soul’ rested on an ancient
prejudice, of which he could give no fully
satisfactory account to himself, and he com-
plimented Professor Ladd, of Yale, for his
continued loyalty to this unpopular princi-
ple. Even Professor Ladd in his book pre-
fers to speak of ‘Soul’ by some paraphrase
such as ‘real spiritual being.’ Within the
bounds of the psychological professor the
‘Soul’ is not popular to-day. Professor
James conceived his problem as that of how
we can ‘know things together,’ and in the
first half of his address he incidentally said
a good deal about knowledge. To the pop-
ular mind all knowledge involves a sort of
mutual presence or absence as regards the
object and the mind, which is treated as
very mysterious. Professor James expelled
this mystery from most cases of knowledge.
He found the mystery of presence or ab-
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
sence, however, to abide in one little fact,
from which it cannot be driven, and that is
the very smallest pulse of consciousness,
which always is consciousness of change.
The present moment is no fact of experience;
it is only a mathematical postulate, and the
minimum real experience gives us a passing
moment, in which a going and a coming
fact meet on equal terms, and what was is
known in one indivisible act with what
does not quite yet exist. This is the origi-
nal type both of our knowing at all and of
knowing of things together, according to the
speaker. He said there was no use trying
to explain it, for it was the fundamental
element of all experience. But we might
seek to determine the exact conditions that
decide what particular objects should be
known together, and to this inquiry the end
of the address was devoted. Various phys-
iological, psychological and purely spiritual
theories of the conditions were reviewed,
without the speaker saying which one he
favored. He hoped, however, that his re-
marks might stimulate inquiry which should
bear fruit at the meeting next year. He
closed with a modification of one of the
most important doctrines of his own book
on psychology, which in that state of mind,
subjectively considered, ought not to be
ealled complex at all. He admitted them
to be complex, but is as far as ever from al-
lowing the complexity to be described in
the usually accepted way of the Associa-
tional school. The address will be printed
in full in the March number of The Psycho-
logical Review.
The morning session of the second day
was taken’ up by five papers on pleasure,
pain and the emotions, and in the afternoon
when the papers of the program had been
read, the discussion returned to this subject
and was carried on with much eagerness to
the moment of adjournment. The papers
were The Classification of Pleasure and Pain,
By Prof. Charles A. Strong, of the University
SCIENCE.
45
of Chicago; A Theory of Emotions from the
Physiological Standpoint, by Prof. G. H.
Mead, of the University of Chicago ; De-
sire, by Dr. D. S. Miller, of Bryn Mawr
College; Pleasure and Pain Defined, by
Prof. 8. E. Mezes, of the University of
Texas; Pleaswre-Pain
Mr. H. R. Marshall.
It would not be easy to give an abstract
of these papers that would be intelligible to
men of science working in other depart-
ments—indeed, the mose careful attention
was demanded of the audience. The kind
of psychology presented is a development of
descriptive psychology which may be called
analytic psychology—a subject best repre-
sented in English by Dr. Ward’s able but
difficult article on Psychology, in the Encyclo-
peedia Britannica. The question of the emo-
tions and their expression has recently be-
come prominent in psychological discussion
—witness the articles on the subject by
Professors James, Baldwin and Dewey in
the last three numbers of the Psychological
Review. Professor James’ original the-
ory that the mental state is rather the re-
sult of the ‘expression’ than that the ex-
pression is caused by the mental state is
pretty well made out. The theory, to put
the matter most bluntly, says that, ‘‘ we
feel sorry because we cry, angry because
we strike, afraid because we tremble, and
not that we ery, strike or tremble, because
we are sorry, angry or fearful, as the case
may be.’ Darwin’s work, for example,
should not be called The Expression of the
Emotions. The movements are not caused
by the emotions, but are aroused reflexly by
the object, and are or have been useful.
Thus the animal in the presence of its
enemy may feign death or run away as will
best contribute to its chances of escape, and
aman may be ‘ paralyzed’ by fear or flee
A man sneers
versus Emotion, by
according to circumstances.
because his ancestors were preparing to
The emotion results from
bite. mental
46
movements and other changes in the body,
being largely due to altered blood supply
and the like.
Professor Strong’s paper treated especi-
ally the classification of pains, reviewing
the evidence in favor of special nerves for
pain and the distinction between pain and
distress (the German Schmertz and Un-
lust). Mr. Mead emphasized the impor-
tance of vaso-motor changes for pleasure
and pain, attributing pleasure to increased
blood supply and assimilation. Dr. Miller
argued that desire is the essence of pleas-
ure, and Mr. Marshall discussed the rela-
tions of pain, pleasure and emotion. It is
interesting to note how even descriptive and
analytic psychology is influenced by a
psycho-physical point of view. Professor
James aptly concluded the discussion by
saying that such papers make us feel that
we are in ‘the place where psychology is
being made.’
At the opening of the fifth and concluding
session Professor Newbold read a paper
entitled Notes on the Experimental Production
of Illusions and Hallucinations. He reported
that in twenty-two cases out of eighty-six
tried, he had. produced illusions by causing
the patient to gaze into a transparent or
reflecting medium, such as water, objects of
glass and mirrors. The phantasm usually
appeared within five minutes, was preceded
by cloudiness, colors or illumination of the
medium, and varied from a dim outline to
a brilliantly colored picture. These were
often drawn from the patient’s recent visual
experience, but were often unrecognized and
sometimes fantastic. Successive images
were usually related, if at all, by similarity,
but often no relation was discoverable.
The image was often destroyed by move-
ments of the medium and by distracting
sensory impressions and motor effort. The
speaker was not inclined to regard the
phantasms of the glass as demonstrating the
existence of subconscious visual automa-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 2.
tisms, but rather as illusions of the reco-
gnized types. But he was not prepared to
deny that visual automatism might in some
cases exist and be traced in such phantasms.
Mr. Griffing, of Columbia College, de-
seribed Experiments on Dermal Pain. The
pressure just causing pain (in kg) was for
boys 4.8, for college students 5.1, for law
students 7.8, for women 3.6. Experiments
were also described giving the relations of
area and duration and of velocity and mass
for the pain threshold. These latter ex-
periments are of special interest as determin-
ing the correlation of quantities followed
by a given mental result.
The third paper of the session and last of
the meeting was on Recent Advances in the
Chemistry and Physiology of the Retina, by Mrs.
Franklin, of Baltimore, who gave an ac-
count of the recent experiments by Professor
Kénig on the absorption spectrum of the
visual purple of the retina, and of her own
experiments which demonstrated that the
fovea is color-blind for blue. The recent
experiments on vision, largely carried out
in the laboratories of Berlin, are of great
importance, and make all the older theories
of color-vision inadequate. The theory
proposed by Mrs. Franklin is undoubtedly
more satisfactory than any other, but even
her theory meets difficulties in these new
facts.
At the business meeting of the Associa-
tion Professor Cattell (Columbia) was el-
ected President, and Professor Sanford
(Clark), Secretary. Several new members
were elected and a new constitution was
adopted. Under this constitution a coun-
cil of six members is prescribed, and Pro-
fessors Ladd (Yale), Cattell (Columbia),
James (Harvard), Baldwin (Princeton),
Dewey (Chicago), and Fullerton (Pennsyl-
vania) were elected. Probably the most
important business before the meeting was
the invitation of the American Society of
Naturalists offering affiliation. It was de-
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
decided to meet next year, if possible, at the
same time and place as the Naturalists,
and the Council was given power to decide
the question of a closer affiliation.
J. McKeen Carrett,
Secretary for 1894.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE.
CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY, NEW
SERIES—I.
THE ‘ MISSING LINK’ FOUND AT LAST.
No publication of late date is likely to
excite more interest than a quarto of forty
pages which has just been issued from the
local press of Batavia, with the title, ‘Pithe-
canthropus Erectus. Eine Menscheniinliche
Uebergangsform aus Java. Yon Eug. Dubois,
Militararzt der Niederland. Armee.’
This noteworthy essay contains the de-
tailed description of three fragments of three
skeletons which have been found in the
early pleistocene strata of Java, and which
introduce to us a new species, which is also
a new genus and a new family, of the order
of primates, placed between the Simiide and
Hominide,—in other words, apparently sup-
plying the ‘ missing link’ between man and
the higher apes which has so long and so
anxiously been awaited.
The material is sufficient for a close oste-
ological comparison. The cubical capacity
of the skull is about two-thirds that of
the human average. It is distinctly doli-
chocepalic, about 70°—and its norma verti-
calis astonishingly like that of the famous
Neanderthal skull. The dental apparatus is
still of the simian type, but less markedly
so than in other apes. The femora are sin-
gularly human. They prove beyond doubt
that this creature walked constantly on two
legs, and when erect was quite equal in
height to the average human male. Of
the various differences which separate it
from the highest apes and the lowest men,
it may be said that they bring it closer to
the latter than to the former.
SCIENCE. 47
One of the bearings of this discovery is
upon the original birth-place of the human
race. The author believes that the steps in
the immediate genealogy of our species were
these: Prothylobates :
ensis: Pithecanthropus erectus: and Homo sa-
piens. This series takes us to the Indian
faunal province and to the southern aspects
of the great Himalayan chain, as the region
Anthropopithecus Sival-
somewhere in which our specific division
of the great organie chain first came into
being.
THE ANALOGIES OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLISM.
A LEARNED Hungarian lady, Madame
Sofie von Torma, has lately published an
interesting little work, a prologue to a large
one, in which she points out a number of
close analogies or even identities between
the symbols and myths of primitive peoples.
Its title ‘ Ethnagraphische Analogieen; ein
Beitrag zur Gestaltungs und Entwicklungsge-
schichte der Religionen’ (Jena, 1894).
Beginning with the study of local archie-
ology, she soon found that the analysis of
her home relics took her back to ancient
Arcadian and Egyptian prototypes, and the
question arose, In what way were they re-
lated? To this it is her intention to devote
an extended research; and in the volume be-
fore us, she states with force and brevity the
many remarkable similarities she has noted,
and presents the inquiries to which they
give rise. The text is accompanied with
127 illustrations.
ETHNIC AFFILIATIONS OF THE JAPANESE.
Arter a great deal of rambling discussion
as to the ethnic relationship of the Japanese,
it is gratifying to find a writer who has
touched bottom at last, and brings a satis-
factory theory with plenty of good evidence
to support it. The writer is Dr. Heinrich
Winkler, who, in his little pamphlet, Ja-
paner und Altaier (Berlin, 1894), offers a
solution of the problem which is certainly
bound to stand.
48
He has studied the Japanese both from
the anthropometric and the linguistic side.
He points out that they present many and
positive physical differences from the
Chinese type, and can not be classed as a
Sinitie people. On the other hand, the
measurements bring them into close paral-
lellism with the northern Ural-Altaic peo-
ples, to that group which includes the
Samoyeds, the Finns, the Magyars and, in
a less degree, the Tungoose. This affiliation
is strikingly supported by a careful com-
parison of languages. There is not a
marked morphological trait of the Japanese
tongue which is not also found in this
Sibiric group. Dr. Winkler rehearses them
with brevity and force. What is more, in
the opinion of some, the material portion of
the language, its vocabulary and radicals,
present so many identities with this Ural-
Altaic group that their primitive oneness
must be conceded.
This, however, is not to be understood as
if the Japanese was the Altaic Ursprache ;
but only as one of the children of a common
mother, each of which has pursued inde-
pendent lines of development, though al-
ways retaining the family characteristics.
D. G. Brinton.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
HYGIENE.
THE NEW SERUM TREATMENT FOR DIPHTHERIA.
By cultivating the specifie bacillus of
diphtheria in broth, there is developed in
the liquid a peculiar product, which is
known as the toxine of this bacillus. When
an extensive growth of the bacillus has oc-
eurred, so that a considerable quantity of
this toxine is developed, the fiuid is filtered
through a porcelain filter, which permits
the soluble toxine to pass through, but re-
tains the bacilli.
If this filtered fluid is sufficiently strong,
yo Of a cubic centimeter of it will kill a
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 2.
guinea pig weighing 500 grammes, in from
48 to 60 hours. The effect produced is in
proportion to the quantity injected, just as
for any chemical poison, differing in this
respect from the action of a fluid contaiming
the bacilli themselves, which might mul-
tiply in the body. The bacilli in the fluid
might be killed by heating, but this would
also decompose the toxine ; hence the sepa-
ration is effected by simple filtration, or by
the addition of some substance like tricresol
which will kill the bacilli without affecting
the toxine.
If small quantities of this toxine be in-
jected under the skin of an animal, com-
mencing with a dose which is not fatal and
eradually increasing it, the animal gradu-
ally becomes immune to the effects of the
poison and after several successive imjec-
tions can receive a very strong dose without
injury. The blood serum of an animal thus
rendered immune against diphtheria has
the power to confer a similar immunity on
other animals if given in sufficient quantity
in one dose, thus doing away with the need
for the repeated and carefully graduated
injections required to produce immunity in
the first animal.
To obtain such an anti-diphtheritic serum
to be used on man, a horse is injected with
the solution of toxine, commencing with
from 2 to 5 cubic centimeters and increasing
the dose at intervals until within three
months as much as 250 cubic centimeters
may be injected without producing any se-
rious effect. The horse is more resistant
than many other animals to the action of
the diphtheritie poison, being naturally
somewhat immune. The blood serum of the
horse produces no harmful effects on man,
if injected in small doses, and it can readily
be obtained in considerable quantities with-
out killing the animal.
This serum, taken from a horse which
has thus been rendered immune, will not
only produce a temporary immunity in man
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
against the diphtheritie poison, but will
antagonize the effects of the diphtheritic
poison after this has been already intro-
duced into the system, in other words, it
may be employed as a curative agent in
cases of diphtheria. The immunity which
it produces is a temporary one only, lasting
from ten days to three weeks. Its curative
effect in cases of the disease depends, to a
considerable extent, upon its use in the early
stages before the system has been saturated
with the poison.
We have not yet sufficient data to speak
positively of the value of this anti-diph-
theritie serum as a means of treatment
of the disease as compared with certain
other methods of treatment, especially in
the early stages, but the evidence thus
far collected seems to indicate that such
serum obtained in the proper manner, and
used with proper precautions in the hands
of experts, is a valuable addition to our
means of combatting this terrible malady.
The serum can only be properly prepared
and tested by a skilled bacteriologist. It
must be sufficiently strong in its immuniz-
ing power, and at the same time must con-
tain no living pathogenetic germs of any
kind. Itmustalso have been comparatively
recently obtained from the living animal,
for it gradually loses its specific anti-diph-
theritic powers. Special antiseptic precau-
tions are also necessary in injecting the
serum under the skin in the human sub-
ject to prevent the entrance of noxious
germs.
One of the most useful points in applying
the anti-diphtheritic serum to practical use
isto have the cases diagnosed at the earliest
possible date, and this can only be done by
a skilled bacteriologist. In New York,
Boston, and some other cities, means are
now provided by which practicing physicians
can have such diagnoses promptly made,
and if the case of diphtheria can be seen by
a physician in its earlier stages, it is possible
SCIENCE.
49
to treat it with great hope of success by
means of local applications to the throat
of certain substances which will quickly
destroy the bacillus, and prevent the further
production of its peculiar toxine; for ex-
ample, a solution of tri-cresol of the strength
of one per cent. will usually effect this with-
out producing undue irritation or causing
any injury to the patient. Those who
advocate the use of the immunizing serum
say little about the local treatment, but
this last is if anything the more important
of the two, for the serum does not kill the
bacilli which are on the surface of the
mucous membrane of the throat, and there-
fore does not prevent a person rendered im-
mune by it from being the means of spread-
ing contagion.
OYSTERS AS A MEANS OF TRANSMITTING
TYPHOID FEVER.
TuE Medical Record of December 15, 1894,
contains a paper by Professor H. W. Conn
upon an outbreak of typhoid at Wesleyan
University in October and November last,
which included about twenty-six cases.
When the serious character of the outbreak
was recognized, an investigation as to causes
was begun. The water supply was tested,
and the house plumbing was examined
without result. It was found that the dis-
ease was almost entirely limited to the
members of three fraternities. The period
of incubation of typhoid—that is, the time
which elapses between the taking of typhoid
bacillus into the body and the definite mani-
festation of the disease—is usually from ten
to fourteen days, but may range from seven
to twenty-eight days. The first cases of
the fever among the students appeared
October 20th, and suspicion soon fell upon
the fraternity suppers of October 12th.
Careful examination of the food supplied at
these suppers showed that raw oysters, ob-
tained by each of the three fraternities from
the same oyster dealer, were the only things
50
which were peculiar to their suppers, and
inquiry was at once directed to these oysters,
It was found that they had been obtained
from the deep water of Long Island Sound
and had been deposited in the mouth of a
fresh water creek to freshen, or to ‘ fatten,’
as it is termed, since under such circum-
stances the oyster absorbs the fresh water
by osmosis and therefore swells and becomes
plump. Further inquiry showed that,
within about three hundred feet of the
place where the oysters had been deposited,
was the outlet of a private sewer coming
from a house in which were two cases of
typhoid fever at the time when the oysters
were taken up and sent to the University.
The typhoid bacillus will live for a time
in salt or brackish water, and it was proved
by trial that if such bacilli are forced in be-
tween the two valves of the shell they re-
mained alive long enough to enable the
oysters to be carried and used at the fra-
ternity suppers. Whether the bacillus will
grow and multiply in living or dead oysters
has not yet been determined, but experi-
ments on this point are in progress.
It will be seen that the evidence that the
outbreak of typhoid was produced by these
oysters is purely circumstantial, but the
links in the chain are well connected and
strong.
It is by no means certain that there were
any typhoid germs within the oysters or
the oyster shells when they were sent to
Middletown. If the shells were smeared
on the outside with typhoid exereta some
particles of this might easily have gotten
among the oysters during the process of
opening them. But it is evident that oys-
ters grown or fattened in positions where
sewage may come in contact with them are
dangerous if eaten raw.
THE EVOLUTION OF INVENTION.
Iy a recent study that I have made on
the evolution of invention I have divided
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 2:
the changings which underlie all examples
of the process into those—
1. Of the thing or process, commonly
called inventions.
2. Of the apparatus and methods used.
3. Of the rewards to the inventor.
4. Of the intellectual activities involved.
5. Of society.
Each one of these has undergone an eyo-
lution or elaboration, from monorganism to
polyorganism, from simplicity to complexity,
from individualism to codperation, from use
to comfort,and soon. This statement needs
no extended proof; the roller mill is the de-
scendant of the metals, machinery springs
from tools, the device beneficial only to its
originator becomes, the world-embracing
and world-blessing invention; the happy
thought of one person at last comes to be
the beneficent result of an endowed and
perennial codperation, a perpetual reposi-
tory of invention renewed constantly by
the removal of the senescent and the intro-
duction of new and trained minds as in a
university. 3
Now it requires great patience to get to-
gether the material evidence of this unfold-
ing or evolution. The mental processes are
no longer in sight. The nearest approach
to them are the makeshifts of savages, and
their minds are almost a sealed book. It
has therefore occurred to the writer that
among the questions proposed to those who
are collating information relating to the
psychic growth of children there should be
a short series respecting the unfolding of the
inventive faculty or process, the finding out
originally how to overcome new difficulties
or surmounting old ones in new ways.
O. T. Mason.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Popular Lectures and Addresses—Vol. IL,
Geology and General Physics—Lorp K=EL-
vin.—Macemillan & Co., New York and
London. Pp. 599. Price $2.00.
——
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
It is characteristic of the work of a really
great genius, either in Science, Literature
or Art, that it is not displaced and cannot
be displaced by that which may come
after it.
A bit of scientific work may later be
found to be erroneous as to data, and, there-
fore, in the wrong as to conclusions, but if
it be the work of an aggressive, original
thinker, it will always have great value-
In the brilliant galaxy of physicists, or, as
he would himself call them, natural philos-
ophers, which the present century has pro-
duced, it is moderation to say that none
outshines Lord Kelvin, and it will not be
denied that none has equalled him in ag-
gressiveness and originality. The range of
subjects upon which he has touched during
his long and active life is so extensive as to
certainly justify the use of the term Natural
Philosopher in its broader sense (and cap-
italized at that), for he has never touched a
department of human knowledge without
leaving it richer and more extensive for his
contact with it. That he has not been in-
variably infallible is recognized by no one
more fully than by himself, and the new
editions of his earlier papers which have
been issuing from the press at intervals dur-
ing the past few years, bear most interest-
ing evidence of his readiness to change his
attitude on great questions whenever the
verdict of later investigations is against him.
It is delightful to note the occasional par-
enthetical ‘ not’ put to-day into a sentence
which twenty years ago declared very pos-
itively that ‘there is’ so and so, or, ‘we
can,’ ete., completely reversing the mean-
ing of statements which were once made
with a good degree of confidence. What-
ever else may be said, it cannot be asserted
that Lord Kelvin has ever lacked the cour-
age to express his own views in most forci-
ble and unmistakable language. Indeed, in
this respect, especially, he has set a splendid
standard of unswerving scientific honesty
SCIENCE. 5]
for the innumerable workers who have been,
and will be, more or less influenced by his
methods and their tremendous product-
iveness.
His views as to the proper attitude of the
philosopher in his relations to unexplored
regions of human experience are concisely
expressed in this noble sentence from his
Presidential Address before the British As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science, in
1871 : “Science is bound by the everlasting
law of honor to face fearlessly every prob-
lem which can fairly be presented to it.’’
When he comes, however, to touch upon
some problems which have long been of
great interest to the human race, but which
have been assumed, usually, to lie outside
the domain of experimental or exact science
(and he touches upon them not infrequently
in the volume under consideration), it is not
difficult to see a very decided bias towards
certain views, and a promptness to accept
propositions not always well supported by
evidence, very greatly in contrast with
what is found in more vigorously scientific
discussion.
This series of popular lectures and ad-
dresses is published in three volumes, the
first and third having already appeared.
The second (issued later than the third),
to which attention is now invited, contains
the important addresses on geological phys-
ies which have attracted so much attention
during the past quarter of a century, to-
gether with a number of lectures and short
papers on subjects related to general physics
and extracts from addresses as president of
the Royal Society since 1890. The geologi-
cal papers are of great interest and have
had much to do with the moulding of the
views of geologists as to Dynamical Geology.
The series begins with a short note covering
but a single octavo page, entitled, ‘ The
Doctrine of Uniformity in Geology Briefly
Refuted,’ read at Edinburgh in 1865. It
fairly ‘opens the ball,’ and may be regard-
52
ed as the key note to the more elaborate dis-
quisitions which followed at intervals up to
recent dates. These papers are so well
known, or ought to be so well known, to all
geologists as to make it only necessary to
say here that they will be found collected
in this volume in convenient form and with
a few notes and occasional comments by the
distinguished author, made while the collec-
tion was being prepared for the press. The
most important of the earlier papers are the
address ‘On Geological Time,’ given in Glas-
gow, early in 1868, and that on ‘Geological
Dynamics’ at the same place about a year
later. In the first of these will be found
the somewhat severe strictures upon ‘British
Popular Geology’ which brought forth the
interesting and pointed criticisms of Huxley
in his address to the Geological Society of
London, and in the second the replies to
Huxley’s criticisms and futher remarks upon
the subject. Nearly ten years later came a
“Review of the Evidence Regarding the Physical
Condition of the Earth,’ read at the British As-
sociation meeting at Glasgow; two papers
read before the Geological Society of Glas-
gow, on ‘Geological Climate,’ and on the ‘In-
ternal Condition of the Earth;’ and after the
lapse of another ten years a paper before the
same society on ‘Polar Ice Caps and their In-
fluence in Changing Sea Levels.’ In these
much of the ground of the earlier addresses
is again gone over, in the light of later dis-
covery in geology, physics and astronomy.
Indeed these same topics recur again and
again, sometimes incidentally in other ad-
dresses in the volume, and Lord Kelvin
makes it entirely clear that in thus taking
up the discussion of geological problems
and applying to them the methods and
data of physics and astronomy, he does not
wish to be considered an interloper. In
his reply to Huxley, who had rather point-
edly intimated that view of the situation,
he good-naturedly remarks: “ For myself
I am anxious to be regarded by geologists,
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 2.
not as a mere passer-by, but as one con-
stantly interested in their grand subject,
and anxious in any way, however slight, to
assist them in their search for truth.”
It seems difficult to over-estimate the im-
portance of these geological addresses, not
only to the geologist, but to the physicist as
well. They not only have a general interest
to both, but are of special importance to
each. ‘To the one they open new possibili-
ties of a somewhat exact and satisfactory
treatment of a most important but hitherto
rather unmanageable department of his sub-
ject; and to the other they offer a most in-
structive illustration of the power and scope
of the methods of exact science, when ap-
plied by one who may justly be called not a
master, but the master.
Of the other addresses, none, of course, is
more important or interesting than the
British Association Presidential Address of
1871, so well known to all. One of the
earliest, on ‘The Rate of a Clock or Ohrono-
meter as Influenced by the Mode of Suspension,’
is most entertaining and suggestive as an ex-
ample of the many ‘side-lights’ of a re-
markable intellectual activity. Of great
historical value is the Royal Institution lec-
ture of 1856 on the ‘Origin and Transforma-
tion of Motive Power’—already republished in
Volume II. of the ‘Mathematical and Physical
Papers ;’ and one of the most interesting is
that of late date (1892) on the ‘Dissipation
of Energy.’ In this much attention is given
to the principle of Carnot, and here also oe-
curs a remarkable statement which the au-
thor himself has thought worth while to
print in italics ;—it is :—‘‘ The fortuitous con-
course of atoms is the sole foundation in Philoso-
phy on which can be founded the doctrine that tt
as impossible to derive mechanical effect from heat
otherwise than by taking heat from a body at a
higher temperature, converting at most a definite
proportion of it into mechanical effect, and giving
out the whole residue to matter at a lower tem-
perature.”
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
The address on the opening of the Bangor
Laboratories will be of interest to all who
have to do with their like ; that on the occa-
sion of the unveiling of Joule’s statue will
interest everybody who cares for or who
knows of the greatest generalization of
modern science. In short, every page of
this volume is deserving of the careful
perusal of all who are devoted to Natural
Philosophy in its most comprehensive sense,
and who wish to know something of the
spirit of one whose splendid contributions
to physical science are, as a whole, greater
than those of any other philosopher of the
present time.
The mechanical execution of the book
does not seem to be quite in keeping with
the classical character of its contents, and
its pages are occasionally marred by negli-
gent proof reading. T.C. MENDENHALL.
WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE.
Laws of Temperature Control of the Geographic
Distribution of Life.
In the December isste of the National
Geographic Magazine, Dr. C. Hart Merriam
announces the discovery of the laws of
temperature control of the geographic dis-
tribution of terrestrial animals and plants.
Dr. Merriam has been engaged on this
problem for sixteen years and believes he
has at last obtained a formula which ful-
fills the requirements. He states that in
the Northern Hemisphere animals and
plants are distributed in cireumpolar belts,
the boundaries of which follow lines of
equal temperature rather than parallels of
latitude. Between the pole and the equator
there are three primary belts or regions—
Boreal, Austral and Tropical. In the
United States the Boreal and Austral have
each been split into three secondary trans-
continental zones, of which the Boreal are
known as the Arctic, Hudsonian and Cana-
dian; and the Austral as the Transition,
Upper Austral and Lower Austral.
SCIENCE.
53
The temperature data computed and
plotted on maps as isotherms are not avail-
able in locating the boundaries of the zones,
because they show the temperature of arbi-
trary periods—periods that have reference
to a particular time of year rather than a
particular degree or quantity of heat.
It is assumed that the distribution of
animals and plants is governed by the
temperature of the season of growth and
reproductive activity—not by that of the
entire year. The difficulty is to measure
the temperature concerned.
Physiological botanists have long main-
tained that “the various events in the life
of plants, as leafing, flowering and matur-
ing of fruit, take place when the plant has
been exposed to a definite quantity of heat,
which quantity is the sum total of the daily
temperatures above a minimum assumed
to be necessary for functional activity.”’
The minimum used by early botanists was
the freezing point (0° C or 32° F), but re-
cent writers believe that 6° C or 42.8° F
more correctly expresses the temperature of
the awakening of plant life in spring. ‘‘ The
substance of the theory is that the same stage
of vegetation is attained in any year when the
sum of the mean daily temperatures reaches the
same value, which value or total is essentially
the same for the same plant in all localities.
This implies that the period necessary for
the accomplishment of a definite physio-
logical act, blossoming, for instance, may be
short or long, according to local climatic
peculiarities, but the total quantity of heat
must be the same. The total amount of
heat necessary to advance a plant to a given
stage came to be known as the physiological
constant of that stage.’”? But students of
geographic distribution are not concerned
with the physiological constant of any stage
or period in the life of an organism, but
with the physiological constant of the species it-
self—if such a term may be used. “If it
is true that the same stage of vegetation is
54
attained in different years when the sum of
the mean daily temperatures reaches the
same value, it is obvious that the physio-
logical constant of a species must be the
total quantity of heat or sum of positive tempera-
tures required by that species to complete its cycle
of development and reproduction.” Now, ‘if
the computation can be transferred from the
species to the zone it inhabits—if a zone
constant can be substituted for a species con-
stant—the problem will be well nigh solved.”’
This Dr. Merriam has attempted to do.
“In conformity with the usage of botanists,
a minimum temperature of 6°C (48°F)
has been assumed as marking the inception
of the period of physiological activity in
plants and of reproductive activity in ani-
mals. The effective temperatures or degrees
of normal mean daily heat in excess of this
minimum have been added together for
each station, beginning when the normal
mean daily temperature rises higher than
6°C in spring and continuing until it falls
to the same point at the end of the season.”
The sums thus obtained were plotted on a
large scale map of the United States, and
isotherms were run which were found to
conform to the northern boundaries of the
several zones. This is shown by colored
maps. The data seem to justify the state-
ment that “animals and plants are restricted
in northward distribution by the total quantity
of heat during the season of growth and repro-
ductive activity.”
In the case of the southern boundaries of
the zones, it was assumed that animals
and plants in ranging southward would en-
counter, sooner or later, a degree of mean
summer heat they are unable to endure.
“The difficulty is in ascertaining the length
of the period whose mean temperature acts
as a barrier. It must be short enough to
be included within the hottest part of the
summer in high northern latitudes, and
would naturally increase in length from the
north southward. For experimental pur-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No: 2:
poses, and without attempting unnecessary
refinement, the mean normal temperature
of the six hottest consecutive weeks of sum-
mer was arbitrarily chosen and plotted on
a large contour map of the United States,
as in the case of the total quantity of
heat.”
On comparing this map with the zone
map, the isotherms of 18°, 22° and 26°C
were found to conform respectively to the
southern boundaries of the Boreal, Transi-
tion and Upper Austral zones, leading to
the belief that “animals and plants are re-
stricted in southward distribution by the mean
temperature of a brief period covering the hottest
part of the year.”
Except in a few localities the northern
boundary of Austral species coincides with
the southern boundary of Boreal species,
but for a distance of more than a thousand
miles along the Pacific coast a curious over-
lapping and intermingling of northern and
southern types occurs. On looking at the
temperature maps this is at once explained,
for the mean temperature of the six hottest
consecutive weeks from about lat. 35° north-
ward to Puget Sound is truly Boreal, being
as low as the mean of the corresponding
period in northern Maine and other points
well within the Boreal zone. On the other
hand, the total quantity of heat is found to
be the same as that required by Austral
species. ‘It is evident, therefore, that the
principal climatic factors that permit Boreal
and Austral types to live together along the
Pacific coast are a low summer tempera
ture combined with a high sum total of
heat.”
A table is given showing the actual goy-
erning temperatures, so far as known, of the
northern and southern boundaries of the
several zones.
In conclusion, Dr. Merriam calls attention
to the subordinate value of humidity as
compared with temperature. ‘ Humidity
and other secondary causes determine the
JANUARY 11, 1895.]
presence or absence of particular species in
particular localities within their appropriate
zones, but temperature predetermines the
possibilities of distribution; it fixes the
limits beyond which species cannot pass ; it
defines broad transcontinental belts within
which certain forms may thrive if other
conditions permit, but outside of which they
eannot exist, be the other conditions never
so favorable.”’
Grasses of Tennessee—Part II—F. Lamson-
ScrisNeR.—University of Tennessee,
Agric. Exper. Sta. Bull., VII. 1-141, 187
figures. 1894.
The first part of this important work treat-
ing of the structure of grasses in general,
issued two years ago, is now supplemented
by the part here noticed, containing descrip-
tions and figures of all species known by the
author to inhabit Tennessee. Carefully pre-
pared keys to the genera and species are a
feature of the book. The cuts are good, al-
though printed on paper hardly firm enough
to bring them out to the best advantage.
The descriptions are diagnostic and couched
in strictly technical language ; on this point
it isremarked: ‘‘ Attempts to avoid tech-
nical or ‘ hard’ words often result in obscur-
ing the meaning of the author, and an undue
simplicity of expression is often apt to be
offensive by implying a lack of intelligence
on the part of the reader.”’ As the book is
intended primarily for the farmers of the
State, this may be considered by some as a
position of doubtful value.
It is to be regretted that the rules of no-
menclature adopted by the botanists of the
American Association for the Advancement
of Science, which are practically those ap-
proved by the zodlogists, have not been
strictly followed. This will seriously ham-
per the usefulness of the book, for some of
the names used by Prof. Seribner have be-
come obsolete. .
Nadu: B:
SCIENCE. 5
Or
NOTES.
PHYSICS.
THE newly discovered gas is to be the
subject of a discussion at a meeting of the
Royal Society on January 31st, when Lord
Rayleigh and Prof. Ramsay will present
their paper. This will be the first meeting
under a resolution of the Council of the
Society passed last session, whereby certain
meetings, not more than four in number,
are to be devoted every year each to the
hearing and consideration of some one im-
portant communication, or to the discussion
of some important topic.—Nature.
PERSONAL.
Tue University of Berlin is seriously
crippled by the deaths of Helmholtz and
Kundt. Their places cannot be filled, but
Prof. Kohlrausch will probably be called
to one of the vacant chairs.
Tue Physical Review has published excel-
lent portraits of Helmholtz, Kundt and
Hertz, with biographical sketches by the
editor-in-chief, Professor Nichols. Proba-
bly the best account so far published in
English of the work of Helmholtz is that
contributed to the Psychological Review for
January by Professor Stumpf, of the Uni-
versity of Berlin.
Mr. F. Y. Powell, of Christ’s College,
succeeds Froude in the Regius Professor-
ship of Modern History at Oxford.
ZOOLOGY.
A PicrurE-PuzzLE of a remarkable kind
appears in the Zoilogist for December. It
is a reproduction of two photographs of a
Little Bittern, showing the strange atti-
tude assumed by the bird to favor its con-
cealment. One of the figures shows the
the bird standing in a reed-bed, erect, with
neck stretched out and beak pointing up-
wards; and in this position it is difficult
to distinguish the bird at all from the
56
reeds. The eye is deceived in a similar
manner when the bird is crouching against
a tree-stump at the river side. Mr. J. E.
Harting thinks that the curious attitudes
adopted by the bird, on finding itself ob-
served, are assumed in the exercise of the
instinet of self-preservation. He mentions
a similar habit, observed and described by
Mr. W. H. Hudson, in the ease of South
American Little Heron, which frequents
the borders of the La Plata, and is occa-
sionally found in the reed-beds scattered
over the pampas. Without the aid of dogs
it was found impossible to secure any spec-
imens of this bird, even after making the
spot where one had alighted.—WNature.
NEW PUBLICATIONS.
Astronomy and Astro-Physics will hereafter
be called the Astrophysical Journal and will be
published from the University of Chicago,
under the editorship of Profs. Payne and
Keeler and a board of the leading men of
science in this department.
A monthly Magazine of Travel, somewhat
practical and popular in character, will
hereafter be published from 10 Astor Place,
New York.
The Aeronautical Annual for 1895, soon to
be published by W. B. Clarke & Co., Bos-
ton, will contain reprints of some early
treatises on aeronautics, among them da
Vinei’s Treatise on the Flight of Birds, Sir
George Gayley’s Aerial Navigation (1809),
A Treatise upon the Art of Flying, by Thomas
Walker (1810), and Franklin’s aeronauti-
cal correspondence.— Critic.
P. Blakiston, Son & Co. announce The
Dynamies of Life, by William R. Gowers,
M. D., of London.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES:
THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
DECEMBER 31, 1894.
Dr. Hatsrep, President, in the chair.
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Vout. I. No. 2.
James E. Toomeson ; Address.
Davin Cerna; The phonetic arithmetic of
the ancient Mexicans. A
Wruram Keitier ; Descriptive anatomy of —
the heart.
Tuomas Fravin; Developmental anatomy
and pathology of the kidneys.
Tuomas U. Taytor; Present need of engi-
neering education in the South.
Rosert A. THomeson ; The storm-water stor-
age system of wrigation.
T. H. Bryant, Acting Secretary.
NEW BOOKS.
Progress in Flying Machines. O. CHANUTE.
New York, The American Engineer and
Railroad Journal. 1894. Pp. iv+308.
Lectures on the Darwinian Theory. A. M.
MarsHatu. Edited by C. F. MArsHann.
London, D. Nutt; New York, Macmil-
lan & Co. 1894. Pp. xx+236. $2.25.
Sea and Land. Features of Coasts and
Oceans with Special Reference to the Life
of Man. N. S. SHater. New York,
Charles Seribner’s Sons. 1894. $2.50.
Teat-book of Invertebrate Morphology J. F.
McMourricu. New York, Henry Holt &
Co. 1894. Pp. 294. $4.00.
The Planet Earth. An Astronomical In-
troduction to Geography. RicHArp A.
Grecory. London and New York,
Macmillan & Co. 1894. Pp. viiit-105.
60c. -
Physiology for Beginners. M. Foster and
Lewis E. Saorr. New York and Lon-
don, Macmillan & Co. 1894. Pp. ix+
241. 75e.
The Rise and Development of Organie Chemistry.
Cari ScHorRLEMMER. Revised edition, ed-
ited by ARTHUR SmiTHELLS. London and
New York, Macmillan & Co. 1894. Pp.
ix+280.
Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture O. T.
Mason. New York, D. Appleton & Co.
1894. Pp. xiii+295.
SCIENCE.
NEW SERIES.
VoL. I. No. 3.
Fripay, JANUARY 18, 1895.
SINGLE Copies, 15 ets.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00.
GUSTAV E. STECHERT’S
Recent Importation of Scientific Books.
MATHEMATICS.
BACHMANN, PAvuL, Zahlentheorie. Versuch e.
Gesammtdarstellung dieser Wissenschaft in ihren
Haupttheilen. 2. Thl. Die analytische Zahlentheorie.
gr 8°. Mk. 12.
GRASSMANN’s, HM., Gesammelte mathematische
und physikalische Werke. Auf Veranlassung der
mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der kénig]. siich-
sischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und unter
Mitwirkung von Jul. Liiroth, Ed. Study, Just. Grass-
mann, Hm. Grassman Md. J., G. Scheffers herausge-
geben von F. Engel. I. Bd. 1. Thl. Die Ausdeh-
nungslehre von 1844 und die geometrische Analyse.
u 8° 35 Fig. Mk. 12.
CANTOR, Mor., Vorlesungen tib. Geschichte der
Mathematik. 3. Bd. Vom. J. 1668 bis zum J.
ag 1. Abtlg. Die Zeit von 1668 bis 1699. gr. 8°.
“LG:
Herter, Pror. Dr. LorHar. Einleitung in die
Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen mit
einer unabhiingigen Variablen. Mit 3 Figuren im
Texte. gr. 8°. Mk. 6.
THOMAE, Jou. Die Kegelschnitte in rein-projek-
tiver Behandlung. Mit in den Text eingedruckten
Holzschnitten und 16 lithographierten Figurenta-
feln. gr. 8°. Mk. 6.
ASTRONOMY.
GALLE, J. G. Verzeichnis der Elemente der
bisher berechneten Cometenbahnen, nebst Anmer-
kungen und Literatur-Nachweisen, neu bearbeitet,
erginzt und fortgesetzt bis zum Jahre 1894. Mk. 12.
Publikationen des astrophysikalischen Observator-
iums zu Potsdam. Herausgegeben yon H. C. Vogel.
Nr. 32. X. Bd. 1. Stiick. 4°. Mit 30 Taf. Mk.
12.
GEOLOGY
Lévy, A. M. Etude sur la détermination des feld-
spaths dans les plaques minces au point de vue de la
classification des roches. 8°. Avee 8 pl. cal. et 9 fig.
Fr. 7; 50¢.
Hintze, C. Handbuch der Mineralogie.
Mit 56 Abbildgn. Mk. 5.
WALTHER, Prof. Johs, Einleitung in die Geologie
als historische Wissenschaft. III. (Schluss-) Thi.
Lithogenesis der Gegenwart. Beobachtungen tib die
Bildg. der Gesteine an der heut. Erdoberfliiche.
gr. 8°. m. 8 Abbildgn. Mk. 13.
AND MINERALOGY.
8. Lfg.
ZOOLOGY.
BERGH, Dr. R. S., Vorlesungen iiber die Zelle und
die einfachen Gewebe des tierischen Kérpers: Mit
einem Anhang: Technische Anleitung zu einfachen
histologischen Untersuchungen. Mit 138 Figuren im
Texte. gr. 8°. Mk. 7.
Boas, Dr. J. E. y., Lehrbuch der Zodélogie. 2.
Aufl. gr. 8°. Mk, 10; geb. Mk. 11. ;
DE GROSSOUVRE, A. Recherches sur la craie
supérieure. 2° partie. Paléontologie: Les ammonites
de la craie supérieure. 4°. Avec 39 fig. et atlas de
39 pl. Fr. 20. :
LINNAEI, Caroli, systema naturae. Regnum ani-
male. Ed. X. 1758, cura societatis Zoblogiacae ger-
manicae iterum edita. gr. 8°. Mk. 10;—Einbd. Mk.
2.25.
HALLER, B. Studien iiber docoglosse und rhipido-
glosse Prosobranchier nebst Bemerkungen iiber die
phyletischen Beziehungen der Mollusken unterein-
ander. 4°. Mit 6 Textfig. u. 12 Taf. Mk. 32.
Pororr, Demetrius. Die Dottersack-Getiisse der
Huhnes. Mit 12 lithographischen Tafeln in Farben-
druck und 12 lithographierten Tafel-Erkliirungsbliit-
tern. 4° Mk. 27.—
ScumipT, Apr. Atlas der Diatomaceen-Kunde.
In Verbindung mit Griindler, Grunow, Janisch und
Witt herausgegeben. 48. u. 49. Heft. Fol. 8 Taf.
Mit. 8 Bl. Erklirgn. Mk. 6.
SEMON, PRoF. Dr. RICHARD. Zodlogische Forsch-
ungsreisen in Australien und dem malayischen Ar-
chipel. Mit Unterstiitzung des Herrn Dr. Paul von
Ritter ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1891-1893. Erster
Band. Ceratodus. Erste Lieferung. Mit 8 lito-
graphischen Tafeln und 2 Abbildungen im Texte.
(Text und Atlas.) gr. 4°. Mk, 20.
BOTANY.
ENGLER, A., und K. PRANTL. Die natiirlichen
Pflanzenfamilien nebst ihren Gattungen und wich-
tigeren Arten, insbesondere den Nutzpflanzen, unter
Mitwirkung zahlreicher hervorragender Fachgelehr-
ten begriindet von A. E. und K. P., fortgesetzt von
A. Engler. III. Tl. 6. Abtlg. 8°. Mit 592 Ein-
zelbildern in 87 Fig. sowie Abteilungs-Register.
Subskr.-Pr. Mk. 8; Einzelpr. Mk. 16.
LINDEN, L. Les Orchidées exotiques et leurs cul-
ture en Europe. Avec nombr. fig. Fr. 25.
SCHUMANN, Kust. Prof. Dr. K., Lehrbuch der sys-
tematischen Botanik, Phytopaliiontologie u. Phyto-
geographie. gr. 8°. 193 Fig. u. 1 farb. Karte. Mk. 16.
GUSTAV E. STECHERT,
810 Broadway, New York.
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Translated from the Second and Revised German
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A Laboratory Manual of Physics and
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A Treatise on the Measurement of Elec=
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By WILLIAM ARTHUR PRICE, M.A., A.M.I.C.E.,
formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. 8vo, Cloth,
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By Drs. G. ScuuLTz and P. Junius. Translated
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Fripay, January 18, 1895.
CONTENTS :
The Baltimore Meeting of the Geological Society of
EIR De, IOEMP 5. ctteeerieclets s <1s/2 = \< 0 57
i
i ce ier is ‘
The Connecticut Sandstone Group: C. F. Hrrcu-
cock 7
Length of Vessels in Plants: ERWIN F. SMITH ....77
eentajic Literature —.. 2... cccctesceccecceseces 78
Dodge's Practical Biology: H.W.Conn. Cha-
telier’s Le Grisow: CHARLES PLATT. Bolles’
Bearcamp Water: W. T. DAvis.
Noles a Ia\<) c's w'e csi « ss 5 SMORIMICIG one ici cinie ss 80
The Botanical Society of America ; Psychology ;
Articles on Science ; Forthcoming Publications.
EEMEIUATIOIOUPNOLS) vag «>< « «aR Me sini 2 es ola vi si= 82
Societies and Academies ..... Sagteete Saiiatsie cleavclcicels 83
SUPRIPEDUER wn qaia'c's Dus so nc Biyee ees ace ves os 84
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
McKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Subscriptions (five dollars annually ) and advertisements
oe Re sent to the Publisher of SCIENCE, 41 East 49th St.,
ew York.
THE BALTIMORE MEETING OF THE GEOLOGI-
CAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA.
Tue seventh annual meeting was held in
Baltimore, December 27, 28 and 29, in the
geological rooms of Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity.
The first session took place at 10 A. M.,
December 27, and was presided over by
President Chamberlin. The Society was
welcomed by President Gilman, of the Uni-
versity, who made a graceful and cordial
address, that was warmly received. Presi-
feelings of the members in a few felicitous
words. A printed report of the Council was
distributed, reviewing the events of the
year. B. K. Emerson and J.§. Diller were
elected an auditing committee. The results
of the ballot for officers were as follows:
President, N.S. SHALER.
Ist Vice President, Joseru Lr Conve.
2d Vice President, C. H. Hrrcencock.
Secretary, H. L. Farrourmp.
Treasurer, I. C. Wire.
Councillors, R. W. Ets, C. R. Van Hise.
Messrs. Clements, Cobb, Hopkins, Hub-
bard and Spurr were elected fellows.
The constitution was so amended that
the qualifications for fellows shall hereafter
be as follows, geographical location in North
America being no longer a requisite, ‘‘ Fel-
lows shall be workers or teachers in geo-
logy.”? An amendment allowing the Treas-
urer to be elected without limit was also
passed. After some announcements by the
local committee the Society listened to a
memorial of the late Professor George H.
Williams, of Johns Hopkins University, and
Second Vice President of the Society, by
Professor William B. Clark. It was on Dr.
Williams’ invitation that the Society met
in Baltimore and the great loss to the
science by his death was the thought upper-
most in the minds of all present. Dr.
Clark’s graceful and touching memorial to
his late colleague was appreciated by all
58
present. Brief additional tributes were
also paid by Professor B. K. Emerson, of
Amherst, Dr. Williams’ first geological
teacher and life-long friend; by J. F. Kemp,
an old college-mate; by W.S. Bayley, his
first student in petrography, and by his
friends and colleagues, J. P. Iddings, I. C.
White, C. D. Walcott and N. 8. Shaler.
A memorial of Amos Bowman, of the
Canadian Survey, was then presented by H.
M. Ami, after which the Society listened to
the reading of papers, as follows:
1. On Certain Peculiar Features in the Joumting
and Veining of the Lower Silurian Limestones
near Cumberland Gap, Tenn. N. S&S.
SHALER, Cambridge, Mass.
The paper described peculiar forms of
dolomitic limestone near Smiles, Tenn., in
practically undisturbed strata which are
ribbed and seamed by minute veins of
calcite, in the form of small gash veins.
They were regarded as due to some power-
ful, though local strains in the rock, but
the subject was frankly admitted to be an
obscure one.
2. The Appalachian Type of Folding in the
White Mountain Range, of Inyo Co., Cal.
Cuas. D. Watcorr, Washington, D. C.
The White Mountain range, which lies
east of the Sierra Nevada, was shown to
consist of conformable quartzite and cam-
brian shales and limestone. The series had
been thrown into synclinal folds with inter-
vening eroded anticlines and with a struc-
ture which, on the whole, closely reproduces
the Appalachian sections of the Hast.
The paper was discussed by Messrs.
Becker, Ami, Willis and Russell, after
which recess was taken until the afternoon
session.
3. New Structural Features in the Appala-
chians. ArtHur Kerra.
The paper reviewed the old generaliza-
tions of Appalachian structure, analyzed
the recently published knowledge, described
SCIENCE.
ENSS:) Vol. dee Noss:
new structures, such as fan structure, cross
folds, cross zones of shear, a secondary sys-
tem of folding, the distribution of meta-
morphism, and advanced a theory to ac-
count for their production. According to
the theory, the compressive strain which
deformed the strata began in the crystalline
gneisses and granites, thrust the crystallines
against the sediments and by the differential
motion along the shear zones produced but-
tresses around which the chief changes of
structure were grouped.
In the discussion which followed, Mr. C.
Willard Hayes considered two of the shear
zones with the conclusion that the changes
in structure were due to differences of rigid-
ity in the sediments when they were thrust
against the crystallines.
Mr. Keith replied that the changes of
structure extended through the crystallines
as well as the sediments, a fact incompatible
with a merely passive resistance on the part
of the crystallines.
Mr. Bailey Willis argued that the chief
structural changes were due to original
- differences in sediment and in bases of sedi-
mentation. His conclusion was that the
sediments moved against a rigid crystalline
mass, being actuated by a force acting from
the westward, which was due to the isosta-
tic flow of material from beneath the load
of sediment.
4. The Faults of Chazy Township, Clinton
County, N. Y. H. P. Cusutne, Cleve-
land, O.
That the Lake Champlain region is,
structurally, one of faulting without fold-
ing, is well known. The structure is well
exhibited in Chazy township, which has not
heretofore been mapped in detail, except
for a small area around Chazy village. Its
consideration is of importance, because of
its bearing on the structure of the Adiron-
dack region, in which, on account of the
lithological similarity of the rocks, the de-
termination of the precise structural rela-
JANUARY 18, 1895. ]
tions isa matter of great difficulty, if not
impossibility. The great number of the
faults, and the consequent small size of the
various faulted blocks, are striking facts.
In discussion C. D. Walcott showed how
these faults had led Professor J. Marcou to
believe that he had discovered colonies of
Trenton fossils in rocks of the Potsdam.
5. The Formation of Lake-basins by Wind.
G. K. Grrzert, Washington, D. C.
The paper described the formation of ba-
sins in the arid regions of the West, by the
erosive action of wind-blown sand upon a
shale devoid of vegetation. In time they
became filled with water and formed small
lakes.
6. The Tepee Buttes.
F. P. Guiiver.
The paper was read by Mr. Gulliver and
described a series of conical buttes west of
Pueblo, Col. They consist of Pierre shales,
surrounding cores of limestone formed of
shells of Zucina. It is supposed that as the
shales were deposited, a colony of lucinas
established themselves and grew upward
pari passu, forming a conical or columnar
deposit of limestone, whose greater resist-
ance to erosion has left the buttes in relief.
G. K. Grupertr and
7. Remarks on the Geology of Arizona and
Sonora. W J McGer, of Washington.
The arid region was described as consist-
ing of north and south mountain ranges
with wide valleys between. In Arizona the
surface is largely of voleanic rock, in Sonora
of Mesozoic limestone. The rivers have
definite courses and water in the moun-
tains, but in the valleys they are lost by
evaporation and absorption before the ocean
is reached. Their valleys were transverse
to the mountains and larger valleys because
of the general southwesterly dip of the
rocks. Buttes near the Gulf of California
show slight talus, which fact gives good
ground for thinking that the gulf has stood
at an altitude, as regards the land, several
SCIENCE.
59
hundred feet above its present level in re-
cent geological time, or, in other words, that
the Jand has been depressed by that amount.
8. Geology of the Highwood Mountains, Mon-
tana. Waurrr H. Weep, Washington,
D.. C., and Lovurs V. Prrsson, New
Haven, Conn.
On account of the illness of Mr. Weed this
paper was not read.
the Ozark
Cares R. Keyes, Des Moines,
9. Genesis and
Iplift.
Iowa.
On account of the author’s absence the
paper was not read.
10. The Geographical Evolution of Cuba.
J. W. Spencer, Washington, D. C.
The description of the physical geography
of Cuba and of the adjacent submerged
banks was given. Exclusive of a few areas
locally older, the apparent basement is com-
posed of volcanic rocks of Cretaceous or
slightly earlier date. These are succeeded
by fossiliferous Cretaceous sands, ete., and
limestone greatly disturbed. The Eocene
and Miocene deposits form a physical unit,
and are composed mostly of limestone
having a thickness of from 1,900 to 2,100
feet. The Pliocene period was mostly one
of high elevation, accompanied by a very
great erosion. At the close of the Pliocene
period the Matanzas subsidence depressed
the-island so as to leave only a few small
islets, and permit of the accumulation of
about 150 feet of limestones. Then followed
the great Pleistocene elevation with the
excavation of great valleys, the lower por-
tions of which are now fjords reaching in
one case at least to 7,000 feet in depth be-
fore joining the sea beyond. The elevation
was followed by the Zapata subsidence, re-
ducing the island to smaller proportions
than to-day, and permitting the accumu-
lation of the loams and gravels like the
Columbia of the continent. The subsequent
minor undulations are also noted, as shown
Structure of
60
in terraces and recent small caions now
submerged. Also the modern coralline for-
mations and harbors are notable.
On the completion of the paper the Society
adjourned its business session until the
following morning.
In the evening many members attended
Professor Wm. Libbey’s lecture on Green-
land, and afterwards the reception which
was hospitably tendered the visiting socie-
ties by the Johns Hopkins University in
McCoy Hall. On reassembling Friday morn-
ing the council presented some minor points
of business, and Mr. J. 8. Diller, the chair-
man of the committee on photographs, read
his annual report. It showed that some
1,200-1,500 photographs of geological phe-
nomena and scenery had been presented to
the Society, the same being on exhibition in
the hall. The negatives of the U.S. Geol.
Survey in many instances and also those of
not a few geologists have been made acces-
sible to the fellows for prints at cost. Mr.
Diller finally tendered his resignation, which
was accepted with regret. Mr. G. P. Mer-
rill, of the U. S. National Museum, was ap-
pointed to the vacancy. The committee now
consists of G. P. Merrill, W. M. Davis and
J. F. Kemp.
The first paper on the programme was—
11. Observations on the Glacial Phenomena
of Newfoundland, Labrador and Southern
Greenland. G. FREDERICK WricHT. Ob-
erlin, Ohio.
Note was made of the direction of the
glacial scratches in Newfoundland and of
the evidences of a preglacial elevation of the
island; also of the contrast between the
flowing outlines of the coast range of moun-
tains in Labrador and the jagged character
of the coast range of Southern Greenland.
A description was also given of the projec-
tion of the inland ice which comes down to
the coast near Sukkertoppen, in Lat. 65°
50’, and of the phenomena which indicate
the former extension of the Greenland ice
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 3.
far beyond its present boundaries. Still,
the bordering mountains were never coy-
ered with ice.
12. Highland Level Gravels in Northern
New England. C. H. Hrrencock, Han-
over, N. H.
Recent observations prove the existence
of a glacial lake in the basin of Lake Mem-
phremagog, whose beaches exceed a thou-
sand feet above sea level, and others
1,500 feet above sea level in northern New
Hampshire. The author wished to present
a preliminary notice of what may prove to
be of great service in a more exact defini-
tion of glacial work in New England and
Canada.
The paper was discussed by Professor J.
W. Spencer, who spoke of his own studies
in the same region.
During the reading of the following six
papers the petrographers and mineralogists
adjourned to the room above and listened
to the reading of papers of a petrographic
character, aS subsequently outlined. The
principal session then listened to the follow-
ing:
13. Variations of Glaciers. HARRY FIBLD-
Inc REDD.
The paper called attention to the desira-
bility of keeping accurate records of the
movements of glacial ice wherever possible.
A committee was appointed to further this
movement at the Geological Congress in
Zurich last summer, and the writer urged
the importance of the work, especially as
regards our western glaciers.
14. Discrimination of Glacial Accumulation
and Invasion. \VARREN UpHam, Somer-
ville, Mass.
The accumulation of ice-sheets by snow-
fall on their entire area was discriminated
from an advance or invasion by the front
of the ice, extending thus over new terri-
tory. The former condition is shown to
have been generally prevalent, on the gla-
JANUARY 18, 1895. ]
ciated portions of both North America and
Europe, by the occurrence of comparatively
small areas of ice accumulation beyond the
extreme boundaries of the principal ice-
sheets. The latter condition, or ice invasion,
is indicated on the outer part of the drift-
bearing area eastward from Salamanca, N.
Y., through Staten and Long Islands,
Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, where
the soft strata beneath the ice were dis-
located and folded.
15. Climatic Conditions Shown by North
American Interglacial Deposits. WaAR-
REN UpnHam, Somerville, Mass.
During the times both of general accu-
mulation and growth of the ice-sheets and
of their final recession, fluctuations of their
borders were recorded in various districts
by forest trees, peat, and molluscan shells,
enclosed in beds underlain and overlain by
till. Such fluctuations, while the ice accu-
mulation was in progress, enclosed chiefly
arctic or boreal species; but when the ice
was being melted away, in the Champlain
epoch, the remains of the flora and fauna
thus occurring in interglacial beds, as at
Toronto and Scarboro’, Ont., may belong
wholly to temperate species, such as now
exist in the same district. The cold climate
of the Ice age appears thus to have been
followed by a temperate Champlain climate
close upon the waning ice-border.
16. Glacial Lakes in Western New York
and Lake Newberry, the Successor of Lake
Warren. By H. L. Farrcarrp, Roches-
ter, N. Y.
The paper presented evidence that the
finger lakes of central New York were all
pre-glacial-in character and that during the
presence of the ice-sheet at their outlets
they were backed up and discharged south-
ward, as is abundantly shown by deltas at
various heights on both sides of the present
divide. Professor Fairchild cited eighteen
glacial lakes from Attica on the west to the
Onondaga river valley on the east. These
SCIENCE. 61
he has named from important towns now
on the sites, as Lake Ithaca for the glacial
form of Cayuga lake, which was 35 miles
long, 5-10 miles broad and 1100 feet deep.
It has been long known that when the ice
covered western New York the great lakes
discharged at Chicago to the Mississippi
and the great lake formed by them is called
Lake Warren, and has left a good beach.
Ata much later stage, when the Mohawk
was uncovered, the waters ran to the Hud-
son, and the great lake on the site of On-
tario has been called Lake Iroquois. The
intermediate stage between these two, when
the discharge of the water covering western
New York was through the low pass at the
south end of Seneca lake through Horse-
heads near Elmira, Professor Fairchild has
ealled Lake Newberry. The elevations of
this and the Chicago pass are such that
when allowance is made for the depressed
condition of the area at that time, the exist-
ence of the lake can be demonstrated.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. Me-
Gee and Gilbert, who commended the
choice of the new name as felicitous and
timely. J. W. Spenser also spoke, but dif-
fered with the author in some points.
Meantime, in the upper laboratory (the
Williams room), the petrographic section,
under the chairmanship of Professor B. K.
Emerson listened to
18. The Relation of Grain to Distance from
Margin in Certain Rocks. Atrrep C.
Lane, Houghton, Michigan.
A description of the variation in texture
and grain of some quartz diabase dikes of
Upper Michigan was given, and the same
compared with effusive flows of similar
mineral composition. These descriptions
were based on series of thin sections of
known distance from the margin. Inter-
stitial micropegmatite is primary or pneu-
matolytic, and the feldspar crystallization
begins before that of the augite, continuing
until later. The distinction between the
62 SCIENCE.
intrusive or dike type and the effusive type
was pointed out. The main object of pre-
senting the paper at this time is to elicit the
best methods of measuring the coarseness of
grain of a rock, the object being to express
by some arithmetical or mathematical form-
ula based on statistics, or in some other def-
inite way, the relation of texture to walls
and thickness ina dike. The paper elicited
considerable discussion by Messrs. Hovey,
Kemp, Iddings, Cross, and G. P. Merrill, in
which the following points were made ; the
large size of the phenocrysts in some very
narrow dikes ; the importance of not meas-
uring minerals of the intratelluric stage ;
the great variability of circumstances under
which dikes cooled, as heated or cold walls,
pressure, mineralizers, etc., and the difficult-
ies of getting reliable data of the kind re-
quired by Dr. Lane. ;
19. Crystallized Slags from Coppersmelting.
ALrrep C. LANE, Houghton, Michigan.
This paper described (with exhibition of
specimens) slags from the cupola furnaces
used in coppersmelting, which contained
large melilite crystals, between one and two
centimeters square, interesting optically and
in mode of occurrence. Crystallized hema-
tite was also noted.
The specimens elicited great interest on
account of the size and perfection of the
crystals.
20. On the Nomenclature of the fine-grained
Siliceous Rocks. L. S. Griswo~p, Cam-
bridge, Mass.
The writer described the difficulties met
first, in his study of novaculite, and later,
in connection with other siliceous rocks,
such as cherts, jaspers, etc., in applying defi-
nite names. The troublesome characters of
opaline, chalcedonic and quartzose silica, as
regards the origin of each, presented obsta-
cles both for mineralogic and genetic classi-
fication.
This paper elicited an interesting dis-
cussion which threatened at times to take
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 3.
up the whole subiect of the classification of
rocks. The general feeling seemed to be
that rocks could best be named primarily
on a mineralogic and textural basis, and
that these principles furnished the best so-
lution of the difficulties presented by the
paper. The speakers were Messrs. Wolff,
Emerson and Lane.
21. On Some Dykes containing ‘ Huronite.’
By Atrrep E. Barnow, Ottawa. (Read
by F. D. Apams.)
This paper contained a brief petrographi-
eal notice of certain dykes of diabase con-
taining ‘ Huronite,’ as the mineral was
originally named by Dr. Thomson, of Glas-
gow, in his Mineralogy of 1836. Dr. B. J.
Harrington’s re-examination of this mineral
in 1886 showed some yery grave errors in
Thomson’s work and the ‘ huronite’ must
simply be regarded as an impure or altered
form of anorthite, which has undergone
either partial or complete ‘saussuritiza-
tion,’ owing to metamorphic action. Cer-
tain localities were mentioned north and
northeast of Lake Huron, where these dykes
have been noted cutting the Huronian as
well as the granitoid gneisses usually classed
as Laurentian. Mr. A. P. Low, of the Can-
adian Geological Survey, noticed dykes con-
taining this mineral cutting the Laurentian
and Cambrian in the Labrador Peninsula.
22. The Granites of Pike’s Peak, Colorado.
Epwarp B. Maruerws, Baltimore, Mary-
land. (Introduced by W. B. CrarK.)
This paper gave an areal and petrographi-
eal description of the granites composing
the southern end of the Rampart or Colo-
rado range and showed that great macro-
scopic variation may result, while the micro-
scopic characters remain monotonously uni-
form. Four types in all were distinguished,
based on the size of phenocrysts and coarse- .
ness of grain. The paper was discussed by
Whitman Cross and J. P. Iddings, after
which the section adjourned to meet again
at 4:30 P. M.
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
About the same time the main section
also adjourned for lunch, which was most
hospitably seryed to the visiting societies
in the Johns Hopkins gymnasium. High
praise is due the local committee for the ex-
cellent arrangements. After lunch the so-
ciety reconvened and the first paper was :
23. Notes on the Glaciation of Newfound-
land. By T. C. CHAMBERLIN.
The paper brought out the very interest-
ing facts that the glaciation of Newfound-
land is local and that the moraines and
striz show that it proceeded from the cen-
ter of the island to the coast. The drift is
all peripheral and can be easily traced to its
sources.
24. The Pre-Cambrian Floor of the North-
western States. By C. W. Hall. (Read
in the absence of the author by WARREN
UPHAM. )
The paper pointed out the distribution of
the Pre-Cambrian areas in the territory
under investigation so far as it is known at
the present time. It thenshowed by means
of records of deep and artesian well bor-
ings, within reasonable limits of probability,
the depth of the Pre-Cambrian rocks over
a considerable area beyond the surface area
outlined. :
Maps and a series of profiles accompanied
the paper.
The paper was discussed by G. K. Gil-
bert, who called attention to the importance
of the results.
25. A Further Contribution to Our Knowl-
of the Laurentian. Frank D. ADAms,
Montreal, Canada.
After referring briefly to the author’s pre-
vious work on the anorthosite intrusions of
the Laurentian, the paper gave a condensed
account of the results of a study of the
stratigraphical relations and petrographical
character of the gneisses and associated
rocks of the Grenville series in that portion
of the protaxis which lies to the north of
the Island of Montreal. By means of lan-
SCIENCE. 63
tern slides Dr. Adams gave a very graphic
account of the region in question. Some
thin sections of rocks as large as an ordi-
nary lantern slide were used to illustrate
the passage of a massive rock into a crushed
and sheared or gneissoid form. The paper
formed not only an important contribution
to the geology of the region, but to our
knowledge of dynamic metamorphism as
well. Discussion was reserved until after
the reading of the next two.
26. The Crystalline Limestones, Ophiolites,
and Associated Schists of the Eastern
Adirondacks. J. F. Kemp, New York.
After a brief introduction and sketch of
what others had done on the subject in
hand, the areas of these rocks, especially in
Essex county, were outlined and described
with geological sections. It was shown
that they are generally small, usually less
than a square mile; that they consist of
(a) white graphitic crystalline limestone,
with great numbers of inclusions of sili-
cates, (b) of ophiolites, (¢) of black garneti-
ferous hornblende schists, (d) of lighter
quartz schists, and (e) in one area, of closely
involved granulite very like the Saxon
granulite. The evidence of the plasticity
of limestone under pressure was graphically
shown by lantern slides. The trap dikes
that often cut the limestones were referred
to, and the relations with the intrusive gab-
bros were set forth, and the argument
made that the limestones are older than
the gabbros and anorthosites of the Norian
series, and that they are the remnants of
an extended formation which was cut up by
these intrusions, metamorphosed largely by
them and afterward eroded. A comparison
was drawn with those on the western side
of the mountains.
27. The Relations of the Crystalline Lime-
stones, Gneisses and Anorthosites in St.
Lawrence and Jefferson Counties, N. Y.
C. H. Suytu, Jr., Clinton, N. Y.
The paper dealt especially with areas in
64
the towns of Diana, Pitcairn and Wilna,
but was really a review of the relations of
these rocks in a wider region and was based
on extended field experience. Petrographic
details were presented of the several kinds of
rocks, and especially of the varieties of the
anorthosites, which were shown to shade
into angite-syenites, and apparently into red
gneiss. Many irruptive contacts of anor-
thosites-and limestone were cited and the
location of the classic mineral localities of
this region was shown to be along these
contacts. The same important thesis was
worked out as in the preceding two papers,
that the great intrusions of the Norian se-
ries were later than the gneisses and lime-
stones.
The papers were discussed by Whitman
Cross, who called attention to the close
parallelism of the geology in the Pike’s
Peak district of Colorado; and by C. D.
Walcott who referred to his own studies in
the Adirondacks and similar conclusions to
those advanced.
28. Lower Cambrian Rocks in Hastern Calt-
fornia. CHARLES D. Watcorr, Wash-
ington, D. C.
An account of the discovery of the Lower
Cambrian rocks and fauna in the White
Mountain range of Inyo County, Cal. See
also No. 2 above. This important discov-
ery affords a means of correllating the early
Cambrian life in the remote West with
those already known in the Hast.
29. Devonian Fossils in carboniferous strata.
H.S. WitiiAms, New Haven, Conn.
The paper described the fauna of the
Spring Creek limestone of Arkansas, which
lies between the Keokuk-Burlington strata
below and the Batesville sandstone above,
and is at about the horizon of the Warsaw
and Chester of the Lower Carboniferous in
the Mississippi Valley. The fossils are
closely related to the carboniferous fauna
described by Walcott from Eureka, Ney.,
and by J. P. Smith from Shasta County, Cal.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 3.
But certain Devonian forms as Leiorhyncus
quadricostatum and Productus lachrymosus of
the New York Devonian are found with
them, which are lacking in the Mississippi
Valley, but are found in the Devonian of
the West. The interpretation was then
made, that the Arkansas fossils indicated a
Devonian incursion from the westward.
During the reading of this and the suc-
ceeding titles the petrographers reconvened
in the upper laboratory, as later recorded.
30. The Pottsville series along the New
River, West Va. Davin WuitE, Washing-
ton, D. C.
This paper was a careful description of
the stratigraphy of the series, the determi-
nations being based on the fossils, which
evidence was presented in full.
31. The Cretaceous Deposits of the Northern
Half of the Atlantic Coast Plain. Wm.
B. Cxrarx, Baltimore, Md.
The several formations established as a
result of a detailed study of the Cretaceous
strata of Monmouth county, New Jersey,
were shown to have a wide geographical
range towards the south. They have been
traced throughout the southern portion of
that State, while all except the highest
members of the series are found crossing
Delaware and the eastern shore of Mary-
land. Several representatives of these for-
mations appear on the western shore, reach-
ing to the banks of the Potomac.
32. Stratigraphic Measurements of Creta-
ceous Time. G.K. GitBert, Washington,
D. C.
The writer described a great series of
Cretaceous rocks, 3500-4000 ft. thick, lying
in the Arkansas River Valley, west of
Pueblo, Colo. They consist of layers of lime-
stone 1 ft. to 1 ft. 6 in. thick, separated by
1 in. of shale—this alternation being uni-
formly repeated through the whole thick-
ness. The writer argued that frequent con-
tinental oscillation from deep to shallow
water deposits was unlikely as having caused
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
the beds, and hence appealed to climatic
eycles.
The cycles of a year’s changing seasons is
too short to account for the limestone; the
next longer cycle, the lunar, involves no
changes of climate; hence the cycle of the
precession of the equinoxes, 21,000 years
long, was selected, and allowing four feet of
deposit for each cycle, this portion of Cretace-
ous time was estimated at 21,000,000 years.
There was no discussion, but a very evi-
dent feeling of solemnity at the announce-
ment.
33. Notes on the Cretaceous of Western Tex-
as and Coahuila, Mexico. E.T. Dust,
Austin, Texas.
The author being absent the paper was
only read by title.
The main section then adjourned until
the presidental address at 7:30 the same
evening. Meantime the petrographers lis-
tened to
34. Spherulitic Volcanics at North Haven;
Maine. W.S. Baytey, Waterville, Me.
In the Journal of Geology a few months
ago the late Dr. George H. Williams referred
to the existence of old rhyolites on the
coast of Maine. The author described very
briefly the occurrence of these rocks, and
exhibited specimens of them: The speci-
mens showed very perfect spherulites, litho-
physze and all the common features of glassy
voleanics. They brought out an interesting
discussion regarding the abundance of these
rocks along the Altantic sea-board. J. E.
Wolff spoke of their great extent near Bos-
ton, and especially at Blue Hill, where the
relations with the Quincy granite are a hard
problem. A.C. Lane mentioned their fre-
quency in central Maine, as shown by the
collections of L. L. Hubbard. T. G. White
referred to those near Mt. Desert. J. F.
Kemp spoke of recent field and petrogra-
phic work in progress on the great areas
near St. John, N. B. W.S. Yeates brought
up the curious phosphatic spherulites lately
SCIENCE. 65
found in Georgia, which closely simulate
lithophyse, and remarks were made on
them by W. Cross and J. P. Iddings.
35. The Peripheral Phases of the Great Gab-
bro Mass of Northeastern Minnesota. W.
8. Bayiry, Waterville, Me.
On the northern border of the great gab-
bro mass in northeastern Minnesota are
basic and granulitic rocks whose composi-
tion indicates their relationships with the
gabbros with which they are associated.
The basic rocks are aggregates of the basic
constituents of the gabbro. They are char-
acterized especially by the abundance of
titanic iron. The granulitic rocks differ
from the central gabbro mainly in struc-
ture. They consist of aggregates of rounded
diallage, hypersthene and plagioclase, all of
which minerals are present also in the nor-
mal rocks. The basie rocks are probably
differentiated phases of the gabbro, of ear-
lier age than the great mass of the nor-
mal rock. The granulitic phases are simply
peripheral phases. Closely parallel cases
were brought out in the discussion as
existing in the Adirondacks (by C. H.
Smyth, Jr., and J. F. Kemp), and in Que-
bee (F. D. Adams), where they have been
been called granulites, augite-syenites and
augite gneisses. H. D. Campbell mentioned
the same phenomena in similar rocks in
Rockbridge county, Virginia, and all the
speakers commented on the peculiar deyel-
opment of orthoclase feldspar in the border
facies of a gabbro mass.
36. The Contact Phenomena at Pigeon Point,
Minn. W.S. Bayiey, Waterville, Me.
The speaker distributed copies of his re-
cent Bulletin U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 109,
and exhibited a series of specimens which
illustrate the peculiar contacts and transi-
tion rocks at Pigeon Point. Discussion fol-
lowed by by J. P. Iddings and others.
37. A New Discovery of Peridotite at Dewitt,
3 miles east of Syracuse, N. Y. N. H. Dar-
ton. LPetrography of same, J. F. Kemp.
66
Mr. Darton described the opening up of
this new boss of peridotite in the building
of a reservoir. The wall rock is Salina
shales, and the geological section of that
part of the state was outlined in explana-
tion. J. F. Kemp described the rock as a
very fresh peridotite as these rocks go, with
perfectly unaltered olivines and a ground
mass of small augite crystals, with what
was probably originally glass. Gabbroitic
seeregations were also mentioned contain-
ing feldspar. The interest of the rock lies
in the fact that it gives much fresher mater-
ial than that described by Dr. G. H. Wil-
liams from Syracuse, in which the larger
original minerals were represented only by
alteration products. No perofskite or me-
lilite could be found in the Dewitt material.
Professor B. K. Emerson exhibited re-
markable pseudomorphs of olivine from a
rediscovered though long lost mineral lo-
cality in Massachusetts, and corundum with
interesting enclosures.
The section then adjourned with the in-
tention of haying an exhibition of rock sec-
tions the following morning in the same
place.
A goodly audience greeted President
Chamberlin at 7:30 in the evening for the
annual presidential address, the subject be-
ing recent Glacial Studies in Greenland.
The speaker brought out the distribution of
the ice sheet over Greenland, described his
observations at Disko Bay and elsewhere
and his final location at Lieut. Peary’s sta-
tion, Inglefield Gulf. Many peculiar feat-
ures of Greenland glaciers were brought out,
such as their rampart-like terminal cliffs,
their general foliation or banding and en-
closed debris, their causeways of morainic
material, etc. The glaciation is thought to
be now near its maximum extent because
just beyond the ice are unglaciated areas
and jagged islands that have never been
covered. A large series of lantern views
followed and brought out still more forcibly
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 3.
the points of the address. President Cham-
berlin was listened to with close attention
during the two hours occupied, and all thor-
oughly enjoyed the lecture, but it is never-
theless true that an hour and a quarter, or
at most an hour and a half, is about as long
as a speaker can wisely keep a general
audience.
The Society reassembled in the geological
laboratory about ten o’clock for the annual
supper. After an excellent ménu had been
cared for, Professor B. K. Emerson was cho-
sen toastmaster, and by his characteristic
sallies, in which he was ably aided by several
speakers, resolved his hearers into inter-
mittently active spiracles of mirth upon the
lava stream of his wit.
When the Society reassembled on Satur-
day morning the first paper read was
38. The Marginal Development of the Miocene
in Eastern New Jersey. Wu. B. Crarx,
Baltimore, Md.
The deposits which characterize the mar-
ginal phase of New Jersey Miocene in Mon-
mouth and Ocean counties were especially
discussed. The gravels, sands and clays
were considered and their relations shown,
together with the occurrence of glauconite
in certain areas. The connection of the
strata in the northern counties with the
highly fossiliferous beds in South Jersey
was explained. The paper was discussed
by N. H. Darton bringing out some slight di-
vergence of views on the classification of the
deposits, in that the discovery of fossils by
W. B. Clark had somewhat revised the ear-
lier stratigraphic work.
39. Sedimentary Geology of the Baltimore Re-
gun. N. H. Darron, Washington, D. C.
An account of the local geology of Meso-
zoic and Cenozoic formations and some
statements regarding certain unsolved prob-
lems in coastal plain geology, illustrated by
maps and sections. The sections which
passed through the erystallines of the Pied-
mont plateau and the city of Baltimore
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
brought out admirably the relations of the
later sediments to the older protaxis.
40. The Surface Formations of Southern New
Jersey. Ror D. Sarispury, Chicago,
Til.
The surface formations of southern New
Jersey, which have often been grouped to-
gether under the names, ‘ Yellow Gravel’
and ‘Columbia,’ are believed to be divis-
ible into five formations, the oldest of which
greatly antedates the glacial period. The
several formations are unconformable on
each other and are believed to have been
widely separated in time of origin. These
formations were called the (1) Beacon Hill,
(2) Canasaucon (the spelling may be
wrong), (3) Jamesburg, (4) Trenton and
the (5) Keyport. It is impossible as yet to
say which are Columbia and which not, but
(2) is probably Pleistocene, and formed
during ice action on the north. Nothing
later than (3) is Columbia. The paper was
discussed by Warren Upham.
41. New Forms of Marine Alge from the Tren-
ton Limestone, with Observations on Butho-
graptus laxus, Hall. R. P. Wurrrrerp,
New York. (The paper was read by E.
O. Hovey.)
Certain fossils from Platteville, Wis., re-
ferred years ago by Hall with doubt to the
graptotiles, were shown to be really articu-
lated, marine alg:e, and referable to several
species. True corallines from the same
horizon at Middleville were also described
which are much older than any hitherto
mentioned members of this group of plants.
42. On the Honeycombed Limestones in the Bot-
tom of Lake Huron. Roperr Bex, Ottawa,
_ Canada: (Read by H. M. Amt.)
The Limestones over a certain region in
the bottom of Lake Huron are extensively
eroded in a peculiar manner which the
writer calls honeycombing and pitting. He
described this condition, the area within
which it is found, the depth of the water and
other conditions most favorable to its pro-
SCIENCE. 67
duction and then attempted to account for its
origin, enumerating various possible causes
which might suggest themselves, and giving
the most probable one, namely, a differential
solubility of the rock in the presence of
slightly acidulated water. Reasons in sup-
port of this view were stated. The geologi-
eal ages and the lithological characters of
the various limestones attacked were men-
tioned in trying to arrive at the conditions
which produce the phenomena described.
The localization of this form of erosion may
be attributed to a slight acidity of the water
in that part of Lake Huron, and reasons are
given for believing that an acid condition
actually exists. In addition to the consider-
ations due to the structure and composition
of the rock lying at the bottom of such water,
certain external conditions were mentioned
as favoring the honeycombing process, which
Ex-
amples were given of somewhat similar
erosion elsewhere, but the typical honey-
combing here described appears to be con-
fined to Lake Huron. The paper was illus-
trated by specimens and photographs.
43. On the Quartz-keratophyre and its Asso-
ciated Rocks of the Baraboo Bluffs, Wisconsin.
SamurL WeipMAN. (Read by J. P. Ip-
DINGS. )
In the vicinity of Baraboo, Wisconsin,
oeeur acid porphyritie rocks which corre-
appears to be still in active progress.
spond chemically with quartz-keratophyres.
They exhibit under the microscope fluxion,
spherulitic, poicilitic, and other structures
of voleanic rocks, and are associated with
voleanic breccias which show them to have
their origin in a surface flow. They are of
Pre-Cambrian age, since they rest upon the
upper Huronian quartzite and are overlaid
by the Potsdam sandstone and conglomer-
ate. In some portions of the area they
have been completely changed to finely foli-
ated sericite schists through the orographic
movement which elevated the quartzites to
form the Bluffs.
68
44, The Characteristic Features of the Califor-
nia Gold Quartz Veins. WALDEMAR Linp-
GREN, Washington, D. C.
The writer described the extent and asso-
ciations of the veins, bringing out the fact
that they are in all manner of wall rocks,
although especially in the auriferous slates.
They were shown to be true fissure veins
that cut the walls at all angles, although
mostly along the strike. Direct issue was
taken with the view that they are replace-
ments of limestone or related rock, for it
was shown that while the veins are sili-
ceous and filled with quartz, the wall rocks
have very generally suffered carbonatiza-
tion. Finally the source of the gold was
placed in deep seated regions, whence it had
been brought by uprising solutions.
On the conclusion of the paper, the cus-
tomary votes of thanks were passed to the
local committee, to the Johns Hopkins
University and to others whose efforts had
made the session a success. The next
place of meeting, a year hence, has not been
settled. On the whole, the meeting was
the best attended and most interesting and
successful yet held. J. F. Kemp.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE.
THE BALTIMORE MEETING OF THE AMERI-
CAN MORPHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
THE Society met on Thursday morning
in the lecture room of the Chemical Build-
ing and again upon Friday afternoon, ad-
journing for the intermediate sessions of
the Society of Naturalists. In the absence
of Professor C. O. Whitman, President of the
Society, Professor W. B. Scott, of Princeton,
Vice-President, took the chair. Among
those present at these sessions besides those
who presented papers were Alpheus Hyatt,
Edward 8. Morse, Edward D. Cope, Samuel
F. Clarke, C. F. Herrick, Henry F. Osborn,
E. A. Andrews, W. H. Dall.
The officers elected for the year 1895 were:
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Von. I. No. 3.
President—Professor Edmund B. Wilson,
Columbia College.
Vice-President—Professor
Princeton College.
Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. G. H. Parker,
of Harvard University.
The following are abstracts of the papers
presented :—
Dr. C. W. Stiles, of the U. 8. Agricul-
tural Burean, presented the first paper upon
Larval Stages of av Anoplocephaline Cestode
and exhibited specimens of Distoma (Poly-
orchis) molle (Leidy, 756), S. & H., ’94;
of Dioctophyme gigas, Rud., and of Distoma
tricolor,S & H. Five hundred of the last
named species are ready for distribution as
exchanges to college zodlogists.
Professor William A. Locy, of Lake For-
est University, presented the first paper on
Primitive Metamerism in Selachians, Amphibia
and Birds. It has been generally assumed
that the metameric divisions of the Verte-
brates depend primarily on the middle
germ-layer, and that whenever they appear
in the ectoderm they are secondarily
moulded over the mesodermic segments.
This proposition is not supported by these
observations. We find in very young em-
bryos of amphibians and birds, primitive
metameric divisions which effect the entire
epiblastic folds and in Selachians extend
also out’ into the germ-ring. They are
present before any protovertebrze are formed
and are most clearly marked in the border
regions. These segments become later co-
incident with the so-called neuromeres, but
it is to be noted that they are by no means
confined to the neural tube. The time-
honored designation ‘metamerism of the
head’ should be interpreted as meaning
regional metamerism not as a different form
of segmentation from that which affects the
trunk region. This paper was discussed
and the accuracy of the author’s obserya-
tions was questioned because of the con-
spicuous character which he assigned to
W. B. Scott,
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
certain surface markings never observed by
others. The opportunity given for examin-
ing the specimens, however, proved that the
markings could be faintly seen as described
by the author.
Dr. Loey’s second paper was a Note on the
Homologies of the Pineal Sense-Organ. The
basis for determining homologies of the two
epiphysial outgrowths of Petromyzon, Tele-
osts and Lacertilia has been furnished by
recent publications by Studnicka, Hill and
Klinckowstrém. Basing a comparison upon
innervation and also upon the history of
the vesicles, we may regard the upper epi-
physial vesicle in Petromyzon as corres-
ponding to the epiphysis of Teleosts and
Lacertilia, and the lower epiphysial vesicle
as equivalent to the anterior vesicle of Hill
(which early absorbs) in the teleosts, and to
the pineal eye in the Lacertilia.
Under the title: ‘The Quadrille of the
Centrosomes’ in the Echinoderm egg; a second
contribution to biological mythology, Professor
E. B. Wilson, of Columbia, presented the
somewhat surprising results of his renewed
investigation of the phenomena of fertiliza-
tion in the eggs of the sea-urchin. Rabl
had predicted in 1889 that the union of the
germ-cells would be found to involve a con-
jugation of centrosomes or archoplasmic ele-
ments in addition to the well-known conju-
gation of nuclear elements. Fol’s celebrated
paper on the Quadrille of the Centrosomes
in 1891 was apparently a triumphant fulfill-
ment of the prediction, and, having been
immediately and universally accepted, ex-
ercised an important influence on the current
theories of inheritance. A prolonged re-
search upori the eggs of Toxopneustes variegatus
shows, with a high degree of certainty, that
Fol’s results were based on material pre-
pared by defective methods; that his ac-
count of the origin of the archoplasm is
fundamentally erroneous; that no ‘ Quad-
rille’ occurs in the American species at least,
and that his account of it is largely mythical.
SCIENCE.
69
Results essentially similar and fully corrob-
orating the above have been reached in the
Columbia Laboratory by Mr. A. P. Mathews
In all
these cases the ege-centrosome and archo-
plasm degenerate and completely disappear
after formation of the second polar body,
and, therefore, do not play any part in the
fertilization. The sperm-archoplasm is de-
rived not from the tip of sperm but from the
middle-piece (as in the earth-worm and in
the axolotl) and by division gives rise di-
rectly to the amphiaster of the first cleavage
without any participation of an egg-centre
or egg-archoplasm. All the stages in the
fertilization process of Toxopneustes were ex-
hibited by the author in photographs taken
with an enlargement of one thousand dia-
meters with the codperation of Dr. Edward
Leaming, of the College of Physicians and .
Surgeons, New York. These photographs
illustrated furthermore the effect upon the
ege of various reagents, a considerable num-
ber of which have been carefully tested.
Fol’s picro-osmic mixture was shown to be
very defective, causing more or less marked
disorganization of the archoplasmic struct-
ures and producing various artefacts. The
‘centers’ (centrosomes) of Fol were un-
questionably such artefacts, produced by the
shrinking and clotting together of the ar-
In properly pre-
served material (sublimate-acetic, Flem-
in the eggs of Arbacia and Asterias.
choplasmie recticulum.
ming’s fluid, etc.,) the archoplasm-masses
(‘astrospheres’) consist of a uniform reti-
culum and contain no centrosomes.
In a second paper on the ‘Polarity of the
Egg in Toxopneustes’ Professor Wilson de-
seribed the results of his observations on
the paths of the pronuclei in the transpar-
ent living egg. The very unexpected result
was reached that in this case the ultimate
vertical axis of the egg (‘ egg-axis’ proper)
does not necessarily coincide with the polar
axis but may form any angle with it; but
the plane of first cleavage is nevertheless
70
always nearly through the entrance-point
of the sperm. Regarding the former point
there is a possible source of error in that
the excentrie ege-nucleus may wander from
its original position (near the polar bodies),
so that the diameter passing through it no
longer represents the egg-axis. (This can-
not be determined from the polar bodies,
since they quickly become detached from
the egg). Many facts indicate, however,
that such wandering does not occur. If it
does not, then the polarity of the egg is not
primordial but induced, and one of the most
fundamental characteristics of the egg is
thus brought into the category of epigenetic
phenomena.
Professor Charles S. Minot, of the Har-
vard Medical School, presented a paper upon
The Olfactory Lobe. He showed that of
eleven layers of cells in the olfactory lobe
only the inner two layers belong to the cere-
bral cortex proper, proving that the olfac-
tory lobe is a ganglion structure belonging to
the sensory ganglion series with certain great
secondary modifications. This is further
supported by the fact that the lobe primar-
ily connects with the brain at a point topo-
graphically similar with a point midway be-
tween the ‘dorsal zone’ and the ‘ ventral
zone’ of His. In a second paper Professor
Minot pointed out asa Fundamental Difference
Between Animals and Plants, of value princi-
pally in teaching, that while animals feed
typically upon solids, plants always procure
their food in a gaseous or liquid form. This
paper was discussed by Dr. Locy, Dr.
Humphries and several other botanists and
zoOlogists present, the point being raised
that plants manufacture their own food and
that when plant assimilation really begins
it is practically analgous to that of animals,
as it consists in the taking up of solid par-
ticles.
Dr. Arnold Graf, of Columbia, presented
the next paper upon The Origin of the Pig-
ment and the Causes of the Presence of Patterns
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 3.
in Leeches. The pigment originates in the
excretophores. These are wandering cells
which pick up excretory substances from
the walls of the capillaries; one part of the
cells wanders to the funnels of the nephri-
dium and thus delivers their contents into
the nephridium, while another part of the
excretophores wanders under the skin
emerging along the lines of least resistance,
which lie between the muscle bundles.
The color patterns of the leeches vary,
therefore, according to the arrangement of
the musculature. In Nephelis the longitud-
inal musculature is developed most strongly
and consequently the pattern consists in
longitudinal stripes. Clepsine has as a con-
sequence of its parasitical mode of life a
strongly developed dorso-ventral muscula-
ture and therefore the pattern consists in
spots, the longitudinal stripes haying been
interrupted and broken up by the trans-
verse and oblique muscle bundles. The
bearing of these facts 1s very important.
The color pattern of the leeches is not in
itself adaptive; it is entirely incidental and
secondary to the musculature which is es-
sentially adaptive. A change in the mus-
culature would result in a change in the
superficial color pattern. This shows how
a very striking superficial character may
originate without any adaptive significance
and as a secondary inheritance.
The following paper by Professor H. T.
Fernald, of Central College of Pennsylvania,
was entitled Homoplasy as a Factor in Mor-
phology. A review of zodlogical literature
in the past ten years shows that in every
group of animals beginning with the sponges
and extending up to the highest vertebrates
the phenomenon of parallel or homoplastic
development is becoming increasingly ap-
parent. Numbers of cases were cited from
all classes of animals showing that identical
structures, produced independently in differ-
ent phyla, are extremely numerous... The
paper was discussed by Professors Hyatt,
“2%
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
Cope and Scott, who pointed out that
while the term ‘homoplasy’ was proposed
by Lankaster the phenomenon itself was
early pointed out by Darwin and has
been fully elucidated by palaeontologists.
Mr. Seitar6é Gat6, of the Johns Hopkins
University, gave a demonstration of some
parts of the Ectoparasitie Trematodes in-
eluding a number of features from his full
memoir upon this subject recently pub-
lished in Japan.
Mr. A. P. Matthews, of Columbia, fol-
lowed with a paper on the Morphological
Changes in the Pancreatic Cell, corresponding
with Functional Activity. The cells of Nec-
turus are exceptionally large and favorable
for observation of the changes which occur
before and after feeding. The striated ap-
pearance of the outer zone of the pancreatic
cell is due to coarse cytoplasmic filaments
or threads which end in the centre of
masses of chromatin within the nuclear
membrane. In fact, these threads are di-
rectly continuous with the cytoplasmic reti-
eulum in the inner zone; these threads are
often coiled and in such cases explain the
structures known as Nebenkerne. When
the gland is secreting the zymogen granules
and reticulum are washed out of the cell by
lymph currents and new thread substance
is manufactured by the chromatin. Dur-
ing the so-called ‘ rest’ of the cell the thread
substance degenerates into zymogen gran-
ules and the cytoplasmic reticulum of the
inner zone. The zymogen granules grow
by accretion. The thread substance grows
by accretion at the chromatin end. The
nucleus undergoes no appreciable changes.
There are indications that the chromatin is
a ferment, and that it is the essential forma-
tive element of the cell; probably this is
true of all the cells and all chromatin; if
so, the character of cytoplasm and new
chromatin formed will depend on the char-
acter of the nutrition. It is possible that
the chromatin of embryonic cells differenti-
SCIENCE. 71
ates as a result of differentiations depend-
ent upon the location in the segmenting cell
mass of the chromatin of the original blas-
tomeres. If this is true it is unnecessary
to assume that
sented definitely in a so-called ‘ stirp’ lo-
cated in the chromatin.
Professor J. 8. Kingsley, of Tufts College,
next presented a paper upon the Anatomy
characteristics are repre-
and Relationships of Pauropida, on behalf of
Mr. F. C. Kenyon.
Professor Alpheus Hyatt, of the Museum
of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, pre-
sented a paper summing up his researches
upon the Parallelisms between the Ontogeny and
Phylogeny of Pecten.
Professor Andrews submitted for Profes-
sor T. H. Morgan, of Bryn Mawr, some of
his observations recently made in Naples at
the American table supported by the Smith-
sonian Institution. It is found that the
unsegmented eggs of a sea-urchin may be
broken into minute fragments which develop
into perfect larvee. One such fragment may
be one-fiftieth of the volume of the egg and
yet develop into a gastrula if it contain a
male and a female pronucleus. The gas-
trula thus produced is so exceedingly small
that three in a row are no longer than
an infusorian, such as Paramoecium. The
volume of such a gastrula is one-sixty-fourth
part of that of a normal gastrula. While
the number of cells in a normal blastula on
the point of invaginating is five to seven
hundred, the number in one of the minute
blastulas at the same stage may be as small
as sixty. With such facts we explain the
known difficulty in rearing larvee from iso-
lated cells of late cleavage stages, as due to
a limit in the number of cleavages possible
before gastrulation. That is, gastrulation
comes after a definite number of cleavages
and a cell has its possible cleavages reduced
in a certain ratio by the number of preced-
ing cleavages.
The paper of Professor F. H. Herrick, of
72
Adelbert College, upon the Biology of the
Lobster will be printed in full in a later
number of SCIENCE.
CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY (IZ).
NATIVE ASTRONOMY IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL
AMERICA.
Ar the International Congress of Ameri-
canists, which met in Stockholm last Au-
gust, two papers were presented which ought
to give pause to those would-be critics who
of late years have been seeking to belittle
the acquirements of the semi-civilized tribes
of Mexico and Central America. Both are
studies of the positive astronomic knowledge
which had been gained by the observers
among those tribes. One is by Mrs. Zelia
Nuttall, and bears the title, Motes of the
Ancient Mexican Calendar System. It is
intended merely as a preliminary publica-
tion to a thorough analysis of this system
as it was carried out in Mexico, and con-
tains only the outlines of her discoveries.
These are, however, sufficient to support
her thesis, that the astronomer-priests
possessed a surprisingly accurate knowl-
edge of the exact length of the solar
year, of the revolution of the moon, and
of the synodical revolution of the planet
Venus.
The second paper is by Dr. Férstemann,
who is the foremost student in Germany of
the contents of the books written in the
hieroglyphic script of the ancient Mayas.
He takes up page 24 of the Dresden Codex,
and explains its meaning. This page has
been long recognized as a sort of abstract or
table of contents of those which follow it in
the Codex, but its exact bearing has not
previously been interpreted. Dr. Férste-
mann shows by ingenious and accurate
reasoning that it relates chiefly to the syn-
odical revolution of the planet Venus and
its relation to the courses of the sun and
moon.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 3.
RECENT AMERICAN LINGUISTIC STUDIES.
Tr is gratifying to note that the immense
field of native American languages is find-
ing cultivators in many countries.
Even in England, where so little has been
done in this direction, a special fund has
been raised called the ‘vocabulary pub-
lication fund,’ which prints and issues
(through Kegan Paul, Trench, Tribner &
Co.) short grammars and vocabularies of
languages from MSS. in the possession of
learned societies and individuals. The first
printed is a grammar and vocabulary of the
Ipurina language, by the Rey. J. E. R. Po-
lak. This is one of the Amazonian dia-
lects, and though we were not without some
material in it before, this addition to our
knowledge is very welcome.
From the same teeming storehouse of
Brazil, Dr. Paul Ehrenreich has lately pub-
lished in the Berlin Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie,
his excellent studies in the language of the
the Carayas and Cayapos. They are practi-
eally new in matter and form. The Pu-
quinas are a rude tribe who live about Lake
Titicaca. M. Raoul de La Grasserie has
lately issued (through Koehler, Leipzig) a
number of old texts in their language; and
Dr. Max. Uhle has collected considerable
material in it as spoken to-day. Dr. A. F.
Chamberlain, in the American Anthropolo-
gist for April last, analyzes a number of ne-
ologisms in the Kootenay language ; while
our knowledge of the remote and confusing
dialects of the Gran Chaco has lately been
notably increased by the activity of the-Ar-
gentine scholars, Macedo and Lafone-Que-
vedo, in editing from rare or manuscript
works the notes collected by the early mis-
sionaries.
AMERICAN ONOMATOLOGY.
Tue study of the meaning and origin of
geographical names has a higher purpose
than to satisfy a passing curiosity. They
are often the only surviving evidences of
se
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
migrations and occupancy ; they preserve
extinct tongues or obsolete forms ; and they
indicate the stage of culture of the people
who bestowed them. Especially useful in
these directions are the aboriginal names
on the American continent ; for the shifting
of the native population was so rapid, and
the dialects disappeared so quickly, that the
place-names are sometimes the only hints
left us of the presence of tribes in given
localities.
A model study in this field is that of Dr.
Karl Sapper in Globus, Bd. LX VI., No. 6,
on ‘The Native Place-names of Northern
Central America.’ It embraces Guatemala,
Chiapas, Tabasco, and portions of Yucatan,
Honduras and San Salvador. The aim of
the writer is to define the limits of the
Mayan dialects, and to explain the presence
of Nahuatl influence. He accomplishes his
purpose in a thorough manner. Mr. De
Peralta, in his Etnologia Centro-Americana
(Madrid, 1893), did much the same for
Costa Rica; and in the Algonkian regions
of the Eastern United States, Mr. William
Wallace Tooker (in the American Anthropol-
ogist and other periodicals) has supplied
unquestionably correct analyses of the com-
plicated and often corrupt forms derived
from that stock.
SOME RECENT EUROPEAN ARTICLES ON
AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY.
AtrHouGH some lofty archeologists in the
United States display an inability to per-
ceive the yalue of the antiquities of this
continent, it is gratifying to note that this
purblindness does not prevail in Europe.
What native American skill could accom-
plish in the line of true art is well shown by
the reproduction on the design on a beau-
tifully colored and decorated vase from
Chama, Guatemala, figured by Herr Diesel-
forff in the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1894, Heft
V. It will ereditably bear comparison with
the higher periods of Etruscan technique.
SCIENCE.
=~]
iw)
In a publication which has been lately
started by the Museum of Ethnography of
Berlin, called Ethnologisches Notiablatt, Dr. EB.
Seler, well known for his profound re-
searches into Mexican antiquity, has a copi-
ously illustrated article on the great stone
sculptures of the National Museum of Mex-
ico. He identifies several of the figures
about which doubt has been entertained.
The Count de Charencey, also an author
who has written abundantly on American
subjects, has an article in the Revue des Re-
ligions for June last, on Les Déformations
Craniennes. Unfortunately, he has not out-
grown the theories of Angrand and other
obsolete writers, who saw ‘ Toltecs’ and
‘ Asiatic influence’ and the ‘Ten Lost
Tribes’ wherever they turned their gaze in
the New World. It is a pity that his real
learning should be thus misdirected.
The Report, the ninth, of the British As-
sociation on the Northwestern Tribes of Can-.
ada, contains this year but 11 pages, writ-
ten by Dr. Boas. At the next meeting it
will conclude its labors.
SOME OF ADOLPH BASTIAN’S LATER WRITINGS.
THE untiring activity of Professor Adolph
Bastian, who for more than a quarter of a
century has occupied the position of Direc-
tor of the Royal Museum of Ethnography
at Berlin, is something amazing.
He but recently returned from a long
journey in the Orient, one of the products
of which was a remarkable book with a
not less remarkable title, Ideal Worlds ac-
cording to Uranographie Provinces, in which
he discusses at length the cosmogonies and
theogonies of the philosophers of India.
This indicates the special direction of his
studies of late years. They have turned
toward the elementary conceptions of primi-
tive and early peoples concerning the uni-
verse, cosmogony and theogony, the nature
and destiny of the soul, the life and sup-
posed worlds hereafter, the processes of
74
thought, the notions of social relation,
traced as far into their abstract forms as it
was possible for the human mind in that
stage of development to conceive and ex-
press them.
This tendency is illustrated by the titles
of some of his latest issues; as, Vorges-
chichtliche Schopfungslieder in thren Ethnischen
Elementargedanken ; Zur Mythologie und Psy-
chologie der Nigritier in Guinea mut Bezug-
nahme auf Socialistische Elementargedanken ;
Wie das Volk Denkt; ein Beitrag zur Beant-
wortung sozialer Fragen auf Grundlage Eth-
nischer Elementargedanken, etc.
These writings are all crammed with wide
erudition and mature reflection; but, unfor-
tunately, the author persists in following a
literary style of expression which is certainly
the worst of any living writer, intricate, ob-
scure, sometimes unintelligible to a born
German, as one of his own pupils has as-
sured me. This greatly limits the useful-
ness of his productions.
D. G. Brinton.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
THE CONNECTICUT SANDSTONE GROUP.
THE attempt to revive the abandoned
name of Newark for the older designation
of Connecticut, in its application to the
Triassic terranes in the Atlantic geographic
area, is supported by G. K. Gilbert and op-
posed by B.S. Lyman, in a joint discussion,
in the Journal of Geology, Vol. I1., No. 1.
One would think that the considerations
presented by me in the American Geologist,
Vol. V., page 201, would have been suffi-
cient to satisfy any one looking at the sub-
ject judicially and impartially, of the inad-
equacy of the name Newark to special
recognition. In seeking a name for a ter-
rane we should naturally inquire, first, where
is the area which exhibits best the typical
features? In answer to this we have the
fact that in the Connecticut area the early
exploration was the most thorough, the very
SCIENCE.
[N..S. Vou. I. No: 3:
unique occurrence of fossil footmarks was
first recognized, and is the only one in which
they have been thoroughly studied. At
first these were thought to have been made
by birds ; but the later suggestion of deino-
saurs has been verified by the masterly
restorations of Anchisaurus by Prof. O. C.
Marsh, obtained in the same Connecticut
valley. Reptilian bones were known also
from Pennsylvania, but no one has ever
connected them with the tracks. Thus the
feature which characterizes the American
Trias is found in its perfection in the Con-
necticut and not in the Newark area. The
fish are also more abundant in the first
named area. The other features of import-
ance are the coal and fossil plants, and
these are best developed in a Virginia.
area.
Second. It is essential for the suitability
of a geographical term, that the locality be
one where the terrane should be exhibited
in its entirety or maximum. The Connec-
ticut valley has the whole series. The city
of Newark ‘does not contain one-fourth
part of the thickness of this sandstone, and
that which is visible is only a fraction of
this fourth.’ This early statement of mine
is confirmed by Mr. B. 8. Lyman, who says:
the exposures at Newark amount to ‘ one-
tenth or one-twentieth of the beds to be
included in the name.’ Mr. Lyman has
still later called attention to the probability
that the Newark beds belong to the Permian
instead of the Triassic.
Third. The name of Connecticut or Con-
necticut river sandstone has precedence
over Newark. It was both in actual use
before the suggestion of Newark, and was.
again proposed and used after 1856 and be-
fore 1892, because no one except Mr. Red-
field employed the term Newark. The pro-
posal was never accepted by the geological
public.
In the early days of geology the use of
local names was confined to the groups like
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
Silurian and Devonian. It was not until
geologists found it necessary to specify the
smaller divisions that it was discovered
how convenient they were. The first users
of names like Potsdam and Trenton did
not make formal announcements that here-
after a particular name would be applied
to a definite set of beds with special paleon-
tological characteristics. It was the ‘ sand-
stone of Potsdam,’ the ‘limestone of Tren-
ton Falls,’ enunciated almost apologeti-
cally. We would not to-day question the
validity of these early names because their
authors did not set them forth in their
perfection, like Minerva springing forth
from the brain of Jupiter. I find the sug-
gestion of Connecticut to have been made
by E. Hitcheock in his report upon the
Geology of Massachusetts in 1833, page 209.
He says, ‘the group which I denominate
new red sandstone in the Connecticut valley’
(the italics are mine). This was repeated
in the Final Report, p. 441. Like his con-
temporaries he preferred the use of the Eu-
ropean term of Trias, New Red or sometimes
Liassic to the geographical one. We note
that the expression of new red sandstone in
the Connecticut valley is fully as definite
as the later one of sandstone of Potsdam.
This usage of Connecticut appears in all of
E. Hitchcock’s papers, and he distinctly
included the terranes of New Jersey, Vir-
ginia and North Carolina. I quote later
samples of its use. In the Ichnology of
New England, 1858, page 20, may be found
the following heading descriptive of an ex-
tended discussion ; ‘5. Conclusions as to
the Age and Equivalency of the Connecti-
eut River Sandstone.’ In 1859 he pub-
lished in the Report of the Secretary of the
Massachusetts Board of Agriculture a cata-
logue of the State Collection. The follow-
ing is the headingused descriptive of the spe-
cimens from this terrane: ‘‘ Connecticut
River Sanpstone. (Liassie and perhaps Tri-
assic and Permian sandstones and limestones. )”’
SCIENCE. 75
In 1860 Messrs. H. and ©. T. Smith, 356
Pearl street, New York, published a wall
map of Hampshire county, Massachusetts,
based upon the surveys of Henry F. Wall-
ing. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of these
maps adorned the walls of houses belong-
ing to citizens of that county. Upon it
yas placed a geological map of the county
by Edward Hitchcock, and in explanation
of the colors we have ‘Connecticut River
Sandstone, Lower and Upper,’ and the
words New Red or Trias do not appear at
all. Thus the usage of the name Connecti-
cut in the writings of this author has been
constant and has passed from the employ-
ment of both the European and local terms
conjointly to the use of the latter one ex-
clusively.
Other earlier authors employed the geo-
graphical name in a geological sense. Thus
Lyell in his Travels, 1845, page 100, Vol. 2,
says ‘the Connecticut deposits.’ Dr. James
Deane constantly speaks of the Connecticut
river sandstone ; and in his final work upon
the footmarks, a quarto with 61 pages and
46 plates, published by Little, Brown & Co.,
Boston, in 1861, his title is ‘A Memoir upon
the Fossil Footprints and other Impressions
of the Connecticut River Sandstone, by
James Deane, M. D.’
Roderick Impey Murchison, in his anni-
versary address before the Geological Soci-
ety of London, 1843, page 107, etc., speaks
of the ‘deposit in Connecticut’ and the
‘ornithichnite and Paleoniseus beds of Con-
necticut.’
Dr. John C. Warren, President of the
Boston Society of Natural History, is re-
ported as having given ‘an historical ac-
count of the science of Ichnology, particu-
larly as illustrated by the fossil footprints
in the Connecticut River Sandstone;’ Nov.
2, 1853, Proc. B. S. N. H., Vol. IV., p. 376.
Various remarks of his on these subjects
were printed in 1854 in a book entitled
‘Remarks on Some Fossil Impressions in the
76
Sandstone Rocks of Connecticut River,’ by John
C. Warren, M. D., President of the Boston
Society of Natural History.
Prof. W. B. Rogers, at a meeting of the
Boston Society of Natural History, June 20,
1855, spoke of the discovery of the fern
Clathropteris in the ‘Connecticut River
Sandstone.’
The use of the name Connecticut River
Sandstone as applied to the rocks in ques-
tion seems to have been universal among
the members of the Boston Society of Nat-
ural History in the fifties, and it is applied
as a matter of course in the index in Vols.
V., VI., VIL., ete. Mr. TI. T. Bouvé also
uses the expression prior to 1855.
A sufficient number of citations have now
been made to prove the frequent application
of the term Connecticut River Sandstone to
the Triassic terranes before the proposal of
W.C. Redfield in 1856 to apply the designa-
tion of Newark to the same. Others could
be added. But I will in the next place call
attention to the fact that no one had followed
Redfield’s suggestion till 1889, a period of a
third of a century, until Mr. I. C. Russell
proposed to revive the name of Newark.
Every American geologist by his silence in-
dicated his disapproval of the suggestion.
Furthermore, the use of the expression Con-
necticut had become pronounced. In fact, its
use, coupled with the rejection of Newark, is
sufficient to establish the usage of the former
without any regard to the usage previous to
1856. I will cite a few instances of its use.
The catalogue of the Massachusetts State
Cabinet in 1859, the Ichnology in 1858, the
map of Hampshire county, 1860, and the
title of Dr. Deane’s book in 1861, belong to
this category. H. D. Rogers, in the Geology
of Pennsylvania, 1858, prefers the term
‘older Mesozoic,’ but certainly rejects the
use of Newark, as he makes no reference to
it, and uses the following expressions : ‘ The
vegetable fossils in the Connecticut sand-
stone ;’ ‘the organic remains in the Connec-
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 3.
ticut red sandstone.’ A title, ‘Red Sand-
stones of the Connecticut Valley.’ Roswell
Field ‘ made a verbal communication on the
footmarks of the Connecticut river sand-
stones’ before the Boston Society of Natural
History, June 6, 1860. In 1859, at the
Springfield meeting of the A. A. A.5., he
discusses the ornithichnites of the ‘sand-
stone of the Connecticut valley.’ This
paper was reprinted the following year in
the American Journal of Science.
Prof. O. C. Marsh presents in a section il-
lustrating the occurrence of vertebrate life
in America the name of Connecticut river beds
which includes all the Atlantic areas. This
has been printed with his 1877 address be-
fore the A. A. A. §., the third edition of
Dana’s Manual of Geology, 1880, the mono-
graph on the Dinocerata, 1885, ete.
Prof. Joseph Le Conte in his Elements of
Geology, 1878, and later editions describes
the eastern Jura-Trias under the head of
Connecticut river valley sandstone.
Prof. J. P. Lesley in C 4 of Second Penn-
sylvania Survey, p. 179, 1883, says, ‘‘Amer-
ican geologists now write habitually of the
Triassic red sandstone of the Connecticut val-
ley and of North Carolina.”? Although the
Newark area was through Pennsylvania he
prefers to select the locality name from
either of the other principal areas. There
are two references to the want of acceptance
of the term Newark. I had the pleasure of
attending Prof. J: D. Dana’s course of lec-
tures on Geology at Yale College in 1856.
I noted that he then mentioned the fact
that Mr. Redfield had proposed the name of
of Newark for the American Trias. But
he has never used the name in any publica-
tion, evidently for good reasons. In a
sketch of the Geology of Massachusetts
with map in Walling’s Official Atlas, 1871,
the following is printed, written by myself:
““W. C. Redfield proposed the name of
Newark sandstones for the group; but be-
sides being inappropriate, it was of later
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
date than the appellation of Connecticut.”’
This review of the usages of names for
the trias shows that the name of Connecti-
cut was distinctly proposed by E. Hitch-
cock in 1833, and was constantly used by
the geologists specially interested in those
works before 1856: W. C. Redfield pro-
posed the name of Newark for the terranes
in 1856: that instead of accepting the name
geologists universally employed the name
of Connecticut when using a local designa-
tion up to 1889: that in this period there
were several unmistakable formal proposals
of the use of Connecticut: and that there
were in this period allusions to the fact that
the name of Newark was not accepted.
Even Mr. Russell, in his learned paper of
1878, used the name of Triassic in prefer-
ence to Newark.
Mr. Gilbert mentions three ‘ qualifica-
tions of a geographic name for employment
in stratigraphy, (1) definite association of
the geographic feature with the terrane, (2)
freedom of the term from pre-oceupation in
stratigraphy, (3) priority.’ These are ac-
ceptable with the addition of a fourth, ap-
propriateness of application. All of these
qualifications are possessed by the term
Connecticut , while the term Newark can-
not satisfy a single one of them.
C. H. Hircncock.
DARTMOUTH COLLEGE.
LENGTH OF VESSELS IN PLANTS.
Tue diameter of pitted and other vessels
is easily measured upon the cross-section of
any stem, but their length is less readily de-
termined. Probably, if the question were
put, a majority of botanists would say that
they rarely exceed a few inches in length,
especially if they still believe with Sachs
that the water ascends through the walls of
the vessels. As a matter of fact, the spiral
and pitted vessels of plants often form open
passageways of great length. Some experi-
ments made upon woody stems by Strass-
SCIENCE. hid
burger (Ueber den Bau u. die Verrichtungen
der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen) seem to
place this beyond dispute. His method of
procedure was to fasten a glass tube to the
upper end of a cut stem by a rubber band,
insert a funnel into the upper end of the tube,
and subject the cut surface to the pressure
of a column of mereury kept at a uniform
height of twenty centimeters, successively
shortening the stem until mercury appeared
at the lower end. Using this method, he
obtained the following results :
(1.) In a branch of Quereus rubra, 1.5
meters long and about three centimeters
thick, mercury ran out of thirty vessels on
the lower cut surface almost as soon as it
was poured into the funnel. When the
branch was shortened to one meter fifty-
four to fifty-six vessels were permeable. In
a slender branch of Quercus pedunculata,
one meter long, thirty-five vessels dropped
mercury, and when this was shortened to
one-half meter mercury came out of more
than 100 vessels. Another branch five
centimeters thick at the base and 3.6 meters
long was tried, and drops of mercury fell in
quick succession from eight vessels. In
Quercus Cerris mercury came through seven
vessels of a branch four meters long and six
centimeters thick at the base. Shortened
to 3.5 meters nine vessels dropped mercury ;
at three meters, twelve vessels; at 2.5 me-
ters, numerous vessels. Conclusion: Vessels
two meters long are quite common in the
oaks, and it is probable that single vessels
may be as long as the stem itself.
(2.) In Robinia Pseudacacia, a branch
two meters long and three centimeters thick
was impermeable and first let through mer-
cury when shortened to 1.18 meters. Then
it dropped from four vessels. Successively
shortened mercury dropped from an increas-
ing number of vessels as follows: One
meter, nine vessels ; fifty centimeters, thirty-
eight vessels; twenty-five centimeters, fifty-
seven vessels.
78
(3.) A stem of Wistaria 1.75 meters
long and haying seven internodes dropped
mercury from seven vessels. Another stem
three meters long and containing forty-
seven internodes was first killed by heating
for an hour in water at 90°, and then dried.
This did not let mercury through until it
had been shortened to 2.5 meters. Then it
dropped pretty fast from four vessels. Re-
duced to two meters, nine vessels dropped
mercury, and out of some it ran rapidly.
Another shoot gave nearly the same re-
sults. A fresh and very long stem had to
be shortened to three meters before mercury
came through. Then it dropped from three
vessels. Successively shortened, the num-
ber of permeable vessels was as follows: 2.5
meters, eleven vessels ; two meters, eighteen
vessels; 1.5 meter, twenty-seven to twenty-
nine vessels. These stems were one to two
centimeters thick. Conclusion : Some of the
vessels in Wistaria are quite long, though
scarcely more than three meters. Most of
the wide vessels are about one meter long.
(4.) A eane of Vitis Labrusca 1.2 centi-
meter thick, which was previously killed
by heating for an hour in water at 90° C.
and then air-dried, first let mercury through
(3 vessels) when shortened to 2.2 meters.
(5.) A shoot of Aristolochia Sipho 1.5 cen-
timeters thick, 2.5 meters long, and having
fifteen internodes was killed in the same
way. This let mercury through fourteen
vessels. Another shoot 2.1 meters long let
the mereury through many vessels. A fresh
stem five meters long, the longest he could
get, dropped mercury from five vessels.
When successively shortened, more and
more vessels dropped mercury. At 3.5 me-
ters twenty-five vessels let it through, and
when the stem was cut down to three me-
ters the number of vessels dropping mercury
could not be determined. Conclusion: In
this plant numerous vessels are three meters
long, some are five meters long, and a few
are probably longer.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 3.
In Aristolochia the vessels of different an-
nual rings were equally permeable, but in
the wistaria, the locust and the oaks the
permeable vessels were mostly on the per-
iphery. The records were made in from ten
to thirty minutes from the beginning of the
pressure, the time depending on the length
of the stem. In general the mercury was
passed through the stem in the same direc-
tion as the ascending water current, but a
change of direction did not give contradic-
tory results. These experiments were re-
peated, using a pressure of forty centime-
ters, but even this did not rupture any cross-
walls. This increased pressure overcame
the capillary resistance and forced the mer-
eury through many smaller vessels, but
otherwise the results were much the same.
Erwin F. Sire.
W ASHINGTON.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Introduction to Elementary Practical Biology.—
By Charles Wright Dodge, M. 8.—Har-
per Bros., New York. 1894.
This book is a laboratory guide for high
school and college students. The teacher
of biology who is endeavoring to train his
students in the best manner is in modern
times, amid the abundance of laboratory
guides, in very much of a quandary as to
the best of two opposite methods. If, on
the one hand, he puts a laboratory guide
into the hands of the student, the result is
apt to be that the student soon learns simply
to verify the facts mentioned in the book,
and thus loses all stimulus for original ob-
servation, which should be the foremost
result of practical work in biological science.
On the other hand, if the teacher gives to an
elementary student a specimen to study
without laboratory directions, he is at such
complete loss to know how to proceed, what
to do, and particularly what points to no-
tice, that a large proportion of his time is
wasted through sheer lack of the proper
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
knowledge of methods. To force a student
to invent methods does stimulate indeed
observation, but it is a very great waste of
time on the part of most students. Between
this loss of stimulus to original observation
and the loss of time, the instructor is very
puzzled how to proceed.
Prof. Dodge of Rochester University in
the guide just published has attempted to
solve the problem by a new method of direc-
tion. The laboratory guide here noticed
gives the student some few directions as to
methods of dissection and methods of pro-
cedure, but beyond this gives him practi-
eally no information in regard to his speci-
mens. By a series of skilfully arranged
questions it forces the student to make his
own observations and to make them in the
right direction. Instead of directing the
student to observe a certain fact a question
is asked which leads him to hunt for
a solution, and the result is independent
observation. This method of study renders
the text book of no value unless the student
has the specimen directly in front of him,
for there is no possibility of answering these
questions in any other way than from the
Specimen.
The method of teaching here planned is
certainly an ideal one and has been quite
successfully carried out by Prof. Dodge. It
is true that the questions given are some-
times entirely beyond the possibility of the
student’s solution, and it must also be re-
cognized that this method is one designed
to occupy a very great amount of time.
Some of the problems which are set before
the student will require days for solution,
and others have not yet been settled by the
observation of scientific investigators. It
will therefore take a great amount of time
to complete the outline given, for the book
is a comprehensive study of biology, includ-
ing the study of the animal and vegetable
cell, on the side of animals, the study of the
sponge, hydra, campanularian hydroid, star
SCIENCE.
79
fish, earthworm, the lobster, locust, clam,
and the frog; and on the side of the vege-
table kingdom, green felt, stone work, rock
weed, mould, mushrooms, liverworts, ferns
and flowering plants. Whether the student
in the time allotted to the study of general
biology even in our best colleges will be able
to complete the list by the method outlined
in the guide is doubtful, but there can be
little doubt that the method of teaching
adopted by Prof. Dodge in this book is an
ideal one, and for stimulating observation
and at the same time enabling the student
to do the most work in the smallest amount
of time, there is perhaps no laboratory guide
in biology yet published which succeeds as
well as the one here noticed.
H. W. Conn.
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY.
Le Grisou [Fire Damp], par H. Le Cuarer-
IER, Ingénieur en Chef des Mines.—Pro-
fesseur 4 l’Ecole nationale des Mines.—
Paris, Gauthier Villars et Fils, 1894.
Pp. 187. Broché 2 fr 50, Cartonné 3 fr.
The rapid extension of technical scientific
knowledge, and the increasing call for spe-
cialists in every department, is best shown
in the literature of the past few years. The
discussion of general topics within the limits
of a single volume is now possible only in
the most elementary works designed for be-
ginners and for the lower classes of our col-
leges. We have in place of the general text
book a rapidly increasing library devoted to
special subjects, each presented by special-
ists in their own field and each treating of
some small part of the great sciences form-
erly considered as a unit. The present vol-
ume is of this nature, and, coming from the
hand of an engineer of wide reputation, will
be of great service to all advanced students
of mining whether still within the college
confine or employed in the active practice of
their profession. ‘Fiery’ mines are com-
mon in our coal fields, and many mines long
worked without suspicion of danger, or with
80
carelessness engendered by delayed casu-
alty, suddenly become the scenes of disaster
and great loss of life. M. Le Chatelier has
brought together a great mass of facts from
many sources and has so presented them as
to place them conveniently within reach of
all workers in the field. Part I. treats of
the nature and production of fire damp, its
composition, manner of explosion, its limit
of inflammability, and other properties, phy-
sical and chemical. Part II. is highly prac-
tical and is devoted to the consideration of
the immediate cause of accidents, with pre-
cautions against the same, the use of safety
lamps and of safety explosives, ete. To
those desiring a more extended treatment of
any of these subjects, or those wishing to
consult original papers, the very complete
Bibliography which is given at the end of the
work will be of great service, particularly
as a guide to continental publications.
CHARLES PLATT.
PHILADELPHIA.
At the North of Bearcamp Water.— Chronicles
of a Stroller in New England from July to
December—By FRANK BouuEs.—Hough-
ton, Mifflin & Co., 16 mo. pp. 297.
Any one who will go afield in the rain
for the purpose of seeing how the wet birch
trees look, or who will stay through a stormy
night on a mountain top for the sake of the
scenery, has certainly a lively interest in
nature. The late Frank Bolles had all of
this interest and in addition a kindly sym-
pathy with every wandering creature. In
his last book, At the North of Bearcamp
Water, one does not find as many paragraphs
suitable for quotations on a daily calendar
as would occur in a volume of Thoreau, but
his description of a July afternoon when
“The air was full of quivering heat and
hazy midsummer softness,’ has all the
strength of beauty and truth.
The book particularly describes nature in
the vicinity of Chocorua mountain, but
there are also chapters on Old Shag, Bear
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 3.
and other White Mountain peaks. In these
accounts of scenery of deer, foxes, birds and
trees there is an evident truthfulness, as
real as the objects themselves. The mass
of detail brought into some of these chapters
is surprising, and a frog did not jump
across the path without being made to play
his part in the account of the day’s ramble.
Among the most interesting pages are
those devoted to‘ A Lonely Link,’ and to
‘ A Night Alone on Chocorua.’ Mr. Bolles
had his red roofed cottage by the lake and
describes the squirrels, muskrats, poreu-
pines, and many birds that were his
neighbors. The narrative is peaceful in
tone, as restful as a quiet ramble in the
woods, and those who wish to be trans-
ported in spirit to pleasing natural scenes
will do well to accept Mr. Bolles as guide.
W. T. Davis.
NOTES.
THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA.
The Botanical Society of America was
organized during the meeting of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of
Science at Brooklyn, N. Y., in August,
1894. The following extracts from the Con-
stitution adopted are of general interest.
“There may be two classes of members—
active and honorary. Only American bot-
anists engaged in research, who haye pub-
lished work of recognized merit, shall be
eligible to active membership. Before the
Ist of January following his election, each
active member shall pay into the treasury
of the Society a fee of twenty-five dollars
($25), and thereafter annual dues to the
amount of ten dollars ($10), payable before
the 1st of January.”
“Candidates for active membership shall
be recommended by three active members
of the Society not members of the Council,
who shall certify that the candidate is elig-
ible under the provisions of the Constitu-
tion. These nominations shall be placed in
JANUARY 18, 1895.]
the hands of the Secretary at least three
months before the meeting of the Society
which is to act on them. Two months be-
fore said meeting, the Secretary shall cause
to be prepared and sent to each active
member of the Society-a list of the nomi-
nees, indicating the residence, occupation
and qualifications of each and the names of
those recommending him.”
“The officers of this Society shall be a
President, Vice-President, Secretary and
Treasurer. Their duties shall be those us-
ually performed by such officers in other
bodies, and such additional duties as may
be prescribed by the Constitution of this
Society. They shall hold office through the
annual meeting following the year of elec-
tion, and until their successors have been
elected and qualified. An address shall be
delivered by the President at the annual
‘meeting two years after his election.”
“The officers, together with the last
Past-President and two members elected
by the Society at its annual meeting, shall
constitute a Council, which shall be charged
with such duties as are prescribed by the
Society, and shall represent the Society in
the interval between meetings of the lat-
ter, reporting any ad interim action at the
next general meeting of the Society; but
acts of the Council not specified in the
Constitution, or for which special power
has not been conferred by the Society, shall
be binding on the latter only after they
have been reported and approved at such
general meeting. The Council shall con-
stitute a Publication Committee, charged
with editing, publishing and distributing
such publications as may be authorized by
the Society, and they shall have the power
to select from their own number or the
membership of the Society an editor to
whom they may delegate the immediate
duty of editing such publications. They
shall all constitute a Board of Curators
for the property of the Society, subject to
SCIENCE. 81
such rules as are provided in the Constitu-
tion or otherwise prescribed by the Soci-
ety.”
“The Society shall hold an annual meet-
ing at such time and place as the Council
each year may select; and special meetings
for the presentation of papers or the trans-
action of business, at such other times and
places as the Society or Council may from
time to time deem necessary.”
The officers for the present year are:
Prof. Wm. Trelease, Missouri Botanical
Garden, President; Prof. N. L. Britton,
Columbia College, New York City, Vice-
President; Prof. C. R. Barnes, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., Secretary.
PSYCHOLOGY.
The department of Philosophy and Psy-
chology at Chicago has been made this year
one of the strongest in America. Professor
Dewey, formerly of the University of Michi-
gan, has accepted a call to the Head Pro-
fessorship of Philosophy; Mr. G. H. Mead,
also of the University of Michigan, has
been made assistant Professor of Philoso-
phy; Mr. J. R. Angell, formerly of the
University of Minnesota, has been made as-
sistant Professor of Psychology, and Mr. 5S.
F. McLennan has been made assistant in
Psychology.
ARTICLES ON SCTENCE.
Among the articles of scientific interest
in the popular magazines are the following :
A New Flying Machine, Abram 8. Maxim
(Jan. Century) ; Want of Economy in the
Lecture System, John Trowbridge; The
Genius of France, Havelock Ellis; Gallia
Rediviva, Adolphe Cohn (Jan. Atlantic
Monthly) ; The World’s Debt to Astronomy,
Simon Neweomb (Dee. Chautauquan) ; The
World’s Debt to Chemistry, H. B. Corn-
wall (Jan. Chautauquan); Mental Character-
ists of the Japanese, George Trumbull
Ladd (Jan. Seribner’s); Heredity, Part
III., St. George Mivart (Jan. Humanita-
82
rian) ; Recent Science, Prince Krapotkin
(Dee. Nineteenth Century).
Nature has reprinted (Dec. 13 and 20)
in full the interesting address on Endow-
ment for Scientific Research and Publication
given by Mr. Addison Brown before the
Scientific Alliance of New York, and pub-
lished in the Report of the Smithsonian
Institution for 1892.
Mr. Kumagusu Minakata has written, in
view of the claims of priority recently made
by two English writers, a letter to Nature
(December 27), calling attention to the use
of ‘finger-prints’ as a means of signing
documents and identification in the laws
and usage of China and Japan as early as
650 A. D.
The Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschaw is
publishing in its current numbers an ac-
count of the sixty-sixth Versammlung der
Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte,
held last year in Vienna.
FORTHCOMING PUBLICATIONS.
Following the publication of H. M.Ward’s
translation of Hartig’s Text-book of the Dis-
eases of Trees, the same publishers (Messrs.
Macmillan & Co.) announce as nearly ready
three other important translations: Ratzel’s
Volkerkunde, translated by A. J. Butler;
the article Construction from Viollet le
Due’s Dictionnaire raisonné de V architecture
francaise, translated by G. M. Duss, and
Paulsen’s Universities of Germany, translated
by E. D. Perry, of Columbia College.
There will be issued this month as a
supplement to The Psychological Review a
Bibliography of Psychological Literature for
1894, compiled by Dr. Livingston Far-
rand, of Columbia College, and Mr. Howard
C. Warren, of Princeton College. The
bibliography will include so far as possible
all books, monographs and articles in Psy-
chology, and those publications in philo-
sophy, biology, anthropology, neurology
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 3.
ete., which are important for psychology.
Aw Année Psychologique, edited by Profes-
sor Alfred Binet, will be issued in March. _
Messrs. Macmitnan & Co., announce for
early publication A Rural Science Series,
edited by Professor L. H. Bailey, of Cor-
nell University.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE, DEC.
Contribution to the comparative histology of pul-
vint and the resulting photeolic movements.
(With plate XXXIV.) F. D. Heaxp.
Two new ferns from New England : GEorGE E.
DAVENPORT.
Some notes on the Leguminose of Siam: GLENN
CULBERTSON.
Briefer Articles; Editorial; Current Iitera-
ture; Notes and News; General Index.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW, JAN.
Hermann von Helmholtz and the New Psychol-
ogy: C. STUMPF.
The Theory of Emotion (IL) ; The Significance
of Emotions: JounN DEWEY.
The Muscular Sense and its Localization in the
Brain Cortex: M. ALLEN STARR.
A Location Reaction Apparatus: G. W. Firz.
Discussion :—Paut SHorEY; H. M. Sran—
LEY; H. R. Marswart; E. B. Tirce—
ENER.
Psychological Literature ; Notes.
THE ENGINEERING MAGAZINE, JAN.
Silver Coinage Historically Considered: H. D.
McLeop.
Modern Theories as to Electricity: Henry A.
ROWLAND.
The Drainage System of the Valley of Memico =
Hon. M. Romero.
Practical Hints for City Officials: E. C. Garp—
NER, Lewis M. Haver.
Selecting Motive Power for a New Plant:
CHaries E. Emery.
Plumbing Trade Schools and Their Influence =
E. N. G. LrBors.
JANUARY 18, 1895. ]
Laboratory Training for Mining Engineers:
R. H. Ricwarps.
Operating Machine Tools
GrorGE RricHMoND.
First Principles in Architecture: Wu. Henry
GoopYEAr.
by Electricity :
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
THE LINNXAN SOCIETY.
Tue Linnean Society of New York City,
in codperation with the American Museum
of Natural History, has arranged for a
series of illustrated lectures to be given in
the large lecture hall of the museum, on
Tuesdays at 8 p.m. The lectures are :—
Frank M. Cuapmay, assistant Curator in
the American Museum of Natural His-
tory. A Trip through the Lesser Antilles.
Physical and Natural History of the Is-
lands, their Products and Inhabitants.
January 8.
Henry Fairrretp Oszorn, Se. D., Da Costa
Professor of Biology, Columbia College.
The Great West, a Half Million Years Ago.
An account of our Continent when it was
separated from South America and joined
to Asia, and the Climate and Vegetation
were Sub-tropical. February 5.
Wituam Lrssey, Jr., Se. D., Professor of
Physical Geography and Director of the
E. M. Museum of Geology and Arche-
ology, Princeton College, New Jersey.
Hawaii, the Paradise of the Pacific. March 12.
Freperick W. Purnam, Professor of Amer-
ican Archeology and Ethnology in Har-
vard University, and Curator of Anthro-
pology in the American Museum of Na-
tural History. Ancient Earthworks in the
Ohio Valley. April 2.
_ UNIVERSITY ARCHEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.
The University Archeological Associa-
tion of Philadelphia offers a course of lec-
tures to be given at 4 p. m., in the Library
building of the University of Pennsylvania,
as follows :—
;
SCIENCE.
83
January 9.—Mr. Tatcorr WiLiiAMs, Some
Morrocean Relations.
January 16.—Dr. Dante G. Brovron, The
Beginnings of the Fine Arts.
January 23.—Mr. Henry G. Bryant,
Notes on the Most Northern Eskimos.
January 30.—Dr. Harrison ALLEN, The
Human Skull ; what is its Place in a Museum
of Archeology ?
February 6.—Caprary Ricwarp §. Coiium,
U.S. M. C., The Evolution of Small Arms.
February 13.—Dr. Dantret G. Brinton,
Love Charms and Tokens.
Eebruary 20.—Mr. Srewartr Curr, The
Wand of the Conjuror.
Srewarr Cuiyy, Secretary.
THE ROCHESTER ADADEMY OF SCIENCE.
Program of Meetings, 1895.
January 14.—Annual Meeting ; Election of
Officers ; Illustrated Paper by the Presi-
dent, Pror. H. L. Farreurip, The Geology
of the Pinnacle Hills.
January 21.—Emim Kuicuumne, The New
Conduit of the Rochester Water Works.
January 28.—Popular Lecture, J. D. Mar-
LONER, The Structure of Rocks as Shown by
Polarized Light.
February 11.—J. Srantey-Brown, The Pri-
bilof Islands and the Seal Industry.
February 25.—J. Evcene Wuitney, The
Depotism of the Plurality.
March 11.—Cuartes H. Warp, The Teeth
of Man.
March 25.—Pror. W. W. Rowrer, The Evo-
lution of Seeds.
April 8.—Cuaries Wrieat Doper, Diph-
theria and Anti-towine.
April 22.—Apetsert Cronise, The Panama
Canal.
May 13.—Rrcuarp M. Moore, The Coleop-
terous Fauna of Rochester and Vicinity.
May 27.—H. L. Farromxp, Glacial Lakes of
Western New York.
June 10.—H. L. Fatrcurmp, The Geology of
Trondequoit Bay.
84
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
December 19.
Mansrretp Merriman, The Strength and
Weathering Qualities of Roofing Slates.
This paper, which will be published in
the transactions of the Society, about Feb-
ruary ist, gave an account of original
physical and chemical tests of the proper-
ties of different slates.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
January 9.
Mr. J. S. Ditter, Artificial wire silver, pre-
pared by ¥. C. PHILLIPS.
Mr. G. P. Merritt, On the disintegration of
the granitic rocks of the District of Columbia.
Mr. W. Lrypcren, Characteristic featwres of
the gold quartz veins of California, with speci-
mens. Wuitman Oross, Secretary.
THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
January 12.
L. H. Battry, The Plant Individual im the
Light of Evolution.
Frepreric A. Lucas, Secretary.
BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
January 14.
J. WALTER Frwxess, The new jire ceremony
at Walpi. SamuEL HunsHaw, Secretary.
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
Exhibition of microscopical and lantern slides
with notes on technique.
R. H. Cunninenam, On the Sources of Ilu-
mination for Photo-micrography.
C. F. Cox, The Lantern Slides of Mr. E. F.
Smith, F. k. M. S., of London, illustrating
the latest Theories of Diatom Structure.
O. S. Srrone, Notes of new histological Nerve
Methods.
Epwarp Lramine, Evhibition of photomicro-
graphic slides, bacteriological, newrological,
biological.
BasHrorD Dray, Secretary.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 3.
THE NEW YORK ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
January 15.
Meeting at American Museum of Natural _
History.
R. L. Dirmars, Notes on a collecting trip
through Connecticut.
Lewis H. Jouret, Secretary.
NEW BOOKS.
Radiant Suns.
Macmillan & Co.
AGNES GIBERNE. New York,
1894. Pp. viit+328.
Race and Language. ANDRE Lerzkyre. New
York, D. Appleton & Co. 1894. Pp. vit
424.
Die Samoanische Schipfungs-Sage und Ansch-
liessendes aus der Sudsee. ApoLF BASTIAN.
Berlin, Emil Feller. 1894. Pp. 50.
Die Gtross-Schmetterlinge Europas. PRoF,
Ernst Hormann. 2d Ed. C. Hoffmann.
1894. Pp. xl+24. M. 28.
Model Engine Composition with Practical In- -
structions to Artificers and Amateurs. J.
ALEXANDER. London, Whittaker & Co.;
New York, Macmillan & Co. 1894. Pp.
vilit824. $3.00.
Hin geologische Querschnitt durch die Ost-Alpen.
A. Rorupierz. Stuttgart, E. Schweizer-
bart. 1894. Pp. iv+268. M. 10.
Geotektonische Probleme. A. ROTHPLETZ,
Stuttgart, E. ScHwEIZERBART. 1894.
Pp aliion | Mis 8)
Biological Lectures Delivered at the Marine
Biological Laboratory of Wood’s Hall, Bos-
ton. Ginn & Co. 1894. Pp. 242.
Introduction to Chemical Analysis for Begin-
ners. Fr. Ruporrr. Translated from
the Sixth Edition by Caries B. Grsson
and F. Mrnzri. Chicago, The W. T.
Keener Co. 1894. $1.00.
The Etiology of Osseous Deformities of the
Head, Face, Jaws and Teeth. Eucune 8.
Tarpor, 3d Ed. Chicago. The W. T.
Keener Co. Pp. xvit487, $4.
"Ty
SCIENCE.
NEW SERIES.
VoL. I. No. 4.
Fripay, JANUARY 25, 1895.
b]
SINGLE Coptres, 15 cts.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00
GUSTAV E. STECHERT’S
Recent Importation of Scientific Books.
MATHEMATICS.
BACHMANN, PaAvL, Zahlentheorie. Versuch e.
Gesammitdarstellung dieser Wissenschaft in ihren
Haupttheilen. 2. Thl. Die analytische Zahlentheorie.
gers’. Mk. 12.
GRASSMANN’S, Hm., Gesammelte mathematische
und physikalische Werke. Auf Veranlassung der
mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der kénigl. siich-
sischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und unter
Mitwirkung von Jul. Liiroth, Ed. Study, Just. Grass-
mann, Hm. Grassman Md. J., G. Scheffers herausze-
geben von F. Engel. I. Bd. 1. Thl. Die Ausdeh-
nungslehre von 1844 und die geometrische Analyse.
a. 8° 35Fig. Mk. 12.
CANTOR, Mor., Vorlesungen tib. Geschichte der
Mathematik. 3. Bd. Vom. J. 1668 bis zum J.
1759. 1. Abtlg. Die Zeit von 1668 bis 1699. gr. 8°.
Mk. 6.
HEFTER, Pror. Dr. LorHaR. LEinleitung in die
Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen mit
einer unabhingigen Variablen. Mit 3 Figuren im
Texte. gr. 8°. Mk. 6.
THOMAE, Jon. Die Kegelschnitte in rein-projek-
tiver Behandlung. Mit in den Text eingedruckten
Holzschnitten und 16 lithographierten Figurenta-
feln. gr. 8°. Mk. 6.
ASTRONOMY.
GALLE, J. G. Verzeichnis der Elemente der
bisher berechneten Cometenbahnen, nebst Anmer-
kungen und Literatur-Nachweisen, neu bearbeitet,
ergiinzt und fortgesetzt bis zum Jahre 1894. Mk. 12.
Publikationen des astrophysikalischen Observator-
iums zu Potsdam. Herausgegeben von H. C. Vogel.
Nr. 32. X. Bd. 1. Stiick. 4°. Mit 30 Taf. Mk.
12,
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Lévy, A. M.’ Etude sur la détermination des feld-
spaths dans les plaques minces au point de vue de la
classification des roches. 8°. Avee 8 pl. cal. et 9 fig.
Fr. 7; 50c.
Hintze, C. Handbuch der Mineralogie.
Mit 56 Abbildgn. Mk. 5.
WALTHER, Prof. Johs, Einleitung in die Geologie
als historische Wissenschaft. III. (Schluss-) Thl.
Lithogenesis der Gegenwart. Beobachtungen iib die
Bildg. der Gesteine an der heut. Erdoberfliiche.
gr. m. 8 Abbildgn. Mk. 13.
8. Lfg.
ZOOLOGY.
_BERGH, Dr. R. S., Vorlesungen iiber die Zelle und
die einfachen Gewebe des tierischen Kérpers. Mit
einem Anhang: Technische Anleitung zu einfachen
histologischen Untersuchungen. Mit 138 Figuren im
Texte. gr. 8° Mk. 7.
Boas, Dr. J. E. v., Lehrbuch der Zodlogie. 2.
Aufl. gr. 8°. Mk. 10; geb. Mk. 11.
DE GRossoUVRE, A. Recherches sur la craie
supérieure. 2° partie. Paléontologie: Les ammonites
de la craie supérieure. 4°. Avec 39 fig. et atlas de
39 pl. Fr. 20.
LINNAEI, Caroli, systema naturae. Regnum ani-
male. Ed. X. 1758, cura societatis Zoélogiacae ger-
manicae iterum edita. gr. 8°. Mk. 10;—Einbd. Mk.
2:25.
HALLER, B. Studien iiber docoglosse und rhipido-
glosse Prosobranchier nebst Bemerkungen iiber die
phyletischen Beziehungen der Mollusken unterein-
ander. 4°. Mit 6 Textfig. u. 12 Taf. Mk. 32.
Pororr, DEMETRIUS. Die Dottersack-Getiisse der
Huhnes. Mit 12 lithographischen Tafeln in Farben-
druck und 12 lithographierten Tafel-Erklirungsblit-
tern. 4°. Mk. 27. i
Scumipt, Apr. Atlas der Diatomaceen-Kunde.
In Verbindung mit Griindler, Grunow, Janisch und
Witt herausgegeben. 48. u. 49. Heft. Fol. 8 Taf.
Mit. 8 Bl. Erklirgn. Mk. 6.
SEMON, PRor. Dr. RICHARD. Zodlogische Forsch-
ungsreisen in Australien und dem malayischen Ar-
chipel. Mit Unterstiitzung des Herrn Dr. Paul von
Ritter ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1891-1893. Erster
Band. Ceratodus. Erste Lieferung. Mit 8 lito-
Abbildungen im Texte.
graphischen Tafeln und 2
Mk. 20.
(Text und Atlas.) gr. 4°.
BOTANY.
ENGLER, A., und K. PRANTL. Die natiirlichen
Pflanzenfamilien nebst ihren Gattungen und wich-
tigeren Arten, insbesondere den Nutzpflanzen, unter
Mitwirkung zahlreicher hervorragender Fachgelehr-
ten begriindet von A. E. und K. P., fortgesetzt von
A. Engler. II. Tl. 6. Abtlg. 8° Mit 592 Ein-
zelbildern in 87 Fig. sowie Abteilungs-Register.
Subskr.-Pr. Mk. 8; Einzelpr. Mk. 16.
LINDEN, L. Les Orchidées exotiques et leurs cul-
ture en Europe. Avee nombr. fig. Fr. 25.
ScHUMANN, Kust. Prof. Dr. K., Lehrbuch der sys-
tematischen Botanik, Phytopaliontologie u. Phyto-
geographie. gr. 8°. 193 Fig. u. 1 farb. Karte. Mk. 16.
GUSTAV E. STECHERT,
810 Broadway, New York.
i SCIENCE.—ADVERTISEMENTS.
Macmillan & Co.’s New Books in Science.
Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism.
By SYLVANUus P. THOMPSON, D.Sc., B.A., F.R.A.S.,
Principal of the City and Guilds of London Technical
College, Finsbury. New, Revised Edition, with many
Additions. With numerous Ilustrations. 12mo,
$1.40, net.
Lectures on Human and Animal Psy-
chology.
Translated from the Second and Revised German
Edition (1892) by J. E. Crereuton, A.B. (Dalhou-
sie), Ph.D. (Cornell), and E. B. TrrcHENER, A.B.
(Oxon.), Ph.D. (Leipzig). 8vo, Cloth, $4.00, net.
Popular Lectures and Addresses.
By Lorp Ketvin, F.R.S. In 3 vols. Vol. II.
Geology and General Physics. With Ilustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. $2.00 each volume.
A Laboratory Manual of Physics and
Applied Electricity.
Arranged and Edited by EDWARD L. NICHOLs,
Professor of Physics in Cornell University. In two
vols. Vol. I. Junior Course in General Physics.
By ERNEST MERRITT and FREDERICK J. ROGERS.
8vo, Cloth, $3.00, nef. Vol. II. Senior Courses
and Outlines of Advanced Work. By GEORGE
S. MoLEeR, FREDERICK BEDELL, HoMER J. HorcH-
Kiss, CHARLES P. MATTHEWS, and the Editor.
Tilustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3.25, net.
“ The needs of those who are in training to become electri-
cians have been specially considered... . .Is admirably
adapted for use as a text-book by students who have already
some knowledge of the technique of physical work.’’—Scots-
man.
A Treatise on the Measurement of Elec=
trical Resistance.
By WILLIAM ARTHUR PRICE, M.A., A.M.I.C.E.,
formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. 8vo, Cloth,
$3.50, net.
Manual of Physico-Chemical [Tleasure=
ments.
By WILHELM OsTWALD, Professor of Chemistry in
the University of Leipzig. Translated, with the
Author’s sanction, by JAMES WALKER, D.Sc., Ph.D.,
Assistant in the Chemical Laboratory, University of
Edinburgh. Mlustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $2.25, nef.
Systematic Survey of the Organic Color-
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By Drs. G. ScnuntTz and P. Junius. Translated
and Edited, with extensive Additions, by ARTHUR
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ducts to the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Imperial 8vo, Cloth, $5.00, net.
“Will be welcomed by manufacturers and students as the
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Science [lanuals. —
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Cambridge Natural
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ology of Plants.
By FRANCIS DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., and E. HAM-
InToN Acton, M.A. With Illustrations. 12mo,
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Columbia University Biological Series.
Edited by HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBoRN, Se.D., Da
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I. From the Greeks to Darwin. By Hmenry
FAIRFIELD OSBORN, Se.D. 8vo, Buckram,
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Essays in Historical Chemistry.
By T. E. THorRpPE, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
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London. 8vo, Cloth, $2.25, net.
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PRESENT.”’
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Edited by J. MARK BALDWIN and J. MCKEEN
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JosEPH LE ConTE, Geology; W. M. DAvis, Physiography; O. C. MArsu, Paleontology; W. K.
Brooks, Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; N. L. Brirrron,
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J. S. Brutryes, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psycholog
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, JANUARY 25, 1895.
CONTENTS:
The Past and Present of the American Mathematical
Society: Emory McCLINTOCK..... Mahia uini 1a) ope 85
The Origin of our Vernal Flora: JOHN HARSH-
PESEEESAS OED ral cl eve! aie «!o..6 0's.» sis ein (h(a mie etiare «e's ale)» 92
On Certain Habits and Instincts of Social Insects :
MARCUS HARTOG..... ....- Raa aia la k'e woe 98
The Proper Scientific Name for Brewer’s Mole:
FREDERICK W. TRUE
The American Folk-Lore Society :
Betentifie Literature :—... 22, cesesccscccesecces= 102
Poincaré’s Les oscillations électriques (I.): M.
I. Purin. Alexander’s Engine Construction :
R. H. T.
LOL == 33 ASE BIR: be cc voce By SRS eee 109
Personal ; General ; Congresses ; New and Forth-
coming Publications.
Societies and Academies :—.....+..+++- oaginocore 110
American Mathematical Society ; Iowa Academy
of Sciences.
UMILATIETSIOUPIULES 0.0: » « « o-0\a. SMM sinisin/0's acn0!0 Poe 23
MUPIMEL TORY xin oda. s(c.s = =< «'a 6S MeeteIeta Ie, awe oe 112
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
McKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Subscriptions (five dollars annually) and advertisements
ous pent to the Publisher of ScreNcE, 41 East 49th St.,
ew York.
THE PAST AND FUTURE OF THE AMERICAN
MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY.*
Hayine been requested by the Council
to address the Society on retiring from the
presidency, it has appeared to me that I
must choose between the discussion of the
*Address delivered by the retiring President, be-
fore the American Mathematical Society at the annual
meeting held December 28, 1894.
position and prospects of some branch of
mathematics with which I may be familiar
and a more general and discursive review
of the present position and future prospects
of our Society. I have, after some hesita-
tion, chosen the latter subject. It seems
desirable, on the whole, that there should
be made at this time some permanent
record, however slight, of the steps by
which so large and flourishing a society has
come together, and of the views concerning
its present scope and the hopes concerning
its future possibilities which are entertained
by those who have hitherto been most im-
mediately concerned in the conduct of its
affairs.
The New York Mathematical Society,
originating in 1888, was at first not much
more than a small mathematical club meet-
ing periodically at Columbia College. The
first meeting was called by a circular signed
by three young men. The number of those
who could be expected to attend these meet-
ings was not great, but all who were able
and who were sufficiently interested to do
so were invited to join the Society. It was
fortunate in securing for its first president
Professor Van Amringe, distinguished alike.
by scientific attainments, official eminence,
and administrative ability. The professor
of astronomy at Columbia was also active
in it from the first. The meetings of the
young Society were, as I am informed (for
at that time I did not reside in New York),
86
attended with more than interest, I might
say with zeal. The three who called the
Society into being may, without invidious-
ness, be mentioned as having aided mater-
ially in the prosecution of its work. One
of these of course need not be named to
you. He has served from the beginning as
Secretary, and again as the leading mem-
ber of the publication committee. It is no
flattery to him to say that the growing en-
ergies of the Society must at various stages
have become chilled or misdirected, except
for his comprehensive intelligence and un-
tirimg industry. Another was our former
Treasurer, now absent from the country.
Still another has been elected by you to-day
to the office of Librarian. The meetings
were, as the ordinary meetings still are,
held at Columbia College, and at that time
the majority of the members of the Society
were connected with that institution. The
President, after two years’ service, fearing
that the continuance of a representative of
that College as presiding officer would tend
to hamper its usefulness, proposed the elec-
tion of a new President not connected with
any college. It was in this way and for
this reason that you honored me with the
post from which I retire to-day. Itis not
improper for me to add that I am myself
an outspoken believer in the doctrine of ro-
tation in office, and that I was only pre-
vented from retiring at an earlier period by
urgent representations concerning the pre-
sumed welfare of the Society, at a time
when all were not yet fully agreed upon the
expediency of changes which have since
taken place.
The Society was therefore distinguished
from all American mathematical clubs or
associations by two circumstances : it was
formed in and took the name of the largest
city of America, and it was distinctly under-
stood to be unconnected with any institu-
tion of learning. Suggestions came to be
made that its usefulness would be decidedly
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 4.
increased by the publication of a periodical
journal. Consideration of these sugges-
tions by the Council led to the establish-
ment of the Society’s Bulletin, with the
nature and scope of which you are all fa-
miliar. It was decided to be inexpedient
to publish original investigations, that field
being already occupied by successful Ameri-
can periodicals. To meet the expense of
the publication, the fees of the members
were somewhat increased, and for the same
reason, as well as to extend the usefulness
of the Society, well-known mathematicians
in all parts of the country were invited to
become members. That this movement
towards enlargement was judicious and
timely was proved at once by the rapid
growth of the membership, which since the
middle of 1891 has included a large pro-
portion of the prominent mathematicians
of the United States and Canada. As the
Society thus became in reality an associa-
tion of American mathematicians as a body,
the change of name effected this year was
only a natural sequence. Finally, the re-
sult of the change of name has been that a
number of persons, including several of the
highest repute, who had not previously
joined the New York Mathematical Society,
regarding it as a local organization, have
connected themselves with the American
Mathematical Society; and I need hardly
say that, if any one of prominence still
holds aloof, from inattention or otherwise,
his entrance at any time as a member will
be greeted with a hearty welcome.
It is said that when the London Mathema-
tical Society was organized there had been
no previous example of a similar organiza-
tion, and that fears were felt and expressed
that its management might naturally drift
into the hands of a few haying time and
energy to give to its affairs, and that there
might thus be serious danger of its falling
into the control of a clique. The lapse of
time has developed the fact that the lead-
JANUARY 25, 1895.]
ing members of that society have been men
of broad views, unusually free from per-
sonal prejudice and quick to recognize
talent wherever displayed. We may al-
most conclude from the history of that
society that proficiency in the science of
mathematics is distinct. evidence of a well-
balanced mind. It may be doubted whether
an equally numerous body of poets or mu-
sicians could have held so successfully on
its course during half a century. It is of
course impossible to predict that the man-
agement of our own Society will be equally
‘prudent, energetic and successful during a
half century to come. All that can be
said at present is that not a trace of per-
sonal self-seeking on the one hand or of
personal prejudice on the other hand has as
yet become visible in our counsels. One
single motive has thus far been conspicuous
among all who have interested themselves
in the Society : a strong belief in its pros-
pective usefulness combined with an earn-
est desire to further its success.
Thus far I have spoken only of the pro-
gress of the organization as such. The or-
ganization, however, is merely the frame-
work. It has certain living objects, and
even during its period of formation and
growth it has been distinctly successful in
promoting those objects. I have spoken of
objects ; the Constitution, however, reminds
me that there is but one object: to encourage
and maintain an active interest in mathe-
matical science. It is, however, possible to
subdivide this very general statement of the
aims of the Society. In order to encourage
and maintain an interest in mathematical
science, we may say, then, (1) that mathe-
maticians must be brought to know more
about each other and concerning each
other’s work ; (2) that the number must
be increased by the encouragement of the
study of the higher mathematics among the
young ; (3) that information should be dis-
seminated fully and speedily concerning
SCIENCE.
87
mathematical publications abroad as well
as at home; (4) that, as regards the more
important of such publications, gompetent
critics should be induced to write and pub-
lish papers descriptive of their contents and
indicating their merits or defects ; (5) and
that every member of the Society should be
stimulated to the most successful effort pos-
sible in his own line of mathematical labor,
whatever it may be. This subdivision is
not presented as scientific and exhaustive.
Others would doubtless make variations of
their own; and it is certain that the sepa-
rate points I have indicated are not mutu-
ally exclusive. I mention these several ob-
jects merely as they occur to me for the
purposes of this occasion.
That by entering the Society and receiv-
ing its monthly Bulletin the mathematicians
of the United States and Canada have been
and are brought to know far more about
each other and concerning each other’s work
than they ever knew before or could possi-
bly have known otherwise is obvious to all.
The mere list of members, which conveys
to each of us the names, addresses and oc-
cupations of all the rest, would alone justify
this statement. The Bulletin, with its lists
and reviews of new books, together with
many notes concerning the higher mathe-
matical work of different institutions, has
afforded much additional information, and
it may be expected that further experience
will enable its conductors from time to time
to add to its usefulness in this direction.
While the Society is not directly con-
cerned in encouraging the study of the
higher mathematics among the young, its
indirect influence in that direction has un-
doubtedly been felt, and must be felt in-
creasingly as time goes on. Years ago,
when the present century was
younger, the course of study in our colleges
was so arranged as to give a large propor-
tion of the time of the undergraduates to
the study of mathematics. Subsequently
much
88
the tendency in colleges having uniform
courses of study was to cut down the num-
ber of hours given to this science, as well
as to the classics, and to parcel out the time
among the modern languages and various
sciences. It is believed that even already
the organization, the meetings, and the
publications of the Society have, by the ef-
fect of numbers in association, perceptibly
strengthened the tone of the mathematical
departments of many institutions of learn-
ing and assisted in enabling them, more or
less successfully, to stem the hostile tide of
sentiment to which I have just referred. I
say ‘assisted,’ for other agencies, especially
the journals, have done great good. That
the dissemination of knowledge concern-
ing the gigantic strides lately made and
still making in mathematical science must
in the future have the same favorable effect
to an even greater extent is not to be
doubted.
As to the next point in my list of objects,
I need hardly mention to you that the
Society has succeeded and is succeeding in
disseminating information fully and speed-
ily concerning mathematical publications
abroad as well as at home. In addition to
this general statement, for the proof of
which we need only refer to the monthly
numbers of the Bulletin, I may recall to you
that the Society is at this moment engaged
in publishing, at its own expense, supple-
mented by personal subscriptions, one of
the largest and most important volumes
ever published containing nothing but orig-
inal investigations ; namely, the extensive
and very valuable collection of papers—
mostly by European authors—prepared for
and presented to the Mathematical Con-
gress in 1893, held in connection with the
World’s Fair at Chicago.
Again, considerable success has been at-
tained in inducing competent erities to write
and publish papers descriptive of the con-
tents and indicating the merits or defects of
SCIENCE.
EN. S. Vou. I. No. 4.
the more important current mathematical
publications in all countries. In this re-
spect it is hoped that the usefulness of the
Bulletin, already recognized, will be largely
augmented as time goes on. You have to-
day strengthened the Publication Commit-
tee by the addition of a third member of
tried capacity. The Committee depends
for its critical papers upon the cooperation
of other members of the Society, and it is es-
pecially pleased to receive voluntary offers
of such papers from members who have not
not yet contributed to the Bulletin. It is to
this resource as much as to any other that
we must look for the enlargement and im-
provement of the Bulletin. The Committee
must be aided freely by the presentation
of an increasing amount of material from
which to choose; and I use this occasion to
urge upon each member that he take every
opportunity consistent with other engage-
ments to impart to his fellows the historical
and critical results of his own reading in
any special branch, and particularly in con-
nection with any new and important work
recently published in that branch. The
well-known saying of Bacon cannot be too
constantly before our minds: ‘“ I hold every
man a debtor to his profession, from the
which as men of course do seek to receive
countenance and profit, so ought they of
duty to endeayor themselves by way of
amends to be a help and ornament there-
unto.”
Finally, and I might say above all, it is
the object of the Society that every mem-
ber should be stimulated to the most sue-
cessful effort possible in his own branch of
mathematical labor, whatever it may be;
whether it be in teaching, or writing, or
original investigation, or in any combina-
tion of these lines of activity. The inves-
tigator must also be a writer; the writer
may present his own investigations, or com-
ment upon or summarize or write the his-
tory of those of others, or elaborate a treatise
at:
JANUARY 25, 1895. ]
or text-book upon some special subject ; but
whoever may investigate, and whoever may
write, it is the lot of almost all of us in one
way or another to teach. For this reason
it is plain that this Society is, and must
always remain, a society of teachers. Any
tendency to restrict its usefulness solely to
the paths of investigation and publication
should, for every reason of prudence and
wisdom, be resisted. The management of
any organization which does not commend
itself to the great majority of those inter-
ested must not indeed necessarily end in
failure, but must certainly fail of produc-
ing the most appropriate, the most useful,
and therefore the best results. While,
however, expressing this general opinion, I
would by no means be understood to dis-
parage the work of the writers and investi-
gators. Not every teacher, however suc-
cessful, feels impelled to write for publica-
tion, and not every writer has time and
facilities for original investigation ; yet we
all of us take pride in such work when
done by others, and we all of us, as mem-
bers of the Society, feel that it would fail
of its highest objects if it did not encourage
in every way the production of good papers
and books and, above all, the prosecution
of original discovery.
In encouraging the writing of books, as
distinguished from the prosecution of origi-
nal research, the Society can do little except
indirectly, by increasing the possible de-
mand for such works. The need of what
we may call advanced text-books giving, as
far as possible, summaries of existing knowl-
edge in the several higher branches, has
long been felt, and of late years has to some
extent been supplied. Some of these fields,
however, are still open; and as time goes
on, fresh books, to take the place of those
now fresh, will still be wanted; for our
science is in all points, even those sometimes
regarded as most stationary, in a condition
of advancing evolution. It is, if you please,
SCIENCE. 89
the same old oak, but what formerly were
twigs are now sturdy limbs, and what now
are tiny stems may soon be recognized as
vitally important branches. As to the
making of thorough and systematic books
on mathematical subjects, it has before now
been remarked that the task is really more
difficult, for some at least, than that of work-
ing up original papers. Some of the reasons
for this were clearly stated by Mr. Glaisher
in his presidential address in 1886 before
the London Mathematical Society. I recall
the case of a friend who at one time began
the preparation of a summary of knowledge
in a special field; but he had not gone far
before he found such temptations in the way
of unifying theories or bridging over gaps
that the result was the production of two or
three contributions to the journals and the
abandonment of the book. We must, I
think, accord unusual honor to those who
apply themselves successfully to the task,
more arduous every year as the mass of
original work rolls up, of summarizing and
condensing into clear bodies of doctrine all
existing important discoveries in special
fields of mathematical labor, certainly with-
out hope of pecuniary reward and usually
without prospect of any wide circle of
readers.
As yet the Society has done little towards
the encouragement of writing and inves-
tigation. The existing well-known and
successful journals maintained, whether by
a great university, by scientifie societies of
a general character, or by the generous ef-
forts of individuals, have afforded oppor-
tunities for the publication of extensive
papers with which the Society’s Bulletin
is not intended to compete. For much the
same reason those of its members who have
been personally solicited to give their aid
have been appealed to for contributions to
the Bulletin rather than for original papers
to be read and discussed at the meetings.
It is to be hoped that, as time goes on, the
90
members of the Society will become more
and more accustomed to present their orig-
inal papers for reading at the meeting, be-
fore publication. It may perhaps also be
expected that a closer connection may be
developed between the reading and the pub-
lication of such papers, whereby, on the
one hand, perhaps, editors of journals may,
as members of the Council or otherwise,
have some preliminary oversight of the
acceptanee of papers for reading, and
whereby, on the other hand, the accept-
ance of a paper for reading shall insure its
speedy publication.
While the Society can thus do little di-
rectly to encourage the writing of important
treatises, it can and should, without doubt,
do much to stimulate original research.
Original discovery has always been recog-
nized as the quickest and surest road to dis-
tinction. A permanently valuable paper
read and discussed at a meeting of the So-
ciety becomes an immediate object of inter-
est to those who attend; the subsequent
record of the reading in the Bulletin, sup-
plemented, perhaps, by a brief abstract,
excites a still wider interest among the
membership at large; and in this way many
of the readers are prepared to welcome the
publication of the paper when it appears.
There are—apart from the institution of
medals or prizes, which would be within the
Society’s province—many other ways in
which, directly or indirectly, the influence
of the Society may be felt in turning the at-
tention of individuals to the importance of
original work. And as some slight contri-
bution towards this desirable end, I shall
close this address with a few remarks and
suggestions intended more particularly to
reach those members of the Society whose
attention is turning in this direction, but
who have not as yet produced original
papers. If in doing so I happen to give
good advice, particularly as regards style,
of which I have not always succeeded in
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 4.
following myself, I trust I may be favored
with the same kindly personal considera-
tion as is customarily accorded to an ema-
ciated physician or to a stammering profes-
sor of rhetoric. Yet as to the style in
which a mathematical paper should be
written, as distinguished from good Eng-
lish style in general, there is not really
very much to be said. Such papers should
contain good English, and enough of it.
Obscurity, above all things, should be
avoided. The printer should not be an-
noyed unnecessarily by complicated frac-
tions and other things difficult to print.
Phrases and symbols familiar to the writer,
but not necessarily familiar to his readers,
should not be introduced without explana-
tion. Such phrases and symbols can al-
ways be explained by taking the time and
trouble; and though the paper be made
somewhat longer, it becomes far more satis-
factory. It is of course possible, especi-
ally if one has not much to say, to err
in the opposite direction by diffuseness
and verbosity. The golden mean lies in
the distinct explaining of every symbol,
of every phrase not universally under-
stood, and of every step in the discus-
sion in language otherwise extremely con-
cise.
It would doubtless excite a smile were it
known that any young man was for the first
time saying to himself: “Go to! letme make
a discovery.’’ Yet that is what each one
implicitly does say to himself who makes.
any discovery. It is hard to imagine how
any new point could occur fortuitously to
an investigator not engaged in investigat-
ing. No one can tell until he tries whether
or not he is fitted for that sort of work. No
one can be sure, even though failure come
to him after failure, that he shall not later
meet with success. One sort of failure, in-
deed, should convey the most flattering en-
couragement. It is when a supposed dis-
covery is made, which proves on further in-
JANUARY 25, 1895. ]
quiry to have been made long before by
some one else. The immediate effect is dis-
heartening ; and yet the occurrence has es-
tablished the existence of the power of dis-
covery. When once anything, no matter
what and no matter how old, is discovered
afresh and originally, the beginner has only
himself to blame for any subsequent want
of success. It may, in fact, be doubted
whether every earnest mathematician who
takes pleasure in his work has not in him,
to some extent at least, the capacity for dis-
covery. Indeed, any fresh solution of an
interesting problem, any new proof of an old
proposition, is in itself a piece of original
work. Undoubtedly some are born with
greater capacity than others; yet no one
can tell, without trying, the limits of his
own capacity in this direction; and it is
probably true in this, as in other lines of
effort, that genius consists in an infinite
capacity for taking pains.
He who for the first time makes an at-
tempt towards original mathematical re-
search must do so either in pure or in
applied mathematics. By far the greater
number of papers relate to the former class
of investigations ; and yet it would seem
that greater opportunities for attaining im-
portant results lie in the latter direction.
We all of us know, in a general way, that
many important improvements in pure
mathematics are the direct result of efforts
connected with practical applications. Our
knowledge of the laws of physics is con-
stantly undergoing development. Just
now, perhaps, the most important improve-
ments are those connected with the laws of
electricity, in which some of the members
of this Society have taken a prominent
part. Mr. Walker, in his presidential ad-
dress of 1890 before the London Society,
brought forward numerous instances illus-
trating the enormous influence of applied
mathematics upon the progress of the pure
science. The numerous illustrations which
SCIENCE.
91
he adduced should be consulted by every
one interested in the applications, and
should encourage him to active effort in
extending the domain of applied mathema-
tics, and thereby almost necessarily adding
to existing knowledge in the region of pure
mathematics.
For some reason which no one has under-
taken to explain, but probably connected
with the much wider dissemination of ele-
mentary instruction in pure mathematics
as compared with applied, by far the greater
number of investigations thus far have re-
lated to pure mathematics ; and it may be
presumed that for some time to come this
disproportion will continue. In other
words, our young mathematician who says
to himself that he will make a discovery is
most likely to confine his efforts to that in
which he has been most thoroughly in-
structed and with which he is therefore the
most familiar—the pure science. How,
then, is he to set about it? One way,
and a most satisfactory one, would be to
take part in some such seminar as that at
Gottingen, described some time since in our
Bulletin. Another quite similar method is
to begin by assisting some active investiga-
tor and carrying out his suggestions faith-
fully. The impulse given to a number of
dour best men in this way by Professor Syl-
vester when he was in this country is well-
known to us all. On the other hand, any
attempt at collaboration between two equals
would seem almost certainly predestined to
failure. Though exceptions are well known,
it is really rare to find any fresh and im-
portant development in a paper worked up
by two friends of equal skill, and still rarer
to find a succession of papers by the same
pair of authors. Good practice, however,
can be had in correspondence between two
friends on some fresh subject, each sharpen-
ing the mind of the other, provided the
correspondence be carried on as a matter of
growing interest between the two, rather
92
than for the purpose of producing a joint
publication. Asarule, however, the young
discoverer works alone, and he will most
likely find, before he gets to the publishing
stage, that his first discoveries have been
made earlier by others. He must choose
his subject according to his own taste.
Usually he will be led most easily to some
fresh result, if he reads and digests with
keen interest the latest publications of
others upon some growing subject. He
may, perhaps, perceive that one of these
papers has not exhausted all the possibili-
ties; or he may, by an alteration in the
point of view, find himself enabled to ob-
tain the same result by a much shorter and
more satisfactory process. He must not
fear that he is giving his mind to a subject
too trivial. No matter how slight the ad-
dition which he makes to the sum of knowl-
edge, it is yet an addition, and unless it is
superseded by the doing of the same thing
by some one else in a better manner, it
is a permanent contribution to science.
Some are helped greatly, at times, by
working first on some numerical illustra-
tion of the problem in hand; others, again,
by a preliminary geometrical representa-
tion ; and the first path to any discovery
is not usually the best. It is sometimes
supposed that the mass of original work
done in so many countries and published
in so many languages makes it likely that
any ordinary piece of work will be over-
looked in the great mass. Nevertheless,
hitera scripta manet; and what may now
seem an unimportant addition to an unim-
portant branch may probably one day, when
that branch is no longer unimportant, and
when its special history comes to be itself a
topic of discussion, receive its due recogni-
tion. Meantime, every little helps. The
most trifling addition to the actual sum of
knowledge will be at least useful as a step
to aid the next investigator; but whether
important or unimportant, whether appre-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 4.
ciative recognition comes or not, whether
others are helped or no one takes notice,
there is a degree of personal pleasure in the
mere fact of origination which is the just
and certain reward of every piece of suc-
cessful investigation.
Emory McCurtocx.
NEw YORK.
THE ORIGIN OF OUR VERNAL FLORA.
THOSE who have collected flowering plants
for many years, without a doubt have been
impressed with the wonderful regularity
and precision displayed in the successive
flowering of different species, even genera of
plants. The character of the vernal flora in
the northern United States * depends on the
seasonal development of plants belonging to
different natural orders. Hach plant, even
orders of plants, have definite times of ap-
pearance, when their flowers open, fertiliza-
tion takes place, and seeds are distributed.
At times, a lull or break in the continuity of
this floral procession takes place just be-
fore the true summer plants appear. Such
a break seems to occur in the neighborhood
of Philadelphia between the twenty-fifth day
of May and the tenth or fifteenth day of
June, when the first true summer plants
appear. Curiously enough, this period cor-
responds with the time of the ice saints in
the United States, when there is a possibil-
ity of frost over a large portion of our con-
* The advent of spring may properly be considered
as taking place at the approach of an isotherm one de-
gree higher than 42.8° F., the general limit of proto-
plasmic activity. There is no temperature in the ex-
treme South, in the vicinity of the Gulf, below 43.8°
on the average, and there is therefore no advent of
spring; no real beginning of vegetation and recloth-
ing of trees with leaves. On February Ist, the
isotherm in question is found crossing the United
States from the vicinity of Cape Hatteras on the east
to the north of El Paso, then northward to the Pacific
near San Francisco Bay. The phenomena of winter
are to be found north of that line. See Harper's
Monthly Magazine, May, 1894, page 874, article by
Mark W. Harrington.
JANUARY 25, 1895.]
tinental area.* A floral calendar might be
constructed with the dates of germination,
seed discharge and death of annual plants,
and it would be found that a plant year
after year departs very little in the time ofits
appearance from the dates put down in this
yegetalalmanac. Take a common agricul-
tural plant by way of illustration. The
planting season for Indian corn is from the
1st to the 10th of May in favorable weather.
One hundred and ten days from date of
sprouting to date of ripening or security from
frost is about the average season. In many
cases in the corn belt, Nebraska for instance,
the farmers are quite sure of at least one
hundred and twenty days. All this goes to
prove that each plant has a peculiarity of
its own with regard to temperature and en-
vironment; that the sum of the mean daily
temperatures from the time of sprouting un-
til the time of seed discharge is pretty nearly
a constant one, and that if a plant be
watched for years in succession it will be
found that this thermometrie sum oscillates
little either way from the plant’s normal.
‘Tt is desirable that our native plants should
be investigated as to temperature condi-
tions, for some rule must determine the
appearance of plants, the time of flowering
and the time of suspended growth. It is
no haphazard process, but depends on
fixed laws of growth and development.
The daily appearance of new plants de-
pends considerably more on the habits of
their ancestors than on the controlling
influence of present meteorological condi-
tions.
Our forest trees show some very interest-
ing peculiarities in their early spring devel-
opment, which is apparently caused by their
past conditions of growth and development.
Heredity seems to play a very important
role in their vegetative habits. The facts
condensed in the accompanying table will
help to elucidate this statement :
*See Harper’s Magazine, May, 1894.
SCIENCE.
93
Quercus (oaks), Fagus
(beeches), Salix (wil-
lows), Platanus (plane-
Gectancane trees), Sassafras, Laurus,
{
J
Period. |
|
- Malis Magnolia, Liriodendron,
oe (tulip-trees), Myrica
(wax myrtles), Betula
Plants (birches), Liquidambar
wind- (gum-trees), Juglans
fertilized, _ (walnuts), Acer( maples).
flowering |
from Post { Cornus (dog-wood),
March Gretac a Nyssa (sour-gums), Frax-
to ReMACCOUR, 3 inus (ashes).
June.
Eocene. Celtis, Carya (hickory),
| Ulmus (elms), planera,
Vaccinium (blue-berries ).
Car-
Ne-
{ Almus (alders),
Miocene. pinus (horn-beam ),
{ gundo.
Italicized genera insect-fertilized.
It will be seen from this table that the
more important genera of trees flower in the
early spring. The cause for this is to be
found in the past history of the plants, for
if we arrange them, as in the table, as to
their appearance in geological time, we dis-
cover that nearly all of them appeared be-
fore or during the Miocene (middle Tertiary
or Mammalian Age) Epoch, when the north-
ern hemisphere was many degrees warmer
than at present, and when a mild climate
extended far into the arctic regions. It is
impossible to ignore the force of the testi-
mony as to the continuous warm climate
of the north temperate and polar zones
throughout Tertiary (Mammalian) Times.
We have in the lower Cretaceous (Chalk)
Period an almost tropical climate down to
the upper Eocene (Lower Tertiary), when
it remains warm temperate, for instance,
in central Europe and cold temperate
within the polar area. It then gradually
cools down and merges through the Pliocene
(Upper Mammalian ) into the Glacial Epoch.
That being the case, it is highly probable
that the season of growth of our forest trees
during the Miocene Period was uninter-
rupted, and that flowers followed rapid vege-
tation, as night follows day. The Glacial
Period succeeded with its cold acting as a
94
disturbing influence, cutting off the growth
of the trees sharply just before the flowers
opened. The stately monarchs of the Plio-
cene forests began to change their habit and
adapt themselves to the new meteorological
condition, the ever increasing cold. The
unopened flowers were enveloped by the yet
undeveloped leaves, which became harder
and firmer, forming membranaceous and re-
sinous covered bud scales, as a protection
against the ice and cold. Flowers thus pro-
tected remained dormant during the long
glacial winter, and on the return of the next
growing season opened their flowers for wind
fertilization. This habit of early flowering
became impressed so strongly on the plants
that it became hereditarily fixed. Trees of
abnormal habit frequently show atayvism,
flowering in the late autumn, if exception-
ally warm. This apparently indicates that
the cold cut into two periods the normal
process of plant growth. The division, thus,
of the period of growth into two unequal
halves by the glacial cold explains why our
forest trees have varied little during the pro-
cess of time from a wind pollinated (anemo-
philous) state, because their floral organs
are developed in the spring before the ap-
pearance of the most highly specialized
flower visiting insects. Two causes have
operated to keep our trees permanently in
an anemophilous condition, first, the sepa-
ration of the vegetative and reproductive
stages by the cold of the Glacial Epoch, and
their early spring flowering ; and secondly,
the association of trees together into forests,
flower visiting insects loving essentially
open glades, or areas devoid of timber.
More difficulty is experienced in explain-
ing the appearance of the herbaceous vernal
flora. In order to arrive at a clear under-
standing of the problem, a few statistics are
necessary.
The following table compiled from a
variety of sources arranged for convenience
of presentation according to the system of
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 4.
A. L. Jussieu (now little used) will be of
use as approximately showing the statistical
systematic distribution of our spring plants.
-_| Be
| Monopetalee “ perigyna) |S sipaleies
= ““ epigyna 8 5 913) 9
| Apetalee. ane 13—| 6
Monocotyledones. 26 15 12—21
A predominant number of the plants,
tabulated in the foregoing table, fall into
eight natural orders: Ranunculaceze (but-
tercup family), Cruciferee (cress family)
Violacez (violet family), Caryophyllaceze
(pink family), Rosaceze (rose family), Saxi-
fragaceze, Ericaceze (heath family), Com-
posites (sunflower family). The plants
belonging to these eight natural orders form
the major and characteristic part of our
spring flora, and with the exception of the
Ericaceze and Composite (few in number)
are all polypetalous (many petals, distinct),
and monocotyledons hypogynous (stamens
and parts below the ovary) in its make-up.
The more complex and irregular flowered
families appear later inthe year. Now this
order of flowering corresponds curiously
with the order of evolution of the flowering
plants, which was suppositiously as follows :
A. Monocotyledons. Wind Fertilized.
Sedges.
B. Dicotyledons.
1. Wind Fertilized. ‘Trees.
2. True Insect Fertilized.
(a) Polypetale. (Petals distinct, 4 or 5.)
(b) Gamopetale. (Petals united. )
This comparison leads us to infer the ab-
Grasses,
1 Darrach, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1860, 145;
? Darlington, Flora Cestrica; Gray Manual; * Roth-
rock, Flora of Alaska; ‘Burk, Flora of Greenland,
Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1894.
JANUARY 25, 1895.]
sence of true flowers until late geologic
times, for it is only by the visits of insects
and their irritating action on vegetal proto-
plasm that the most irregular flowers have
been slowly evolved, for there is a broad
parallelism between the more differentiated
types of the vegetal kingdom and the ap-
pearance of the various orders of insects,
which was:
GEOLOGICAL SUCCESSION OF INSECTS.
Devonian, Orthoptera (ear-wigs, grasshoppers), Neu-
roptera (ant-lions).
Carboniferous, Coleoptera (beetles).
Cretaceous Olite, Hymenoptera (bees), Hemiptera
(lice), Diptera (flies).
Tertiary, Lepidoptera ( butterflies).
We know from the close association of
insects and flowers that the insects were
modified by their visits to flowers, and con-
versely that flowers have been changed to
suit the visits of insects, and it is therefore
not improbable that our most highly spe-
eialized flowers, and most irregular ones,
appeared and were modified by the Lepidop-
tera in the late Tertiary time ; for moths
and butterflies are most highly specialized
to insure cross fertilization, or allogamy.
This variation in flowering plants must have
been most strong at the close of the Mio-
ecene period, and after the retreat of the
glaciers still more rapid than before, for it
is probable that the intense struggle which
took place by the migration and intermix-
ture of forms of different kinds, occasioned
by the change of environmental conditions,
was a powerful factor in causing the strik-
ing variety of flowers and insects. The
‘responsive power’ of the protoplasm of
the plants, acting in concert with the exter-
nal impulses received from the environ-
ment, must have been strong after the dis-
appearance of the glaciers, on account of the
re-oceupation of a barren glacial country
by northward moving plants, whose proto-
plasm had become responsively mobile dur-
ing the long continued struggle in the south.
Tt is not at all improbable that the poly-
SCIENCE.
petalous groups of plants were northern
ones during the Miocene period, and that
their flowering period depends on this past
geographical position. Those plants which
lived far north during late Miocene and
Pliocene times were least modified, for it is
likely that moths and butterflies were then
few in number, and the time was not sufli-
ciently long for change to take place before
the glacial ice sheet moved southward, mix-
ing the northern and southern types, and
introducing a struggle which was to last
until the ice disappeared by the temperate
heat. Many tropical plants remained asso-
ciated with the northern forms crowded
southward by the glaciers, notwithstanding
that a great number perished under the
more rigorous conditions of a colder climate.
When the glaciers retreated, the predom-
inant polypetalee adapted to a cold climate
did one of three things: 1. They retreated
northward. 2. They retreated up the high
mountains. 3. They took almost exclusive
possession in their growth of the spring
months, for the temperature conditions are
such as to suit well their hereditarily im-
pressed preference for the cold.
These plants flower and mature their seeds
quickly before the summer is well advanced,
which mark them as physiologicaily adapted
to the influences of the short glacial summer,
alternating with the long glacial winter.
This rapid growth production of flowers and
seed in a short space of time is possible from
the quantity of nutritive material stored up
in the plant. The beet, turnip, parsnip and
carrot are familiar examples of biennials
with the reserve substance packed in the
roots; the houseleek, lily and onion with
the bases of the leaves enlarged and thick-
ened to contain the stores of starch, sugar
and proteids. Even under these favorable
conditions, when the plant would be in a
condition to grow most vigorously, every
externally perceptible vital motion never-
theless ceases, and it is only after a dormant
96
period of some months that growth com-
mences anew, and this frequently under
circumstances which appear far less favor-
able—especially at a conspicuously lower
temperature. ‘This periodic alternation
of vegetative activity and rest is in general
so regulated that, for a given species of plant,
both occur at definite times of the year,
leading to the inference that the periodicity
only depends upon the alternation of the
seasons, and therefore chiefly upon that of
temperature and moisture.” A few well-
known examples are selected for illustration.
‘“The leaf-shoot and flowers contained in
the bulb of the Crown Imperial commence
to grow vigorously in the spring-time with
us, even at the beginning or middle of
March, when the soil in which the bulb has
passed the winter possesses a temperature
of 6-10° C.; the leaf-shoots protrude for-
cibly from the cold earth to grow vigor-
ously in the but slightly warmer air. There
would be but little to surprise us in this, if
we did not at the same time notice the fact
that a new leaf-shoot is already formed in
embryo in the subterranean bulb in April
and May; this shoot, however, does not grow
to any extent in the warm soil during the
summer and autumn. On the contrary,
this favorable period of vegetation passes by,
until at the end of the winter an inconsider-
able rise of temperature above the freezing
point suffices to induce vigorous growth; and
as is well known, the same is the case with
most bulbous and tuberous plants, as the
meadow saffron, potato and kitchen onion.”
‘““T have many times attempted to induce
the tubers and bulbs ripened in autumn to
put forth their germinal shoots during No-
vember, December and January, by laying
them in moist, warm loose soil; but as in
the case of the potato, as well as in that of
the kitchen onion, no trace of germination
appeared. If, on the other hand, the at-
tempt is repeated in February, or still better
in March, the germinal buds begin to grow
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 4
vigorously even in a few days. It is evident
that some internal change must have taken
place in the tubers and bulbs during the
winter months, when it is impossible to bring
them into activity from their state of rest.”
Our spring plants in this agree physiologic-
ally with their arctic congeners. The period
of rest described above in such early spring
plants, as the winter aconite, crocus, Ery-
thronium, etc., has in my opinion been due
to the influence of the glacial cold heredit-
arily impressed on these plants in con-
nection with the chemical changes which go
on. The following diagrams will illustrate
my meaning. Diagram B shows that the
period of vegetative activity of our spring
plants corresponds with an arctic or a glacial
summer, while the dormant period corre-
sponds with an arctic winter, although our
present summer has encroached on the
former glacial winter.
Astronomical Year, Glacial Period.
aS = SSS:
Vegetative
Period.
r= |
|
| |
—————
Arctic Summer.
| Flowers. Dormant Period. |
Arctic Winter.
Astronomical Year, 1894.
| Vegeta- | cs |
ont | Blowers.
B) |
Dormant Period.
|
—
—
Present Summer. Present Winter.
It was necessary for this rapid growth
that the food material should be prepared be-
forehand, because the arctic or glacial sum-
mer is an exceedingly short one. Mr. Henry
Seebohm,* in his presidential address before
the Geographical Section of the British As-
sociation, gave a graphic description of the
succession of the seasons in high arctic lati-
tudes. A few sentences are worth quoting
in this connection. He said thatthe stealthy
approach of winter on the confines of the
polar basin is in strong contrast to the
*See Popular Science Monthly, XLY., 138, May, 1894.
JANUARY 25, 1895. ]
catastrophe which accompanies the sudden
onrush of summer. “One by one the
flowers fade and go to seed, if they have
been fortunate enough to attract a bee or
other suitable pollen-bearing visitor. The
arrival of summer happens so late that the
inexperienced traveler may be excused for
sometimes doubting whether it really is
coming at all. When continuous night has
become continuous day without any percep-
tible approach to spring, an Alpine traveler
naturally asks whether he has not reached
the limit of perpetual snow. During May
there were a few signs of the possibility of
some mitigation of the rigors of winter, but
these were followed by frost. At last, when
the final victory of summer looked hopeless,
a change took place; the wind turned to
the south, the sun retired behind the clouds,
mists obscured the landscape, and the snow
melted ‘like butter upon hot toast,’ and we
were in the midst of a blazing hot summer
picking flowers of a hundred different kinds
and feasting upon wild ducks’ eggs of vari-
ous species.”
The polypetalous families which blossom
early in the season, although old geologi-
cally speaking, have not been greatly modi-
fied since Pliocene times, because their
flowers open in the spring before the Lepi-
doptera hatch out from their cocoons. It
is obvious that every species of flower can
only be visited and fertilized by those in-
sects which occur at the time when the
plant is in flower and in stations where it
grows. The insect visitors of a plant are
therefore limited by the season. and by the
time of day when it flowers, by its geogra-
phical distribution and by the nature of its
habitat. The high northern polypetale
haye remained therefore regular while
those plants growing in the southland have
become highly irregular by the visits of
numerous highly organized insects in great
number near the equatorial zone. We
must be cautious, however, in generalizing
SCIENCE. 97
too broadly, for we can only call those parts
perfect which fulfill their purpose in the
life of the plant essentially well; that is to
say, which under existing conditions insure
the sexual reproduction of the species with
particular success.
The Composite (sun-flower family), the
highest expression of evolution amongst
Dicotyledons, appeared latest in geological
succession, for no undoubted form of them
(Synantherz) has been found farther back
than the middle Miocene. Miller says: *
“The numerical preponderance which this
family has attained in species and genera
(1000), and the extreme abundance of many
of the species, are due to the concurrence of
several characters, most of which singly, or
in some degree combined, we have become
acquainted with in other families, but never
in such happy combination as in the
Composite. The following points deserve
special mention: (1) the close association
of many flowers; (2) the accessibility of the
honey as well as the plentiful secretion and
security from rain; (3) the possession of a
pollen mechanism, which renders cross fer-
tilization certain in the event of insect visi-
tors.” It is a masterful order of plants
most commonly met with in the late sum-
mer and autumn, flowering profusely until
the heavy frosts of early winter, when they
cast their seeds abundantly. An enumera-
tion of the Composite growing in the vicin-
age of Philadelphia shows that the plants
are essentially late summer growers.
FLOWERING To Fruit Rreentne. |,Ap "BER
Apml—-May,.. . . <<<) qn 9
May-June, .. . . - « « Reeepiie « 4
DONC-UULY,:.- < - + « sates 6
srne-Aupust,..-. . «4a 4
Suly—Aupust,.. . . « «isieee bess 8
July-September, . . . < vases = ; 15
Aupust-September,. . . . ss. . 32
Aupust—-October, . . - sjsuuueueos = 35
September-October,......... 15
|. 121
*Miiller, The Fertilization of Flowers.
98
These are the latest group of plants to ap-
pear geologically, they grow and flower in
the warm season added to the short arctic
summer by the retreat of the glacial winter.
The following diagram will indicate more
clearly what is meant, and will show why it
is that the Composite of the north temperate
zone are the characteristic herbaceous vege-
tation of the late summer and autumn
months.
PRESENT ASTRONOMICAL YEAR.
dl
Cae E = yan)
SPRING. SUMMER. WINTER.
— aN a SS SS =——S aay
1 2Mo:
é ; : : Spaice leift afiter
i Spriing P:lants: : the: Glacial
i : ; ; :Retrieat
: Treies & 'Shrlubs |
Glacial Winter.
Glacial Summer.
Xv J
Miocene Season of Growth.
The land area left bare by the retreat of
the glaciers was one of low tension, although
by the increase in the length of the summer
(some three months) it had a climate in
every way suited for the growth of plants.
The country to the south was one of very
high pressure tension, which must be re-
lieved. The great strain was removed
partially by the movement of plants to the
northward. ‘Of all the plants which went
south before the first invasion of the glacial
ice sheet, none showed greater capacity for
variation and improvement than the ances-
tral forms of the modern dominant family
of Composite.” Such plants in having
seeds adapted to fly before the prevalent
north winds had reached a low latitude,
where great change of form took place
owing to the intense struggle for existence.
The composite plants were assisted north-
ward by the same structural means as
carried them south. Modified considerably
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 4.
into new forms by their migrations and
life in the south, they retained their fond-
ness for a warm climate. By the extension
of the arctic summer, some three months,
they had an opportunity for extensive
migration over the country formerly ice
bound.
It is thus from the high and low pressures,
caused alternately by the glacial epoch,
that the distribution of our flora in time
has been accomplished.
Joun W. HARSHBERGER.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
ON CERTAIN HABITS AND INSTINCTS OF
SOCIAL INSECTS.
Ir the mere inductive evidence for the
Lamarckian theory of the hereditary trans-
mission of acquired characters be strong
anywhere, it is assuredly in the region of
nervous and mental phenomena. Romanes,
whose reserve on the inheritance of ac-
quired characters of a physical nature is
everywhere manifest, admits that many in-
stincts are due to the ‘lapsing of intelli-
gence.’* “Just as in the lifetime of the
individual, adjustive actions which were
originally intelligent may by frequent repe-
titions become automatic, so in the lifetime
of the species actions originally intelligent
may, by frequent repetitions and heredity,
so write their effects on the nervous system
that the latter is prepared even before indi-
vidual experience to perform adjustive ac-
tions mechanically which in previous gen-
erations were performed intelligently.”
Even Weismann, with all his wealth of
imagination and capacity for elaboration
of details, has nowhere attempted to trace
out the mechanism for the evolution of in-
stinct on the line of his ‘germ plasm the-
ory,’ nor applied to it the manifold combi-
nations of ‘biophors’ and ‘ determinants,’
‘ids’ and ‘idauts’ which he assumes as the
machinery of inheritance. So far the only
* Mental Evolution in Animats, p. 178.
JANUARY 25, 1895.]
key to many instincts is found in the con-
ception that they are inherited habits,
themselves the originally conscious reac-
tions of the individual to its surroundings ;
and this conception has never been seriously
attacked from the front in open field. Yet
Darwin and all his followers have regarded
the habits and instincts of social insects as
mainly if not wholly evolved by casual vari-
ations and natural selection. For the ori-
gin of the instincts and habits of these
creatures cannot obyiously be explained on
Lamarck’s principle, since they are for the
most part evinced by the workers and sol-
diers, who are neuters ; and such, of course,
cannot transmit their instincts by blood to
their followers, who are only collaterals and
outside the direct line. Here and there, in-
deed, these neuters may lay eggs, unfertil-
ized but not infertile, since in the bees they
produce drones and in some ants also males ;
but we have no evidence that this occurrence
is frequent or regular enough really to in-
fluence the race. However, there are two
matters, the so-called instincts of neuters
generally, and those of slave-makers in par-
ticular, that may be dealt with from a
point of view which will show that an ex-
planation is available that makes no exces-
sive demand on Lamarckians.
Tt is a truism to say that one of the most
potent factors in education is the imitation
of one’s peers. As a teacher of experience,
I know well how the presence of a few bright
and handy students eases my annual task
of breaking in a class of book-taught lads
to a study requiring handiwork and obser-
vation. The nearer akin the model, the
more powerful is his example. Thus, the
trained elephant is an almost necessary aid
to the tamer of wild elephants ; no bird-or-
gan can do as well as a good songster ; and
if we wish to train a daw, magpie or star-
ling to speak, its best teacher is a loquaci-
ous parrot.
Animals may readily thus acquire habits
SCIENCE.
99
which, if we did not know their origin, we
might well mistake for instincts. Thus a dog
reared by a she-cat has aequired the habit
of sitting up on his tail, licking his paws and
washing his face—watching a mouse-hole
for hours together ; ‘and had in short all the
ways and manners and disposition of his wet
nurse.”** So that in considering the behavior
of any species we have to be cautious and
bear ever in mind that manifestations which
at first sight seem unequivocal instinct may
be really habit, and habit only.
Now every neuter insect is born from the
pupa (as it was born from the egg) into a
community of busy workers of its own kind,
practising the art that shet will have to
practise in turn. Ifthen her mental pow-
ers and emotional development are up to
the average of the race there can be no dif-
ficulty in her qualifying for the place she
will take in the nest. Again we must re-
member that this neuter insect hatches from
the egg into a helpless larva, to be fed and
tended with most devoted care by the adult
sister workers until it passes into the chrys-
alis or pupa stage, where it sleeps out the
transformations that make it an adult. We
know well that neuter insects show every
sign of varied emotion; everyone can tell
the difference of demeanor between the busy
bee and the angry one; and observers have
shown us ample evidence of many other
emotions. If then memory of the earlier
larval state survives the pupa trance} our
*See Romanes, op. cit., p. 226.
+ The so-called neuter is always an imperfect female.
t Lubbock has shown that ants will tend any young
whatever of their own species even if born in other
nests; but none the less they do reject them as
strangers after they have passed through pupadom
into the adult state, while they welcome back’ the
offspring of their own nest that have been fostered by
strangers. The converse experiments have not been
tried, to ascertain whether the new-born adults that
have been nursed outside their own nest show any
memory of or preference for their own folk or their
fosterers respectively. (See Lubbock, ‘Ants, Bees
and Wasps.’ )
100
newly emerged neuter should revive with
the liveliest gratitude and almost filial af-
fection for its mates, who have tended it as
devotedly as elder sisters in charge of a
family do even among ourselves.
The only possible objections to this view
are, first, that the insects have not intelli-
gence enough for imitation, and secondly,
that teaching presupposes communication
between the teacher and the taught, which
we have no right toassume. But these ob-
jections fall as baseless when we observe for
ourselves, or trace with a Huber, a Forel, a
Lubbock, or a Bate the unmistakable in-
telligence and the unequivocal signs of com-
munication to be found among these ani-
mals.
We may still assign to natural selection
a certain part; much more limited than has
hitherto been supposed. It conserves the
general intelligence of the race at a high
pitch, by constantly weeding families proli-
fic of foolish virgins; and it checks all ex-
cessive development of individuality by de-
stroying families with an undue proportion
of those geniuses who aim at striking out
new paths for themselves instead of de-
votedly working at their settled codpera-
tive tasks. But the singular mixture of
ability and routine displayed by ants and
bees is just what we should expect if their
arts were largely attained by the influence
of strong tradition. Our lawyers till quite
recently showed the severe limitations im-
posed by tradition on intelligence. And
this is my case for regarding the ways of
neuter insects as habits and practices, not
instincts. Many ants make slaves; they
raid the nest of other species, killing the
adults and bringing home the helpless
young. These are nursed by workers of
the same slave race that were once them-
selves brought in the immature state to the
nest. Some of these slave makers can
neither clean themselves nor feed them-
selves; everything has to be done for them
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 4.
by their slaves, save the work of war and
capture.
Lubbock writes: ‘“‘They have lost the
greater part of their instincts; their art,
that is, the power of building; their do-
mestic habits, for they show no care for
their own young, all this being done by the
slaves; their industry—they take no part in
providing the daily supplies if the colony
changes the situation of its nest, the
masters are all carried by the slaves on
their backs to the new one; nay, they have
even lost the habit of feeding How-
ever small the prison, however large the
quantity of food, these stupid creatures
will starve in the midst of plenty rather
than feed themselves.”
The origin of this character is not far to
seek; the fertile insects, 7. e., the males and
perfect females of social insects, contribute
little or nothing to the work of their nest
save their offspring*; hence in the parents
of each. generation there is a constant
fostering of selfishness and dependence to
be transmitted to their offspring.
The female or queen termite (or White
ant), indeed, is guarded from all exertion
and tended in a way to satisfy the indolence
of the most languid creole fine lady; the
only drawbacks of her position being lack
of amusements and of lovers on the one
hand and an excessive fertility on the
other. Where all or many of the neuters
are workers, indolence and selfishness are
checked and natural selection constantly
eliminates those families whose altruism
is insufficient for a social life. But if
once circumstances arrive in which slaves
are present to do the duties, it is easy
to see how all the traditions of work or
self help—save in war—can die out and be
utterly lost, bravery, pugnacity and hon-
orable codperation being the sole virtues to
survive. It seems at first sight strange
*The amount done is perhaps greatest among
Wasps and Humble Bees, least among Termites.
JANUARY 25, 1895.]
that the slave holders have lost the power
of feeding themselves; but this is not
unexampled in human affairs. Surely
many a fine lady might starve outright ina
place with no provender but live fowls and
unthreshed wheat and water, no utensils
but dry sticks and a few stones. Yet we
know that savages of far lower wit could
kill and pluck the fowls and get fire, spit
and roast them, crush the wheat between
the stones and make a damper cook it in
the embers. This is a case of the loss of
the power of self help by peculiar education,
and if we admit this explanation for the
fine lady we have no right to reject it for
the slave holding ant.
Tam aware that I have not dealt exhaust-
ively with the whole question of social in-
sects. There are lots of cruxes in their
manners and customs, and especially in the
manifold forms that occur in one and the
same species. Why, for instance, worse
food and a narrower cell should make a fer-
tilized bee’s egg become a sterile worker
instead of a queen, no one knows; and the
problems presented among ants are far more
difficult and complicated. But it is as well
to take stock frequently of our speculations,
and to place our certain realized assets to
the credit side, even though we have to
keep most of our accounts open indefinitely.
Marcus Harroe.
QUEEN’S COLLEGE, CoRK.
THE PROPER SCIENTIFIC NAME FOR
BREWER'S MOLE.
Tuere are three species of moles in the
Eastern States, the Star-nosed mole, Condy-
lura cristata, the common or Shrew mole,
Scalops aquatieus, and a third less familiar
species known as Brewer’s mole, or the
Hairy-tailed mole. It is to this last species
that my remarks relate. It was described
by Bachman in 1842 in the Boston Journal of
Natural History (vol. 4, page 32) under the
name of Scalops breweri, and was cited under
that designation until 1879, when Dr. Coues
SCIENCE.
101
proposed to change the specific name to
americanus. This proposition was based on
the fact that in Harlan’s Fauna Americana,
published in 1825, the name ‘ Tulpa ameri-
cana, black mole, Bartram’s manuscript
notes,’ occurs in synonymy at the head of a
description which Dr. Coues thought might
be in part, at least, applicable to the species
under consideration.
I find, however, that this is a literal trans-
lation of Desmarest’s deseription of the
European mole, Talpa ewropea, with no ad-
ditions whatever, and no other alteration
than the omission of a word or sentence
here and there. It is evident, therefore,
that Harlan included nothing from Bar-
tram’s manuscript, whatever it may have
contained, and that thename Talpa ameri-
cana has no validity.
It will be necessary to return to the
specific name breweri. I recently separated
Brewer’s mole as the representative of a
distinct genus, which I called Parascalops.
If this distinction be accepted, the proper
name of the species will be Parascalops
brewert (Bachman).
Freperick W. TRUE.
U. 8. NATIONAL MusEUM.
THE AMERICAN FOLK-LORE SOCIETY.
THE annual meeting of the Society was
held at the Columbian University, Wash-
ington, December 27th and 28th. Owing
to a death in his family, the President, Dr.
Alcee Fortier, of Louisiana, was prevented
from attending.
The Secretary, Mr. W. W. Newell, sub-
mitted a report in which he detailed the
publications of the Society for the year.
These included two volumes of ‘ Folk Tales
of Angola,’ prepared by Heli Chatelain, late
United States commercial agent at Loanda,
West Africa, and papers by various well-
known authors as follows: ‘Notes on the
folk-lore of the mountain whites of the
Alleghanies,’ J. Hampton Porter; ‘Three
102
epitaphs of the seventeenth century,’ Sarah
A. P. Andrews; ‘Popular medicine, cus-
toms and superstitions of the Rio Grande,’
Capt. John G. Bourke; ‘ Plantation court-
ship,’ Frank D. Banks ; ‘ Retrospect of the
folk-lore of the Columbian Exposition,’
Stewart Culin; ‘Eskimo tales and songs,’
Franz Boaz; ‘Popular American Plant
Names,’ Fannie D. Bergen.
A large number of papers were read be-
fore the Society and discussed by the mem-
bers present. The first was by Dr. Wash-
ington Matthews, entitled ‘A Navaho Myth,’
which related in detail one of the sacred
legends of the tribe.
Capt. R. R. Moten then read a paper on
‘Negro folk-songs,’ in which he spoke of
natural musical tendencies of the colored
race and reviewed a number of the old
songs of the South before the war. Negro
music, he said, might be divided into three
kinds, that rendered while working, a dif-
ferent kind for idle hours, and a third and
more dignified sort used for worship. Capt.
Moten said the general public had but little
idea of the old negro music, and that many
of the so-called negro songs rendered by
white men in minstrel performances were
abortions. There were some old familiar
melodies, however, which were true to
nature, and full of inspiration.
A quartet of colored men was present,
and sang a number of negro songs illustrat-
ing the points brought out by Capt. Moten.
Several speakers dwelt upon the import-
ant question of the diffusion of folk-tales
and the explanation of striking similarities
found in localities widely apart. Mr. W.
W. Newell was inclined to explain such by
theories of transmission; while Major J.
W. Powell and Dr. D. G. Brinton, both of
whom had papers on closely related topics,
leaned toward the ‘anthropologic’ expla-
nation, which regards those similarities as
the outgrowth of the unity of human psy-
chological nature and methods.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 4.
Dr. J. W. Fewkes gave a detailed de-
scription of the figures in the ancient Maya
manuscript known as the ‘ Cortesian Codex.’
Other papers presented were: ‘Kwapa —
folk-lore,’ Dr. J. Owen Dorsey; ‘Korean
Children’s games,’ Stewart Culin ; ‘ Burial
and holiday customs and beliefs of the Irish
peasantry,’ Mrs. Fanny D. Bergen ; ‘Biblio-
graphy of the folk-lore of Peru,’ Dr. Geo.
A. Dorsey ; ‘Mental development as illus-
trated by folk-lore,’ Mrs. Helen Douglass ;
The game of goose with examples from
England, Holland, Germany and Italy,’
Dr. H. Carrington Bolton ; ‘ The Swastika,’
Dr. Thomas Wilson ; ‘ Folk-food of New
Mexico,’ Capt. John G. Bourke, U. 8. A.;
‘Opportunities of ethnological investigation
on the eastern coast of Yucatan,’ Marshall
H. Saville; ‘Two Ojibway tales,’ Homer
H. Kidder.
The officers elected for the ensuing year
were: President, Dr. Washington Mat-
thews ; Vice Presidents, Rey. J. Owen Dor-
sey, Captain John G. Bourke, U.S. A.;
Permanent Secretary, William Wells Ne-
well, Cambridge, Mass.; Corresponding Sec-
retary, J. Walter Fewkes, Boston, Mass.;
Treasurer, John H. Hinton, New York, N.
Y.; Curator, Stewart Culin, Philadelphia,
Pa. D. G. Brinton.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Les oscillations
Membre de
Carré, 1894.
This work contains, briefly stated, a clear
mathematical discussion of the general feat-
ures of the Faraday-Maxwell electromag-
netic theory in Hertzian form, and of those
special problems bearing upon this theory
which are of particular interest to the ex-
perimentalist. The mathematical solution
of these problems is compared carefully with
the results obtained, principally by the ex-
periments of Hertz and of other investiga-
électriques—H. PorNncaRk,
l'Institut. Paris, George
JANUARY 25, 1895. ]
tors who have extended the field of the
Hertzian method of investigation. But it
should be observed that the experiments of
the pre-Hertzian epoch receive their full
share of attention, as, for instance, the ex-
periments of Rowland, Réntgen, and others.
The work will undoubtedly exert a very
strong influence upon the future develop-
ments of the electromagnetic theory, and
deserves, therefore, more than ordinary at-
tention. This circumstance should, in the
opinion of the reviewer, excuse the length
of this review.
General Theory.—Poincaré’s discussion di-
vides itself naturally into two parts. In the
first part an electromagnetic field with con-
ductors at rest is considered. - In the second
part the discussion extends to electromag-
netic fields with conductors in motion.
The Hertzian method of presentation is
adopted in preference to the Maxwellian.
Two distinct differences between these two
methods should now be pointed out. The
first difference is essential, and may be
stated briefly as follows :—
Hertz described Maxwell’s electromag-
netic theory as the theory which is contained
in Maxwell’s fundamental equations; he
stated, however, very clearly that the sup-
pression of all direct actions at a distance is
a characteristic feature of this theory. But
if it is not a sufficient hypothesis, and if no
other hypotheses are clearly stated by Max-
well, then his deduction of the fundamental
equations which form the heart and soul of
his theory must necessarily lack in clearness
and completeness. This is the difficulty
which Hertz discovered in Maxwell’s syste-
matic development of his own electromag-
netic theory, and Hertz obviates this diffi-
culty by starting from the equations them-
selves as given, proving their correctness by
showing that they are in accordance with
all our experience.
The second difference is formal only. It
may be stated briefly as follows: Maxwell
SCIENCE.
103
considered the electrotonic state, discovered
by Faraday, as of fundamental importance.
The mathematical expression of this state,
the vector potential, was considered by him
as the fundamental function in his mathe-
matical presentation of Faraday’s view of
electromagnetic phenomena. Hertz, just
as Heaviside did some time before him,
considered the vector potential as a rudi-
mentary concept which should be carefully
removed from the completed theory just as
the scaffolding is removed from a finished
building. In place of the vector potential
Hertz substituted the electric and the mag-
netic force as the fundamental quantities.
This enabled him to state the fundamental
equations of Maxwell in a more symmetrical
form than Maxwell did.
It seems that it is principally this second,
the formal, difference which decides Poin-
caré in favor of the Hertzian method. But
there is still considerable difference between
the presentation of the electromagnetic the-
ory given by Hertz and that which Poin-
caré gives in this book. For whereas Hertz
proceeded from the symmetrical form of
Maxwell’s fundamental equations as given
and by deducing from them and from several
clearly defined assumptions the general ex-
perimentally established laws of electrical
phenomena proved the correctness of these
equations, Poincaré deduces them from the
following experimentally established facts :
1. The energy of the electromagnetic
field consists of two parts, one due to the
action of the electric and the other to that
of the magnetic forces. They are each
homogeneous quadratic functions of the
two fundamental quantities, that is of the
electric and of the magnetic forces respect-
ively. This experimental relation defines
the units of the electric and of the magnetic
force and also the physical constants of
the medium, that is the specific inductive
capacity and the magnetic permeability.
2. Having defined the meaning of mag-
104
netic and of electric induction and of their
fluxes in terms of the corresponding forces,
Poincaré states then the fundamental law
of electromagnetic induction in a closed
conducting circuit as an experimental fact
and deduces immediately the first group of
the Maxwellian equations. This group is
nothing more nor less than a symbolical
statement that the law of electromagnetic
induction is true for every cireuit whether
it be conducting or not.
3. Joule’s law is stated as an experi-
mental fact. In a homogeneous conductor
the heat generated per unit volume and
unit time at any point of the conductor is
proportional to the square of the electric
force at that point ; the factor of propor-
tionality is electrical conductivity by defi-
nition. Another quantity is then introduced
which is defined as the product of the
electrical force into the conductivity and
the name of conduction current is given
to it.
By means of these definitions, the prin-
ciple of conservation of energy, and the first
group of Maxwellian equations, the second
group, in the form given by Hertz, is then
deduced. This completes the Maxwellian
electromagnetic theory for a homogeneous
isotropic field in which both the medium
and the conductors are at rest.
Poincaré loses no time in commenting
upon the physical meaning of these equa-
tions, but proceeds rapidly to Poynting’s
theorem, which introduces one of the most
important quantities in the wave-propaga-
tion of electromagnetic energy. It is the
radiation vector, as Poincaré calls it. emg Anleitung zur Darstellung, Erkennung,
i und stéchiometrischen Berechnung von of-
fizinellen chemisch-pharmaceutischen Priiparaten. 8°.
Gebunden. Mk. 6.
Busarp Dr. ALrons, und Dr. EpuarpD BAIER.
Hilfsbuch fir Nahrungsmittelchemiker auf Grund-
i
lage der Vorschriften, betreffend die Priifung der
Nahrungsmittelchemiker. Mit in den Text gedruck-
ten Abbildungen. 8°. Gebunden. Mk. 8.
ERLENMEYER’s, E., Lehrbuch der organischen
Chemie. II. Thl. Die aromatischen Verbindungen.
Begonnen von Rech. Meyer fortgesetzt von H. Gold-
schmidt, weiter fortgefiihrt von K. v. Buchka. I. Bd.
8 Lfg. "Mk. 6.
GEISSLER, DR. EWALD. Grundriss der pharma-
ceutischen Massanalyse. Mit Beriicksichtigung ein-
iger handelschemischen und hygienischen Analysen.
Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Mit 37
in den Text gedruckten Holzschnitten. 8°. Gebun-
den. Mk. 4.
2896. GIRARD, C., et. A. DupRE. Analyse des
matiéres alimentaires et recherche de leurs falsifica-
tions. 8°. 32 fr. 50c.
GLUcKSMANN, Karu. Kritische Studien im Be-
reiche der Fundamentalanschauungen der theoretisch-
en Chemie. Zweiter Teil: Uber die Molekularhypo-
these. 8°. Mk. 2.30.
HANDWORTERBUCH DER CHEMIE, herausgegeben
von A. Ladenburg. XII. Bd. 8°. Mit Holzschn. 8.
Nr. 2532. Mk. 16.
JAcquot, E. et Wi~M, Les Eaux minérales de la
France. Etudes chimiques et géologiques. 8°. Avec
carte et 21 fig. . 20 fr.
J AHRESBERICHT iiber die Leistungen der chemisch-
en Technologie m. besond. Beriicksicht. der Gewerbe-
statistik f. d. J. 1893. Jahrg. 1—X XV bearb. von
R. v. Wagner. Fortgesetz vy. Dr. Ferd. Fischer. 39.
od. neue Folge. 24 Jahrg. gr. 8°. M. 200 Abbildgn.
Mk. 24. ;
CECHSNER DE CONNICK. Cours de chimie organ-
ique. 2vol. 8° Fr.20.
OsTWALD, W. Die wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen
der analytischen Chemie. 8°. Mk. 4.
OsTWALD, W. Elektrochemie. Ihre Geschichte
und Lehre. 3. u. 4. Lfg. 8°. MitAbbildgn. a Mk. 2.
RICHTER’s, V. v., Chemie der Kohlenstoffverbin-
dungen od. organische Chemie. 7. Aufl. Neubearb.
vy. Prof. Dr. R. Anschiitz. (In 2 Bdn.) 1. Bd. Die
Chemie der Fettkérper. 8°. Holschn. Mk. 10.
SCHNELLER, K. Reactionen und Reagentien. Ein
Handbuch fiir Aerzte, Analytiker, Apotheker und
Chemiker. I. Bd. 8°. Mk. 6.
ZIRKEL, PROF. DR. FERDINAND.
Petrographie.
lage. Zweiter Band.
Lehrbuch der
Zweite, giinzlich neu verfasste Auf-
gr. 8. Mk. 19.
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810 Broadway, New York.
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SCIENCE.
EpiToRIAL CoMMITTEE : S. Newcoms, Mathematics ; R. S. WoopWArRD, Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, As-
tronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics ; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
JOSEPH LE CONTE, Geology;
W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MArsH, Paleontology; W. K.
Brooks, Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; N. L. Brirron,
Botany ; HENRY F. OsBorN, General Biology ; H. P. Bowpircu, Physiology ;
J. S. Bruiines, Hygiene ; J. McCKrEN CATTELL, Psychology ;
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, eh poaaaabe
Fripay, Pepevany 2 22, 1895.
CONTE? NTS:
The Laboratory Teaching of Large Classes:
REMEIEE OAT nisin als co so alettniettelels wc a/sceles, v's © 197
Original Research and Creative Authorship the Es-
sence of University Teaching: GEORGE BRUCE
The = teuiaaandd of Southern Florida: D. G. BRIN vel
ie es Generic Name of an American Deer:
PeeART MMRRIAM ......cecesesccneensss oe 208
James Owen Dorsey: W J M ...........---se00- 208
MESESFIN ial gic «sis 1) w'e =e » stetteialatavs[onie'elelc aicielele 209
On Indiscriminate ‘ Taking’ : PETER T. AUSTEN.
merentijic Literature :— ......00- +. scecescecsees 209
Life of Richard Owen: A.S. PACKARD. Glaze-
brook’s Heat, Light; Houston’s Electricity: T.
C. M. Hygiene ; Gould’s Dictionary of Medicine.
MMEMEDIVETOS S— ss 5 0 oo s aw aeteaeledb cress sc0% 217
The International Zodlogical "Congress ; The Test-
ing of Electrical Street Railways ; The Minnesota
Academy of Natural Sciences; Anthropology ;
Zoology ; Geology ; Entomology ; General.
Societies and Academies :-—..........00eeeec eens 220
A, A. A. S. Meeting, 1895 ; New York Academy of
Sciences, Section of Astronomy and Physics ; In-
diana Academy of Sciences.
Scientific Journals ........+.++ Bae ni SassSoia,¥i5/0/0/013.0fe 224
oe neocon 0 « « staetemitiaivlescss sis 224
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
Keen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Subscriptions’ (five dollars annually) and advertisements
should be sent to the Publisher of SCIENCE, 41 East 49th St.,
‘New York, or Lancaster, Pa.
LABORATORY TEACHING OF LARGE
CLASSES.*
TrAcHING may be subdivided into two
kinds: First, that which cultivates the fac-
* Annual discussion before the meeting of the American
Society of Naturalists, Baltimore, December 27, 1894. The
Continuation of this discussion by Professors Bumpus and
Ganong will be published in the next issue of SCIENCE.
ulties of the ndividnit increasing his abil-
ity to work for himself Ae enabling him to
use his intellectual powers with confidence
in the acquisition of knowledge. Second,
that which disregards or takes for granted
that he has these powers at his command
and strives to increase his store of informa-
mation. The first process is the improve-
ment and building up of the intellectual
forces by any means that will enable them
to do their work thoroughly and correctly,
and the second is practically, except in so
far as it can be used in carrying on the first
process, a load carried by the brain. Simi-
lar in fact, though not in kind, to the extra
fats and extra growths, of all sorts carried
by the body, it may sometimes be of ad-
vantage, and sometimes, when in unnatural
proportion, a serious and perhaps even an
injurious burden.
The cultivation of the original powers of
the individual, of his whole mind, with, of
course, proper regard for moral and physi-
eal well-being, which are, in my opinion,
equally important and essential, is akin to
the treatment by which a good teacher of
athletics strives to improve the native
strength of a pupil and give the muscles
endurance and force, and which the young
gymnast himself is taught how to use to the
greatest advantage. This athletic training
must go hand in hand with judicious feed-
ing, and in the parallel processes of educa-
tion similar objective training must go hand
198
in hand with a legitimate amount of infor-
mation. It is striving against nature to
throw a pupil wholly on his own resources
and allow him to find hisway alone. This
effort not only wastes valuable time, but it
is an attempt to return to primitive condi-
tions and to produce unfavorable surround-
ings that do not exist at the present time.
This kind of teaching is fortunately very
rare nowadays, and usually an ideal that it
is impossible to pursue consistently in act-
ual practice.
The natural and right course is really fol-
lowed by a very good teacher, and strives
not only to exercise and train his pupil’s
faculties, but at the same time or at proper
intervals furnishes information that will
give needed nourishment and renewed
strength to his power of doing pioneering
work, if he be capable of this higher order
of effort.
The happy combination of self-culture
and sufficient intellectual meals is by no
means easy, and they are mingled in due
proportion only when the pupil can be em-
ployed for much the largest part of his time
in the handling of objects or experiments
under proper direction, which will enable
him to build up by his own experience meth-
ods suitable for his own mind, or, failing
that, to at least learn how original work
has been done by others.
Laboratory teaching is an effort made
now by all institutions to furnish proper
facilities for practical instruction of this
sort, and it is successful or the reverse, ac-
cording to the proportions in which the
system adopted deviates from the happy me-
dium in which neither self-culture nor the
administering of information is allowed to
usurp the whole field.
This being a partial description of Labor-
atory teaching, it is a question in the minds
of most naturalists whether it is in a strict
sense applicable to large classes except un-
der very exceptional conditions. In the
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vor. I. No. 8.
first place, what is a large class; is it forty,
eighty, or one hundred and sixty? Can_
the class be taken in sections or must it be
handled as a whole? Can the instructor
command laboratory facilities in the shape
of rooms, tables, specimens or instruments,
and materials for observation or experi-
ment, and, above all, can he command as-
sistants? All of these queries must be re-
plied to in some shape by each instructor
before it is possible for him to consider
the subject from any practical point of view.
It is obvious that laboratory exercises and
information must be individualized to be of
the highest standard, and this could not be
carried out fully by an instructor alone, ex-
cept for a small class. There is also an ob-
vious limitation of numbers due to the neces-
sary limitation of facilities that can be
offered by any institution, however well
equipped. Even if an instructor had an
enormous laboratory capable of accommo-
dating a large class and money to employ
the best of assistants, it is also obvious that
the larger the class the further removed
the members must be from personal contact
with their teacher, and as individuals con-
sequently less able to benefit by his experi-
ence and by his example, these two last be-
ing perhaps after all among the most im-
portant elements of good teaching.
Assistants come not only between the head
teacher and his pupils, but where there are
many minds there must be some strict
system and set ways of doing the work, and
more or less disregard of the peculiar needs
of each individual. It is, however, evident
that as long as this is recognized as a neces-
sary evil, and the red tape of the system
regarded in this light and not exalted into
a fetish of productive virtue, a very large
class may be kept at work through assist-
ants, if they are allowed to have some indi-
viduality themselves and are taught to cul-
tivate the same gift in some of their pupils.
In such matters, however, one must speak
FEBRUARY 22, 1895.]
from the fulness of his own experience, and
I must leave this subject to those who have
had experience in conducting large labora-
tories crowded with pupils.
My own experience has been with a few,
unfortunately with very few pupils of the
highest grade, and then, skipping all inter-
mediate grades, next with pupils who have
come to me uninformed or worse off in being
burdened with undigested information. The
first of course had almost unlimited time
and ample facilities, and, therefore, do not
come into consideration here.
My classes have varied from ten to five
~ hundred, but unluckily the binding force of
_ the conditions under which instruction was
_ given did not vary in the same proportion.
_ I have always been obliged to give lessons
~ to the whole class at once, and the time has
been invariably limited to comparatively
few hours.
Under these somewhat difficult conditions
it became necessary to adopt some system
that would include, as far as practicable at
least, the idea of self culture, so that the
pupils would at any rate not be led into the
belief that they knew how to handle and
usea subject when they really had only ac-
_ quired some information and the power to
read about it more intelligently, and perhaps
also the ability to recognize certain facts of
which no educated man should be ignorant.
‘ ig Permit me to exercise one of the usual
Ben of every speaker and enlarge
somewhat the boundaries of this discussion
asking you to consider Laboratory Teach-
as but one branch of object teaching.
Ve shall then be able to regard it from the
point of view of its essential character and
ee more clearly its application to cases in
vhich large classes must be dealt with in
ure rooms capacious enough to hold from
hty to five hundred or even more persons.
may then be said, that in proportion asa
scturer follows objective methods and clings
the habit of making his audience see,
SCIENCE.
199
each for himself or herself, the objects he is
talking about, in just the same proportion
is he trying, at least, to educate them ac-
cording to the ideal standards.
Some twenty-four years ago the Teachers’
School of Science was begun in Boston and
it became necessary to decide how the les-
sons should be conducted. To be faithful
to the ideals of science and handle a class
as large as could be comfortably seated in
the lecture room of the Boston Society of
Natural History was the practical problem,
and secondarily how to do this so as to lead
to the final adoption of natural history
teaching in the public schools.
Two necessary conditions were assumed
as the basis of the system adopted : first, the
actual study of specimens, and second, the
subsequent possession of these by the teach-
ers. This system was inaugurated with a
class of eighty, and was found to be practi-
cable with five hundred persons, and suc-
ceeded as well as could be expected with
such large audiences. The lecturers em-
ployed by the school, which subsequently
came for the most part under the patronage
of the Trustee of the Lowell Institute, Mr.
Augustus Lowell, were instructed to con-
form to the requirements mentioned above,
and the system has not been materially al-
tered since the beginning, except in one of
these requirements. Of late years it has
not been deemed necessary to have very
large classes, nor to distribute specimens in
such profusion as during the earlier years
in which hundreds of thousands had been
given away. The details are very simple.
Every person in the audience is furnished
with a certain number of specimens. These
are placed by assistants upon temporary
tables opposite each chair before the lesson
begins. The tables for large classes were of
the simplest description, mere boards with
a slight moulding to keep objects from roll-
ing off. They were made in sections and
were fastened to the floor by iron stanch-
200
ions that could be unscrewed and removed
after they were no longer needed. It occu-
pied three men about one-half of a day to
put them up and take them down and store
them away from a lecture room accommo-
dating five hundred persons. The seats in
this room were the ordinary distance apart
and were not constructed especially for the
purpose of giving additional room for these
tables. Similar tables have also been built
and used successfully in several different lec-
ture rooms.
The lecturer leads his hearers to observe
with the specimens in hand certain facts,
and he may if he chooses go far beyond
these simple observations in his remarks,and
he very often does this, but the specimens
are dead weights upon his flights into the
empyrean of fancy or theory. The objects
are there; they demand constant atten-
tion, and the teacher cannot keep away
from their consideration, nor can his audi-
ence lose consciousness that they are the
subjects upon which the work is to be
done.
The principal difficulty is to acquire the
habit of carrying on the thread of the dis-
course, directing it to some definite morpho-
logic point, or whatever the lecturer may
choose, weaving the facts shown by the
specimens into a demonstration of this point,
and at the same time keep, the pupils at
work upon the specimens to such an extent
that most of them actually see the needed
facts.
The field capable of being illustrated and
taught in this way is necessarily limited,
and there are in each branch of science
certain series of facts requiring elaborate
apparatus or rare specimens that cannot be
used in sufficient numbers. Nevertheless,
the limits in each department are not so
narrow as one at first thinks, and the field
covered grows continually broader in pro-
portion to the ability and experience of the
instructor.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 8.
The first expense is not large; the cost
of the Geological and Mineralogical speci-
mens was about ten dollars for each lecture, |
and for Botany about fifteen, and Zodlogy
twenty to twenty-five for audiences of five
hundred.
But before entering upon the second part
of my subject, the application of this method
to smaller classes, permit me to say that
diagrams were used in order to direct the
attention of the audience to the facts to be
observed, and they were encouraged to make
notes and sketches and instructed in the
use of a cheap magnifier costing from sixty
to seventy-five cents. The lecturer was
allowed also to place objects similar to
those in the hands of the audience upon his
table and platform and on the tables in the
body of the lecture room, and whenever
practicable these were living representatives
of the preparation.
It is needless to say to this audience that
no claim is made here to the discovery of a
royal road to knowledge. The system itself
is an ancient one and was used before I was —
born by many persons. The habit of ob-
serving accurately cannot be formed by an
hour or two of work on Saturday afternoon,
even with the use of specimens. The
method has, however, a valid claim to con-
sideration in so far as it possesses great
advantages over the subjective methods of —
the ordinary lecture, when illustrated solely
by diagrams or stereopticon pictures, and
its results are far more satisfactory.
All lessons or lectures away from the aect-
ual presence of the objects described or dis-
cussed throw the individual back upon his
own mental processes, unless he already
has experience and knowledge of the facts
treated. Illustrations in the shape of dia-
grams or stereopticon pictures are substi-
tutes of one dimension ; they have the su- —
perficial attributes of length and breadth,
but their apparent thickness and solidity
are artistic shams. People who are taught
FEBRUARY 22, 1895.]
in this way think afterwards in a weak sub-
jective form. The objects depicted are present
to them as pictures, not as things. The
classes in drawing at the Lowell Institute
were objectively taught and not permitted
to draw from illustrations, but among the
pupils there were often some that had had
instruction according to this method. They
were seated and placed so that no two per-
sons got the same view of a cube mounted
on a stand, in one of their lessons. Those
that had had no training from copying flat
illustrations tried to depict what they saw;
those that had had this sort of training us-
ually outlined the cube as they thought a
cube ought to appear, giving it the conven-
tional shape and aspect it had in their own
minds. Whether seated on the floor or on
chairs, or standing, in front or at one side,
the cube almost invariably appeared on
their sheets with the top side in perspective,
whether they saw the top or did not see it
from their station.
Able pupils carry away from our lessons
much more than they can from lectures,
however elaborately adorned with illustra-
tions, and our results show that even the
erudest efforts to observe facts with ex-
amples in hand lead often to a realization
of the effectiveness of objective work and a
desire for more culture in this direction.
These lectures to large audiences created
gradually a demand for more precise and
extensive instruction in some of our pupils,
and this demand led to the giving of series
of lessons on the same subjects to more
limited numbers and extending over longer
periods of time. These have lately taken
the form of consecutive courses running
through each winter for four years. We
haye just finished one on Geology, of this
amount of time, about one hundred and
thirty hours in all, and another in Botany,
and have still another in Zodlogy and Pale-
ontology, of about the same length, which
will be finished this year.
SCIENCE. 201
In these classes numbering from thirty-
six to forty-eight the lecturer treats the au-
dience in much the same way as far as
specimens are concerned, but having more
time and more control over the pupils, he
can do his work more effectually. Each
person must have a note-book and magni-
fier; microscopes are furnished by the So-
ciety. The pupils are told that they must
make notes, and must make sketches of the
specimens. Those who state that they can-
not draw are instructed to try and are
shown that the quality of their drawing is
not of so much importance as the employ-
ment of the eyes and mind in trying to
draw the object before them. The act of
trying to draw a specimen is not absolutely
essential to the success of this method, but
it is very helpful. It holds the pupil down
to his work, keeps him constantly observ-
ing, and he soon learns to make approxi-
mately a good outline of the specimen, and
then studies the details much more closely
than he would otherwise do, if not making
an effort to represent them on his sketch.
Different teachers have different ways of
doing their work, but in general it may be
said that those at present at work in the
school follow this process more or less and
also hold either examinations at stated in-
tervals or have reviews in which the stu-
dents are questioned with regard to what
they have been studying and so on. One
gentleman keeps a complete card catalogue
of names and marks, so that he can follow
accurately the exact course of each pupil
back through the entire four years, and he
holds no final examination, preferring to
make his work perfect as he goes along.
Two of the teachers—there are only four
in all—have constantly had the services of
two assistants who helped to set out the
specimens and clear the tables after the les-
sons were finished. These assistants were
for the most part selected from the audience,
andcan generally be obtained in this way,
202
either as voluntary laborers or for a very
moderate compensation. These persons,
under the direction of the teacher, help him
to supervise the note making and microsco-
pical observations of the pupils and help
them to see and discuss with them the facts
that they observe. A large part of every les-
son is passed in the description and discus-
sion of observations made on the specimens.
The pupils are also encouraged to work in-
dependently in making connected studies
and collections out of doors, and to embody
the results in reports and actual collections
presented at the final examinations or at the
close of the term.
Field work is also carried on in connec-
tion with the laboratory lectures in miner-
alogy and geology, and it is proposed to do
the same when opportunity offers in other
branches. One can judge in part of the
ability and attainments of classes by the ex-
amination papers and their note-books kept
through the term, and the results in this di-
rection have been highly satisfactory. I
have not had time to gather any of these
evidences as I had intended to do, and I
shall have to ask you to take my word for
it that these were more than creditable.
I have brought a few placards of the courses
_ and of the questions for the final examina-
tions in two of the courses, which I have
exhibited for your inspection.
The persons attending these lessons were
all adults and mostly teachers in the public
schools, but the same method has been found
to be equally successful with classes of the
Institution of Technology and Boston Uni-
versity, and no difficulty has been experi-
enced in handling them in this way beyond
what is usual with such pupils. Pupils of
the Teachers’ School of Science have also
applied the same method to large classes of
young people of both sexes in the public
schools, and by covering less ground at each
lesson succeeded with them also.
In certain subjects, such as Physical Geog-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 8.
raphy, Chemistry and Physies, and Physi-
ology, and so on, this method has a neces-
sarily more limited application than in the”
branches enumerated above, but even in
these departments it has been more or less
used, directly by selecting the few experi-
ments that could be actually made by indi-
viduals. in the audience, and indirectly by
showing others on the platform that could
be repeated by them with apparatus that
they could make themselves, or purchase
with very small outlay.
Permit me in conclusion to repeat that it
has been thoroughly tested with such classes
of persons of all ages as have been described,
but it has not yet, as far as I know, been
applied to large classes of students in any
university. If it has been applied to such
classes by any one their experience is proba-
bly known to some persons in the audience,
and I shall be glad to hear what the results
have been. I am aware that our experi-
ence will probably be of real value only to
those who have to deal with classes having
at their command a limited number of hours
and but little chance for laboratory work
outside of the hours devoted to the lessons.
Nevertheless, there are many who now lee-
ture with illustrations, diagrams and the
stereopticon, to whom I would with all de-
ference suggest the possibility of adding to
these specimens distributed among their
pupils. And I further make bold to recom-
mend that those who make partial use of
text-books, as aids for the pupils to study
and recite from, drop a part of these re-
quirements and allow their pupils to substi-
tute actual work on specimens done inside
or outside of the class-room, collections
made by themselves and so on. I also
crave their permission to suggest one fea-
ture of our examinations which you will see
mentioned on the cards I have displayed.
This consists in placing before each pupil a
set of test specimens which he is required
to place in proper sequence as regards their
FEBRUARY 22, 1895.]
mutual relations, to number, name, describe,
and so on, in accordance with what he has
been taught. I have myself a way of slip-
ping into this set one object that the pupils
have never seen, so far as I know their
studies. The replies to this silent ques-
tioner frequently enable me to determine
who are the best observers and most origi-
nal thinkers, and very often point out clearly
the difference between them and those who
are merely the best students.
Whether this system is the best that can
be devised or has only some praiseworthy
feature, or is in reality but a poor substi-
‘tute for a good one, I shall not pretend to
decide. There are numbers of scientific
teachers of great experience and learning
present who have heard my arguments and
must be our judges, but I think they willall
indulgently agree that the teachers who have
adopted and elaborated this method have
‘tried to come as near to the ideals of objec-
tive work as the adverse circumstances of
large classes and limited time would per-
mit. ApHeEvs Hyarvr.
_ Boston.
ORIGINAL RESEARCH AND CREATIVE AU-
THORSHIP THE ESSENCE OF UNIVERSITY
TEACHING.*
Tuar which is most characteristic of the
_ present epoch in the history of man is un-
doubtedly the vast and beneficent growth
of science. In things apart from science,
‘other races at times long past may be
compared to the most civilized people of
to-day.
J
~
—-
s
The lyric poetry of Sappho has never
been equalled: The epie flavor of Homer,
even after translation,
“unsurpassed through the ages. Dante, the
voice of six silent centuries, may wait six
centuries more before his medieval miracle
of song finds its peer.
*Tnaugural Address by the President of the Texas
Academy of Science, Dr. p= Bruce Halsted, Octo-
ber 12, 1894.
SCIENCE.
comes down to us.
203
The Apollo Belvidere, the Venus of Milo,
the Laocoén are the glory of antique, the
despair of modern sculpture. To mention
oratory to a schoolboy is to recall Demos-
thenes and Cicero, even if he has never
pictured Cesar, that greatest of the sons of
men, quelling the mutinous soldiery by his
first word, or with outstretched arm, in
Egypt’s palace window, holding enthralled
his raging enemies, gaining precious mo-
ments, time, the only thing he needed to
enable him to crush them under his domi-
nant intellect.
There is no need for multiplying exam-
ples. The one thing that gives the pres-
ent generation its predominance is science.
The foremost factor in modern life is science.
All criticisms of the scope of life, of the es-
sence of education, made before science had
taken its present place, or attempting to
ignore its prominence, are obsolete, as are
of necessity any systems of education
founded on pre-scientific or anti-scientific
conceptions.
Unfortunately there are still some people
so dull, so envious, so unscientifiic, so stu-
pid as to maintain that the highest aim of
a university should be the training of young
men and young women, where they use the
word ‘training’ in its repressive, inhibi-
tive sense. The most profound discoveries
of modern science unite in replacing this
old ‘training’ idea of education by one
immeasurably higher, finer, nobler. We
now know that the paramount aim of
teaching at every stage, and preéminently
of the final stage, at the university, should
be to help the developing mind, the develop-
ing character, the developing personality.
Judicious, delicate, sympathetic help is now
the watchword. Even horses and dogs
worth owning are no longer ‘ broken;’ they
are ‘ gentled.’
What has brought about this glorious
change? Science, the greatest achievement
of human life, the one thing that puts to-
204
day, the present, in advance of all past
ages. Not only by having subjugated the
forces of nature to the dominion of mind,
but also by its intellectual influence, science
is remodelling the life and thought of mod-
ern humanity.
Though science is the purest knowledge,
yet even our estimate of knowledge has
been changed by science. Mere acquire-
ment is now considered an unworthy end
or aim for endeavor. Action, production
alone now receives our homage, now gives
a life worth living; and, therefore, each
must aim either at the practical application
of his knowledge, or at the extension of the
limits of science itself. For to extend the
limits of science is really to work for the
progress of humanity. This is a fitting
crown to the sweet and symmetrical evolve-
ment which true teaching aids—the unfail-
ing spring of pure pleasure which it affords.
The laws of physical, but, above all, of
mental health, made clear by science, let
every one realize how now our truest edu-
cation stands ready to aid, to save, to sat-
isfy endangered or craving bodies or minds.
Nothing is more beautifully characteristic
of young children than the desire to know
the why and wherefore of everything they
see. This natural spirit of inquiry needs
only proper direction and fostering care to
give us scientists. But no one can teach
science who does not know it. For a
teacher, however subordinate, to have the
true informing spirit to vivify his book-
knowledge, even of the very elements, it is
found almost uniformly essential that he
should have been in direct personal contact
with some one of those great men whose
joy itis to be able to advance the age in
which they live, and lead on mankind to
unexpected victories in the progressive con-
quest of the universe. But itis the highest
function of a university to help the gifted
young man on his way toward becoming
one of these glorious creators, these men
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 8
who make and who honor the age in which
they live. CGan NCE.
New SERIES.
VoL. I. No.9.
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Methods and Processes.
Princeton College.
Lectures on Human and Animal Psy=
chology.
Translated from the Second and Revised German
Edition (1892) by J. E. CREIGHTON, A.B. (Dalhou-
sie), Ph.D. (Cornell), and E. B. TircHENER, A.B.
(Oxon. ), Ph.D. (Leipzig). 8vo, Cloth, $4.00, net.
Popular Lectures and Addresses.
By Lorp KELVIN, F.R.S. In 3 vols.
Geology and General Physics.
tions. Crown 8yo.
Vol. II.
With Illustra-
$2.00 each volume.
A Treatise on the Measurement of Elec=
trical Resistance.
By WILLIAM ARTHUR PRICE, M.A., A.M.I.C.E.,
formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. 8vo, Cloth,
$3.50, net.
By JAMES MARK BALDWIN, Ph. D., Stuart Professor of Experimental Psychology,
8vo, cloth, 52.60, net.
| Columbia University Biological Series.
| Edited by HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBoRN, Sc.D., Da
| Costa Professor of Biology in Columbia College. The
volumes of the series already published are as follows:
I. From the Greeks to Darwin. By Hmnry
FAIRFIELD OSBORN, Sc.D. 8vo, Buckram,
$2.00, net.
Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Ver=
tebrates. By ARTHUR WILLEY, B.S&c.,
Tutor in Biology, Columbia College. With
a Preface by the Editor. With Illustrations.
8vo, Buckram, $2.50, net.
Law in a Free State.
By WorDSWoRTH DONISTHORPE, author of ‘Indi-
vidualism a System of Politics,’ etc. 12mo, cloth $2.00.
“The work of an acute thinker and vigorous
writer.’
A TIMELY AND PRACTICAL BOOK ON THE CURRENCY.
HONEST MONEY.
By ARTHUR I. FonDA. A work dealing in a rational and common sense way with the requirements of
an honest money, criticising the merits and defects of various proposals for its betterment, with an outline of
a new monetary system that seems to meet the requirements and correct existing faults.
12mo, cloth, $1.00
MACMILLAN & CO., 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK,
SIE NCE.
EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE : S. NEwcomB, Mathematics ; R. S. Woopwarp, Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, As-
tronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics ; R. H. THuRsToN, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
JosEPH LE ConTE, Geology; W. M. DAvis, Physiography; O. C. MArsH, Paleontology; W. K.
Brooks, Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; N. L. BRITTON,
Botany ; HENRY F. OsBorN, General Biology ; H. P. Bowprrcu, Physiology ;
J. S. Brstrnes, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psycholog
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, Marcu 1, 1895.
CONTENTS:
On Dr. William Townsend Porter's Investigations of
the Growth of the School Children of St. Lowis:
BARE BOAG) |ojaivie 0,6. ~ +. oo dceMReenclels ic o.s 225
BE GANONG. 2. 5). 32 ooo ieee ell wisicis cole 230
Magnetism and the Weather: H. A. HAZEN ..... 234
Similar Inventions in Areas Wide Apart: O. T.
oD One SU SRG EBEIBsOO.S. .<\c€ oe gepgeeee 235
The Social Sense: J. MARK BALDWIN.... ..... 236
American Students at the Naples Zodlogical Station :
ERO E ORIN» « 07s..-\- «010 «stateieieieiieicle s/s isd.s os 238
BRIERESTIONGCNCE — wo 0. oo we wie cane ea sien cels cece 239
Pithecanthropus erectus: HARRISON ALLEN.
The Elihu Thompson Prize: M.
RMMOMASIG VALEMGUUTE — . 2. 0 oe acscceccccecces 241
Merriam’s Revision of the Pocket Gophers Fees
ALLEN. Gregory’s The Planet Earth: T. C. M.
The Wood’s Holl Biological Lectures: CHARLES
8. DoLLEy. Williams’ Aero-Therapeutics. Phys-
ies: WILLIAM HALLocK. Geology: J.D. R.
Wotes and News :— ......-2-cesceeeeeees stataletafets 249
The A. A. A. S. Table at Wood’s Holl Laboratory ;
General .
Societies and Academies :—..... 00.00.00 0ees eerie 200
Michigan Academy of Science ; The Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia ; Geological So-
ciety of Washington; Fortnightly Scientific Club
_in the University of Minnesota.
Scientific Journals ........+.+++- sot COARSBEOROe 251
New Books ..... Bareia\s}s:2\c.
SCIENCE.
249
Smithsonian Table at the Naples Zodlogical
Station for periods lasting until October 8,
1895. After that date the table will be
vacant and applications for it may be ad-
dressed to Professor Langley, Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution.
Lorp Acton succeeds the late Professor
Seeley in the professorship of modern his-
tory at the University of Cambridge.
Proressor W. W. CLENDENTNY, of the State
University of Louisiana, has been appointed
geologist in charge of a survey of the State.
Dr. Lomparp, known for his writings on
climatology, died at Geneva on January 22,
in his ninety-second year.
Accorpine to The American Naturalist, Mr.
R. T. Hill, of the U. S. Geological Survey,
is in Panama, and Dr. H. C. Mercer, of the
University of Pennsylvania, is in Yucatan.
Tue New York Assembly has passed a
bill appropriating $1,175,000 for the pur-
chase of a new site, and the erection of
buildings for the College of the City of New
York.
Tue American Museum of Natural His-
tory has applied to the Legislature for
$500,000, for an addition wing, which
would complete the southern front of the
building.
Tue Arizona Legislative Assembly has
presented a memorial to Congress, request-
ing that the district in Apache county
covered with trunks of petrified trees be
withdrawn from entry with a view to pre-
venting destruction and injury until the
district has been made a public park.
THERE have been so many requests for
copies of Prof. Charles S. Minot’s article in
the Popular Science Monthly for July, 1893, en-
titled ‘The Structural Plan of the Human
Brain,’ that the article has been reprinted
and copies may now be obtained at twenty
cents each, from Mr. Charles B. Wormelle,
6 Menlo Street, Brighton District, Boston,
Mass.
250
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
MICHIGAN SCIENCES AND ACADEMIES.
AFTER some discussion and correspond-
ence, a preliminary meeting was called
at the State University in Ann Arbor, last
June, and an organization effected. The
following officers were elected to serve for
the first meeting which was held in connec-
tion with that of the State Teachers’ Asso-
ciation, December 26-27, in the State Capi-
tol at Lansing :
President—W. J. Beal.
Vice-President—J. B. Steere.
Secretary and Treaswrer—F. C. Newcombe.
Additional Members of the Executive Commit-
tee—W. B. Barrows, I. C. Russell.
At the close of the meeting very nearly
an even hundred members were enrolled.
A very complete constitution and by-laws
were adopted. One of the main features of
the Society is to proceed systematically with
a State biological survey. The State will
be asked to publish the transactions, and to
furnish some aid toward conducting field
work.
Three vice-presidents were elected who
are to act as chairmen of committees on
Botany, Zodlogy and Sanitary Science.
Doubtless other vice-presidents for other
work may be elected at the next annual
meeting.
An informal field meeting will be held in
May or June.
Those in attendance were much pleased
with the first program as carried out in
Lansing, and are showing much enthusiam
regarding future work. The objects of the
Society, as now stated in the constitution,
are the investigations in Agriculture, Bot-
any, Zoology, Sanitary Science, Archeology
and kindred subjects, but may include
other departments when workers are ready
to enter the field.
The present officers are:
President—Bryant Walker.
Vice-President—Frederick C. Newcombe.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 9
Vice-President—Jacob E. Reighard.
Vice-President—Henry B. Baker.
Secretary—G. C. Davis.
Treasurer—H. A. Strong. ~
The program was as follows:
-
WEDNESDAY, 1:30 P. M.
1. Call to order and introductory remarks by
the President.
. Report of the Executive Committee.
3. Determination of the hour for Election of
Officers, and for Other Business.
bo
PRESENTATION OF PAPERS.
1. The Mammals of Michigan: Dr. J. B.
STEERE.
2. The Birds of Michigan: Pror. D. C. Wor-
CESTER.
3. Additions to the Flora of Michigan: Mr.
C. F. WHEELER.
4. The Cryptogamic Flora of Michigan :
L. N. JouHnson.
5. Work of the Michigan Fish Commission:
Dr. C. A. Kororm and Pror. H. B.
WARD.
6. The Michigan Lepidoptera: Dr. R. H.
Wotcort.
Mr.
WEDNESDAY. 7:30 P. M.
7. Our Society and a State Survey: Pror. W.
J. Brat.
8. Practical Benefits of Bacteriology:
F. G. Novy.
9. Simian Characters of the Human Skeleton:
Pror. W. H. SHERZER.
10. Date and Development of Michigan Arche-
ology: Mr. Haran I. Smrre.
11. Some Notes on the Michigan Coat of Arms:
Pror. W. J. BEAL.
12. Teaching Botanyin Winter: Prox. W. J-
BEAu.
Pror.
THURSDAY, 9:00 A. M.
13. Flora of Michigan Lakes: Pror. CHAS.
A. Davis.
14. Michigan Lepidoptera: Dr. R. H. Wor-
corr.
15. Review of our Present Knowledge of the
Marcu 1, 1895. ]
Molluscan Fauna of Michigan: Mr. BRYANT
’ . WALKER.
16. Distoma Patalosum; A Parasite of the
Crayfish: Mr. C. H. Lanper.
17. Bacteria and the Dairy: Pror. C. D.
_ Smrru.
18. Tendencies in Michigan Horticulture: Mr.
A. A. Crozier.
19. Futile Experiments for the Improvement of
Agriculture: Dr. Manty Mites.
THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF
PHILADELPHIA,
Proressor DAnreL G. Brryton is giving a
course of six lectures, entitled A Survey of
the Science of Man, on Mondays, January
28, February 4, 11, 18, 25, and March 4,
1895, in the Lecture Hall of the Academy.
_ The lectures are :
1. The Physical Faculties of Man.
. The Mental Faculties of Man.
. The Social Faculties of Man
4. The Artistic Faculties of Man
5. The Religious Faculties of Man.
6. The Progress of the Race.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
FEB. 18.
Discussion of Field Methods: (1) How do you
determine the Thickness of Strata? Sym-
posium opened by Mr. G. K. Givserrt.
General discussion is invited.
Rapid Section Work in Horizontal Rocks: Mr.
_ M.R. Campsert.
Newly Discovered Dyke near Syracuse, N. Y.:
Messrs. N. H. Darton anv J. F. Kemp.
Wuirman Cross, Secretary.
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
FEB. 16.
Biographical Sketch of James Clarke Welling :
Mr. J. Howarp Gore.
Biographical Sketch of Robert Stanton Avery :
Mr. L. D. Supy.
Biographical Sketch of Garrick Mallery: Mr.
Roger FLercuer.
4
SCIENCE.
251
The Central American Rainfall: Mr. Mark
W. Harrineron.
Witiiam C. Wrxtock, Secretary.
FORTNIGHTLY SCIENTIFIC CLUB IN THE UNI-
VERSITY OF MINNESOTA.
Jan. 19, 1895.
The Vivisection of Plants: Mr. D. T. Mac-
DoveGau,
Is Man Woman’s Equal? The Zodlogist’s
answer and some of its consequences:
Proressor H. F. NacHTRIEs.
Feb. 2, 1895.
The Departure of the Ice Sheet from Lake Su-
perior and the more Eastern Laurentian
Lakes: Mr. WARREN UPHAM.
Some Things People Ought to Know About
Miero- Organisms: Dr. Cuas. N. Hewerr.
Feb. 16, 1895.
The Detection of Star Motions in the Line of
Sight: Proressor J. F. Downey.
The Constitution of Matter: Dr. G. B. FRANK-
FORTER.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, FEB.
The Philosophy of Flower Seasons, and the
Phenological Relations of the Entomophilous
Flora and the Anthophilous Insect Fauna:
(Illustrated.) CHARLES RoBErRTsoN,
Insanity in Royal Families; A Study in He-
redity: Avice BopineTon.
The Significance of Anomalies: THomas
Dwieut, M. D., LL. D.
Editor’s Table; Recent Literature; Recent
Books and Pamphlets.
General Notes; Geography and Travels ; Min-
eralogy; Petrography; Geology; Botany;
Zoology ; Entomology ; Embryology; Arche-
ology and Ethnoloyy ; Microscopy: On a New
Method of Entrapping, Killing, Embed-
ding and Orienting Infusoria and other
very small Objects for the Microtome.
(Illustrated. )
Proceedings of Scientific Societies; Scientific
News.
252
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL
SOCIETY, FEB.
A Modified Arrangement of the Elements Under
the Natural Law: F. P. VENABLE.
The Determination of Potash in Kainite: Ru-
DOLPH DE ROODE.
The Oxidation of Organic Matter and the De-
composition of Ammonium Salts by Aqua
Regia, in Liew of Ignition, in the Determina-
tion of Potash in Fertilizers: RUDOLPH DE
ROovE.
On Certain Phenomena Observed in the Pre-
cipitation of Antimony from Solutions of Potas-
stum Antimonyl Tartrate: J. H. Lone.
An Examination of the Atmosphere of a Large
Manufacturing City: CHaRrLes F. MABrry.
A New Form of Water-Oven and Still: Lewis
Wiiiram Horrmann and Roserr W.
HocHSTETTER.
The Determination of Nickel nm Nickel-Steel :
E. D. Campsett and W. H. AnDREWs.
The Volumetric Determination of Phosphorus in
Steel and Cast Iron: W. A. Noyzs and J.
S. Royse.
The Contribution of Chemistry to the Methods of
Preventing and Extinguishing Conflagration :
Tuomas H. Norton.
The Action of Organic and Mineral Acids Upon
Soils: HARRY SNYDER.
New Books.
THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY, JAN.—FEB.
The Basic Massive Rocks of the Lake Superior
Region. IV.: W.S8. BAYLey.
A Petrographical Sketch of Afgina and Methana.
Part I[.: Henry 8. WASHINGTON.
Lake Basins Created by Wind Erosion: G. K.
GILBERT.
On Clinton Conglomerates and Wave Marks in
Ohio and Kentucky: Aue. F. Forrste.
Glacial Studies in Greenland. III.: T. C.
CHAMBERLIN.
Studies for Students :
Agencies which Transport Materials on the
Earth’s Surface: Rout D. SALisBuRyY.
Editorials ; Publications ; Notes.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. %
THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, FEB.
George Huntington Williams : Joun M. CiarK,
(Portrait. )
The Geological History of Missouri: ARTHUR
WINSLOW.
A New Cretaceous Genus of Clypeastride: F.
W. Craicin.
Further Observations on the Ventral Structure
of Triarthrus: C. E. BEECHER.
The Second Lake Algonquin: F. B. Taytor.
Editorial Comment.
Feview of Recent Geological Literature.
Recent Publications.
Correspondence.
Personal and Scientific News.
THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE, FEB.
New or noteworthy Composite from Guatemala :
Joun M. CoutEr.
A preliminary paper on Costaria, with deserip-
tion of a new species: Dr ALTON SAUNDERS.
Notes on our Hepatice. III: Lucren M.
UNDERWOOD.
The flora of Mt. Mansfield: W. W. EGGLEsron.
Briefer Articles.
Editorial; Current Literature; Open Letters ;
Notes and News.
NEW BOOKS.
Botanical Garden. Fifth Annual
Report. St. Louis, Mo., Board of Trus-
tees. 1894. Pp. 166.
The Great Ice Age. JAMES GEIKIE. New
York, D. Appleton & Co. 1895. 3d
Edition. Pp. xxviii+850. $7.50.
The Pygmies. A. DE QUATREXAGES. ‘Trans-
lated by Freprrick Starr. New York,
D. Appleton & Co. 1895. Pp. xivr
255. $1.75.
Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Har-
vard College. Vol. XX XITI., Part I. Inves-
tigations in Astronomical Photography.
Wittiam H. Picxertne. Cambridge,
Mass., the Observatory. 1895. Pp. 11.
Missouri
New SERIes.
Vor. I. No. 10.
Fripay, Marcu 8, 1895.
SINGLE COPIES, 15 CTs.
NUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00
GUSTAV E. STECHERT’S
Recent Importation of Scientific Books.
ANDERSSOHN, AUREL. Physikalische Principien
der Naturlehre. 93 Seiten. 8°. M. 1.60.
ARCHIV FUR ENTWICKLUNGSMECHANIK DER OR-
GANISMEN. Herausgegeben von Prof. Wilhelm Roux.
Erster Band, Erstes Heft. Mit 7 Tafeln und 6 Text—
figuren, 160 Seiten. 8°. M. 10.
BARRILLOT, ERNEST. Traité de Chimie Légale.
Analyse Toxicologique. Recherches Spéciales, 356
pages. 8°. Fr. 6.50.
BuJARD, Dr. ALFoNS und Dr. EDUARD BAIER.
Hilfsbuch fiir Nahrungsmittelchemiker auf Grund-
lage der Vorschriften, betreffend die Priifung der
Nahrungsmittelchemiker. Mit in den Text gedriick-
ten Abbildungen, 486 S. Kl. 8°. Gebunden, M. 8.
Driescu, HANs. Analytische Theorie der orga-
nischen Entwicklung. Mit 8 Textfiguren, 1848. 8°.
M. 5.
' Drupe, P. Physik des Aethers auf elektromag-
“netischer Grundlage. 8°. Mit 66 Abbildgn. Mk. 14.
EpHraim, Dr. Junius. Sammlung der wichtig-
sten Original arbeiten iiber Analyse der Nahrungsmit-
tel zusammengestellt und mit Anmerkungen verse-
then. 3228. KI. 8°. M.6.
Fiscuer, Pror. Dk. BERNHAkD und Dr. CARL
Breseck. Zur Morphologie, Biologie und Systema-
tik der Kahmpilze, der Monilia candida Hansen und
des Soorerregers. Mit 2Tafeln. 52S. Gr. 8°. M. 4.
GARNAULT, E. Mécanique, physique et chimie.
Paris, 1894. 8°. Avec. 325 fig. 8 fr.
GRAWINKEL, C. und K. SrrecKER. Hilfsbuch
fiir de Elektrotechnik. Unter Mitwirkung von Fink,
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zahlreichen Figuren im Text. Vierte vermehrte und
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geben von I. Schrader. Mit botanischen Beitriigen
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_KApp, GisBert. Dynamomaschinen fiir Gleich-
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SCIENTIFIC WEATHER OBSERVATION AND PREDI CTION.
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Description of Meteorological Instruments, and River Flood Predictions in the United States. By THomMAS
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A work designed to show how trustworthy predictions of coming weather may be made, and in what
cases useful forecasts are’ possible. The method is based chiefly on statistics of the observed condition of the
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Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay. Steam and the [larine Steam Engine.
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the history of contemporary science, while its intrinsic inter- ie
est es Erol Dresen a will commend ittoa wide | Steel Works Analysis.
Siete tee pic ea By J. O. ARNOLD, F. C. 8. (‘The Specialist’s Series),
Economic Classics. Professor of Metallurgy at the Sheffield Technical
Edited by W. J. ASHLEY, M. A., Professor of | School, sometime Chief Chemist at the Sheffield Steel
Economie History in Harvard University: 12mo, | and Iron Works. 12mo, 350 pages, Cloth, $3.00.
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pega Se ” Le Bree i (CRERDORS Re! SSCS aan By HENRY ORFORD, author of ‘A Microscope Ob-
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David Ricardo. The first six chapters of ‘The | hundred and thirty-one Mlustrations. 16mo, 231
Principles of Political Economy,’ etc. pages, Cloth, 80 cents.
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Outlines of English Industrial History. Principal of the City and Guilds of London Technical
By W. CUNNINGHAM, D. D., Fellow of Trinity | College, Finsbury. New, Revised Edition, with many
College, Cambridge, and ELLEN A. McArrHour, | Additions. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo,
Lecturer at Girton College. 12mo, cloth, $1.50. | $1.40, net.
NEW WORK BY PROFESSOR BALDWIN, OF PRINCETON.
MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CHILD AND THE RACE.
Methods and Processes. By JAMES MARK BALDWIN, Ph. D., Stuart Professor of Experimental Psychology,
Princeton College. 8vo, cloth, $2.60, net.
Lectures on Human and Animal Psy-= | Columbia University Biological Series.
chology. | Edited by Henry FAIRFIELD OsBoRN, Se.D., Da
P Costa Professor of Biology in Columbia College. The
E dice Gas Sis Coen en an volumes of the series already published are as follows:
. B. , A.B. .
sie), Ph.D. (Cornell), and E. B. TirTcHENER, A.B. I. From the Greeks to Darwin. By HENRY
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Popular Lectures and Addresses. Il. Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Ver=
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Tutor in Biology, Columbia College. With
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MACMILLAN & CO., 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK,
SCIENCE.
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE :
S. Newcoms, Mathematics ; R. S. Woopwarp, Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, As-
tronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics ; R. H. THurston, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
JosEPH LE ConTE, Geology; W. M. DAvis, Physiography; O. C. MARsu, Paleontology; W. K.
Brooks, Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; N. L. Brrrron,
Botany ; HENRY F. OsBoRN, General Biology ; H. P. Bowpircn, Physiology ;
J. S. Brutines, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ;
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, Marcu 8, 1895.
CONTENTS:
Ourrent Notes on Anthropology if ): D. G. BRIN-
0 + Se SCAB CORSE BROBEEED <5 0 CCigt SS eEeOnDE 253
Ourrent Notes on Physiography (CEE) is; Wi MM.
Ie ncaoininl nots sin a's, o 5 o eile ptattbialnielejniere.s.«/ele 257
Laboratory Teaching of Large Ctasses—Zoitog Yt
ITERMON C. BUMPUS ...... 200-000 -0++ - 260
Notes on the Biology of the Lobster : FRANCIS i.
LUDO € Sa R OB ESSRgSe <6 9:5 S588 aqua ese 263
The Newark System I. C. RUSSELL............- 266
Death of George N. Lawrence: C. HART MER-
0: Je oe BESS SB EOREEEIID © 60.2052 MOCenOnae ts 268
Betentific Literature — .......0.- serene sconenee 269
Greenhill’s Mechanics: R. §. Woopwarp.
Bechhold’s Chemische Dynamik: HH. C. JONEs.
Bernthsen’s Organic Chemistry: FELIX LENG-
FELD. Haeckel’s Phylogenie: GARY N. CAL-
KINS. Geology.
SvOteR ONE NEWS — ...200-cccccarccccsccceccces 275
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CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY (IV.)
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIATIONS IN THE
HUMAN SKELETON.
Tr is a little odd that two papers on the
same subject, with almost the same title,
prepared independently at the same time,
should agree in defending a new view of
the significance of variations and anomalies
in organic forms.
The one of these is that which I read be-
fore the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science in August last, pub-
lished in the American Anthropologist for
October, entitled Variations of the Human
Skeleton and their Causes; the other was the
Shattuck Lecture, delivered before the Mas-
sachusetts Medical Society by Dr. Thomas
Dwight, Professor of Anatomy at Har-
vard University, with the title, the Range
and Significance of Variation in the Human
Skeleton.
The two papers, although drawing their
material from wholly independent sources,
and reasoning along different lines, reach
quite the same conclusion, to wit: That
variations, which in the human skeleton re-
semble forms in lower animals, are not to be
interpreted as ‘reversions’ or ‘atavistic
retrogressions,’ but that other laws should
be invoked to account for them, such as
nutrition, mechanical action, ete.
Dr. Dwight adds the following significant
words: ‘The opinion is growing daily
stronger among serious scholars that if
man’s body came from a lower form it was
not by a long process of minute modifica-
tions, but by some sudden, or comparatively
sudden transition.”
This is the opinion which, under the name
heterogenesis, I have defended for many years
(see my Races and Peoples, pp. 80,81). It has
lately received strong support from some of
Bateson’s admirable studies in variation.
254
THE ANTIQUITY OF MESOPOTAMIAN CULTURE.
At a recent meeting of the Oriental Club
of Philadelphia, Dr. J. P. Peters, whose re-
searches among the ruins of the valley of the
Euphrates are well known, mentioned his
observations on the deposition of alluvium
by the river as a chronometer for measuring
the antiquity of some ruin-mounds. The
deposits from the known date of Alexander’s
conquests display marked uniformity ; and
taking the depths of these as a standard, the
foundations of Ur (the ‘ Ur of the Chaldees ’
of Genesis, the modern Muchair) and of Eri-
chu (the modern Abu-Shahrein ) must have
been laid about seven thousand years B. C.
This venerable antiquity, however, ap-
pears quite modern compared to that as-
signed the same culture in some calculations
laid before the Académie des Inscriptions
by M. Oppert last summer. They had refer-
ence to the established beginnings of the
Sothiae cycle and the Chaldean Saros, or
recurrent cycles of eclipses. His argument
was that the former dated from an observa-
tion of the cosmical rising of Sirius visible
to the naked eye. This could occur only at
an eclipse of the sun at its rising; and this
he figured was upon a Thursday, August
29, in the year 11,542 before Christ! And
as it was visible only south of latitude 26°,
the locality of the observation he fixes for
various reasons at the island of Tylos, the
modern Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf.
Truly, this is a tour de maitre in archeology
which makes one dizzy!
DIVISIONS OF THE STONE AGE.
A USEFUL broadside, about twenty inches
square, presenting succinctly the subdi-
visions of the Stone Age, was published last
year by M. Philippe Salmon in the Bulletin
de la Société Dawphinoise d’ Archeologie et
d’ Ethnologie. The three periods it presents
are the paleolithic, the mesolithic and the
neolithic. These are subdivided into epochs,
six in all, each characterized by the products
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 10.
of definite stations, peculiar industries,
climate and fauna. As a synopsis of the
accepted data, from the best French author-
ities, the scheme merits high praise.
The position of the mesolithie division
takes the place of the ‘ hiatus,’ which figures
in the works of Mortillet and others as an
unexplained time of transition between the
rough and polished stone ages. Salmon,
however, claims that no such gap exists.
He quotes, for instance, the station of
Campigny, near the lower Seine, and Spien-
nes, in Belgium, as proofs that the peoples
and the culture of the earlier and ruder
epochs progressed steadily, without import-
ant breaks, up to the full bloom of the
neolithic generations. The importance of
such a generalization, if it could be estab-
lished, would be great; for, working back
from historic to pre-historic times, there is
no doubt but that the neolithic nations of
central and western Europe were of Aryan
speech, and Salmon’s argument would carry
this mighty stock in lineal line to the pre-
glacial fishermen in the valley of the Somme.
THE TEACHING OF ANTHROPOLOGY.
In a little pamphlet which I published in
1892, entitled ‘ Anthropology as a Science
and as a Branch of University Education,’
a plan was suggested by which this science
could be introduced into our universities as
one of the optional branches for the doctor-
ate of philosophy, and its importance as a
department of the higher education was ~
emphasized.
The subject has been taken up lately in
Germany with gratifying interest. In the
‘ Globus ’ for October, 1894, Professor Fried-
rich Muller, of Vienna, warmly advocates
that a chair representing anthropology
should be recognized as a proper addition
to the faculty of a great university; and
a few weeks later, in the same journal,
the question was discussed by Dr. Rudolf
Martin, of the University of Zurich. The
=a
MARCH 8, 1895.]
latter agrees that anthropology properly
takes its place in the faculty of philosophy ;
but his division of the science is open to
doubt. He would class all its branches un-
der two groups: those relating to, 1. phys-
ieal anthropology; and, 2. psychical anthro-
pology, or ‘ethnology.’ Under the latter,
he includes pre-historic archeology ; and
not seeing very clearly where in such a
scheme ethnography would come in, he
takes the short cut of leaving it out alto-
gether! This is a serious omission, as in
many respects descriptive racial and tribal
anthropology alone offers the indispensable
raw material on which to build up a true
science of man. His opinon, that at least
two instructors, one for the physical and
one for the psychical side, are desirable,
will, of course, commend itself; but each
should at the same time be well versed in
the side which he does not teach.
GUATEMALAN ANTIQUITIES.
Unper the sensational title ‘An Ameri-
ean Herculaneum,’ a writer, M. X. West,
in ‘ La Nature,’ November 3, describes the
site of an ancient city, three kilometers
from Santiago Amatitlan, Guatemala. His
story is that at a depth of five or six meters,
under a mass of volcanic cinders and tufa
thrown out by some sudden eruption, there
have recently been discovered the remains
of a village with all the appurtenances of
its daily life, finely decorated pottery, stone
implements and images, the foundations of
its buildings, and blocks bearing inscrip-
tions in unknown characters. More aston-
ishing is the statement that along with
these were cups of graceful shape of glass,
sometimes colored. This casts serious doubt
on the whole narrative, unless ‘ voclanic
glass,’ 7. e., obsidian, is intended, as nowhere
on the American continent had glass-making
been discovered by the natives; and, indeed,
it is very doubtful if at any point they had
reached the art of glazing pottery.
SCIENCE. 255
At the Madrid Exposition, in 1892, the
Lake of Amatitlan figured as the locality
where an extraordinary seal, Egyptian in
appearance, and some other probable frauds
were found. No doubt it was the center of
a high native culture, that of the Zutuhils,
a Mayan tribe ; and there seems to be also
some modern adepts at present in the vicin-
ity, whose skill should admonish the col-
lector to be wary in investing in articles of
that provenance.
AN EXCELLENT INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPO-
GEOGRAPHY.
THE various relations which his geo-
grapical surroundings bear to man in his
personal, social and national life constitute
the almost new science of ‘anthropo-geo-
graphy,’ to which Professor Ratzel, of Leip-
zig, has lately contributed a standard work.
In this country it has received little atten-
tion from educators since the time of Pro-
fessor Guyot, whose ‘ Earth and Man’ was
creditable for its period. The more mod-
ern opinions and results have been admi-
rably summed up in a little volume writ-
ten by Professor Spencer Trotter, of Swarth-
more College, under the title ‘ Lessons in
the New Geography ’ (Boston, D. C. Heath
and Co., 1895). In the compass of 182
pages the author presents, in succinct lan-
guage, suitable to the student and the gen-
eral reader, the relations which have ex-
isted between the distribution of land and
water, the climates of the various zones and
the plants and animals which they produce,
to the life and development of the human
species. He then proceeds to define the
recognized types or races of men, and to
point out their distribution when they first
became known. The book closes with ob-
servations on commerce and the progress of
discovery, and various tables of statistical
information.
Whether as a text-book in schools and col-
leges, or as a trustworthy and lucid exposi-
256
tion of the subject for general reading, this
volume merits cordial commendation, and
should awaken a wider interest in the attrac-
tive topics which it discusses.
THE OROTCHI TARTARS.
Aw entertaining description of this tribe
is given from Russian sources in the ‘ Jour-
nal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society,’ Vol. X XVI. (Shanghai, 1894).
It isa member of the Tungusic stock, and
is situate along the eastern coast of the con-
tinent, from 42° to 52° ; but the pure types
are found only toward the northern limit.
They are small in stature, a man five feet
four inches in height being considered tall.
The women average six inches shorter than
the men. Their bodies are thick set and
muscular, and their power of endurance re-
markable. Like all the other pure blood
tribes in Eastern Sibera, they are steadily
diminishing, either through intermixture of
blood or through new diseases introduced by
foreigners.
Their boats are rude, but they manage
them skillfully, which is the more neces-
sary, as none of them knows how to swim,
and when a craft capsizes its occupants in-
fallibly drown. This ignorance is owing to
two causes: the coldness of the water at
most seasons, and their invincible repug-
nance to cleanliness. They are adepts in
making garments of the bowels and skins of
fishes, from which they are sometimes called
‘ the fish-skin Tartars.’ They are also handy
with tools.
Their religion is ostensibly that of the or-
thodox Greek Church; but really their ances-
tral Shamanism is as strong as ever. The
residences of the Shamans are denoted by
sticks or poles planted in front of them,
carved to resemble animals, like the Totem
poles of the north-west coast. Their chief
divinities make a triad, bemg Boa Anduri,
‘spirit of the sky ;’ Temu Anduri, ‘ spirit
of the sea,’ and Kamtchanga Anduri, ‘ spirit
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 10.
of the mountains.’ They indulge in violent
religious frenzies, in which they speak in un-
known tongues. One woman was unable
to talk in her own for two months after such —
a spell.
THE FUTURE OF THE COLORED RACE IN THE
UNITED STATES.
THIs momentous question has been made
the subject of careful investigation by a
physician of Savannah, Dr. Eugene R. Cor-
son. His essay is published in the ‘ Wilder
Quarter-Century Book,’ a well deserved
memento issued by the pupils of Dr. Burt C.
Wilder, of Cornell University, at the expira-
tion of his first quarter century of teaching.
Dr. Corson regards the relative mortality
of the two races, white and colored, in the
United States as ‘the pith of the whole
matter ;’ and, therefore, addresses his special
attention to this. From his own obserya-
tions and the census statistics, he concludes
that the pure blacks have in our country a
decidedly higher mortality than the whites ;
more die in childbirth, they are more suscep-
tible to disease, they succumb more quickly,
they are prone to bacillar diseases in a
higher degree, and their alleged exemption
from malaria is not generally true. The
hybrids between the two races he pronounces
less fertile and less viable than either. “ Mis-
cegenation is a reducing agent, chemically
speaking.”
From these considerations, which he ad-
vances, backed by large testimony, he
reaches the comforting conclusion that there
will be no ‘war of races’ among us; that
the blacks will gradually fade out or become
absorbed in the white population; and this
in such a manner as not to deteriorate it.
THE PRE-HISTORIC TRIBES OF THE EASTERN
UNITED STATES.
In THE Archiv fiir Anthropolgie, for Novem-
ber, 1894, Dr. Emil Schmidt undertakes to
gather together the fragmentary facts which
MAncu 8, 1895.].
east light on the population of the Missis-
sippi Valley and Atlantic slope of the Un-
ited States at a date anterior to that of the
tribes found there resident by the first ex-
plorers. He presents the question temper-
ately and free from the fantastic notions
which one generally anticipates in this in-
vestigation. His results may be briefly
stated.
Beginning with the ‘ mound builders,’ he
points out numerous reasons for consider-
ing them the immediate ancestors of the
present Indians; going further into their
identification, he decides that the ancestors
of the Cherokees were the mound builders
of the Ohio Valley. The original seat of the
Huron-Iroquois family he locates north of
the Great Lakes, and that of the Algon-
quian family somewhere to the south of
Hudson’s Bay, where the Crees are still
- found speaking a pure and ancient dialect.
These two mighty stocks moved slowly
~ southward, driving the mound builders
from the Ohio, and penetrating into Vir-
ginia. There they met the Dakotas, whom
they destroyed, except the small tribes of
the Tuteloes and Catawbas. The Gulf
States were peopled by the Muskoghean
tribes from the south-west. The debated
question whether there was a ‘ rough stone’
or paleolithic age in the United States, he
answers, from the evidence before him, in
the negative.
GALTON’S METHOD OF ISOGENS.
Mr. Gatton is fertile in the application of
new methods to anthropologic data. In a
recent article in the Journal of Statistics he
applies the method in use among meteorolo-
gists to define lines of equal barometric
pressure, to data of natality. His so-called
‘isogens’ are analogous to the isobars of the
weather maps. They are lines of equal
birth-rate forming a constant derived from
the two variables, the age of the father and
that of the mother.
SCIENCE.
257
By this ingenious and simple process he
reaches some curious results. One is the
unexpected law of natality, “That the
sums of the ages of the parents are con-
stant; in other words, that the birth-rate is
determined by the joint ages of the father
and mother. The difference between the
ages of the two parents is of no acconnt
whatever in nine-tenths of the total num-
ber of marriages.” Only in the obvious
case where the wife is older than the hus-
band and is approaching the limit of the
child-bearing age, is this law at fault. An-
other odd fact developed by this method is
that a woman approaching somewhat closely
the limit of the child-bearing age, say about
thirty-five or thirty-eight, is more fertile
with a man of her own age than with one
who is younger; though it is admitted cer-
tain social reasons may help to this result.
Like all of Mr. Galton’s articles, this one
will be found admirably presented and well
worth study.
D. G. Brixton.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY (II).
SIXTH INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL
CONGRESS.
Tue Sixth International Geographical
Congress is to be held in London from July
26th to August 3d, 1895, under the auspi-
ces of the Royal Geographical Society. An
invitation circular has lately been issued,
stating the general plan of the Congress,
the conditions under which tickets of mem-
bership can be obtained, the program of
subjects for discussion, and a most compre-
hensive list of honorary officers, honorary
general committeemen, and committees in
charge of various divisions of the subject
proposed for discussion. An extended ex-
hibit of geographical materials will be held
in connection with the Congress, which
altogether promises to be a most attractive
reunion. The invitation circular can be
258
had from the Secretary, Royal Geographical
Society, 1 Saville Row, London, W. A
representative American attendance is
highly desirable.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS.
A RECENT number of the ‘ National Geo-
graphical Magazine,’ as well as a circular
distributed by the American Book Co., New
York, announces the early preparation of
a series of geographical essays under the
above title, prepared by various experts and
addressed particularly to the public school
teachers of this country. The intention of
this series of monographs is to present ac-
curate and properly correlated informa-
tion upon the geography of our country,
in simple, untechnical language, and with
good illustrations, in such form that it
may be practically useful in supplement-
ing the ordinary teaching of physical geo-
graphy. They areto help supply the teach-
er with that background of knowledge
that is so essential to good teaching.
They will not replace any existing text-
books, but in time, as the number of mono-
graphs increases, they will certainly be free-
ly drawn on by text-book makers. They
deserve prominent mention in Screncs, for
although reduced to as simple form as pos-
sible, the names of the authors announced
are a guarantee that the monographs will be
essentially scientific in character. Their
appearance will be watched for with inter-
est.
GEOGRAPHICAL PRIZES.
THE National Geographic Society an-
nounces as a subject for a competitive prize
essay in 1895: ‘The River Systems of the
United States.’ The essays must not ex-
ceed two thousand words in length, and
will be received only from those public
schools whose intention to compete is an-
nounced not later than May, 1895. The es-
says must be composed entirely by scholars.
They must be written by the end of the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Voz. I. No. 10
school year, 1894-95, and submitted to the
Society not later than July 15th next. The
geographical gold medal of the Society will
be awarded to the best essayist of the
country ; the second best will receive a cer-
tificate of honorable mention. The best es-
sayist of each State will receive a certificate
of proficiency from the committee on awards.
This committee consists of General A. W.
Greely, Professor T. H. Mendenhall and
Superintendent W. B. Powell. Further in-
formation concerning the competition may
be had from the Society by addressing its
Secretary in Washington, D. C.
NEWELL’S REPORT ON AGRICULTURE BY
IRRIGATION.
Mocs physiographic material is gathered
in the harvest fields of other subjects. A
good opportunity for physiographie glean-
ing is Newell’s ‘Report on agriculture by
irrigation in the western part of the United
States at the eleventh census’ (1890), re-
cently issued. In California, where irriga-
tion has attained greater importance than
in any other State, the advantageous ar-
rangement of the canals and ditches is in
many cases peculiarly dependent on the
ageraded alluvial fans that the streams
from the Sierra have so often built out from
their canyons on emerging upon the open
valley plain. The fans of Kings and Kern
rivers are the best illustrations given of
this kind. The abrupt slopes of the San
Bernardino mountains in the southern part
of the State are cut by deep narrow valleys
from which the waste is strewn in great al-
luvial fans of unusual height and radius.
Newell shows these to be of much impor-
tance in their relation to agriculture, but, as
if to illustrate the backward condition of
geographical terminology, and the slow
penetration that the few terms already in-
vented make among practical engineers, he
calls these well-formed fans by the vague
term, ‘great masses.’ “The debris, cone
Mancu 8, 1895.]
_ sisting of sand, gravel and bowlders, has
’
a
been piled in great masses at the points
where the streams enter upon the lower
plains.” If it were not for the earlier ac-
count of these huge fans by Hilgard (Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer., iii, 1891, 124) they could
hardly be recognized here. In Arizona
we read that the irrigating streams are
largely supplied by rains induced by the en-
forced ascent of the winds when they en-
counter the precipitous and ragged fault
scarp, where the great plateaus rise out of
the lower desert plains. In Idaho a great
expanse of dissected country, where the
rivers have cut down deep valleys, cannot
be irrigated without expensive engineering
operations ; but farther up the Snake River,
“where the streams have not yet succeeded
in cutting through the lava,” the river
water can be distributed over the plain with
comparative ease. ‘Yet’ is a most ex-
pressive word for the geographer. The
whole report is full of suggestive examples
for extract and quotation.
BAYS AND FIORDS REGARDED AS SUBMERGED
VALLEYS.
Earty writers generally ascribed bays
and fiords to the destructive action of the
Sea, or to local dislocation. Esmark, about
1826, was perhaps the first to ascribe much
importance to ice as an agent in making the
Norwegian fiords; a suggestion that was
afterward carried to an extravagant ex-
treme. Dana, on returning from the Wilkes
expedition, introduced the idea that fiords
are drowned valleys ; but whether the ero-
sion of the valleys was done by ‘ river work
alone, or more or less by glaciers,’ must be
determined by local study. In the present
view of the problem, glacial erosion is
almost by general consent reduced to a
moderate measure ; it is chiefly the fiord
basins that are now attributed to ice action,
while fiord valleys are regarded by nearly
all observers as of preglacial origin as ordi-
SCIENCE.
259
nary land valleys, afterwards submerged.
Bays, like Chesapeake and Narragansett,
are commonly regarded as resulting from
the submergence of wide river valleys, modi-
fied by glacial erosion or deposition, if in
glaciated regions. This modern view is
lately reénforced in an article by Professor
Shaler (Evidences as to change of sea level,
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vi., 1885, 141-166),
in which various reéntrants of our coast,
such as Chesapeake and Narragansett bays,
the fiords of Maine, and the numerous de-
pressions which break the northern part of
the continent into a group of islands, are all
ascribed wholly or chiefly to the submerg-
ence of stream-worn lands. The general
problem of submergence seems, however,
hardly so simple as ‘to indicate a progres-
sive subsidence of a somewhat uniform
nature’ along the Atlantic coast from Mexico
to near the pole. The possibility of numer-
ous subordinate and discordant oscillations
in different parts of the coast is wide open ;
and while in a general way it may be said
that our eastern coast has been depressed,
it does not follow that the depression was
synchronous throughout, as it must have
been if its cause were a movement of the sea
floor; hence a preference for this ‘ hypo-
thesis of Strabo’ hardly seems warranted.
The submergence of our southern coast may
now be going on, while the northern coast
may be at present rising, but not risen
enough to correct an earlier and greater sub-
mergence. This would make diverse conti-
nental movements the essential cause, and
displacement of the sea floor only secondary.
GEOLOGIC ATLAS OF THE UNITED STATES.
AxTHouGH primarily of geological inter-
est, the several folios of this great atlas now
issued are important to geographers from
the accurate and succinct accounts that they
give of topographical features. The topo-
graphical sheets alone are very instructive ;
but their value is greatly increased when
260
accompanied by explanations that have
been prepared by trained observers who
have been all over the ground, examining
the forms of the surface as the expressions
of internal structures. From the sheets in
eastern Tennessee we may learn of the two
peneplains that there give local illustration
of wide-spread Appalachian forms.
Livingston sheet, Montana, there is a fine
illustration of one of the many extinct lake
basins now drained through a steep-walled
gorge, in a way so characteristic of the
northern Rocky Mountains. With the
Placerville sheet, in the California Sierra, the
text tells of the reduction of the mountain
belt to gentle slopes before the eruption of
the great Neocene lava flows by which many
of the older valleys were broadly filled ; and
of the deep canyons cut by the displaced
rivers since the mountain belt has been up-
heaved with a westward slant. The plan
of liberal distribution of these folios ensures
that they will reach a wide variety of
readers. They will be welcomed by many
workers : students, teachers and investiga-
tors; geographers, geologists and econo-
mists.
GEIKIE’S GREAT ICE AGE.
Tue third edition of this important work
has been lately issued (New York, Apple-
ton, 1895). Although distinctly a geolog-
ical treatise, not written from the geograph-
ical point of view, it contains numerous
pages of physiographic interest, for many
glacial deposits are so young as still to pre-
serve essentially their constructional form ;
hence the account of moraines, drumlins,
rock-basins, and so on, are of immediate
geographical value. The general subject
of glacial erosion is hardly treated with the
fulness that the many discussions it has
given rise to would warrant; and the ex-
planation of rock-basins does scanty justice
to the opinions of many Swiss geologists
who look on ice action as a secondary pro-
cess compared to a gentle warping of pre-
SCIENCE.
On the *
[N. S. Von. I. No. 10
existent valleys. The extract from Wal-
lace’s paper, defending the glacial excava-
tion of rock-basins, would imply that that
author was not acquainted with the numer-
ous lakes of dislocation in our western ter-
ritory. For American readers the two
chapters and the several maps by Cham-
berlin will prove attractive.
W. M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
LABORATORY TEACHING OF LARGE
CLASSES—ZOOLOGY.*
Ir the large and increasing attendance at
our summer schools, and the publication of
many books and the reports made by those
dealing in scientific apparatus, can be taken
as an index, the amount of zodlogical teach-
ing is very rapidly increasing, and the con-
duction of large classes is a problem of con-
siderable importance.
A class of college students numbering
twenty or twenty-five, and conducted by
one officer, is a large class and, even with
a favorably equipped laboratory, is quite as
large as a single teacher should attempt to
carry. Of course, if a certain number of
assistants can be engaged, a larger number
of students can be directed, though this is
virtually the establishment of so many sub-
classes.
One of the first conditions for successful
zodlogical instruction is that of immediate
environment. To crowd a score or more of
katabolic youth into a small, miserably-
lighted room, and compel them to breathe
the fumes of stale alcohol for two or three
hours, is to invite failure. Each student
should have a table to himself where there
is good light, and where he feels a certain
amount of proprietorship. It should be so
located that he is not tempted to carry on a
clandestine parasitism, or even a symbiotic
* A paper read before the American Society of Nat-
uralists at the Baltimore meeting, December 28,
1894. ,
Marcu 8, 1895.]
existence with his neighbors. He should
be provided with instruments, drawing and
dissecting, that are his own, and these ought
not to be handed down from class to class,
broken and rusty and inheriting mutilations
from a long line of ancestors. Each table
should be provided with a drawer or locker
in which towel, dissecting tray, books, notes,
ete., can be safely kept, and any disposition
towards untidiness should be censured.
I do not think that the best dissecting
material obtainable is any too good for the
college student. An advanced worker, or
one of a small class, may perhaps profitably
examine poorly prepared material, but noth-
ing can more effectually dampen the en-
thusiasm of an instructor than to see a
student pow from carapace to the dissect-
ing dish the only too appropriately named
‘soft-parts’ of a crab or lobster. There is
everywhere an abundance of good laboratory
material, if the teacher will only exercise
a little activity and foresight. With the
“numerous preserving fluids, and with alcohol
free of duty, the student should have per-
fectly preserved material, unless living
forms are available.
The compromise that is often made be-
tween the lecture and laboratory, by the
mere exhibition of specimens or the passing
of specimens from hand to hand during the
lecture, is slipshod and dangerous. Such
a display may come off once or twice a
month, and if carefully conducted is of con-
siderable value, but if occurring frequently
there is bound to be a most unfortunate
sameness in the style of presentation. The
average student who has carefully dissected
the cranium of the cat or sheep will take
away with him a better understanding of
the mammalian skull than he who has
viewed acres of diagrams or handled, for a
moment, the skulls of all the typical ver-
tebrates.
In certain laboratories it is considered
good form to prohibit, or at least to dis-
-
SCIENCE,
261
courage, the free consultation of books of
reference by the laboratory student. Pic-
tures and diagrams, illustrating the animals
under discussion, are supposed to poison the
adolescent mind and should only be kept in
the inner recesses of the professor’s study,
where he may occasionally retreat for a few
moments of silent communication, after
having been floored by a poser from one of
his students. In my opinion, the student
should be given every possible aid; there
should be books galore ; charts and diagrams
should be conspicuous upon the wall; and
fine dissections, made possibly by advanced
students, anatomical preparations and
models should be freely displayed upon the
reference table. Prof. Howes, in his ad-
mirably equipped laboratory in London,
has placed upon a ledge, running nearly
around the room, a series of most beautiful
dissections. In America these are too
often hidden away in cases, and I fail to un-
derstand why the best of such material is
placed in our museums, ostensibly for the
education of the public, but actually to the
sacrifice of the interests of the student.
Speakers at earlier meetings of this So-
ciety have, I think, not over-estimated the
educational value of drawing, but we should
be very careful that the permission to dia-
grammatize is not interpreted as permission
for free-hand carelessness. The drawings
should be carefully prepared; outline, com-
posite pictures of the material studied.
Tt is unfortunate that we must introduce
the microscope into our large class of ‘ zo-
ology students.’ The question of first ex-
pense, for every student must have an in-
strument, is a serious one, and then there is
the time lost in giving a course in optics.
Here, however, a little forethought will pre-
vent much waste of the precious time actu-
ally appropriated to zodlogy. It is well to
have one or two extra instruments in re-
serve, to use in case of accident, and there
should be an abundance of the material
262
studied. I feel that one should be cautious
in appropriating large time to the process
of killing, staining, and other matters of
pure technique, and especial care should be
taken lest the disease of * microtome-mania ’
become epidemic. The microtome is an in-
strument for the advanced worker and the
investigator, but it is no uncommon thing
to see a student, yielding to the blandish-
ments of the instrument, cutting sections
by the yard, when a few questions will
reveal shameful ignorance of the gross an-
atomy of the animal imbedded.
One is inclined to think that the enthusi-
asm of the student is the proper index of
the work accomplished. But it is not, at
least not always. The course in zodlogy
should be a course in zodlogy, and the stu-
dent, certainly of the elementary class,
should not be allowed to take alluring short
cuts to histology, embryology and advanced
morphology. There is a vast amount of
microscopical work that can and ought to
be done in our large classes. At Brown
University the work of an entire term is
upon the cat. The material is easy to
procure ; the organs are large, and I think
the time of fifty students well spent. A
critical study of other vertebrates should
use up the two remaining terms of the
year. ‘The turtle and the snake very fairly
represent the reptilian phylum ; the latter,
aside from popular prejudice, is a most
satisfactory animal for the laboratory. I
think it is a mistake not to more generally
provide Hlasmobranch material for the col-
lege student. When skate and ‘dog-fish ’
can be so readily procured and so easily
preserved,every zoological laboratory should
have an abundance.
And now let me mention a condition, and
the one upon which success with large
classes most directly depends, viz., order and
system. Though the members of our class
are not all free and equal, as Americans
they must be treated as such. The work
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 10.
of a certain day must be planned for the
class as a whole, and not for individuals of
the class. All students should have, at the
beginning of the session, the same equip-
ment, the same material, and matters of
neatness should be enjoined upon all alike.
The water in the dissecting trays must be
frequently renewed, organic refuse must
be disposed of, the tables must be kept
dry, the instruments should not be allowed
to soak in the bottom of the pan, or the
pencil used as a probe. The table should
not be smeared with blood, fat and alcohol.
There should be a place for everything,
and ‘systematic zodlogy,’ in the sense of or-
der, should everywhere prevail. It is much
easier for the student to become indifferent
to the orderly side of zodlogy than it is for
him to acquire respect. for the cleanly.
A definite syllabus, placed upon the board,
or laboratory outlines, one on each table,
must be used. The latter can be prepared
by the teacher and struck off with a cyclo-
style or hectograph, and they are of im-
mense help. The student knows what to
do and when and how to do it. Extra par-
agraphs may be added for those who work
more rapidly; though quality and not quan-
tity should be the end.
The teacher, with his eye upon the whole
class, must go from table to table, quizzing
here and helping there. He must be ready
to dissect mutilated specimens and repro-
duce lost parts instanter; and thankful is
he, if not too frequently he is constrained
to follow that motto placed by Professor
Agassiz so conspicuously at Penikese: “ Do
not be afraid to say, I do not know.”’
I must beg your forbearance while I say
a few words in regard to the large zoology
classes in our secondary schools. It is my
opinion that laboratory classes, conducted
along the lines which we have just men-
tioned, are not at the present time to be too
strongly urged for the common schools.
There are very few teachers who have had
a
-
MARcH 8, 1895.]
proper training for this kind of work, though
the number is happily on the rapid increase.
The ‘hard parts’ of the lower animals,
starfish, urchins, molluses, crustacea, in-
sects, etc., offer ample opportunity for ele-
mentary zodlogical work, but it seems to be
hardly advisable to largely recommend the
dissecting of mammals by the average class,
though I think the isolated parts, eye,
bones of the ear, the tongue, heart, brain,
ete., can be properly and very profitably
used. Elaborate outfits of dissecting in-
struments are not here necessary, though
one or two microscopes are desirable.
In the secondary school there is a splendid
opportunity for the cultivation of the obser-
vational powers, by comparing the external
characters of animals; by observing hab-
its ; how the bird breathes ; how it involun-
tarily grasps the branch; the adaptation of
structure to use in the feet of waders,
scratchers and singing birds ; the structure
of the scale and feathers, and claws; the
pneumaticity of the bones; the preening of
the feathers; the dull coloring of the fe-
male ; the shapes and colors of eggs and any
peculiar nesting habits. It is all wrong for
a child to think that zodlogy can only be
learned over a dissecting dish. The funda-
mental principles of biology, the theory of
adaptation, protective coloring, protective
and aggressive mimicry, distribution, de-
generation, parasitism and development can
all be illustrated to and understood by the
school-child who has never held a scalpel.
The school-room already has its plants ; it
should also have its local collection. The
children make most enthusiastic and active
collectors. It is not necessary that the
teacher should be qualified to give off-hand
the sesquipedalian scientific name of each
and every insect that is brought to the
school. A far better goal is reached when
the student is taught to recognize homolo-
gies, to place grasshoppers, katydids and
crickets together, to have a separate apart-
SCIENCE.
263
ment for butterflies and moths, and another
for beetles, etc. Perhaps certain students
may be interested in the mollusean fauna
of the neighborhood and others may choose
to collect cocoons. (I recently read in one
of the ubiquitous anti-vivisection papers
that the lung of the pond-snail is provided
with most beautiful rows of minute horny
teeth. Early observations would not only
correct such aberrations, but would secure
a familiarity with natural phenomena which
would give that philosophical training that
is often so lamentably lacking in our edu-
cated classes.) The child is delighted with
the movements of aquatic animals. Aqua-
ria should be in every school. There are
hundreds of animals to be collected in any
pond or stream, and how easy is it to here
find themes for written exercises and models
for drawing !
The zodlogy of the secondary school should
not be merely an isolated subject of study.
It is not attractive to some, and knowledge
cannot be forced upon unwilling minds;
but it can be unconsciously absorbed in so-
lution. Zodlogy then should enter into the
reading, the writing, the spelling, the arith-
metic ; geography is stupid without it, and
the history of human progress is but dis-
tribution with the consequent ‘struggle for
existence’ and the ‘survival of the fittest.”
Hermon C. Bumrevs.
BROWN UNIVERSITY.
NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE LOBSTER.*
Reproduction.—After hatching a brood in
May, the female usually molts and after-
wards extrudes a new batch of eggs. In
*This paper was read before the Society of Morphologists,
Baltimore, December 28th.
The following observations are from part of a pro-
longed investigation of the habits and development
of the lobster, undertaken for the U. 8. Fish Commis-
sion. The detailed work, now ready to go to press,
will be published in the Fish Commission’s Bulletin.
It will contain a full presentation and discussion of
the habits and general life-history of the adult lob-
264
this case egg-laying follows close upon
copulation. Sometimes a female is impreg-
nated immediately after the old eggs are
hatched and before the molt occurs. A
second copulation is then necessary for the
fertilization of the eggs. Occasionally the
seminal receptacle of a lobster is found
loaded with sperm a year before the eggs
are due.
Laying of Eggs.—Much confusion has sur-
rounded this subject because of the lack of
continuous observation throughout the
year. The facts seem to be as follows:
The majority of lobsters capable of spawn-
ing lay eggs in July and August. About
20 to 25 % extrude their eggs at other times,
it may be in the fall, winter or spring. Dur-
ing a period of seven consecutive months
five traps were kept set in the harbor of
Wood’s Holl, Mass., December 1st, 1893, to
June 30th, 1894, and visited daily. In all
168 ege-lobsters were taken; 44, or 25.6 %
of the number, bore eggs which had been
laid in the fall and winter.
I have tabulated 51 lobsters coming from
different parts of the coast of Maine, having
external eges which had been laid out of
the usual season of July and August. In
one case at Matinicus Id., Maine, February
Ath, the eggs had been extruded but a few
hours, and the yolk was unsegmented.
Another from York Id., Maine, November
15th, had eggs in a late state of segmen-
tation of the yolk. Still another from
Brimstone Id., Maine, January 27th, had
eggs in the nauplius stage. At Wood’s Holl,
in 1889 to 18938, the recorded observations
(over 300 in all) show that the greatest num-
ber of eggs are laid in the last two weeks of
ster, and the habits of the larvee and young during
their period of immaturity. The history of the larva
and the structure and development of the reproduc-
tive organs will be fully described, and the develop-
ment of the embryo will also be reyiewed. The work
is illustrated by 54 full-page plates, many of which
are executed in colors or reproduced from photo-
graphs, and by 40 figures in the text.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 10.
July, the whole period lasting from June
16th to August 31st. Data from the Maine
coast (129 observations) indicate that the
greatest number spawn in the first two
weeks of August.
The spawning period of lobsters in the
extreme north is said to last from July 20th
to August 20th in Newfoundland. July
and August are the months commonly as-
signed for the spawning in Prince Edward
Island.
Number of Eggs Laid and Law of Produe-
tion.—In the course of the work of lobster-
hatching at the Station of the United
States Fish Commission at Wood’s Holl,
it becomes necessary to remove the eggs
from a large number of lobsters. These
are carefully measured and the number de-
duced by simple calculation. I have tabu-
lated the number of eggs laid in 4,645 lob-
sters measuring from 8 to 19 inches. In
examining the column of averages one is
struck by the fact that a ten-inch lobster
bears twice as many eggs as one eight inches
long; that a twelve-inch lobster bears twice
as many as one ten inches long. It is there-
fore suggested that in early years of sex-
ual vigor there is a general law of fecun-
dity which may be thus formulated; the
number of eggs produced by female lob-
sters at each reproductive period varies in
a geometrical series; while the lengths of
lobsters producing these eggs vary in an
arithmetical series. If such a law prevails
we would have the following:
Series of lengths in inches:
Oo ® @ © OG
8 or 10. 2 (2s e4 =: Gaels
Series of eggs:
5,000 : 10,000 : 20,000 : 40,000 : 80,000 :
160,000.
An examination of the table shows how
closely the first four terms of this series are
represented in nature, and that when the
14-16-inch limit is reached there is a de-
cline in sexual activity. Yet the largest
MAnc# 8, 1895.]
number of eggs recorded for lobsters of this
size show that there is a tendency to main-
tain this high standard of production even at
an advanced stage of sexual life.
A graphic representation of the fecundity
of the lobster tells more forcibly than words
or figures can do how closely it conforms to
the law just enunciated. The curve which
we obtain is the wing of a parabola; the
curve of fecundity is parabolic up to the
fourth term, where the ratio of production
is distinctly lessened. The largest female
lobster, carrying the largest number of eggs,
was obtained at No Man’s Land, June 9th,
1894. It was sixteen inches long and car-
ried one pound of eggs, estimated to contain
97,440. It is safe to assume that the aver-
age number of eggs laid by a lobster eight
inches long is not above 5,000. The large
lobster just mentioned, on account of the
ineumbrance of its eggs, was unable to fold
its ‘tail,’ which suggests the explanation of
the rudimentary condition of the first pair
ofswimmeretts. If these appendages were
of the average size the large number of eggs
which would naturally adhere to them
would make folding of the abdomen impos-
sible, and it is by folding the ‘tail’ that the
egg-bearing lobster so successfully protects
her eggs and eludes her enemies.
Period of Incubation —Summer eggs which
are laid in July and August are ordinarily
hatched in June, after a period of from ten
to eleven months. Nothing is known about
the hatching of fall and winter eggs. The
majority of the eggs which are hatched at
Wood’s Holl complete their development in
June.
That young are hatched at other times is
certain, and we should expect this to be the
ease from the variations which occur in the
time of ovulation. Captain Chester in 1885
hatched some eggs at Wood's Holl Station on
the 8th of November and the following days,
the temperature of the water varying from
54.3 to 56 degrees Fah. Some lobsters
&
SCIENCE. 265
were hatched early in February in 1889 at
the hatchery of the Fish Commission Station
at Gloucester, Mass. The water was very
cold, and it was estimated that as many as
10,000 lobsters were hatched.
Period of Sexual Maturity. Lobsters be-
come mature when measuring from 74 to
12 inches in length. Very few under 9
inches long have ever laid eggs, while but
few have reached the length of 10} inches
without having done so. The majority of
female lobsters 10} inches long are mature.
Anatomical evidence shows that the period
at which lobsters become mature is a vari-
able one, extending over several years.
Frequency of Spawning. The adult lobster
is not an annual spawner, but produces
eggs once in two years. This is proved by
the anatomical study of the reproductive or-
gans, and confirmed by the percentage of
ege-bearing lobsters which are annually
captured. In a total catch of 2,657 lobsters,
December Ist to June 30th, 1893 and 1894,
the sexes were very nearly equally divided,
and about one-fifth of the mature females
caught bore external eggs. The catch off
No Man’s Land in 1894 amounted to 1,518
lobsters; 93.5% were females, and 63.7%
carried eggs. When these results are aver-
aged it is found that about one-half of the
females carried eggs, as would be the case
if they spawned every other year. Ehren-
baum is, without doubt, mistaken in sup-
posing that the lobster does not breed often-
er than once in four years (Der Helgolander
Humer, ein Gegenstand deutscher Fischeret.
Aus der Biologischen Anstalt auf Helgoland,
1894.
Gastroliths. Gastroliths are known only
in two Macroura, the lobster and crayfish,
and were observed in the lobster for the
first time, and recorded by Geoffroy, the
Younger, in 1709. Though a differentiated
part of the cuticle, they are not cast off in
the molt, but are retained and dissolved in
the stomach. Their structure in the lobster,
266
consisting of hundreds of small spicules,
makes the solution of them possible in a
very short time.
The gastroliths have been supposed to
possess great medical properties and to
perform a variety of functions, the most
common and accepted belief being that they
play an important part in the provision of
lime for the hardening of the new shell.
The small quantity of lime which they con-
tain, however, not more than one one hund-
red and twenty-sixth of that of the entire
shell, according to an analysis recently
made by Dr. Robt. Irvine, shows that
this is relatively unimportant. Fragments
of lime furthermore are always at hand, and
are frequently eaten by the soft lobster,
shortly after ecdysis, in the adolescent
stages at least. It is more likely that the
gastroliths are the result of excretion of lime
which is absorbed from parts of the shell to
render molting possible, and that their sub-
sequent absorption in the stomach is a mat-
ter of minor importance.
Rate of Growth.—Larvee increase in length
at each molt (stages 2 to 10) from 11 to
15.84%, or on the average about 13.5%
(measurements from 66 individuals). The
increase in the young at each molt agrees
quite closely with that seen in the adult,
where the increase per cent. in ten cases
was 15.3%. Allowing an increase per
cent. at each molt of 15.83—probably not ex-
cessive for young reared in the ocean—and
assuming the length of the first larvee to be
7.84 mm. we can compute approximately
the length of the individual at each molt.
Length at 10th molt 28.23 mm.
Bt CSilmn 9S BBR
BS on Grea
Wy «25th ‘* 258.90 ‘* (9.5 inches. )
3 “30th ‘“‘ 486.81 ‘ (19.1 inches. )
According to this estimate a lobster two
inches long has molted 14 times; a lobster
5 inches in length, from 20 to 21 times; an
adult from 10 to 11 inches long, 25 to 26
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vox. I. No. 10,
times; and a 19-inch lobster, 30 times. These
estimates do not, I believe, go very far
astray. We see them practically verified
up to the tenth molt. a
The time interval between successive
molts is the next point to consider. Here
the data are very imperfect. How long is
the three-inch lobster in growing to be six
inches long? Probably not more than two
years and possibly less. This is supported
by the observations of G. Brook. We there-
fore conclude that a ten-inch lobster is be-
tween four and five years old, with the —
highest degree of probability in favor of the
smaller number.
Francis H. HERRICK.
ADELBERT COLLEGE.
THE NEWARK SYSTEM.
In an article in a recent number of Scr-
ENCE* Professor C. H. Hitchcock again ob-
jects to the use of ‘Newark’ as a group
name in geology. ‘This article is essen-
tially a republication of a portion of a paper
by the same author, which appeared in the
American Geologist in 1890} in criticism of
an article of mine in the same journal,{
in which reasons were presented for reviy-
ing the use of Newark as a name for a cer-
tain system of rocks.
I replied§ to Professor Hitchcock’s ob-
jections and criticisms, and showed conclu-
sively, as I believe, that the term referred
to has precedence over all other names ap-
plied to the system in question, which do
not imply correlation. In hisrecent article
Professor Hitchcock does not so much as
mention my rejoinder ; but is of the opinion
that the considerations presented in his ear-
lier paper ‘would have been sufficient to
convince any one, looking at the subject ju-
dicially and impartially, of the inadequacy
* Vol. 1, New Series, Jan. 18, 1895, pp. 74-77.
t Vol. 5, 1890, pp. 197-202.
{ Vol. 3, 1889, pp. 178-182.
gAm. Geol., Vol. 7, 1891, pp. 238-241.
Marcu 8, 1895.]
of the name Newark to special recognition.’
On the other hand, I am of the opinion that
my reply should have silenced opposition.
There is, thus, a radical difference of opin-
ion between us. There is also a question
of fact involved. Has Newark priority as a
group name? This is a simple historical
question that almost any one can decide
from the documentary evidence. In the
papers described in the following foot-note*
I have presented or referred to all of the evi-
dence known to me bearing on the question.
In Professor Hitchcock’s recent article
there are many statements that have no re-
lation to the matter under discussion, since
they refer to usages of later date than the
introduction of the term Newark. No legit-
imate arguments are advanced that are not
in the former paper, and as these have all
been answered, there is nothing left for me
_ to do but to follow my opponent’s example
‘ and republish my reply to his five-year-old
criticism.
My paper in the American Geologist for
April, 1891, reads as follows:
“Ty a brief paper on the Newark system
published in this journal [Am. Geol.] about
two years since,} I proposed a revival of
* Newark’ as a group name for the reddish-
brown sandstones and shales and associated
trap rocks of the Atlantic coast region,
which had previously been quite generally
referred to the Triassic and Jurassic. A
long list of names was presented that had
been used to designate the rocks in question;
nearly all of which implied correlation with
European terranes, ranging from the Silu-
rian to the Jurassic. The advisability of
adopting a name that did not indicate re-
*The Newark System, Am. Geol., Vol. 3, 1889,
pp. 178-182.
Has ‘Newark’ priority as a group name, Am.
Geol., Vol. 7, 1891, pp. 238-241.
The Newark System, U. S. Geol. Sury., Bull. No.
85 (Correlation Papers) 1892.
TVol. 3, 1889, pp. 178-182.
tAm. Geol. 5, April, 1889, p. 251.
=
SCIENCE.
267
lationship with distant formations was also
pointed out. The first name on the list re-
ferred to which met this requirement was
‘Newark group,’ proposed by W. C. Red-
field, in 1856. That this was a group name,
intended to indicate the entire formation, is
shown by the language used. Redfield’s
words are:
“‘T propose the latter designation [New-
ark group] as a convenient name for these
rocks (the red sandstone extending from
New Jersey to Virginia) and to those of
the Connecticut valley, with which they
are thoroughly identified by foot-prints and
other fossils, and I would include also the
contemporaneous sandstones of Virginia
and North Carolina.’’*
As stated in my previous paper, the term
‘group’ has been adopted by the Internat-
ional Congress of Geologists in a wider
sense than was implied by Redfield. I
therefore suggested that ‘system’ should be
substituted instead. Before offering the
suggestion I made what I believe to have
been an exhaustive examination of the lit-
erature relating to the terrane in question,
and concluded that Redfield’s name had
precedence over all other names that had
been used which did not imply correlation.
The term Newark system has recently
been adopted by several geologists, in ac-
cordance with my suggestion, and up to the
present time but one voice has been raised
against it. In an article on ‘ The use of the
terms Laurentian and Newark in geological
treatises,’ published in this journal, + Prof.
C. H. Hitcheock has formulated five objec-
tions to its acceptance. These will be con-
sidered in the order in which they were pre-
sented.
First. It is claimed that ‘ An essential
feature of a name derived from a geograph-
* Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser. 1856, Vol. 22, p. 357 ; also
in Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proe., Vol. 10, Albany meet-
ing, 1856, p. 181.
t Vol. 5, 1890, pp. 197-202.
268
ical locality is that the terrane should be
exhibited there in its entirety or maximum
development; ’ and that the territory about
Newark, N. J., does not meet these require-
ments for the Newark system.
Without dissenting from the wisdom of
the rule proposed, although a large number
of exceptions could be found to it in the
best geological memoirs, I wish to state
from my own knowledge that the region
about Newark may be taken as typical of the
terranenamed after that city. The character-
istic reddish-brown standstones and shales
are there well exposed, and in the neighbor-
ing Newark mountains the associated trap
rock occurs in sheets of great thickness.
This statement is sustained by Prof. Hitch-
cock’s own words, a little farther on in the
paper cited, where he says, ‘‘ the New Jersey
terrane possesses the distinguishing features
of the Trias quite as well as the one in New
England.”
That Passaic would have been a better
name, as Prof. Hitchcock suggests, is per-
haps true, but the one before us was
definitely selected and has priority.
Second. Itis stated by Prof. Hitchcock
that the name ‘ Connecticut or Connecticut
River sandstone has priority over Newark,’
and was used by several geologists before
Redfield’s proposal in 1856, ‘though none
of them had proposed it as a geological
term.’ The admitted fact that no one had
used the name referred to as a geological
term, relieves me of the necessity of show-
ing that Redfield’s name has priority.
In the writings of the older geologists
among whom Prof. Edward Hitchcock will
always take the first rank as an investiga-
tor of the sandstones of the Connecticut val-
ley, the terms ‘Connecticut sandstone,’ or
‘Connecticut River sandstone,’ were used in
the same sense as the coordinate term I have
just employed, 7. ¢., as a geographical desig-
nation ; just as they might have referred to
the granite of Massachusetts without any
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 10.
intention of proposing a group name. The
fact that the older geologists, and among
them Prof. Edward Hitchcock, spoke of the
Newark rocks of New England under defi-
nite group names, implying correlation, is
sufficient evidence that they did not recog-
nize the value of an independent name.
Third. It is stated that Prof. J.D. Dana
adopted the name proposed by Redfield, in
his lectures, but did not use it in his subse-
quent writings. Prof. Dana’s reasons for
this course have never been published, and
so far as it is a precedent—happily prece-
dents have less weight in geclogy than in
some other professions—it indicates that we
should first use the name Newark and then
abandon it for other names implying indefi-
nite correlation with distant terranes.
Fourth and Fifth. While it is admitted
that the terrane under discussion is quite as
well represented in New Jersey as in the
Connecticut valley, it is claimed that the
latter having been studied first, should haye
furnished the group name. I fully agree
with Prof. Hitchcock in this, and could add
several other group names which to my
taste might be improved, but the author of
a geological name, like the paleontologist
who describes a new fossil, is entitled to
priority. To attempt to introduce a new
name for a group of rocks already sufficient-
ly well designated, would only bring con-
fusion, similar to that produced by the
great variety of names implying correla-
tion that have already been used for the
Newark system.”’ IsrAEL C. RusspLL.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
DEATH OF GEORGE N. LAWRENCE.
THE veteran ornithologist, George N.
Lawrence, died at his home in New York
City, Jan. 17, 1895, at the age of 89 years.
He was born in New York, Oct. 20, 1806.
His wife, to whom he had been married
more than sixty years, died only five days
earlier.
- Mancn 8, 1895.]
Mr. Lawrence was one of the most care-
_ ful and prolific of American ornithologists.
- 1844, the latest in 1891.
- The list of his published writings * contains
121 titles, the earliest of which appeared in
The period of
his productive activity thus covered nearly
halfa century. He was an active contem-
porary of all American ornithologists from
Audubon and Nuttall to the younger writ-
ers of the present day. ‘ Baird, Cassin and
_ Lawrence’ are classic names in ornithology
—names associated in joint authorship in
Baird’s great work on the birds of North
America, published in 1858. For nearly
fifty years Baird and Lawrence, then the
foremost authorities on American birds,
were warm personal friends, and on more
than one occasion accomplished, by hearty
cooperation, what neither could have done
alone. It should not be forgotten that their
arduous labors paved the way for the re-
‘finement of detail that characterizes the
bird work of to-day.
_ Baird busied himself chiefly with the
birds of the United States, Lawrence chiefly
with those of tropical America. Lawrence
described more than 300 new species from
the West Indies, Mexico, Central and South
America. One genus and twenty species
were named in his honor—tokens of respect
and esteem—by American and European
naturalists.
Baird and Lawrence lived under widely
different conditions. Baird led an active
official life, burdened with the cares and
responsibilities of three great institutions,
two of which, the National Museum and
Fish Commission, were his own creation ;
he was constantly overworked and died
prematurely at the age of sixty-five years.
Lawrence led a quiet, retiring life, far away
from the public eye, and died at the ripe
age of fourscore years and nine. Still, the
* The Published Writings of George Newbold Law-
tence, by L.S. Poster. Bull. U.S. National Museum,
No. 40. 1892.
SCIENCE.
269
two had many traits in common ; both were
plain and unassuming, kind and thoughtful
in their family relations, and ever ready to
extend a helping hand to those, however
young, whose tastes led them to the study
of birds. In looking back over the twenty-
five years that have passed since I first
enjoyed their acquaintance, my mind con--
stantly recurs to the kindly words of en-
couragement and advice that shaped my
early course as a naturalist, and the friend-
ships that followed will always live among
my most cherished memories.
C. Harr Merriam.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
A Treatise on Hydrostatic. By ALrrep
GEORGE GREENHILL, Professor of Mathe-
matics in the Artillery College, Wool-
wich. Macmillan & Co., London and
New York. 16mo, pp. viii+536.
The science of hydrostatics, originating
with Archimedes, is now more than twenty
centuries old. It is, in many respects, one
of the most perfect and satisfactory of the
sciences. This fact, however, arises from
the simplicity of the phenomena with which
hydrostatics has to deal rather than from
anything like continuity of progress during
its lengthy history. Indeed, as regards
purely hydrostatical principles, we are not
very greatly in advance of Archimedes.
Our superiority over him is due, first, to an
immensely enlarged capacity, through the
developments of mathematics, for the ap-
plication of those principles; and, secondly,
to the exploration of the much larger and
more interesting domain of hydrodynamics,
of which, in fact, hydrostatics is only a
special case.
The work of Professor Greenhill treats
hydrostatics from the modern point of view.
He does not hesitate to cross the border for
an excursion into hydrokinetics whenever
desirable or essential, although some might
270
infer from the title of the book that such ex-
cursions are avoided. The scope and char-
acter of the work may be best inferred from
the following paragraphs of the preface :
‘““The aim of the present Treatise on
Hydrostatics is to develop the subject from
the outset by means of illustrations of ex-
isting problems, chosen in general on as
large a scale as possible, and carried out to
their numerical results; in this way it is
hoped that the student will acquire a real
working knowledge of the subject, while at
the same time the book will prove useful to
the practical engineer.”
“In accordance with modern ideas of
mathematical instruction, a free use is
made of the symbols and operations of the
Calculus, where the treatment requires it,
although an alternative demonstration by
elementary methods is occasionally submit-
ted ; because, as has well been said, ‘‘it is
easier to learn the differential calculus than
to follow a demonstration which attempts to
avoid its use.”
Too much stress cannot be laid on this
remark with regard to the role of the cal-
culus in applied science. We are coming
now, after two centuries, to realize clearly
that the use of the calculus has become gen-
eral in all higher investigations, not because
the pure mathematicians have so desired,
but because the phenomena of nature de-
mand for their interpretation such an instru-
ment of research.
The book is a mine of interesting and
useful information, and must become one
of the standards for students, teachers and
engineers. The principles are illustrated
by a wide variety of good examples, many
of which are drawn from practical applica-
tions. Special attention is given to the
problems of flotation and stability of ships,
and to problems arising in naval architec-
ture. The theory of the various hydrostat-
ic instruments, including the hydrometer,
the barometer and the gas thermometer, is
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 10.
worked out quite fully. A chapter is de-
voted to pneumatics, and another to pneu-
matic machines. There are also chapters
on capillarity, hydraulics, the general equa-
tions of equilibrium, and on the mechanical
theory of heat. In short, the work is a very
comprehensive one. Few books contain
more information per page, and few abound
to such an extent in historical references.
The exposition of the author is in general
clear and logical, though occasionally an.
important principle is announced without
due warning. Thus, Bernoulli’s theorem
appears without demonstration on p. 467 in
the chapter on hydraulics. It would have
been more in accord with the admirable
spirit of the book, we think, if the author
had given in that chapter the general equa-
tions of fluid motion, and thence deduced
Bernoulli’s theorem, even if this enlarge-
ment had required a change in the title of
the work.
Some obscurity arises here and there from
the author’s habit of condensation. Thus,
on p. 458 we read, “so that the attraction
of pure gravitation on a plummet weighing
Weis WG dynes, where G denotes the ac-
celeration of gravity.” Of course, the ex-
pert would quickly see that Wg means W
grammes, but the average engineer will not
commend such economy.
The book has a good, but not quite good
enough, index. For example, the unusual
words barad and spoud are occasionally
used by the author. Their meaning is plain
from the context, in most cases, to the
specialist, but the general reader would not
get any light on these terms from the in-
dex ; for it does not contain the word spoud,
while it refers for barad to a page on which
this word does not occur. ;
These faults, however, are small ones,
and such, moreover, as are well-nigh in- —
separable from the first edition of a book so
full of sound knowledge as this one.
R. 8. Woopwarb.
_ Marcu 8, 1895.]
Eine Discussion der Krafte der chemischen Dy-
namik. 3 Vortrige von Dr. Ludwig Stet-
| tenheimer. H. Brecuuoip. Frankfurt,
1895. 6 Marks.
This pamphlet of 85 pages is certainly
revolutionary in character, as the author
proposes to abandon some of our fundamen-
tal conceptions of chemistry, and to deal
with the subject purely mechanically. Chem-
istry, according to the author, is the me-
chanics of the smallest bodies, as Astronomy
is the mechanics of the largest, while Phys-
icsis a connecting link between the two.
In chemistry we have to deal with mat-
ter, with equilibria, and with forces. In
_ chemical reactions energy is set free, and
we know in many cases its mechanical ex-
pression in calories. Al] the groupings and
unions which we express in our chemical
formule do not necessarily have their coun-
_ terpart in the substances themselves, but are
only conditions of equilibrium, not general
but special cases of equilibria. The mole-
eule ceases to be a fundamental conception.
Chemistry of to-day isa molecular chemistry,
but we must now give up this conception,
and, in the place of the molecular or chem-
ical compound, we must introduce, as in as-
tronomy, a ‘system,’ a ‘chemical system.’
Atoms combine to form groups due to the
action of the various forces, but why not
have these groups go on combining until we
have something which can be perceived by
the senses? Ifthe same force of attraction
which binds the atoms together also causes
the groups to unite, what conditions the
limits of the molecule? Ina substance like
' potassium oxide we do not know whether
two or several molecules are combined, but
why may not hundreds, thousands or all
the molecules be combined? This does
not conflict with Boyle’s law, since we may
regard a gas as if it were only one molecule
and having no inter-molecular spaces.
A system composed of a few well-defined
atoms and groups is termed a molecular
SCIENCE.
271
system. These combined systems, and not
the ordinary molecules, represent conditions
of equilibria. Im the second chapter con-
siderable space is given to the consideration
of equilibria, both stable and unstable, and
the third and last is devoted to the condi-
tions of union in the solid, liquid and
gaseous states. As a result of these con-
siderations, the author concludes that
chemical forces differ in no wise from me-
chanical, but that everything points to a
mechanical interaction between the smallest
particles of matter.
While scientists are always ready to con-
sider new ideas which will lead to wider
generalizations, yet it is always a fair ques-
tion to ask whether a given suggestion will
accomplish this. In the present case it
seems quite proper to consider whether all
the chemical evidence of the existence of
atoms and groups forming definite units,
called molecules, has been taken into ac-
count. If so, then will this method of
regarding chemical phenomena enable us to
advance further or faster than that involv-
ing atoms and molecules? It can be safely
predicted that chemists will be somewhat
adverse to giving up conceptions upon which
their whole science is built, at least until
something more than abstract ideas are
offered in their place, something about
which they can think definitely and clearly,
and which will suggest new lines of work.
It is doubtful whether the work published
by Dr. Stettenheimer will meet with pro-
nounced success in removing these con-
ceptions of atoms and molecules from
chemistry, since they have proved so fruit-
ful in the past, and seem to meet the de-
mands of most of the working chemists of
to-day.
The book, while clearly printed, contains
a remarkably large number of typographical
errors. Nearly a full page of corrections is
given, yet the reader will encounter many
mistakes in the text which form no part of
272
this tabulated evidence of careless proof-
reading.
The reviewer has found it difficult to give
a satisfactory account of the contents of the
second and third chapters in a short review,
so that those who may wish to follow the
author’s applications of his fundamental
ideas must read the original.
H. C. Jonzs.
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.
Teat-book of Organie Chemistry. By A.
BerntuHsen. 2d English Edition, trans-
lated by G. McGowan, from the 4th
German Edition. London, Blackie &
Son. New York, D. Van Nostrand. 1894.
The general excellence of this work is in-
dicated by its reception both in German
and in English speaking countries. Four
German editions in six years have been
found necessary, and the second English
edition will probably be even more exten-
sively used than the first. The present
book is a work of about 575 pages, fifty
more than the previous edition, and occu-
pies a position between the elementary and
the encyclopedic text-book. As stated in
the preface, the descriptive part is con-
densed as far as possible, and special em-
phasis put upon summarizing the charac-
teristics of each class of compounds. There
are frequent valuable tables of the princi-
pal properties of important classes of com-
pounds. The subject-matter is treated in
a way showing the intimate knowledge of
the literature to be expected from a chem-
ist like Bernthsen, though it seems strange
that he makes no reference to American
periodicals, but seems content to use the
often imperfect abstracts in the foreign
journals. The fourth German edition was
published in 1893, and the subject is well
brought to that date. A point would have
been gained, and the value of the book
greatly enhanced, had the translator
brought to the date of publication of the
English editions at least those chapters
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 10,
which treat of classes of compounds on
which important work was done in 1893
and 1894. I refer particularly to the
sugars, terpene, etc. The translation is
good, though sometimes too literal. Many
German expressions have crept in, and do
not make the matter any clearer. In the
text, formule of substances are frequently
used instead of names. It would be better
to use names only, but if P,S, is used in
one place because it occupies less space
than Phosphorus Pentasulphide, it should
be used always, and the one should not ap-
pear on one page, and the other a few
pages further on. On the whole the work
is well adapted to the needs of those Amer-
ican colleges in which organic chemistry
can receive the time and attention it de- —
serves. With it a mature student can eas-
ily get a good working knowledge of the
subject. For undergraduate work, as car-
ried on in most of our colleges, a less am-
bitious course, thoroughly given and em-
bodying the use of a smaller text-book,
seems desirable.
FELix LENGFELD.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
Protisten und
Jena, 1894,
Systematische Phylogenie der
Pflanzen. Ernst HArCKEL.
Pp. 400.
Prof. Ernst Haeckel, of Jena, has re-
cently begun an extensive work on the sys-
tematic evolution of animal and plant life.
It is to be in three parts, the first of which
has just appeared as the ‘ Phylogeny of the
Protista and the Plants.’ The second part, on
the phylogeny of invertebrates, and the
third part, on that of vertebrates, are also
promised during the present year. In the
present volume the author outlines his plan
and presents in the opening paragraphs the
main data upon which his phylogeneti¢
trees are based, namely, the three branches
of natural science, paleontology, ontogeny,
or the life history of individuals, and mor-
phology. The work as a whole is im
———
two organisms.
ony
MARCH 8, 1895.]
Haeckel’s most attractive popular style, and
is divided and subdivided into titles and
headings, thus making it delightful for read-
ing and reference.
The first organisms, he imagines, were
Monera, or ‘ Probionten,’ which were small
homogeneous plasma particles with no an-
atomical structure. Life activity here was
limited to mere assimilation and growth,
and where the latter exceeded a certain limit
of cohesion of the constituent plasm the or-
ganism split into two parts and thus formed
This was the beginning of
reproduction and of inheritance. The homo-
geneous protoplasm of these Monera was an
albuminate arising from a mixture of water,
earbonic acid and ammonia. The origin of
life, therefore, is little more than this par-
ticular combination of inorganic parts at a
certain period. While it is probable that
the Monera were widely created at this
period, the atmosphere, temperature, etc.,
being in the proper condition, it is not prob-
able that they have been produced spon-
taneously since then. Haeckel states the
stages in this creation as follows: Ist.
_Nitro-carbon compounds were formed by
the synthesis and reduction of various acids
and salts. The composition was about the
sameasthatof albumen. 2nd. The albumen
molecules with water formed crystalline, but
as yet microscopically invisible, molecules.
8rd. These albumen groups arranged them-
‘selves in definite ways and formed micro-
—Seopically visible plasma granules.
These plasma granules had the power to as-
4th.
Similate food, a chemical change, and to
‘grow, and at the limit of cohesion to divide
and form new ones. These homogeneous
plasma granules were Monera.
All of this, however, is hardly new to the
readers of Haeckel. The greatest novelty of
this work lies in his radical views as to the
re-classification of animals and plants. He
first separates them on the old lines accord-
ing to their mode of nutrition. Plants are
SCIENCE. 273
essentially formative organisms and have
the power by the thermal energy derived
from the sun’s rays to change inorganic into
organic combinations, taking up carbon
dioxide and throwing off oxygen. Animals,
on the other hand, are just the reverse; with
them the chemical energy of combinations
is reduced to heat and motion. It follows
that plants must have been the first forms of
organisms on the earth, because they only
are able to transform by the energy of the
sun’s rays inorganic substances into organic.
Animals were developed secondarily from
the plants by a process of parasitism. That
is, some of the plants began to absorb and
assimilate parts of other plants, thus chang-
ing from an inorganic, carbon-dioxide diet
to an organic mode of nutrition. This pro-
cess of nutrition-change, known as metasitism
(metasitismus), is familiar in certain of the
higher plants which have acquired the
power to absorb solid nutriment, for ex-
ample, the insectivorous plants. Haeckel
derived the original name then from the
original plant by a mere change in nutrition.
Metasitism plays a most important part in
the new theory, and in this book is given
more importance than it has hitherto
received.
From this original homogeneous substance
the several parts of the cell, as it is known
to-day, were derived by a process of differ-
entiation. Certain parts of the plasm, by
reason of their position, became adapted for
the acquisition of food, while the internal
parts, unable to take in food, gradually as-
sumed reproductive functions, and in time
came to have a certain definite form ; thus
arose the cell nucleus. The outer portion
of the cytoplasm, in addition to its nutri-
tive function, gradually aequired a protect-
ive function also, and membranes were dif-
ferentiated. Later, by a process of incom-
plete cell division, colonies of these simple
cells were formed, and from these the high-
er cell aggregates were derived by a process
274
of division oflabor. Haeckel supposes, from
the almost universal appearance of nuclei
in cells, that this differentiation, Into nu-
cleus and cytoplasm, must have taken place
at a comparatively early period, and that all
of the forms of life which have a nucleus
must have been derived from one early nu-
cleated type, for he is a firm believer in the
inheritance of acquired characters.
The primitive plants, from which all of
the organic world has been derived, are
called ‘Probiontes’ or archephyta. From
this primitive stem, which was non-nu-
cleated type, and composed of absolutely
homogeneous protoplasm without indica-
tions even of the ‘ micelle,’ of Hertwig, or
the ‘Schaumplasma,’ of Butschli, were given
off the primitive nucleated plant types of the
Flagellata in one direction, and the primi-
tive non-nucleated animal (Moneran ) types
in another. In addition to these two de-
rivatives there was a third, which repre-
sents the original chlorophyl bearing plant.
These were the Cyanophycee or Chromacez,
in which the chlorophyl is not in the form
of small plates, but exists as a diffuse color-
ing matter within the cell. From these
forms, which also were non-nucleated, the
Bacteria arose by a process of metasitism.
In the primitive plant types of Flagellata
the nuclei have not acquired a distinct dif-
ferentiation, but remain absolutely homo-
geneous (1. é., not divisible into nuclein, pa-
ranuclein, etc.), and therefore represent the
first and most primitive forms of nuclear dif-
ferentiation. These are not derived from the
Monera or non-nucleated animal types, but
come directly from the primitive plant type
or the Archephyta. He gives the name
Mastigota to these early flagellated plant
cells which belong to the class of Palmel-
laceze, and from them he derives all of the
higher plants and animals, the latter aris-
ing polyphyletically by the process of meta-
sitism. The rise of the higher animals and
of man is traced in a direct line down to
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 10.
these primitive plants. The first step in
the scale is the origin of the animal Flagel-
lates by change in the method of nutrition
and consequent loss of chlorophyl or allied
bodies. Then comes the formation of col-
onies and gradual division of labor until
the highest type of protozoon organization
is attained. This type is represented by
the form Catallacta, which is thus the con-
necting link between the protozoa and meta-
zoa. Volvox occupies a similar position in
the phylogeny of the higher plants in their
relations to the protophyta.
In general it may be said that this part
of the ‘Systematische Phylogenie’ is a re-
vision of the earlier views of Haeckel. The
one essentially new feature is the division
line which he makes between plants and
animals. This border line has been the
subject of contention between zodlogists and
botanists for ages, and now he proposes to
form a hard and fast distinction. The di-
viding line is the ability of the organisms,
whatever they may be, to form chlorophyl
or similar bodies, and thus to derive nourish-
ment, in conjunction with solar energy, from
inorganic substances. This, as may readily
be supposed, makes havoe with our existing
classifications, and the changes will be ac-
cepted, if ever, only after much contention.
For. example, the Fungi (Chytridiacez,
Zygomycetes and Ovomycetes) are taken
from the vegetable kingdom and transferred
to the animal, and with them the Saccharo-
mycetes (yeast) and the Bacteria. The lat-
ter he claims have absolutely no connection
with the fungi— Indessen beruht diese Auf-
fassung nur auf der Macht der dogmatischen
Tradition und nicht auf welchem rationellen
Urtheil’’—is Haeckel’s forcible way of repre-
senting this position. ’
On the other hand, many of our so-called
Protozoa are taken into the Protophyte di-
vision of plants. All forms which haye
coloring matter in the form of chlorophyl,
and are, therefore, holophytic in their mode
- —_
Marcu 8, 1895.]
of nutrition, are transferred to the vegetable
kingdom. The greatest drafts are upon the
group of Flagellata, which are so often pro-
vided with chromatophores. He does not
take the Radiolaria, however, with their
‘yellow cells,’ probably for the reason that
they are symbiotic forms. This will prob-
ably be the sticking point in such a classi-
fication, for even if the dividing principle
be admitted, the difficulty will ever be to
decide, in these low forms, what is true
chlorophyl formation and what symbiosis.
The discoveries of Famintzin and Entz show
that in many of the lower forms the presence
of chlorophyl is due to minute plant cells
which live independently of the animals
with which they are associated. Before the
classification can be complete it must be de-
termined for each form whether the chloro-
phyl is a symbiotic plant or a natural pro-
duct. Gary N. CALKins.
GEOLOGY.
Kansas River Section of the Permo-Carbonifer-
ousand Permian Rocks of Kansas. CHARLES
S. Prosser. Bulletin Geol. Soc. America,
Vol. 6, pp. 29-54. 1894.
In the above paper Professor Prosser con-
‘siders the historic section of the Upper
Paleozoic rocks as exposed along the upper
course of the Kansas River. As is well
known, the early geologists of the State en-
gaged in a most animated controversy over
the correlation of the geological formations
of this region. Although the investiga-
tions of Meek, Hayden, Hawn and Swallow
began more than thirty-five years ago and
were vigorously conducted for a number of
years, still the subject was not settled, and
many of the points at issue between the dis-
putants are still open for decision.
The author describes various typical geo-
logical sections as exposed in the steep
bluffs of the Kansas river and its tribu-
taries, giving the distinctive geological
characters and fossils of the various divi-
-
SCIENCE. 275
sions. In connection with this description,
there is a complete review of the previous
geological work, followed by a chart of tab-
ulated sections, on which the correlation of
the early geologists is indicated.
Possibly the most interesting fact in the
paper to a geologist familiar with the region,
is the statement that the Cottonwood and
Manhattan limestones are the same. This
limestone, which is the most valuable stone
in the State for construction, has been ex-
tensively used, and the author states that
he has traced it across the country from
Cottonwood Falls, on the Cottonwood River,
to Manhattan, on the Kansas River. An-
other interesting fact in reference to the
stratigraphical geology is the correlation of
the buff, magnesian limestones near Fort
Riley with those of Florence, in the Cotton-
wood Valley.
In conclusion, it is stated that this is only
a preliminary paper and that the writer has
in hand the preparation of a report in which
a full description of the formations of Cen-
tral Kansas will be given, with the distri-
bution of their fossils and their general
correlation.
NOTES AND NEWS. *
FORESTRY AND ECONOMIC BOTANY.
Tue steady increase of interest in for-
estry matters, so desirable and essential, has
recently become evident in many ways, es-
pecially in the Eastern States. New York,
Pennsylvania and New Jersey have taken
long strides in the right direction in the
shape of much needed legislation ; and the
establishment of forestry journals for the
promulgation of knowledge respecting the
nature and value of our native trees is a
step that will receive commendation from
thoughtful people everywhere. The South
Jersey Woodmen’s Association has shown
wisdom in securing an official organ through
which they may increase the scope of their
influence. The first number of ‘The New
276
Jersey Forester’ (May’s Landing, New
Jersey), contains valuable and interesting
articles from the pens of well known scien-
tists. The editor, Mr. John Gifford, Special
Forestry Commissioner of New Jersey, re-
views recent forestry legislation in that
State, and discusses the causes and effects
of forest fires in the southern interior of New
Jersey ; B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Forestry
Division, Washington, D. C., presents the
extent and aims of the forestry movement
in the United States. An illustrated article
on ‘The Periodical Ciceda, or Seventeen
Year Locust,’ by Professor John B. Smith,
State Entomologist, New Brunswick, N. J.,
is followed by interesting contributions on
‘The Evil Effects of Drifting Sands Along
the Jersey Coast,’ by Professor Charles S.
Dolley, President of tne American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Education, and
on ‘The Colony of Russian Refugees at
Woodbine,’ by H. L. Sabsovich, Superin-
tendent of the Baron Hirsch Colony. The
example set by this publication, both in its
purpose and the high standard presented in
this first number is one which may well be
followed by State forestry associations
throughout the country.
At teachers of botany and lovers of trees,
especially those interested in forestry agita-
tion, will welcome the excellent charts is-
sued by Miss Lewis. The execution of the
drawings of leaves and acorns in Chart No.
1 is all that could be desired, accurate and
finished in every detail, as might be expect-
ed of anything coming from the pencil of one
so expert, and so widely and favorably
known as a thorough botanist and skilled
artist. Miss Lewis, a member of the
Academy of Natural Science of Philadel-
phia and a teacher of long experience, has
done much to promote a love for natural his-
tory and to encourage its being taught in
our schools, and she is to be congratulated
upon her latest contribution to this good
work. ‘Teachers have only to see the charts
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 10.
to insure the introduction of the same into
the class-room.
Stites AnD HasALL announce in a recent
number of the Veterinary Magazine the
discovery of a new species of intestinal fluke
(Distoma tricolor) in the Cotton-tail rabbit
(Lepus sylvaticus, Bachman) and in the
Northern hare (Z. americanus Eraleben).
A NEw and serious enemy to pear trees
has recently been discovered in New Jersey
by Dr. John B. Smith. It is a flat-headed
borer (Agrilus Sinnatus Ol.), a species com-
mon in Europe, and was imported into a
nursery in Union county, N. J., not more
than ten yearsago. It is already wide-
spread in that State, probably occurring
also in New York. The last number of
‘Insect Life’ (Vol. VII., No. 3) contains
an illustrated article on this pest.
M. G. V. BerrHoumiev, in the first num-
ber of the current volume of Annales de la
Société entomologique de France, has be-
gun the publication of what bids fair to be
a very complete monograph of the Ichneu-
monide of Europe.
E. A. Smyru, Jr., of the Virginia Agri-
cultural College, has recently examined the
stomach contents of a large number of
hawks and owls, with the result that he is
able to show that the good offices of many
of these birds by far overbalance any oc-
casional instance of ravages upon the poul-
try yard. The ‘trim and dauntless little
sparrow hawk’ is found to be a very active
enemy of caterpillars, grasshoppers and
other insects, as well as of the ubiquitous
English sparrow, and to deserve protection
at the hands of all farmers.
Tue Cornell University Agricultural Ex-
periment Station Bulletins for December,
1894 (Nos.78, 80), just issued, treat respee-
tively of ‘The Quince in Western New York,’
a subject of considerable interest, inasmuch
as quinces are more extensively grown im
that district than anywhere else in North
:
Marcu 8, 1895.]
America ; and of ‘The Variety and Leaf-
Blight of the Strawberry.’ The publica-
tions of the Cornell Station excel in beauty
of illustration much of the material issued
by similar institutions.
ENTOMOLOGY.
In a recent and excellently illustrated
memoir (Museum Dzieduszyckianum, iv—
Lemberg) on the insect fauna of the petro-
Jeum beds of Boroslow, Galicia, Lemnicki
describes no less than seventy-six coleoptera,
of which nineteen are regarded as identical
with living European insects, while the
others find their nearest allies in boreal
Europe, Asia and America. As only four
“Species are identical with those found by
Flach at Hésbach, Bavaria, in beds looked
upon as Lower Pleistocene by Flach, and
since the Hoésbach coleoptera as a whole
show far less boreal affinities than those of
Galicia, Lemnicki thinks the Hésbach
_ fauna must be considered Middle Pleistocene
and the Galician Lower Pleistocene.
RUSSIAN SCIENCE NOTES.
_ Tue Jubilee-book issued by the Univer-
‘sity of Kasan in commemoration of the
Lobachévsky centenary has already reached
avery large circulation. His compatriots
are pushing the non-Euclidean geometry.
N. P. Sokolov has just issued at Kiev
‘(University Press) a pamphlet of 32 pages
(large 8vo) entitled ‘The significance of
‘the researches of N. I. Lobachévsky in
geometry.’
Volume VI. of the second series of the
Bulletin of the physico-mathematical society
of Kasan, pp. 18-41, contains an interesting
contribution by W. Sichstel on the funda-
mental theorems of spherical geometry.
Two books on America have lately been
published in Russia. One is by Witkowsky,
4 scientist sent by the Russian government
to study geodetic work in the United States.
‘The other i is published by a Russian, now
SCIENCE.
277
resident in Los Angeles, who has been more
than ten years in America, and has here
amassed a fortune. He is a fervid republi-
can, and writes under the nom-de-plume
Tverski.
The well-known and justly admired writer
Korolenko, ranked by the Russians second
only to Tolstoi of living authors, was during
1893 in America, and is about to issue his
impressions of travel. This book, because
of the high reputation of the author, is
awaited with keen interest.
GEORGE Bruce HALsTep.
THE COLD SPRING HARBOR LABORATORY.
Tue A. A. A. S., at its Brooklyn meet-
ing, made two appropriations to aid research
in biological laboratories. One at Wood’s
Holl, of which notice was given in our last
number, and one at the Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory ; concerning which the follow-
ing is the wording of the vote :
“That $100 be granted to Franklin W.
Hooper in behalf of the Biological Labora-
tory at Cold Spring Harbor, to be devoted
to defraying the expense of original re-
search ; he nature of this to be approved
by a committee selected by the Council.”
The committee appoiated consists of the
Vice-Presidents-elect of Section F. and G.,
viz.: Prof. D. S. Jordan and Prof. J. S.
Arthur.
Applications are to be sent to Prof. F. W.
Hooper, Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences, or to Prof. H. W. Conn, Wesleyan
University, Middletown, Conn.
WASHINGTON LECTURES.
Tue Series of Saturday Lectures, compli-
mentary to the citizens of Washington, will
be continued during the season of 1895, un-
der the joint auspices of the Anthropological
and Geological Societies. Two courses have
been provided for, each so arranged as to
give a logical introduction to the science
treated.
wis
The addresses will be delivered in the
Lecture Hall of U. S. National Museum,
4:20 to 5:30 Pp. M., on the dates specified.
Citizens of Washington and their friends are
cordially invited to attend.
The anthropologie course will comprise:
(1) an exposition of the elements of anthro-
pology by the President of the Anthropo-
logical Society, and (2) somewhat more de:
tailed expositions of the different branches
of the science of man by representatives of
the four sections of the Society. The geo-
logic course, which is provisionally ar-
ranged, will comprise an exposition of the
growth of North America from the most
ancient geologic period to the present time,
illustrated by maps showing various stages
in continental development.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
February 23.— What is the Science of Demol-
ogy? Mason J. W. PowE Lu.
March 2.—Human Growth: Dr. FRANZ Boas.
March 9.—The Founding of Sociology: Vice-
President LestER F. WARD.
March 16.—The Progress of the Scientific
Method: Vice-President W J McGzs.
March 23.—The Growth of Arts: Vice-Presi-
dent Frank Haminron CusHine.
GEOLOGY.
March 30.—The Continent in Algonkian Time :
Pror. C. R. Van Hise.
April 6.—The Continent in Cambrian and
Silurian Time: Hon. Coartes D. Wat-
coTT.
April 13.—The Continent in Devonian Time:
Marius R. CaMPBELt.
April 20.—The Continent in Cretaceous and
Tertiary Time: G. K. GILBERT.
April 27.—The Continent in Glacial and Re-
cent Time: PRor, WILLIAM B. CLARK.
A PROPOSED NATIONAL UNIVERSITY.
REPRESENTATIVE Hatner, of Nebraska,
has introduced a bill to establish the Uni-
versity of America, in which each State, Ter-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vox. L No. 10.
ritory and Congressional District shall be en-
titled to an equal proportionate number of
students, chosen by means of open competi-
tive examinations. Instruction in all the
branches of all departments of knowledge is
to be given, and facilities furnished for scien-
tific and literary research and investigation.
The government of the University is to be
vested in a board of twenty regents.—Hven-
ing Post.
GENERAL.
Joun Murray has published the report
of the Oxford meeting of the British As-
sociation edited by the Assistant Seere-
tary, Mr. G. Griffith. In addition to the
address of the President, Lord Salisbury,
and those of the Vice-Presidents of the
several sections, there are printed in full
eight papers by special invitation of the
general committee, among them Professor
Langley’s On Recent Researches in the Infra
Red Spectrum. The other papers are given
in abstract or by title only. Four hundred
pages, half the volume, are taken up by the
reports of committees and investigators,
previously appointed.
Dr. HERMANN WEBER, a Fellow of the
College of Physicians in London, gave last
December £2,500 for the purpose of found-
ing a prize to be given triennially for the
best essay on tubercular consumption. The
competition is open to writers in all coun-
tries.
Tue Vienna Academy of Sciences has
received by the will of Josef Treitel 800,-
000 florins to be used for the advancement
of astronomy.
PROFESSOR WELDON is announced to dis-
cuss Variation in Animals and Plants at the
second of the special meetings of the Royal
Society.
M. Gurenarp has been elected a mem-
ber of the Section of Botany of the Paris
Academy of Sciences, succeeding M. de
Chartre.
_ Marcu 8, 1895.]
Dr. F. N. Scumirz, Professor of Botany
in the University of Greifswald, died on
January 28, at the age of 44.
_ Tue University of Wisconsin has begun
the publication of series of bulletins in
Philology and Literature, in Science, in
Engineering, and in Economics, Political
Science and History. The numbers so far
issued are: On the Speed of the Liberation of
Iodine in Mixed Solutions of Potassium Chlorate,
Potassium Iodide and Hydrochloric Acid, by
Herman Schmidt. Track, by L. F. Loree.
Some Practical Hints in Dynamo Design, by
Gilbert Wilkes. The Steel Construction of
Buildings, by C. T. Purdy. The Evolution of
@ Switchboard, by Arthur Vaughan Abbott.
‘The Geographical Distribution of the Vote of
the Thirteen States on the Federal Constitution,
1787-8, by Orin Grant Libby.
Tue J. B. Lierrvcorr Co. announce Sug-
gestions to Hospital and Asylum Visitors, by Dr.
John §S. Billings and Dr. Henry M. Hurd,
and A Text-book of Chemistry, intended for
‘the use of pharmaceutical and medical
students, by Professors Samuel P. Sadtler
College of Pharmacy.
_ Gryn & Co. announce The Religions of
India, by Edward Washburn Hopkins.
_D. Appteton & Co. announce The Story
series includes The Story of the Earth,
H. G. Seeley; The Story of the Primitive
; by Edward Clodd; The Story of the
System, by G. F. Chambers. The
Same publishers announce a translation of
, Nordau’s Entartung.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
= NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
& Tue Section of Geology and Mineralogy,
| February 18, listened to papers of which
following are abstracts: Heinrich Ries
SCIENCE. 279
described the geology and petrography of the
‘Harrison Granite’ of Westchester county,
N.Y. This forms an elongated belt, prin-
cipally in the town of Harrison, on Long
Island Sound, and is in the midst of the
mica schists, which Dr. F. J, H. Merrill re-
gards and has recently mapped as meta-
morphosed representatives of the Hudson
River stage. The granite contains both
hornblende and biotite and is really a gran-
ite-diorite. It is all more or less gneissic,
and shades from a coarsely laminated va-
riety with many ‘ Augen’ of feldspar, in the
central portion, to decidedly schistose vari-
eties at the border. Evidences of crushing
and many curious inclusions in the feldspar
are abundant.
In discussion, J. F. Kemp cited the
many intrusive bosses of granite all along
the north shore of the Sound from Stony
Creek, Conn., to Niantic, R. I. The results
of observations as yet unpublished, on those
in Rhode Island, were given anda few notes
on their mineralogy. ;
G. F. Kunz followed with a paper on the
‘Minerals used for the Assyrian, Babylo-
nian and Sassanian Cylinders, Seals, ete.,’
which was illustrated by many specimens
and lantern slides. An abstract of the pa-
per, which will be printed in full in the
Transactions of the Academy, is as follows:
The seals that date from 4000 B. C. to
2500 B. C. are cylinders, a form that is
thought to have been suggested by the joint
of areed. Nearly all depict animals with-
out other ornamentation. They were made
of black or green serpentine, conglomerate,
diorite, and often of the central whorls of
the large conchs from the Persian Gulf.
From 2500 to 600 B. C. the cylindrical shape
continues, but, in addition to the animals,
from one to six rows of cuneiform charac-
ters appear. Variously colored chalcedony,
(especially a blue variety), brick red ferru-
ginous quartz and red hematite are also
used. Up to this time the carving was
280
done with a sapphire point, but in the fifth
century wheel-work begins to appear. In
the sixth century B. C. cylinders begin to
be partially replaced by cone-shaped seals,
and by the scaraboid forms introduced from
Egypt. From the third century B. C. to
the third century A. D. the seals become
lower and flatter, and finally graduate into
rings, mostly with Persian or Sassanian
characters. Although in part made from
the stones of the neighboring hills, yet rarer
materials begin to appear—evidently ob-
tained by trade with Egypt and other coun-
tries more or less remote.
In addition to the minerals mentioned
above, the following are recognized : clear,
pellucid quartz, amethyst, agates of various
colors, lapis-lazuli from Bodakshan in Tur-
kestan, amazon-stone, possibly of Egyptian
origin, calcite, green and white and in the
form of various marbles, aragonite, gypsum,
syenite and jade.
It is hoped that further study may enable
us to trace these minerals to their original
localities with greater certainty.
J. F. Kemp, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL
SOCIETY, MARCH.
The Synthetic Food of the Future:
W. WILeEy.
The Determination of Phosphoric Acid: H.
PEMBERTON, JR.
On the Estimation of Sulphur in Pyrites: G.
LUNGE.
Improvement in the Manufacture of Acetone:
E. R. Squiss.
Report of Committee on Atomic Weights, Pub-
lished During 1894: FF. W. CLarx.
Coloring Matter in the California Red Wines:
W. D. Brentow.
The Penetration Machine—An Explanation :
H. C. Bowen.
Notes: Argon.
HARVEY
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 10,
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, JAN.
Comparative Observations on the Indirect Color
Range of Children, Adults, and Adults Train-
ed in Color: Guo. W. A. Luckey.
Minor Studies from the Psychological Laboratory
of Cornell University: Taste Dreams: 3.
B. TrrcHenrer. On the Quantitative Deter-
mination of an Optical Illusion: R. WaAprA-
NABE, Po. D. The Cutaneous Estimation of
Open and Filled Space: C. S. PARRISH.
The Daily Infe of « Protozoan; A Study in
Comparative Psycho-physiology: C. F. Hopen,
Pu. D., and H. Ausrry Arkins, Pa. D.
Minor Studies from the Psychological Laboratory
of Clark University: A Study of Individual
Psychology: CArotine Mites. The Mem-
ory After-Image and Attention: ArrHuR H.
Danrets, Po. D. On the Least Observable
Interval between Stimuli addressed to Dis-
parate Senses and to Different Organs of the
Same Sense: Avice J. Hamury. Notes on
New Apparatus: Epmunp CO. SANFORD.
On the Words for ‘Anger’ in Certain Lan-
guages; A Study in Linguistic Psychology:
A. F. CHAMBERLAIN, PH. D. .
A Laboratory Course in Physiological Psychol-
ogy; The Visual Perception of Space: Hp-
MUND C. SANFORD.
Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting of
the American Psychological Association at
Princeton.
Psychological Literature.
NEW BOOKS.
History of Chemistry. F.P. VENABLE. Bos-
ton, D. C. Heath & Co. 1894. Pp. viii
ainel' Diffs
Mental Development of the Child and the Race.
Methods and Processes. JAMES MARK
Batpwin. New York and London, Mac-
millan & Co. 1895. Pp. xvit+496. $2.60.
Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic
Substances as Practiced in Georgetown Col-
lege, D. C. New York, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago, American Book Company. 1894.
Pp. 61.
ten Abbildungen, 486 S. KI. 8°.
__ Drtescu, Hans.
‘
SOCIE NCE.
New SERIES.
Vou. I. No. 11.
Fripay, Marcu 15, 1895.
SINGLE Copres, 15 CTs.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00.
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ANDERSSOHN, AUREL. Physikalische Principien
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_ ARCHIY FUR ENTWICKLUNGSMECHANIK DER OR-
GANISMEN, Herausgegeben von Prof. Wilhelm Roux.
Erster Band, Erstes Heft. Mit 7 Tafeln und 6 Text-
figuren, 160 Seiten. 8°. M. 10.
BARRILLOT, ERNEST. Traité de Chimie Légale.
Analyse Toxicologique. Recherches Spéciales, 356
pages. 8°. Fr. 6.50.
BuJARD, Dr. ALFONS und Dr. EDUARD BATER.
Hilfsbuch fiir Nahrungsmittelchemiker auf Grund-
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q Analytische Theorie der orga-
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M. 5.
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_ GARNAULT, E. Mécanique, physique et chimie.
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8vo, cloth, illustrated, $4.00.
A work designed to show how trustworthy predictions of coming weather may be made, and in what
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The method is based chiefly on statistics of the observed condition of the
air as to pressure, temperature and humidity of particular types.
Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay.
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“The volume isin eyery sense a valuable contribution to
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est and its skill of presentation will commend it toa wide
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Economic Classics.
Edited by W. J. ASHLEY, M. A., Professor of
Economic History in Harvard University. 12mo,
limp cloth, each 75 cents.
Adam Smith. Select Chapters and Passages from
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David Ricardo. The first six chapters of ‘The
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CONTENTS :
The Plant Individual in the Light of Evolution: L.
FISIBATLEY .......0....-cnscnmoccccrcesace 281
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PEPE ES yjalo'e's: o'sie's vidi's ol siars onc Miata minenelelcla\oiaieyw a’elels 292
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RIEMESTAOSLENCE S— 5.5 oe cee eee cdc coe tececlsmes 297
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ALFRED Topp. Pithecanthropus erectus: HaAR-
RISON ALLEN.
Wetentific Literature :— ......00 cn cceesscccces 299
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WILLIAM HALLOCK. Mathematics. Meteorology:
' A. L. Rotcn.
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Entomology ; General.
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41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
THE PLANT INDIVIDUAL IN THE LIGHT OF
EVOLUTION.*
THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUD-VARIATION, AND ITS
BEARING UPON WEISMANNISM.
18,
Wuusrt the animal and vegetable king-
doms originate at a common point and are
not clearly distinguishable in a number of
* Address before the Biological Society of Wash-
- ington, Jan. 12, 1895.
=
é
the lower groups or organic beings, they
nevertheless diverge rapidly and they finally
become very unlike. I believe that we
shall find that this divergence into two
coérdinate branches of organic nature is
brought about by the operation of at least
two fundamentally distinct laws. There is
a most unfortunate tendency, at the pres-
ent time, to attempt to account for all phe-
nomena of evolution upon some single
hypothesis which the observer may think
to be operative in the particular group of
animals or plants which he may be study-
ing. For myself, I cannot believe that all
forms of life are the results of any one law.
It is possible that all recent explanations of
evolution contain more or less truth, and
that one of them may have been the cause
of certain developments , whilst others have
been equally fundamentally important in
other groups of organisms. If I were a
zoologist, and particularly an entomologist,
I should hold strongly to the views of La-
marck; but, being a horticulturist, I must
accept largely, for the objects which come
within the range of my vision, the princi-
ples of Darwin. In other words, I believe
that both Lamarckism and Darwinism are
true ; and, in this connection, it is signifi-
cant to observe that Lamarck propounded
his theory from studies of animals, whilst
Darwin was first led to his theory from ob-
servations of plants. I am willing to
admit, also, at least for the sake of argu-
282
ment, that Weismannism, or the Neo-
Darwinian philosophy, may be true for
some organisms, but it is wholly untenable
for plants.
There is one feature of this difference be-
tween the animal and the plant to which I
wish to call your attention on this occasion.
It is the meaning of individuality in the
two. I must say, at the outset, that when
I speak of a plant or an animal I refer to
those higher forms which the layman knows
by these names, for it is not my purpose to
discuss the original causes of divergence so
much as those phenomena of individuality
which are most apparent to the general ob-
server. The animal may be said to have
complete autonomy. It has a more or less
definite span of life. It grows old and dies
without having been impaired by decay,
and the period of death may have no imme-
diate relation to environment. It hasa defi-
nite number of parts, and each part or organ
is differentiated and performs one function,
and this function serves the whole animal
and not the organ itself. If any part is re-
moved the animal is maimed and the part
cannot be supplied, and the severed portion
has no power to reproduce either itself or
the animal from which it came. The only
means by which the animal can multiply is
by a union of sexes. The plant, on the con-
trary, has no perfect or simple autonomy.
It has no definite or pre-determined proxi-
mate span of life, except in those instances
when it is annual or biennial, and here du-
ration is an evident adaptation to environ-
ment. The plant frequently dies as the re-
sult of decay. It hasnota definite number
of parts, and each part of the plant may
perform a function for itself, and the part
may be useful to the remainder of the plant
or it may not. One part is like what all
other parts are or may be. If one portion
is removed the plant may not be injured; in
fact, the plant may be distinctly benefited.
And the severed portion may not only have
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 11.
the power of reproducing itself, but it may
even reproduce an organism like that from
which itcame. In other words, plants mul-~
tiply both with and without sex. Poten-
tially, every node and internode of the plant
is an individual, for it possesses the power,
when removed and properly cared for, of
expanding into what we call a plant, and of
perfecting flowers and seeds and of multiply-
ing its kind.
Those of you who are botanists now re-
eall the contention of Gaudichaud concern-
ing the plant unit or phyton. He proposed
that the leaf, with its connecting tissues, is
the vegetable individual and that the plant
is'a colony of these individuals. Gaudi-
chaud offered this theory as an explanation
of the morphology and physiology of plants,
and the hypothesis really has no place in
the present discussion; but, inasmuch as I
have borrowed the word which he proposed
for the plant unit, it is no more than fair
that I should explain his use of it; and this
explanation may serve, incidentally, to il-
lustrate some of the problems of individual-
ity to which JI shall recur. Gaudichaud,
while recognizing that a cell which develops
into a bud is itself an individual, neverthe-
less considered that the leaf, with its de-
pendent tissues, represents the simple vege-
table unit. Each of these units has an
aerial or ascending part and a radicular
part. The ascending part has three kinds
of tissues or merithals—the stem merithal,
petiolar merithal and the limbic merithal.
Now, each phyton fixes itself upon the
trunk or upon an inferior phyton, in the
same manner as a plant fixes itself in the
soil, and, sending its vascular threads
downwards between the bark and the wood,
is enabled to support itself upon the plant
colony; and, at the same time, the exten-
sion of these threads produces the thicken-
ing of the stem, and the superposition of
phytons increases the height of the plant.
This mechanical theory of the morphology
s
Marcu 15, 1895.]
of plants was not original with Gaudichaud,
but he greatly enlarged it and gave it most
of its historic value, and, what is more to
our purpose, he used the word phyton,
which, in lieu of a better one, I shall use as
a convenient expression for that asexual
portion of any plant which is capable of re-
producing itself. Gaudichaud’s fanciful
hypothesis was not completely overthrown
until the exact studies of Yon Mohl upon
the vegetable cell established a rational
basis of morphology and physiology.
What I wish now to show is that the
evolution of the vegetable kingdom cannot
be properly understood until we come to
feel that the phyton, or each portion of the
plant, which, when removed, has the capa-
bility of reproducing itself and its parent,
is in reality a potential autonomy. In
doing this I shall not forget that the plant
also has an individuality as a whole, but as
this feature is quite aside from my argu-
ment and is the conception of the plant
which is everywhere accepted, I shall. ne-
eessarily confine my remarks to the indi-
vidual life of the phyton. The mere fact
that the phyton may reproduce itself is not
the most important point, but, rather, that
each part of the plant may respond in a
different manner or degree to the effects of
environment and heredity. Before proceed-
ing to this matter, I should say that there
is no doubt about the capability of every
plant to be propagated asexually. It is
true that all plants have not been so propa-
gated, but there is every reason to suppose
that the gardener can acquire the requisite
skill to grow. oaks and hickories from cut-
tings were it worth his while todo so. At
present there are cheaper modes of multi-
plying these plants. But certain pines and
spruces, which do not seed under cultiva-
tion, are propagated by cuttings, and the
tissue of these trees is as little adapted to
such use as that of any plants with which I
am acquainted. The fact that plants are
‘.
.
SCLENCE.
283
not grown from cuttings does not prove
that they cannot be so propagated, for we
know that the essential structure of all of
them is very similar, and that each node
and internode—or each phyton—does or
may produce branches and flowers and
seeds when it is borne upon its parent plant.
And I should remind you that those plants
which are not readily multiplied by cuttings
are generally propagated by grafting, which,
for illustration, amounts to the same thing,
for we only substitute the stock of another
plant for the soil. Plants of the most vari-
ous kinds are readily multiplied by graft-
age. Even tuberous herbaceous stems,
which are not commonly associated with
the art of the grafter, unite with ease. One
of the latest investigators in this field is a
Frenchman, Daniel, and his conclusions
upon the physiology of grafted plants show
that the physiological modifications in these
plants are largely such as arise from physi-
cal causes, showing that the parts still
preserve their essential autonomy.
Now, if every plant varies in the number
of parts, or phytons, of which it is com-
posed, it follows that this number must be
determined by agencies which act imme-
diately upon the given plant itself. We all
know that the number of these parts is de-
termined very largely by environment.
A dozen plants springing from the same
capsule may vary immensely in the num-
bers of their branches, leaves and flowers,
and this variation is generally obviously
correlated with amount of food, amount of
space which the plant is allowed to occupy,
and other physical conditions which affect
its welfare. But we not only find that no
two plants have the same number of parts,
but that no two branches in the same plant
arealike. One part grows longer, one more
erect, one has greener leaves, one bears
more fruit. So, too, there may be different
forms of flowers on the same plant, a sub-
ject to which Darwin has devoted an entire
284
volume. We know, also, that this varia-
tion amongst the sisterhood or colony of
branches is determined by very much the
same conditions which determine variation
in independent plants growing in soil. I
believe that the primary and most im-
portant determinant of this variation is the
variation in food supply, the same which
Darwin believed to be the most potent fac-
tor in the origination of variations in gen-
eral. That branch or phyton which re-
ceives the most food, because of its position
or other incidental circumstance, is the one
which grows the largest, has the heaviest
and greenest leaves, and, in the end, is the
most fruitful. JI use the word food to desig-
nate not only the supply of nutriment
which is derived from the soil, but also that
obtained from the air and which is most
quickly and thoroughly elaborated in the
presence of the brightest sunlight. Thus
the uppermost branches of the tree, whilst
farthest from the root, are generally the
strongest, because they are more freely ex-
posed to light and air and their course is
least impeded. Many branches in the in-
terior of tree tops are undoubtedly parasites
upon the plant colony, taking from it more
than they return.
If the number of the plant units is deter-
mined by circumstances peculiar to that
plant, and if there is variation amongst
these units in any plant, then it follows that
there must be struggle for existence between
them. And this struggle differs from the
conflict between independent plants in the
complex battle for life only in the circum-
stance that it is more intense or severe,
from the fact that the combatants are more
closely associated. There are weak branches
and strong branches, and the survival of the
fittest is nature’s method of pruning. The
strong terminal branch, shooting upwards
towards air and sunlight, makes the bole of
the tree, whilst the less fortunate or side
branches perish and fall. The leaf surface
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 11.
of any tree or large plant is always pushing
outwards towards the periphery, which is
only another way of saying that the an-_
terior branches die. I often find fruit
growers who refuse to prune their trees be-
cause they believe it to be unnatural, while
at the same time their tree tops are full of
dead limbs, every one a monument to the
stupidity of the owner !
Now, the effect of this struggle for exist-
ence allows of mathematical measurement.
Each bud should produce a branch or a clus-
ter of fruit. A seedling peach tree may be
two feet high the first year, producing thirty
leaves, and in every axil a bud. Hach of
these buds should produce a branch, which
should again produce thirty buds. The
third year, therefore, whilst the tree is only
six or eight feet high, it should have 900
branches, and in the fourth year 27,000!
Yet a peach tree twenty years old may not
have more than 1,000 branches! That is,
many millions of possible branches have
been suppressed or have died. I once
made an actual observation of such a battle
and counted the dead and wounded. A black
cherry tree came up near my door. The
first year it made a straight shoot nineteen
inches high which produced twenty-seven
buds. It also sent out a branch eight inches
long which bore twelve buds. The little
tree had therefore enlisted thirty-nine sol-
diers for the coming conflict. The second
year twenty of these buds did not grow.
Nineteen of them made an effort, and these
produced 370 buds. In two years it made
an effort, therefore, at 409 branches, but at
the close of the second year there were only
twenty-seven branches upon the tree. At
the close of the third year the little tree
should have produced about 3,500 buds or
branch-germs. It was next observed in
July of its fourth year, when it stood just
eight feet high; instead of having between
3,000 and 4,000 branches, it bore a total of
297, and most of them were only weak
Marcu 15, 1895.]
spurs from one to three inches long. It
was plain that not more than twenty, at
the outside, of even this small number could
long persist. The main stem or trunk bore
forty-three branches, of which only eleven
had much life in them, and even some of
this number showed signs of weakness. In
other words, in my little cherry tree, stand-
ing alone and having things all its own
way, only one bud out of every 175 suc-
ceeded in making even a fair start towards
a permanent branch. And this struggle
must have proceeded with greater severity
as the top became more complex, had I not
put an end to its travail with the axe!
1M fe
I am now ready to say that I believe bud-
variation to be one of the most significant
and important phenomena of vegetable life,
and that it is due to the same causes, oper-
ating in essentially the same way, which
underlie all variation in the plant world.
As some of you may not be familiar with
the technical use of the term, I will explain
that a bud-variety is an unusual or striking
form or branch appearing upon a plant; or,
as Darwin put it, bud-variation is a term
used to “include all those sudden changes
in structure or appearance which occasion-
ally occur in full-grown plants in their
flower-buds or leaf-buds.” A classical ex-
ample is the origination of the nectarine
from a branch of a peach tree; and one
often hears of Russet apples upon a certain
_ branch of Greening apple tree, of weeping,
_ variegated or cut-leaved shoots on otherwise
normal trees, or of potatoes that ‘mix in the
hill.’ Now, this matter of bud-variation
has been a most puzzling one to all writers
upon evolution who have touched upon it.
It long seemed to me to be inexplicable,
but I hope that you will now agree with me
in saying that it is no more unintelligible
than seminal variation of plants, for I have
already shown that there is abundant asex-
SCIENCE.
285
ual variation (of which bud-variation is
itself the proof), and that this variation
takes place as readily when the phyton is
growing upon a plant as when it is growing
in the soil. The chief trouble has been, in
the consideration of this subject, that per-
sons have observed and recorded only the
most marked or striking variations, or those
which appear somewhat suddenly (although
suddenness of appearance usually means
that the observer had not noticed it before),
and that they had therefore thought bud-
variation to be rare and exceptional. The
truth is, as I have said, that every branch
or phyton is a bud-variety, differing in
greater or lesser degree from all other
phytons on the same plant. These differ-
ences, even when marked, may arise in
every part of the parent plant, as on stems
aerial and subterranean, from bulbs and
tubers, or even from the adventitious buds
of roots ; and the characters of these vari-
eties are as various as those originating
from seeds. The nurseryman knows that
branches differ amongst themselves, for
he instructs his budders to cut buds only
from the top-most shoots of the nursery
rows in order that he may grow straight,
vigorous trees; and every farmer’s boy
knows that the reddest and earliest apples
grow on the uppermost branches, and his
father will always tell him that he should
never select cions from the center or lower
part of atree. Every skilful horticulturist
will tell you that the character of the
orchard is determined very largely by the
judgment of the propagator in selecting
cions. To select out the extreme forms of
these variations and to attempt to explain
bud-variation by them is exactly like se-
lecting the extreme types of seminal
variations, and, by ignoring the lesser ones
and the intermediates, to attempt to build
thereon a theory of the variation of plants.
If you ask me why it is that the nectarine
was produced upon a branch of a peach
286
tree I will answer that nectarines have
also been produced from peach seeds. The
answer to one answers the other. It is
true that bud-variations, if we use that
term, as we logically must, to denote all
variations between phytons, are commonly
less marked than seed-variations, but this
is only because the conditions of origin and
environment of the phyton are less varied
than those of the seedling. The phytons
originate from one parent, not from two;
and they all grow in very like conditions.
But I am convinced that, when we consider
the plant individual in the light of evolu-
tion, the bugbear of bud-variation vanishes.
A good proof that bud-variation and seed-
variation are one in kind is afforded by the
fact that selection can be practiced for the
improvement of forms originating by either
means. Darwin was surprised, as he says,
to ‘hear from Mr. Salter that he brings the
principle of selection to bear on variegated
plants propagated by buds, and has thus
greatly improved and fixed several varie-
ties. He informs me that at first a branch
often produces variegated leaves on one side
alone, and that the leaves are marked only
with an irregular edging, or with a few lines
of white and yellow. ‘To improve and fix
such varieties he finds it necessary to en-
courage the buds at the bases of the most
distinctly marked leaves and to propagate
from them alone. By following, with per-
severance, this plan during three or four
successive seasons a distinct and fixed var-
iety can generally be secured.” This prac-
tice, or similar ones, is not only well known
to gardeners, but we have seen that nature
selects in the same manner, through the op-
eration of the same struggle for subsistence
which Darwin so forcibly applied to all other
forms of modification. Once given the three
fundamental principles in the phylogeny of
the phyton, the variation amongst them-
selves, the struggle for existence, the capa-
bility of perpetuating themselves—an in-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 11.
disputable trinity—and there can no long-
er be any doubt as to the fundamental like-
ness of the bud-variety and the seed-variety-
Yet I must bring another proof of this
likeness to your mind. It is well known
that the seedlings of plants become more
variable as the species is cultivated ; and it
is also true that bud-varieties are more fre-
quent and more marked in cultivated
plants. Note, for example, the tendency of
cultivated plants to bear variegated or cut-
leaved or weeping shoots, and the fact that
the colors and doubleness of flowers often
vary greatly upon the same plant. Many of
our best known roses, carnations, chrysan-
themums, violets and other garden plants
originated as bud-sports. This factis so well
known that critical gardeners are always on
the alert for such variations. In any house
of 200 roses, all grown from cuttings, the
grower will expect to find more than one de-
parture from the type, either in color or free-
dom of bloom or in habit of plant. Every
gardener will recall the ‘sporting’ tenden-
cies of Perle des Jardins rose, and the fact
that several commercial varieties have
sprung from it by bud-variation. As early —
as 1865 Carriére gave a descriptive list of
154 named bud-varieties, and remarked at
length upon their frequency amongst culti-
vated plants. This fact of greater bud-
variability under cultivation was fully
recognized by Darwin, and he regarded this
as one of the strongest proofs that such ya-
riation, like seed-variation, is ‘the direct
result of the conditions of life to which
the plant has been exposed.”
In order to extend the proofs of the es-
sential ontogenetic likeness of bud and semi-
nal variations, I will call to your remem-
brance the fact that the characters of the
two phytons may be united quite as com-
pletely by means of asexual or graft hybrid-
ism as by sexual hybridism. I do not need
to pursue this subject, except to say that
we now believe that graft-hybrids are rare
“Manon 15, 1895.]
and exceptional chiefly because the sub-
_ ject has received little experimental at-
‘ tention. Certainly the list given by Focke,
a and the anatomical researches of Macfar-
- lane, show that such hybrids may be ex-
“pected in a wide variety of subjects and
with some frequency. It is now stated pos-
itively by Daniel, as the result of direct ex-
periment, that the seeds of cions of certain
cultivated herbs which are grafted upon a
wild plant give offspring which show a
marked return to the wild type. I should
also add that the breaking up of seminal
_ hybrids into the characters of either parent
may take place, as Darwin has shown,
through either seed- or bud-variation. You
are all no doubt aware that hybrids gener-
ally tend to revert to the types from which
they sprung, and this sometimes occurs
_ eyen in hybrid offspring which is propagated
clusively by buds or cuttings.
Still another proof of the similarity of
_ bud-yarieties and seed-varieties is the fact
that the seeds of bud-varieties are quite as
likely to reproduce the variety as the seeds
of seed-varieties are to reproduce their
: parents. Darwin and others have recorded
‘this seminal transmission of bud-sports.
_“ Notwithstanding the sudden production
of bud-varieties,’’ Darwin writes, ‘‘ the char-
acters thus acquired are sometimes capable
of transmission by seminal reproduction .
Mr. Rivers has found that moss-roses
[which are bud-varieties] generally repro-
duce themselves by seed; and the mossy
character has been transferred by crossing
from one species to another.”’ This general
fact that bud-sports may reproduce many
of their essential acquired characters by
seeds is so well grounded in the minds of
‘gardeners that the most critical of them
€ no distinction, in this respect, be-
cen varieties of bud and seed origin when
‘selecting parents for making crosses. And
if we can prove the similarity of bud and
seed variations by showing that both bear
SCIENCE.
287
the same relation to transmission of char-
acters by means of seedage, we can demon-
strate it equally well by the converse pro-
position—that both bear the same relation
to the perpetuation of their features by
cuttings. Some seed-varieties will not
‘come true’ by cuttings, and there are also
some bud-sports which will not, as every
gardener of experience knows. I will cite
a single case of ‘ sporting’ in bud offspring.
One winter a chance tomato plant came up
in one of my greenhouses. I let it grow,
and it bore fruit quite unlike any other
variety which I ever saw. There was no
other tomato plant in the house. I propa-
gated it both by seeds and cuttings. I
had two generations of cuttings. Those
taken directly from the parent plant,
‘came true’ or very nearly so; then a lot
of cuttings from these cutting-grown plants
was taken, making the second asexual gen-
eration from the original seedling. While
most of the seeds ‘came true,’ few of these
second cuttings did, and, moreover, they
“sported ’ into several very unlike forms—
so much unlike that I had both red and
yellow fruits from them. In respect to
transmission of characters, then, bud- and
seed-varieties are alike, because either class
may or may not transmit its marks either
by seeds or buds.
Finally, let.me say, in proof of the further
similarity of bud- and seed-variations, that
each class follows the incidental laws of
external resemblance which pertain to the
other class. For instance, there are analo-
gous variations in each, giving rise to the
same kinds of variegation, the same anoma-
lies of cut and colored foliage, of weeping
branches, party-colored fruits and the like;
and the number of similar variations may
be as great for any ameliorated plant in the
one class as in the other. The most expert
observer is not able to distinguish between
bud-varieties and seed-varieties ; the only
way of distinguishing the two is by means
288
of the records of their origins, and because
such records of any varieties are few we
have come to overlook the frequency of
bud-variation and to ascribe all progressive
variability in the yegetable kingdom to
seeds or sex.
Whilst it is not my purpose to discuss
the original sources of bud-variations, I
cannot forbear to touch upon one very re-
markable fact concerning reversions. It is
a common notion that all bud-varieties are
atavistic, but this position is untenable if
one accepts the hypothesis, which I have
here outlined, of the ontogenetic individual-
ity of the phyton, and if he holds, at the
same time, to the transforming influence of
environment. Itis also held by some that
bud-varieties are the effects of previous
crossing, but this is controverted by Dar-
win in the statement that characters some-
times appear in bud-varieties which do not
pertain to any known living or extinct spe-
cies; and the observations which I am
about to recite also indicate the improba-
bility of such influence in a large class of
cases. The instances to which I call your
attention are, I think, true reversions to
ancestral types. Those of you who have
observed the young non-blooming shoots of
tulip-tree, sassafras and some other trees
will have noticed that the leaves upon them
often assume unusual shapes. Thus the
leaves of sassafras often vary from the typ-
ical oval form to three-lobed and mitten-
shaped upon the strong shoots. There are
the most various forms on many tulip-trees,
the leaves ranging from almost circular and
merely emarginate to long-ovate and vari-
ously lobed; all of them have been most
admirably illustrated and discussed recently
by Holm in the proceedings of the National
Museum. Holm considers the various
forms of these liriodendron leaves to be so
many proofs of the invalidity of the fossil
species which very closely resemble them.
This may be true, for there are probably no
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 11.
specific names of organisms founded upon
so fragmentary and scant material as those
applied to fossil plants; and yet I cannot
help feeling that some of these contempora-
neous variations are reversions to very old
types. I was first led to this opinion by a
study of the sports in ginkgo leaves, and
finding them suggestive of Mesozoic types.
“This variation in leaf characters,’’ I wrote
at the time, ‘recalls the geologic history of
the ginkgo, for it appears to be true that
leaves upon the young and vigorous shoots
of trees are more like their ancestors than
are the leaves upon old plants or less vigor-
ous shoots, as if there is some such genea-
logical record in leaves as there is in the de-
velopment of embryos in animals.”” Subse-
quent observation has strengthened my be-
lief in the atavistic origin of many of these
abnormal forms, and this explanation of
them is exactly in line with the characters
of reversions in animals and in cultivated
plants. It would, of course, be futile to at-
tempt any discussion of the merits of the
specific types proposed by palzeobotanists,
but in those cases, like the ginkgo, where
the geologic types are fairly well marked,
constant and frequent, and where the similar
contemporaneous variations are rare, there
is apparently good reason for regarding
contemporaneous forms as fitful recollec-
tions of an ancient state; and this supposi-
tion finds additional support in the ginkgo,
because the species is becoming extinct, a
fact which also applies to the tulip-tree,
which is now much restricted in its distri-
bution. Jam further reinforced in this yiew
by Ward’s excellent study of the evolution
of the plane-tree, for, in this instance, it
seems to be well determined that the geo-
logic type has fairly well marked specific
characters, and the auricular or peltate base
upon contemporaneous leaves, which re-
cords the connection between the two, is
sufficiently rare to escape comment. Ya-
rious writers have remarked upon the
- Marcu 15, 1895.]
similarities of these occasional leaves to
geologic types, but, so far as I recall,
they regard them as remnants or ves-
tiges of the ancient types rather than as
reversions to them. There is this impor-
tant difference between a remnantand a re-
version. A remnant or rudiment is more
or less uniformly present under normal
conditions, and it should give evidence of
being slowly on the decline ; whilst a rever-
sion is a reappearance of wholly lost char-
acters under unusual or local conditions.
Now, my chief reasons for considering these
sports to be reversions is the fact that they
occur upon the sterile and verdurous shoots,
the very shoots which are most likely to
vary and to revert because they receive the
greatest amount of food supply, as Darwin
has shown to be the case with independent
plants. And Iam therefore able to make
still another analogy between phytons and
plants, and to illustrate again the essential
sameness of bud-variations and seed-varia-
tions.
Ill.
I now wish to recall your attention more
Specifically to the subject of asexual varia-
tion. I have shown that no two branches
are alike any more than are any two plants.
_T have also cited the frequent occurrence of
_ differences so marked that they are called
_bud-varieties or sports. Carriére enumer-
ated over 150 of them of commercial im-
_ portance in France, and, as nearly as I can
_ estimate, there are no fewer than 200 named
Bisrticaltural varieties grown at the present
moment in this country which had a like
origin. It is also known that there are a
number of spécies in which seeds are prac-
_ tically unknown, and yet which run into
Many varieties, as the pineapple, banana
and bread-fruit ; and note, if you will, the
great variations in weeping willows, a tree
which never fruits in this country. In our
gardens there are three or four varieties of
SCIENCE. 289
the common seedless ‘top’ onion, and I
have been able, by treatment, to vary the
root of the horse-radish, a plant which
rarely, if ever, produces viable seeds in this
climate ; and there are variable seedless
plants in our greenhouses. I might also
cite the fact that most fungi are sexless, so
far as we know, and yet they have varied
into innumerable species. You will be in-
terested in a concrete case of the apple.
The Newtown Pippin, which originated
upon Long Island, New York, has been
widely disseminated by graftage. In Vir-
ginia it has varied into a form known as
the Albemarle Pippin, and a New York
apple exporter tells me that it is a poorer
shipper than the Northern Newtown and is
not so long-keeping. In the extreme North-
western States the Newtown, while. it has
not been rechristened there, is markedly
unlike the Eastern fruit, being much longer
and bearing distinct ridges about the apex.
Finally, in New South Wales, the ridges are
more marked and other characters appear,
and the variety is there known as the Five-
crowned Pippin. This is not an isolated
case. Most Northeastern varieties of apples
tend to take on this elongated form in the
Pacific Northwest, to become heavy-grained
and coarse-striped in the Mississippi Valley
and the Plains, and to take other character-
istic forms in the higher lands of the South
Atlantic States. This asexual variation is
sometimes veryrapid. An illustration came
directly under my own observation (and
upon which I have once reported) in the
case of the Chilian strawberry. Within
two years this plant, growing in my garden,
varied or departed from its wild type so
widely as to be indistinguishable from the
common garden strawberry, which has been
regarded by many botanists to be specifi-
cally distinct from the Chilian berry. This
remarkable departure, which has enabled
me, as I believe, to reconstruct the evolu-
tion of the garden strawberry, was one in
290
which no seedling plants were concerned.
If all the common garden strawberries owe
their origin to a like souree—as I cannot
doubt—then we have here a most instruc-
tive case of sexless evolution, but one in
which the subsequent generations reproduce
these characters of sexless origin by means
of seeds.
This asexual modification is not confined
to domesticated plants. Any plant which
is widely distributed by man by means of
cuttings or other vegetative parts may be ex-
pected to vary in the same manner, as much
experiment shows ; and if they behave in
this way when disseminated by man they
must undergo similar modification when
similarly disseminated by nature herself.
I need only cite a few instances of habitual
asexual distribution of wild plants to recall to
your attention the fact that such means of
distribution is common in nature, and that in
some cases the dispersion over wide areas is
quite as rapid as by means of seeds; and
some plants, as various potamogetons, cera-
tophyllums and other aquatics, are more
productive of detachable winter buds and
other separable vegetable organs than they
are of seeds. The brittle willows drop their
twigs when injured by storms of ice or
wind, or by animals, and many of these cut-
tings take root in the moist soil, and they
may be carried far down streams or distrib-
uted along lake shores; the may-apple and
a host of rhizomatous plants march onward
from the original starting point ; the bry-
ophyllum easily drops its thick leaves, each
one of which may establish a new colony of
plants; the leaves of the lake-cress (Nas-
turtium lacustre) float down the streams
and develop a new plant while they travel ;
the house-leeks surround themselves with
colonies of off-shoots, the black raspberry
travels by looping stolons, and the straw-
berry by long runners; the tiger-lily scat-
ters its bulb-like buds, and all bulbiferous
plants spread quite as easily by their fleshy
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 11.
parts as by seeds. Now all these vegetative
parts, when established as independent
plants, produce flowers and good seeds, and
these seeds often perpetuate the very char-
acters which have originated in the asexual
generations, as we have seen in the case of
many bud-varieties ; and it should also be
remarked that these phytons usually trans-
mit almost perfectly the characters acquired
by the plant from which they sprung. Or,
to put the whole matter in a convenient
phrase, there may be, and is, a progressive
evolution of plants without the aid of sex.
Now, where is Weismann’s germ-plasm ?
One of the properties of this material—if an
assumption can receive such designation—
is its localization in the reproductive organs
or parts. But the phyton has no reprodue-
tive parts; or, if it has them, they are de-
veloped after the phyton has lived a per-
fectly sexless life, and possibly after genera-
tions of such life, in which it and its progeny
may either have remained comparatively
stable or may have varied widely, as the
circumstances may have determined. If
any flower, therefore, contains germ-plasm
it must have derived it out of the asexual
or vegetative or soma-plasm. And I will
ask where the germ-plasm is in ferns.
These plants are fertilized in the prothallie
stage, and one brief sexual state is all that
the plant enjoys, after which the sex-organs
die and wholly disappear. The fern, as the
layman knows the plant, is wholly asexual,
and the spores are as sexless as buds; yet
these spores germinate and give rise to an-
other brief prothallic or sexual stage, and if
there is any germ-plasm at all in these
fleeting sexual organs it must have come
from the sexless spores. It is interesting
to note, in this connection, this bud-yaria-
tion is as frequent in ferns as in other
plants. Or, if the Weismannians can locate
the germ-plasm in all these instances, pray
tell us where it is in the myriads of sexless
fungi! There is no such thing as continu-
MAkcu 15, 1895.]
ous localization of germ-plasm in plants.
Weismann himself admits that the germ-
plasm must be distributed in ‘ minute frac-
tion’ in all ‘somatic nuclei’ of the begonia
leaf, because that leaf is capable of giving
rise to new plants, by means of cuttings,
and all the plants may produce good
flowers, which, if they are sexual at all, are
so only by virtue of containing some of this
elusive germ-plasm. There is no other way
_ for these plants to get their germ-plasm, ex-
cept from the somatic leaf from which they
came. It would seem that this admission
undermines the whole theory of the local-
ization of the germ-plasm in plants, for one
exception in the hypothesis must argue
that there are others. But notso! There
are no insurmountable difficulties before
the Weismannians. It is the begonia which
_is the exception, for it is abnormal for plants
_ to propagate by any such means! The an-
_swer which has been made to this state-
ment is that very many plants are propa-
gated asexually by horticulturists, and that
all plants can probably be so propagated if
there were any occasion for the effort.
This answer is true; but the philosophical
answer is that every phyton is an autonomy,
and that the mere accident of its growing
on the plant, in the soil, or in a bottle of
water, is wholly aside from the point, for
wherever it grows it lives at first a sexless
life, it has an individuality, competes with
‘its fellows, varies to suit its needs, and is
eapable, finally, of developing sex.
_ Another fundamental tenet of Weis-
mannism is the continuity of the germ-
plasm, the passing down from generation to
— of a part or direct offspring of
the original germ-plasm. Now, if there is
any continuity in plants, this ancestral
germ-plasm must be inextricably diffused in
the soma-plasm, as I have said, for every
‘part or phyton of these plants, even to the
and parts of the leaves, is able to pro-
luce sexual parts or germ-plasm. And if
®
SCIENCE. 291
this germ-plasm is inextinguishably associ-
ated with every cell of the plant body, why
does it not receive and transmit all incident
impressions upon the plant? Why should
acquired characters impress themselves
upon the soma-plasm and not upon the
germ-plasm when this latter element is
contained in the very nuclei, as Weismann
admits, of somatic cells? If the theory of
the continuity of the germ-plasm is true for
plants, then acquired characters must be
transmitted! The only escape from this
position is an arbitrary assumption that one
plasm is impressionable and that the other
is not ; and, now, that we can no longer rel-
egate the germ-plasm to imaginary deep-
seated germ-cells, such an assumption is too
bold, I think, to be suggested.
The entire Weismannian hypothesis is
built upon the assumption that all perma-
nent or progressive variation is the result
of sexual union; but I have shown that
there is much progressive variation in the
vegetable kingdom whichis purely asexual,
and, for all we know, this type of modifica-
tion may proceed indefinitely. There is no
doubt of the facts; and the only answer to
them which I can conceive the Weismannian
to make is that these progressive variations
arise because of the latent influence of an-
cestral sexual unions. In reply to this I
should ask for proofs. Hosts of fungi have
nosex. Jam not convinced but that there
may be strains or types of some species of
filamentous algve and other plants in which
there has never been sexual union, even
from the beginning, And I should bring,
in rebuttal, also, the result of direct obser-
vation and experiment to show that given
hereditable asexual variations are often the
direct result of climate, soil or other im-
pinging conditions. As a matter of fact,
we know that acquired characters may be
hereditary in plants; if the facts do not
agree with the hypothesis, so much the
worse for the hypothesis. Unfortunately,
292
the hypothesis is too apt to be capable of
endless contractions and modifications to
meet individual cases. I sometimes think
that we are substituting for the philosophy
of observation a philosophy of definitions.
I have, therefore, attempted to show :
1. That the plant is not a simple autono-
my in the sense in which the animal is.
2. That its parts are virtually independent
in respect to (a) propagation (equally either
when detached or still persisting upon the
parent plant), (b) struggle for existence
amongst themselves, (¢) variation, (d)
transmission of their characters, either by
means of seeds or buds.
3. That there is no essential difference
between bud-varieties and seed-varieties,
apart from the mere fact of their unlike
derivation ; and the causes of variation in
the one case are the same as those in the
other.
4. That all these parts are at first sexless,
but finally may or may not develop sex.
5. That much of the evolution of the
vegetable kingdom is accomplished by
wholly sexless means.
There is, then, a fundamental unlikeness
in the ultimate evolution of animals and
plants. A plant, as we ordinarily know it,
is a colony of potential individuals, each one
of which, save the very first, is derived from
an asexual parent, yet each one may, and
usually does, developsex. Each individual
is capable also of receiving a distinct or pe-
culiar influence of the environment and
struggle for existence, and is capable, there-
fore, of independent permanent modifica-
tion. Itis not possible, therefore, that there
is any localization or continuity of a germ-
plasm in the sense in which these concep-
tions are applied to animals; nor is it pos-
sible for the plant as a whole to make a
simple functional adaptation to envyiron-
ment. If there is a continuity of germ-
plasm in plants this element must of neces-
sity be intimately associated with every par-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 11.
ticle of the plant body, even to its very pe-
riphery, and it must directly receive external
impressions ; and this concept of Weismann
—the continuity of the germ-plasm—be-
comes one of the readiest means of explain-
ing the transmission of acquired characters.
All these conclusions prove the unwisdom
of endeavoring to account for the evolution
of all the forms of life upon any single
hypothesis ; and they illustrate with great
emphasis the complexity of even the funda-
mental forces in the progression of organic
nature. L. H. Barney.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY.
CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY (IIU.).
WOODWARD’S SMITHSONIAN GEOGRAPHICAL
TABLES.
‘THE average geographer,’ to whose needs
Professor Woodward has attempted to suit
the recent volume of Geographical Tables
issued by the Smithsonian Institution,
should certainly feel highly complimented
by this tribute to his quality. The volume
contains, among many other matters, tables
of codrdinates for the projection of poly-
conic maps, lengths of a degree on parallels
and meridians at different latitudes, areas
of latitude-and-longitude, quadrilaterals of
different dimensions and at different lati-
tudes, adopted dimensions of the earth’s
spheroid, value of gravity at the earth’s sur-
face, and salient facts of physical geodesy.
The latter heading includes the area of the
earth, of oceans and continents, and the
average heights of continents and depths of
oceans, taken from Helmert’s Geodasie. For
areas the continents are given 51,886,000,
and the oceans 145,054,000 square miles.
The mean depth of the oceans is placed at
3,440 meters. The mean heights of the con-
tinents are given as follows: The earlier re-
sults of Humboldt’s, still often quoted, and
the later ones of Penck (Morphologie der
Erdoberflache, 1894) being added for com-
parison.
Marci 15, 1895.] SCIENCE. 293
Humboldt. Helmert. Penck. whatever shape, they form only a compara-
Europe, 205 300 330 m. tively thin growth upon the underlying
_ Asia, 351 500 1010 base”? (p. 177). The text, with its figures,
Africa, — 500 660 supplemented by maps and plates, gives an
Australia, 250 310 excellent idea of the geographical features
fe North, 228) 502 650) ,.-,. of the region and of their evolution.
ME South, 346 f° 9 650 5 9
All Continents, 308 440 735 SPENCER’S RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ANTIL-
The increase in the values of the latter
measures is probably an approach to the
truth, for early explorations frequently gave
too much emphasis to narrow mountain
ranges, and too little to broad plateaus.
A. AGASSIZ ON THE BAHAMAS,
A RECONNOISSANCE Of the Bahamas and of
the elevated reefs of Cuba, made by A.
Agassiz in the winter of 1893, affords
material for a Bulletin of 200 pages with 47
plates and many figures in the text, lately
issued by the Museum of Comparative Zo-
ology at Harvard College. The author is
emphatic in rejecting the sufficiency of the
Darwin-Dana theory of submergence in ex-
plaining the features of great limestone
banks. The Bahamas consist of low hills
of eolian limestone, “‘ formed during a period
of rest, during which the great beach of the
then existing reef constantly supplied fresh
material to be changed by the surf and the
winds into sand for the heaping up of sand
dunes. They could not be formed in a dis-
trict of subsidence unless the subsidence was
slower than the rate of growth of the corals,
_ which is not the case in the Bahamas, as the
_ reefs of to-day, even when they come to the
surface, are not the sources from which the
material for the great dunes of the Bahama
Islands is derived” (p. 184,185). At pres-
ent the dunes are disappearing before the
action of the sea. The conclusion of the re-
connoissance seems to be that the great
limestone banks are chiefly formed as
“marine limestones,’ accumulating ‘ at great
depths by accretion ;’ and that in the West
Indies “ wherever coral reefs occur, and of
z
3
LEAN CONTINENT.
Pror. Marcet Berrranp, of the Ecole
des Mines and the Geological Survey of
France, has published an account of certain
faint deformations of northwestern France,
in which he interprets the inequalities in
the floor of the English channel as the re-
sult of faint anticlinal and synclinal move-
ments (Bull. Soc. Géol. France, xx., 1892,
118); thus implying that neither erosion
nor deposition has been of significant meas-
ure in shaping the channel floor. Prof. J.
W. Spencer takes almost the other extreme,
and interprets certain inequalities of the
ocean floor of the Antillean region, even to
depths of twelve or fifteen thousand feet, as
the results of river erosion during a not re-
mote time when the entire region is sup-
posed to have had a much greater altitude
than at present (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vi.,
1895, 103-140); thus implying that no
other processes than river erosion can ac-
count for the inequalities that he has traced.
It must be concluded from these contrasted
arguments that the forms of the sea floor
are not yet so well understood as those of
the land; because the facts are much less
accurately known under than over sea level,
because only form and not structure can be
determined by soundings, and because the
forms of the sea floor have received rela-
tively little study. Where two specialists
reach conclusions so unlike, it is difficult
for others to choose between them; and for
the present there will probably be some
hesitation in adopting the teachings of the
one or the other. With much _ interest
aroused in the facts brought forward, and
294
with all willingness to look on the conti-
nents as unstable, it is difficult to believe
that they have suffered changes so great as
Spencer announces, not only in the uplift of
the Antillean region, but in the deep de-
pression of the axis of Central America, and
in the denudation of the (inferred) great
banks or continental shelf along the Wind-
ward Islands. The strongest proof will be
demanded before vertical movements of
two miles and a half can be accepted ; and
we fear that most readers will take refuge
in a verdict of ‘not proved.’
HISTORY OF THE ST. JOHN RIVER, NEW
BRUNSWICK.
Aw article on the ‘Outlets of the St. John
river,’ by G. F. Matthew (Bull. Nat. Hist.
Soc., New Brunswick, xii., 1894, 43-62),
concludes that this river has been built up
by contributions from three other systems,
whose lower parts are now to be seen in the
Restigouche, Miramichi and Petitcodiac.
The evidence of this conclusion is derived
from the geological structure of the coun-
try, beginning as far back as the Huronian
time ; the three rivers whose upper basins
now belong to the St. John having been de-
fined as basins of deposition in more or less
remote geological periods. Thus the St.
John river has attained its present magni-
tude by the breaking of mountain or hill
barriers which once separated its three river
systems, and is not a simple valley of con-
tinuous growth like the Mississippi (p.
55). The difficulty of accepting Dr. Mat-
thews’ conclusion as the only solution of
the history of the St. John does not lie in
any objection to the geological history of
the region and its several basins of deposi-
tion, as far as stated, but in the omission of
sufficient consideration of what has hap-
pened in the region since it became a land
area. It has long been subject to subaerial
erosion. During this time it has in all
probability been variously warped and
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 11.
otherwise moved with respect to its base-
level. Its rocks are of diverse resistance,
and hence there may have been repeated
opportunities for diversion and rearrange-
ment of river courses during the long life
of the region asa land area. While admit-
ting that several geological basins of great
antiquity are now drained by a single river,
it does not necessarily follow that this river
is an immediate descendant of the rivers
which at one time or another drained the
separate basins. The actual St. John river
may once have been larger than now; its
neighbors may have gained drainage area
from it instead of losing drainage area to it;
but these possibilities are not considered.
THE ORIGIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI.
THE reference to the Mississippi in the
previous paragraph brings up an oft-encoun-
tered implication of simple history in the
development of this great river, against
which there is much evidence. A similar
implication is found in a recent State Sur-
vey Report, where it is stated that, as a re-
sult of continental evolution at the close of
the Carboniferous period, the drainage of
the Ohio region was turned southward
“into the great Mississippian bay, which
then washed the shores of the new-born
continent as far north as the mouth of the
Ohio river” (Geol. Coastal plain of Alabama,
1894, 11). It is found again in the ‘Story
of the Mississippi-Missouri,’ where the
Mississippi at the close of the Appalachian
revolution is described as heading some-
where in the Minnesota- Wisconsin region,
and flowing southward to its mouth some-
where near the present city of St. Louis,
whence a deep gulf extended southward to
the present Gulf of Mexico (Amer. Geol.
iii., 1889, 368). While the southward-
flowing streams of the Wisconsin- Minnesota
highlands are probably of ancient origin,
the southward course of the Mississippi be-
tween Tennessee and Arkansas seems t0
Marcu 15, 1895. ]
have been initiated not at the close of the
Appalachian revolution, but long afterwards
in Cretaceous time. The Appalachian revo-
lution formed the mountains of Arkansas,
as well as. those of the Alleghany belt. The
similarity of structure is so great that a
trans-Mississippian extension of Appala-
chian growth may be reasonably assumed,
as has been pointed out by Winslow (Bull.
G.S. A., ii., 1891, 231). The existence of
a bay, from the Gulf of Mexico northward
towards St. Louis, is very improbable as a
result of the Appalachian revolution ; an
east and west constructional mountain belt
is a more likely product ; and not until this
mountain belt was well denuded to a pene-
plain did a later deformation depress it
transversely, admitting the Cretaceous
waters northward across it, and thus first
forming the Mississippiembayment. Prob-
ably in part at the same time, and to a
greater extent in later time, the denuded
peneplains to the east and west were raised
towards their present upland altitude, and
as a result of this elevation the existing
valleys and lowlands were opened in them
during some part of Tertiary time. With
these later elevations we may associate the
uplift of the filled embayment and the
southward growth of the Mississippi as a
river. This view of the origin of the Mis-
sissippi embayment and of the date of the
southward discharge of Mississippi drainage
was first published by L. G. Westgate
(Amer. Geol. xi., 1898, 251), as a result of
conference with L. S. Griswold, who had
then recently completed his investigation of
the novaculite region of Arkansas.
THE CHUNNENUGGA RIDGE AND THE BLACK
PRAIRIES OF ALABAMA.
Ir is, perhaps, too much to expect that the
origin of the physiographic features of a
region should always receive due attention
in a geological report along with the origin
of its strata ; yet there is no other place so
SCIENCE.
295
appropriate for the official publication of
physiographical discussions. It therefore
occasions regret to find so little account of
the origin and meaning of the Chunnenugga
ridge and the Black prairies of Alabama in
the elaborate report on the Geology of the
Coastal Plain lately published by the Survey
of that State. ‘‘ The Chunnenugga ridge is
made in great part by alterations of hard
limestone ledges and bands of indurated
sands of the Ripley...... It overlooks
the low trough of the black prairies of the
Rotten limestone towards the north with
somewhat precipitous slopes in that direc-
tion, while its descent towards the south is
much more gentle” (p. 356). It is mani-
fest that the ridge with its inland-facing
escarpment and the denuded inner lowland
are typical features of a certain stage in the
denudation of a coastal plain that consists
of more and less resistant strata ; the drain-
age of the lowland being chiefly gathered
by subsequent streams that have been de-
veloped along the strike of the beds, and dis-
charged by consequent streams which main-
tain transverse valleys through the enclos-
ing ridge or upland. This general relation
of form and drainage is so often repeated on
coastal plains that its occurrence in Alabama
deserves mention as a local example of a
general physiographic feature; just as the
Cretaceous strata on which it is developed
deserve mention as local examples of a wide-
spread geological formation.
W. M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
THE NEW YORK MEETING OF THE ASSOCI-
ATION OF AMERICAN ANATOMISTS.
Tue Seventh Annual Session of the Amer-
ican Anatomists was held in the Medical
Department of Columbia College, 437 West
59th Street, New York City, December 28
and 29, 1894.
The Association was called to order Fri-
day, December 28th, by the President, Dr.
296
Thomas Dwight, ina few introductory re-
marks.
The report of the Secretary and Treasurer
was read and accepted.
The Executive Committee recommended
for election to membership the following
names, and, on motion, the gentleman were
elected :
1. Dr. F. J. Brockway, Assistant Demon-
strator of Anatomy, Columbia College, New
York City.
2. Dr. W. A. Brooks, Jr., Assistant in
Anatomy, Harvard Medical School.
3. Dr. Franklin Dexter, Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Harvard Medical School.
4. Dr. B. B. Gallaudet, Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Medical Department of Columbia
College, New York City.
5. Dr. R. H. Gregory, Jr., Demonstrator
of Anatomy, St. Louis Medical College.
6. Dr. C. J. Herrick, Acting Professor of
Biology, Denison University, Granville,
Ohio.
7. Dr. P. C. Hunt, Assistant Demonstra-
tor of Anatomy, Columbian Medical College,
Washington, D. C.
8. Dr. Woods Hutchinson, Professor of
Anatomy, Medical Department, University
of Iowa.
9. Dr. W. P. Mathews, Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond.
10. Dr. Hugene A. Smith, Professor of
Anatomy, Niagara University, Buffalo,
IN, Wo
11. Dr. P. Y. Tupper, Professor of An-
atomy, St. Louis Medical College.
The Executive Committee, while not
recommending affiliation with the Society
of Naturalists, suggested that, as a rule, the
Association should meet at the same time
and place. This suggestion was discussed
by Drs. Wilder, Spitzka, Dwight and Lamb,
and was then adopted.
Dr. Wilder, from the Committee on
Anatomical Nomenclature, reported prog-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 11.
ress. He also stated that Professor Stowell
had resigned from the Committee.
The report of the Committee on Ana-
tomical Material was called for. In the
absence of the Chairman, Dr. Mears, Dr.
Dwight reported progress.
~
The Committee on the Anatomical Pecul-
iarities of the Negro also reported prog-
ress.
Dr. Huntington was elected to the yva-
cancy on the Executive Committee, caused
by the retirement of Dr. Spitzka.
The following papers were then read :
1. ‘The best arrangement of topics in a
two years’ course of Anatomy in a medical
school.’ Dr. Gerrish. Discussed by Drs.
Huntington, Baker, Wilder, Bevan, Allen,
Shepherd, Lamb and Dwight.
2. ‘ History of the Development of Den-
tine.’ Dr. Heitzmann.
83. ‘On the Value of the Nasal and Or-
bital Indices in Anthropology.’ Dr. Allen.
Discussed by Drs. Wilder, Huntington and
Dwight.
4. ‘Loose characterizations of vertebrate
groups in standard works.’ Dr. Wilder.
Discussed by Drs. Baker, Dwight and Allen.
5. ‘The comparative anatomy of the cere-
bral circulation, with an exhibition of a
series of anomalies of the circle of Willis.’
Dr. Leidy. Read by title in the absence of
the author.
6. ‘Convolutions of the hemispheres of
Elephas Indicus.’ Dr. Huntington. Dis-
cussed by Drs. Wilder and Baker.
An inspection of the Medical Department
of Columbia College was made in the even-
ing, under the conduct of Dr. Huntington.
On Saturday, the 29th, the President ap-
pointed Dr. Gerrish to fill the vacaney upon
the Committee on Anatomical Nomencla-
ture, caused by the resignation of Professor
Stowell.
The reading of papers was resumed :
7th paper. ‘ Classification of the tissues
of the animal body.’ Dr. Baker. | Dis-
Se ei BO de
a
A Ra Teo t=
—_
ss, ae le
Maxcu 15, 1895.]
cussed by Drs. Heitzmann, Wilder, Dwight
and Lamb.
8. ‘ Anomalies—Their significance.’ Dr.
Dwight.
9. ‘Some muscular variations of the
shoulder girdle and upper extremity, with
especial reference to reversions in this re-
gion.’ Dr. Huntington.
10. ‘Some anomalies of the brain.’
Wilder.
11. ‘The correlation between specific di-
versity and individual variability, as illus-
trated by the eye muscle nerves of the Am-
phibia.’ Professor C. Judson Herrick.
The discussion on papers 8 to 11, inclu-
sive, was then opened by Dr. Baker, and
continued by Dr. Shepherd (who illustrated
his remarks with specimens), Dr. Wilder,
Dr. Lamb (who also showed a specimen), Dr.
Huntington, and concluded by Dr. Dwight.
Dr. Wilder exhibited a brainless frog and
made remarks thereon.
On motion, the thanks of the Association
were tendered to the College, and particu-
larly to Dr. Huntington, for their hospital-
ity.
The following members were present at
some time during the session: Allen, Ba-
ker, Bevan, Bosher, Dwight, Ferris, Ger-
rish, Hamann, Heitzmann, C. J. Herrick,
Huntington, Lamb, Moody, Shepherd,
Spitzka, Weisse, Wilder. Total, 17.
Dr.
CORRESPONDENCE.
A CARD CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC
LITERATURE.
Epiror or Scrence—Dear Sir: Your in-
vitation to open in the columns of ScreNcE
a discussion of the projected Catalogue of
Scientific Literature to be prepared by in-
ternational codperation, the claims of which
were presented in your issue of February
15, affords me a welcome opportunity to
fall publicly into line with a great move-
- ment that I believe destined to prove of the
highest importance to scholarship. As a
SCIENCE.
297
few of your readers are aware, I printed
privately, last summer, a brief circular
advocating a similar enterprise. At the
time of doing so I was at an out-of-the-way
spot in the country, where it was impossible
to exchange inspirations, except by post,
with friends whose interest in the scheme
might have been counted upon; but upon
canvassing the subject in my own mind I
became so convinced that the learned world
was in sore straits in this matter, and that
the way out was clear, that I felt sure I
should presently discover that other restive
spirits were beginning to agitate in the
same direction. Little did I expect, how-
ever, to meet with so conspicuous and
agreeable a confirmation of my premonition
as came to me several weeks after the is-
suance of my circular (though dated before
it), in the printed report of the Harvard
committee, which has now appeared in
Scrence. (The original communication of
the Royal Society I have seen for the first
time, through your editorial courtesy, in the
proof sheets of ScreNcE. )
Although several of the suggestions con-
tained in my own little circular were
promptly outgrown by me, it may appear
not inappropriate, on the principle of com-
paring small things with great, to reproduce
here the contents of this highly aspiring
but wholly unpretentious little document :
UNIFORM CARD MEMORANDUM INDEX.
The accompanying slip (size 244x3% inches, 5.7 x 8.9 cen-
timetres), designed to be cut out and filed alphabetically in
the manner of a card catalogue, is printed as a tentative
specimen of a projected (niformn Card Memorandum In-
dex, and is herewith privately submitted to representatives
of a few of the leading universities, learned societies and
publication agencies, with a view to securing influential ap-
proval of the general plan, together with useful suggestions
and criticisms as to its practical application. It is proposed
that all the universities, learned societies and high-class
periodicals of the world should coéperate (from January,
1895) in the production of such a uniform memorandum in-
dex, by publishing, as a supplement (or appendix, or both)
to every number of their original publications, a brief slip-
digest of the contents of each article —or even of important
vortions of each article, aS May appear to be warranted.
hese supplements could be easily prepared (the digests be-
ing furnished in all or in most cases by the authors them-
selves), would be inexpensive both in their original form of
publication and as separate slips, and would incalculably
facilitate both the distribution and the classification for in-
stant reference of all the newest results of discovery and re-
search. Those interested in such a project are earnestly re-
quested to communicate on the subject, before September
15, with the undersigned.
298
The specimen slip read as follows :
KINETO-PHONOGRAPH. PHONO-KINETOGRAPH. PHONO-KINETOSCOPE,
Edison, Thomas A., Invention of the Kineto-phonograph.
Century Magazine, June, ’94, p. 206.
“In the year 1887 the idea Occurred to me that it was
possible to devise an instrument which should do for the
eye what the phonograph does for the ear, and that, by a
combination of the two, all motion and sound could be
recorded and reproduced simultaneously. Thisidea, the
germ of which came from the little toy called the Zoe-
trope, and the work of Muybridge, Marié and others,
has now been accomplished, so that every change of
facial expression can be recorded and reproduced life
size. The Kinetoscope is only a small model illustrating
the present stage of progress, but with each succeeding
month new possibilities are brought into view, ete., etc.”
The above circular, though sent to but
comparatively few persons, called forth a
gratifying number of ‘adherences’ and
of valuable suggestions. In particular, the
president of one of the American universi-
ties famous for activity in research and in
the promulgation of knowledge undertook
to have furnished, with the official impri-
matur, summaries of the contents of all the
publications of his university.
The necessity of entrusting the organiza-
tion of the enterprise to a great central
bureau that would command universal con-
fidence early became manifest, and an in-
formal communication on the subject was
addressed to one of the officers of the Smith-
sonian Institution at Washington, who
wrote in response: ‘I heartily favor the
idea. When you have the matter in shape
to make a formal proposition I shall have
much pleasure in recommending it to the
Secretary.”
Meanwhile, from correspondence and con-
ference with numerous scholars, various
points involved in the success of the enter-
prise have grown in distinctness. The
problem of utilizing more effectively the
ever-increasing mass of accumulated, scat-
tered and current contributions to knowl-
edge can no longer be shirked. The time
is ripe for instituting widely concerted ac-
tion for recovering mastery of the situation.
The various efforts hitherto directed to this
end have done great service ; but they have
been devised almost exclusively to meet the
requirements of reference and circulating
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Vou. I. No. 11.
libraries in their relations to broad classes
of readers, rather than to serve the imme-
diate needs of the individual scholar en- ~
gaged upon a learned specialty.
All productive scholars, it would seem,
must have devised or adopted for their per-
sonal use some form of index rerum, some
mode—systematic or unsystematic—of note
making. It is safe to say that very many
such scholars have adopted for this purpose
the general idea of the alphabetical card
index, the merits of which are at present
almost universally recognized. The scholar
of Anglo-Saxon race is fast becoming as
wedded to, and as dependent upon, his
reference slips as the German scholar has
long been silently devoted to his Zettel or
the French savant to his fiches. It now re-
mains for the Anglo-Saxon, with his open-
ness to new applications of old ideas and
the proverbial genius of his race for practi-
cal devices, to bring the power of the
printing-press, as well as of scholarly co-
operation, to bear upon the problem of
multiplying indefinitely the benefits of the
private card index.
Just here I should like to emphasize a
consideration that is unexpressed, though
latent, in the masterly report of the Harvard
committee. This is, that such a card cata-
logue as is there projected, if based upon a
wise choice in the size of card adopted, would
render it possible for every member of the
rapidly recruiting army of those employing
the card system for private notes to incor-
porate his own manuscript or type-written
ecards and the printed cards (pertaining to
his own specialty) of the codperative index
into one homogeneous whole, ever-growing,
ever abreast of the latest research. This
consideration it was, with all the possibili-
ties and problems of administration it opens
up, that held the mind of the writer under
a spell of fascination for almost a week of
vacation leisure. For be it noted that the
blessings of the proposed codperative card
Marcu 15, 1895.]
index are to flow directly into the lap of
the individual scholar, seated at his own
desk in his private sanctum, enabling
him to discard (not inappropriate word) to
the limbo of the great libraries everything
that does not directly concern him, while
filing within reach of his finger-tips abso-
lutely everything (pardon the optimism of
an enthusiast) that he may intimately de-
sire.
How can so Utopian a consummation be
most speedily attained ?
Let universities and colleges, and all
manner of learned institutions and societies,
at once appoint committees similar to the
Harvard committee (though of course not
limited to the natural and physical sciences,
since the project of the Royal Society will
form only a portion of the great undertak-
ing), to accomplish three preliminary ob-
jects :
1. To arouse an intelligent and earnest
interest in the subject.
2. To induce the Smithsonian Institution
to assume the American leadership of the
movement.
3. To convince publishers—primarily the
publishers to the respective institutions con-
cerned—of the importance of printing, on
slips of the standard size, No. 33, of the
American Library Bureau (74x124 em.,
3x5 in. approximately), summaries of their
eurrent publications for distribution as
publishers’ announcements. This size of
slip is already widely in use, both publicly
and privately, and may well prove to be of
the dimensions ultimately adopted by the
authorities of the projected international
index. A beginning of these publishers’
announcements has already been made by
Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co., at the personal
request of the present writer, and has been
favorably submitted to the attention of the
Secretaries of the Royal Society by Profes-
sor Bowditch, chairman of the Harvard
committee. Other leading American pub-
SCIENCE.
299
lishers have heartily favored the idea of
these card announcements and have prom-
ised to introduce them into use.
Columbia College has within a few days
appointed, through its University Council,
a committee to further the interests of the
proposed International Coéperative Cata-
logue of Scientific Literature.
Yours very truly,
Henry ALFRED Topp.
CoLUMBIA COLLEGE, March 2, 1895.
PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS.
Eprror oF ScrencE—Sir :
In my letter of February 14th occur two
expressions which need amendment. For
the phrase ‘divergent roots,’ p. 240, 1st
col., first line, read ‘ divergent root stems ;’
and for the phrase ‘is wider than long,’ p.
240, 2d col., fifth line, read ‘is much wider
than long.’ Yours truly,
Harrison ALLEN.
PHILADELPHIA, March 4th, 1895.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Electrical Engineering, for Electric Light Ar-
tisans and Students. By W.Stryeco and A.
Brooker. New and revised edition,
London, 1895. Longmans. Price, $3.50.
The object of this work is to cover gen-
eral electrical engineering, and, taken as a
whole, it is probably the most successful at-
tempt yet made in this direction. The de-
mand for a satisfactory general treatment
of the applications of electricity is a very
large and important one, and anything
which supplies this demand is more than
welcome. It is very doubtful whether any
single work is ever likely to be published
which will completely set forth the numer-
ous and rapidly developing branches of
electrical science and industry. Nothing
short of an encyclopedia of many volumes
could be expected to accomplish this result.
A general discussion of the most important
principles and uses of electricity, particu-
300
larly if it is not attempted to cover all
branches, is a far more practicable problem,
as the success of this volume demonstrates.
A work of this kind, however, is some-
what limited in its scope, since it is not in-
telligible to the ordinary untechnical reader,
and is not of much use to the professional
electrical engineer, who requires a more
thorough and detailed study of each sub-
ject than is possible in a general treatise.
This work would therefore be suited to one
who had a certain amount of technical
knowledge but who was nota specialist in
electricity, for example, a mining or me-
chanical engineer, or a young man who had
received a certain amount of electrical edu-
cation at a technical or trade school and
who wanted to learn more by his own ef-
forts. It would also be useful as a text-
book wherever a general course in electric-
al engineering is given. But in the opin-
ion of the reviewer, a general treatment
running from one subject to another is not
the best way to educate electrical engineers
of the highest type. This requires a care-
ful and special study of each branch, aided
by lectures and laboratory work, and the
text-books should be entirely devoted to
one subject, or, in fact, several books, each
devoted to a small part of any one branch,
is often preferable.
The authors of this book have had con-
siderable experience as teachers and also
the advantage of correcting and extending
the contents of the first edition, which ap-
peared in 1890, with the result that the new
edition is well arranged and expressed and
in most cases is brought reasonably well up
to date. The first six chapters are devoted
to general principles, units and methods of
measurement. The next six chapters con-
tain a treatment of dynamos and motors
which is very satisfactory, considering the
limitation of space. Transformers, second-
ary batteries, are and incandescent lamps,
are also well explained; but the last chap-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 11.
ter, on ‘Installation equipment, fittings,
etc.,’ is very meagre and the least satisfac-
tory portion of the book. In fact, the prin-
cipal criticisms would be that each element
or device is explained as a separate thing,
and no methods for combining these into
systems are given. Nevertheless, it is a fact
that the general design and arrangement of
electrical apparatus is fully as important as
the merits of each particular element. For
example, the laying-out of a central station,
or even a small isolated plant, determines
its success or failure fully as much as the
quality of the individual dynamos, lamps,
or other particular parts of the plant.
The various systems for transmitting and
distributing electric power, which is prob-
ably the most important branch of electrical
engineering, are barely touched upon. In
short, we may say that electrical engineer-
ing in its broadest sense is not covered, and
probably was not intended to be covered,
by this work. The subjects of electro-chem-
istry and electro-metallurgy, which now
appear to be on the eve of important de-
velopment, are not discussed. Telegraph
and telephone apparatus and methods are
not even mentioned.
These omissions, which are doubtless
intentional and probably necessary, indicate
that a complete treatise on electricity and
its applications is almost an impossibility.
A few mistakes are noted ; for example,
on page 17, the International Ohm, adopted
at the Chicago Electric Congress of 1893, is
defined in terms of a column of mercury
106.3 centimetres in length and one square
millimetre in cross section, whereas, the
statement actually adopted was ‘a column
of mercury at the temperature of melting
ice, 14.4521 grammes in mass, of a con-
stant cross-sectional area and of the length
of 106.3 centimetres.’ This was intended
to be exactly equivalent to a cross-section
of one square mm., but it was put in this
form because mass is more easily and ac~
;
L
Marcu 15, 1895.]
eurately determinable than cross-section.
Another somewhat serious mistake, since
it is fundamental, is the statement on page
18, that specific resistance is ‘ the resistance
of any particular substance as compared
with the resistance of a piece of some other
conductor, such as silver, both being of unit
dimensions.’ Asa matter of fact, specific
resistance, which is a very important term,
is the resistance in ohms of a unit volume,
and is entirely independent of any particu-
lar standard substance. The use of the
term ‘ magnetic resistance,’ on pages 219 to
221, is open to objection, since the term
‘reluctance ’ is now almost universally em-
ployed to distinguish this quantity from
electrical resistance.
Taken as a whole, however, the errors
are not numerous, and the work is recom-
mended as a text or reference book for
those who desire to learn the principles,
general construction and action of the
various kinds of electrical machinery and
instruments, with the exceptions already
noted. F. B. Crocker.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PHYSICS.
On the Spontaneous Heating and Ignition of
Hay. Brerruetor. Ann. Chim. Phys.,
7,2. p. 430. 1894.
The author finds that poorly dried hay
may ignite when the rise in temperature is
only to 140° C. (280° Fh.). The evolution
of heat necessary for this rise of temperature
is due to the absorption of oxygen in spite
of the interrupted sprouting, which will only
take place when the hay is quite wet. The
chemical process involving this absorption
of oxygen may continue until the hay is
thoroughly dry.
Druck und Arbeitsleistung durch Wachsende
Pflanzen. W. Prerrer. Abh. d. Math.-
Phys. K1. der K. Sachsicher Gesellschaft
der Wiss., 20. p. 235. 18938.
Mr. Pfeffer investigated very carefully
and ingeniously the pressure exerted by
SCIENCE.
301
parts of plants in growth, and found, for
example, that a root point could exert a
pressure of 10-15 atmospheres. He ascribes
these forces to osmotic pressure, and criti-
cises the view concerning the growth of the
cell-wall, which ascribes it to simple plastic
expansion.
R. Dusors Rev.
p. 415 and p. 529. .
La Lumiere Physiologique.
gén. des Sciences, 5.
1894.
Part first contains a review of light emit-
ting organisms, and a description of the
organs involved. In part second the author
treats the subject of the emission more
thoroughly, describing the character of the
light radiated, and finds that the brightest
Pyrophorus radiates 1, 4% 10- calorie in
ten minutes.
The author summarizes his extensive in-
vestigations as follows:
Neither a perfect organ nor a perfect cell
is necessary for the coming and going of the
light. The cell produces the photogenic
substance which, once formed, may light or
not, according to the conditions surround-
ing it.
They must fulfill the conditions necessary
for life, must contain oxygen and water,
and have a suitable temperature.
The light (luminous energy) is found to
be 90% of the total energy radiated.
Dubois made a fluorescent substance from
the blood of Pyrophorus, which, like that
from the animal itself, lost its peculiar prop-
erty on being treated with weak acetic
acid and regained it on treatment with am-
monia.
All the causes which excite or destroy
the activity of the protoplasm have a simi-
lar effect upon the production of the physio-
logical light.
The production of light depends upon the
change of living protoplasmic granulations
into the condition of lifeless crystalline
matter.
302
It is to be remembered that the secretions
of Orya barbarica are acid, thus in this case
excluding the explanation of Radziszewski.
WiLiiAm HALLocK.
MATHEMATICS.
The Principles of Differentiation in Space-Ana-
lysis.* By A. Macrarnang, D.Sc., LL. D.
According to Hamilton the differentiation
of a function of a quaternion presents novel
difficulties due to the non-commutative
character of a product of quaternions.
‘There is in general no derived function, and
it is necessary to define the differential in a
new manner. Under certain conditions
there is an analogue to Taylor’s Theorem,
but it is very complex, and no use is made
of it. Hamilton does not differentiate the
general transcendental functions, but only
these functions restricted to a constant
plane.
The author shows that these anomalies
are true of products of vectors, but not of
functions of yversors. In versor analysis
there is a derived function, satisfying a gen-
eralized form of Lagrange’s definition ; and
Taylor’s Theorem takes on a form similar
to that in ordinary analysis, only the order
of the two quantities must be preserved.
Let x and h denote two versors, then
f (x+h)=f (x)+f (x)h+3 f{/’ (x)h?+, ete.,
provided the order of the x and h be pre-
served throughout.
The author finds the derived functions of
various transcendental functions in space.
He also shows that there are two essentially
different meanings of Y —1; one, when made
definite, means a quadrant of rotation
‘round a specified axis; while the other has
no reference to direction, but distinguishes
the area of a hyperbolic angle from the
area of a circular angle. He also re-
marks that the theory of functions must be
imperfect, because it is based upon a complex
* A paper read before the meeting of the American
Mathematical Society, January 26, 1895. (Abstract. )
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 11.
number which is restricted to one plane; no
account is taken of the two essentially
different meanings of Y —1, and the idea of —
the versor is not distinguished from that of
the vector.
METEOROLOGY.
Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten weber
Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus.
Dr. G. Hellmann, of Berlin, has under-
taken the republication of certain old and
rare writings relating to meteorology and
terrestrial magnetism which have an im-
portant bearing on the history and deyelop-
ment of these sciences. Very rare or typo-
graphically interesting works are printed
in facsimile. Each reprint is preceded by
an introduction, containing a general de-
scription of the book and its author. Al-
though facsimile publications generally are
so dear that only connoisseursare able to buy
them, yet, owing to the aid of the German
Meteorological Society and its Berlin
branch, the reprints are offered at a relative-
ly low price by A. Asher & Co., Berlin. A
few copies may also be had of A. L. Rotch,
Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Mass., at
the publishers’ prices. Hach year one or
two of the reprints will be issued, but the
whole number will not exceed twelve. The
following have already appeared :
No.1. Wetterbuechlein von wahrer Erkennt-
miss des Wetters. Reynman, 1510. 41
pages introduction and 14 pages fac-
simile. Price 6 M. = $1.50.
This is the oldest printed meteorological
work in the German language and was
very popular, having 34 editions in seven-
teen years. Nevertheless, it is now so
searce that hardly thirty-six copies can be
found.
No. 2. Récit dela Grande Expérience de’ Equil-
ibre'des Liqueurs. BuAtse Pascan. Paris.
1648. 10 pages introduction and 20
pages facsimile. Price 3 M. = 75 cents,
This little work is of the greatest impor-
]
‘ Marcu 15, 1895.)
tance for the history of physies, meteor-
: ology and physical geography, since it fur-
_nishes proof of the existence of atmospheric
_ pressure, and forms the basis of measure-
ments of altitudes with the barometer. But
three copies of the original are known to
No. 3. On the Modification of Clouds. Luxe
Howarp. London. 1803. 9 pages in-
troduction and 32 pages facsimile with
three plates. Price 3 M. = 75 cents.
This was the first successful attempt at
a cloud nomenclature on which all later
schemes are based. The first edition of
the original work is very rare.
A. L. Rorcn.
NOTES AND NEWS.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Iris well to draw attention to two admi-
rable brief illustrated papers published last
year by Ch. Janet on Myrmica rubra, one on
the morphology of the skeleton and espe-
cially of the postthoracic segments (Mém.
Soc. Acad. de 1’ Oise, xv.), the other on the
anatomy of the petiole (Mém. Soc. Zool.
France, 1894). We regret we have not
‘space for a full analysis of each, but they
will be found of great interest to morphol-
ogists and hymenopterists. The clear il-
lustrations are pretty sure to find their way
into text-books.
The annual presidential address before
the Entomological Society of London by
Capt. H. J. Elwes is on the geographical
distribution of butterflies and deals largely
with those of North America.
Dr. Ph. Bertkau announces that his
health obliges him to give up the admirable
annual review of entomology which has ap-
din the Archiv fiir naturgeschichte since
1838 under different editors — Erichson,
Schaum, Gerstaecker, Brauer and Bertkau.
_ Entomologists are under great obligations
to Dr. Bertkau for the excellence of his
_ Stmmaries, their completeness and the
SCIENCE.
303
promptness with which they have appeared.
A still prompter method of rapid publica-
tion in all branches of biology is now being
planned, which is at the same time a prac-
tical combination of all the current reviews
—a consummation devoutly to be wished
and helped forward.
M. Emile Blanchard was retired Novem-
ber last from the chair of entomology at the
Jardin des Plantes, on account of age ; his
first entomological paper was published
nearly seventy years ago ; his successor has
not yet been announced.
Fire has committed ravages with our ento-
mologists this winter. Mr. J. G. Jack lost
his library and collection in Jamaica Plain
by the destruction of the building in which
they were kept; Prof. C. H. Tyler Town-
send lost his valuable dipterological library
(nearly complete for America and very full
for Europe) by the burning of the warehouse
at Las Cruces, N. Mex., while he was absent
for a few weeks at Washington ; and now
comes news that Rev. C. J. 8. Bethune’s
school at Port Hope, Ont., has been burnt
to the ground. His loss is estimated at
eighty thousand dollars.
GENERAL.
Amone the articles of scientific interest
in the popular magazines for March are the
following : Hermann von Helmholtz; Thos.
C. Martin— Century. The World’s Debt to
Medicine ; John 8. Billings—The Chautau-
quan. Weather studies at Blue Hill; Ray-
mond L. Bridgman—New England Maga-
Heredity; St. George Mivart—Har-
per’s Magazine. The Direction of Educa-
tion; N.S. Shaler—Aftlantie Monthly.
Proressor CARHART will deliver the ad-
dress at the dedication of the Hale scien-
tific building of the University of Colorado,
on March 7th. His subject is The Educa-
tional and Industrial Value of Science.
zine.
THERE will be held at Vienna between
the months of January and May, 1896, an
B04
historical exhibition intended to bring un-
der view the social and industrial condition
of the country at the beginning of the cen-
tury.
Arrancements have been made that will
probably ensure the union of the Astor
Library, the Lenox Library and the Tilden
Endowment. This would supply New York
with a Library whose property is valued at
$8,000,000.
A Commirter of the English House of
Commons has been appointed to consider
changes in the system of weights and meas-
ures.
Mr. Cuartes D. Watcorr has been
awarded the Bigsby Medal of the Geologic-
al Society of London.
Lorp Ray etex is delivering a course of
six lectures on Waves and Vibrations at the
Royal Institution of London. On April 5th
he will lecture on ‘Argon.’
THE Massachusetts Horticultural Society
invites subscriptions for the erection of a-
monument in honor of the late Francis
Parkman.
Dr. KosseLt, of Berlin, has accepted a
call to the Professorship of Physiology at
Marburg.
Proressor C. L. Dooxirrie, of Lehigh
University, has been called to the chair of
Mathematics in the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and Mr. A. P. Brown has been ap-
pointed Assistant Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy.
Proressor JoHun B. CLARKE, of Amherst
College, has accepted a call to a professor-
ship of Political Economy in Columbia
College.
Dr. D. Hack Tus, editor of the Jowrnal
of Mental Science, and well known for his
writings on insanity, died in London, on
March 5th, at the age of sixty-eight.
Mr. J. W. Huxxs, President of the Royal
College of Surgeons of England, died re-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vor. L No. 11.
cently at the age of sixty-five. He was
eminent as a surgeon and especially as an
ophthalmologist.
~
Mr. Hyman Montacus, known for his
writings on numismatics, died in London
on the 18th of February, at the age of fifty-
one.
Proressor LAvuTH, the eminent Egyptol-
ogist, died at Munich, on February 11th,
at the age of seventy-three.
Tuer death is announced, at the age of
eighty-five, of Sir Henry Rawlinson, the
eminent Assyriologist.
Macmititan & Co. announce two works
on Physical Geography, by Prof. Tarr, of
Cornell University—one an elementary
and the other an advanced text-book. The
same publishers announce: Lowis Agassiz,
his Life, Letters and Works, by Jules Marcou.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, FEB. 23.
Mr. F. E. L. Beat read a paper on the
food habits of woodpeckers, based on the
examination of more than 600 stomachs.
He found that the Hairy and Downy wood-
peckers (Dryobates villosus and pubescens)
feed chiefly on insects, most of which are
harmful species. They also eat wild fruits
and seeds. The food of the flicker ( Colaptes
auratus) consists largely of ants. Two
stomachs contained each more than three
thousand ants, and these insects formed 46
per cent. of all the stomach contents ex-
amined. The Flicker also ate other noxious
insects and some wild fruit, such as dog-
wood berries and wild grapes. The Red-
headed woodpecker (Malanerpes erythroceph-
alus) feeds largely on insects, all of whieh
are harmful species except a few predacious
beetles. The vegetable food of the Redhead
comprises wild fruits and some corn and
cultivated fruit. The Yellow Bellied wood-
pecker, or Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius), 1s
15, 1895.]
= only one in which the vegetable food
exceeds the animal. It feeds largely on the
inner bark and sap of trees, and also on in-
Hien More than two-thirds of the latter
in the stomachs examined were ants.
- Dr. C. Hart Merriam, commenting on
this paper, said that one result of the study
of birds’ stomachs by the Division of Orni-
thology and Mammalogy of the Department
of Agriculture had been to show a wider
range of food than previously suspected.
Each bird has its favorite foods, but when
these fail it is usually able to find some-
thing else on which it can subsist. Further-
more, the food of most species varies in
‘different localities and at different times of
‘the year, so that the examination of a series
of stomachs, however large, from a single
Tocality i is utterly insufficient to furnish a
iable index to the range of food of the
"species. Thus, while the 600 stomachs of
woodpeckers examined by Professor Beal
failed to show a single beech-nut, it is
‘nevertheless true that in northern New
York beech-nuts form, during winters fol-
lowing ‘nut years,’ the principal article of
food of three of the five species men-
tioned.
Mr. L. O. Howard remarked that it had
been queried whether or not ants were more
' injurious than beneficial, and stated that as
’ harborers of aphids and mealy-bugs they
' indirectly cause much damage, and are to
be considered on the whole as decidedly in-
jurious. He gave an interesting illustration
of the manner in which ants had placed
' eolonies of mealy-bugs on the artificially en-
i larged foliar nectar glands of certain Libe-
_ rian coffee trees which had been placed in
hot-house of the Department of Agricul-
Mr. F. A. Lucas described the general
iicinre of the tongue of woodpeckers,
noting the great difference between the
e of the sapsucker (Sphyrapicus) and
of most woodpeckers. In the sapsucker
SCIENCE.
305
the tongue was of moderate length and
margined for some distance back from the
tip with hair-like bristles, some standing
out, others directed backward, thus form-
ing a brush for securing syrup. In the
other woodpeckers examined, the tongue
was excessively long and armed towards
the tip with a few sharp, reverted barbs,
an arrangement which seemed admirable
for extracting grubs from holes in trees.
Mr. B. E. Fernow, in closing the discus-
sion, said that he was glad to see the re-
habilitation of the woodpecker, a bird which,
once considered very beneficial, had been
latterly condemned as injurious, while the
evidence now presented seemed to be in its
favor.
Mr. F. A. Lucas exhibited some Abnor-
mal Feet of Mammals, saying that abnor-
malities in the way of digits could be mostly
grouped under three heads, duplication of
digits, irregular additions to the number of
digits, the extra ones budding out from the
others, and increased number of digits due
to reversion. The latter he considered to
be the rarest of the three, most of the extra
digits of polydactyle horses being simply
eases of duplication, as in the specimen
shown. The feet of a pig exhibited illus-
trated the irregular addition of digits, while
two feet of a three-toed cow were thought
to be cases of reversion. Feet of an old
and young llama illustrated the transmis-
sion of abnormalities.
Mr. M. B. Waite gave notes on the flora
of Washington and vicinity, which were
the result of his own collecting. Two species
were added to the flora, namely: Floerkia
proserfinacoides, Willd. (already published),
and Kyllingia primila, Michx.
Selaginella rupestris, Spring, which had
not been found for many years, was redis-
covered at Great Falls. New localities
were given for a number of rare plants.
Attention was called to some spurious and
doubtful additions to the local flora. The
306
tendency of some of the botanists to include
in the flora cultivated plants or plants es-
caped from cultivation which do not prop-
erly belong there was criticised, as was
also the practice of publishing plants in the
lists of additions without seeing specimens
and depositing them in some accessible col-
lection. F. A. Lucas, Secretary.
NEW YORK AGADEMY OF SCIENCES, FEB. 11.
BIOLOGICAL SECTION.
The following papers were presented :
The Occurrence and Functions of Rhizobia.
Dr. ALBERT ScHNEIDER. A discussion of
the discovery of the adaptability of rhizo-
bia to other plants than leguminous. Some
conclusions based on investigations carried
on at the Illinois experiment station were
given to show that it is probable that rhizo-
bia may be so modified as to grow in and
upon roots of gramineous plants (ex. Indian
corn).
An Undescribed Ranunculus from the Moun-
tains of Virginia. Pror. N. L. Brirron.
On the So-called Devil’s Corkscrews of Ne-
braska. Dr. J.L.Wortman. A visit to the
locality during the past summer had enabled
him to study many problems in connection
with their occurrence, which tend to throw
considerable light upon their nature. The
formation in which they occur was posi-
tively identified as the Loup Fork division
of the upper Miocene, which is a true sedi-
mentary deposit. The Diamonhelix occurs
in a stratum of from 50 to 75 feet in thick-
ness always standing vertically, and their
tops are not confined to any one level.
They vary much in size and character, but
so far as observed always present the spinal
twist. The fact that they occur in true sedi-
mentary rocks, that their tops occupy many
levels, together with the lack of evidence
to show that there was any disturbance of
level during the time the sediment was be-
ing laid down, was considered to totally
disprove the theory that they represent the
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 11..
burrows of animals, which has been so ex-
tensively held in explanation of their curi-
ous nature. The invariable presence of
plant cells, together with other facts, leads
to the conclusion that they very probably
represent the remains of roots or stems of
some gigantic water plant.
The excretory System of Clepsine and Nephe-
lis. Dk. ARNOLD GRAF. The results of H.
Bolsius have proved to be erroneous. The
different parts of the nephridium are classi-
fied as follows: (1). Infundibulum, consist-
ing in Nephelis of six bilobed ciliated cells, in
Clepsine of a peduncle cell, pierced by a cil-
iated canal, and two bilobed ciliated cells
attached to the peduncle. (2). Recepta-
culum excretorium. A vesicle which is in
open communication with the funnel and in’
osmotic communication with the following
parts of the nephridium. It is similar in
both genera, and filled with disintegrating
material. (3). Portio afferentia. The part
of the gland, consisting of a single row of
round cells, pierced by a sometimes bifur-
cated canal, which gives off branched canals. -
Similar in both genera. (4). Portio glandu-
losa. Row of cells, pierced by a smooth
canal without side branches or bifurcation.
This part is the largest part of the whole
organ. Similarin both genera. (5). Vesi-
cula terminalis. In Nephelis a vesicle, lined
by a ciliated epithelium, in Clepsine a sim-
ple pouch of the epidermis, without cilia.
(6). Canalis terminalis. The short canal by
which the terminal vesicle communicates.
with the exterior. Present in Nephelis. In
Clepsine it is equivalent to the terminal
vesicle.
The cells formerly called Chloragogencells
should now be called Evxcretophores. A pre-
liminary account of these cells has been sent
to the ‘ Zoologischer Anzeizer.’ The inyesti-
gation has been carried out mainly on liy-
ing tissues, and every source of error has. ;
been eliminated.
BasurorD Dran, Rec. See’y.
15, 1895.]
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
CALENDAR, 1895.
Feb. 8.—Topographic Forms: Mas. GrnBeRt
_ Tuompson, Mr. Henry GANNETT, Mr. G.
W. LirtLenares.
Feb. 15.—Shakespeare’s Buglanil: Rey. G.
_ ARBUTHNOT.
Feb. 22. Practical Results of the Bering Sea
Arbitration: Mr. J. Srantey-Brown.
Mar. 1.—Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia: Rey. Dr. Francis Brown.
Mar. 8. Mexican Boundary: Mr. A. T. Mos-
MAN, Mr. Sreuman Forney, Cart. E. A.
Mearns, U.S. A.
Mar. 15.—Turkey: Rev.
_ Sessur.
far. 18.— Washington to Pittsburg and to Ni-
agara Falls ; Across the Appalachians :
Dr. Henry H.
Dr.
' Dayip T. Day.
Side Trip to Niagara Falls: Mr. G. K. Gi-
BERT.
March 20. Reception at the Arlington Ho-
tel, Washington, D. C., 9 to11 Pp. mu.
far. 22. Pittsburg to Valuations National
— Park ; Pittsburg to St. Paul, through the oil
and gas regions: PRoressoR Epwarp Or-
ar. 22.—The Alaskan Boundary: Mr. J. E.
_ McGraru, Mr. J. F. Pratt, Mr. H. P.
_ Rivrer.
_ Mar. 25. Yellowstone National Park to Saera-
mento; Yellowstone Park ; down the Columbia ;
wisi to Mt. Rainier and Portland:
Battey WIii1s.
to Orater Lake; Mount Shasta and
_ Sacramento: Mr. J. S. Diturr.
‘ar. 29.—Sacramento to northern Arizona; Sac-
ramento; the Golden Gate; Yosemite; Los
ngeles ; San Bernardino: Mr. W. D.
Jounson.
San Bernardino across the deserts ; to San
Francisco Mt., Arizona: Mas. J. W.
Mr.
SCIENCE.
April 5.—Aeross the
307
April 1.—Grand Cation and Sonora, Mexico ;
Salt Lake City to the Grand Caiion ; a winter
in the depth of the Cation: Mr. CHar.es
D. Waccorr.
Prescott, Phenix and Tucson, to Sonora, Mexico;
visit to the so-called cannibals: Mr. W J
McGee.
Rocky Mountains to
Denver ; Northern Arizona, the Rio Grande,
and across the mountains to Denver: PRor.
A. H. Tompson.
The Home of the Pueblo Indians: Mr. Frank
HAmitton CusHIne.
April 5.—Physical Geography of the Great
Lakes: Pror. Mark W. Harrineton.
April 8.—Denver to Washington; Denver to
Pueblo, down the Arkansas river, and across
the plains to St. Louis: Mr. F. H. NEwE tt.
St. Louis to Washington, with visits to the great
caves of Ky. and Va.: Masor Jep. Horcu-
KISS.
April 12.—Argentina,Columbian University,
8:30 to 9:30 ep. m.: Dr. D. Esranistao S.
ZEBALLOS.
April 19.—The Geography and Geology of
Vicaragua: Mr. Rosert T. Hix.
April 26.—Antiquities and Aborigines of Peru :
Mr. S. Maruewson Scorr, Mr. F. H.
CUSHING.
May 3.—Fredericksburg: Mr. W J McGer,
Mas. Gitpert THompson, GEN. JOHN
Gippon, U.S. A.
May 4.—Excursion and Field-Meeting,
Fredericksburg, Va., 9 A. M. to 6 P. M.
May 10.—President’s Annual Address: Hon.
GARDINER G. HUBBARD.
May 17.—Annual Meeting for the Election
of Officers.
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON,
MARCH 2.
On the Discovery of Marine Fossils in the Pam-
pean Formation, by Dr. H. Von Ihering:
Mr. Wo. H. Datu.
Classification of Clouds; Mlustrated by lan-
tern slides: Mr. ALEXANDER McApte.
308
The Army Magazine Rifle, Cal. 30: Mr.
Rogers Birnie.
Additional Note on Gravity Determinations :
Mr. G. K. GiBErt.
Wiuiam C. Wintocr, Secretary.
BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY,
MARCH 6.
The Geographical History of the Lower Missis-
sippt: Mr. L. 8, Griswoxp.
Some Features of the Coastal Plain in the Mis-
sissippt Embayment: Mr. C. F. Marsur.
Note on cusped Sand-bars of the Carolina
Coast: Mr. CLEVELAND ABBE, JR.
SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, MARCH.
The Appalachian Type of Folding in the White
Mountain Range of Inyo County, Cal.: C.
D. Watcort.
Notes on the Southern Ice Inmit in Eastern
Pennsyluania: E. H. Wiitams.
The Succession of Fossil Faunas at Springfield,
Missouri: S. WELLER.
Distribution of the Echinoderms of Northeastern
America: A. E. VERRILL.
Drigt Bowlders Between the Mohawk and Sus-
quehanna Rivers: A. P. BrigHaM.
Scientific Intelligence; Chemistry and Physics ;
Geology and Mineralogy; Botany; Miscel-
laneous ; Obituary.
AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL, MARCH.
On the Cupriammonium Double Salts: THE0-
DORE WiLLiam RicHarps and ANDREW
HENDERSON WHITRIDGE.
The Composition of Athenian Pottery: THEO-
DORE WILLIAM RICHARDS.
A Redetermination of the Atomic Weight of
Yttrium: Harry C. Jones.
Separation of Nickel and Iron: EH. D. Camp-
BELL and W. H. AnDREWs.
Researches on the Complex Inorganic Acids:
Wotcorr Gisss.
OCupric Hydride: Epwix J. Bartierr and
Water H. MERRILL.
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 11.
Action of Light on Lead Bromide: R.S. Norris.
The Action of Ammonia upon Dextrose: W. B.
STONE. ~
The Carbohydrates of the Gum of Acacia De-
currens: W. H. Stone.
Reviews and Reports ; Notes.
BULLETIN OF THE TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB,
FEB.
New Species of Ustilagineew and Uredinew: FP.
B. Exuis and B. M. Everwarr.
Contributions to American Bryology—LX:
EizABeta G. BRITTON.
Japanese Characee—IT: 'T. F. ALLEN.
Tradescantia Virginica var. villosa Watson :
E. F. Hi.
Some new hybrid Oaks from the Southern States
Joun K. SMALL.
‘Family Nomenclature: V. HAVARD.
Reviews.
Proceedings of the Club.
Index to Recent Literature Relating to American
Botany.
NEW BOOKS.
Antisepsis and Antiseptics. CHARLES MILTON ~
Bucwanan. Newark, N. J., The Ter-
hune Co. 1895. xvit352.
A Laboratory Guide in General Chemistry.
GEORGE WILLARD Benton. Boston, D.
C. Heath & Co. 1894. Pp. 163.
A Laboratory Manual in Organic Chemistry.
W.R. Ornporrr. Boston, D. C. Heath &
Co. 1894. 82 experiments.
First Lessons in Chemistry. G. P. PHENIX.
Boston, D. C. Heath & Co. 1894. Pp.
41.
The World of Matter a Guide to the Study of
Chemistry and Mineralogy. HAartANn Hocun
Bauarp. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co.
1894. Pp. 264.
Physical Laboratory Manual.
Boston, D. C. Heath & Co.
vi + 213.
Practical Methods in Microscopy. CHARLES:
H. Crark. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co.
1894. xiv+219.
H. N. CuurTe.
1894. Pp.
ten Abbildungen, 486 S.
SCAENCE.
New SERIEs.
Vou. I. No. 12.
Fripay, Marcu 22, 1895.
SINGLE CopPIrEs, 15 CTs.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00.
GUSTAV E. STECHERT’S
Recent Importation of Scientific Books.
ANDERSSOHN, AUREL. Physikalische Principien
der Naturlehre. 93 Seiten. 8°. M. 1.60.
ARcHIV FUR ENTWICKLUNGSMECHANIK DER OR-
GANISMEN. Herausgegeben von Prof. Wilhelm Roux.
Erster Band, Erstes Heft. Mit 7 Tafeln und 6 Text—
figuren, 160 Seiten. 8°. M. 10.
BARRILLOT, ERNEST. Traité de Chimie Légale.
Analyse Toxicologique. Recherches Spéciales, 356
pages. 8°. Fr. 6.50.
BusJARD, Dr. ALFONS und Dr. EDUARD BAIER.
Hilfsbuch fiir Nahrungsmittelchemiker auf Grund-
lage der Vorschriften, betreffend die Priifung der
Nahrungsmittelchemiker. Mit in den Text gedriick-
K1. 8°. Gebunden, M. 8.
DriescH, HANs. Analytische Theorie der orga-
nischen Entwicklung. Mit 8 Textfiguren, 184S. 8°. |
M. 5.
Drupe, P. Physik des Aethers auf elektromag-
netischer Grundlage. 8°. Mit66 Abbildgn. Mk. 14.
EPHRAIM, Dr. JuLIus. Sammlung der wichtig-
sten Original arbeiten tiber Analyse der Nahrungsmit-
tel zusammengestellt und mit Anmerkungen verse-
hen. 322S. K1.8. M.6.
FISCHER, PRor. Dk. BERNHAKD und Dr. CARL
Breseck. Zur Morphologie, Biologie und Systema-
tik der Kahmpilze, der Monilia candida Hansen und
des Soorerregers. Mit 2Tafeln. 52S. Gr. 8° M. 4.
GARNAULT, E. Mécanique, physique et chimie.
Paris, 1894. 8°. Avec. 325 fig. 8 fr.
GRAWINKEL, C. und K. Srrecker. Hilfsbuch
fiir de Elektrotechnik. Unter Mitwirkung von Fink,
Goppelsroeder, Pirani, v. Renesse und Seyffert. Mit
zahlreichen Figuren im Text. Vierte vermehrte und
verbesserte Auflage. 670 S. Kl. 8° Gebunden.
_ HEN, Victor. Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere
in ihrem Uebergang aus Asien nach Griechenland
und Italien sovie in das iibrige Europa. Historisch-
lingnistische Skizzen. Sechste Auflage neu herausge-
geben von I. Schrader. Mit botanischen Beitriigen
von A. Engler. 6258. Gr. 8° M. 12.
_ImBert, ARMAND. Traité lémentaire de phy-
‘Sique biologique. Avec 399 figures dans le texte et
une planche colorée. X. 1084 pp. in 8%. fr. 16.
KApp, GISBERT. Dynamomaschinen fiir Gleich-
und Wechselstrom und Transformatoren. Autorisirte
deutsche Ausgabe von Dr. L. Holborn und Dr. K.
‘Kahle. Mit zahlreichen in den Text gedruckten
‘Figuren. 3318. 8°. Geb. M. 7.
Loos, Dr. A. Ueber den Bau von Distomum
heterophyes v. Sieb und Distomum fraternum n. sp.
59S. Gr. 8% M. 12.
Loew, Dr. E_ Bliitenbiologische Floristik des
mittleren und nordlichen Europa sowie Gronlands.
Systematische Zusammenstellung des in den letzten
zehn Jahren ver6ffentlichen Beobachtungsmaterials.
4248S. Gr. 8°. M. 11.
MEYER, PrRor. Dr. ERNST VON. Geschichte der
Chemie von den iltesten Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart.
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| Costa Professor of Biology in Columbia College. The
volumes of the series already published are as follows:
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Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Ver=
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Tutor in Biology, Columbia College. :
a Preface by the Editor. With Ilustrations.
8vo, Buckram, $2.50, net.
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writer.’’
A TIMELY AND PRACTIOAL BOOK ON THE CURRDNCY.
HONEST MONEY.
By ARTHUR I. Fonps. G. E. Ladd.
The first of this series, viz., the Higgins-
yille sheet, was issued in folio form, the
text being printed on large sheets of the
same size as the maps, somewhat similar to
the sheet reports issued by the United States
Geological Survey, except that the former
was stitched. In these later reports the text
is printed in octavo form, while the map with
the sheet of sections and a sheet of brief ex-
planatory matter is issued in a folio cover
separately. A portion of the edition, how-
ever, has the map and sheet of sections
printed on thin paper, folded and inserted
at the end of the pamphlet. Thus this
series of reports have been issued in three
_ forms, which may serve to assist in deciding
the best form for publication of future re-
ports for different purposes.
J. D. R.
Preliminary Report on the Rainy Lake Gold
Region. By H. V. Wincuett and U.S.
Grant. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of
Minn., 23rd Ann. Rept., pp. 36-105.
Jan., 1895.
Considerable excitement has been caused
during the last year by the reported dis-
coveries of rich gold-bearing veins at Rainy
Lake, on the northern border of Minnesota,
and accordingly an examination of this re-
gion was made by the Geological Survey of
the State. The veins occur in more or less
erystalline rocks of Pre-Cambrian age, and
ean be classed as: (a) fissure veins, (b)
Segregated viens and (c) fahlbands. The
most promising part of the district is in
what is known as the Seine River country,
in Canadian territory, where there are true
fis veins which furnish a good quality of
free-milling ore. Actual mining was con-
Photed during the last summer in but one
SCIENCE. 331
place—at the Little American mine, in
Itasca county, Minn.; but prospecting and
exploitation have been carried on in a num-
ber of other places. As yet the development
is insufficient to warrant the positive asser-
tion that profitable gold mining can be con-
ducted in the Rainy Lake district, but in
several localities the prospects are full of
encouragement and promise. The report
is accompanied by a geological map of the
region.
NOTES AND NEWS.
BIOLOGICAL.
Tue January number of the Geological
Magazine contains a note by Professor H. G.
Seeley, on the skeleton of Pareiasaurus baini.
This remarkable animal is one of the Ano-
modontia which Professor Seeley has been
making known to science from the Karoo
or Upper Triassic beds of South Africa.
He observes that while there are super-
ficial characters which parallel the laby-
rinthodont amphibia, there is no doubt
the animal finds its place among true rep-
tilia. Itis remarkable for the number of
sharp recurved teeth upon the palate, to-
gether with the teeth in sockets on the alve-
olar margins of the jaw. Notwithstanding
the extremely heavy build of the animal,
there is much that recalls the lowest mam-
malia in the shoulder girdle and the fore
and hind limbs. It is the shoulder chiefly
which indicates this affinity with the Mono-
tremata. The new knowledge which this
animal supplies gives a meaning to the or-
dinal term by showing the resemblances in
the teeth to various groups of animals which
would not have been suspected from the
reptilian structure of the skull, or the mam-
malian structure of the extremities. The
skeleton is figured, as it now appears
mounted in the British Museum, of a total
length of seven feet, nine inches. It would
be difficult to imagine a more grotesque
quadruped. Those who have had experi-
332
ence in mounting stone skeletons realize
what an extremely difficult undertaking it
-is, and will judge of this particular mount
with leniency ; at the same time, an exam-
ination of the figure, or still more of the orig-
-inal specimen in the Museum, shows that
the limbs have been placed in an unneces-
sarily awkward and impossible position.
There was no necessity for placing the hind
limbs so far in front of the center of grav-
ity of the posterior half of the body, or for
turning the fore feet so far inward that lo-
comotion in a forward direction would be
rendered impossible.
Tue latest Bulletin from the Museum of
-Comparative Zodlogy is Professor Agassiz’s
“ Reconnorssance of the Bahamas and of the
elevated coral reef of Cuba in the steam yacht
Wild Duck, January to April, 1893,’ covering
-200 pages, 47 plates, and a large number of
illustrations in the text. It contains a com-
plete survey of this remarkable coralline
region, and is not only full of original ob-
servations and notes of great value, but
brings the region far more easily within the
reach of future biological and geological
exploration. As the survey in the Wild
Duck continued over only four months, it
has rather the reconnoissance character of
that made by Professor Agassiz in the ‘ Al-
batross,’ on the west coast of South America,
than the thoroughness of the author’s work
upon the Blake. The Wild Duck was placed
at Mr. Agassiz’s disposal by Mr. John M.
Forbes, and while not fitted like the Govern-
ment vessels for deep sea work, proved to
be admirably adapted for cruising on the
Bahama banks, her light draft enabling her
to go to every point of interest and to cross
and recross the banks where a larger vessel
could not follow. The greater part of the
Bulletin is descriptive. A number of im-
portant problems are discussed, the author
closing with an expression of his own views
“upon the formation of coral reefs, as con-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 12.
firmed by this exploration of the Bahamas;
“Substitute subsidence for rising land and
remembering that reef coral will not grow
at a greater depth than twenty fathoms, we
eliminate subsidence as a factor unless we
are prepared to accept or imagine a syn-
chronism between the growth of corals and
subsidence in a great number of the districts
in which they flourish, of which we have no
proof.”’
WELDING OF IRON.
Ar the last meeting of the Royal Society,
according to the London Times, a paper on
Tron and Steel at Welding Temperatures by Mr.
T. Wrightson, M. P., was read. The ob-
ject of the paper was to demonstrate that
the phenomenon of welding in iron is
identical with that of regelation in ice.
The author recapitulated some experiments
which were made by him in 1879-80 upon
east iron, and proved the fact that this
form of iron possesses the property of ex-
panding while passing from the liquid to
the plastic state during a small range of —
temperature, and then contracts to the
solid state, and that the expansion amounts
to about 6 per cent. in volume. This prop-
erty of iron resembles the similar property
of water in freezing, which, within a range
of about 4° C., expands about 9 per cent.
of its liquid volume, and then contracts as
the cooling proceeds. Subsequent investi-
gations at the Mint appeared to prove that
wrought iron at a welding temperature pos-
sesses the same property of cooling under
pressure which was proved by Lord Kelvin
to exist in freezing water, and on which
demonstration the generally received theory
of regelation depends. The author distin-
guished the process of melting together of
metals from that of welding. Either pro-
cess forms a junction, but the latter takes
place at a temperature considerably below
the melting point. The well-known and
useful property of welding in iron appeared,
se
7
MARCH 22, 1895. ]
‘therefore, to depend, as in the case of rege-
Jation in ice, upon this critical condition,
which exists over a limited range of tem-
‘perature between the molten and the plastic
state. An interesting discussion followed,
in which Lord Kelvin, Professor Roberts-
Austen, Professor Silvanus Thompson and
others joined.
THE JOINT COMMISSION OF THE SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETIES OF WASHINGTON.
Ara meeting of the Joint Commission of
the Scientific Societies of Washington, on
January 25th, recommendations were made
which have since been adopted by the
Societies represented on the Commission,
which are: The Anthropological, the Bio-
logical, the Chemical, the Entomological,
the Geological, the National Geographic,
and the Philosophical Societies.
The resolutions adopted are as follows :
he The Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of
“Washington, believing that fuller codperation of the
Societies is desirable, and that it can advantageously
be provided for by enlarging the powers of the Joint
Commission, recommend to the Socities the adoption
of the following:
The Joint Commission shall be composed of the
officers and administrative boards of the several com-
ponent Societies
~ The Commission shall have power:
a. To provide for joint meetings of the Societies ;
__b. To conduct courses of popular lectures ; c. To pre-
pare a joint directory of the members of the Societies;
4d. To distribute to all members of the Societies peri-
odie advance notices of the meetings of the several
Societies ; e. And to act in the interest of the com-
‘ponent Societies at the instance of any of them.
_ The following officers have been elected :
_ President, Gardiner G. Hubbard; Vice-
President, G. Brown Goode; Secretary, J.
S$. Diller; Treasurer, P. B. Pierce; Mem-
bers at Large of the Executive Committee,
J. W. Powell, William H. Ashmead,
George M. Sternberg, G. K. Gilbert, W. H.
Dall, Charles E. Munroe and C. D. Walcott.
ay GENERAL.
- Tue Educational Review for March should
iy read by all who are interested in elemen-
SCIENCE.
333
tary and secondary education. The number
consists of the report of ‘The Committee of
Fifteen’ appointed by the Department of
Superintendence of the National Educa-
tional Association and submitted at Cleve-
land, February 19-21. The three sub-com-
mittees report respectively, ‘On the training
of teachers,’ ‘On the correlation of studies
in elementary education,’ and ‘On the or-
ganization of city school systems.
Mr. T. C. Martin contributes to the
March number of The Century Magazine an
article on Hermann yon Helmholtz well
calculated to impress the general reader
with the magnitude of Helmholtz’ genius.
The article is accompanied by a portrait of
Helmholtz, as he appeared during his visit
to America in 1893, which should be pre-
served by all men of science.
THe American Book Company has just
published a fourth edition of Dana’s Manual
of Geology, the work being enlarged by 150
pages. The entire manuscript, extending
to 1000 pages of printed matter, is in Pro-
fessor Dana’s own hand-writing, which is
remarkable in the case of an author in his
eighty-third year.
A TELESCOPE is being constructed for the
Berlin Industrial Exposition, to be held
next year, in which the lenses, made by
Steinheil of Munich, will be 110 em. in
diameter.
Heitmuortz’ library has been bought by
the German Government for the Physico-
Technical Institute.
THE annual appropriation for the Univer-
sity of North Carolina has been made by
the Legislature. It had been feared that
this might not be done. The recent Legis-
lature has reorganized the Board of Regents
of the West Virginia University and has
reduced it from thirteen to nine, requiring
all the members to be appointed from the
two leading political parties, as nearly
equally divided between them as practi-
O04
cable; its members are appointed for a
period of six years, one-third changing ey-
ery two years. Owing to former dissen-
sions in the faculty of the University, the
time of all the professors expires on June
15th ; and the Board, at its meeting in June,
will elect an entire new faculty, including
president and professors. This applies only
to the professors of the University, not to
members of the Agricultural Station Staff.
Dr. Rudolph J. J. de Roode, Chemist of the
Station, resigned the first of February, to
accept a more lucrative position in New
York. His position has been filled by the
appointment of B. H. Hite as chemist and
G. Wm. Gray as assistant chemist, both of
Johns Hopkins University.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
Av the meeting held March 9, 1895, the
papers were presented, of which abstracts
are here given.
Dr. C. W. Styles spoke of A double-pored
Cestode with occasional single pores.* Great
stress has been laid upon the arrangement
of the genital pores in the classification of
the Cestoda, but this character alone is not
of generic value. Stiles has already shown
that although Thysanosoma Giardi generally
possesses alternate genital pores, it occa-
sionally possesses double pores in its seg-
ments. In American rabbits, the speaker
finds two species of tapeworms, one of
which possesses irregularly alternate geni-
tal pores and a peculiar arrangement of the
eggs in capsules—such as is found in the
genus Darainea ; this makes it possible that
this species is the adult stage of the armed
eysticercois described from the intestine of
rabbits in his Note 31; if this be so, the
parasite would be classified with the genus
Darainea, although, according to Railliet’s
*To be published as ‘Notes on Parasites, 36: A
double-pored Cestode with occasional single pores 7 in
Centralblatt fiir Bact. u. Parasitenkunde, 1895.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 12.
present classification, based upon the ar-
rangements of the pores, it is an Andrya.
The second tapeworm possesses double geni-
tal pores. If classified on its pores alone, it
is a Ctenotenia Rail. It differs from the
type of the genus (Ct. marmote) in possess-
ing a double uterus instead of a single
uterus. One strobila of this rabbit tape-
worm ( Ctenotenia sp.?) was found in which
most of the segments possessed double pores,
but thirteen segments were found with ir-
regularly alternate pores. This anomaly is
extremely important, both from a morpho-
logical and a systematic standpoint, and the
speaker expressed the opinion that a thor-
ough study of a large series of Cestoda im
any group would result in greatly modify-
ing the present classification and in sup-
pressing a large number of species.
Dr. Theo. Holm discussed Gidema of Violet
Leaves. Leaves of a cultivated garden ya-
riety of Viola odorata affected with this dis-
ease were studied, and their anatomical
structure showed several points of interest.
The diseased parts of the leaf showed brown-
ish, wart-like swellings on both faces of the
blade, above and between the nerves. The
following changes were observed in the
tissues: The epidermis became very thick-
walled, and the stomata modified into nar-
row, irregular openings. The palisade tis-
sue showed numerous (three or even four)
tangential divisions, and swelled up very
considerably, pushing out through the epi-
dermis. The pneumatic tissue, which
seemed to be the most affected, had in-
creased in size, the cells having divided
themselves very considerably so as to form
a loose, open tissue of large, roundish cells.
The petiole showed similar symptoms of the
disease, especially along the keel and the
wings. The collenchymatic tissue under-
neath the epidermis, the bark parenchyma,
and the endodermis showed numerous diyi-
sions, so that similar swellings were pro-
duced like those observed on the leaf blade.
A
7 MARCH 22, 1895. ]
Dr. Geo. M. Sternberg read a paper en-
titled Explanation of Acquired Immunity from
Infectious Diseases, an account of which will
be printed in the next issue of ScrENcE.
M. B. WAITE,
Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE JOURNAL OF MORPHOLOGY.
Tue latest number of the Journal of Mor-
phology is of exceptional importance. Mr.
Frank Lillie’s article upon the Embryology of
the Unionidie contains a most careful inves-
tigation of the relations of the earliest cells
in the embryonic cleavage to the adult
organs of the body. This is followed by
_ Oliver 8. Strong’s memoir upon the Cranial
Nerves of the Amphibia, which opens up a new
and thoroughly philosophical interpretation
_ of the cranial nerves, based not upon their
- numerical relations, but upon their physio-
logical components. This is the result of an
investigation of a very difficult character
which has been under way for the past five
years. The third paper, by Pierre A. Fish,
upon the Adult Nervous System of the Sala-
mander, is followed by a brief but interesting
paper from Professor W. K. Brooks upon
the Sensory Clubs of Certain Calenterates.
The most important feature of this num-
ber, however, is contained in three short
preliminary papers at the end of the Journal,
“occupying only a few pages, but apparently
establishing a new law in the field of fertili-
zation phenomena. The discovery has been
made independently by Dr. Wheeler and by
Dr. A. D. Mead, of the University of Chi-
cago, and by Professor E. B. Wilson and
Mr. A. T. Matthews, of Columbia College.
In course of correspondence the authors of
these papers learned that they had inde-
pendently reached the same unexpected con-
clusion, and it was arranged by the editor
that their three communications should ap-
pear together. While they mark an im-
portant step forward in our knowledge of
2
SCIENCE.
339
fertilization, at first sight the results ob-
tained by Dr. Wheeler and Professor Wilson
are directly contradictory. Dr. Wheeler
proves conclusively that in the fertilization
of Myzostoma (a parasitic form of Annelid)
there are no traces of the archoplasm or
dynamic substance in the spermatozoon, and
that this element is entirely resident in the
ovum. Professor Wilson, on the other
hand, independently working on the eggs
of the echinoderm Zoxopneustes, proves that
there is no trace of the archoplasm in the
ovum, but that it is entirely resident in the
spermatozoon. It is too soon to make a
general induction from these observations,
but at present they appear to wholly set
aside the brilliant announcement of Fol in
1891, which has been supported by Guig-
nard and Conklin, that both the ovum and
spermatozoon contain archoplasm, and that
one feature of segmentation is a ‘ quadrille
of the four centers’ derived from these male
and female archoplasmic masses. These
observations do prove, however, that the
archoplasm may be derived exclusively
either from one sex or the other, and they
show that Fol’s law was based upon de-
fective preparations. They tend also to
show that the archoplasm is not a bearer of
the hereditary qualities, but necessarily a
purely neutral dynamic agent.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW, MARCH.
THE current number is largely taken up
with the Princeton meeting of the American
Psychological Association, already reported in
Science (January 11). Authors’ abstracts
are given of sixteen papers presented, and
the address of the President, Prof. William
James, is given in full. Mrs. Franklin’s
paper on Normal Defect of Vision in the Fovea
was also read before the Association. The
only remaining paper consists of Contribu-
tions from the Psychological Laboratory of
Columbia College. Dr. Griffing describes
experiments on the relations between der-
336
mal stimuli and sensations, and Mr. Franz
gives an account of measurements of the
light which is just sufficient to produce an
after-image. In addition to discussion and
notes, there is an extended survey of recent
psychological literature prepared by Profs.
Sully, Ormond, Fullerton, Dewey, Baldwin,
Donaldson, Cattell, Angell, Gardiner and
Duncan, and Drs. Binet, Kirschmann,
Tracy and Noyes.
THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, MARCH.
Tur number opens with an interesting
account of The Birth of a Sicilian Volcano by
Prof. Packard, describing an ascent of
Monte Gernellaro, a crater on Mount Etna
formed in 1886. In the second paper Dr,
Bela Hubbard dwells on the importance of
the forests and the need of legislation to
prevent destruction by fire. An article by
Dr. 8. Millington Miller discusses the edu-
cation of the blind and of the deaf and
dumb and their careers. The number in-
cludes articles on engraving and bookbind-
ing, two articles on scientific education,
and accounts of Tyndall’s work and of
Thomas Nuttall (with a portrait).
THE ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, MARCH.
Notes on the Atmospheric Bands in the Spectrum
of Mars: Wiii1am Hueerns.
Recent Researches on the Spectra of the Planets :
H. C. VocxEt.
Solar Observations made at the Royal Observa-
tory of the Roman College in 1894: P.
TACCHINI.
On a very large Protuberance Observed Decem-
ber 24, 1894: J. FENYI,
On the Distribution of the Stars and the Distance
of the Milky-Way in Aquila and Cygnus:
C. EAsTon.
Preliminary Table of Solar Spectrum Wave-
Lengths. III.: H. A. Rowianp.
The Modern Spectroscope: F. LL. O. WaAnDs-
WORTH.
Minor Contributions and Notes; Reviews; Re-
cent Publications.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No, 12..
BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL
SOCIETY, FEB.
On a Certain Class of Canonical Forms =
Raxpeu A. ROBERTS. :
Hayward’s Vector Algebra: Maxime BOcHER.
Apolar Triangles on a Conic: F. Morey.
An Instance Where a Well-known Test to Prove
the Simplicity of a Simple Group is Insufji-
cient: GErorGE S. MILLER.
Briefer Notices ; Notes ; New Publications.
THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, MARCH.
Development of the Corallum in Favosites forbesi,
var. occidentalis: GEORGE H. Girry.
Early Protozoa: G. F. Marranw.
The Stratigraphic Base of the Taconic or Low-
er Cambrian: N. H. WINCHELL.
The Second Lake Algonquin: F. B. Taytor.
Editorial Comment; Review of Recent Geologi-—
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CONTENTS:
The Mesozoic Flora of Portugal compared with that
of the United States: Lester F. WARD ...... 337
Explanation of Acquired Immunity from Infectious
Diseases: GEORGE M. STERNBERG.......... 346
Remarking the Mexican Boundary: O.....--..+-. 349
The Nature of Science and its Relation to Philosophy :
BINA DCEIPTURE <2. 00... ss cece rinnccrees 350
SSE SRS SS SO ava cRede 352
MMMMREBDONGENCE > — 0. eece cece ecw escesee tes 353
A Catalogue of Scientific Literature: W J Mc-
GEE. Teaching Botany: W. J. BEAL.
Seientifie Literature :—........
_Lobachévsky: ALEXANDER ZIwetT. Bastin’s
Botany: S. E. JELLIFFE. Wiley’s Agricultural
Analysis: CHARLES PLATT. Coutie on the
Earth's Atmosphere: EpwWArD HART.
MMM AER NEWS — .. 2.00 aes seco ccecces eeaaood
Biology ; Appropriations for the U. S. Geological
Survey ; General.
Besentajic Journals .......0...00-000 sietonteiaele .. .364
New Books ..... 2S Mioc GOpppaee cn Sc 23-0068 «364
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
een Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Be cnptions and advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
THE MESOZOIC FLORA OF PORTUGAL COM-
PARED WITH THAT OF THE UNITED
STATES.
HISTORICAL NOTICE.
_ Tue earliest studies in the Mesozoic de-
posits of Portugal seem to have been made
by Mr. Daniel Sharpe, who read a paper
before the Geological Society of London on
April 11, 1832, describing certain beds in
the vicinity of Lisbon and Oporto; in the
former of which were included strata re-
i
ferred by him to the Oolite. On the 9th
and 23d of January, 1839, he presented a
second paper describing more fully the sec-
ondary formations in the vicinity of Lisbon.*
On November 21, 1849, Mr. Sharpe read
still a third paper before the same society+
of a much more extended nature and de-
voted entirely to the secondary formation.
In this paper is a full list of all the fossils
known down to that date carefully deter-
mined by Mr. John Morris. Included in
these was a single fossil plant regarded by
Mr. Morris as a variety of a species of the
Yorkshire Oolite called by Phillips Cycadites
gramineus. It was found at Cape Mondego,
and from this circumstance was given the
varietal name Munde. As Mr. Morris re-
ferred Phillips’ plant to the genus Zamites,
the Portuguese plant was made to bear the
name Zamites gramineus var. Munde.
In 1858 Sr. Charles Ribeiro published a
series of elaborate papers on the Geology of
Portugal,{ treating chiefly of the Carbon-
iferous; but in two of these$ he considers
the Lias and Oolite, mentioning the plant
above referred to from Cape Mondego and
* Geol. Soc. Lond., Proc., Vol. I., p. 395; Vol. IL.,
p- 31; Trans., 2d Ser., Vol. VI., p. 115ff.
tT Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. VI., pp. 135-
201.
t Mem. Acad. Real. Sci. de Lisboa, New Ser., Vol.
Il.
4 Mina de Carvdéo de Pedra do Cabo Mondego, do dis-
tricto de Leiria; op. cit., Pt. Il., Third and Fourth
Memoirs (these memoirs are separately paged ).
338
four other species from this and other local-
ities.
Meantime other collections were being
made, and in 1880 M. Paul Choffat pub-
lished a somewhat elaborate report on the
geology of the Jurassic of Portugal* in which
the fossil plants were considered as far as
available. The collections were sent by
Choftat to Professor Oswald Heer, and a
preliminary report upon them was received
in time to be inserted as an Addendum.
Heer’s full report appeared a year later} and
constitutes the first important contribution
to the Mesozoic flora of Portugal. It also
includes a large number of Tertiary plants.
The horizons are here regarded as embra-
cing : first, the Rhetic ; second, the Jurassic,
subdivided into Lias, Oolite or Dogger, and
Upper Jurassic or Malm; and third, the
Cretaceous, which was largely compared
with the Wealden of other parts of Europe.
Heer found in these collections 5 Rhetic,
18 Jurassic, and 23 Cretaceous forms. The
Cretaceous plants consisted chiefly of ferns,
eyeads and conifers, but two of them were
referred to the monocotyledons. No traces
of dicotyledons were discovered.
M. Choffat continued his investigations
and after Heer’s death sent the plant-im-
pressions to the Marquis Saporta at Aix;
the latter was greatly interested in them
and published three preliminary reports.{
What specially attracted him was the pres-
ence of certain peculiar forms from this
Lower Cretaceous horizon that he regarded
as prototypes of the existing dicotyledonous
* Etude stratigraphique et Paléontologique des terrains
Jurassiques du Portugal. Premiére livraison. Le Lias
et le Dogger au Nord du Tage. Section des travaux
géologiques du Portugal, Lisbonne, 1880.
ft Contributions & la flore fossile dw Portugal par le
Dr. Oswald Heer. Section des travaux géologiques
du Portugal, Lisbonne, 1881.
{ Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. de Paris, Vol. CV1.,
May 28, 1888, pp. 1500-1504; CXI., December 1,
1890, pp. 812-815 ; CXIII., August 3, 1891, pp. 249—
203.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 13,
flora. No dicotyledons had thus far been
reported from any Lower Cretaceous deposit
in Europe, and it had long been supposed
that the Cenomanian was the earliest horizon
at which this type existed. The several in-
stalments embraced in these papers were
from horizons in the Cretaceous, some of
which were the same as those containing
the plants described by Heer, while others
were considerably higher. They contained
a number of very remarkable forms, and the
Marquis could not doubt that they repre-
sented ancestral dicotyledons. The full re-
port upon these interesting collections has
been waited for with great impatience, espe-
cially by American geologists familiar with
our Potomac formation, in which the case is
so nearly paralleled. In fact the present
writer, having learned through correspond-
ence with the Marquis that large collections
were in his hands, and not knowing how
soon his report would appear, was so de-
sirous of learning more in regard to them
that while in Europe during the past sum-
mer, by previous arrangement with him
and at his urgent request, he paid a visit to
the veteran paleobotanist at Aix, in the —
South of France, and through his extreme
courtesy was not only permitted to examine
these collections, but enjoyed the great favor
of discussing with him a large number of
the most interesting questions to which they
give rise. It was then that he learned that
the final report was already in press and
would soon appear, and proof sheets of the
text and plates were then in the possession
of the author, so that it was possible to ex-
amine the work in immediate connection
with the specimens. This work has now
appeared* and copies of it are in the
hands of American geologists; but it may
* Flore fossile du Portugal. Nouvelles contributions
4 la flore Mésozoique par le Marquis Saporta. Ac-
compagnées d’ une notice stratigraphique par Paul
Choffat. (Avec 40 planches.) Direction des travaux
géologiques du Portugal, Lisbonne, 1894.
short of covering the
MARCH 29, 1895.]
as well be stated here that although a large
and voluminous report containing 280
quarto pages and 39 plates, it still comes far
material that is now
in the author’s hands. The collections were
sent to him in instalments almost every year
and are still arriving, but it was necessary
to fix some limit to the publication, which
was closed at a certain date and the work
sent to press, since which time other col-
lections have been received, which were also
earefully examined on that occasion at the
Chateau of Fonscolombe, the country. resi-
dence of the Marquis, 16 kilometers north
of Aix, and upon which he was at the time
actively engaged. These will be reported
upon in a subsequent memoir.
The re-
markable parallelism between the plant
bearing deposits of the west coast of Portugal
and those of the eastern part of the United
States, and especially between the Lower
Cretaceous of Portugal and our Potomac
formation, gives an especial interest to this
é
memoir.
THE JURASSIC FLORA.
Iy America there is a decided time hiatus
‘between the lowest Potomac beds and the
next plant bearing horizon below, which is
now regarded as belonging to the extreme
Upper Triassic and as about the equivalent
of the Keuper deposits of Lunz, in Austria.*
In Portugal, on the contrary, there appear
to be no plant bearing horizons in the Trias
‘proper, but in the Jurassic, which is ab-
Sent in this country, a considerable num-
ber of such deposits have been found. M.
‘Choffat, who prepared the geological part of
‘this memoir, follows as closely as possible
the nomenclature of the French geologists,
and itis found that plant bearing horizons
oceur in the Infralias, part of which may
be as low as the Rhetic, and some of which
is referred to the Sinemurian ; in the Lias;
in several of the properly vita beds
*See Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IIT, 1891, p. 31.
SCIENCE.
339
(Toarecian, Bajocian, Callovian, ete.);
several members of the Corallian; in the
Kimmeridgian, and in the Portlandian.
The Jurassic deposits of Portugal consist of
sandstones and limestones, the former pre-
dominating below; and while all of them
may not be of marine origin, so large a part
is fossiliferous that by the aid of the careful
stratigraphical investigations of the Portu-
guese geologist it is possible to fix the posi-
tion of the plant beds with relation to
those holding animal remains, a fact which
is of the utmost importance in deter-
mining the validity of the evidence of
fossil plants in such countries as Amer-
ica, where, for the most part, no such guide
exists.
The Jurassic flora of Portugal, as em-
braced in the present memoir and in that
of Heer already mentioned, consists of 122
species, of which 22 are Infralias, 1 Lias, 8
Oolite, 8 Corallian and 88 Kimmeridgian.
It is subdivided into 6 Algze, 6 Equiseta,
70 ferns, 7 Cyeads, 24 Conifers and 9 Mo-
nocotyledons. Of the ferns, which so largely
predominate, 27 species belong to the genus
Sphenopteris, 8 to Cladophlebis, 8 to Scler-
opteris, and 4 each to Pecopteris and Hyme-
nophyllites. Of the conifers, which come
next in importance, 5 belong to Pagiophyl-
lum, 4 to Brachyphyllum, and 3 to Thuyites.
The cycads belong to the two genera Podo-
zamites and Otozamites. Seven of the Mo-
nocotyledons consist of small blades and
culms of grasses, grouped under the genus
Poacites.
A comparison of this Jurassic flora with
that of the American Trias reveals the fact
that while only 3 species, Cheirolepis Miin-
steri, Pagiophyllum peregrinum and Palissya
Brownii, are common to the two, there are
14 genera that occur in both. In the num-
ber of species the two floras as now known
are almost equal, that of the American
Trias numbering 119, while that of the Por-
tuguese Jurassic numbers 122. It is there-
340
fore important to note in what proportions
these 14 genera occur in the two floras:
GENERA COMMON TO AMERICAN TRIAS AND JU-
RASSIC OF PORTUGAL.
NUMBER OF SPECIES.
GENERA.
AMERICAN
TRIAS.
JURASSIC OF
PORTUGAL.
Balerae nein
Brachyphyllum .. .
Cheirolepis .. . . .
Chondrites. ....
Cladophlehis .
Clathropteris .
Equisetum
Otozamites. ....
Pagiophyllum
Palissya.. .....
Pecopteris
Podozamites .. . .
Schizoneura.. ...
Voltzia
~~
FR OlLW Hd DB OW FW OO
WRWHWOWOR Dee oe
When we consider that the two horizons
do not at all overlap and that more than
three-fourths of the Portuguese plants come
from the uppermost members of the Juras-
sic, it is not to be expected that the corre-
spondence will be very close; and accord-
ingly we not only miss in the Portuguese
flora some of the largest American genera,
such as Acrostichites, Ctenophyllum, and
Pterophyllum, but also some of the most
striking and abundant forms, such as Macro-
teeniopteris, while on the other hand no
monocotyledons occur in the American
Trias so far as known, and the two largest
genera of ferns in the Portuguese Jurassic,
Sphenopteris and Scleropteris, are entirely
wanting in the American Trias.
THE CRETACEOUS FLORA.
THE Cretaceous flora of Portugal has
much greater interest for the student of
American paleobotany than the Jurassic
flora, which has just been considered.
First, because, as now known, it is consid-
erably larger, numbering 199 species, but
chiefly because we have in America a large
number of plant bearing deposits that cor-
respond so closely with those of Portugal
that a comparison may be legitimately
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 13.
made that furnishes valuable results. It is
true that our American Lower Cretaceous
flora has now been so extensively worked
that it has assumed relatively large propor-
tions, numbering, so far as known, over
800 species. The Potomac formation alone
furnishes no less than 737. The interest is
still further heightened by the fact that in
the Lower Cretaceous of both Portugal and
America, the plant bearing beds occur at a
number of distinct horizons, which may not
without profit be directly compared in the
two countries. For example, the Potomae
formation now furnishes at least five distinet
horizons from which fossil plants have been
obtained, the lowest being that of the James
River, which may extend as low as the top
of the Jurassic. The next higher is that so
well known at Fredericksburg, Virginia,
and other points on the Rappahannock and
Potomac Rivers. The third is the Mount
Vernon clays which directly overlie the
last named and have furnished a distinet
flora. The fourth is well developed in the
vicinity of Aquia Creek, the plant bearing
beds near Brooke, Virginia. The fifth is
undoubtedly much higher, and there appears —
to be a considerable thickness of non-fossil-
iferous deposits intervening between the
last named and those plant bearing beds
that have been discovered on the eastern
side of the District of Columbia and at
other points near Washington, on the
Severn River, and on the Eastern Shore of
the Chesapeake Bay, which have furnished a
flora substantially identical with that of
the Amboy clays on the Raritan River and
of Staten Island, Long Island and Mar-
thas Vineyard, as well as of the Tuscaloosa
formation of Alabama.
The Lower Cretaceous of Portugal is sub-
divided into a very similar series of plant
bearing deposits. One locality, Valle-de-
Brouco, is referred by Choffat to the In-
fravalanginian, which is at the very base of
the Neocomian and corresponds well with
|
:
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
our James River series. An important
plant bearing locality between Matta and
Valle-de-Lobos is regarded as Valanginian
or Neocomian. It may be compared with
the Fredericksburg beds of the Potomac
formation. The beds of Almargem, which
have furnished many species, overlie the
recognized Urgonian and probably belong
to the upper portion of that subdivision,
or possibly to the base of the next
one called by the French geologists the
Aptian. It corresponds quite closely with
the Kome beds of Greenland and may be
compared with the Mount Vernon clays of
the Potomac formation, though it is probably
higher. Then there isa series of beds in
the vicinity of Torres-Vedras, viz., at S.
Sebastiao, Quinta-da-Fonte-Nova, Forea,
Quinta-do-Chafariz, Portella-da-Villa, ete.,
and another series in the vicinity of Cercal
and Zambujeiro, which are classed as Aptian,
between which and the last named there is
a considerable interval, including marine
deposits belonging to the Urgonian. Cer-
tain other beds, as at Caixaria and Caran-
guejeira, are less definitely fixed geologic-
ally, but probably belong to about the same
horizon. The Aptian of the French geolo-
gists lies between the Urgonian below and
the Albian above, and corresponds in the
main with the lower Greensand of England.
It may be compared with those deposits of
the Potomac formation near Aquia Creek
ealled the Brooke beds by Professor Fon-
taine, which have yielded a large number of
fossil plants, including such well-marked
dicotyledons as Celastrophyllum and Sapin-
dophyllum.
_ Above these beds there is an abundant
plant locality at Buarcos, which is classed
as Albian, and still higher others at Naza-
reth, Aleanede and Monsanto, also regarded
as Albian, but as belonging to that upper-
most member called Vraconnian. The Al-
bian corresponds in a general way with the
Gault and is the uppermost section of the
>»
~
SCIENCE.
541
Lower Cretaceous, the overlying beds being
Cenomanian, which is the lowest subdivision
of the Upper Cretaceous. These Albian
plant bearing beds may be roughly compared
with what has been called in America the
Amboy clays, but which has recently been
more correctly named by Professor William
B. Clark the Raritan formation. In Amer-
ica, as in Portugal, this deposit may also be
divided into two parts, a lower and an upper,
the former consisting of the beds along the
Raritan, which themselves have a consider-
able thickness and show marked changes in
the flora, while to the latter belong the de-
posits on Staten Island, Long Island and
Martha’s Vineyard, which have yielded
large collections chiefly from indurated no-
dules formed in red clay.
Finally, in the Valley of Alcantara, at
Padro, Pombal and Villa-Verde-de-Tentu-
gal, there are plant bearing beds belonging
tothe Cenomanian. It is possible that these
latter may not be higher than those of Long
Island and Gay Head.
The floras of the several horizons in the
Lower Cretaceous of Portugal differ less in
their abundance than those of the Jurassic;
the largest is that of the Valanginian,
amounting to 86 species or over 43 per cent.;
the Urgonian has yielded only 25 species or
12 per cent., the Aptian 42 species or a little
more than 21 per cent., the Lower Albian
58 species or over 25 per cent., and the Up-
per Albian or Vraconnian 28 species or 14
per cent. The striking coincidence of the
parallelism between these horizons and those
of the Potomac formation in America is still
further heightened by the circumstance, ac-
cidental perhaps, that the numerical pro-
portion existing between the species now
known at the corresponding horizons in
America is very nearly thesame. The Basal
Potomac, corresponding to the Vraconnian,
has yielded 329 species or a little over 44
per cent.; the Mount Vernon clays, which
were compared with the Urgonian, 42 species
342
or somewhat less than 6 per cent.; the Aquia
Creek beds, corresponding to the Aptian, 137
species or rather more than 18 per cent.;
the Raritan beds and their equivalents, com-
pared to the lower Albian, 264 species or
nearly 36 per cent.; and the uppermost beds
of Marthas Vineyard, Long Island and
Staten Island, which may be called the
Island Series and compared to the Vraconni-
an, 183 species or 18 per cent. These results
may be put in the following tabular form :
LOWER CRETACEOUS OF | POTOMAC FORMATION OF
PORTUGAL. THE UNITED STATES.
“ PER PER
HORIZONS. aia HORIZONS. Cant
Vraconnian . . ./ 14 | Island series. . .} 18
Lower Albian . .| 29 | Amboy Clays, etc..| 36
Aquia Creek
Aptian. .... 2 (Brooke) Series.| 18
Urgonian ..../| 12 | Mt. Vernon Clays.| 6
James and Rappa-
Neocomian.. ..| 43 vhannock Series .| 44
It will be remembered that the Mount
Vernon clays have been very little devel-
oped as: yet, and when this florula is thor-
oughly known it will probably fully equal
that of the Almargem beds of Portugal, rel-
atively to the total Potomac flora.
Taking the Cretaceous flora of Portugal
as a whole, exclusive of the Cenomanian, it
is found to consist of 4 alge, 1 species of
Isoetes, 3 of Lycopodites, 1 of Equisetum,
80 of ferns, 15 of cycads, 26 of conifers, 4 of
anomalous types, classed by the author un-
der the head of Proangiosperms, 18 of mo-
nocotyledons, 41 of dicotyledons, and 6 of
forms of uncertain affinity.
It will be seen that as in the Jurassic, so
in the Cretaceous the ferns predominate ;
and of these, 32 species belong to the genus
Sphenopteris and 10 to Cladophlebis; 7 of
the eycads belong to the genus Podozamites,
and 3 to Glossozamites. “The conifers are
much more evenly distributed, there being
4 species of Brachyphyllum, and 3 each of
Sphenolepidium and Thuyites, while a large
SCIENCE.
[N. S.. Vou. I. No. 13.
number of genera have only one or two
species ; among these are Abietites, Baiera,
Cheirolepis, Frenelopsis, Pagiophyllum,
Paleeocyparis, Paleolepis, Sequoia and
Widdringtonites. The genera referred to
the Proangiosperms are Changarniera, Eo-
lirion, Yuccites, Delgadopsis and Protor-
hipis, some of which will require special
mention further on. Half of the monocot-
yledons consist of grass-like objects referred
to poacites, some of which he classes under
the Proangiosperms, and others as true mo-
nocotyledons. The dicotyledonous flora is
here well developed, but most of the forms
occur in the Albian. Seven species are refer-
red to a new genus, Proteophyllum, a name
too near Protophyllum of Lesquereux, and
Protezephyllum of Fontaine, but the forms
are different from both these; 4 to the new
genus Dicotylophyllum, ana 3 each to
Eucalyptus and Salix.
In comparing the Cretaceous flora of
Portugal with that of America it is true
that we only find a few species that are
common to the two countries, really only
five, as follows:
Pecopteris Brauniana Dunk.
Sphenolepidium Kurrianum (Dunk.)
Heer.
Sphenolepidium Sternbergianum (Dunk. )
Heer. ;
Sphenopteris Mantelli Brongn.
Sphenopteris valdensis Heer,
the last of which only occurs doubtfully in
the Trinity of Texas.
Add to these Sequoir subulata, of which a
‘very near variety lusitanica, has been found
in the Portuguese beds. :
We should not, of course, expect the
species to be common to any great extent,
and the comparison is practically limited to
the genera. Looked at from this point of
view, we see that the resemblance is indeed
close, a great number of the important
genera occurring in both floras. There are —
no less than 46 of these common to the two,
:
:
7
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
though in some cases the author’s indi-
viduality is probably alone responsible for
slight differences of termination in the
names. For example, forms referred to
Baiera by one would be referred to Baieri-
opsis by the other, and so with Ctenis and
Ctenidium, Myrsine and Myrsinophyllum,
Oleandra and Oleandridium, Salix and
Saliciphyllum, Thuya and Thuyites, ete.
Many of these genera, when we consider
the difference in the size of the two floras,
occur in both countries in nearly the same
proportion. For example, of Aralia we
have in Portugal 2 species, in America 11; of
Brachyphyllum, in Portugal 4, in America
9; of Cladophlebis, in Portugal 10, in
America 25 ; of Frenelopsis, in Portugal 2,
in America 6; of Laurus, in Portugal 2, in
America 8; of Myrica, in Portugal 2, in
America 11; of Podozamites, in Portugal
7, in America 15; of Sphenolepidium, in
Portugal 3, in America 9, ete. There are,
of course, some cases in which the propor-
tion isnot the same. Thus, only one species
of Magnolia occurs in the Portuguese beds,
while in America we have 12, and on the
other hand the largest Portuguese genus,
Sphenopteris, represented there by 32
species, counts in America only 8 species.
But here it may be supposed that the true
representative in America of the Sphenop-
teris type of Portugal is really that exceed-
ingly abundant genus Thyrsopteris, which
numbers 40 species in the American beds.
This would restore the relative proportions.
On the whole, then, it may be considered
that the Lower Cretaceous flora of Portu-
gal is botanically speaking a very close rep-
etition of that of America; and in view
of the fact that in both countries a number
of distinct horizons showing the progressive
_ change in the flora throughout that period
_ haye yielded fossil plants in such a way
that each of these florules may also be com-
pared, the interest in the subject is almost
fascinating.
-
)
ae
SCIENCE. 343
ARCHETYPAL ANGIOSPERMS.
Spacek will only permit the consideration
of one other important aspect, viz., a com-
parison of the dicotyledonous forms in the
two countries, together with those ancestral
types which the Marquis Saporta regards as
prophetic of that great group of plants.
This last question may be considered first.
He finds among the specimens certain
forms which he refers to the genus Protor-
hipis of Andre. This genus was founded
in 1855 upon some remarkable forms from
the Lias of Steierdorf in Banat, Hungary,*
which Andre regarded as a fern and placed
under the Pecopteridex. He compares it
with Jeanpaulia, which has since been
proved identical with Baiera and correctly
referred to the Conifers; also to Cyclop-
teris, Comptopteris, Diplodictyum, and
Thaumatopteris, among fossils, and to
Platycerium, among living ferns.
When I first saw the figure of his Pro-
torhipis Buchii, I had grave doubts of its
being a fern and fully believed that it rep-
resented some higher type of vegetation. I
am,therefore, not surprised that the Marquis
Saporta has arrived at the same conclusion,
and am highly gratified that he has had
the courage to give it publicity, notwith-
standing the fact that Schimper, Schenk,
Heer and Nathorst have all been content to
regard it as a fern of the type of Drynaria,
Platycerium, Allosorus, Clathropteris and
the other living and fossil forms already
mentioned.
In 1865 Zigno discovered another species,
which, however, differs in a marked man-
ner from the original of Andrx, having the
margin entire. It isa small, deeply kidney-
shaped leaf resembling that of some species
of Asarum and was named P. asarifolia.
This comes from the Oolite of Italy.+
*Lias-Flora von Steierdorf im Banate, by C. J.
Andre, Abhandl. geol. Reichsanst., Vol. II., Abth.
3, No. 4, 1855, pp. 35-36, pl. vili., fig. 1.
+ Fl. Foss. Form. Oolithice, Vol. I, 1865, p. 180,
pl. ix., fig. 2, 2a.
344
The forms described by Nathorst in
1878,* though much smaller are otherwise
similar to P. Buchii, and Nathorst at first
proposed to refer one of them to that spe-
cies, but later concluded that it was dis-
tinct and made two species, P. integrifolia
and P. crenata. j
In 1880 Heer described another small
cordate form from the Oolite of Siberia. It
is similar to Zigno’s species and was named
P. reniformis.t Two years later, however,
he found another similar form in the Kome
beds, Urgonian, which is rather cordate
than reniform and which he called P. cor-
data.{ Both these forms have the margin
entire.
Saporta in this work has revised all these
forms and comes to the conclusion that
they cannot be ferns, and although the
original P. Buchii and both of Nathorst’s
species so closely resemble dicotyledonous
leaves and are somewhat comparable in
nervation to Credneria and some fossil Vi-
burnums, as well as to such living genera as
Glechoma and Chrysosplenium, still he hes-
itates to class them in that group. He has
carefully refigured both of Nathorst’s speci-
mens, and also one that Nathorst figured
without naming but regarded as probably
a monocotyledon, but which Saporata con-
siders to belong to the same type and calls
P. Nathorstti. And these he carefully com-
pares with the Portuguese form which he
names P. Choffati, and classes the whole in
special group which he long ago created and
denominated the Proangiosperms, as repre-
senting the forerunners of both the mono-
cotyledons and dicotyledons. The Portu-
guese species comes from Cercal, which
Choffat places in the Aptian; it is therefore
probably somewhat higher than the Kome
*FI. Bjuf. Heft 1, p. 42; Heft 2, p. 57, pl. ix.,
figs. 2, 4.
T Fl. Foss. Arct., Vol. VI., Abth. 1, Pt. 1, p. 8,
pl. 1, fig. 4a.
tIbid., Abth. 2, p. 11, pl. iii, fig. 11.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 13.
beds of Greenland from which Heer de-
rives one of his species ; all the others, of
course, are of far more ancient origin, viz.,
Jurassic, and it is not to be wondered at
that no one should have ventured to refer
them to any modern type.
Of the other four genera referred to this
group, viz., Changarniera, Yuccites, Delga-
dopsis and Eolirion, the first two come
from the Valanginian (Neocomian) of S.
Sebatiao, the third from the Aptian of Cer-
cal, and the last from the Albian of Buar-
cos. They all seem to be ancestral mono-
cotyledons. Delgadopsis occurs in two
forms: first, as a sort of culm or broad stri-
ate stem; and secondly,in the form of a
jointed rhizome, the swollen joints emitting
innumerable rootlets, which, when absent,
leave peculiar scars.
Choffatia Francheti, regarded by the author
as a dicotyledon, is also a very remarkable
plant, and has been aptly compared by him
to certain euphorbiaceous forms, such as
Phyllanthus. It also resembles some
species of Euphorbia. It seems to be a
floating aquatic, and specimens with the
fibrous roots occur in the collection. In
some of these descending fibers occupy one
side of the stem or rachis, while the floating
or aerial leaves occupy the other.
Upon the whole, it cannot be said that any
of these higher types, found below the
Albian, and corresponding in age to our mid-
dle and older Potomae, very closely resemble
the plants of the same general class from
the American beds of that age, and yet there
are certain Potomac forms referred by Pro-
fessor Fontaine to Menispermites, Hedere-
phyllum, Protezephyllum and Populophyl-
lum, whose areolate nervation somewhat re-
sembles that of Protorhipis Chojfati. The
new genus Dicotylophyllum, of which he
finds four species in the Aptian of Cereal,
and which he very properly regards as a
true dicotyledon, somewhat resembles the
Protorhipis, but lacks the peculiar areolate
~~ —
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
nervation. These leavesare all quite small,
but show a somewhat distinct midrib, and
usually 2-4 lateral primaries. In form they
recall some species of Vitis or Cissities, and
D. cerciforme, while not resembling Cercis,
as the specific name would imply, has many
of the characteristics of Hedera. It may be
roughly compared with Professor Fontaine’s
Vitiphyllum from the Potomac of Baltimore,
and except in size D. hederaceum and D.
corrugatum are fairly comparable with Pop-
ulophyllum reniforme (cf. Fl. Pot., pl. elvi.,
f. 3).
In the Albian beds of Buarcos, and es-
pecially in the Vraconnian of Nazareth, we
begin to find some of the higher types.
But the genus Proteophyllum has still a
very ancient appearance with a more or
less areolate neryation. It is a narrowly
- lobed leaf, remotely recalling in its general
form some species of Dewalquea. It may
be possible to trace this form into his Aralia
calomorpha from the same beds. His Adowxa
_ preatavia is a very peculiar plant, which
also reminds one of Vitiphyllum Font., al-
though none of the species of the latter ge-
nus which show the branching character
have yet been figured. His Braseniopsis ve-
nulosa has some of the characteristics of
Protophyllum of Lesquereux, but is usually
smaller and always entire; the nervation is
also different, except at the base of the leaf,
which has a large expansion below the sum-
mit of the petiole, as in Protophyllum.
Myrsinophyllum revisendum will doubtles have
to be revised. It is much like Potomac
forms that have been referred to Myrica (e.
g., M. brookensis) and Celastrophyllum. It
is entirely different from the Myrsine bore-
alis of Heer, which, with two other species,
occur in the Amboy clays and Tuscaloosa
formation. His Geranium lucidum is an ex-
eeedingly definite and handsome form, but
it is hard to separate it generically from his
Cissites sinuosus, and all of these seem to be
analogous to our Vitiphyllum. His Menis-
i
SCIENCE. 345
permites cercidifolius, though much smaller,
is not unlike Professor Fontaine’s M. Vir-
giniensis, especially the smaller forms which
I have found in the Mt. Vernon clays. His
Aralia proxima can scarcely be distinguished
from M, Wellingtoniana of the Dakota group,
more common in the Newer Potomac.
It is only in the Nazareth beds ( Vracon-
nian) that we find the typical Amboy Clay
flora. Here we have the Eucalyptus,
Laurus (Laurophyllum), Salix, Myrsino-
phyllum, Sapindophyllum, ete., some of
which are probably specifically identical
with forms described by Newberry, and it
is altogether probable that if the post-
humous work of Dr. Newberry, now in
press, had been in the hands of the present
author a large number of the species would
have been identified with American forms.
I will only notice one other significant
fact. In the Cenomanian beds which over-
lie these last, as it would seem unconform-
ably, but which may not be so widely
separated from them as has been supposed,
there occurs a large elongated leaf which
the Marquis has called Chondrophyton lace-
ratum. It agrees only in its finer nervation
with C. dissectum Sap. and Mar., the only
other species.* It has a very delicate
nervation with small polygonal meshes, and
an entire paryphodrome margin, but the
remarkable fact is that it seems to have a
deeply retuse summit. It is evident that
from the specimen the author was unable
to make this latter out with certainty ; but
he has drawn the marginal lines so as dis-
tinetly to indicate it. So desirous was he
that this leaf snould be correctly repre-
sented that he has given us two interpre-
tations from drawings made at different
times, figs. 4, 5 of pl. xxxvili. He states
that he considers figure 5 to represent the
form better than figure 4 ; and it is in this
*L. Evolution du Régne Végétal. Par Saporta et
Marion. Les Phan¢érogames, Vol. II., Paris, 1885, p.
120, fig. 126.
346 |
that the terminal lobation is most clearly
shown. A comparison of this figure with
the numerous specimens of Liriodendropsis
simplex of Newberry leaves no doubt what-
ever that the Portuguese plant is at least a
congener of the American plant, and it is
just possible that it may belong to the same
species. As this form has been three times
published* it is a little surprising that
Saporta did not think to compare it with
the Portuguese plant. There are differences
in the finer nervation, but this is also per-
ceptible between bis two drawings of the
same specimen ; these also differ in different
specimens of the American plant, and one
or two other species remain to be published.
When all the material is illustrated most
of these differences will disappear. If any
remain it can be ascribed to difference of
age and geographical position.
Lester F. Warp.
W ASHINGTON.
EXPLANATION OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
FROM INFECTIOUS DISEASES.+
Ir has long been known that, in a con-
siderable number of infectious diseases, a
single attack, however mild, affords protec-
tion against subsequent attacks of the same
disease ; that in some cases this protection
appears to be permanent, lasting during the
life of the individual ; that in others it is
more or less temporary, as shown by the
occurrence of a subsequent attack.
The protection afforded by a single attack
not only differs in different diseases, but in
the same disease varies greatly in different
individuals. Thus certain individuals have
been known to suffer several attacks of
small-pox or of scarlet fever, although, as a
* Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. XIV., New York,
Jan. 1887, p. 6, pl. lxii, figs. 2, 3,4; Am. Journ.
Sci., Vol. XXXIX., New Haven, February, 1890, p.
98, pl. ii., figs. 6, 7: Trams. N. Y. Acad, Sci., Vol.
XI., 1892, p. 102, pl. ii., figs. 2-7, 9.
{ Abstract of a paper read before the Biological
Society of Washington, March 9, 1895.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 13.
rule, a single attack is protective. Excep-
tional susceptibility or insusceptibility may
be not only an individual but a family char-
acteristic, or it may belong to a particular —
race.
In those diseases in which second attacks
are not infrequent, as, for example, in pneu-
monia, in influenza or in Asiatic cholera,
it is difficult to judge from clinical experi-
ence whether a first attack exerts any pro-
tective influence. But from experiments
upon the lower animals, we are led to be-
lieve that a certain degree of immunity,
lasting for a longer or shorter time, is af-
forded by an attack of pneumonia or of
cholera, and probably of all infections due
to bacterial parasites. In the malarial
fevers, which are due to a parasite of a
different class, one attack affords no pro-
tection, but rather predisposes to a subse-
quent attack.
In those diseases in which a single at-
tack is generally recognized as being pro-
tective, exceptional cases occur in which
subsequent attacks are developed as a re-
sult of unusual susceptibility or exposure
under circumstances especially favorable to
infection. Maiselis has recently (1894)
gone through the literature accessible to
him for the purpose of. determining the fre-
quency with which second attacks occur in
the various diseases below mentioned. The
result is as follows:
Second Third Fourth
Attacks. Attacks. Attacks. Total.
Small-pox .. 505 9 0 514
Scarlet fever . 29 4 0 33
Measles ... 36 1 0 37
Typhoid fever. 202 5 1 208
Cholera .. . 29 3 2 34
Recent researches indicate that the prin-
cipal factor in the production of acquired
immunity is the presence, in the blood of
the immune animal, of some substance ca-
pable of neutralizing the toxic products of
the particular pathogenic microdrganism
MARCH 29, 1895.]
against which immunity exists, or of de-
stroying the germ itself.
The substances which destroy the toxic
products of pathogenic bacteria are called
antitoxins. As pointed out by Buchner in a
recent paper, the antitoxins differ essentially
from the so-called alexins, to which natural
immunity is ascribed. The alexins are char-
acterized by their germicidal and globulici-
dal action—they destroy both the red cor-
puscles and the leucocytes of animals belong-
ing to a different species from that from
which they have been obtained, and by
their coagulability and _ instability — de-
stroyed by sunlight and by a temperature
of 50° to 55° C. On the other hand, the
antitoxins best known (diphtheria and te-
tanus) have no germicidal or globulicidal
action ; they resist the action of sunlight
and require a temperature of 70° to 80° C.
for their destruction.
Our knowledge of the antitoxins dates
from the experiments made in the Hygienic
Institute of Tokio, by Ogata and Jasuhara,
in 1890. These bacteriologists discovered
the important fact that the blood of an
animal immune against anthrax contains
some substance which neutralizes the toxic
products of the anthrax bacillus.
In the same year (1890) Behring and
Kitasato discovered that the blood of an
animal which has an acquired immunity
against tetanus or diphtheria, when added
to a virulent culture of one or the other of
these bacilli, neutralizes the pathogenic
power of such cultures, as shown by inocu-
lation into susceptible animals. And also
that cultures from which the bacilli have
been removed by filtration, and which kill
susceptible ariimals in very small amounts,
have their toxic potency destroyed by adding
to them the blood of an immune animal,
which is thus directly proved to contain an
antitoxin which comparative experiments
show not to be present in the blood of non-
_ immune animals.
r
i
SCIENCE. 347
During the past two or three years nu-
merous additional experiments have been
reported which confirm the results already
referred to, and show that immunity may
be produced in a similar manner against the
toxie products of various other pathogenic
bacteria—the typhoid bacillus, the ‘ colon
bacillus,’ streptococcus pyogenes, staphylo-
coecus pyogenes aureus and albus, ete.
The Italian investigators, Tizzoni and
Centanni, in 1892, published a preliminary
communication in which they gave the re-
sults of experiments which appear to show
that in guinea-pigs treated with tuberculin,
by Koch’s method, a substance is devel-
oped which neutralizes the pathogenic po-
tency of the tubercle bacillus. Professor
Tizzoni and his associate, Dr. Schwarz, have
also (1892) obtained evidence that there is
an antitoxin of rabies. Blood-serum taken
from a rabbit having an artificial immunity
against this disease was found to neutralize,
in vitro, the virulence of the spinal marrow of
a rabid animal after a contact of five hours.
Professor Ehrlich, of Berlin, in 1891,
published the results of some researches
which have an important bearing upon the
explanation of acquired immunity, and
which show that susceptible animals may
be made immune against the action of cer-
tain toxic proteids of vegetable origin,
other than those produced by bacteria ;
also that this immunity depends upon the
presence of an antitoxin in the blood-serum
of the immune animals.
The experiments of Ehrlich were made
with two very potent toxalbumins—one
ricin, from the castor-oil bean ; the other,
abrin, from the jequirity bean. The toxic
potency of ricin is somewhat greater than
that of abrin, and it is estimated by Ehr-
lich that 1 gm. of this substance would suf-
fice to kill one and a half million of guinea-
pigs. When injected beneath the skin in
dilute solution it produces intense local in-
flammation, resulting in necrosis. Mice are
348
less susceptible than guinea-pigs, and are
more easily made immune. This is most
readily accomplished by giving them small
and gradually increasing doses with their
food. As a result of this treatment the
animal resists subcutaneous injections of
200 to 300 times the fatal dose for animals
not having this artificial immunity.
Ehrlich gives the following explanation
of the remarkable degree of immunity es-
tablished in his experiments by the method
mentioned :
“All of these phenomena depend, as may easily
be shown, upon the fact that the blood contains a
body—antiabrin—which completely neutralizes the
action of the abrin, probably by destroying this
body.”’
In a later paper (1892) Ehrlich has given
an account of subsequent experiments which
show that the young of mice which have an
acquired immunity for these vegetable tox-
albumins may acquire immunity from the
ingestion of their mother’s milk; and also
thatimmunity from tetanus may be acquired
in a brief time by young mice through their
mother’s milk.
A most interesting question presents it-
self in connection with the discovery of the
antitoxins. Does.the animal which is im-
mune from the toxie action of any particu-
lar toxalbumin also have an immunity for
other toxic proteids of the same class? The
experimental evidence on record indicates
that it does not. In Ehrlich’s experiments
with ricin and abrin he ascertained that an
animal which had been made immune
against one of these substances was quite as
susceptible to the toxic action of the other
as if it did not possess this immunity, 7. e.,
the anti-toxin of ricin does not destroy
abrin, and vice versa.
We have also experimental evidence that
animals may acquire a certain degree of
immunity from the toxie action of the
venom of the rattlesnake. This was first
demonstrated by Sewall (1887), and has
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 13.
been recently confirmed by Calmette (1894).
In his paper detailing the results of his
experiments the author last named says:
“Animals may be immunized against the venom of-
serpents either by means of repeated injections of
doses at first feeble and progressively stronger, or by
means of successive injections of venom mixed with
certain chemical substances, among which I mention
especially chloride of gold and the hypochlorites of
lime or soda.
“The serum of animals thus treated is at the same
time preventive, antitoxic and therapeutic, exactly
as is that of animals immunized against diphtheria or
tetanus.
“Tf we inoculate a certain number of rabbits, un-
der the skin of the thigh, with the same dose, 1
miller. of cobra venom, for example, and, if we treat
all of these animals, with the exception of some for
control, by subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injections
of the serum of rabbits immunized against four
millers. of the same venom, all of the control ani-
mals not treated will die within three or four hours,
while all of the animals will recover which receive
5 ¢. ¢. of the therapeutic serum within an hour after
receiving the venom.”’
As a rule the antitoxins have no bacteri-
cidal action; but it has been shown, by
the experiments of Gamaleia, Pfeiffer and
others, that in animals which have an
acquired immunity against the spirillum
of Asiatic cholera and against spirillum
Metchnikovi there is a decided increase in
the bactericidal power of the blood-serum,
and that immunity probably depends upon
this fact.
Certain important questions present them-
selves in connection with the production of
antitoxins and germicidal substances in the
blood of immune animals, one of which is:
Is the production of the antitoxin contin-
uous while immunity lasts, or does it occur
only during the modified attack which re-
sults from inoculation with an attenuated
virus, or of filtered cultures, the antitoxin
being subsequently retained in the circula-
ting blood? The latter supposition does
not appear very plausible, but it must be
remembered that these antitoxins do not
dialyze—i. e., they do not pass through ani-
Marcu 29, 1895. ]
mal membranes—and consequently would
not readily escape from the blood-vessels,
notwithstanding the fact that they are held
in solution in the circulating fluid. On the
other hand, the passage of the tetanus anti-
toxin into the mother’s milk would indicate
a continuous supply, otherwise the immu-
nity of the mother would soon be lost. Fur-
ther experiments are required to settle this
question in a definite manner, and also to
determine the exact source of the antitoxins
in the animal body and the modus operandi
of their production.
Gero. M. STERNBERG.
WASHINGTON.
REMARKING THE MEXICAN BOUNDARY.
Mr. A. T. Mosman, assistant in the U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, one of the com-
missioners on the part of the United States,
presented an interesting summary of the
work at a meeting of the National Geo-
graphic Society in Washington on the 8th
inst.
At the initial meeting of the commis-
sioners for the two countries, it was agreed
that any of the old monuments recovered
should be taken as defining the line; that
new monuments should be interpolated be-
tween them, so that no two monuments
should be more than 8000 metres apart, as
required by the new treaty. The line had
been marked under the treaty of 1853, by
52 monuments; the commissioners found
38 of these standing in 1891. On the paral-
lels the new monuments mark the curve of
the parallel, but on the oblique lines the
monuments recovered were not accurately
located on the line joining their extremities,
and the boundary on these lines as now
marked is, therefore, a broken line. Old
monuments were recovered at all important
points on the boundary, including all points
where the line changed direction, but the
_ distances between them were unequal, and
in one instance exceeded 100 miles. The
SCIENCE.
‘observations were made with
349
line from El Paso on the Rio Grande to San
Diego on the Pacific, 700 miles, is now de-
fined by 258 monuments.
The field work required the redetermina-
tion of the geographic positions of the old
monuments recovered, and presents some
interesting comparisons showing the facility
and certainty of modern methods. The
longitudes of the old monuments were de-
termined by Emory from transits of the
moon and moon culminating stars. In the
relocation the longitudes were determined
by the telegraphic method, connected with
the geodetic work of the Coast Survey by
coast survey parties working in conjunction
with the commissioners. The greatest dif-
ference developed from Emory’s positions
was 4’ 34.3 with other differences of 34”
and 54” and still smaller quantities show-
ing the old work to have been remarkably
good forthe method. The latitude stations
in the new work were about 20 miles apart
over the whole line, and at each station an
azimuth was observed on Polaris near
elongation to start the direction for the new
tangent for the parallel and check the tan-
gent ending at the station. The latitude
the zenith
telescope formerly used on the N. W. boun-
dary, but improved with new micrometer
and levels. The telescope has a_ focal
length of 826 mm., and the objective a clear
diameter of 67 mm. A new departure was
made in mounting the instrument on a
wooden pier constructed in a simple form,
readily transported. Its stability proved
as great as a brick or stone cemented pier,
as it was not uncommon to secure a whole
night’s work without relevelling, and the
instrument invariably remained for several
hours with level correction less than one
div.—1’.28. The probable errors of the
latitude determinations from the U. 8. ob-
servers = + 0’.03 to 0.4. The Mexican
observations have not yet been received.
The plan of operations agreed upon required
300
independent determinations by the repre-
sentatives of both governments. This was
not practicable in the longitude determina-
tions, but in the latitudes, running the
parallels and locations of the numerous
monuments, it was strictly carried out. The
mean difference in the location of the 258
monuments, was less than three-tenths of a
metre ; the maximum difference was only
1.8 m., which occurred in locating a point
about midway between two old monuments
100 miles apart, and over a very rough
mountainous country, where the distances
between water holes was over 60 miles.
The angular variations of the lines run by
the two parties at. this point was a little
more than three seconds.
The final results from the astronomical
observations were required for immediate
use on the ground; to permit the computa-
tions the mean declinations for the stars for
latitude had been furnished by Professor T.
H. Safford, of Amherst. In this way the
latitude and azimuth were always available
within three or four days after the observa-
tions were completed, a feature of such work
that, it is believed, has not heretofore been
attempted.
list of the stars furnished by Professor Saf-
ford, some 600, will be published in the re-
port of the commission, to be available for
future work in the same latitude.
In locating the intermediate monuments
the commission made use of the stadia, with
gratifying results. On the parallel of 31°
47’ for a distance of 100 miles both chain
and stadia were used for the purpose of com-
parison. It was found that the stadia was
much more reliable than the chain, even on
the desert, and in a rough country was much
superior. The whole line was measured
by both the American and Mexican engi-
neers independently ; when the two results
for any distance differed more than one part
in 500, remeasurements were made by steel
tape or triangulation to discover the error.
SCIENCE.
Mr. Mosman promises that a °
[N. S. Voz. I. No. 13.
Many lines determined by triangulation
were compared with the lengths determined
by stadia, and the results showed that the
stadia measurement could be relied on
within one part in 1000. One line of 45
miles measured over rolling sand hills dif-
fered by one part in 1800 only.
In addition to the astronomical work, a
strip of topography was surveyed on the
American side 24 miles wide, and a line of
levels was run with the wye level from the
Rio Grande to San Diego, giving the eleva-
tion of each monument above mean tide of
the Pacific Ocean. The levels were checked
at Yuma with R. R. levels from San Fran-
cisco, Showing the infinitismal discrepancy
of two hundredths of a metre, probably an
accident. At the Rio Grande there is a
discrepancy of about two metres, but the
datum plane for the R. R. levels at this
place is not known. O.
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND ITS RE-
LATION TO PHILOSOPHY.
Ir any one should ask me, ‘ What is phys-
ics?’ I would tell him to study in the phys-
ical laboratory for ten years and then
what he had learned by the time he was
through would be the nearest he could get
to an answer to the question. So to the
question, ‘ What is science ?’ I can give no
other general answer than that to anyone
itis just what he knows about it. I can,
however, give as a particular answer what
I have in my own experience found science
to be.
Science consists of weighing evidence and
stamping each statement with an index of
its reliability. That thesun moves around
the earth is, according to the evidence at
present produced, a statement with a relia-
bility of 0. That the earth moves around
the sun, we at the present day stamp as
certain. That Mars contains living beings
is to-day stamped as quite improbable.
On the scale of probability where 0 means
Z
MARcH 29, 1895.]
not at all probable, and 1 means secure, $
means indifferent, we might say that such
a statement regarding Mars would have a
probability perhaps of 5.
The difference between the unscientific
and the scientific mind lies in the extent of
evidence. The woman who lately left a
fund for a prize to the one who shall estab-
lish communication with Mars had gathered
enough evidence to give, in her mind, a
high degree of probability to the supposi-
tion of the possibility of such an under-
taking. And yet the members of the
French Academy who accepted the money
in the sense that it should go to the one
making the best contribution to our know-
ledge of Mars were evidently in possession
of enough further evidence to attach a very
small degree of probability to the supposi-
tion.
This is the actual work of all the sciences.
_ We eannot and dare not make statements
except just so far as warranted by the facts.
If you say that the act of discrimination
- inereases the time of thought, the psycholo-
gist must answer yes, with a high degree of
probability, because carefully collected ex-
perimental evidence points that way. If
you say that consciousness is continuous
during sleep, the psychologist must answer
that reliable evidence is lacking, and that
he is entitled to no opinion either way.
We often hear, from philosophers of the
old school, the statement that the facts of
the universe are divided into classes, each
of which is given over to a science for in-
vestigation regarding details, while the gen-
eral conclusions are reserved for the phil-
osophers.
I must object to the limitation of science
to the investigation of individual facts.
Many of the problems with which a scien-
tist is most directly concerned are the most
general of all. The subject of time is one
to which the psychologist and the astrono-
mer devote their special attention. There
&
2
SCIENCE. 351
can hardly be anything more general than
the great independent variable, as it is
called. Likewise space forms a problem
for geometry, physics and psychology.
As every scientist knows, an _ investi-
gator in one science is forced to learn a
dozen other sciences ; the more he special-
izes, the more remotely must he go for his
information. For example, the specialist
in experimental psychology is obliged to be
more or less familiar with the science of
measurement, with the astronomical deter-
mination of time, with portions of meteor-
ology, with physics, with portions of organic
chemistry and physical chemistry, with
statistics, ethics, anthropology, ete., etc.
The mediyal philosopher likes to bottle
things up and label them, but the modern
sciences are too lively specimens for that
process.
This brings me to the question of the re-
lation of science to philosophy. According
to Wundt the work of philosophy is to take
up and discuss the most general questions,
time, space, number, ete., which cannot be
handled by the particular sciences.
But let us consider a moment. Suppose
the U. 8. Government wishes a report on
Lake Tahoe. It would go to the geographer
to learn where it is, to the U. 8. Survey to
learn its measurements, to the chemist to
know its composition, to the meteorologist
to inquire about its weather, to the land
owners for the price of land, to the boatman
to learn the sailing qualities, ete., ete. It
would print the reports all side by side for
each reader to assimilate as he would or
could. What it would not do would be to
send out a special agent who should look
into these matters himself and make his
own report. We very well know that such
agents filter through more of themselves
than of the facts ; they see what they bring
eyes to see, and no one can be master of a
dozen sciences or trades.
Suppose, however, it is desired to have a
302
treatment of the subject of ‘time.’ Wundt
would propose that a special agent, called
a philosopher, should gather up all he can
from everybody and should present it as he
thinks best. So with all the other funda-
mental questions. The result is that we
have as many systems of philosophy as we
have writers. Would it not be better to
get the astronomer to present his experience
with time, then the physicist to present his,
then the psychologist, and so on? The
reader can then assimilate what he is able,
instead of accepting it as previously assimi-
lated by the philosopher, as a kind of ‘ pre-
digested’ food.
A somewhat similar thought was spoken
by Paulsen some yearsago. I do not know
if he has stated it in print. He considered
that the day of philosophical systems was
past ; there could be text-books of philos-
ophy as well as text-books of all sorts of
things, but philosophy itself would consist
of monographs by specialists.
Of course, on such conditions as these, .
we should be obliged to conclude that phil-
osophy has no relation to the sciences and
that, having the astronomer, the mathema-
tician, the physicist, the geologist, the
psychologist, the economist and all the
others, we can entirely dispense with the
philosopher.
E. W. Scrrerure.
YALE UNIVERSITY.
‘SCIENCE.’
[THE following article, contributed by
one of the original supporters of ScIENCE,
will prove of interest to those who are not
acquainted with the earlier history of the
journal. All men of science are under very
great obligations to Mr. Bell and Mr.
Hubbard for establishing a weekly journal
of science in America at a time when the
conditions were less favorable than at pres-
ent; to Mr. Scudder for the high standard
maintained during his editorship, and to
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 13.
Mr. Hodges for his faithful and untiring ef-
forts on behalf of the journal.
J. McK. C.]
In 1882 Mr. A. Graham Bell conceived
the idea of establishing a scientifie journal,
which should do for America what ‘ Nature’
does for England. For this purpose, he was
willing to contribute, with the codperation
of Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard, the sum of
twenty-five thousand dollars, which, in the
estimation of good judges, would be suffi-
cient to start a weekly paper and put it on
a paying basis. Mr. Bell furnished the
larger proportion of this sum. Mr. Samuel
H. Scudder, of Cambridge, Mass., beeame
the editor. President Gilman, of Johns
Hopkins ; Major Powell, of the Geological
Survey ; Professor Newcomb, of the Nautic-
al Almanac; Professor O. C. Marsh, of New
Haven ; and Professor Trowbridge, of Co-
lumbia College, agreed to give their advice,
and to act with Messrs. Bell, Hubbard and
Scudder as a Board of Directors. This
board, representing different interests and
localities, possessed great weight with the
entire community, and was believed to be
generally acceptable to scientists.
The first number of ‘Science’ appeared
February 9, 1883, some six or eight months
subsequent to the conception of the idea.
Mr. Moses King, the first publisher, retired
the succeeding September. Shortly after,
Mr. C. L. Condit, formerly with the ‘ Nation,’
took charge of the publishing department
and continued until the spring of 1886. Mr.
Scudder retired from the editorship in
1885 and was succeeded by Mr. N. D.C.
Hodges, when the office was removed from
Cambridge to New York. It was soon found
that twenty-five thousand dollars was not
sufficient, and Messrs. Bell and Hubbard
continued to advance further sums until, in
1886, they had expended about seventy-five
thousand dollars, without having made the
paper self-supporting.
An arrangement was then made with Mr.
MARCH 29, 1895.]
Hodges to assume the entire charge of Scr-
ENCE for a fixed annual sum. For three
years M. Hodges had charge of the paper,
under the advice of the Board of Directors.
Mr. Hodges made large reduction in ex-
penses of publication, but unfortunately
made a larger reduction in the subscription
price, from five dollars to three dollars and
fifty cents a year.
It was never the intention of Messrs.
Bell and Hubbard to make a profit from the
publication of Screncer, but they did expect
its establishment to make a contribution to
science.
The circulation of the journal, under the
management of Mr. Hodges, largely in-
creased, and the changes made by him and
his associate editors, Messrs. D. G. Brinton,
of Philadelphia, and Charles Platt, of Balti-
more, whose services were given gratuitous-
ly were of great value. It was originally
supposed that advertisements would con-
tribute largely to its support, but they were
not obtained, partly on account of the lim-
ited circulation, and more largely because
advertisers preferred to publish in special
journals rather than in one intended to
meet the wants of the scientific public.
The publication of Scrence was stopped
for a time a year ago, althongh its circula-
tion was then larger than it ever had been,
the stringency of the times preventing many
from paying their subscriptions.
At the meeting of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, at
Brooklyn in 1894, the renewal of the pub-
lication of Scrmncr was brought before the
‘Association. A large committee was chosen
to consider its usefulness, and the propriety
of contributing towards its support. Mr.
Hodges appeared and stated fully his views
and plans ; the Association then voted that
a contribution of fifteen hundred dollars
should be made for the purpose of enabling
Mr. Hodges to continue its publication.
Immediately after Mr. Hodges decided that
SCIENCE.
353
he could not continue the publication, and
therefore this arrangement fell through.
Subsequently the reorganization of Scr-
ENCE was undertaken by Professor Cattell,
of Columbia College, who will, we trust,
make it a success.
It would not be proper to close this ar-
ticle without an acknowledgment of the
great ability, untiring zeal and never flag-
ging interest shown by Mr. Hodges in his
connection with Screncr.
CORRESPONDENCE.
A CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Eprror or Scrence:—The admirable
plan for a card catalogue of scientific lit-
erature recommended to the Royal So-
ciety by the Harvard University Coun-
cil (reprinted in the current volume of
ScreNcE, pages 184-186). strongly com-
mends itself to users of scientific literature,
and has already been adopted with minor
modification by at least one national scien-
tifie society. A slight extension of the plan
in one respect would seem, however, to be
advantageous.
The body of scientific literature is vast
and constantly increasing, and scientific
authorship and publication are rapidly ex-
tending from country to country and from
point to point in each country throughout
the world. Population is increasing, and
with it writing and printing increase ; civil-
ization is spreading, and with it literature
is expanding in an increasing ratio ; science
is becoming increasingly important as a di-
recting and controlling force in civilization,
and so the growth of scientific writing out-
strips that of non-scientific scripture ; the
domain of science is widening rapidly as re-
search concerning every conceivable subject
pushes into and illumines the penumbra of
half-knowledge, and thus the subject-matter
of scientific literature is differentiated.
Moreover, the fashion of scientific publica-
tion is changing; few recent investigators
3d4
spend years on a book, the masterpiece of a
decade or a lifetime; most keep pace with
the rapid progress of the times by issuing
their chapters or sections as completed from
time to time in the form of articles or bro-
chures ; and thus the average number of
titles to be credited to individual authors
is increasing. So the augmentation in sci-
entific literature is many-branched and
cumulative, and its rate is constantly aug-
menting. With the multiplication of scien-
tific literature the need for comprehensive
cataloguing is multiplied; yet with the
multiplication the difficulty of measuring
the teeming flood from the scientific press
is increased in still larger measure. The
task before the Royal Society is one of great
magnitude.
It would seem that the success of the
scheme for cataloguing scientific literature
will depend largely on the intimacy of the
relations to be established between the
Royal Society, on the one hand, and (1)
trade publishers, (2) non-commercial pub-
lishers, and (3) individual authors, on the
other hand. Now, the basis for the rela-
tions between the central organization and
trade publishers, and through them with
the authors, is the simple one of financial
interest ; it is set forth in a satisfactory
manner in the report of the University
Council, who point out that it would be to
the interest of the writers, as it would be
also to that of the publishers, to prepare
summaries suitable for carding by the cen-
tral organization. In the ease of this class
of publishers, perhaps the leading interest
would be that of the publishers themselves,
who might accordingly be trusted to induce
negligent authors to prepare the requisite
summaries.
The non-commercial publishers include
those issuing (a) periodicals put forth with-
out hope of profit and often at individual
sacrifice, which it would be useless to ad-
vertise in the ordinary way by reason of the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 13.
limited number of possible subscribers ; (b)
proceedings, transactions and related serials
published in limited editions by many scien-
tific societies; (c) reports of official bureaus,
like the U. S. Geological Survey and various ~
State institutions, to whom increased dis-
tribution means no profit, but some loss in
time, ifnot money; and (d) privately printed
and irregularly published brochures, book-
lets and leaflets, commonly issued by the
authors themselves. All of these classes
of publications are important in this and
several other countries; collectively, in this
country at the present time, at least, they
probably contain the major part of the
material which should be catalogued by
the Royal Society. To bring their contents
within reach of a central organization would
involve a wide-reaching and constant co-
operation, which manifestly cannot be
brought about through the ordinary finan-
cial stimulus, since the publication is not
made on a commercial basis; it can be
brought about, if at all, only through the
inspiration of creative genius and authorial
ambition. There are few scientific writers
who would not be willing, indeed glad, to
prepare summaries of their writings for the
sake of securing wider publicity and more
permanent record of their discoveries and
ideas; for it is the laudable ambition for
publicity and permanent record, for the
good of men, that inspires the original writ-
ing, if not indeed the research itself. Many
of the non-commercial publishers them-
selves are actuated by similar motives, and
would be willing to incur the small tax of
periodically sending summaries to the cen-
tral organization, while others would doubt-
less be stimulated thereto by the authors
themselves; yet, itis probable that so far
as the non-commercial publications are con-
cerned, the stronger bond of connection
would be that between the central organiza-
tion and the authors; and since the more
natural relation is the hierarchic one, first
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
from central body to the less numerous
class and from this in turn to the more
numerous, any device that would strengthen
the relation between the central body and
the publishers would be useful. Thus, it
might be well for the Royal Society to
furnish sets of cards pertaining to the
specialty represented by the non-commer-
cial publication, either in exchange simply
for the periodical transmission of summaries
or in return for such summaries and for
printing in the advertising pages or else-
where a standing notice of the Royal So-
ciety catalogue. The codperation of the
publishers in securing, and indeed in editing,
the summaries would be highly desirable,
partly because with most writers summaries
or abstracts need editorial scrutiny more
sadly than their ordinary writing. It may
be noted also that in these days of the
making of many bibliographies there is a
special need for abstracts and summaries
for a wide variety of purposes, and the re-
cognition of this need will make easier the
way of the Royal Society in putting its
plans into execution. Partly for this reason
there would seem to be a certain desira-
bility in printing the brief summaries, per-
haps in a distinctive type, in conjunction
with scientific articles.
The Geological Society of America re-
cently concurred in a report to the Royal
Society conforming to that of the Harvard
University Council, with a brief addition
designed to facilitate obtaining summaries
of articles from non-commercial publishers
of scientific literature, this addition having
been suggested by the writer as one of the
committee on the subject.
W J McGee.
TEACHING BOTANY ONE TOPIC AT A TIME,
ILLUSTRATED BY SUITABLE MATERIALS
AT ANY SEASON OF THE YEAR.
Epiror or Scrence—Sir: The recent
papers in Scrence concerning the manage-
SCIENCE.
ment of classes in botany prompt the follow-
ing. In these times, of course, every true
teacher of botany insists that his pupils shall
study the objects before receiving much, if
any, instruction from books or persons. I
take it for granted that any teacher of a
class beginning subjects that are treated in
Gray’s Lessons would prefer to take them up
in about the sequence there given, but he
will find it impossible to procure at any
season of the year enough suitable material
that is fresh to fully illustrate many of the
sections of the book. For example, he can-
not procure at any one time suitable ma-
terials to illustrate the section on stamens.
The varieties there illustrated appear at dif-
ferent dates some weeks apart. So of the
forms of pistils, the torus, fruits, ete. My
plan has been to collect quantities of stamens
of the barberry, sassafras, lobelia, eypripe-
dium, mallow, locust, dandelion, lily, tulip
tree, blueberry, sage, milkweed, and in most
cases preserve each kind by itself in twenty-
five per cent. alcohol, or in formalin one
hundred of water to one of formalin. These
are ready when we want to study stamens.
A specimen or more of each kind of the pre-
served objects for illustrating any section of
this subject can be placed ina small dish
before each pupil in ease fresh specimens
cannot be procured. In many instances,
when not allowed to dry, these can be
gathered up and used for several successive
classes.
In like manner, it is very satisfactory to
be able, when fruits are to be studied, to
have a good many kinds to illustrate the
various sorts, such as half grown plums
or cherries, the mandrake, bloodroot, violet,
mulberry, winter-green, ete. Lessons in
morphology can, in this way, be made more
impressive than when some of the illustra-
tions are used in one day and others in a
week or a month.
W. J. Beat.
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MICH.
356
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Nicoléi Ivénovich Lobachévsky.— Address pro-
nounced at the commemorative meeting
of the Imperial University of Kasan,
- October 22, 1893, by Professor A. Vasi-
LIEV, President of the Physico-Mathe-
matical Society of Kasan.—Translated
from the Russian, with a preface, by Dr.
Gxrorce Bruce HaustEep, President of
the Texas Academy of Science.— Volume
one of the neomonic series.—Published
at The Neomon, 2407 Guadalupe Street,
- Austin, Texas, U.S.A. 1894. Sm. 8vo,
pp. 8+40+17.
Within the last thirty years the name of
Lobachevsky has become widely known as
that of one of the earliest discoverers in the
field of non-Euclidean geometry, a subject
_ which has not only revolutionized geomet-
rical science, but has attracted the attention
of physicists, psychologists and philos-
ophers.
Professor Vasiliev’s life of Lobachevsky,
which we welcome here in an English trans-
lation, is without question the best and
most authentic source of information on
this original mathematical thinker who
spent his whole life in a remote Russian
town, almost on the confines of civilization,
and whose work began to be appreciated by
the scientific world only after his death
(1856). What lends a peculiar interest to
the story of this uneventful life is its in-
timate association with the growth of the
University of Kazan. Lobacheysky entered
this university as a student soon after its
foundation, became, immediately after
graduation, an instructor, and then a pro-
fessor in it, was its president for nineteen
years during its formative period, and con-
tributed largely to its rise and progress
through his administrative ability and un-
tiring energy. This man, who is known
abroad as an original investigator in one of
the most abstruse branches of mathematics,
endeared himself, moreover, to his towns-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 13,
men in many respects as a progressive and
public-spirited citizen, delivering popular
lectures on scientific subjects, conducting
evening classes in elementary science for_
workingmen, taking a most active part in
the work of the Kazan Economic and Agri-
cultural Society, and so on.
It is due to these facts that the centen-
nial celebration held by the Physico-Mathe-
matical Society of the University of Kazan,
in 1893, in commemoration of his birth,
was participated in not only by professional
mathematicians, but also by the whole uni-
versity and the citizens of Kazan. Itis for
this occasion that Professor Vasiliev pre-
pared his biography.
The celebration began with religious ser- —
vices in the University chapel, on Loba-
chevsky’s one hundredth birthday, Novem-
ber 3 (or, according to the old calendar still
used in Russia, October 22); at noon the
University Senate assembled in solemn ses-
sion, the foreign delegates were greeted by —
the president of the university, letters and
telegrams of congratulation were read, and
several addresses were made commemora-
ting the life and work of the great Russian
geometer. On the next day the Physico-
Mathematical Society held a public session
for the reading of various papers on sub-
jects connected with non-Euclidean geome-
try. On the 5th of November the Munici-
pal Council of the city of Kazan dedicated
with appropriate ceremonies a memorial
tablet, inserted in the front wall of the
house in which Lobachevsky had lived.
Another meeting of the Physico-Mathemati-
cal Society brought the celebration to a
close. A sum of several thousand rubles
had been collected in the course of the year
for the purpose of founding a Lobachevsky
medal or prize to be awarded annually, and
of erecting a bust of Lobacheysky at Ka-
zan, in the public square that bears his
name.
It is well that this late justice should be
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
done to the memory of a man who during his
lifetime never received any public recogni-
tion for his scientific work. At the present
time no competent mathematician doubts
the value of Lobachevsky’s investigations
in non-Euclidean geometry. For those not
familiar with modern mathematical thought
it is, however, difficult, if not impossible, to
fully appreciate the true value of this sub-
ject; they are inclined to attribute undue
- importance to its possible bearings on non-
mathematical questions and to neglect and
underrate what is most valuable.
The starting point for Lobachevsky’s re-
searches, as for those of all the earlier
writers on non-Euclidean geometry (Sac-
cheri, Lambert, the two Bolyais), is given
by the theory of parallels in elementary
plane geometry which is based by Euclid
on his fifth postulate (usually called his
‘eleventh axiom’’). This postulate refers
to two lines cut by a transversal, and states
that if the sum of the interior angles on
one side of the transversal be less than two
right angles the lines will meet on this
side if sufficiently produced. The numer-
ous attempts that have been made to make
a theorem of this proposition, and to prove
it, have always remained as futile as the
attempts to square the circle. They have
only shown that it can be replaced by other
postulates, such as that only one parallel
can be drawn to a given line through a
given point, or that the sum of the angles
of a triangle is equal to two right angles, ete.
Does it follow that these postulates ex-
press an absolute necessary truth? Cer-
tainly not. For it can be shown—and
this is just what Lobachevsky did—that a
perfectly consistent system of geometry can
be constructed by rejecting Euclid’s postu-
late and its equivalents, and assuming, say,
that more than one parallel can be drawn
to a given line through a given point, or
‘that the sum of the angles of a triangle is
less than two right angles.
SCIENCE.
357
The question of the character of the so-
called geometrical axioms thus assumes an
aspect very different from the one it had at
the beginning of the present century, when
they were commonly regarded as necessary
logical truths. It is, however, not for the
mathematician to decide whether ultimately
these axioms express facts of observation
unconsciously acquired and made familiar
through the constant perception of an actu-
ally existing space. For him they represent
mere assumptions selected for the purpose
of defining his space or his methods of
measuring this space.
It would, of course, be very important to
know which of the different spaces that the
mathematician can thus define corresponds
most closely to the facts of observation.
But this question is difficult to decide; for
while the ordinary Euclidean space appears
in this respect to satisfy all demands, the
non-Euclidean spaces do the same, at least,
approximately within certain limits; and
all our observations give only approximate
results and are confined within a narrow
range of space.
What the mathematician has gained
through the generalization of non-Euclidean
geometry is a broader horizon and a vastly
extended field ofresearch. The multifarious
relations by which this new science is con-
nected with the various banches of geometry
are admirably set forth by Professor F.
Klein, of Géttingen, in his Vorlesungen iiber
nicht-Euklidische Geometrie (1889-90). These
lectures also trace the historical development
of the subject since the times of Gauss. A
few more recent investigations were dis-
eussed by him in the Evanston Colloquium
(New York, Macmillan, 1894), in the 6th
and 11th lectures.
What Professor Vasiliev tells us about
Bartels, who in his earlier years had inti-
mately associated with Gauss, and later, as
the first professor of mathematics at the
University of Kazan, became the teacher
358
and protecting friend of Lobacheysky, con-
firms the supposition that the first impulse
to these studies came to him, at least indi-
rectly, from Gauss. To the same source of
inspiration must be traced the almost simul-
taneous, but independent, researches of
the Hungarian Wolfgang Bolyai and his
son Johann. Gauss himselfnever published
anything on the subject of non-Euclidean
geometry ; but we know from his letters to
Schumacher that he had spent much thought
on these questions, which had occupied him
from his earliest youth, and had arrived at
practically the same results as Lobachevsky
and the Bolyais.
In the later developmeut of non-Euclid-
ean geometry and the closely related the-
ory of n-dimensional spaces or manifold-
nesses we find among others the names of
Grassmann, Riemann, Helmholtz, Cayley,
Klein, Lie; and in these the uninitiated
may find a sufficient guarantee for the value
of the subject.
In conelusion, a few words must be said
of the present English translation. The
original has been followed so faithfully that
anybody possessed of an adequate knowl-
edge of the Russian language will under-
stand the translation very readily. The
reading of such unidiomatic English is,
however, exceedingly painful. Were it not
for the direct statement on the title-page,
we should never have ascribed this transla-
tion to Professor Halsted, whose vigorous
command of the English language is well
known. It seems almost incredible that a
person whose native language is English
should have written, or even passed in the
proof, such sentences as these: (p. 3) ‘‘So
in celebrating this day to Lobachevsky, we
must remember with gratitude his teach-
ers.”’ (ib.) “His destiny was to be the
teacher and protector not only of Loba-
chevsky, but of the scientist of our century
most influential on the development of
mathematics, Gauss. (ib.) ‘‘The mathe-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 13.
matical ability of the boy-genius awakened
the attention of the science-hungry Bar-
tels.”” (p.4.) .. . he received the grade
of ‘Magister’ July 10, 1811, for extraordi-
nary advance in mathematics and physics.”
(ib.) “ . . . the question of the lowering
of the grade of a two-termed equation . . .”
The transliteration of Russian names is
faulty and inconsistent ; thus we find Pouch-
kin for Pushkin, Demidef for Demidov, Ka-
ramzen for Karamzin, Simenovy for Simonoy,
ete. It is inconceivable why the name of the
well-known astronomer Littrow should be
persistently misspelled Lettrov. On p. 1,
for ‘November 9, 1807’ read ‘January 9,
1807.’ The statement in the preface, p.
vii., that “‘in 1500 Copernicus was enjoying
the friendship of Regiomontanus and fulfill-
ing with distinction the duties of a chair of
mathematics ” is smgularly incorrect. Re-
giomontanus died in 1476, when Copernicus
was three years of age; and, although Rhae-
ticus, in speaking of the residence at Rome
in 1500, refers to Copernicus as ‘ professor
mathematum,’ it is now, in the absence of
any direct evidence, generally accepted that
the author of the De revolutionibus was never
connected as teacher with any scientific in-
stitution. ALEXANDER ZIWET.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
Laboratory Exercises in Botany, designed for
the use of colleges and other schools in
which Botany is taught by laboratory
methods, by Epson 8. Bastry, Am. Pro-
fessor of Materia Medica and Botany and
Director of the Microscopical Laboratory
in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.
Philadelphia. 1895. $2.50.
In a review of this volume it should be
considered for whom it was written and
from that standpoint an estimate should be
made whether the purpose has been really
accomplished. Being designed for students
who are beginners, it leads them from the
simple to the complex, and does it, we think,
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
‘in a very satisfactory manner. As a labor-
atory guide the work is perhaps a little too
voluminous, 540 pages. It is divided into
two portions, the first requiring work with
the simple microscope, and consists of a
series of lessons inductively arranged, which
leads the student from a study of the root
through the types of the largest families to
a study of the seed and embryo. They are
designed to give to the student a familiarity
with the various forms, without burdening
him with the technical descriptive terms,
which are, however, summed up in tabulated
plates for reference. The full-page illustra-
tions of the first portion are numerous,
very simple, excellently drawn and well
printed.
The second portion of the volume, 270
pages, on vegetable histology, opens with a
chapter on the compound microscope and
the use of micro-chemical reagents, and is
accompanied by excellent and practical
tables of reagents and stains. The purpose
of this volume limits its scope. It makes
a good working guide to put into the hands
of students who can give but a limited time
to the study, but further than that, as a
work upon vegetable histology, it is meagre.
The arrangement of this portion of the
work is less commendable than the first.
Its numerous illustrations can be classed as
most good, few bad and a number indiffer-
ent, in general the simple elements of tissues
being good, whereas those showing the
tissues themselves, especially the more
complex ones, are less to be approved.
The work is one which is admirably
adapted for the use of students in pharmacy,
for which it was probably first intended, and
in the hands of a guide whose methods were
similar to those of the writer, we conceive
it to be excellent. In general its scope is
limited; it gives facts but fails, we think, to
point out those logical sequences of growth
and development that lead the student to a
_ rounded conception of the science of botany ;
SCIENCE.
359
it nevertheless is by far the best laboratory
guide we have seen for directors of labora-
tories who wish to give their students a
practical elementary knowledge of botany.
8. E. JELLIFFE.
Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analy-
sis—By Harvey W. Witey, Chemist of
the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.—Easton,
Chemical Publishing Co., 1894. Vol. I.
We have already called attention to the
first part of this admirable work, now being
published in monthly installments by the
Chemical Publishing Company, and need
not again speak of its general excellence of
plan. If any fault is to be found with the
work it is with its limited title, which is
rather apt to mislead some into a supposi-
tion that the book will be of service only
to the analyst, and as a laboratory manual
alone. The twelve parts which have now
appeared, nearly 600 pages in all, indicate a
work of much broader scope, one which no
scientific library can afford to omit from its
catalogue. Of the first of the series we have
already spoken. In No. 2 the subject of
soils and soil formation is continued, the
action of earth-worms, bacteria, air, ete.,
the qualities of the various soils and the
discussion of certain peculiar soil types.
An interesting chapter on sampling follows,
and here is discussed in principle and prac-
tice all of the accepted methods now in use
in various countries and among the leading
workers in agricultural science. The study
of the physical properties of soils and the
description of methods of mechanical and
microscopical analysis, ete., occupies some
200 pages, while the methods of chemical
analysis, begun in No. 7 of the series, ex-
tends to the present issue. We know of no
other work approaching the present in com-
pleteness and scientific value. The exhaus-
tive treatment of the subject leaves nothing
to be desired, and it would be difficult indeed
to criticise any of its features. At the end
360
of each part is a Bibliography of works
cited, and an inspection of these lists at
once indicates the labor entered upon by
the author, as well as that saved to those
who have now the benefit of his research.
PHILADELPHIA. CHARLES PLATT.
Nitrogen and Water, or the Water Atoms and
Their Relations. Part—The Earth’s Atmos-
phere, by WiLLIAM CouTIE.
The author of this polygraph of 31 pages
is good enough to assure us that some
things remain undiscovered, or at any rate
we infer this to be his meaning. To dis-
cover the real meaning of many of his
sentences would require the application of
the calculus, since his thoughts soar off into
space in what are apparently curved lines.
It is probable that minds of the earth,
earthy, like that driving this pen, are in-
capable of fully grasping the mighty
thoughts here set forth. They are certainly
startling and go to the root of all things.
It appears that we have all been mistaken
in our conception of the design of Creation,
at least those who have ventured to form
any such conception have been mistaken.
The real reason is thus set forth:
“Tt is evident that it is the law of change that
gives the Creator some work to do and something that
is new in all time. It is thus to Him the most im-
. portant of all, for it is to Him preéminently omni-
present, universal and in all things forever new, and
without it time would be a monotony and a burden,
almost everything would be old and He would have
nothing to do.’
The following whack at our biological
brethren is commended to their attention;
their disgraceful Darwinian tendencies make
it deserved, if somewhat severe :
“Tf we now turn to the results in time we find
that, first, horse in our knowledge was of the size of
a fox and walked on his heels. Now all horses of
every kind walk on the point of their longest toe, and
they are all many times the weight of a fox. Now,
why did all horses get on their toes at the same time,
or how did they get on the tips of their toes at all?
Darwinism is to mea compound of utilityand economy.
But by what process of economy or utility did horses get
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 13.
on the point of their toes? To me, it is evidently the
exclusive result of their Maker’s will, and that the
creation and government of the universe is an absolute
despotism in all things.”’
This facer ought to settle the Darwinians;
lest it should not, we subjoin another extract
of like tenor:
“T found that a butterfly is an insect ornamented
by scales, and that they are divided into day flies and
night flies, and again divided into six thousand day
or butterflies and sixty thousand night or moth flies,
and that butterflies are purely and exclusively (so far
as they are butterflies) things made for beauty by an
agent or Maker who sees beauty of colors in the night,
for there are sixty thousand kinds of night flies and
only six thousand day flies. This led me to the un-
doubted belief that Darwinism applied to butterflies
is worse than an error, for it leaves out the most im-
portant and essential part of the whole, which is, that
the origin of species is the direct exclusive result of
an intelligent design.”’
To the initiated the following will per-
haps explain how some of Mr. Coutie’s re-
sults were obtained :
‘¢ As the ways of this argument are so far from the
ordinary beaten paths, my intent when writing it
was to print in full along with it Newton’s four rules
of reasoning, pages 384 and 385, Principia, to show
that this is in full and exact accord with them.”
“This design led to a full, careful review of the
men, their method and their particular results, that
I found that these rules are wholly insufficient for
my purpose. They are perfect for his purpose, but
insufficient when applied to this paper.”’
This, so far as we are able to understand
it, looks black for Newton.
Among other gems of style and statement,
we have the following :
“The history of origin leads us far back into the
distant past.’’
“What this subject learns from this observation of
the heavens is that the same rules that govern the
atoms.”’
“‘The density of the air is the result of its own
weight. ’’
The author has also discovered a few less
important matters of detail. Among other
things two new—what shall we call them ;
not elements for they are, according to our
present notions, compound. The first of
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
these new somethings is kirs. This is no
common mangy kirs, but a new kind of kirs
altogether. He or it—for the author says
enough about the relations of the atoms to
make one careful—is introduced to our
notice as follows :
*“ The most resultant discovery of all is that kirs
is a hydrate of nitrogen, having the atomic form
N,HN;.”
The second something new is Stuart,
which is N,H, it seems. According to the
author this, as well as kirs, is unobserved.
We understood that Curtius not many years
since discovered a compound having the
symbol of Stuart, but this is perhaps a mis-
take. Carbon has been found to be AN., ice
is Aq. and made up of Stuart, Cyanogen and
more Stuart. Coke equals kars and A.
We are nowhere informed what is meant
by A, nor is it easy to see what difference
there is between ‘combining constituents’
and ‘constituents’ except with the eye of
faith. The author explains, however, that
“The grand difficulty of the calculation is
that the revelations at the end constantly
contradict the premises at the beginning.”’
Everything about this wonderful pam-
phlet is new, even the spelling is sui generis.
For example: Flourine, Glucium, Rube-
dium, Phosphorous, Telerium, Tantalium,
Lanthanium, Paladium.
We hope that E. H. Lisk, printer, Troy,
N. Y., turned off a large edition of these
pamphlets. . They will all be needed, and
when obtained ought to be carefully pre-
served as an illustration of the magnificent
reach sometimes attained by the American
intellect. Epwarp Hart.
‘NOTES AND NEWS.
BIOLOGY.
Tue Tenth Annual Fish Commissioners’
Report from Michigan is entirely in the field
of fresh-water biology. It is important to
mark the rapid development of biological
work in the central universities of this
SCIENCE.
361
country, and to note that the work carried
on by the State is so largely by the codper-
ation of the biologists of the University.
Thus two of the papers of this report are
by Professor Jacob Reighard, the first being
a study of the development of the wall-eyed
Pike, the second a valuable résumé of the
whole subject of artificial fertilization. The
Bulletin, No. 4, of the Commission, which
we receive at the same time, contains a pre-
liminary account of the biological examina-
tion of Lake St. Clair during the summer of
1893. This was suggested by the continued
decrease in the number of Whitefish, but
very wisely the work extended over a
broader field. The objects of this examina-
tion are stated as follows: ‘“(1) To study
carefully and in the broadest possible way
the life in the lake. After examining the
physical characteristics of the lake, such as
the color, transparency and chemistry of the
water, a study of this sort should include a
determination of the kinds of animals and
plants in the lake. Every species should be
sought out, carefully described and figured,
and a specimen of it preserved. Then the
habits of each species should be known, its
habitat, its food, its enemies and its para-
sites. The numbers of animals and plants
of each species in a given volume of water
should be determined and the variations in
these numbers in different parts of the lake
and at different seasons of the year. Such
a collection of data would form a complete
picture of the biology of the lake.” The
work was under the direction of Professor
Reighard,assisted by Dr. Ward, of the Uni-
versity of Nebraska, by Mr. Frank Smith,
of the University of Illinois, and by several
assistants from the University of Michigan.
The materials collected were widely dis-
tributed for determination, and the reports
are by Dr. Blanchard, of Paris, Dr. E. A.
Birge, of the University of Wisconsin, and
others. The survey seems to have been
carried on with all the thoroughness both
362
in the collection of littoral, pelagic and
deep-lake types, which characterizes the
best marine work, and the final results
promise to be of the greatest interest and
importance.
Mr. Arruur Bispins, who has been en-
gaged during the past year in investigating
the fauna of the Potomac Formation, in the
interest of the Woman’s College of Balti-
more, has made a considerable collection of
reptilian remains, mostly from the vicinity
of Muirkirk, Md. The specimens represent
the four species of Dinosaurs described by
Professor Marsh under the names of Allo-
saurus, Pleurocelus and Priconodon. A tibia,
probably that of Allosawrus, measures 10
inches in width and 32 inches in length,
although the ends are lacking. A single
tooth seems to be referable to Astrodon
Johnsoni, Leidy, which was based on a tooth
found at Bladensburg, Md. The conditions
are very unfavorable for collecting, as the
specimens occur in a tough clay, often ata
considerable depth, and are much scattered.
Dr. 8. W. Wittistron, of Lawrence, Kan-
sas, has in press a work, entirely rewritten,
on the classification and structure of North
American Diptera. It will contain tables
of all the North American genera, including
those from Central America and the West
Indies, together with descriptions of larve,
habits, anatomy, etc. It will appear next
autumn. In its preparation he has had the
assistance of Messrs. Aldrich, Townsend,
‘Snow and Johnson, who have kindly pre-
pared or revised the tables of the families
with which they are best acquainted.
Ar the second open meeting of the Royal
Society, on February 28th, Prof. W. F. R.
Weldon opened a discussion on variation
in animals and plants, his remarks being
based on the report of a committee, consist-
ing of Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. F. Darwin,
Professor Macalister, Professor Meldola,
Professor Poulton and Professor Weldon
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 13.
himself, its object being to conduct statistical
inquiries into the measurable characteristics
of plants and animals. The first part of
the report which was presented was de- _
scribed as ‘an attempt to measure the death
rate due to the selective destruction of
Carcinus menas (the shore crab) with respect
to a particular dimension.’ Another paper
bearing on the subject under consideration
was presented by Mr. H. M. Vernon, on
‘The Effect of Environment on the Develop-
ment of Echinoderm Larvie: An Experimen-
tal Inquiry into the Causes of Variation.’
An interesting discussion followed, in which
Mr. Thiselton Dyer, Professor Ray Lankes-
ter, Professor A. Agassiz, Mr. Bateson, Sir
H. Howorth and the chairman took part.
There seemed to be a prevailing doubt as to _
the suitability of mathematical methods in
biological research.
Pror. H. W. Conn contributes to the
March number of the American Naturalist an
account of the Cold Spring Harbor Biologi-
eal Laboratory, of which he is the director.
The article is illustrated by four plates,
showing the buildings and location. The
laboratory was organized by Prof. F. W.
Hooper as a branch of the Brooklyn Insti-
tute of Arts and Sciences, and held its first
session in July and August, 1890, under the
direction of Dr. Bashford Dean, now or
Columbia College. The Cold Spring Labo-
ratory does not rival the Wood’s Holl Lab-
oratory in the amount of research work ac-
complished, but offers exceptional facilities
for students requiring instruction.
APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY.
THe appropriations for the U. S. Geologi-
eal Survey for the fiscal year 1895-96, as
made by Congress at its last session, will
enable the bureau to continue its work un-
der favorable circumstances. The appro-
priations for topography, geology, paleon-
tology and chemistry are the same as those
>
~
*.
MARCH 29, 1895. ]
for the present year, except that in the case
of geology there is an additional appropria-
tion of $5,000 for the specific object of the
investigation of the gold and coal resources
of Alaska. For the rest, there is an appro-
priation for the preparation of the report on
the mineral resources of the United States
of $18,000, an increase of $3,000; and fur-
ther was inserted in connection with this
work, under the head of Public Printing
and Binding, a clause providing for the
printing of advance copies of papers on
economic resources, and for this work an
appropriation of $2,000 was made. Under
the head of engraving and printing the
geological maps of the United States, author-
ity was granted the Director to sell copies
of topographic maps, with a descriptive
text, at cost, with ten per centum added.
The object of this item is to provide for
the preparation of a series of ten or more
maps, with text, to illustrate the typical
topographic features of the United States,
for use principally in teaching. It is antici-
pated that the maps and text will be prepared
during the summer. To the appropriation
for ‘ gauging the streams and determining
the water supply of the United States, in-
cluding the investigation of under-ground
currents and artesian wells in arid and
semi-arid regions,’ $7,500 was added, mak-
ing the appropriation for this work $20,000.
The total appropriation for the Survey,
‘ineluding all field and office expenses and
salaries, is $515,000.
An appropriation of $200,000 was made
for a survey of the lands of the Indian Ter-
ritory, with the provision that the ‘“Secre-
tary of the Interior may in his discretion
direct that the surveys in the Indian Terri-
tory, herein authorized, or any part of them,
be made under the supervision of the Di-
rector of the Geological Survey.’’ This
work will result in the making simultane-
ously of a land subdivision survey and a
topographic map.
SCIENCE.
363
GENERAL.
Tue German Anthropological Society is
publishing an extensive description of the
anthropological collections of Germany.
Sixteen parts (costing from 2-15 M.), pre-
pared by competent authorities, have al-
ready been issued.
Tue Technologisches Worterbuch, edited by
Gustay Eger and published by Vieweg,
Brunswick, is a full English-German and
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364
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Fripay, Aprit 5, 1895.
CONTENTS:
The Animal asa Machine and Prime Mover: R. H.
SBERESEOON oleh lela = « ws os o rapmeten sata siareielae:« 365
Harshberger on the Origin of our Vernal Flora:
ISHARES ROBERTSON ......s0ccecctecsecenes 371
Brisson’s Genera of Mammals, 1762: C. HArt
BPR EERESEINM Soro. faiaraicis sai \- amma eagtaaleieteld «<5, 61s ° 375
Agricultural Noles (I.): Byron D. HALSTED ...37
muemreen Canadas J.T. C. ..cstatessesececins 379
NN LENUCEL S iyo arose 5 v0 oon Stam hele sieYaio'u sb os 381
Classification of Skulls: HARRISON ALLEN.
Notes on the Biology of the Lobster: FRANCIS H.
HERRICK.
mesentanc Literattire — ......00. va sevceccsevess 382
Haeckel’s Monism: W. K. Brooks. Life of
Rafinesque: G. Brown GooprE. Lydekker’s
Royal Natural History; The Book of Antelopes :
C, HART MERRIAM.
RMT IVOWIG 5. wa ceca cetdncccseb eves 390
Societies and Academies :— ....0.eeceeeeeeeeeees 391
_ The New York Academy of Sciences.
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MN os civic.s.00.0 + 0 sctatpiiststolelsic pies ¢isle ei 392
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41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
THE ANIMAL AS A MACHINE AND PRIME
MOVER.*
Tue writer of these papers has been
greatly interested in the study of the vital
machine in its relations to the special work
of the engineer and to the methods illus-
trated by it in transformation of potential
_ *Abstracted from The Animal asa Prime Motor ;
N.Y., J. Wiley & Sons, 1894. Journal of the Frank-
lin Institute, Jan.—-March, 1895.
4%
energies into the mechanical form for use-
ful purposes in the industries.
The value of this form of prime motor to
the engineer is enormous, though rarely ap-
preciated or realized. Until the introduc-
tion of the steam-engine into mills and
factories through the inventions and enter-
prise of Watt and his partner, at the begin-
ning of the century, horse-power and
manual labor only were available for any
work for which water-power could not be
obtained, and hundreds of horses had even
been employed, in earlier times, in draining
of single mines. But, even at the present
time, the horse is the prime motor for an
enormous section of the industries ; and all
transportation on short routes or available
lines, all agricultural work nearly, and
work of whatever kind on the highway and
in the by-ways must rely on this vital
machine for its performance.
The theory of the machine and study of
its methods of operation, of energy-conver-
sion, and of economical application of power,
is one of the most important subjects prac-
tically presented to either the engineer or the
man of science, and this for two quite dif-
ferent reasons. In the first place, the vital
machine has a higher efficiency than any
steam-engine and involves methods of trans-
formation, storage and application of energy
which are as yet a mystery, and which,
could they be discovered and simulated in
engineering practice, might possibly prove
366
more enormously valuable as improvements
upon current methods than was the inven-
tion of the modern steam-engine and the dis-
placement of the old machines of Worcester
and Savery. Itis also possible that nature’s
ways of producing light and electricity, as
well as power, may be ultimately found
immensely more economical than those of
man. They certainly are quite different,
and are inconceivably more efficient in
themselves, as single transformations, than
any processes yet discovered by science.
In the second place, the laws of operation of
the vital machine being fully revealed, it is
possible that we may find ways of promot-
ing the improvement of the machine in
such a manner as to make the animal
mechanism a more efficient and a better
apparatus for the use of man, and even,
perhaps, find ways of improving the instru-
ment employed by the mind in its special
operations, as well as the mechanism of the
frame in which it is given a home and a
vehicle.
The outcome of the investigations made
up to the present time may be stated
perhaps in the briefest and most intelligible
way in the form of a series of theorems,
thus:
(1.) The Vital Machine is not a thermody-
namic engine, a heat-motor.
Many writers have taken for granted the
now obviously incorrect hypothesis that,
since the machine is evidently a source of
heat, and its energy is derived from com-
bustible materials, it must, therefore, be a
heat-engine and its operations necessarily
thermodynamic. This is easily disproved.
In any thermodynamic machine, of whatever
class, among the heat-motors, the proportion
of heat converted into work, the ‘ efficiency ’
of the machine is measured by the range of
temperature, from the highest to the lowest
in the cycle operated in by the thermody-
namic mechanism, divided by the maximum
absolute temperature in the cycle. For the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 14.
animal machine this would ordinarily be
the widest range of temperature attainable
in thermodynamic conversion divided by
about 300° C. But the machine is, in~
this case, a mass of circulating fluids of fair
conductivity, mainly, and can have no sen-
sible range of temperature, so far as can be
seen; and, in fact, it is known that differ-
ences of but one or two degrees, in different
parts of the body, the only actual differ-
ences of temperature, are produced by a
slight warming of the venous blood by
chemical action, or by proximity to or dis-
tance from the epidermis. As a thermody-
namic engine, even were it possible, there-
fore, the machine should have an exceed-
ingly low efficiency. The fact is that its
efficiency exceeds that of any heat-engine
known to man, under the most favorable
possible practical working conditions.
The vital engine is certainly not thermo-
dynamic; its heat is a ‘ by-product.’
(2.) The machine is probably not electro-
dynamic.
Scoresby and Joule, and Sir William
Thomson ‘ Lord Kelvin’ and others among
later writers, have suggested that the ma-
chine may be, as some have said, an electro-
dynamic machine, others an electro-mag-
netic engine. In support of this view it is
pointed out that, in some cases, as in the
gymnotus, the torpedo and some fifty other
creatures, powerful electric batteries, accum-
mulators, are found in the animal system;
that all animals seem to have conductors,
the nerves, and that electricity leakage is
always to be detected in the living creature
—currents passing in various directions
through the body and leaking outward to
the surface in all parts. The nerves termi-
nate in ‘plates’ having close relation in
form and structure to the more highly de-
veloped cells of the storage batteries of the
eel and similar animal producers of elec-
tricity.
A great variety of facts and considera-
APRIL 5, 1895.]
tions based upon research in this field con-
spire to indicate, if not to fully prove, that
the passage of the electric current along the
nerve is the initial act in the motion and
energy-production of the muscle. On the
other hand, however, it may probably be
stated, as conclusively ascertained, that
there is no representative of the mechan-
ism of our electro-dynamie machines, either
of generator or motor, in the muscle,
where, unquestionably, the applied en-
ergy is set free and utilized. There is no
equivalent of magnet, of solenoid, of field
or of armature. On the other hand, it is
indicated by numerous and varied investi-
gations and observations that the electric
eurrent has for its office, in the vital ma-
chine, the promotion of the chemical actions
which accompany all motion and develop-
ment of force and power. The familiar ef-
fects of currents having their origin outside
the body afford illustrations of the fact and
the method of action of these currents.
The electric currents, so far as existing in
the system, have light work to perform ;
and where, as in the gymnotus, they are
given more formidable tasks, they require
for their production and application very
large special organs, and occupy an exorbi-
tantly large proportion of the body.
The vital machine is probably not an
electro-dynamic motor.
(3.) The animal prime mover is very proba-
bly an example of an exceedingly highly organ-
ized and efficient chemico-dynamic motor.
There are but three known forms of en-
ergy available in conversion of the stored
potential energy of the foods into dynamic
form. Two of these have been seen to be,
the one certainly, the other probably, un-
utilized in the energy-conversion of the vi-
tal machine. The third, until some as yet
undiscovered process and energy is found
to be available, must be assumed to be the
source of all dynamic phenomena in the
animal system. The machine is probably
SCIENCE. 367
a chemico-dynamic prime mover, in which
the developments of energy in active form,
their magnitude and their applications, are
directed by the supreme authority of the
system through a very perfect arrangement
of electric apparatus, by means of which the
necessary orders are telegraphed to the va-
rious points at which energy is to be liber-
ated and applied, and by the currents trav-
ersing which apparatus the chemical reac-
tions needed in transformation of the po-
tential energy of the fats and glycose, and of
the products of broken-down tissue, into
active and useful form are inaugurated.
Electricity, or some related energy, serves
as the directing and stimulating power, and
the resolution of fats and other substances
into glycosic compounds and their oxida-
tion, at the point at which power is to be
developed, into carbon-dioxide and water,
by chemical changes resulting in the trans-
formation of potential into actual energies,
supplies the working power of the system.
The presence of electricity is always observ-
able in the vital machine, and the chemist-
physiologists have traced the processes of
supply and transportation of potential en-
ergy and of the liberation of active energies
down to the very last, though still mysteri-
ous, act of utilization.
These authorities are now apparently
substantially unanimous in declaring it
well settled that the action of muscle, for
example, is due to what is termed an ‘ ex-
plosive’ chemical action in the mass of the
organ, the outcome of which is mechanical
energy and the liberation of carbon-dioxide.
The physicist-physiologists are equally unit-
ed in testifying that the provocation of this
explosive action, at will and in proper
quantity, is effected by a nerve-impulse
which is more nearly like the electric cur-
rent than any other known form of physical
energy ; and the process of doing work by
muscular action is likened to the firing of a
charge of explosive in the mine by a current
368
sent over a wire, in this case along a nerve,
and the provocation, by its action, of instan-
taneous oxidation of carbon into carbon-di-
oxide with change of the physical state from
the solid or liquid form into gas liberated in
a small space under high compression, and
thus in a condition to perform maximum
work by its expansion.
(4.) In this chemico-dynamie machine, the
energy displayed in its dynamic operations, as in
its muscular work, is generated and applied
locally.
It has been supposed by some writers that
the power of the muscular system was de-
rived by transmission from some central or
remote source to the point of application, by
the nervous system, there to be utilized in
the act of muscular stress. It is now well
ascertained that not only is there no pro-
vision for such transmission of energy, but
that the liberation of energy occurs within
the mass of the muscle itself, and within its
tissue-cells. That the action is local is
easily seen in the fact that the excised heart,
an excised bit of intestinal muscle, the cor-
puscles of the blood itself, and the amceba-
form protoplasm of which the flesh is com-
posed, in its minutest elements, possess this
attribute of energy-development. The heart
beats, often for hours in some cases, after
removal from the body; the excised mus-
cular tissue exhibits its rythmic pulsations
visibly after isolation ; the white blood cor-
puscle, even, propels itself independently
into the locality in which it is to join its ener-
gies and activities with those of the already
built-up living substance; the elemental
protoplasm everywhere exhibits these char-
acteristics of what we call ‘ living * matter.
Thus complete elemental vital systems are
found distributed, in many forms, in all
parts of the machine, with their directing
and initiative forces as well as their energy-
transforming apparatus.
Further: It is now well settled and easily
shown that the potential energy supplied
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 14,
is tendered to the working system in the
form of glucosic matter,-sugars, produced
from fats and starches, and sent through
the arterial pipe lines to the capillaries and_
thence into the very cells of the organs in
which work is done. There they are re-
solved into carbon-dioxide and water; the
location and to some extent the nature of
the energy-transformation being thus fully
revealed. It is a local transformation of
chemical into mechanical energy, directly
or indirectly, at the very point and in the
very cell, apparently, where the work of
that elementary portion of potential energy
is performed. The question remaining to
be solved is whether this transformation is
direct or indirect, a single step or a series
of energy-changes, not whether it is effected
locally or generally or within some special
organ appropriated to that duty. Hach
cell appears to be an elementary prime
motor, an elemental vital machine; and the
muscular mechanism is a combination of
innumerable elements of similar composi-
tion and method of action, in each of which
a similar process of energy-transformation
is conducted.
This process is not thermodynamic, is
probably not electro-dynamic, is presum-
ably chemico-dynamic, by which is meant
that the energy of chemical action is prob-
ably directly transmuted into mechanical en-
ergy, not, as in thermodynamic machines,
first into heat and then into work. A ther-
modynamic link in the chain would mean
the loss of a large fraction of the whole
supply; but it still remains to be ascer-
tained how direct chemico-dynamic conyer-
sion of energy can give the remarkable
efficiency observed in the vital machine.
(5) The Nerve-Impulse, the physical energy
relied upon for communicating the voluntary and
the automatic stimuli which determine the time
and intensity of the action of the muscular motor-
system, 1s probably a form of electric energy or
some closely related physical action.
| Apen 5,.1895.] SCIENCE.
This is a system of telegraphy from nerve-
ganglia, spine and brain which does not, as
had been formerly supposed by some
writers, transmit energy, but simply indi-
eates where and when locally available
stored energy is to be liberated and applied
to definite purposes by appropriate muscles.
Tt demands energy only in the manner and
in the degree in which the electric current fir-
_ ing amine expends energy in the initiation
_ of the chemical action resulting in the tre-
- mendous effects observed. The work is
: done by the more or less complete transfor-
- mation of the potential energy available in
_ ehemical combinations into mechanical en-
ergy, once the electric spark fires the
charge.
The passage of the electric current through
the fresh muscle produces the same effects
as the nerve-impulse, and these effects may
| be reproduced again and again, until the
muscle loses its store of glycose or until its
t structure changes. At every effort, the
flexed muscle consumes glycose and liber-
_ ates carbon-dioxide, precisely as in its na-
tural operation under the stimulus of the
_nerve-impulse. This parallelism of action
and effect may be taken as, perhaps, good
- eircumstantial evidence. In every animal
System, and in every mass of muscle within
_ it, electricity-leakage, or other movements
of electricity, may always be detected by
the familiar methods of the electrician, and
this everywhere distributed energy un-
questionably originates in the system itself,
and has place and purpose in its economy.
‘Tn special cases, as in the gymnotus, Na-
ture has magnified its work and given it
Jarger place in the working of the machine
than ordinarily, and thus has given us an
opportunity to observe, on this magnified
ante of working, both the form of the special
; constructions for the production of this form
Bd energy, and the method of its transmis-
sion and application. We find the electric
ystem of the gymnotus to be simply a
369
development of the nerves and terminal
plates found in all animals. That they
have a common office, though very different
in relative magnitude and importance in
the two cases, is undoubted. That the
origin, however, of this form of energy,
simply as required for telegraphy, is chem-
ical is very certain, also, since it must find
its source in the common store of potential
energy supplied the whole system. That
this chemical process may be somewhat
different from that producing chemico-dy-
namic effects is not improbable ; especially
as the presence of combustible fats of pecu-
liar composition seem always an essential
to nerve action. But all chemical action is
accompanied by electric phenomena, and
Nature here seems to make the fact sub-
servient to her plans. But she adopts
singular methods, and possibly a peculiar
form of this energy ; and the minute quan-
tity detected by investigators, and the slow
rate of progress along the nerve fibers, are
elements of as yet unrevealed mystery.
The familiar exhausting effect of continued
nervous expenditure may be either due to
large energy expenditure or to restricted
supply of the special form of potential from
which it is derived.
(6.) The nature, source and methods of de-
velopment and transformation of brain and
nerve power do not appear to have been yet dis-
covered, or even surmised.
The fact that such energy is subject to
exhaustion and renewal by precisely the
same processes, so far as can be observed,
certainly under the same conditions as pro-
duce fatigue or favor recuperation of mus-
cular power would seem to justify the in-
ference that the potential energy of the food
and the processes of nutrition and of devel-
opment of active physical energies in the
brain, spine and nerves are so modified in
these glands as to give a special product in
the form of vital energy, and perhaps of
brain-power, and of those initiative forces
370
of the whole nervous system which inaugu-
rate and direct, automatically or intelli-
gently, the currents of nerve-impulse and
set in operation and sustain the whole com-
plicated life-system. But how the mind
seizes upon these forces and compels these
energies to work its will, or how the spine,
and automatic mechanism, generally, is set
in communication with the mind on the
one side, and the organism of the machine
on the other, remains a mystery challen-
ging every resource of talent and the high-
est genius in the investigator. So far asa
judgment or even a surmise is permitted,
it may probably be assumed that, like all
other energies of the vital machine, those
of brain and spine and nervous system have
a definite, quantivalent relation with the
familiar physical energies, and fall within
the province of modern scientific research.
They demand, beyond a doubt, their pro-
portion of the potential energy supplied in
the daily ration.
(7.) Observed phenomena and statistical data
upon which these deductions are founded may be
summarized as follows :
Taking the human vital engine, in illus-
tration, the amount of potential energy sup-
plied the average individual may be taken at
2,500 or 3,000 calories when doing no exter-
nal muscular work, 4,000 calories when per-
forming a full day’s work as a laborer.
This corresponds to 10,000 to 16,000 British
thermal units, to from 8,000,000 to 12,500,-
000, nearly, British dynamic units, foot-
pounds per individual per day, of which
supply a part is wasted by defective diges-
tion and assimilation and a portion by vari-
ous defects of the machine itself. Taking
the energy-supply of the vital machine as
8,000,000 foot-pounds for the man of seden-
tary habits and performing brain-work and
*Pavy on Foods; Mott’s Manual; Thurston’s
Animal as a Prime Mover; Year Book of the New
York State Reformatory, 1894 ; Reports of the Conn.
Agricultural Station.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 14.
10,000,000 for a steady and hard-working
laboring man, who does much muscular
labor and little thinking, we have the basis
of estimates which, though probably not_
very precise, may yet answer present pur-
poses in giving general conclusions.
Of this eight or ten millions of foot-pounds
of energy supplied the machine in potential
form, in the foods, not less than fifteen per
cent. must be reckoned for deficiency of
digestion and transformation into available
form in the chyme and chyle, the solutions
from which the system draws it for its vari-
ous special purposes. This seems the mini-
mum usual loss, and an excess is commonly
observed, which is furnished by larger food-
supply than the assumed figures as here
given. A good ‘digestion coefficient’ is 85
per cent.
Of the 8,000,000 foot-pounds of energy
furnished in the food of the brain-worker, or
10,000,000 supplied the day laborerer, some-
thing like 7,000,000 in the one ease, and
8,500,000 in the other, pass into the reser-
voirs of potential energy of the vital ma-
chine, and circulate in the blood through
all its organs ; giving up to each that pecu-
liar form of nutriment needed for its work
or for its own maintenance. The muscles
draw upon it for energy to be converted into ©
the work of external labor or of internal
operations essential to life; the various
glands elaborate from it those special com-
positions required for their purposes; the
brain and nervous system absorb from it the
material for consumption in the operations
directed by the mind or automatically con-
ducted by the vital powers of the animal
system. Of the 8,500,000 foot-pounds of
energy thus furnished the mechanism of the
laboring man, in the best cases of applica-
tion, under most favorable conditions, about
2,000,000 are applied to the performance of
*Flint’s Muscular Power ; Woods’s Digestibility
of Feeding Stuffs, Awater’s Studies of Dietaries,
Report of Conn. Ag. Experimental Station, 1893.
APRIL 5, 1895.]
the day’s work ; which is equivalent to say-
ing that the efficiency of this vital machine,
considered simply as prime mover, is 23}
per cent. If efficiency of conversion of
potential into dynamic energy of muscular
work, internal as well as external, is con-
sidered, it is very possible that this figure
may be doubled, and the efficiency to be
taken in comparison with that of heat-
engines may be somewhere between forty
and fifty per cent. If the internal work of
thought and of brain and nerve power is
considered useful work, and the total com-
pared with the energy supply, the efficiency
will be a still higher figure, perhaps fifty or
even sixty per cent.*
But the highest total efficiency of the
best steam-engine yet constructed is but
about twenty per cent., with its thermody-
namic range of about 200° F. (111° C.)
degrees, Fahr., and that of the best gas-en-
gine is but about the same, with a range
of ten times that extent. If the vital ma-
chine be a thermodynamic engine, there-
fore, its known efficiency, with no recog-
nized temperature, range of heat ‘ let down,’
is not less than twenty-five per cent. higher
than, and may be twice as high as, the best
heat-engines constructed by man. This is
recognized by engineer and thermodyna-
mist alike, as a reductio ad absurdum, and the
vital engine is certainly not a heat-engine.
The facts regarding the distribution of
potential energy to the various organs of
the body; the development by each organ
of its special form of product in new compo-
sitions or in a special energy; the localiza-
tion of energy-transformations in the cells
of the muscle, or other energy-producer;
the accompanying liberation of carbon-
dioxide from consumption of glycosic ma-
terial; the utilization of a telegraphic, or
rather a semaphoric, system communication
* Weisbach’s Mechanics of Engineering ; Rankine’s
_ Prime Movers ; Thurston’s Animal asa Prime Motor ;
_ Reynolds’ Memoir of Joule.
SCIENCE.
o71
between the mind or the interior automaton
of the spine and cerebellum and the point
of useful application of energy all : these
are familiar to all physiologists.** Beyond
these known phenomena lie the mysteries
which the engineers, if possible more than
the physiologists themselves, most desire
to see completely solved. When they are
thoroughly investigated and the operations
of the vital machine become fully known,
in all their details of energy-transformation,
it may be possible to secure new prime
movers of similarly high efficiency and thus
to double the life of the race by prolonging
the period marking the endurance of our
supplies of potential energy in the coal-
fields of the world. Should it prove that
only by preliminary manufacture of fuel,
in the form of sugars, can this result be
attained, it may seem unlikely that, even
when these operations are no longer mys-
teries, commercial applications of nature’s
methods can be expected to prove success-
ful; yet when it is considered that the
sugars are simply carbon and water, it will
not be denied by either engineer, chemist
or physiologist that a possibility still re-
mains of effecting so enormously important
an advance in the prime motors. If, further,
nature’s economies in light-production can
be paralleled, the engineer may ultimately
furnish heat, light and power, the three
great products of his special labors of most
value to the race, with insignificant wastes
and approximately perfect efficiency and
maximum cheapness. Given perfect effi-
ciency of power-production and the main
problem is solved. R. H. Tuursron.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY.
HARSHBERGER ON THE ORIGIN OF OUR
VERNAL FLORA,
By way of a review of a paper by Mr.
Henry L. Clarke, in the American Natural-
*Foster’s Physiology; Encyclopedia Britannica,
Art. Physiology; Chauveau’s Le Travail Musculaire.
372
ist for September, 18938, XX VII., 769-781,
entitled ‘The Philosophy of Flower Sea-
sons,’ I have just contributed an article to
the same journal, Feb., 1895, X XIX., 97-
117, giving the results of local observations
on the same subject. After my paper was
in type, I found a short article in Nature,
XXVIJI., 7, by J. E. Taylor, entitled ‘The
Origin of our Vernal Flora,’ which sug-
gested some reflections bearing upon the
problem. These, with other thoughts re-
lating to the subject, were too late to be in-
corporated in an article which was already
of considerable length. A consideration of
these items, however, may not be out of
place in connection with an examination of
the article by Mr. Harshberger, in ScreNncr,
Jan. 25, 1895; New Series, I., 92-98.
Commenting upon the fact that it is usual
to assign an Arctic origin to our mountain
flora, but without giving references, Mr.
Taylor says: “Seemg that temperature is
so largely influential in explaining the dis-
tribution of flowering plants, it occurs to me
that not only may height above the sea-
level answer to northern distribution, but
seasonal occurrence as well.” Briefly, this
covers Mr. Harshberger’s propositions num-
bered 1, 2 and 3 on page 95.
Mr. Taylor observes that the early flow-
ering plants blossom two or three months
earlier in Great Britain than within the
polar circle. For example, Chrysosplenium
oppositifolium and C. alternifoliwm bloom ‘in
March or April; within the Arctic circle
not until June and July, and even so late
as August.’ This suggests a general re-
tardation of flower seasons as we go north-
ward, and I have used this assumption as
in part explaining the late blooming of some
of the luxuriant, highly specialized groups,
which MacMillan* calls ‘north-bound.’ In
many of these, flowering is preceded by a
long vegetative period. Im the northward
movement, if the vegetative period remains
*Higher Seed-Plants of the Minnesota Valley, 1892.
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Vou. I. No. 14.
of the same length, it seems probable that
the flowering would be later in consequence
of this period beginning later.
Mr. Clarke’s paper is an elaboration of the
idea of the preponderance of the less-special=
ized flowers in the early part of the season
and of the more highly specialized flowers.
in summer and autumn, and I have eriti-
cised this theory from the standpoint of the
local flora of my neighborhood, and haye
undertaken to account for flower seasons as:
a result of the competition of flowers among
themselves and in correlation with the
flight of the anthophilous insect fauna.
The reader is referred to these papers for a
more extended discussion of the relations of
flower seasons and the specializations of
floral structure.
Mr. Harshberger’s observations upon the
lull or break in the continuity of the floral
procession, which he says at times occurs,
is quite interesting. He says: ‘Such a
break seems to occur in the neighborhood
of Philadelphia between the twenty-fifth
day of May and the tenth or fifteenth day
of June, when the first true summer plants
appear. Curiously enough, this period cor-
responds with the time of the ice saints in
the United States, when there is a possi-
bility of frost over a large portion of our
continental area.” :
There isa lull, however, which, atleast as
regards the entomophilous flora, takes place,
not ‘at times,’ but regularly. The frost
may, indeed, in many cases have a very
definite effect in preventing plants from ad-
vancing into the spring months, probably
indirectly, however, through its influence
upon the vegetative state which precedes
flowering. The time of the ice saints, ae-
cording to Harrington,* is from May 19th
to 24th, while the floral depression is later.
In the neighborhood of Carlinville, Ill.,
the entomophilous flora shows a slight de-
*Harper’s Monthly, LXXXVIII., 878. 1894. Ar —
ticle cited by Harshberger.
APRIL 5, 1895.]
line in June, and many of the groups show
well marked June depressions, as will be
seen from my curves (in article cited).
The dominant families show maxima before
June or after, but not one of them shows a
June maximum. The depression some-
times occurs in very homogeneous groups,
_ as the Scrophulariacez, there being no par-
ticular distinctions between the early and
late ones. The gap sometimes separates
species of the same genus. As a rule, the
vernal flowers belong to plants of low habit
which bloom in the woodlands, which are
now warm and sunny, or upon the open
grounds. About June the former become
overshadowed by the leaves which have ap-
_ peared on the trees, and the latter by the later
‘more luxuriant vegetation. Thus the species
of Viola and Lithospermum produce attractive
flowers until about this time, when they
_ either stop blooming altogether, or resort to
_ the production of cleistogamic flowers.
One fact, which was not mentioned in my
paper, but is shown in my curves, is that
the groups of anthophilous insects show
the same tendency to form early or late
maxima, which emphasizes the importance
of the correlations of the two sets of more
or less mutually dependent organisms.
‘The Syrphids, Empide and Andrenide
show early maxima, while all of the other
_ families show late ones. In the case of the
dominant genera of bees, Anthophora, Synha-
lonia and Osmia reach their maxima early,
but the other genera predominate late.
_Nomada breaks into a large early group and
a small late one, just like Andrena, upon
Which it is parasitic.
In the case of our trees, I suspect that
anemophilous pollination. Mr. Harshber-
ger certainly seems very wide of the mark
in explaining the retention by trees of their
Japtation for wind aid in transferring their
SCIENCE.
37d
pollen. In the first place, their height ex-
poses them to the wind in such a way as
to make wind pollination quite favorable,
while the wind may also interfere with in-
sect visits. The fact that the most highly
specialized flower visiting insects are not
so abundant in spring will not do, for they
are not the insects which are most likely to
favor incipient stages of entomophily. The
less specialized bees (Andrenide) and the
flower flies (Syrphide) are most abundant
in spring, and they would be the most fa-
vorable guests in the less specialized states
of insect-adaptation. Moreover, flower-
loving insects are very abundant in the
woodlands in the spring before the leaves
appear, and that is the very time that the
wind pollinated trees are in bloom. By re-
sorting to entomophily, the trees would only
come in competition with the terrestrial
flora, which is more favorably situated for
insect visits and is very attractive to the
early insect fauna.
The author states that ‘“ Trees of abnor-
mal habit frequently show atavism, flower-
ing in the late autumn, if exceptionally
warm.’ Such cases as Hamamelis are ex-
amples. I am inclined to Foerste’s* view
that the autumnal blooming is a case of
precocious development of a spring flower.
According to him, Hamamelis has distinct
hibernacula and in cold autumns holds over
until next spring.
If the generally accepted flower theory is
true, one would expect to find the highest
specialized flowers at that part of the sea-
son when the most highly specialized flower
visiting insects are most abundant. But it
is hard to understand how Mr. Harshber-
ger could attribute this modification to
the Lepidoptera. As far as adaptation for
flower-pollination is concerned, the bees are
beyond question the most highly special-
ized. Miller} says: “ Bees, as the most
* Bot. Gazette, XVII., 3, 1892.
+ Fertilization of Flowers, 595, 1883.
ov4
skilful and diligent visitors, have played
the chief part in the evolution of flowers ;
we owe to them the most numerous, most
varied and most specialized forms.” The
Lepidoptera have given rise to some highly
specialized flowers, but I think it would be
hard in a single case to show a probability
that the incipient stages of irregularity
were induced by their visits.
That the less specialized flowers are
spring flowers is only true in a general way.
From my present data it appears that the
maximum of the entomophilous Choripeta-
le is in August, though further observa-
tions may show a greater number in spring.
Including the anemophilous species, the
Choripetale will certainly show an early
maximum, and that is the extent of the
justification of their being called spring
plants. The same is true of the entomo-
philous Monocotyledons. If the blooming
seasons of all of the Monocotyledons of a
given neighborhood be worked out, I doubt
if they will show a vernal maximum,
though the position of Carex may accom-
plish this result. The Gamopetale have
a late maximum, but none of them are free
from the competition of the Monocotyledons
or the Choripetale.
It seems to me that Mr. Harshberger has
contributed an important point in reference
to the general positions of the flower groups
by indicating the influence of the retreat of
glacial winter. Making use of this sugges-
tion we may suppose that, as the warm sea-
sons became longer, a large proportion of the
Monocotyledons and Choripetale moved
northward, climbed the mountains or open-
ed their flowers early. While the more
highly specialized groups were by no means
thus relieved from the competition of the less
specialized, there can be little doubt but
that in the later months they found a time
when that competition was less severe.
This may aid us in explaining what has
struck me as a fact in the phzenological
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 14.
habits of the flora of my neighborhood. I
have indicated that the introduced plants,
the aquatics and the degraded entomophi-
lous flowers tend to prolong their bloomin
seasons, and have supposed that this results
from their being more relieved from the com-
petition which besets the other flowers. Al-
though the data have not been arranged to
test the point thoroughly, it has occurred to
me that the later plants in general bloom
longer than the early ones. (In investiga-
ting this proposition, it may be proper to
eliminate some of the very late ones, whose
seasons are not cut short by competition,
but by way of preparation for the approach-
ing winter.) The later species thus appear
to have entered a position where competi-
tion was less severe. It may be, however,
that they show the effects of competition
less, merely on account of their superiority.
Mr. Harshberger attributes floral modifi-
cations to the ‘irritating action of insects
on vegetal protoplasm.’ This suggests
Henslow’s* theory. As far as I know,
that theory has not been accepted by any
one who has made a serious investigation
of the relations of flowers and insects, and
for that reason it has not seemed justifiable
to discuss it at length. It seems safe to
say that it has not been shown that direct
insect contact will induce floral modifiea-
tions, or that the theory will account for
the most ordinary facts of floral structure.
Finally, with regard to the literature, I
notice that Mr. Harshberger quotes Mac-
Millan (1. c.) without giving references.
On consulting this author, I find that the
general proposition of the early blooming of
the less specialized plants and the late
blooming of the more highly specialized is
at least strongly suggested, and that too
evidently on the authority of persons cited
in a bibliographical list. The autumn-
flowering of the Composite is distinctly
stated. From his observations in Flanders, —
* The Origin of Floral Structures, 1888.
ApRrit 5, 1895.]
vs
MacLeod* concludes that the less special-
ized flowers, as well as insects, prefer the
springtime, while the more highly special-
ized prefer the later months. This antici-
pates my statement of the same general
“result.
:
CHARLES ROBERTSON.
CARLINVILLE, ILLINOIs.
j BRISSON’S GENERA OF MAMMALS, 1762.
Ip 1756 Brisson published, in Paris, the
mammal volume of his ‘ Regnum Animale in
Classes IX Distributum.’ It is a quarto, with
the descriptive matter in French and Latin,
in parallel columns, and contains a folding
table or key on which the generic names
are given in proper Latin form. But since
the work antedates by two years the 10th
edition of Linneus’ Systema Nature, which
by common consent is accepted as the start-
ing point in Zodlogical nomenclature, the
names cannot be used. Six years later, how-
ever, a second edition of Brisson appeared.
It is a rare octavo, wholly in Latin, and was
printed at Leyden in 1762}. It isofspecial
importance because it falls between the two
editions of Linnzeus that are available in
- Zodlogical nomenclature (10th Ed., 1758;
ste Ed., 1766), and hence may be con-
_ sidered, so far as the genera of mammals are
concerned, as a part of the foundation ofthe
nomenclature. The specific names are not
exclusively binomial and cannot be used,
but the generic names given in the keys
(pp. 12-13 and 218) are in due Latin form,
the 6th edition (1748) is the only one quot-
Still 25 of the 46 genera given are the
* Over de bevruchting der bloemen in het Kempisch
gedeelte van Vlaanderen. Bot. Jaarboek, VI., 1894.
{Regnum Animale in Classes IX. Distributum
. . . Quadrupedum & Cetaceorum. . . A. D. Bris-
m. . . Editioaltera auctior. . . Lugduni Batavo-
. 1762.
SCIENCE. 375
10th Ed. (1758). Of the remaining 21, ten
are strictly synonymous with and antedated
by Linnean genera, and consequently can-
not be used either in a generic or sub-gen-
eric sense. These are :
Brisson, 1762. Linnzeus, 1758.
Pholidotus = Manis
Tardigracus = Bradypus
Cataphractus = Dasypus
Hireus — Capra
Aries = Ovis
Musaraneus = Sorex
Prosimia — Lemur
Philander — Didelphis
Cetus —— Physeter
Ceratodon = Monodon
The remaining eleven are introduced by
Brisson for the first time and are entitled
to recognition. They are:
Odobenus Glis
Girafia Pteropus
Tragulus Hyena
Hydrochcerus Meles
Tapirus Lutra
Cuniculus
Most of these are now in current use, but
are attributed to later writers, and in
several cases wrong species are taken as
types. Carrying the date back to 1762 not
only gives them greater stability, but also
establishes the types in a satisfactory
manner. All but one of the genera take
Linnean species for types, as follows:
The type of Odobenus is O. odobenus Bris-
son = Phoca rosmarus Linn., which becomes
Odobenus rosmarus (Linn.) 1758. It thus
seems as if the Walrus, after oscillating for
a century and a half between Odobenus and
Trichechus, might fairly claim a permanent
abiding place.
The type of Giraffa is G. giraffa Brisson=
Cervus camelopardalis Linn., which becomes
Giraffa camelopardalis (Linn.) 1758.
The type of Tragulusis T. indicus Brisson=
Capra pygmea Linn., which becomes Tragulus
pygmeus (Linn.) 1758.
376
The type of Hydrocheris is H. hydrocherus
Brisson=Sus hydrocheris Linn. (12th Ed.),
which becomes Aydrocherus hydrocheris
(Linn.) 1766.
The type of Tapirus is T. tapirus Brisson=
Hippopotamus terrestris Linn., which becomes
Tapirus terrestris (Linn.) 1758.
The type of Cuniculus may be fixed on C.
cauda longissima Brisson, which becomes
Cuniculus alactaga (Olivier) 1800.* Cuwni-
culus is one of the few genera in which Bris-
son did not indicate the type by repeating
the generic name for the first species. It
was made up of a heterogeneous assemblage
comprising no less than six modern genera
and five families of Rodents as follows :
Cavia Pallas 1766 (Caviide)
Lemmus Link 1795 (Muride)
Celogenus Cuy. 1807 | ares
Dasyprocta I. 1811 (Desnyy ee)
Anisonyx Raf. 1817 (Sciuride)
_— Allactaga Cuv. 1836 (Dipodide)
According to the A. O. U. Code, therefore,
Allactaga, having been left in Ouniculus until
all the others had been taken out, must
stand as the type of Cuniculus.
The type of Glis is Glis glis Brisson=
Sciurus glis Linn. (12th Ed.), 1766, which
becomes Gitis glis (Linn.) 1766.
The type of Pteropus is P. pteropus Brisson
= Vespertilio vampyrus Linn., which becomes
Pieropus vampyrus (Linn.) 1758, replacing
Pieropus edulis Auct.+
The type of Hyena is H. hyena Brisson=
Canis hynea Linn., which becomes Hynea
hynea (Linn.) 758.
The type of Meles is M. meles Brisson=
Ursus meles Linn., which becomes Meles meles
(linn.) 1758.
* Dipus alactaga Olivier, Bull. Soc. Philomatique,
II., No. 40, 1800, p. 121; also Tilloch’s Philosophical
Mag., Oct., 1800, p. 90.
7 See Gray, List of Specimens of Mammals, British
Museum, 1843, p. 37; and particularly Thomas, Proc.
Zool. Soc., London, 1892, p. 316, foot note.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 14.
The type of Lutra is L. lutra Brisson=
Mustela lutra Linn., which becomes Jvtra
lutra (Linn.) 1758.
C. Harr Merriam. —
NOTES ON AGRICULTURE (1.)
ELECTRO-HORTICULTURE.
Tue latest results drawn from experi-
ments with electric light upon vegetation
are by Professor Rane in Bulletin No. 37
of the West Virginia Experiment Station.
Investigations along this general line began
in 1861, when Herve-Mango demonstrated
that electric light can cause the formation
of green material (chlorophyll) in plants
and produce other phenomena, as turning
toward the light (heliotropism). Pril-
leaeux, in 1869, showed that assimilation
in plants goes on in the presence of arti-
ficial light. Dr. Siemens experimented
largely with are lights, both within and at
other times outside of and above the plant
houses. Professor Bailey, who at Cornell
University has tested electric lighting ex-
tensively during the past few years, in re-
viewing Dr. Siemens’ work, writes: “‘ He
used the term electro-horticulture to desig-
nate this new application of electric energy.
He anticipated that in the future the horti-
culturist will have the means of making
himself particularly independent of solar
light for producing a high quality of fruit
at all seasons of the year .. . . whatever
may be the value of electric light to horti-
culture, the practical value of Siemens’ ex-
periments is still great.’ After years of
trial Professor Bailey stated in one of his
reports: ‘‘I am convinced that the electrie
light can be used to advantage in the fore-
ing of some plants.”’
In the fall of 1892 Professor Rane intro-
duced the use of the incandescent light in
place of the are lamp, and his recent report
with its illustrations from photographs of
plants, etc., has features of interest to all
who are interested in science, as well as the
APRIL 5, 1895.]
market gardener. He finds that “the in-
eandescent electric light has a marked effect
upon greenhouse plants,” it being “‘ benefi-
cial to some plants grown for foliage, such as
lettuce. Flowering plants blossomed earlier
and continued in bloom longer under the
light”? than elsewhere. Plants like spinach
and endive “ quickly ran to seed, which is
objectionable in forcing these plants for
sale. Most plants tended toward a taller
growth under the light.’’ The fact of
plants responding promptly to electric light
is widely demonstrated, but that it will be
an economical method of growing crops is
not so clearly shown.
SOIL TREATMENT OF ORCHARDS FOR DROUGHT.
Ty many parts of our country crop grow-
ing is very uncertain, due to a lack of suffi-
cient rainfall. This fact has led the Ne-
braska Experiment Station to make a study
of methods of mitigating the ill effects of
dry weather. Professor Card* reports re-
sults upon an old orchard, a third of which
was mowed, a third pastured and the re-
maining third cultivated every two weeks.
The trees in cultivated ground suffered much
less from the drought and hot winds than
_ those in sod, the foliage being more vigorous
and without the wilting during the hot
windy days common to the trees in the sod
‘ground.
The fruit was larger and better upon the
_ cultivated trees than elsewhere. An ex-
amination of the soil showed that for every
00 barrels of water in the first twenty
inches of sod ground there were 140 barrels
‘in the cultivated ground. ‘The soil in all
‘Tegions when drought is experienced needs
a covering of mulch. It is not practicable
_toadd a mulch of straw or other material,
but the upper few inches of the soil when
kept light and mellow serves as a mulch for
ll below. Therefore a key to the solution
__ **Some Obstacles to Successful Fruit Growing,’
Bulletin 39 Neb. Experimentation Station.
)
SCIENCE.
377
of the problem is to plow deep; even sub-
soiling will pay for some crops, and then
mulch by means of a mellow layer upon the
top produced by frequent cultivation.
THE RUSSIAN THISTLE,
No other species of plant has received so
large amount of attention as has been given
during the past two years to the Russian
Thistle (Salsola Kali Tragus (LL) Mogq.).
Not only the botanists have been interested,
but law makers in legislative halls have
paused in their party strife to listen to the
demands of their constituents for enact-
ments against this newly arrived and
miserable plant pest.
Many of the Experiment Stations have
published bulletins of greater or less size
with full-page engravings of the thistle in
its various parts or conditions of growth.
Recently a large emergency poster has been
issued by a Central-Western Station to be
displayed in public places as a means of in-
formation and warning to all whom it may
concern. The National Government has
shared in this work by issuing a bulletin
from the Department of Agriculture, while
Congress was asked to appropriate vast sums
to put down this rapidly spreading, prickly
weed.
As the name indicates, this enemy to
American agriculture came to our country
from Russia, where it is called by a name
having the meaning of ‘ Leap-the-field.’
In German it is ‘ Wind witch,’ and with us
the same idea is embodied in the name of
‘Tumble weed,’ namely its capacity . for
traveling with the wind. When it matures
in autumn the stem decays at the surface of
the ground, and the large bushy, prickly
plant is easily blown for long distances by
the wind, and when twenty or so of these
plants become entangled and formed into a
giant ball the structure is quite formidable.
The new conditions of the far-prairie
States, where a rich soil and open country
378
prevail, the spread of this pest has been
phenomenal. From a single center in South
Dakota, where it was brought in flax seed
from Russia a few years ago, it has been
disseminated in all directions, so that to-day
it may be expected in almost any State in
the Union. Its spread is not confined to
to its natural methods, for with our lines
of railway running in all directions the
seeds are carried rapidly and for long dis-
tances.
As an outcome of the advent of the Rus-
sian thistle, there has been a wide and
thorough awakening upon the subject of
weeds which will result in a better under-
standing of these foes, their ways of migra-
tion to and throughout our country, and the
best methods of subduing them.
THE BEET-LEAF SPOT AND ITS REMEDIES.
THE last Bulletin (No. 107) of the New
Jersey Experiment Station describes a fun-
gous trouble of beets in the United States,
the Cercospora beticola, Sace., which causes a
conspicuous spotting of the foliage. There
seems to be no respect shown for any vari-
eties of beets, for the writer has made special
visits to the trial grounds of large seed-
growers, and all sorts of beets, from the
oldest to the newest kinds, were found with
their foliage about equally injured.
The common name of ‘ Leaf Spot’ well
describes the general appearance of the beet
leaves infested with this Cercospora, for
they are at first more or less covered with
small light or ashy spots, which later often
become holes by the disappearance of the
tissue previously killed by the fungus.
Figure 1 is an engraving made from a sun
print of a beet leaf, natural size, that was
badly infested with the Cercospora. Full-
sized leaves often become mutilated, and
sometimes scarcely more than the frame-
work remains. The fungus itself is quite
similar in structure and habits of growth to
those causing leaf spots and blights in other
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 14.
crops. The so-called ‘rust’ of celery is due
to a Cercospora (Cercospora Apii Fr.), as
likewise is the violet leaf spot ( Cercospora
Viole Sace.). These fungi consist of slender
threads which run through the substance of
the leaf, and, coming to the surface in
groups, pass through the openings (stomata)
in the skin, and in clusters bear long, slender
spores in considerable numbers. These
spores, when mature, fall from their points
of attachment and soon germinate, thus
spreading the fungus and causing other
spots.
During the past season, under the special
charge of Mr. J. A. Kelsey, spraying exper-
iments have been carried out to check the
Cercospora of the beet. A field of Man-
golds, kindly provided by Supt. E. A. Jones,
at the College Farm, was experimented
upon with Bordeaux mixture.
As the season progressed the Bordeaux
~
Aprit 5, 1895.]
,
4
|
mixture made so striking a difference in
the plants that it could have been observed
by anyone passing along the side of the
field. The untreated rows had the foliage
smaller, more upright and badly spotted
with the fungus, while the sprayed plants
showed a rank growth of foliage, nearly
green throughout, more inclined to lop and
much less spotted than the untreated plants.
The difference between the roots in the
treated and untreated rows shown below
in pounds was not so great as that seen in
the foliage.
Sprayed. Unsprayed.
ot 6 416}1bs. 331Ibs.
tg SE 634 IDs. 49tbs.
TED 480Ibs. 380Ibs.
This is an increase of nearly twenty-six
per cent., or one-quarter in round numbers.
Therefore, the conclusion is that whatever
the crop may have been per acre in this
ease, spraying with Bordeaux mixture
would have increased it one-fourth, or, for
example, from nine tons to twelve tons.
Byron D. Harsrep.
SCIENCE IN CANADA.
_A new volume of the transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada (Volume XII.)
will shortly be issued. It will be the largest
of the series and will contain a bibliography
t de France. It consists of four sec-
tions, of which two are scientific, one being
devoted to the physical and chemical, the
ther to the biological and geological sci-
ces. The system of éloges, introduced
ally by the French Section (I.), has of
been adopted by the other sections also.
y conducted, this feature cannot fail
0 be of value to the future inquirer. An
te catalogue of deceased members’
rks, with their dates of publication, etc.,
SCIENCE.
379
and an impartial estimate, ought to accom-
pany the biography.
The scientific members of the Royal So-
ciety of Canada comprise several scientific
workers and writers of continental, a few of
European, fame. Except one year (1891) it
has always met at Ottawa, a rendezvous
which, though inconvenient for members
living at a great distance, has some import-
ant advantages, such as access to the Na-
tional Library, the Archives Bureau, the ofli-
ces, museum and library of the Geological
Survey and the Central Farm, with its la-
boratories, ete. All these departments are
represented in the membership.
Not the least of the services that the
Royal Society has rendered to Canada is
that which arises from the affiliation of the
principal local societies throughout the
Dominion. Some of these are important
bodies, which publish transactions of their
own, and have done a fair share of original
work. Among these may be mentioned
the Natural History Society of Montreal,
founded in 1827; the Canadian Institute
(1851), the Hamilton Association (1856),
the Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science
(1862), the Entomological Society of On-
tario (1863), the Murchison Society, Belle-
ville (1873), the Ottawa Field Natural-
ists’ Club (1879), the Canadian Society of
Civil Engineers (1888), the Natural His-
tory Society of British Columbia (1889) and
the Literary and Scientific Society of Win-
nepeg (1879). It will be seen that this list
practically covers the Dominion from At-
lantic to Pacific, and when it is added that
every one of these bodies is represented at
the May meeting by a delegate, who reads
a statement of the year’s work, published
in the ensuing volume, it will be ad-
mitted that the plan is not unfruitful.
Some of these allied societies have organized
their work into departments, and their re-
ports in the proceedings of the Royal So-
ciety form a valuable record of scientific
380
development. The yearly volume of the
Rk. S. C. is thus both a stimulant and a tes-
timony to scientific progress.
To even outline the character of the work
done by the local societies just enumerated
would occupy a good deal of space. In some
cases the name indicates the general trend
of inquiry, but for the most part this can
only be learned by consulting reports. The
Entomological Society. of Canada has long
had a reputation for steady and painstaking
work, and the commendations that it won
at the Centennial Exposition (1876) were
not undeserved. The Natural History Soci-
ety of Montreal has two courses of lectures
every winter; the regular monthly meet-
ings yielding papers that are strictly scien-
tific, while the Somerville lectures (founded
by a Presbyterian minister more than half a
century ago) are ofa more popular character.
The two latest of these Somerville lectures
were delivered by Prof. Saunders, Superin-
tendent of the Central Farm, Ottawa, and
Dr. Robert Bell, F. G. S., of the Geological
Survey, their subjects being ‘ The Resources
of the Soil,’ and ‘ The Mammals of Canada,’
respectively. Dr. Bell’s lecture, which was
delivered on the 15th ult., covered an im-
mense habitat or succession of habitats,
and was the result of personal observation
from the international frontier to the ex-
treme north. The members of the Survey
have traversed the vast region between
Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains, some
of them having spent seasons in the Yukon
country, others in the Barren Lands. Dr.
Bell went on two expeditions to Hudson
Bay. In his lecture he spoke of the moose,
the red deer, the reindeer, the Rocky Moun-
tain sheep, the antelope, the arctic bear, the
seal, the walrus, the whale, the porpoise,
the beaver, the cat family, the fox, in his
varieties and the smaller mammals, es-
pecially the fur-bearing species. He men-
tioned the domestication of wild animals
by the aborigines, and suggested the follow-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 14.
ing of their example. The lecture was
perhaps rather economic than scientific;
though, as largely the result of personal
observation, it had a greater value than
most popular lectures.
A Montreal society that has been doing
good work in an unostentatious way is the
Society for the Study of Comparative Psy-
chology, of which Professor T. W. Mills,
M. D., author of a work on‘ The Dog,’ may
be said to have been the founder. Most of
the papers read at the Society’s meetings
are based on observations of the habits of
animals, several of the members being, like
the president, Dr. Mills, connected with the
Veterinary College, affiliated to McGill
University. At the last meeting (on the 8th
ult.), Mr. A. Dell read a paper on the Evo-
lution of Language, Mr. C. A. Bantelle an-
other on Habit. In both observations of
animals were used (in part) for illustration.
Mr. B. K. Baldwin read a paper on the re-
lation between the intellectual status of the
horse and his owner, in which he showed
that by sympathy and kindness lower races
attained greater control over their horses
than higher races without those qualities.
Another society that has been doing some
quasi-scientific work is the Folk-Lore, or
rather the Montreal Branch of the American
Folk-Lore Society. It meets at the houses
of members monthly, when papers are read
and discussions take place. At the last
meeting, Dr. D. 8. Kellogg, of Plattsburg,
N. Y., gave an interesting paper on the
Folk-Lore of the Lake Champlain Valley,
the importance of which was increased by
the fact that every belief, usage, saying and
tradition mentioned had been collected by
the essayist in the course of an extensive
practice. In almost every case, the source
of the story or incident was mentioned.
Dr. Kellogg’s paper admirably exemplified
how profitably a busy professional man, of
scientific habit of mind, may utilize his spare
quarts d’ hewres and odd moments. J.T.C.
APRIL 5, 1895. ]
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF SKULLS.
Epiror or Science: In ‘ Varieties of the
Human Species, Principles and Method of
Classification’ (Le Varieta Umane. Prin-
cipi e methodo di classificazione. Di Giu-
seppe Sergi. Torino, 1893), which consti-
tutes one of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections, 1894, the skulls are grouped as
follows :
NORMA VERTICALIS.
. Ellipsoid (ellipsoides).
. Pentagonoid (pentagonoides).
. Rhomboid (rhomboides).
. Ovoid (ovoides).
. Sphenoid (sphenoides).
. Spheroid (sphzeroides).
. Byrsoid (byrsoides).
. Parallelepipedoid (parallelepipedoi-
-. des. )
. Cylindroid (cylindroides).
. Cuboid (cuboides).
. Trapezoid (trapezoides).
. Aemonoid (acmonoides).
. Lophocephalic (lophocephalus).
. Chomatocephalus (chomatocepha-
lus).
15. Platyeephalic (platycephalus).
16. Skopeloid (skopeloides).
In ‘ Observations upon the Cranial Forms
of the American Aborigines based upon
_ Specimens contained in the Collection of the
_ Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-
phia,’ by J. Aitken Meigs, Proceedings of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
-delphia, 1866, 232, occurs the following
classification of skulls:
A—Pyramidal or Pyramidocephalic Form.
_B—Oval or Oidocephalic Form.
I Cymbecephalic Form.
If Narrow Oval Form (Stenocephalic).
III Broad Oval Form (Eurycephalic).
IV Barrel-shaped or Cylindrical Form
7 (Cylindricephalic).
_ V Angular Oblong Form.
=e eS
aAnta»#kr © to
=r
eS et et
mPwomwe oo
SCIENCE.
381
C—Arched or Hypsecephalie Form.
I Archecephali.
IL Phoxocephali.
D—Wedge-shaped or Sphenocephalice Form.
E—Flat or Platycephalic Form (Subglob-
ular).
F—Globular or Sphzrocephalic Form.
G—Square, Cuboidal or Cubicephalic Form.
The two classifications are sufficiently
alike to suggest comparisons. Confining
my remarks to the forms in Meig’s table,
which are best illustrated in the norma verti-
ealis, I note that :
Oidocephalic — Ovoides.
Cymbecephali — Ellipsoides & Pentago-
noides.
Cylindricephali — Cylindroides.
Angularly Oblong Form — Rhomboides.
Archecephali — Trapezoides & Acmo-
noides.
Phoxocephalic = Lophocephalus.
Sphenocephalic = Sphenoides.
Platycephalic = Platycephalic.
Sphzerocephalic = Sphzeroides.
Cubicephalic = Cuboides.
Thus six out of sixteen names of Sergi’s
classification are included in Meig’s classifi-
cation. I conclude from comparison of
Meig’s types with Sergi’s figures that the
forms are identical.
Ellipsoides and Pentagonoides are in-
eluded in Cymbecephali; Rhomboides is
the same as the skulls included under
‘ Ancularly Oblong Form ;’ Lophocephalus
is a synonym of Phoxocephalic; Parallel-
epipedoides appears to be a variety of
Cylindricephali; Trapezoides and Acmo-
noides are included in Archecephali.
So long as Sergi endeavors to establish
a classification which he desires to be tested
by the methods of zodlogy and botany (p.
60), the names he proposes must be judged
by the law of priority of publication.
Harrison ALLEN.
PHILADELPHIA, March 16, 1895.
382
NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE LOBSTER ;
A CORRECTION.
In an article entitled ‘ Notes on the Bi-
ology of the Lobster’ (Screncr N. S. Vol.
I., No. 10, p. 263.) the following sentence
occurs: “After hatching a brood in May,
the female usually molts and afterwards ex-
trudes a new batch of eggs.” This should
be corrected to read thus: After hatching a
brood in May, the female usually molis, but does
not extrude a new batch of eggs wntil the follow-
img year.
These notes were culled from a fuller
paper, and this slip in the context crept in
unobserved. It is, however, corrected in
the latter part of the article.
Francis H. Herrick.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
THE TYRANNY OF THE MONISTIC CREED, A
REVIEW.
Der Monismus als Band zwischen Religion und
Wissenschaft. Gilaubensbekenntniss eines Na-
turforschers. ERNST HaArckeL. Bonn,
Emil Strauss. 1893 (Vierte Auflage).
Monism. The Confession of Faith of « Man of
Science. Ernst Harcxent. Translated
from the German by J. Gitcnrist. Lon-
don, Adam and Charles Black. 1894.
The influence of a ‘creed’ on the pro-
gress of science is a proper subject for dis-
cussion by men of science, and it is to this,
and not to the value of the basis for
Haeckel’s ‘ faith,’ that we will direct atten-
tion.
As he defines it, Monism “is the convic-
tion that there lives one spirit in all
things and that the whole cognizable
world is constituted, and has been de-
veloped, in accordance with one funda-
mental law.”’
This positive creed is very different from
a modest confession of ignorance, which
leaves us free to follow wherever future
discoveries may lead, for the monistic creed
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Von. I. No. 14.
is based on the assumption that what we
know is a proper measure of what we do
not know, as if we could have any measure
of the unknown.
An enthusiastic admirer of Haeckel’s sei-
entific researches may be pardoned a word
of comment on this published statement of
his creed.
He tells us all eminent and unprejudiced
men of science who have the courage of
their opinions think as he does. No one
likes to be called a bigot or a coward, or to
be accused of ignorance, but those who do
not agree with Haeckel must fortify their
souls by the thought that this argument is
no new thing in history.
Science is justified by works and not by
faith, and when Haeckel says ‘ Credo’ and
not ‘Scio’ we need not discuss the value of
his belief, although its influence on the pro-
gress of science is a more practical matter.
The struggle for intellectual freedom is
often called a conflict between religion and
science, but while the men of science have
burst through those Pillars of Hercules
which, according to Bacon, are ‘fixed by
fate,’ they have had no wish to demolish
these ancient landmarks, but only to force
a passage on to the great ocean of natural
knowledge. Least of all do they desire to
set up new bounds.
So far a creed involves, or seems to its
holders to involve, preconceptions on mat-
ters which fall within the province of re-
search or discovery, it is an obstacle to the
progress of knowledge and a proper subject
for scientific examination.
I shall try to show that the monisti¢e
‘confession of faith’ has led to the dis-
counting of the possibilities of future dis-
covery, and that it has thus obstructed pro-
gress.
One of its results is intolerance of doubt
on the problems of life. In this field the
monist holds that those who are not with
him are against him, and he admits no
7
APRIL 5, 1895.]
middle ground. More freedom is permitted
in other fields of thought.
We may say that, since we know noth-
ing about it, we neither believe that the
planet Mars is nor that it is not inhabited,
but no such philosophic doubt is permitted
in biology.
If a teacher of natural science were to
say he does not believe life is the outcome
of the physical and chemical properties of
protoplasm he would most surely be re-
ported as believing it is not the result of
these properties, and he would straightway
be branded a dangerous scientific heretic or
a weak brother of the faith, and his confes-
sion of ignorance would be put on record as
positive belief.
This antipathy to philosophic doubt on
the problems of life is clearly due to the
dogmatism of the monistic creed, which
cannot admit the presence of any unjoined
links in our knowledge of nature.
We might be indifferent to this intoler-
ance if it did not cause the most essential
characteristics of life to be ignored or pushed
into the background.
It is as true now as it was in Bacon’s
day that: ‘Whoever, unable to doubt,
and eager to affirm, shall establish principles
proved, as he believes, . . and according
to the unmoved truth of these, shall reject
or receive others, . he shall exchange
things for words, reason for insanity, the
world for a fable, and shall be unable to
interpret.”
The essential characteristic of life is fit-
ness.
A living organism is a being which uses
the world around it for its own good.
I, for one, am unable to find, in inorganic
matter, any germ of this wonderful at-
tribute.
It is possible that after chemistry has
_ given us artificial protoplasm this may be
shaped, by selection or some other agency,
_ into persistent adjustment to the shifting
SCIENCE.
383
world around it, and that it may thus be-
come alive.
Everything is possible in the unknown,
but why should we believe anything on the
subject until we have evidence ?
Of one thing we may be sure. The arti-
ficial production of protoplasm would not
be a solution of the problem of life. The
nature of the problem must be grasped in all
its length and breadth, with all its diffi-
culties, before we can hope to solve it.
Many biologists have sought to solve it by
transforming Huxley’s carefully guarded
statement that protoplasm is the physical
basis of life into the dogma that life is the
sum of the physical properties of protoplasm.
Life cannot go on without food, and we
may say with propriety that bread is the
staff of life, but the agency which shapes the
food into the specific structure of an organ-
ism exquisitely adapted to the conditions of
the world around it is to be sought some-
where else than in the properties of bread.
One of the distinctive characteristics of
this organizing agency is that it may exist
in a germ without any visible organization.
Another is that, so far as we know, it has
been handed down, in an unbroken line,
from the oldest living things, generation af-
ter generation, to the modern forms of life,
and that it has leavened the whole hump
of living matter.
While we know nothing of its nature or
origin, and must guard against any un-
proved assumption, there seem, from our
present standpoint, to be insuperable objec-
tions to the view that this agency is either
matter or energy. While we know it only
in union with protoplasm, it would seem
that, if it is matter, it must, long ago, have
reached the minimum divisibile. If it is en-
ergy, or wave motion, or perigenesis of
plastidules, it is hard to understand why it
has not been dissipated and exhausted. We
know that it exists, and this is in itself a
fact of the utmost moment.
384
We are told that the belief that it has, at
some time, arisen from the properties of
inorganic matter is a logical necessity, but
the only logical necessity is that when our
knowledge ends we should confess igno-
rance.
Young men who have been trained in
the routine of the laboratory tell us all
their interest in biology would be gone if
they did not believe all its problems are, in
the long run, to be resolved into physics
and chemistry.
The only answer we can give them is
that noble work has been done in natural -
science by men like Wallace, who believe
that life is fundamentally different from
matter, and also by men like Haeckel, who
believe the opposite.
They also serve science who only stand
and wait, and among them I would wish to
be numbered.
While nothing is gained by giving a
name to the unknown agency which is the
essence of life, it is better to call it a ‘ vital
principle’ than to deny or ignore its exist-
ence. It is better to be called a ‘ vitalist,’
or any other hard name by zealous monists,
than to be convicted of teaching, as proved,
what we know is not proven.
The word vitality is as innocent as electricity
or gravity; in fact, Newton’s use of this
word led Leibnitz to charge him with infi-
delity to the spirit of science, although no
one need fear to follow where Newton leads.
The older vitalists may have looked on
a mere word as an explanation, but the
reason the word has fallen into disrepute
is the antagonism of the monists to the
view that the problem of life presents any
peculiar difficulties.
Many thoughtful men of science have
held that the ‘faith’ of men like Haeckel
ignores many of the data which are fur-
nished by our scientific knowledge of the
world around us.
Huxley, in his essay on the Physical
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Vou. I. No. 14.
Basis of Life (1868), says it is necessary
for a wise life to be fully possessed of two
beliefs: ‘The first, that the order of nature
is ascertainable by our faculties to an ex-
tent which is practically unlimited; the
second, that our volition cownts for some-
thing as a condition of the course of events.
Each of these beliefs can be verified ex-
perimentally as often as we like to try.”
Again, twenty-five years later (1893), he
says (Evolution and Ethics) that, fragile
reed aS man may be, “there lies within
him a fund of energy, operating intelli-
gently, and so far akin to that which pervades
the universe that it is competent to influence and
modify the cosmic process.”
Clearly this man of science has no over-
whelming dread of the charge of anthro-
pomorphism or animism, or of any charge
except lack of caution.
I think that he would also admit that
every living thing contains some small part
of this influence which ‘counts for some-
thing as a condition of the course of events,’
and that it must be reckoned with in our
attempts at a philosophy of the universe.
W. K. Brooks.
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.
~
The Life and Writings of Constantine Samuel
Rafinesque. (Filson Club Publications
No. 10.) Prepared for the Filson Club
and read at its meeting, Monday, April 2,
1894. By Ricnarp EiswortH CALL,
M. A., M. Sc., M. D. Louisville, Ky.,
John P. Morton & Co. 1895. 4to. pp.
xiii+ 227. Portraits, etc. Paper. Price
$2.50, net.
This sumptuous volume is published by a
Historical Club in Louisville, Kentucky, as
.& memorial to one of the pioneer naturalists
and explorers of the Ohio valley, a man
whose brilliant intellect, eccentric character
and unhappy fate will always cause his
career to be looked upon with interest, and
whose nervous and appalling industry has
APRIL 5, 1895. ]
; been the cause of a myriad of perplexities to
students of the nomenclature of plants and
animals in Europe as well as in America.
Born in Constantinople in 1783, his father
a French merchant from Marseilles, his
mother a Greek woman of Saxon parentage,
Constantine Rafinesque early entered upon
the career of a wanderer. The roving
} habit of mind which soon became a part of
__ his nature led him into a mental vagabond-
age that influenced his career even more
than the lack of a permanent place of
; abode. His youth was passed in Turkey,
Leghorn, Marseilles, Pisa and Genoa. He
: had good opportunities for study and read-
ing, and before he was twelve had, as he
__ himself records, read the great Universal
_ History and one thousand volumes of books
on many pleasing and interesting subjects.
He was ravenous for facts, which he gath-
ered, classified and wrote down in his note-
books. He began to collect fishes and
birds, shells and crabs, plants and miner-
als, found or made names for them, copied
maps from rare works, and made new ones
from hisownsurveys. His precocious mind,
unguided and undisciplined, wandered at
will over the entire field of books and nature,
and by the time he reached the age of nine-
teen he had formed his own character and
equipped himself for the career which lay
before him. He became a man of cata-
_logues, of categories, of classifications. He
possessed much native critical acumen, and
r itis possible, though scarcely probable, that
as his present biographer suggests, had he
during the formative period been firmly
_ guided by some master hand, he might have
become one of the world’s greatest natural-
ists. Lacking such guidance, however, he
was by no means fitted to enter upon a sci-
“enti career in a country like the United
‘States, so when, at the age of twenty, he
_ erossed the Atlantic he brought with him
_ the germs of failure and bitter disappoint-
_s ~S
SCIENCE.
385
From 1802 to 1805 he lived in Philadel-
phia. From 1806 to 1815 he was in Sicily,
where he did some of his best work in his
‘Index to Sicilian Ichthyology,’ and in his
often quoted ‘Caratteri.’ Here he estab-
lished his monthly journal, the ‘ Mirror of
the Sciences’ (Specchio delle Scienze, ete.),
which endured throughout the twelve
months of 1814, but ended with its second
volume. Rafinesque was not only the
editor, but almost the sole contributor to
this journal, in which he printed no less
than sixty-eight articles upon a great va-
riety of subjects—upon animals, plants, min-
erals, meteorology, physics, chemistry, po-
litical economy, archeology, history and
literature, besides many critical reviews.
His fatal tendency to ‘scatter’ was already
apparent, and in the work which he did
for the ‘Specchio’ all the weaknesses of
his subsequent career were foreshadowed.
While in Sicily, for political reasons, he
assumed the surname, Schmaltz, that of his
mother’s family.
In 1815 he returned to America, and was
shipwrecked on the coast of Connecticut, los-
ing all his books, manuscripts and collec-
tions. For the next three years he lived in
New York, and during this period he contrib-
uted to the ‘American Monthly Magazine’ a
number of really brilliant and learned arti-
cles. So masterly, indeed, were these that it
seemed as if he were likely to become one of
the leaders in American scientific thought.
It seems probable that he was at this time
steadied and guided by his friend and pa-
tron, Dr. Samuel Latham Mitchill, whom
he greatly respected and admired; at all
events, when he left New York, signs of de-
terioration appeared in his methods. In
1818 he crossed the Alleghanies, and in the
following year became a professor in the
Transylvania University, at Lexington, Ky.
There he remained for seven years, sadly
ill at ease among the old-school college pro-
fessors who composed the faculty, yet, from
386 ©
the showing even of his own complaints,
treated with singular indulgence by them,
and allowed to devote the most of his time
to his excursions and to his writing. While
here he printed nearly one hundred papers,
chiefly descriptions of new plants and
animals. From 1825 to 1840 his life was
so irregular and his wanderings so extensive
that his biographer has made no attempt to
follow its course. Philadelphia was his
home, when he had one, but he was a soured
and disappointed man. His health was
bad, and he could not get any one to print
his voluminous writings. He established
his ‘Atlantic Journal,’ which soon failed.
He published various works by subscription,
and also added to his income by the sale of
‘Pulmel,’ a medicine for the cure of con-
sumption, concerning which he wrote a
book. In his later years he established in
Philadelphia his ‘ Divitial Institution and
Six Per Cent. Savings Bank,’ which seems
_ to have had some degree of success. He
died in 1840, in poverty and almost friend-
less, and is buried in an unmarked grave.
His career is described well and in sym-
pathetic mood by Professor Call, who sums
up the story of his last years in these words:
“The experiences through which he had
passed, which involved some of the saddest
that come to men, had so broken him that
there is little question that he was not of
sound mind during these latest years. He
was not, however, the irresponsible madman
some would have us believe; rather, his
was monomania and took the direction of
descriptions of new forms of plant and ani-
mal life. But more than this, his defect
was that peculiar form of monomania which
believed only in himself; which gave his
own work a value which does not always
attach to it; which made him neglect the
work of others, or, if it were noticed, im-
pelled him to caustic and unwise criticism.”
This judicious estimate, which is intend-
ed by Professor Call to apply only to his
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 14.
later years, I should be disposed with
some slight reserves, to accept as a fair
summary of his entire life-work, for all of
the faults of his latest works were, as I
have already suggested, foreshadowed in~
his Sicilian writings of 1814. The sym-
pathy which I once felt for Rafinesque has
almost vanished with the reading of the
whole story of his life, for the man, as shown
by his own private papers, appears to have
been singularly unsympathetic and unloy-
able, enveloped in a mantle of self-esteem
and interested in natural objects solely be-
cause he found in them something to name
and to classify. In all his writings there ap-
pears scarcely a gleam of love or enthusiasm
for nature, and he speaks of his fellow-men
only in words of criticism or malediction.
It would doubtless have been much better
if he had never touched pen to paper. The
fact that he had a keen eye and a remark-
able power of diagnosis, and that he had
learned the methods of systematic deserip-
tion, made his activity all the more perni-
cious, since regard for painstaking accuracy
was as foreign to him as love of nature.
The canons of nomenclature which now
prevail among American naturalists force
them to take cognizance of all his deserip-
tions and to use his names, whenever by any
possibility his meaning can be determined.
In many instances I have known him to be
given the benefit of a doubt. So the unwel-
come name of Rafinesque is constantly
obtruding itself in almost every branch of
zoology and botany, and it is likely to re-
main for a long time an obstacle in the way
of securing the recognition of American
nomenclaturein Europe. Hestands never-
theless as an important figure in early
American biological literature, and whether
we like him or not he cannot be ignored.
It is fortunate, then, that all relating to his
work has at last been brought together in so
convenient a form.
The minute and scholarly bibliography,
APRIL 5, 1895.]
which includes in all 420 titles, is most
valuable. Professor Call’s estimate of the
value of these writings is a very kindly one.
Bad as it was, Rafinesque’s work unques-
tionably entitles him to recognition as the
pioneer student of the ichthyology and con-
chology of the Mississippi valley, and he
was also among the earliest to study its
botany and its prehistoric archeology.
All the existing portraits of Rafinesque
are reproduced, as well as a specimen of his
handwriting, and in the appendix is re-
printed his will, which affords a better in-
sight into his character than all else he ever
wrote.
The book is exhaustively complete, well
written and beautifully printed, and in its
publication the author and the Filson Club
have accomplished admirably the task
which they had undertaken. They have
reared a noble monument to him who was
‘the first Professor of Natural Science west
of the Alleghanies.’
G. Brown Goope.
The Royal Natural History. Edited by
Ricuarp LypexKer. Illustrated by 72
colored plates and 1600 engravings.
Frederick Warne & Co., London and New
York. Royal 8°. 1894-95. Issued in
monthly parts.
The second full volume of this important
work is now out and, like the first, is de-
yoted entirely to the Mammalia. The first
comprised the Apes, Monkeys, Bats, In-
Sectivores and part of the Carnivores ; the
second completes the Carnivores and in-
eludes also the Ungulates, Manatees and
Dugongs. The well-known reputation of
the editor and principal author, Mr. Lydek-
ker, gives special value to these parts.
In general scope and plan of treatment
the work resembles Brehm’s Thierleben, of
which several editions have appeared in
Germany, and the Standard Natural History,
published in this country. The illustrations
>
SCIENCE.
387
are in the main borrowed from Brehm; they
were pirated by the Standard Natural History
ten years ago, and here appear for the third
time. Of course this is not the fault of the
author; but it is a pity original works can-
not have original illustrations. Good plates
are as much a part of a book as the text
itself, and should be allowed to stand un-
molested as monuments to the author. It
is not intended to deprecate the exchange of
technical figures or the judicious bringing
together of scattered cuts illustrating special
subjects—a very different thing from the
wholesale reproduction of a previous author’s
pictures.
The original cuts are not of high merit.
Those of the hooded seal and skull of the
cave bear are gross caricatures, and nearly
all the skulls and teeth are far inferior to
modern standards for such work ; and it is
not too much to say that Mr. Lydekker
himself, in previous publications, has done
much toward fixing these higher standards.
The colored plates are cheap chromos, in
striking contrast to the excellent and artistic
plates borrowed from Brehm.
In quoting American writers on ‘big
game’ the most authentic and best informed
writers are not always chosen, The one
book that is beyond all comparison the
best yet written on our larger mammals—
I refer of course to Roosevelt’s Wilderness
Hunter—is apparently unknown to the
editor. Asa natural result some surprising
statements are made, as, for instance, when
Oregon antelope hunters are told that the
pronghorn has ‘ almost or quite disappeared ”
from their State.
Some confusion arises from different
usages of the common names of animals.
The statement that in North America ‘ the
range of the e/k appears to have extended
originally from about the 43d to the 70th
parallel of latitude, its northern limit being
marked by the southern limit of the so-
called barren grounds,” will take the breath
388
away from most Americans who read it for
the first time, but a careful perusal of the
context shows that our moose is the animal
meant.
The hooded seal is said to be ‘nowhere
met with in large numbers,’ a statement
that will bear qualification in view of the
fact that many thousands are sometimes
taken by single vessels at the Newfoundland
and Labrador seal fisheries. More than 15,-
000 were killed on the ice and brought to
Newfoundland in March, 1883, by a sealer—
the Proteus—which I accompanied as sur-
geon-naturalist, and similar catches are not
rare.
In the matter of genera, the compre-
hensive groups of the past are commonly
used instead of the smaller groups of to-day.
The same conservatism characterizes the
treatment of species—perhaps a good fault
in a popular work, though one that can be
carried too far—as when a dozen skunks
are lumped under a single name, and the
most specialized of our true foxes is left out.
The author seems to be constitutionally
averse to the recognition of American spe-
cies as distinct from their European repre-
sentatives. This is shown by his treatment
_ of our wolf, red fox, lynx, wolverine, marten
and weasels. Even in the case of the mink
the opinion is expressed that the American
and Huropean animals are ‘mere local
varieties of a single species.’ The only
explanation of such statements, from a man
of Lydekker’s experience in studying fossil
mammals, is that he has not personally
compared the skulls and teeth of the Ameri-
ean and HKuropean forms. The number of
American species is reduced out of all pro-
portion to the sharpness of their characters
or the size of the areas they inhabit. Thus,
while three martens are accorded specific
rank for Eurasia, only one is allowed for
America, and it is given as doubtfully dis-
tinct. It should be stated, however, that
no European collection of mammals con-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 14,
tains more than a fraction of our species;
hence it is not so surprising that a foreign
author should fail to appreciate their char-
acters. ~
The common skunk of New England is
said to range from Hudson Bay to Guate-
mala, but it does not reach even the South-
ern United States. Again, skunks are said
to be good climbers, but neither Mephitis
nor Conepatus can climb trees—the ability
to do this being limited to the agile weasel-
like members of the genus Spilogale.
The article on the fur seal is full of mis-
statements and savors too strongly of a po-
litical argument from the British side of
the case. The number of fur-seals killed
at the Pribilof Islands each year is said to
be ‘limited to 100,000,’ and it is implied
that the number actually killed is still
larger. Asa matter of fact, 100,000 have
not been killed since 1889, while the num-
ber killed at the islands since 1890 is as fol-
“lows: 1890, 25,701; 1891, 14,406; 1892,
7,509 ; 1898, 7,390 ; 1894, 15,033.
We are told that the seals taken at sea
(by pelagic sealers) ‘appear to be exclus-
ively young males or barren females.’ In
reality the great majority of these seals are
breeding females. The author’s ideas of
humanity are simply past comprehension.
He says: ‘‘Of the two methods of sealing,
the shooting in the open sea is decidedly to
be preferred on humanitarian grounds, more
especially if it be true, as asserted, that on
the Pribiloffs a considerable number of
breeding female seals are killed before their
cubs are old enough to shift for them-
selves.””? No female seals are ever killed on
the islands except by accident—possibly one
in many thousands—while in the open sea,
as already stated, the great majority are fe-
males. Of these females, those killed on
their way to the islands in spring are heavy
with young, and those killed in Bering Sea
in summer are nursing; so two lives are
sacrificed for every one taken. Ever since
j
APRIL 5, 1895. ]
pelagic sealing has been carried on in Ber-
ing Sea, thousands of motherless ‘pups’
have died on the islands each year of star-
vation.
It is lamentable that the author has been
so grossly deceived in these matters, and
still more unfortunate that a scientific work
should be tainted with partisan odor.
Tt is stated that no islands in Bering Sea
besides St. Paul and St. George are inhab-
ited by fur-seals. This must be a slip of
the pen, for of course Mr. Lydekker knows
that the Commander Islands are the breed-
ing grounds of the west Bering Sea herd,
just as the Pribilof Islands are the home of
the east Bering sea herd.
_ In the matter of nomenclature the author
seems to be on the fence. In» some cases
the law of priority is rigidly enforced ; in
others a name in common use is retained
rather than the earlier name. Preoccupied
_ generic names are as a rule discarded, but
_ Bassaris, though preoccupied, is given in-
Stead of Bassariscus—doubtless by oversight.
The author’s attitude as to genera is
shown by the remark that in a certain
group only one genus can be admitted ‘on
account of intermediate forms.’ Is this
nota surprising position for one of the most
distinguished of living paleontologists?
Are not all mammals connected by inter-
mediate forms, living or extinct, even if all
are not yet discovered? And would not
Lydekker’s system, if logically enforced, re-
sult sooner or later in the destruction of
most of our generic groups? Is it not more
rational to found genera on the weight of
characters as presented in extremes of dif-
ferentiation rather than on the accident of
the survival or extinction of annectant
Species ?
_ As a general criticism of the Royal Na-
_ tural History, so far as now issued, it may
be said that the parts on American mam-
mals are weak. On the other hand, the
foreign species—foreign from our stand-
SCIENCE.
5389
point—are treated with a fullness and re-
liability not to be found in any other work.
The magnitude of the undertaking and the
haste in which the parts had to be prepared
(to appear monthly) inevitably led to oc-
casional inaccuracies ; but the defects are
far outweighed by the merits, and the work
will prove helpful to naturalists and ama-
teurs alike for many years tocome. It is,
indeed, a great satisfaction to be able to
turn to a single publication in which the
principal facts respecting the mammals of
the world are brought down to date and
stated with clearness and authority.
C. Hart MERRIAM.
The Book of Antelopes.
and OLpFIELD THOMAS.
JosEpH WoLF and J. SMirH.
R. H. Porter, 1894-95.
The second part of this handsome and
useful work, dated January, 1895, has come
to hand. The distinguished authors make
no attempt to offer a complete scientific
treatise on the antelopes, but furnish ‘ de-
seriptive letter-press [with full synonymy ]
for the beautiful series of lithographic plates
drawn some twenty years ago under the
supervision of the late Sir Victor Brooke,
making thereto such necessary modifica-
tions and additions as the progress of sci-
ence demands.”’
The work comprises the diverse members
of the Bovidse commonly called antelopes,
hartbeests, gnus, duikers, water-boks and
gazelles, and also the gemsbok, saiga, oryx,
eland and many others. The geographic
range of each species is given, together with
an interesting account of its habits and pe-
culiarities. Besides the full page colored
plates, there are many excellent cuts in the
text, mostly of horns and skulls. The book
therefore is helpful alike to the naturalist
and the sportsman, and is a handsome ad-
dition to any library.
The animals treated in the first two parts
By P. L. ScrarEer
Illustrated by
4°, London,
390
are the hartbeests and gnus (genera Bubalis,
Damatliscus and Connochetes), all belonging
to the subfamily Bubalidine, and residents
of Africa and Arabia. Twelve colored
plates have been issued, and seven are
promised with the next number, which will
be devoted to the duikers ( Cephalophus).
Op Asly) iil
NOTES AND NEWS.
Pror. 8. Cavin, State Geologist of Iowa,
announces that reprints of the photographs
accumulated by the survey may be had for
125 cents each. A descriptive list of views
may be had on application to the State
Geologist at Des Moines; all orders to be
made by the numbers of this list. If this
practice were generally adopted by our
State Surveys, it would be greatly to the ad-
vantage of many students and teachers.
Pror. W. R. Newsotp, of the University
of Pennsylvania, has become one of the as-
sociate editors of the American Naturalist.
In the current number he gives an account
of ‘The Present State of Psychology.’
Dr. Wirtincrr has been made Professor
of Mathematics in the University of Inns-
bruck.
Dr. WILDER D. BANCROFT, now Instructor
in Harvard University, has been appointed
Assistant Professor of Physical Chemistry
in Cornell University.
Pror. Francis Gorcx, now of University
College, Liverpool, has been elected to the
Waynflete Chair of Physiology at the Uni-
versity of Oxford, vacant by the transfer-
rence of Prof. Burdon Saunderson to the
Regius Professorship of Medicine.
JAmes EH. Oxrver, Professor of Mathemat-
ics in Cornell University, died at Ithaca,
on March 28th.
THE DUKE D’OrLHANS has presented the
Imperial Institute of London with his ex-
tensive collection of specimens of natural
history, costumes and curiosities.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 14.
Mr. Lester F. Warp writes that he has
just received from the family confirmation
of the reported death of the Marquis Sa-
porta. He died at Aix on January 25th. _
Dr. Nixoxa TEsta suffered a serious loss
in the destruction of his laboratory by fire
on March 13th.
GENERAL DE MaAsoury, Founder and Di-
rector of the Pic du Midi Observatory, died
recently at the age of eighty years.
Dr. Harrison ALLEN has been elected a
member of the Council of the Philadelphia
Academy of Natural Sciences, to fill the
vacancy caused by the death of John H.
Redfield.
Tur Joint Commission of the Scientific
Societies of Washington has begun to publish
a monthly programme, giving the dates of
meeting of the various scientific societies
of Washington for the ensuing month and
a full list of papers to be presented.
Atv a meeting of the New York Alumni
of the Johns Hopkins University, on March
29th, President Gilman made an address
on ‘ Impending Problems in Education.’ An
address was also made by Professor Butler,
of Columbia College.
A Natrona Exhibition of Industry and
Fine Arts in the City of Mexico will be
opened on April 2d, and an International
Exposition is proposed for Montreal, to be
opened on May 4th.
Ar the last meeting of the Academy of
Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, Miss
Emma Walter read a paper entitled Does
the Delaware Water Gap Consist of Two River
Gorges? She adduced evidence to show that
the river once flowed through the Gap
from the south towards the north ; that this
north-flowing river was pre-glacial, and
that much the greater part of the erosion is
the work of this old river, the remainder
being due to the action of the present south-
flowing stream.
APRIL 5, 1895.]
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Tue Section of Geology and Mineralogy
met March 18, and after electing as officers
for the ensuing year, Prof. J. J. Stevenson,
chairman, and Prof. J. F. Kemp, secretary,
listened to a lecture by Prof. J. J. Steven-
son on ‘The Origin of the Pennsylvania
Anthracite,’ of which the following is an
abstract:
Long ago H. D. Rogers showed that the
eoal regions of Pennsylvania are divided
into longitudinal basins or troughs. The
first series embraces the area between the
Great Valley and the Alleghany Mountains
and contains the several anthracite fields
as well as the semi-bituminous fields of
_ Broad Top and the Potomac River. Beyond
the Alleghanies are six well marked basins
containing bituminous coal.
Along a line from central Ohio, eastward
to the Potomac coal field, one finds note-
worthy variations in dip, the amount being
insignificant in Ohio, but very great in the
first series of basins. The increase is not
regular, there being no change practically
from the coke basins of eastern Pennsyl-
yania until within three or four miles of the
Potomac field, where the dip becomes very
abrupt. This line shows the extremes of
yariations, for further northward there is
in all of the basins a diminution of disturb-
ance, even in the anthracite areas, while
southward there is a similar decrease, except
in the last.
_ Analysis of coal samples from the Pitts-
burg bed, in the several basins, show a pro-
gressive decrease in proportion of volatile
matter toward the east or southeast. H.D.
Rogers regarded this decrease as due to in-
fluence of steam or other gas escaping from
erevices made during the folding of the rocks,
for he asserted that the volatile increased
_ asthe flexures diminished instrength. Ste-
’ yenson in 1877 showed that no such relation
exists. Lesley in 1879 thought that earth-
SCIENCE.
391
heat might have caused the change, as coals
in the anthracite region were buried under a
very deep covering of rocks; but there is no
evidence that the coal measures were thicker
at the east than in western Pennsylvania,
while there is every reason for supposing
that the coal measures were thinner there
than at the southwest. There is therefore
no good ground for supposing that the earth-
heat would be effective, for in Virginia,
where the thickness is very great, the coals
at the bottom of the column are very rich in
volatile matter.
Professor Lesley has suggested that the
change in the coal might have been due to
oxidation. The rocks of the anthracite re-
gion are consolidated gravels with little of
argillaceous matters, whereas those of the
bituminous area are largely argillaceous,
which, being undisturbed, lute down the
coals, preventing percolation of water and
the escape of gases. But in fact the bi-
tuminous fields afford all types of coal from
highly bituminous to hard anthracite, and
sections in many portions of the anthracite
fields show more clay beds than do those in
S. W. Virginia where the coal is highly bi-
tuminous.
It is not necessary to regard metamor-
phism as the sole cause of anthracite. It
is not called in to explain a variation of
ten per cent. in the same beds within short
distances, and it cannot explain the occur-
rence of bituminous in one bench and of
anthracite in another in the same opening
in Sullivan County, Pa., or equally of semi-
bituminous and dry anthracite in different
benches of the Mammoth. It does seem
as though the conversion of the coal must
have been practically complete before en-
tombment ; otherwise the variations of coal
of the same age in different areas would
seem to be inexplicable.
In Pennsylvania the decrease in volatile
bears no relation to the extent of plication,
but it bears close relation to the thickening
392
of the coal. The decrease in all of the areas
is toward the old shore line at the north
and northeast. In the anthracite area it is
very gradual until one passes the prongs in
the southern field, where the thickness of
coal increases abruptly. With that abrupt
increase in thickness is an equally abrupt
change in the amount of volatile. It seems
probable that the anthracite of Pennsyl-
vania is due to the long continuance of
eoal-making periods during which the
chemical change was unchecked, leading
eventually to complete loss of the hydrogen
and oxygen.
At the conclusion of the paper, discus-
sion followed, but failed to shake the
speaker’s main points. A paper by J. E.
Wortman, on ‘The Geology of the Bad
Lands,’ was postponed until the next meet-
ing. J. F. Kemp,
Secretary.
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CONTENTS :
The Educational and Industrial Value of Science :
PENT B..CARHART, . 000 sence cnicticees cece 393
Growth of First-born Children: FRANZ BoAs....402
Current Notes on Anthropology (V.): D. G. BRIN-
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RE RCROVULETIOE 25.5 i wa. w egmiegainainiaislejneieiele jes 406
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S. BILLINGs.
Heientifie Literature :— .....ccecscsccccccccctees 408
Geikie’s Great Ice Age: C. H. HitcHcock.
Marshalls Biological Lectures: H. W. Conn.
Parker's Astronomy: C. A. Y. Chemistry: Ep-
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_ MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
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Subscriptions and advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
THE EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL
VALUE OF SCIENCE.*
On the occasion of the formal dedication
of a building devoted to the teaching of sci-
ence, it is fitting that something should be
said respecting the claims of science to such
generous recognition and such ample provi-
sion for its cultivation in a young univer-
sity, established by a Commonwealth itself
still ‘in its teens.’ In the Atlantic States
the stagecoach is almost obsolete. It has
*Read at Boulder, Col., March 9, 1895.
given way to the railway, and it is an open
question whether transportation by steam
will not ultimately yield to the agile trolley
wheel. So the old-time college, devoted to
the ancient languages, mathematics, and a
little leaven of moral philosophy, with its
slow-going ways, its simple outfit of benches,
a teacher’s desk and a chapel, has been su-
perseded by the modern university, with its
complex organization, its multiplicity of
courses and subjects of study, its laborato-
ries and equipment, and its corps of trained,
eager, alert instructors, who are not ex-
pected to teach a book only, but to add to
the sum of human knowledge, and to
awaken in kindred spirits at least an en-
thusiasm for study, a delight in investiga-
tion, which has proved the most efficient
stimulus to high intellectual attainments.
The erection of the Hale Scientific Building
indicates that the University of Colorado
aims to pursue its way untrammeled by an-
cient traditions, with the spirit of modern
ideas in education, and in touch with the
most progressive institutions of learning.
Shall we pause a moment to inquire what
has wrought this change in the aims and
methods of higher education in the United
States? What new conditions make it
possible for a young university like that at
Chicago to forge toward the front in two or
three short years? Universities have al-
ways been considered as institutions of slow
growth. They represent the accretions of
394
years and centuries even, if we broaden our
view sufficiently to include those of Europe.
Such indeed are the customs, the traditions
and the general policy of a great university
with decades or centuries of history behind
it. Every ancient seat of learning has a
character peculiarly its own. There is an
indescribable charm attaching to crumbling,
ivy-cumbered walls; to time-stained libra-
ries, that point with motionless fingers back
toward their more silent authors; a subtle
influence in the steady gaze of the famous
sons of the college, as they look down on
the younger generation from the deepening
canvas in the memorial portrait hall. Who
that has a fibre of his soul tuned to vibrate
in unison with melodies of the past can fail
to feel an energetic thrill as he stands among
the distinguished sons of the Harvard of
former years ranged around the walls of
‘Memorial Hall,’ or as he walks softly
through the portrait gallery of Christ Church
College in Oxford? These influences are not
to be despised. They are an inheritance from
the long past and are still potent. Addison
still walks under the arching trees by the
quiet stream at the back of Magdalen Col-
lege; Wolsey and Wesley and Gladstone
still linger in the noble hall of Christ Church;
and Newton’s rooms remain near the im-
posing gateway of Trinity College in Cam-
bridge. I love to step within the charmed
circle of such subtle influences, to yield to
the magic spell, and to count myself a part
of all this glorious past.
But the modern spirit prevades the oldest
institutions, and great seats of learning are
rising on new foundations. In both old
and new the most marked characteristic of
the teaching of the present is the scientific
method. It has pervaded every depart-
ment and has proved the leaven that, being
taken and hid in the ancient curriculum, as
inert as the three measures of meal, has
leavened the whole. Till the introduction
of serious scientific study with laboratory
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vox. I. No. 15.
facilities, the educational methods which
had prevailed for centuries were still cur-
rent. As late as twenty-five years ago ina
respectable New England college it was not
possible for a student to learn his science
by means of laboratory study. All this
has now changed, and no less important a
change has taken place in the teaching of
language and literature. It is significant
that this advance in pedagogical practice,
the introduction of the method by investi-
gation as compared with mere memoriter
acquisition, has been coincident with the
introduction of the serious study of science
into our American colleges and universi-
ties. Twenty-five years ago the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology led the way by
introducing the physical laboratory into the
study of physics. Some progress had al-
ready been made in the teaching of chem-
istry by direct contact with chemical re-
actions at the work table. It is only fifty
years since Liebig inaugurated the system
of studying chemistry by the laboratory
method, and it is highly probable that the
physical laboratory established by William
B. Rogers in Boston marked the introduc-
tion into the regular curriculum of instruc-
tion in physics by experiment.* I venture
to say that no greater success has followed
any new departure in education. The
physical laboratory is now a necessary part
of every institution devoted to higher learn-
ing; its growth has been phenomenal. En-
ormous sums of money have been expended
for physical laboratories and their equip-
ment. The example set by this oldest
branch of science has had a most beneficent
influence in several directions. It has im-
proved the quality of the work in the
~
secondary schools. The physical laboratory _
is now a necessary part of every first-class
high school equipment. It has also stimu-
lated and advanced original work. Every
* Professor Mendenhall in The Quarterly Calendar
of the University of Chicago, August, 1894.
oo =
“¥
yore eo
if
a
§
*
which I lay much stress.
APRIL 12, 1895. ]
instructor competent to fill a professor’s
chair in physics is now expected to add
something to the stock of knowledge by his
independent investigations. It has thus
made graduate instruction possible in Am-
erican universities, a movement having the
most hopeful outlook and of the most pro-
found educational import.
A third and most complete leavening in-
fluence is that the method by experiment
and original investigation adopted by sci-
- ence has compelled other departments of
learning to become its imitators, so that
now the laboratory method prevails in
nearly every department of learning. This
result is too patent to be questioned even.
Psychology, language and history have
yielded to the powerful example set by
physics and chemistry. Archeology has its
work-room, its laboratory; language its
photographs, its projections, its casts and
reproduction of ancient life and times; while
psychology has appropriated not only the
methods, but the apparatus of the physicist.
Now a movement which has been such a
powerful operator in solving the problem of
education in every branch of learning has a
significant value in the intellectual training
of American youth. In fact, the value of
science in any system of liberal education is
so generally admitted that it is an almost
needless expenditure of energy to enter into
a discussion relative to its merits. It is no
new comer for whom room is benevolently
or patronizingly made in order that it may
display its powersand demonstrate its worth.
Tt acknowledges other claimants as peers,
but admits no superiors. It came long ago
to stay.
I should like to point out two or three
aspects of the study and pursuit of science
not often alluded to or recognized, but on
The first relates
to the cultivation and chastening of the
faculty ofimagination. Sir Benjamin Brodie
said in a presidential address to the Royal
SCIENCE.
395
Society many years ago: “ Physical investi-
gation, more than anything besides, helps
to teach us the actual value and right use
of the imagination—of that wondrous fac-
ulty which, left to ramble uncontrolled,
leads us astray into a wilderness of perplex-
ities and errors, a land of mists and shadows;
but which, properly controlled by experience
and reflection, becomes the noblest attribute
of man, the source of poetic genius, the in-
strument of discovery in science, without
the aid of which Newton would never have
invented fluxions, nor Davy have decom-
posed the earths and alkalies, nor would
Columbus have found another continent.”
It would be a grievous mistake to suppose
that the cultivation of science contributes
only to accuracy and exactness; to the de-
velopment of the habit and power of obser-
vation, and to the education of the reason-
ing faculty as applied to the concrete—to
the objects and phenomena of nature. All
of these constitute a valuable training and
are demonstrable results of an honest effort
to understand and coérdinate the phenom-
ena of nature. But as soon as the student
of science passes beyond the mere elements
he must train himself to the habit of con-
ceiving things which “eye hath not seen,
nor ear heard, nor have entered into the
heart of man.” He must emancipate him-
self as much as possible from the domina-
tion of his sensations, and must learn that
sense-perceptions should not be projected
into the outer world of nature, but that they
are only symbols of objective phenomena
presented to consciousness, which the im-
agination, aided by reason and reflection,
must interpret. Not only is the imagina-
tion called into activity by the common oc-
currences of the natural world lying along
the level and the horizon of man’s experi-
ence, but it is powerfully stimulated by the
more remote phenomena above him and be-
low him. Man contemplates the starry
firmament on high, the spangled heavens,
396
flecked with barely discernible patches of
light; he puts together these trembling
nebule, as the dismembered parts of a puz-
zle panorama of the heavens; and out of
them all, triumphant over time and space,
he constructs a nebular theory of the visible
universe. He thus concludes that the vari-
ous bodies of the solar system “‘ once formed
parts of the same undislocated mass; that
matter in a nebulous form preceded matter
in a dense form; that as the ages rolled
away, heat was wasted, condensation fol-
lowed, planets were detached, and that
finally the chief portion of the fiery cloud
reached, by self-compression, the magnitude
and density of our sun” (Tyndall).
On the one hand, the telescope and spec-
troscope are aids to the imagination in
penetrating the almost inscrutable mystery
of the skies ; on the other, the microscope
enables it to descend somewhat into the no
less limitless underworld, and to sink the
exploring plummet to depths as far removed
from the field of the microscope as the celes-
tial boundaries are beyond the vision at-
tained by the telescope.
How wonderful, also, is the ethereal me-
dium which man’s imagination has con-
structed, the vehicle of the energy wafted
to us from sun and stars! To the mental
vision this medium fills all space and quiv-
ers with radiant energy—that winged Mer-
eury, bearing messages to man from all the
worlds on high. Even electrical and mag-
netic phenomena are utterly mexplicable
without it. The imagination of Faraday,
of Maxwell, and of Hertz, has woven out of
it a texture of lines of electric and magnetic
force, which are as real to the electrician
as the machines and conductors which he
mantles with them. Every conductor con-
veying a current, every permanent or elec-
tromagnet, is surrounded with its system of
lines of force in the ether. And when an
alternating current traverses a conductor
these lines of magnetic force are propagated
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Vou. I. No. 15.
outward from it in waves which spread with
the velocity of light. In fact, they are iden-
tical with light objectively, except in point
of wave-length. Thus the theory, imagined
by Maxwell with the insight of marvelous
genius, and confirmed later by the classical
experiments of the lamented Hertz, is now
accepted doctrine by physicists the world
over. The existence of the ether is now
seen to be a necessary consequence of Roe-
mer’s discovery in 1676 of the finite speed
of light. For the transmission of light is
the transmission of energy; and a medium
of transmission is a necessary postulate as
the repository of this energy during the
time of transmission. Newton imagined the
light-giving body projecting minute parti-
cles, or corpuscles, through space and car-
rying their energy with them as a bullet
carries its energy to the mark. These en-
tering the eye excite vision by impact upon
the retina. But Newton’s corpuscular the-
ory failed because of its final complexity
and the crucial test applied to it by the
great experimenter, Foucault.
The undulatory theory, on the other
hand, requires a continuous medium, and
the energy is handed along from particle to
particle as an undulation. In this way
energy is conveyed by sound and by water-
waves across the surface of the sea. Ac-
cording to this theory, a luminous body is
the center or source of a disturbance in the
ether which is propagated in waves through
space. They are electromagnetic in origin,
travel with the velocity of light, and en-
tering the eye excite the sense of vision.
Thus far have we been helped along by the
imagination of genius and the contributory
aid of experiment. Mean and unfruitful
indeed is the science which has not been en-
riched, extended and vivified by the scien-
tific imagination. Where dull reason halts
and the understanding is confounded by
appalling obstacles, imagination overleaps
them all and the barriers are dissolved
APRIL 12, 1895.]
away. The boundaries of scientific inquiry
have thus been moved forward and new
territory has been added to the cultivated
domain.
_ Again, let me direct your attention to
_ another feature attending the prosecution
of scientific research. While it is undoubt-
edly destructive of credulity, and is perhaps
but a weak ally of faith, it is nevertheless
a powerful promoter of honesty. The object
which the scientific investigator sets before
him is toascertain the truth. He is devoted
to it and pursues it with unremitting toil.
But this is not all. He not only seeks
truth, but he must be true himself. It is
‘difficult to conceive of any circumstances
which would induce him to play a dishonest
_ part in scientific research. He has every
inducement not only to accuracy but to
honesty. He may unwittingly blunder and
_ fall into error, but if he is untrue he is cer-
tain to be exposed. No discovery is per-
‘mitted to go unverified. It must undergo
_ the searching examination of scientific in-
quiry. The investigator must submit his
med. There is, therefore, every induce-
ment for him to be absolutely truthful. This
condition imposes upon him also the habit
of conservatism and moderation in state-
ment. He is not expected to plead a cause
or to make the most of the occasion for
himself. In this regard his position is in
contrast with those whose profession makes
em the allies of faith, but whose modera-
m is not always known to all men; for
heir assertions are not brought to the
uchstone of revision and justification, and
he released word flies over the unguarded
The habit of the scientific investi-
or is to subject every question to the
utiny of reason and to weigh probabili-
gs; hold fast that which is good.” He
ects conscience, but has no use for
edulity. He exhibits devotion to principle,
SCIENCE.
397
but dogmatism, whether in science or re-
ligion, has no place in his creed. He looks
not only upon the things which are seen,
but also upon the things which are unseen.
You may suffer me to remind you that the
most noted American atheist is not a man
of science, while one of the forceful books
of modern times, ‘The Unseen Universe,’
which aims to lay a foundation for belief
in a future life without the aid of inspira-
tion, was written by two distinguished phys-
icists. Science examines the foundations
of belief. It takes nothing from mere tradi-
tion, on authority, nor because it is an
inheritance from the past. It admits its
own limitations and the somewhat cireum-
scribed boundaries set to the field of its
inquiries; but within this province it seeks
to ascertain only the truth. It recognizes
not only the promise and potency of matter,
but the power which makes for righteous-
ness.
Turning now to some more practical mat-
ters, it is strongly urged that the study of
science should begin early, before the taste
for such study has become atrophied by too
excessive attention to language and mathe-
matics. It is a fact established by observa-
tion that if a student gets his first introduc-
tion to science only after he is well along in
his college course he comes to it with a
mental inaptitude that often produces dis-
couragement and precludes the possibility
of much satisfaction in its pursuit. The
procedure in scientific study, especially
when it includes the method of the labora-
tory, is so radically different from that in-
volved in the study of language that one
trained only in the latter finds himself in a
foreign field when he enters the former.
The study of language, considered merely
as the symbolism of thought, or the instru-
ment for its expression, is most valuable
and essential. You shall hear no word from
me designed to depreciate the value of
linguistic study and training. It is rather
398
to be deprecated that scientific men do not
generally pay more attention to the forma-
tion of a correct English style, and do
not oftener acquire the ability to ex-
press the results of their studies in more
elegant English diction. On the other
hand, an exclusive training in the so-
ealled humanities leaves the student
unsymmetrically developed. The elemen-
tary study of languageis largely a study of
the forms and symbols of speech; to the
young student, at least, the thought is. alto-
gether a secondary consideration. Mathe-
matics furnishes a training in the relations
of abstract number, and in the manipulation
of symbols invented to facilitate operations
expressing the relations between related
quantities. It is not only a valuable agency
in mental development, but it is a powerful
instrument for the investigation of phenom-
ena in those branches of science to which
applied mathematics is indispensable. Sci-
ence has more to do than either language
or mathematics with objective phenomena.
The student of science soon finds that he
has a new set of relationships with which
to deal. He may be familiar with mathe-
matical theorems and solutions, but his first
difficulty is to see the points of attachment
of mathematics to the facts of physical sci-
ence. He is armed with a weapon of most
modern design and exquisite workmanship,
and he has possibly obtained some skill in
target practice, but he has no eye for game.
He may be too short-sighted to see that
there is any game even.
Skill in the use of scientific methods of
reasoning and acquirement comes only
after the mind has been kept for some time
in contact with science, so that it has ac-
quired the scientific spirit and aptitude.
The preparation for the scientific work of
the university should therefore begin in
the secondary schools. Continuity in scien-
tific acquisition is as essential as in that of
language or mathematics. While six, or
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 15,
even eight, years are given to language in
the high school, counting the four years
with three studies each as twelve, it is
thought by some to be an evidence of great
magnanimity if two years out of the twelve_
are given over to the mere elements of
physical and biological science. It is
obvious to any careful observer that
much improvement has been made in the
teaching of science in secondary schools
within the last few years. More competent
teachers are employed, laboratory facilities
have been provided, better manuals have
been written, and the tone of the science
department has been improved by the fact
that preparation in science at last leads to
something further in the university. This
continuity in the pursuit of scientific studies
has already furnished qualified teachers for
the lower schools. What wonder if the
teaching of science in the schools should
not have proved as fruitful as was once
hoped! ‘Till recently language and mathe-
matics have had the training of the teachers
throughout our whole educational history,
and if science secured entrance to a second-
ary school at all it got there in a secondary
place. All that science asks is to be placed
on equal footing with other lines of study.
It demands no preferences and is strenuous
that no ultimate bounties shall be extended
to other branches. There should be no
favored nations in the world of education.
It recognizes no excellences in language or
literature to justify superior awards at
graduation. There are no sacred vessels in
education which science may not touch,
no shibboleth which she cannot pronounce,
no holy of holies which she should be for-
bidden to enter. The ideal culture course
is not all science, not all language, and not
all mathematies, but a judicious combi-
nation of these and other branches. It
would be no less logical for one to make
one’s course chiefly science than to make it
chiefly language ; but when the student has
ApRIL 12, 1895.]
successfully completed his course, making
due allowance for personal differences and
needs, no reason seems to me valid for not
crowning the equivalent work of all with
the same degree.
h Reference to the other aspect of my subject
has, perhaps, been too long delayed. Sci-
ence has not only educational value of a high
order, but industrial applications as well.
Discovery and scientific training precede
invention. The quality of mind that dis-
covers the laws of nature is of a higher or-
der than that which makes application of
them. The genius of Faraday and Henry,
who discovered the laws of magnetic in-
_ duction, must not be dimmed or diminished
__ by reduction to the level of even the great-
_ est living inventors. The contributions of
_ these men to the well-being, comfort and
_ happiness of mankind cannot be over-esti-
_ mated. They laid the foundation in mag-
nificent discoveries of those splendid appli-
cations which have dazzled the world in
recent years. So thoroughly intrenched in
_ theory and practice are Faraday’s concep-
_ tions at the present day that they enter into
every design of motor or dynamo. They
_ have been shot through the entire body of ;
practice and are intertwined with every
_ thread of electrical thought.
On the other hand, one must not fail to
note that the wonderful applications of
_ Seience have reacted in a favorable way
_ upon theory and investigation. They have
__ proved an effective stimulus to research and
_ haye furnished a multitude of problems for
_ original investigation. Scientific discovery
and inventions involving scientific laws are
_ two handmaids of national improvement.
They are larger agencies for the advance of
_ modern civilization than any others. As-
_ tronomy has made splendid contributions
to navigation since Galileo suffered for
Beeching that the earth revolves daily on
axis and yearly round the sun. It has
made possible modern chronometry by
_
SCIENCE.
399
giving us the accurate unit of time. The
contributions of modern chemistry are so
numerous and so important that it is diffi-
cult to particularize. It has taken a useless
refuse of the gas retort and converted it in-
to resplendent dyes that rival the gorgeous
colors of the rainbow. It has improved and
cheapened the processes of manufacturing
iron till the cost of the ore and the fuel con-
trol the price of the product; and old estab-
lishments, far removed from the cheap sup-
ply of either, have had to succumb to the
march of events.
Bacteriology, the ally of chemistry, work-
ing largely by chemical methods, gives the
fairest promise of discovering the cause and
the prevention of disease. Its beneficent
aim now is to devise methods of securing
immunity from the most deadly diseases,
whose ravages are greater than those of
great civil wars. Important discoveries in
this direction are impending, and medicine
is fast becoming a science instead of a body
of empirical rules.
Bacteriology has already isolated and
identified a large number of pathogenic or
disease-producing germs and hopes in time
to corral them. It has demonstrated that
disease is not due simply to the presence of
the bacillus, but to the specific poison result-
ing from its growth. It has added con-
sumption and pneumonia to the list of in-
fectious diseases; and the discovery of the
cause is a long stride toward the goal of
prevention.
The specific direction in which the large
body of scientific discovery is turned to
practical account is in the several branches
ofengineering. The civil, mechanical, elec-
trical and mining engineers are the prophets
of the new civilization. They have pierced
the highest mountains; hung highways
over the most dizzy cafions; constructed a
- rushing steed that feeds on the compressed
vegetation of the carboniferous age and
wearies not ; they have brought the nations
400
together so that the great oceans scarcely
separate them ; they have bound continents
together by wonderful cables embedded in
slimy ooze at the bottom of the sea. Hiffel
reared his tower a thousand feet to pierce
the sky; Baker projected three of his out
1700 feet horizontally without staging to
bridge the Firth of Forth; and over them
fly four hundred trains daily without slack-
ening speed; each span is longer than the
Brooklyn bridge, and there are three spans.
The seven wonders of the world have be-
come seventy, and still the modern en-
gineer pauses not. He now soberly con-
templates a deep waterway from the great
Northwest to the Atlantic coast. He has
not even abandoned the problem of aerial
navigation, but attacks it on a new princi-
ple. Archimedes is said to have declared
that if he had a place for a fulerum he could
move the world. Professor Vernon Boys
has just weighed the earth and determined
its density to the third decimal place by
means of two gilded balls suspended by a
fiber of quartz, finer and stronger than a
spider’s web. Not content that the earth
yields her yearly increase, and that the sea
furnishes abundant food, the engineer bur-
rows into the eternal hills and seeks for hid
treasures in the depths of the earth. The
gold and the silver he wishes to be his also.
He even establishes an electric plant some
1600 feet underground, converts the power
of the descending stream of water into elec-
tric energy, and sends it back to the surface
for further service.
He has contemplated the colossal cataract
at Niagara not only as a display of natural
grandeur, but as an example of unlimited
power running to waste. At last he is
nearly ready to recover a small part of
this power and to transmit it to distant
cities, where it may turn the wheels of in-
dustry or be transmuted into light. No
grander problems remain for solution than
. those even now confronting the electrical
SCIENCE.
“universities.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 15.
engineer. The swiftness with which he
has already passed from one almost insur-
mountable task to another has amazed no
one more than those most familiar with the
means employed. If electrical engineering”
is still in its infancy it is certainly a giant
infant. It has long since outgrown its toys.
With the nerve and audacity of vigorous
young manhood it quails before no obstacles
and acknowledges no impossibilities. Hay-
ing practically banished the plodding horse
from the street railway, it is getting ready
to enter the lists against the locomotive.
If your city is not seated near a source of
power it will undertake to bring the power
to you. The mountain can not go to the
city, but the city can go to the mountain for
its power. LHlectrical engineering stands
at the door of the twentieth century, ready
to accept the tasks that it imposes, and
eager to enter upon a new period of dis-
covery and application.
A marked feature of educational history
in the United States for the past twenty-five
years is the rapid increase in engineering
schools, partly on independent foundations,
and partly as a professional department of
Of this latter class the only
ones existing a quarter of a century ago, so
far as I know, were the Lawrence Scientific
School at Harvard, the Sheffield Scientific
School at Yale, and the courses in Ciyil
Engineering in the Universities of Penn-
sylvania and Michigan. The first two, as
their name implies, were devoted quite as
much to the teaching of pure science as tO
engineering. They attracted but little at-
tention, and in fact the Lawrence School
had but a moribund existence for many
years after the establishment of the Insti-
tute of Technology in Boston. Recently
it has had new vigor infused into it and
has profited by the growing interest in
engineering education. Cornell and the
State Universities have led the way in the
establishment of engineering schools, and
APRIL 12, 1895.]
their example has been followed in a way
that demonstrates more completely than
anything else could that a popular demand
_ exists for engineering instruction.
/
t
Civil engineering came into the Univer-
sity of Michigan in 1853, with the late Dr.
Alexander Winchell, as an adjunct of
Physics. It had an independent instructor
in 1857 in the person of Professor De Volson
Wood, who is well known in the profession
at the present day. Mining engineering
followed in 1875. Mechanical engineering
was introduced by a professor detailed from
the U.S. Navy Department in 1881. Finally
the course in electrical engineering was be-
gunin 1889. The success of this last course
has more than justified its introduction, as
the roster of students in it already exceeds
that of either of the older engineering
courses. This growth is attributable to the
popular interest in the subject.
The engineering courses are primarily
professional as distinguished from the liter-
ary curriculum. They lay the foundation
_ in theory and a moderate amount of prac-
tice for distinguished careers in a private
_ professional capacity and at the same time
in the service of the State.
A large portion
of the graduates of American technical
schools have been very successful in their
professional career. The presence of a con-
.siderable body of trained engineers, dis-
_ tributed throughout the country, has had a
marked influence on the number and char-
acter of the public improvements made.
_ agreat commonwealth is justified in main-
taining an institution of higher learning be-
cause of the public weal, as I fully believe
it is, then the maintenance of schools of en-
gineering is approved by considerations of
high public interest.
_ From an educational point of view, the
courses in engineering furnish a thorough
and by no means narrow intellectual train-
ing. The rigid discipline in pure and ap-
_ plied mathematics, the courses in physics
SCIENCE.
If
401
and chemistry, the attention given to
modern languages, are all additional to the
special instruction in engineering studies ;
and while they serve as a foundation for
them their value as a means of intellectual
culture are just as great asif they were pur-
sued for this purpose alone. An eminent
scholar, Professor Ritter of Germany, has
recently testified to the suecess of technical
education in the United States and says
that the Americans have outdone Europeans
in this regard. The theoretical side of the
technical branches Professor Ritter believes
to be less solid here than in Germany ; but
against this defect he sets the “ truly grand
achievements in engineering and machine
construction in the United States.’’ In the
normal growth of our engineering courses
they will gradually be strengthened on the
theoretical side. At the same time we can
not guard too carefully against the crowd-
ing out of that amount of practice obtain-
able from a well-equipped engineering
laboratory and such tests of actual ma-
chinery as may be accessible. The highest
justification of the American plan of engi-
neering schools is to be found in the prom-
inent part taken by comparatively recent
graduates in the most difficult undertakings
of engineering practice.
In the provision for science and engi-
neering, indicated by the dedication of the
Hale Scientific Building, the University of
Colorado is following the best examples of
American education. It has made a noble
beginning in the cultivation of science, the
augury we may be permitted to hope of a
brilliant future. A wide world of discovery
yet remains. The remark of an eminent
physicist that the future discoveries of phys-
ical science are to be looked for in the
sixth place of decimals is rendered rather
ludicrous by the recent discovery of ‘Argon,’
a new constituent of the atmosphere, com-
posing about two per cent. of its weight. If
the air we breathe can furnish a new and al-
402
most unsuspected element, what other sur-
prises may hide in equally common things ?
The twitching of a dead frog’s leg a hun-
dred years ago started a train of discoveries
in electricity that have revolutionized the
world. But Galvani was not the first anato-
mist who used the frog as illustrative ma-
terial. Science knows no ultimate limits be-
yond which she may not go. The mountains
of Colorado are not yet exhausted of their
precious metals, nor has nature yet thrown
up her hands as a signal that she no longer
resists the uncovering of all her treasure.
I bear to you the congratulations of the
Mother of State Universities, and the wish
that this institution may be an intellectual
light attracting the youths of Colorado, and
a glory to this great Commonwealth.
Henry S. CARHART.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 15.
THE GROWTH OF FIRST-BORN CHILDREN.
Durine the year 1892 I made arrange-
ments for a series of measurements of school
children, one of the objects of which was
the determination of any existing difference -
between the growth of first-born and later-
born children. The measurements were
taken in Toronto, under the direction of Dr.
A. F. Chamberlain, and in Oakland, Cal.,
through the kindness of Professor Earl
Barnes. The following table contains the
results of the observations taken in Oak-
land.
The columns named ‘ Differences’ gives
the amount to be added to the average stat-
ure and weight in order to obtain the stat-
ures and weights of first-born and later-
born children. The figures printed in pa-
renthesis designate the numbers of individ-
uals measured.
STATURES OF Boys IN MILLIMETERS.
A DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AVERAGE STATURE AND STATURE OF
ges. Average
First Born Second Born Third Born Fourth Born Later Born
Sena ate Children. Children. Children. Children. Children.
6.5 | 1137 ve + 7 (30) 7 @ —13 (25) = (36) 5 GS
7.5 1180 (197) +11 (49) —A4 (42 +13 (31 += 0 (24 —10 (46)
8.5 1249 (234) —3 (57) —7 ta —1 32 —18 (26 —21 61)
9.5 1283 (220) + 2 (57) ame 47) +5 38 + 5 (23 +1 (46)
10.5 1334 (243) + 0 (66) +33 (49) —18 (41 —15 35) —8 Gat
11.5 | 1379 (208) —1 (58) +1 (39) +16 (32 —13 (27) —1 (4
12.5 1426 (230) +20 (66) —i1 47) —A4 38 —5 (36 —19 (41)
13.5 1482 (163) +16 (54) +10 43) +16 28 —31 (26 —25 (30
14.5 1556 (163 +11 (46) —19 40) + 4 (27 +0 (25 +8 (24
15.5 1632 (118) + 6 (35) + 8 (29) —18 (22 —14 (15) +4 (17)
16.5 1668 (116) —19 (29) +17 (30) +21 (8s —20 (13) + 0 (25)
Average Differences. +4.5 +4.0 +1.9 —7.9 —6.9
STATURES OF GIRLS IN MILLIMETERS.
Amon [reriee DIFFERENCE DEAS AVERAGE STATURE AND STATURE OF
_ First Born Second Born Third Born Fourth Born Later Born
Wears, Stature: Children. Children. Children. Children. Children.
6.5 1125 iGo, +11 oS + 0 (28) —9 (15 —16 (10) —1
7.5 1175 (199 +8 (49 —1 (40 +3 (44 —A4 (24) —11
8.5 1226 221) +14 (52) —l1 (46 —9 (43 +13 (19 —4
9.5 1277 (252) —4 (65) —3 (57 +14 (47) —17' (21 +5
10.5 1335 Sa = 7 (59 —2 (46) +15 (28) —6 (26 —11
11.5 1389 (226 +12 (52): +10 (41 — 3 (32 +3 (34 —14
12.5 1450 (283 +3 (65 +14 (56 —1 Fe + 7 (40) + 8
13.5 1516 (222) —3 a +9 (48 —19 (38) +6 (29 +9
14.5 1566 (241) +9 (61 +0 (68 — 8 38) —17 +=(23 —i1
5} 5) 1577 (170) —2 (42) +11 (36) —6 (82) —i1 (19 —5 (
16.5 1597 (127 +15 (304 —38 (28) — 3 (23) —i1 (14 —18 (382
17.5 1597 (eo +10 (30 —21 (19) —8 (19) +O (5 +14
18 & older| 1602 82 +12 (27) —5 (20) —25 (10) —10 (9 —1
Average Differences. +7.1 —2.8 —4.5 —3.3
AprIL 12, 1895.] SCIENCE. 403
WEIGHTs OF Boys IN PoUNDs.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVERAGE WEIGHT AND WEIGHTS Or :
Ages. Average = ee = = 2 wae esis
y Weight First Born Second Born ——‘ Third Born Fourth Born Later Born
oo } ee Children. Children. | Children. Children. Children
6.5 | 47.7 (147) —0.3 {78} | +0.7 (38) +0.1 (26) —0.1 (18) —0.5 (35)
7.5 51.7 (191) +1.1 (48 —0.6 (42) +0.1 (32) —1.0 (21) +0.0 (44)
8.5 57.3 (229) | —0.3 es | +0.2 be +0.5 (32) +0.7 (26) —0.6 (57)
9.5 62.2 (212) —0.4 : 57) +0.1 N 45) _ _—0.2 (36) | —0.2 (22) Ato (43)
10.5 69.0 (235) —1.6 (64) 5.4. (47), | —2i (89) | —1.4 (36) | =o (44)
11.5 74.8 (206) +1.0 (58) —0.9 (38) +1.2 (33) —0.9 (27) —0.3 (44
12.5 81.6 (224) +2.1 tl +1.2 (46) —0.4 (37) | —2.6 (34) —1.8 (41)
13.5 89.1 tie0s +2.0 (50 +2.3 (46) +4.1 (28) —8.9 (32) —2.5 (32)
ee 105.1 (160) +1.6 47) —0.7 (38) | —0.2 (26) —1.4 (23) : _ +0.5 (25) _
15.5 119.5 (114) +3.0 (33) —1.7 (27) = 0.1 (21) +0.8 (15) | +1.8 ; (17)
Average Differences. +0.82 | +0.60 +0.32 —1.58 | —0.44
WEIGHTS OF GIRLS IN POUNDs.
4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVERAGE WEIGHT AND WEIGHTS OF i
Ages. Average et Cais : eee Bee Sas eo vO
=Sn First Born Second Born Third Born Fourth Born | Later Born
“SS Me Children. Children. Children. | Children. Children.
Ga | 45.7% (123) +0.0 ta +0.9 (30) —1.0 (15) —1.2 (10) +0.4 (32
7.5 49.6 (186) | —0.1 (45) +0.6 (37) —0.1 (42) —0.5 (23) +0.1 (39
8.5 55.7 (217) +0.6 aa +0.3 eal —1.1 ve +0.8 (21) +0.0 te
9.5 60.0 (242) | —1.5 64) +0.3 (57) | +2.1 (48) | —3.1 (22) | _+1.0 (46
10.5 | 66.8 (221) | +04 (57) | —0.B (45) Se.) i ee) a
11.5 74.3 (222) +2.1 (50) —1.2 (41) +0.4 (31) +0.7 (32) —1.2 (62)
12.5 84.2 (280) |. -steber 67) +2.6 ee —3.2 (54) —0.4 (39) —0.2 (64)
13.5 94.2 (220) | —0.9 ban +3.9 (47) —2.6 (37) | +0.3 (29) | —L2 45)
14.5 _ 105.8 (235) | +0.4 (60) +1.3 (64) —4,2 (35) | —1-4 (25) Alsat ere 49)
110.7 (165) | +01 ea +0.1 (82) —3.5 (33) +2.4 (19) +1.2 (40)
116.5 (124) | +7.9 (29 —1.5 (27) —3.9 ee —7.5 (14) | Ont (32)
117.4 (99) +1.9 (30 —0.5 (18) —3.2 (19) +41 (15) —1.2 (16)
118.3 (82) +2.4 (27) +0.4 (20) uy hal LO) 6-0 (9) —1.1 (16)
Average Differences. +1.12 +0.48 —1.71 | —0.72 —0.12 |
_ It appears from these four tables that
rst-born children exceed later-born chil--
this difference prevails from the sixth year
until the adult state in females, and from
; The
material is not sufficiently extensive to show
if the same is true of the adult males. Al-
and the subdivision into five classes makes
ities are not surprising. A preliminary
estigation of the Toronto material is
|
from the Oakland material, the difference in
favor of the first-born being, if anything,
more marked.
We are, therefore, justified in grouping
the measurements into two classes : first-
born individuals and later-born individuals.
This increases the difference of stature of
the two groups to 10 mm. in girls, to 7 mm.
in boys, and the differences of weight to 1.6
pounds in girls and to 1.2 pounds in boys.
The tables seem to indicate that second-
born children exceed somewhat later-born
children in stature and weight, but the ma-
terial is not sufficiently extensive to allow
us to make a safe deduction on this ques-
tion.
It would seem likely that the greater
404
vigor of the mother at the time of birth of
the first child and the greater care bestowed
upon the first child during its early child-
hood may be the cause of the phenomenon.
The cares of the increasing household tend
to weaken the mother and to decrease the
amount of motherly attention devoted to
later-born children. It is remarkable that
the relation of size existing at the time of
birth should be reversed in later life; it
having been shown that the weight and
length of new-born infants increases from
the first-born to the later-born children.*
A comparison between the above table
and others shows that the children of Oak-
land exceed those of all other cities of the
United States in which measurements have
been made, in height as well as in weight.
FRANz Boas.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY (V.).
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE STONE AGE.
THosE students who make use of Mortil-
let’s excellent manual ‘Le Préhistorique
Antiquité de Homme,’ now a little out of
date, will be glad to learn the subdivisions
of prehistoric time as taught this winter in
his courses at the Ecole d’ Anthropologie,
of Paris.
He divides the Stone Age into three
‘periods,’ covering six ‘epochs.’ The oldest
is the eolithic, beginning with the ‘ Thenay-
sienne,’ referring to the rather doubtful
flints from the station of Thenay. Above
this is the ‘ Puycournienne,’ based on the
finds at Puy-Courny. The paleolithic
epochs remain the same as given in his
manual, to wit: beginning with the oldest,
the Chelleenne, the Acheuleenne, the Mous-
térienne, the Solutréenne and the Magda-
lenienne. Then follow two epochs which fill
in the ‘hiatus’ which he formerly taught
existed between the palolithic and neo-
* H. Fasbender in Ztschr. fiir Geburtshilfe und Gy-
nakologie, Vol. III., p. 286. Stuttgart, 1878.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 15.
lithic periods. They are the Tourassienne
and the Compignyenne, referring to stations
on the upper Garonne and the lower Seine.
These bring us to the Robenhausienne, of~
Zurich, and so on.
The changes indicated are significant. I
have before referred to those of similar
character in the scheme of M. Salmon (see
Scrence, p. 254). A leading question has
been whether we can trace the oldest his-
toric population of Europe in an uninter-
rupted culture-development back to the
rough stone age (pace, Messrs. McGuire &
Co.). This would seem now to be the case;
and this carries with it the increased proba-
bility that the cradle of the Aryan or Indo-
Germanic peoples was in western Europe.
THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
SomE years ago the Society of Anthro-
pology of Paris passed a resolution to reject
all papers written to show the origin of
language; believing that all discusssions of
that subject are fruitless and time-wasting.
One has but to look over the historical
sketch of the hypotheses advanced, written
recently by Professor Steinthal under the
title ‘Die Ursprung der Sprache,’ to become
convinced how much nonsense has been
poured out concerning this theme. Among
‘others, he represents a full analysis of the
theories of Ludwig Noiré, showing at once
their acuteness and the vicious circle of
reasoning, arriving nowhere, in which the
author involves himself.
Nevertheless, Noiré has found admirers
in this country, and the Open Court Publish-
ing Company of Chicago has printed a pam-
phlet of 57 pages, ‘On the Origin of Lan-
guage and the Logos Theory, by Ludwig
Noiré.”’ It will be found an excellent pre-
sentation of his views for those who wish
to learn them.
There is but one scientific method of ap-
. proaching this problem, and that is not the
a priori style adopted by most writers, but
APRIL 12, 1895. ]
by a patient analysis of the structure
(morphology) of the languages of savage
tribes. These reveal to us human speech
on its lowest terms and it will be found
something quite different from what we ex-
pected. Noiré’s examples, on the contrary,
are taken from the highly developed Aryan
languages, and from their vocabulary, not
from their morphology. Nearly all writers
follow the same false trail, and consequently
reach no results worth naming.
RECENT STUDIES IN CRANIOLOGY.
Tue pathological effects of cretinism on
the form of the skull have received inade-
quate attention.
York Medical Journal, for February 2, 1895,
on the influence exerted by this condition on
the shape of the nasal chambers and other
eranial elements, is a welcome contribu-
tion.
_ The distinguished Roman craniologist,
Professor Giuseppe Sergi, has added an-
other to his many interesting studies of
Mediterranean craniology by a paper of
sixty pages in the Bulletin of the Medical
Academy of Rome, 1894-1895, entitled
‘Studi di Antropologia Laziale,’ in which
he discusses a number of skulls derived
_ from cemeteries of ancient Latium. His
conclusions are as we might expect, that the
populus romanus of the Empire was decidedly
mixed in blood and cranial types.
The island of Engano adjoins Sumatra,
and little has been known about the physi-
caltype of its inhabitants, who, moreover,
are rapidly dying out. For that reason,
*
additional value is attached to a study of
_ the skulls and bones brought from there
by Dr. Modigliani, prepared by Dr. I.
-Danielli, and published in the ‘ Archivio
per Il’ Antropologiae 1’ Etnologia,’ Vol.
_ XXIII. They appear to have belonged to a
_ Malaysian people, with a dash of Negrito
_ blood. A mixed population, at any rate,
SCIENCE.
For this reason, a brief
paper by Dr. Harrison Allen in the New
405
occupied the island, for the precise gene-
alogy of which we must await further re-
searches.
AFRICAN FOLK-LORE AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
ImporTANT additions to the ethnography
and folk-lore of the Bantu tribes have been
recently made by Mr. Heli Chatelain, late
U. S. commercial agent at Loanda, West
Africa. First to be noticed is a volume of
315 pages, published by the American Folk-
Lore Society, entitled ‘ Folk-Tales of An-
gola.’ These are fifty tales, faithfully re-
corded from the lips of the native speakers,
with the original Kimbundu text, a literal
English translation and an _ instructive
introduction and notes. It is an excel-
lent and original study of these prominent
tribes from the point of view of the folk-
lorist.
An article broader in scope, by Mr.
Chatelain, entitled ‘African Races’ is
published in the Journal of American Folk-
Lore for December last. In it the author
undertakes to present the result of his ob-
servations and theorizing on African eth-
nography in general. The main point
which he endeavors to prove is that there
is no true racial or linguistie difference be-
tween the Bantu and the Sudanese negroes.
The reasons for this, advanced in the note to
page 207, are far from satisfactory. Mr.
Chatelain, though a most competent lin-
guist, clearly does not appreciate the value
of linguistics in ethnography; and it is
slightly preposterous to forbid any ethnolo-
gist to have an opinion about the affinities
of a tribe unless he has lived with it. At
that rate, that class of scientists would find
their field limited indeed. There are many
reasons, not discussed by Mr. Chatelain, for
holding the Sudanese of pure type to be as
different from the Bantus as, say, the Sibirie
tribes of Asia are different from the Sinitie
peoples; and that is all that has been
maintained.
406
DR. EMIL SCHMIDT’S RECENT WORKS.
Dr. Emin Scumipt, of Leipzig, is favora-
bly known to anthropologists by his many
practical contributions to their science.
His text-book on physical anthropology is
the best manual extant. Quite lately I re-
ferred to his investigations into the pre-Co-
lumbian history of the United States (see
SCIENCE, p. 256). These were a chapter
of his large volume, ‘ Vorgeschichte Nord-
amerikas, im Gebiet der Vereinigten Staaten’
(pp. 216, Braunschweig, 1894). This is di-
vided into four parts, one on the very old-
est relics of man in the area of the United
States; the second on the prehistoric copper
implements of North America; the third
on the prehistoric Indians of North Amer-
ica east of the Rocky Mountains ; and the
fourth on those in the southwestern por-
tions of the United States. These topics
are treated with a thorough knowledge of
the best authorities and a calm judgement.
The book will, I hope, have a translation
into English.
In another work, ‘ Reise nach Stidindien ’
(pp. 314, Leipzig, 1894), Dr. Schmidt gives
the results of his own observations and in-
vestigations into the native tribes of south-
ern India. It is written in popular style,
abundantly enriched with illustrations of
the natives and of the scenery, and replete
with valuable information.
THE ANCIENT ETHNOGRAPHY OF WESTERN
ASIA.
THERE is no other portion of the globe of
equal area the ancient ethnography of which
is so interesting to the history of human
culture as western Asia, in the land area
included between the four seas, the Black,
the Caspian, the Persian Gulf and the
Mediterranean. This embraces Palestine,
Mesopotamia and the upper Euphrates
valley, eastern Asia Minor, Armenia, Mount
Ararat and many other wondrous sites of
old. Here lay the Garden of Eden, the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Voz. I. No. 15.
holy cities and the earliest centers of civil-
ization.
A most valuable contribution to the study
of its earliest geography and ethnography,
as understood by the ancient Egyptians and
preserved in their writings, appeared a little
over a year ago from the pen of Professor
W. Max Muller, now of Philadelphia (Asien
und Europa nach altegyptischen Denk-
malern, pp. 403,. Leipzig, 1893). It is very
abundantly illustrated with copies of the
ethnic types found on the Egyptian monu-
ments and with texts in the hieroglyphic
seript of the Nilotic scribes. As the author
is one of the most accomplished Egyptolo-
gists living, his translations of the hiero-
glyphs are peculiarly valuable to the ethnog-
rapher, since few students of that specialty
have paid attention to ethnic descriptions.
A map appended to the volume locates
from Egyptian sources those troublesome
people, the Hittites, this time, in Cappa-
docia, as well as the Mitanni, the Kilak,
and other little known tribes. The numerous
drawings of the faces, costumes, armors,
ete., of these former inhabitants, as well as
the profound linguistic analysis of texts,
render this volume one of exceptional value.
D. G. Briyton.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
—
CORRESPONDENCE.
A CARD CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERA-
TURE.
Eprror or Scrence—Dear Sir: I presume
that there is no doubt of the existence of
considerable demand among workers in, and
writers upon, various branches of science
for an index catalogue of the books and
papers relating to the subjects in which they
are interested, and that an accurate card
catalogue, each card to be promptly fur-
nished as soon as the book or paper is pub-
lished, will best meet this demand. It is
also desired that each card should contain a
brief summary of the contents of the article.
J!
4
&
APRIL 12, 1895.]
A large number of investigators and writers
would be glad to have their work done for
them by some automatic or mechanical
means, as far as possible, up to a point just
short of the conclusions or results. These,
of course, they prefer to prepare and state
themselves. Those who like literary re-
search would be pleased to have codperative
laboratories established in which, for a
moderate annual subscription, they could
have any experiments made which they
might suggest, the results to be reported to
them for their use. Others would prefer to
do the experimenting themselves, and have
some one else tell them everything that other
people have done and written about the
matter. And if each party is able and will-
ing to pay for the assistance he requires,
and can find persons competent to give that
assistance and willing to do the work merely
for the pay offered, every one will agree
that it is a good thing, and will furnish new
channels of employment and remuneration
for experts, for which channels the need is
steadily increasing.
It is, however, not clear that the benefits
to science and to humanity, which would
result from a complete card index of science
up to date and available for every one who
would like to consult it, would be so great
_ as to make it the duty of any existing scien-
tifie body or institution to incur the great
expense of taking charge of the matter or to
contribute largely to its support.
Physicians meet with some cases for
which it is desirable that the food should
be carefully minced and partially digested
before it is given, and sometimes it is ne-
cessary to push this food far back on the
_ tongue to make sure that it will be swal-
lowed, or even to forcibly inject it, but in
most cases this benefits no one but the pa-
tient.
There is a very considerable number of
men now engaged in preparing abstracts
and summaries of what is known in various
SCIENCE.
407
branches of science, and publishing them as
monographs, monthly reviews, year books,
etc.; and in medicine, at all events, the
supply of this kind of material is quite
equal to the paying demand for it.
Moreover, it is not certain that the inves-
tigator who wishes to know everything that
has been suggested with regard to the sub-
ject which he has under consideration will
be much happier when he gets his card in-
dex up to date, if he has not made it him-
self. He will find references to articles by
Smith, and Schmidt, and Smitovich; but
where are the books containing these
articles? Very probably, after a week’s
hunt and correspondence, he finds that
there are one or two of them that are not
in any library accessible to him, and then
he is decidedly worse off than he would be
if he did not know that they existed.
It is probable that such complete card
catalogues with abstracts would be the
means of adding largely to the bulk of
scientific literature, as the Index Catalogue
of the National Medical Library and the
Index Medicus have done to the literature
of medicine. The bibliography and the
abstracts will be published over and over
again in successive papers by different
writers.
The expediency of having such card in-
dexes prepared depends upon the cost, and
upon whether the money could be used to
better advantage in promoting the increase
and diffusion of knowledge in other ways.
I should suppose that $25,000 a year would
be a moderate estimate for providing 25
copies of such a card index for all branches
of science, and to bring the cost within this
limit would require careful selection.
If each author were to make his own ab-
stract, and every article thus abstracted is
to be indexed, probably $50,000 a year would
be required. Much might be done for the
advancement of science with a fund of $25,-
000 per annum.
408
Ido not wish to be understood as opposing
the preparation and furnishing of an uni-
versal card index; the schemes proposed are
beautiful in the glow and shimmer of their
optimism—reminding one of Chimmie
Fadden, ‘“‘ Up t’ de limit an’ strikin’ er great
pace t’ git on de odder side of it,’”’ but they
must be looked at from the practical busi-
ness point of view by those who are to de-
fray the cost, and who have, I feel sure,
other important uses for their money and
for the skilled brains required for such work,
and more definite information is wanted
with regard to the number of titles, etc.,
which must be indexed annually upon such
a scheme before a wise decision can be
made. For general Biology, Morphol-
ogy, Physiology, Bacteriology and scientific
Pathology, and other subjects of scientific
importance connected with medicine, I think
that about 10,000 cards a year would be
sufficient if all second-hand matter and hash
were carefully excluded.
Very truly yours,
J.S. BILLines.
W ASHINGTON.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the An-
tiquity of Man. By James Grrxre, LL. D.,
D.C. L., F. R.S., ete. Murchison Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in the
University of Edinburgh, formerly of H.
M. Geological Survey of Scotland. Third
Edition, largely rewritten, with maps and
illustrations. New York, D. Appleton &
Company. 1895. 8vo., xxvili + 850.
Twenty-two years ago the first edition of
this book appeared in England. The author
then endeavored to give a systematic ac-
count of the Glacial Epoch, with special
reference to its changes of climate. In so
doing he entered first quite fully into the
geological history of glacial and post-glacial
Scotland, presenting many elementary mat-
ters, and taking more than half the book
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 15.
for this purpose. Afterwards he discussed
the glacial phenomena as exhibited in Eng-
land, Ireland, Scandinavia, Switzerland
and North America. A newly acquired ~
view with him related to the age of the
paleolithic deposits of southern England—
all of which he referred to inter-glacial and
pre-glacial times. It was this book that
first called the attention of many geologists
to the doctrine of several periods of cold in
the ice age separated by as many times of
milder conditions. Like the early doctrine
of Agassiz and Buckland that the drift phe-
nomena were to be explained by the agency
of glaciers, so this theory of a series of cold
and warm periods has been vigorously con-
tested by geologists, but bids fair to be as
generally accepted as the former. In 1877
a second edition of the book appeared. The
author remarks in its preface that great
additions to our knqwlege of the facts had
been made, above those first presented, all
of which strengthened his argument that
the epoch was not one continuous age of ice,
but consisted of a series of alternate cold
and warm or genial periods; while the
ancient cave-deposits cannot be assigned to
a later date than the last genial interval of
the ice age, and some of them were probably
still older. Among the more important
alterations he notes a change in the use
of the terms till and boulder clay. Instead
of calling one purely glacial and the other
partly marine, both are referred more or
or less directly to the grinding action of
glaciers, and are’strictly synonymous terms.
Likewise he modifies his view of the kames ;
none of them are now regarded as of
marine origin. There has been no great
submergence of Scotland since the close of
the glacial epoch, and thus the Scotch depos-
its are brought into much closer relationship
with those of England. In the interim he
made many personal studies of the English
phenomena until able to say positively that
after the deposition of the ossiferous gravels
APRIL 12, 1895. ]
and Cyrena beds, a great ice-sheet stretched
south as far as the valley of the Humber,
thus proving the existence of a later ice in-
eursion. In the first edition the term kames
was not differentiated from esker and dsar,
and all of them were believed to have been of
marine origin; now he separates the kames
from the esker and dsar and adopts Hum-
mel’s river theory of the origin of the latter,
besides disowning the necessity of any
marine agency in the formation of the
kames. The accounts of the glacial phe-
nomena in Europe and America are given
with greater fullness in the second edition.
The second edition attained a bulk of xxx +
624 pages and a larger size of page than the
first, which had xxv + 524 pages.
The third and present edition shows a
similar increase in size above its predeces-
sor, but not so great a modification in the
fundamental principles. About one-fourth
of the subject-matter, or that relating chiefly
to Alpine, Arctic and Scottish parts has been
revised ; but the other three-fourths have
been entirely rewritten. The glacial and
interglacial deposits of the continent are
treated with a fullness that was impossible
before. Many sections of it have been
visited personally and the results of others
verified. Aid has been received from a
multitude of friendly fellow laborers. Ne-
eessarily because of the astonishing increase
in the literature of Surface Geology, many
important contributions are unnoticed. He
does not profess'to write the history of the
rise and progress of glacial geology, but
simply to sketch its present position. No-
where, he says, has glacial geology been
more actively prosecuted in recent years
thanin America. While he has endeavored
to keep abreast of this, he preferred to have
asummary of the American evidence pre-
pared by a recognized authority ; and hence
called upon Professor T. C. Chamberlin, of
Chicago, to furnish him with a digest of this
material ; which is of great service to every-
SCIENCE.
409
one, since we have been awaiting almost with
impatience the announcement of some gen-
eral statements here first presented to the
public. Professor Geikie also expresses his
great gratification that his conclusions
should essentially agree with those of Pro-
fessor Penck, of Vienna, in respect to the
glacial phenomena of the Alpine lands, the
Pyrenees and Auvergne.
The following is a summary of the glacial
succession in Europe as determined by Pro-
fessor Geikie from a consideration of all the
facts :
1. Older Pliocene.—Before the advent of
the cold the sea occupied considerable tracts
in the east and south of England, in Belgium,
Holland, northern and western France and
the coast lands of the Mediterranean, and
boreal forms are just beginning to make
their appearance.
2. Newer Pliocene—First Glacial Epoch.—
The Weybourn crag and Chillesford clay of
England with their pronounced arctic fauna
represent a part of the evidence for this time
of cold; also the bottom moraine near the
Baltic sea, in southern Sweden, where the
movement was from the southeast to the
northwest. Arctic animal remains have
also been detected in East Prussia at a
similar horizon. Hence it is suggested that
a gigantic glacier occupied the basin of the
Baltic sea, and the mountainous parts of
Scandinavia and the British Isles were snow
clad. In the Alps the snow line was de-
pressed for 4,000 feet or so below its present
level, and all the great mountain valleys
were filled with glaciers which left behind
terminal moraines at the foot of the chain.
In central France very considerable glaciers
descended from the great voleanic cones of
Auvergne and Cantal.
3. First Interglacial Epoch. Latest Plio-
cene. Forest Bed of Cromer.—The arctic
fauna retreated from the North Sea, and dry
land occupied the southern part of this sea
up to the latitude of Norfolk. The river
410
Rhine flowed across this land. A temperate
flora, much like that now existing in Eng-
land, prevailed; and among the land animals
were elephants, hippopotami, rhinoceroses,
horses, bison, boar, deer, machrodus,
hyzena, wolves, glutton, bear, beaver, etc.
In other parts of Europe similar genial con-
ditions prevailed. A luxuriant deciduous
flora occupied the valleys of the Alps, at-
taining heights greater than the present
limits of the same vegetation. Elephants
existed with the flora in northern Italy.
From the amount of river-erosion effected
during this epoch it would appear that the
stage was one of long duration.
4. Second or Maximum Glacial Epoch.—The
mountains of Scandinavia seem to have been
the center of dispersion of the ice at this
time, and the glaciers extended easterly so
as to become confluent with the Ural sys-
tem in western Siberia, southwesterly into
the basin of the Volga, southerly into the
basin of the Dnieper, Poland, Saxony, Bel-
gium, southwesterly to the British Islands,
excepting a small part of southern England,
and to the westward 600 feet below the
present surface of the Atlantic ocean, from
off Ireland to the Arctic sea. Both the
Baltic and North seas were covered by ice,
and erratics from the Scandinavian hills
were strewn more or less over this entire
area. They were also transported from
lower to higher levels in the British islands,
to a height of 3500 feet in Scotland, and the
highest peaks may have projected through
the ice as Nunatakker, like the bare spots
thus designated in Greenland. This area
is rudely elliptical in shape, 2700 miles long
and 1600 miles wide. In Switzerland the
Alpine glaciers reached their greatest exten-
sion, the snow line extending 4700 feet
lower than it is at present, the ice being
4000 feet thick in the low grounds, and im-
mense blocks of stone were carried across to
the Jura Mountains to an elevation of 3099
feet above Lake Geneva. In connection
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 15.
with the presence of this ice, Arctic-Alpine
plants and animals occupied the low grounds
of Europe, extending even to the Mediter-
ranean. This epoch constituted the begin-—
ning of the pleistocene or quaternary period.
5. Second Interglacial Epoch.—The return
of the temperate flora and fauna in north
Germany and central Russia is suggestive
of a milder and less extreme climate than is
now experienced in those regions. Britain
must have been connected with the conti-
nent and Italy with North Africa. The
rivers of this epoch eroded their valleys to
great depths. i
6. Third Glacial Epoch—An extensive
ice-sheet overwhelmed most of the British
Islands and much of the continent. The
northwestern limits are much the same in
the edges of the Atlantic and Arctic oceans,
but to the east it extended about a hundred
miles beyond St. Petersburg, and just
reached Berlin to the south. From the
Alps glaciers descended to the low grounds,
dropping conspicuous moraines, which ex-
tend in curving lines between the highly
denuded moraines of the earlier epochs,
and the associated extensive fluvio-glacial
gravels.
7. Third Interglacial Epoch—The young-
est interglacial beds of the Baltic coast-
lands belong here, with both arctic and tem-
perate marine faunas—as the mammoth,
wooly rhinoceros, hare, urus and Irish deer. —
It is probable that a considerable portion of
the old alluvial deposits of Britain and Ire-
land, hitherto classed as post-glacial, belong
here.
8. Fourth Glacial Epoch.—The ice-sheets
of the British Islands are now local and
entirely separate from the Scandinavian
mass. In Scotland the snow line did not
exceed 1600 feet in elevation above the sea;
the land was 100 feet higher than now,
and an arctic marine fauna occupied the
coasts. The Scandinavian peninsula sup-
ported an ice-sheet of more importance,
APRIL 12, 1895.]
which discharged icebergs at the mouths of
fiords in western Norway. Finland was
overwhelmed, and the Baltic basin was
occupied by a great ice stream, which in-
yaded north Germany and Denmark. As
the ice melted, a wide area in Scandinavia
was submerged in a cold sea communica-
ting with the Baltic. In the Alps the snow
line was 300 feet lower than now.
9. Fourth Interglacial Epoch.—The British
Islands were connected with the continent.
Deciduous trees spread far north into re-
gions now bereft of them. The Baltic sea
became converted into a great lake ; Den-
mark and Sweden were united; the Rhine
flowed quite near England and Scotland,
over the upraised bed of the North Sea,
meeting the main ocean above Bergen; the
Seine flowed through the English channel
beyond Brest, and there was a large river
flowing over the bed of the Irish Sea, hav-
ing the Severn for a tributary, and meeting
the ocean quite near the mouth of the
Seine, and there was a land connection be-
tween the continent, Great Britain, Iceland
and Greenland. When the salt water fin-
ally returned, the fauna was more temper-
ate than it is at present. This epoch is not
yet recognized in the Alps.
10. Fifth Glacial Epoch—In Scotland the
snow line reached an average height of
2,500 feet, the shore line being fifty feet
lower than itis now. Occasionally glaciers
discharged bergs into the sea on the north-
west coast of Scotland. Most of the corrie
rock-basins of the British Islands were ex-
eavated in this epoch, each one marking the
presence of a distinct glacier. In the Alps
there were advances of the glaciers giving
rise to terminal moraines, the snow line
reaching a depression of 1,600 feet below the
present limit.
11. Fifth Interglacial Epoch.—The upper
“buried forests’ of northwest Europe show
_ that this epoch was characterized by drier
conditions and a remarkable recrudescence
SCIENCE.
411
of forest growth. It is uncertain whether
Britain was connected with the continent.
12. Siath Glacial Epoch—This is indicated
by the latest raised beaches of Scotland,
indicating twenty or thirty feet of depres-
sion. The snow line stood at an elevation
of 3,500 feet, and thus a few small glaciers
could exist in the loftiest highlands. In the
western Alps there were some high level
moraines.
13. The Present.—The sea has retreated
to its present level, drier conditions prevail
and permanent snow fields have disappeared
from most of the regions in northern Europe
once so completely submerged by glacial
ice. The term post-glacial properly de-
scribes only the present epoch.
Professor Geikie* devotes three chapters
to a discussion of the presence of man in the
Pleistocene. His bones and implements
are found chiefly in the extra-glacial regions,
associated with the remains of both extinct
and living mammalia, such as have been
mentioned as occurring in several of the
interglacial epochs. Man would naturally
migrate towards the glaciers as they receded,
and retreat southerly as they advanced.
The large animals would have done the
same; hence a perfectly satisfactory corre-
lation of the several terranes in the glaciat-
ed and extra-glacial regions is of difficult
attainment. Our author concludes that
Paleolithic man existed abundantly in the
second interglacial epoch in company with
the elephas antiquus and hippopotamus.
Some of the caves occupied by him appear
to have been abandoned before the third
glacial epoch reached its climax, because
they are sealed up by the moraines of that
stage. During this epoch Paleolithic man
seems to have retired to southern France,
and, if negative evidence is of value, he
never revisited northwestern Europe.
American geologists will be more than
pleased with the sketch of the glacial phe-
nomena of North America by Prof. Cham-
412
berlin. The facts correspond in a general
way with those described by Professor Gei-
kie in Europe. The attempt is made to
group the stages of glaciation and deglacia-
tion both on a two-fold and a three-fold ba-
sis, without deciding which is the more ac-
ceptable. The foundation of the grouping
is what is called ‘imbrication’ of the till,
or the superposition of the later or more
northern sheets upon the earlier or more
southern ones. The oldest is the Kansan,
next the Hast Jowan,and thirdly the East Wis-
consin stage of glaciation, followed by six,
seven or more terminal moraines. Professor
Geikie says that these general conclusions
harmonize with the results obtained in Eu-
rope, and without hesitation he correlates
the Kansan stage with his second glacial
epoch, the time of maximum glaciation,
after which the ice sheets declined in im-
portance.
Granting the correctness of the corre-
spondence of the Kansan stage to the sec-
ond or maximum glacial epoch of Geikie,
American geologists can easily complete the
correlation. The Lafayette or Orange sand
deposit will correspond to the first or Plio-
cene phase of the glacial epoch. This refer-
ence will be satisfactory to those who be-
lieve in elevation as a prime cause of re-
frigeration, as it is generally conceded that
the late Pliocene was a time of continental
uplift. It should be satisfactory to the ad-
vocates of the unity or continuity of the
ice-age, because there was just one pe-
riod of maximum intensity or culmination
of refrigeration—the Kansan phase. It
was preceded by the Pliocene-Lafayette
flood, and followed by the gradually less
_intense Iowan, Wisconsin and later phases.
It will, however, enlarge our conceptions
of the magnitude of the ice age in geo-
logical history ; for we cannot deny that
the remotest centers of dispersion have
been active from the beginning of refrigera-
tion. The latest geological epochs are
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 15.
fundamentally glacial for the countries
above forty degrees of latitude on both
sides of the equator; ice-action character-
izes the time. The writer has hitherto
been esteemed an advocate of unity; but
he has repeatedly insisted that the several
margins of glacial accumulation indicate
just so many phases of more intense glacia-
tion, and that they are to be our criteria
of classification. He is satisfied that they
can be interpreted to correspond with the
several glacial and interglacial epochs es-
tablished by Professor Geikie.
It remains only to notice the chapter upon
the cause of the climatic and geographical
changes of the glacial period. The ratio of
precipitation was the same as now prevails.
Snow fields gathered most abundantly in
those regions which in our day enjoy the
largest rainfall. What are now dry regions
were formerly regions of limited snowfall.
But the amount of precipitation was greater,
snow in the north and rain in the south.
Arctic currents prevailed near the equa-
torial in the cold epochs, but the reverse
was true in the interglacial phases. The
land seems to have been elevated at the
commencement of every cold epoch and
depressed at its close, submergence haying
been more characteristic of the glacial than
of the interglacial phase. The fiord yal-
leys were mostly excavated before glacial
times. The Scandinavian flora migrated to
Greenland after the close of the fourth
glacial epoch, when the land was continuous
between the continents. There are con-
siderations favorable to the view that the
accumulations of ice in the several glacial
epochs produced depressions, not excluding
epeirogenic warpings of the crust. The
cause of the remarkable connection between
glaciation and depression is still an un-
solved problem. All the proposed astro-
nomical causes of refrigeration are rejected
as untenable, except that of Dr Croll,
supplemented by Ball, who believed the
a Per
a
APRIL 12, 1895.]
climatic changes of the glacial period
resulted from the combined influence of
precession of the equinoxes and _ sec-
ular changes in the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit. In favor of this view, the
mean temperature of the globe was lowered,
and the ratio of the precipitation increased ;
the dominant set of the currents in the At-
lantic was from north to south in the colder
terms. In the interglacial climates the
summers were cooler and the winters
warmer, while the Atlantic currents flowed
northerly. The maximum glaciation came
early, succeeded by cold epochs of diminish-
ing severity. Glacial epochs in the north-
ern hemisphere were necessarily contempo-
raneous with interglacial conditions in the
southern hemisphere. Hence the astronom-
ical theory would appear to offer the best
solution of the glacial puzzle; while it is
conceded that this answer is not completely
satisfactory. C. H. Hrrencocr.
Biological Lectures and Addresses, by AR-
THUR Mitnes MarsHaty. Macmillan &
Co., New York. Price $2.25.
Lectures on the Darwinian Theory, by ARTHUR
_ Minyes MarsHatt. Macmillan & Co.,New
York. Price $2.25.
It was a curious coincidence by which ac-
_ eidents in mountain climbing deprived Eng-
a
iy
¢
:
Li
|?
lish science of two of its prominent biolo-
gists, and two who were at the same time
personal friends. Prof. F. M. Balfour, as
every one remembers, lost his life in a
journey in the Alps, and Prof. Arthur Milnes
Marshall, upon the last day of 1893, in a
somewhat similar manner, met his death in
mountain climbing. Prof. Balfour and
Prof. Marshall were personal friends and
¥ naturally worked upon kindred subjects, al-
though their work was very unlike. Prof.
Marshall was still a young man, only about
forty years of age. Early in life he entered
‘upon studies looking toward the profession
of medicine, but in 1879 gladly accepted the
SCIENCE.
413
chair of Zodlogy in Owens College, and con-
tinued to occupy the chair until his death.
His additions to the literature of science
have been of two general types. There are
first a series of papers embodying the results
of original research. These, because of his
intimate association with Balfour, were at
first of an embryological nature, while some
of the later ones were more distinctly ana-
tomical. His chief contributions to science
of this sort were upon the Segmental value of
Cranial Nerves, the Pennatulida of the Por-
cupine and Triton Expeditions, and upon The
Nervous System of the Crinoids. The second
class of his papers were more distinctly
characteristic of his special powers. They
were of a more general character and in-
eluded a text-book on The Frog, on Practical
Zoology, and a more recent work upon Ver-
tebrate Embryology. In addition, we have
in the recent posthumous volumes a large
number of lectures and addresses given in
various places before various societies.
Above all things, Professor Marshall was
ateacher. It was in this direction that his
powers showed at their best. He had the
happy way of putting subjects so that they
were intelligible to his audiences,and had the
somewhat unusual power of putting himself
in the position of his audiences, in such a
way that he could understand how and
what was needed in his teaching to render
his subjects clear. His lectures were always
abundantly illustrated both by drawings,
and especially by homely though terse illus-
trations. His illustrations for rendering
scientific facts intelligible were drawn some-
times from the most surprising sources, and
altogether rendered his addresses and his
class lectures of the very highest character
in the way of scientific teaching. Since his
death Macmillan & Co. have published his
collected lectures and addresses in the two
volumes which are the subject of this notice.
The first series consists of miscellaneous
addresses given by him at various intervals
414
between 1879 and the time of his death,
and before a number of debating societies
and scientific organizations, ending with
his presidential address before the British
Association in 1890. These addresses are
all designed for a somewhat popular audi-
ence, and treat of different scientific subjects
in a clear, entertaining manner. Among the
most interesting of them the lectures that
will, perhaps, first commend themselves to
the reader are those on Fresh Water Ani-
mals, on Inheritance, on Shapes and Sizes
of Animals, and the one upon the Recapitu-
late Theory. Professor Marshall possessed
in a wonderful degree the power of seizing
hold of the salient points of abstract scien-
tific subjects and isolating them from the
cumbersome mass of details with which they
are associated in ordinary scientific discus-
sions. The result is that in a few pages
the reader obtains a clearer conception of
the salient points in a subject like embryol-
ogy by reading the last of the essays in this
volume than he might obtain from the care-
ful perusal of many lengthy books upon the
subject. Details, of course, are left out, but
the salient and interesting points which em-
bryology teaches and attempts to teach are
presented with wonderful clearness. The
addresses are, in short, popular science of
the highest type, and one does not wonder
after reading them that Professor Marshall
was one of the most popular lecturers in
the University Extension courses.
Every teacher is aware how difficult it is
to send a-young student to literature that
will give him a clear, succinct account of
evolution. Scientific discussions of one and
another phase of the subject are abundant,
but usually they are beyond the compre-
hension of the ordinary reader. Many a
student having been recommended to read
Darwin’s Origin of Species reads the book
with an utter failure to comprehend Dar-
winism. Nor is this the fault of the student.
Even the better class of thinking students
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 15.
are so handicapped by the abundance of
material in that Darwinian classic that the
thread ofthe argument is lost, and they are
just as likely to confuse Darwin’s views
with those of Lamarck as they are to under- _
stand Darwinism. Few students who are
beginning the study of modern biology will
have any proper appreciation of Darwinism
from the study of the Origin of Species, or,
indeed, from the study of most of the scien-
tific writings on evolution, unless the es-
sential facts are presented to them in some
form of introduction. For this reason the
series of lectures on the Darwinian theory
by Professor Marshall are especially val-
uable. These lectures are not encumbered
with numerous details, but seize hold of the
thread of the Darwinian argument and pre-
sent it before the reader in such a way that
he cannot fail to understand evolution and
Darwinism after having finished such a
volume. This series of essays will, there-
fore, be perhaps the best literature to which
a student can be sent at the present time to
enable him to understand what evolution
was before Darwin, what Darwin added, and
what have been the subsequent modifica-
tions and criticisms of Darwin’s theory.
Professor Marshall writes as a partisan and
thorough believer in Darwin, and presents
his facts in such a way that his readers
cannot fail to recognize the full force of the
Darwinian argument. Indeed, he naturally
exaggerates the force of many arguments,
frequently begs the very question of the
issue, and the essays are by no meanscaleu-
lated to be critical discussions. The lectures
cannot be considered as a fair presentation
of the Darwinian theory. ‘The innocent
reader will conclude that the argument
upon Darwinism is all on one side, that
every essential feature of it is abundantly
demonstrated and all criticisms are refuted.
But, in spite of this fault, which comes
naturally from one who is attempting to
teach a theory in which he so fully believes,
APRIL 12, 1895.]
the outline of the Darwinian theory is an
exceptionally good one. Certain it is that
nothing in our literature at the present time
will give such a terse, clear presentation of
the Darwinian hypothesis with the argu-
ments in its favor, and of the additions
which have been made to this hypothesis
subsequent to the writings of Darwin
himself.
These two books are, then, designed for
_popularreading. They are perhaps as good
an illustration of the especial character of
_ Prof. Marshall’s power in teaching as could
be found. They are valuable additions to
that class of books in which the English
language is beginning to abound, viz., pop-
ular scientific writings that actually teach
science. H. W. Conn.
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY.
Elements of Astronomy.—By GrorcE W. Par-
KER, of Trinity College, Dublin. Long-
mans, Green & Co., London and New
York. S8vo., 236 pages. $1.75:
The book is designed as a connecting link
; between the elementary school-astronomies
and the higher treatises used as text-books
in the universities. It treats the subject
almost exclusively from the geometrical
‘point of view, breaking up the matter into
‘propositions, corollaries and problems, ar-
ranged in an order which is probably logical
kes one as rather peculiar. The book
be found useful by teachers who have
‘examination papers’ to draw up, since it
presents a large number of them, as well as
ted to test a student’s understanding of
the subject-matter.
~ What the book professes to do is in the
main very well done. The statements and
finitions are intelligible and correct, and
@ reasoning is generally clear and logical.
SCIENCE.
415
it evident, however, that he has had very
little actual experience in that sort of work.
It reads rather strangely, for instance, to
be told that the way to find the value of a
micrometer-screw revolution is to ‘note
how many turns correspond to the sun’s
diameter.’
Regarded as an elementary presentation
of ‘Astronomy ’ taken as a whole, the book
must be pronounced extremely one-sided
and defective. Astrophysics is most inade-
quately dealt with; the whole subject. or
spectroscopy is dismissed with six pages
and a single old diagram of the dispersion
of light by a prism; and all physical mat-
ters relating to sun, planets, comets, stars
and nebule are treated on the same general
scale. Oral Ys
Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic
Substances—As practiced in Georgetown
College, D. C. American Book Co., New
York. 1894.
Rey. H. T. B. Tarr, §. J., formerly pro-
fessor of chemistry in Georgetown College,
prepared a series of tables for analytical
purposes, which have been wholly recast
and incorporared into the work now before
us. The present editor, Rev. T. W. Fox,
8. J., speaks of the book as being ‘ useful in
a course such as is given at Georgetown
and in similar institutions throughout the
country.’
The ‘ grouping of the bases’ is that gener-
ally adopted by writers on qualitative an-
alysis the world over. We believe, how-
ever, that it would have been wiser and
better for the student had the author divided
his third group, consisting of the metals
precipitated by ammonium sulphide from
neutral or alkaline solutions, into two
groups. But this is merely a matter of
opinion.
We observe that the properties of the
metals are first studied, after which the
author draws up a table for the analysis of
416
a mixture of metals, constituting a particular
group, accompanied by explanatory notes.
This order is preserved throughout the book,
which consists of sixty-one pages. Wetrust
that the author and the reader will pardon
us when we declare that we think such
tabular schemes, so early in the course of
analysis, are apt to make the student a mere
machine—precisely what the author, in his
introductory remarks, announces that he
wishes to avoid, for he writes, ‘‘ A mere me-
chanical acquaintance with a working
scheme for separating * * * * * is at best
but a questionable accomplishment,” ete.
And, for some unaccountable reason—per-
haps from natural, human depravity or per-
versity—the great majority of students, be-
ginning analysis, do wed themselves to such
a table or scheme and cling to it, despite
the rough handling they may receive from
an earnest and intelligent quiz-master. But
we are rambling. On returning to our sub-
ject we discover in it no new methods of
separation, no new characteristic test or
tests for the various elements; the land-
marks in these directions remain unchanged.
This is pardonable, seeing that ‘‘ no pretense
is made to originality, either in matter or in
method.” :
Part II. considers the ‘acid analysis’ and
commences with excellent advice for the
student, who must now, more than ever,
apply what knowledge he may have ac-
quired in regard to the metals and their
various combinations with acids.
Brief chapters on ‘ preliminary examina-
tions,’ the solution of solid substances, a
table of solubilities, and an appendix, deal-
ing with the preparation of the ordinary
reagents, conclude the book.
The little volume is well written and
nicely printed. Its chief merit seems to be
that it presents its author’s particular
method of instructing students in this most
important branch of chemistry, upon which
many others have likewise prepared similar
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 15.
brochures. Thesame kindly welcome given
them must be accorded this latest arrival.
Each does some good, and together they
will doubtless do great good.
Ep@ar F. Sure.
A Course of Elementary Practical Bacteriology,
Including Bacteriological Analyses and Chem-
istry. By A. A. Kantuack Ann I. H.
DryspDALE. XXII.181 pp.Sm.8°. Mac-
millan & Co., London and New York.
1895. Price $1.10.
This is a laboratory hand-book which
will be interestiug to all practical workers
in bacteriology, since it gives the details of
methods used in the Laboratory of St.
Bartholomew’s Hospital in London. Some
of these methods are not so useful as those
now employed in American Laboratories ;
as, for example, that given for the collection
and sterilisation of blood serum, while some
are probably more rapid and convenient.
As the authors remark, every laboratory
has its own ways and means, its ‘short
cuts’ and ‘tips,’ which are not always
published, and it is necessay to work for a
little while in the laboratory to become ac-
quainted with them. The descriptions
given are simple and straightforward, and
well calculated to meet the wants of stu-
dents. The plan and order of the several
lessons will be found interesting by teachers
of the subject. The lessons in Bacteriologi-
cal Chemistry contain good matter not
usually found in a manual of this kind.
NOTES AND NEWS.
TYPHOID INFECTION OF OYSTERS.
Tur Medical News of March 23, contains &
paper by C. I. Foote, giving the results of
experiments with oysters, and with the
water in which they grow, to determine the
possibilities of their becoming infected with
the bacillus of typhoid. He found that
this bacillus will live in brackish water,
taken from just above oyster beds, for at
J
12, 1895.]
eight days, even in very cold weather.
In apparently normal and healthy oysters
d in their juice he found bacteria of
ious kinds; the number of which
t will grow in gelatin ranging from 240
1680 per c.c. The number found in the
water over the oysters was 9520 per c.c.,
“indicating that the water is purified by be-
ing taken into the shell. He inoculated a
jumber of oysters with typhoid bacilli by
jecting a culture of these organisms be-
tween the edges of the shells. The results
ndicate that the bacilli can live in the
r for from one to two weeks, but it is
doubtful whether they multiply there. But
the oysters were cleaned before inoculation,
and, after the operation, were apparently
not placed in water, but simply kept in a
l room. The research would have given
much more definite and conclusive results
if the oysters had been placed in brackish
water, and then the typhoid bacilli added
to this water, so that they might have been
taken in and disposed of in the natural
iy:
ARGON.
-Accorprne to the London Times, M. Ber-
a has supplied the first information
oneerning the chemical properties of argon.
Tn experimenting with a small quantity of
that substance, furnished by Professor Ram-
say , he has found that under the influence of
the silent electric discharge it combines with
wi It is decidedly interesting
fo discover that argon, which is supposed
capable of forming a variety of combina-
: ion s under conditions which always exist
I the atmosphere. Great interest also
ches to M. Berthelot’s communication in
nection with the obscurity which hangs
the chemical nature and relationships
e new substance. For he pointed out
SCIENCE.
417
years ago that nitrogen combines, under
the influence of the silent discharge, with
hydrocarbons like benzene, with carbohy-
drates, such as go to build up, the tissues of
plants, and even with tertiary products,
such as ether.
GENERAL.
Dr. Witt1am §S. W. RuvscHENBERGER,
President of the Philadelphia Academy of
Science from 1869 to 1881, died on March
24th, at the age of eighty-seven years.
Dr. Joun A. Ryver, Professor of Embry-
ology in the University of Pennsylvania,
died on March 26th.
Tue Library Building of Harvard Uni-
versity will be altered during the present
summer in such a manner that the space
for books will be greatly enlarged.
Tue North Dakota State University must
be closed until the next session of the Leg-
islature, in January, 1897, owing to the fact
that the appropriation has been reduced
from $63,000 to $15,000.
Tue British Association will meet at
Liverpool in 1896. The Council have re-
solved to nominate Sir Joseph Lister for
President.
T. G. Crowett & Co. announce ‘ Forests
and Forestry’ by the Hon. B. E. Fernow, of
the Department of Agriculture, and ‘ Mar-
riage and the Family,’ by Professor George
E. Howard, of Stanford University.
Tue sixty-third annual meeting of the
British Medical Association will be held in
London, July 30th to August 2d, 1895.
Tue next meeting of the American Micro-
scopical Society will be held at Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York, on August
21, 22 and 23, 1895.
Dr. K. Scumrpr has been made Professor
of Physics in the University of Halle.
Tue two final volumes of the report on
the scientific results of the voyage of H. M.
S. Challenger, prepared under the direction
418
of Dr. John Murray, have now been pub-
lished by Eyre & Spottiswoode, London.
The completed work fills 50 large quarto
volumes contajning about 29,500 pages and
illustrated by over 3,000 plates. These two
concluding volumes are mainly occupied by
a general summary of the scientific results
of the voyage.
Dr. A. R. Forsyru, of Trinity College,
has been elected to the Sadlerian Professor-
ship of Mathematics in the University of
Cambridge, succeeding the late Professor
Cayley.
Accorpine to the American Geologist, ef-
forts are being made looking towards a geo-
logical survey of the State of Maine.
Dr. Jonn P. Lorsy, now Associate in
Botany at Johns Hopkins University, has
accepted the Directorship of the Botanical
Gardens on the Island of Java.
Tur Lake Superior Mining Institute
made an excursion on March 6th, 7th and
8th, from Duluth to the Mesabi iron range.
The mines were visited and in the evenings
meetings were held, at which papers were
presented by Dr. L. L. Hubbard, Dr. U.S.
Grant, Mr. F. W. Denton, Mr. F. F. Sharp-
less and Mr. E. F. Brown.
THE tenth annual meeting of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of
Physical Education will be held at the
Teachers’ College, New York, on April 25th,
26th and 27th.
THE Journal of Mental Science gives, in
the last number, a retrospect of Normal
Psychology, prepared by Mr. Havelock
Ellis, and proposes to give regular sum-
maries of the progress of psychology.
THE Chemical Society has conferred its
Faraday medal upon Lord Rayleigh in re-
cognition of the investigation which has led
to the discovery of Argon. Dumas, Caniz-
zaro, Wurtz, Helmholtz, and Mendeléeff
have been the previous recipients of the
medal.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 15.
Rey. Hersert A. JAmMeEs, principal of
Cheltenham College, has been elected head
master of Rugby, succeeding the Rey. Dr.
Percival.
Tur Woods Holl Biological Lectures for
1894, in the press of Ginn & Co., include :
I. Life from a Physical Standpoimt.—A. E.
Doxsear. II. A Dynamical Hypothesis of In-
heritance—Joun A. Ryprer. III. On the
Limits of Divisibility of Living Matter.—
Jacques Lors. IV. The Differentiation of
Species on the Galapagos Islands and the Origin
of the Group.—G. Baur. V. Search for the
Unknown Factors of Evolution—H. F. Os-
BorN. VI. The Embryological Criterion of
Homology.—E. B. Witson. VII. Cell-Di-
vision and Development.—J. P. McMurricu.
VIII. The Problems, Methods and Scope of De-
velopmental Mechanics—W. M. WHEELER
(Roux’s). IX. The Organization of Botanical
Museums for Schools, Colleges and Universities.
—J.M. Macrartane. X. The Centrosome.
—S. Watasr. XI. Evolution and Epigen-
esis—C. O. Wuirman. XII. Bonnet’s
Theory of Evolution —C.O. Wuirman. XIII.
Bonnet on Palingenesis and Germs.—C. O.
WHITMAN.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON,
MARCH 23.
Mr. CHArues T. Sueson read a paper on
the ‘Respective Values of the Shell and
Soft Parts in Naiad Classification.’ Mr.
Simpson deprecated the fashion of many con-
chologists of late in basing classification
wholly on the soft parts and stated that
his studies of the Naiads, or fresh water
mussels, go to show that among them, at
least, he has found the characters of the
soft parts of the animal more variable and
less reliable for the purposes of classification
than those of the shell. That, while in
some cases the soft parts give us the key to
true affinities, in others they are worthless,
and we must rely on the shell for a knowl-
_ APRIL 12, 1895.]
edge of relationships. Numerous cases
were cited showing such variation. In
Unio novi-eboraci the branchiz are some-
times free only a short distance on the
posterior part of the abdominal sac; in
other cases they are united the whole
length, and the same is found to be true to
a great extent in U. multiplicatus. In that
species and some others not closely related
the embryos are found in all four leaves of
the branchize, but in all other North Amer-
ican forms they only occupy the outer
leaves.
The statement was made that the dissec-
tion of a single animal of a widely dis-
tributed and variable species will probably
not give any more knowledge of all its
characters than the examination of a single
shell, Castalia, Castalina and Glabaris, South
American Naiads, may either have no
siphons at all, or have them perfectly de-
_ yeloped, and this variation occurs in the
same species. The families Unionide and
~ Mutilide were founded on the absence or
presence of this character. In a new ar-
rangement of the Naiads v. Ihering has
based the family Unionide on the fact that
_ the embryo is a glochidium, in which the soft
parts are enclosed in a bivalve shell, and
the Mutilide was established on the fact that
the embryo is a lasidium, divided into three
“parts, the middle one only being protected
_ by a single shell.
Basing a classification on these characters
‘it will be found that the genera of the unionide
have invariably heterodont teeth, or vestiges of
them, while in the mutilide the arrangement is
essentially taxadont.
ta is claimed that similar circumstances
environment may produce like characters
of unrelated forms; the Mycetopus of South
America and Solenaia of China are bur-
‘Towers, and though belonging to different
ies closely resemble each other in the
ongated shell and greatly developed foot,
d have both been placed in one genus on
SCIENCE.
419
this account. Anodonta angulata burrows
in rapid streams and differs greatly in ap-
pearance from A. dejecta, which is closely
related but lives in stagnant water. The
two were shown to have affinities by con-
necting forms.
Dr. Stiles spoke* ‘On the Presence of
Adult Cestodes in Hogs.’ He called atten-
tion to the remarkable fact that no adult
tapeworms were described as regular in-
habitants of Sus, and discussed the cases
recently mentioned by Cholochowsky in
Russia and two cases which had recently
been reported to him from Iowa. One of
the Iowa cases was certainly a case of
chance parasitism in this host, and although
there are no satisfactory data upon which
to base an opinion concerning the other
cases, he thought helminthologists in gen-
eral would not admit the forms mentioned
to the lists of the parasites of hogs.
Mr. Coville laid before the society a copy
of the newly published list of ferns and
flowering plants of the northeastern United
States, prepared by a committee of the
Botanical Club, A. A. A. S., in accordance
with the nomenclature rules adopted by
the Club, and gave a brief history of the
recent nomenclature reform in botany. He
pointed out the fact that in a recent criticism
of the List by Dr. B. L. Robinson, who rep-
resents those still favoring the old system,
only a single specific point of vital principle
in the new system was really discussed, the
other items of criticism referring to details
which do not involve the principles them-
selves. Mr. Coville pointed out that in
view of the success of the new system as
already tried by several of our leading bot-
anical institutions and as tested for many
years past in other branches of biological
science, together with the prevailing dis-
satisfaction regarding the old system among
working botanists, the new code gives every
*Notes on Parasites, 34 ; Centralbl. f. Bakt., u. Par.
1895.
420
promise of satisfactorily solving the nomen-
elature problem.
Professor Joseph F. James made some
remarks on ‘ Daimonelix and Allied Fossil.’
He gave an account of the large fossil
“cork serews’ described by Professor Bar-
bour from the Bad-Lands of northwestern
Nebraska, calling attention to their peculiar
features. He noted the fact that while they
had heretofore been considered as unique
and without resemblance to other fossils,
that in reality several other similar forms
had been described. One of these was
figured by Heer in 1865 in ‘ Die Urwelt der
Schweiz,’ under the name of ‘screw-stones,’
which presents all the characters of Daim-
onelix as figured by Barbour. In 1863 Pro-
fessor James Hall described Spirophyton and
gave a restoration of S. typum. In a view
of one of the whorls there is a great corre-
spondence between it and a figure of the
same character given by Barbour. In 1883
Professor Newberry described Spiramis, also
a genus of screw-like fossils which presents
features similar to Daimonelix. Heer’s fossil
occurs in the Miocene of Switzerland, while
Spirophyton and Spirazis occur in the Che-
mung of New York and Pennsylvania. The
wide distribution of the forms is interesting
as showing that Daimonelix is not an ‘ acci-
dent’ as hinted by some. Whether it is a
plant or not must be decided in the future,
although there is a strong presumption that
such is the case. FreDERIC A. Lucas,
ae Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL, APRIL.
Argon, A New Constituent of the Atmosphere :
Lorp Rayueien and WiLiiam Ramsay.
On the Spectra of Argon: WILLIAM CROOKES.
The Liquefaction and Solidification of Argon:
K. OLszEwskI.
On the Atomic Weight of Oxygen. Synthesis of
Weighed Quantities of Water from Weighed
Quantities of Hydrogen and of Oxygen:
Epwarp W. Mor.ey.
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 15.
On the Chloronitrides of Phosphorus: H. N.
STOKES.
On the Saponification of the Ethers of the Sul-
phonic Acids by Alcohols: J. H. Kastrm and
Pavut MurRi11.
Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of
Harvard College. LDXXXVI. On the Cupri-
ammonium Double Salis: THEopoRE WIL-
LIAM RicHARDS and GEORGE OENSLAGER.
Basswood-oil: F. G. WIECHMANN.
Note.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL.
Magara and the Great Lakes: ¥. B. TAytor.
Disturbances in the Direction of the Plumb-line
in the Hawaiian Islands: E. D. Preston.
Glacial Lake St. Lawrence of Professor Warren
Upham: R. CHALMERS.
Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere:
Lorp RayieicH and W. RAMsAy.
Velocity of Electric Waves: J. TROWBRIDGE
and W. Duane.
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UPHAM.
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The Paleontologie Base of the Taconic or Lower
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Fripay, Aprit 19, 1895.
CONTENTS :
On Marine Mollusks from the lee Formation :
RMON LEMEING «(0 3.00 0 ntceenenae at's a's san 421
Use of the Initial Capital in Specific Names of Plants :
F. H. KNOWLTON ....... BO 6 o6- COO AED 423
Density and Diameter of Terrestrial Planets : E. s.
EWU PEERED oi s/c:aie!s;n'e ccc ss Vee eMeiseresate ites > ib es 424
The Distribution of the Blow Gun: WALTER
IEEESEICHET caih avaleja)cis\a,<'s 60 «0s, teteneeyteis perard piaio ai 425
Psychology: E. B. TITCHENER ........... oe 426
Loss of Professor Milne’s Seismological Apparatus,
Library and Collection: T.C. M.............. 431
PRA ECSPONUCRCE = «so os. sa csumaebias mic ye as.s 433
The Ideal Index to Scientific Literature: G.
BROWN GOODE.
Scientific Literature :— .... 2.60. cee eee sete delsile AGT
Chapman’s Birds of Eastern Ni orth America: C.
HART MERRIAM. National Geographical Mono-
graphs: W. M. Davis. Furneaux’ Butterflies
and Moths: 8. H.S. Quatrefages’s Pygmies:
D. G. BRinTON. Scott’s Structural Botany:
ALBERT SCHNEIDER.
Notes and News :— .... elaisieibte,> weleivleg 4 444
Argon; Paleontology ; ‘Sir W Filliam Dawson ; Gen-
eral,
Societies and Academies : — .....seccecsesesscces 447
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia ;
New York Academy of Sciences; The Texas
Academy of Science.
Scientific Journals ......+++++ belniseaipionte “pater cs lee
ENEUIADODINS 5 nlp eins vasa sccct cscs siete alerelsin oveet als - 448
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
McKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Subscriptionsand advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or Al East 49th St., New York.
ON MARINE MOLLUSKS FROM THE PAMPEAN
FORMATION.
Ir is known that D’Orbigny considered
the pampas as a marine formation, Bur-
meister as a fluvio-lacustrine deposit. In a
paper on the Lagoa dos patos, in 1885, I re-
referred to conditions which I considered
important for the study of such formations
as the Pampean. All discussions hitherto
lay great stress on the absence of marine
fossils in the Pampean mud. But this fact
itself seems to rest partly on the belief of
Burmeister that marine organisms are not
to be found in the formation.
Burmeister (Descr. Phys. Rep. Arg. II.,
1876, p. 177) having seen fragments of an
Astrea found at a depth of two meters at
San Nicolas, and believing that their pres-
ence was due to some disturbance of the
beds, said that it is not possible to under-
stand how they could have reached the
locality where they were found.
Burmeister’s view, above cited, will be
essentially modified by the announcement
which I am able to make of the following
list of marine shells received by me from
the distinguished Argentine paleontologist,
Dr. Florentino Ameghino. The specimens
are from the ‘formacion pampeana, piso
belgranense’, near La Plata.
Purpura hemastoma L.
Nassa polygona Orb.
Bullia deformis King.
Olivancillaria auricularia Lam.
Voluta brasiliana Sol.
Litorina flava King.
Litoridina australis Orb.
Crepidula fornicata? Lam.
Ostrea cristata Born.
Ostrea puelchana Orb.
422
Mytilus platensis Orb.
Mytilus exustus L (magellanicus Rve.
fide Dall.).
Arca Martensii Recl.
Azara labiata Mat.
Tagelus gibbus Spgl. (platensis Orb.)
Mactra patagonica Orb.
* Mactra Dalli vy. Ther. (M. Byronensis
fide Dall).
+ Mactra riograndensis vy. Thes. (M. isa-
belleana Orb. fide v. Martens).
Cytherea rostrata Koch.
An otolith of a Scizenoid fish, Micropogon
undulatus L., very common at Rio Grande
do Sul, and probably also in the La Plata
estuary.
All these mollusks are common species
of the Atlantic coast of Uruguay and Ar-
gentina and most of them also from Rio
Grande do Sul. Only three of them are of
special interest, as not now found living in
these latitudes.
Purpura hemastoma L., still common on
the coast at Rio Grande do Sul, is, I believe,
not now known from the La Plata region.
D’Orbigny, Petit and other authors have
suggested that this species has been distrib-
uted through the agency of navigation.
It is therefore important to note that it
occurs fossil in America, as it does in the
Huropean Tertiary.
Tntorina flava King, common from the
West Indies to Santa Caterina, is not known
to occur at Rio Grande do Sul.
Nassa polygona Orb. seems to have al-
most the same distribution as Litorina flava.
I use D’Orbigny’s name in default of the
complete synonymy. Prof. von Martens
considers it synonymous with NV. polygonata
Lam. Hidalgo, treating it in extenso (Moll.
* This seems to me different from the Chilian form.
{ A very common species on the coast at Rio Grande
do Sul, but probably undescribed. Prof. yon Martens
named it M. isabelleana Orb., but this is a species
with the beaks more inflated and the valves not so
thick. Descriptions will be published elsewhere.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 16.
del viage al Pacifico, III., p. 39) regards it
as being the same as JV. cinisculus Reeve,
with antillarum Dkr. and sturnii Phil. as
varieties. So I prefer the name of D’Or-
bigny, as to the application of which there
is no doubt.
These are, therefore, species once reaching
to the 35° of south latitude, which now do
not occur south of Santa Caterina or Rio
Grande do Sul. It is quite possible that
other species exist in the actual fauna which
are dying out. For example, Neritina mele-
agris Lam., found at Santa Caterina. It
occurs also in the bay of Paranagua, but
only in one locality, though formerly it was
much more common, being not rare in the
shell mounds of the Sambaquis. Dunker
( Jahrb. d. Deutsche mal. Ges. 1875, p. 245)
says that NV. meleagris is common at Monte-
video, but this seems to be an error, as
D’Orbigny, myself and others have not
found the species in the La Plata region,
either recent or fossil.
It was the opinion of Darwin, shared in
part by Burmeister, that deep bays entered
long distances into the interior during the
Pampean formation, which for the most part
is due to the action of winds and fresh water.
To this I also agree. To such a gulf we
owe the existence of the marine shells. The
important facts discovered by Ameghino —
give a new turn to the discussion of the
origin of the pampas
As Dall has shown that in Florida some
of the Pampean mammals occur in beds
covered by marine pliocene limestone, there
cannot be any doubt that the pampean for-
mation is in part of Pliocene age. It
seemed that with the important study of
Santiago Roth the pampas question might
be considered as settled, but the facts here
considered awaken doubts. It is quite pos-
sible that observations here brought together
may be increased with time and more and
more tend to modify the basis of our knowl-
edge.
APRIL 19, 1895. ]
IT am not aware of the distribution of As-
trea and other corals south to Paranagua.
It is quite possible that the Astrea, like the
mollusks above mentioned, was a denizen of
warmer water, demonstrating that the tem-
perature of the Atlantic Ocean in this region
has diminished since the Tertiary epoch.
Santiago Roth says that marine (Ter-
tiary ?) shells also occur at Buenos Ayres
at a considerable depth, and at other local-
ities in the Pampean beds. The question
is a difficult one, and only in the future may
it be possible to fully appreciate such facts
as are here put on record. The Argentine
geologists have hitherto paid little attention
to the study of the fossil mollusks, and for
this reason this first contribution of Ame-
ghino is encouraging and important.
; H. von IHERING.
4 Museo PAvuuista, SAN PAULO, BRAZIL.
a —
f USE OF THE INITIAL CAPITAL IN SPECIFIC
; NAMES OF PLANTS.
Tue idea seems to prevail among some
naturalists, as may be seen from a recent
: review in this journal (p. 162), that the re-
tention of the initial capital in certain spe-
cific names of plants is a barbarous relic that
the botanists themselves cannot honestly de-
’ fend. Asa matter of fact, this is very far
’ from the truth, for it is almost universally
adopted in botany, and for good and logical
reasons. In the latest authoritative enumer-
ation of American plants, namely, the List
of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta, there are
four classes of specific names that are written
with an initial capital: (1) Species named
in honor of persons; (2) species named
from places; (3) names of old genera, tribes
or sections used as specific names; (4)
substantives used as specific names.
The first case is based largely on senti-
ment. It, to the botanist, does not look
well or dignified to write a person’s name
with a lower case initial. The name was
given as an honor or monument to the per-
.
SCIENCE.
423
son, and should be maintained as such.
Not Sedum torreyi, Plantago purshii, but S.
Torreyi and P. Purshii.
The second case is, perhaps, least defen-
sible of all, yet it seems most natural and
logical to give the name of a place as nearly
as it is usually written, at least in English
speaking countries.
densis and Campanula Americana, rather than
S. canadensis or C. americana.
The third case, namely the capitalization
of specific names derived from old genera,
tribes or sections, is in the highest degree
valuable and condusive to accuracy. As
names derived from these sources do not
necessarily agree in case and number with
the generic word, the initial capital calls
attention to this, saves much trouble, and
reduces the probability of error. Campanula
Medium, for example, would half the time be
changed into Campanula Media, but for the
initial. So also with Convolvulus Sepium,
Achillea Millefolium, Delphinium Consolida
Vaccinium Oxycoccus, and hundreds of others
that could be mentioned.
The ease with which words of this kind
are changed is very well shown by the spell-
ing of the name of the ruffed-grouse in the
Century Dictionary. The correct name is
Bonasa Umbellus and it is so printed in most
places, but under the vocabulary word
Bonasa it is B. umbella. This is, of course,
quite a different thing, and simply shows
that some unguided proof-reader, observing
that the termination ws did not agree with
Bonasa, changed it.
The fourth case is much the same as the
one just considered. Substantives do not
necessarily agree with the generic word,
and it is a matter of much convenience and
information to write them with an initial
capital, e. g., Ilex Dahoon, Gaultheria Shallon.
In this form they stand out in bold relief,
while if the lower case was used there would
be the constant tendency to make them har-
monize in termination with the genus word.
Thus, Sambucus Cana-
424
The use or disuse of this capital initial
may not be a matter of much importance,
but if there were no rule upon it there
would be lack of that uniformity which is
so much to be desired. If left to personal
choice, some writers would use it and others
would not. The British Association Re-
vised Code (1865), the code of the French
Zoblogical Society and that of the Inter-
national Zodlogical Congress leave the
matter to individual preference. The code
of nomenclature of the American Ornitholo-
gists’ Union (canon viii.) expressly de-
cides against capitals, although agreeing
‘that it is a trivial matter.’ The Inter-
national Botanical Congress of 1867 and the
committee of the American Association
(1894) agree as to its adoption. Therefore,
in addition to the above mentioned reasons,
botanists write these classes of specific
names with an initial capital for the sake
of uniformity in botanical writings.
F. H. Kyowtrton.
DENSITY AND DIAMETER OF TERRESTRIAL
PLANETS.
ReEcEnT determinations of the mass of
Mercury have brought out a relation be-
tween the densities and diameters of the
terrestrial planets which have not hereto-
fore been thought possible on account of
the supposed great density of Mercury.
The accompanying sketch shows graph-
ically this relation. The planets have been
plotted with their diameters in miles as
abscissa and their density, the earth as one,
as ordinates. It is seen that these points
lie approximately in a straight line. The
data has been taken from Harkness’ ‘ Solar
Parallax’ and Young’s Astronomy. The
masses from the former and the diameters
from the latter, except that the density of
Mercury is that lately announced by Back-
lund from a discussion of Encke’s comet.
The probable error of the density has
been obtained by combining the probable
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 16.
errors of the mass and diameter, and is
shown in the sketch by the arrow-heads
above and below the plotted points. It
will be seen that the earth, Mars and the
moon have much smaller probable errors
than Mereury and Venus, since these latter
have no known satellites to aid in deter-
mining their masses. If the most probable
straight line be drawn with respect to the
former, it will be as shown in the drawing.
This line passes within the limits of the
probable errors of all except Venus.
Tt will be observed that the straight line
when prolonged to the left does not pass
through the origin of codrdinates, but cuts
the ordinate at some distance above it.
This indicates that a planet with a very
small diameter would still have a consid-
erable density. Meteroic stones of small
diameter, when they reach the earth, do
have a density about the same as that of
terrestrial rocks, and this is about the den-
sity which is indicated in the drawing.
If this relation should prove to be the
true law, then the mass of a terrestrial
planet could be determined from its diam-
eter. The mass of Venus so determined
would be about one-tenth greater than as
given. Venus is the only one of the five
that is any more discrepant than might be
expected from its probable error. The
probable error of this -planet as given may
be too small. An increase of one-tenth im
the mass, or a decrease of one-thirtieth in
the diameter, would make Venus accordant.
A sufficient increase in her mass would
explain the movement in Mercury’s peri-
helion. If the mass of Mercury proves to
be as small as now supposed, that is about
one-thirtieth that of the earth, it may ex-
plain some of his irregularities.
Prof. Young has pointed out that a body
200 miles in diameter near the sun would
not be likely to be accidentally discovered,
although it might be seen with some of the
best instruments during transit across the
APRIL 19, 1895.]
Sun’s disc. It is, therefore, possible that
Mercury may have an undiscovered satellite
200 miles in diameter. If so, and the
satellite should be as far from Mercury as
the moon is from the earth, it would take
150 days to make one complete revolution
around the planet, or nearly twice as long
as it takes Mercury to revolve about the
Such a satellite would have sufficient
ass to cause Mercury to revolve in a
SCIENCE.
425
PGhieth showing graphically the
secondary orbit 150 miles in diameter,
which would be a measurable quantity.
E. S. WHEELER.
SAULT STE. MARIE, MICH.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE BLOW-GUN.
Tue blow-gun is one of the most remark-
able savage devices in which compressed air
is used as a motive force. Primarily, the
blow-gun is a simple tube of cane, smoothly
426
cleared of the joint septums, through which
light darts feathered with a tuft of down,
or pieces of pith, are propelled by the breath.
The blow-gun is used for killing birds
and small mammals. Frequently the ar-
rows are poisoned, rendering the light dart
effective on larger game. The chief merit
of the blow-gun is its accuracy and the
silence with which it may be employed.
The penetration of the blow-gun dart is
greater than would be imagined. At the
distance of 50 feet I have driven a blunt
dart one-quarter of an inch into a pine plank.
It is stated that the range of the blow-gun
among some tribes is from 80 to 100 yards.
Apropos to Professor Mason’s paper con-
necting the Hastern Asiatics with the Amer-
icans along a great natural migration line,
the distribution of the blow-gun may be in-
teresting.
The blow-gun is a tropical or sub-tropical
device, and may be looked for in regions
where bamboo or cane grows. Neverthe-
less these tubes are often made of hard wood,
single, or of two excavated pieces joined to-
gether, and frequently one tube is thrust
inside of another to secure rigidity. The
examination of many of these blow-guns in-
spires a great respect for the ingenuity and
mechanical skill of the workers.
The curious fact of distribution, however,
is that the Malays and American aborigines
alone use the blow-gun. The Malay speci-
mens of the blow-gun existing in the Na-
tional Museum are from the Dyaks of
Borneo, the Javanese, the Kyans of Burma
and the Johore people from the Malay
peninsula. The literature also supplies
other Malay localities.
The North American specimens are from
the Chetimachas of Louisiana, who fre-
quently combine the tubes in series, forming
a compound blow-gun and the Cherokees of
the Carolinas. From Central Amercia, the
Indians of Honduras and Costa Rica ; from
South America, several Amazon tribes from
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 16,
Equador east and from British Guiana em-
ploy the blow-gun. Wattrer Hoven.
PSYCHOLOGY.*
PsycHoLocy, as we all know, is the
‘science of mind.’ But such a definition
does little more than raise the question,
What is mind? We cannot take mind for
granted, for it is the very thing that psy-
chology has to investigate. And yet, al-
though ‘mind’ is one of those words
which it is impossible to define, everyone
is able to attach some sort of meaning to it.
What do you yourselves mean when you
talk of your ‘mind?’ You mean, probably,
some particular group or set of your internal
experiences; some tangle or other of feel-
ings, thoughts, desires, resolutions, ideas,
wishes, hopes, actions, emotions, impulses,
expectations, memories. There are plenty
of words, expressing different ‘sides’ of
mind, as they are called. Mind, then, is
the sum total of all these experiences—of all
these processes. There is no mind beyond
them; the term is simply the collective
name of all such processes as those which I
have enumerated.
I said, however, that when you talk, in
an everyday way, of your ‘mind,’ you
probably refer to some special set or group
of these experiences. When you say, “I
cannot make up my mind whether to do it
or not,” you mean that you cannot make up
your present mind. Now here the psychol-
ogist makes a distinction. We use the term
‘consciousness’ to express the mind of the
present moment. Thus if I were to ask
you to tell me something of your experiences.
just now, I should say to you: ‘ Look into
your consciousness, and see whether so-and-
so is taking place or not.”’ Or, again, if I
were to analyze for you your present state
of mind—to try and imagine what is going
* A lecture delivered to the Class in General Phil-
osophy (Introductory ) in Cornell University, Decem—
ber, 1894.
APRIL 19, 1895.]
on inside of you as you listen to me—I
should speak technically of analyzing your
consciousness. Consciousness is the mind
at any moment. Mind, therefore, is the
sum-total of consciousnesses experienced in
the lifetime of the individual. You have
one mind, extending (I hope) over seventy
full years; but the mind upon which you
experiment at any given moment for psy-
chological purposes—or the mind which you
_ make up at a given moment—is called your
consciousness. So that psychology, while
it is the science of mind, in the sense that
it deals with all the mental experiences of
aman, from the time of his birth to the
time of his death, deals in any special hour,
during any special enquiry, with the phe-
nomena of consciousness.
But consciousness—as the number of
| words in my catalogue of a moment ago
}
— -— Swe ae eo . -
sufficiently indicated—is a very intricate,
complex and tangled matter. If we are to
examine it at all carefully, we must try, first
of all, to get some sort of order into its phe-
nomena. Let us begin the attempt at once
_ of describing our internal experiences, as
accurately as possible.
We notice, at the outset, that we are toa
large extent at the mercy of our surround-
ings, of things outside of us. We are not
free to see what we like, to hear what we
like, to touch what we like; what we see
and hear and touch is all determined for us,
by the physical nature of the bodies from
which impressions come. You can under-
stand, of course, that this is true in the
_ simple instances that I have given; but I
- want to prove to you that it is true of a
very large part, indeed, of our mental ex-
that one of our sense-organs is excited, is
put in action, that is done by means of
something in the external world. An
ether-vibration makes us see; an air-vibra-
makes us hear or smell, and so on.
SCIENCE.
427
Those are sensations. And perceptions
only differ from sensations in being more
complicated. Thus in the sphere of sight,
you perceive a house or a tree ; in the sphere
of hearing you perceive a musical harmony
or a musical discord ; in the sphere of touch
you perceive that a complex of impressions
is a piece of wood, or a piece of wire, or
what not. The tree and the house are com-
pound impressions, containing many colors
and many shapes; the musical chord is a
compound of three or four or more simple
tones, and so on. All this, very obviously,
comes from the outside world. So, too,
does (2) memory. You cannot remember
what has not happened. If you try to re-
member a name, you try to recover a lost
perception—the perception of the spoken
word. Ifyou try to remember a picture,
you are attempting to recover a lost visual
perception. It is for this reason that the
psychologist distinguishes kinds or types of
memory—the visual, the auditory and the
motor. People who can play chess blind-
fold have the visual memory very highly
developed. They do not, perhaps, see every
piece in their mind’s eye, but they see the
board as a whole, and know where each
piece upon it is. Most ‘extempore’ speak-
ers, too, rely upon their visual memory.
There is comparatively little true extempore
speaking done. Of course, if a man is
thoroughly familiar with his subject, or is
speaking under the influence of strong em-
otion, he may be able to address an audi-
ence without preparation. But most of us
who speak ‘without notes’ do so by the
aid of our visual memory ; we see what we
have written, mentally, paragraph by para-
graph, and when our eyes are on our hear-
ers, are really reading from a memory
manuscript. Instances of good auditory
memory, again, are furnished by those fortu-
nate persons who can recall accurately the
airs of an opera that they have only once
heard. And people who play the piano
428
‘by ear’ play by finger-memory; their
memories are muscular or motor. All
these memories, then, depend upon the ex-
ternal world. So (38) does imagination.
Imagination can put perceptions together
in new or unusual ways; but it can never
make a new perception. Try to imagine a
color which is different from all the colors
that are known. You cannot do it. You
may imagine mixtures of colors, hues and
tints obtained from combinations of the
known colors, which you have never ac-
tually seen ; but you cannot imagine a new
color. The same fact comes out in works
of fiction. When Baron Munchausen takes
you to the moon or the dog-star, and shows
you their inhabitants; and when Peter
Wilkins describes to you the population of
the South Pole—these people are simply
human beings, with their characters chang-
ed and modified in various ways. They
can take their eyes out of their heads and
pass them round to their neighbors, or they
have wings which fold around them and
serve as clothing ; but there is nothing new
in all this. It is only the putting of the
perceptions together that is new, not the
perceptions themselves. And the same is
true of all the constructions of the imagina-
tion, as they are called, devils, centaurs,
sea-serpents, dragons, hippogriffs, ghosts
and the rest of them. :
The world outside of us, then, is respon-
sible for a good deal of our mental furni-
ture. We can simplify matters, here, for
purposes of classification, by grouping to-
gether sensation, perception, memory-image
and imaginary representation, as ‘ideas.’
Sensation is the raw material from which
ideas are built up. As for the other usages:
if you cannot remember, you say ‘I haven’t
any idea of what that man’s name was;’
and if you are endeavoring to imagine a
circumstance, you say ‘I haven’t any idea
of how that could have happened.’
So much for the first principal category
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 16.
of mental experience. Now, in the second
place, we are in some respects not at the
mercy of the world outside, but the world
is at our mercy. What is the great differ-~
ence between the animal and the plant?
Surely this, that the animal can move at
will, while the plant is stationary. That
seems to be a very simple matter; but just
consider how much it means. If the plant
is going to lead a stationary life, it can
take advantage of the fact—I speak meta-
phorically, of course—to be careless of its
shape and size; or rather, it must make
itself as big and as complicated as it can,
in order to secure all the nourishment
possible from one settled spot. The result
is that the plant carries its lungs and its
digestive apparatus all over it, on the out-
side. You know the functions of leaves
and roots. With the animal the reverse
is the case. It is going to move about. It
can seek food in different places. The best
thing for it, therefore, is to have its lungs
and digestive organs packed away inside
of it; so that it can get about with as light
a weight to carry, and as convenient a
balance of that weight, as possible. There
must be no loose ends left on the outside,
injury to which would mean inefficiency
or death. Well! You see that, by moving
among things at its own will and pleasure
the animal has a certain power over the
external world. How is this power repre-
sented in consciousness? In two principal
ways: (1) Whenever we move; or, to put
the matter more technically, and more defi-
nitely with reference to ourselves as dis-
tinct from the lower animals, whenever we
act, we have in consciousness the experi-
ence of effort, of endeavor. This is an
experience quite different from the experi-
ence that comes to us as ideas. We can
have, naturally, an idea of effort; that
would be the idea of some person making
the effort, or the idea of some obstacle to
be overcome by effort, or what not. But
APRIL 19, 1895. ]
besides the idea of effort, we experience
effort itself. That is one of the hardest
points in psychology to have made clear to
you, or to make clear to yourselves. This
instance may help you: You know that we
speak of one man as having more ‘go’ in
him than his neighbor, without implying
by the phrase that he has more ideas.
There are many names for the effort-
experience. Some psychologists speak of
it as the experience of spontaneity, of one’s
| own initiative; others of an activity in
- cousciousness. ‘ Effort’ is at once the most
concrete and, I think, the most intelligible
. word. (2) Our power over the world out-
side, again, is manifested in another way
—by the phenomena of attention. Not
| every process among our physical surround-
ings has us at its mercy in the same degree.
We are exposed to all manner of impres-
sions; but they are not all alike powerful
to affect our consciousness. Think of your
own state of mind now. You have pre-
sented to you a certain number of visual
impressions—the room, its furniture, the
people about you. You are subject to cer-
tain temperature sensations; to certain pres-
sures, from your clothing; to certain or-
ganic sensations, hunger or satiety. Each
of you has a large stock of memories, ready
to crowd into consciousness if they are
allowed to. Each of you, again, has the
day’s programme in his mind; he can
imagine what will be done between now
and bed-time; and this train of ideas of
the imagination is ready to sweep across
his mind, if free play is given to it. But
all this medley of conflicting influences you
are able, if you like, to neglect. You can
just brush them aside, by attending to the
single series of auditory impressions that is
affecting you, to the succession of words
which Iam speaking. When the whole of
your surroundings is pressing in upon you
through the avenues of the sense-organs,
clamoring for notice, you have the power
SCIENCE.
429
of choosing which shall be let in at the
door of consciousness. Only those facts
cross the threshold to which you desire to
attend.
‘“* But,’’ you may say, ‘‘ suppose that this
is true, what has attention to do with moye-
ment? You told us that it was movement
that distinguished the animal from the
plant, and that along with movement went
power over the external world. Now what
has movement to do with attention?’ That
is a perfectly fair question, but one which I
cannot here answer for you in detail. To
understand the fact of the connection
thoroughly—and the connection is a fact—
you must have studied psychology. But I
can give you a pair of statements which
will be better than nothing. The first is
this: Whenever we attend, we move. I do
not mean that the whole body moyes, that
there is locomotion: but that there is move-
ment,—movement in the eye, movement in
the ear, movement in the scalp, movement
somewhere. And the second is this: It is
the moving thing that attracts the attention.
You cannot attend to one single thing, one
really single thing, for more than a few
seconds together. Either you go to sleep,
or you go into hysterics. On the other
hand, one is almost constrained to attend
to anything that moves. You can hear the
single voice that carries the melody, when
there is an orchestra of half-a-hundred in-
struments thundering on at the same time,
because the melody changes, the tones
move; while the accompaniment is rela-
tively stationary. So that attention to the
melody is easy. If any of you have been
out shooting after dark, you will know that
one tells the game by its movement. So
long as it is still, itis safe. But let it move,
and though the eyes have been looking in
a quite wrong direction, the attention is
drawn upon it by force, as it were; one
cannot help seeing it.
Those, then, are two categories of mental
430
experience. There is one more to mention.
This self of ours, this ‘I,’ which is ex-
posed to the physical changes in the world
in part, and in part helps to bring about
physical changes in the world by moving to
and fro in it, is not indifferent to what goes
on in either case. It does not just have
ideas, on the one hand; and attend to them
or move in consequence of them, on the
other. It does more; it feels. It feels
when impressions come in; it feels when
efforts go out. So that alongside of ideas
and efforts must come a third category of
mental experience—feelings. Feeling is of
two kinds, pleasurable and painful. It is
quite distinct in consciousness from idea-
tion, and from effort and attention. That
is another of the points which arise at the
very beginnings of a study of psychology
that it is extremely difficult to get clear
about—that pleasure and pain, as such, be-
long to an entirely different order of pro-
cesses from the processes which we call col-
lectively ideas. But it is a fact, despite
the intimate interconnection of the two in
our concrete experience. Let me try to
drive it home for you by two illustrations.
You cannot remember a pleasure or pain.
When you try to recall the pain of a flog-
ging that you had at school, what you re-
call is really only the complex of percep-
tions, not the pain itself. You remember
all the circumstances—your being sen-
tenced, the people standing round you, the
room in which the fatal event took place,
the master who did the deed. All these
are ideas. But so far are you from being
able to remember the actual pain of the
flogging that the memory of the circum-
stances to-day may be actually pleasant ;
you smile as you look back on them. That
is the first illustration ; the second is this:
You cannot attend to a pleasure or pain as
such. It is a common saying that if you
attend to a toothache, for instance, you
‘make it worse.’ That is bad psychology.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 16.
You attend, in reality, to the tooth. That
means that you perceive the tooth more
clearly than anything else for the time
being; your idea of the tooth is the very
strongest in consciousness. But by attend-
ing to the idea and so making it clearer,
the feeling that goes along with the idea
is made clearer, too. So the pain ‘gets
worse,’ not because you attended to it,
but because you attended to the group
of perceptions with which it was con-
nected.
Now, then, we have got our raw material
into something like order. Consciousness,
instead of being a shapeless tangle and maze
of various intertwined and interwoven pro-
cesses—as it appeared to us to be when we
started out on our enquiry—has proved to
be capable of arrangement and simplifica-
tion. You may, it is true, raise the objec-
tion that our table of contents is, perhaps,
not inclusive of every known mental state.
Where, you may ask, is emotion ; where is —
expectation ; where are all the rest of the
familiar terms for mental experiences?
Well, you must take my word for it, that
all these other states of mind or mental ex-
periences can be derived from the three
simple processes which I have named to
you. Ifyou were to work through a psy-
chology, you would find that there was
nothing treated of, in any chapter of it,
which was not a compound of these three
sets of elements—ideas, feelings and efforts
—mixed in different proportions. And that
being the case, it is these three elements
with which psychology begins. She first
of all describes them, as minutely and aceu-
rately as possible; and then furnishes a the-
ory or an explanation of them, in the sense
that she gives the conditions, bodily and
mental, of their appearance in consciousness.
Under what conditions do we have this and
this perception? Under what conditions
do we remember and imagine? Under
what conditions do we feel so and so, attend
Psychology.
APRIL 19, 1895. ]
to this and that? These are the questions
that come up for answer.
Into those questions we cannot here enter.
Let it be sufficient for you, in this lecture,
to have learned the names and characters
of the simplest items of mental experience—
of those items which are always and in-
variably present in our concrete, every-day
experiences. Draw for yourselves an out-
line map of mind. You must make three
countries, as it were, within that map. Ideas
must go in in one color to the right; efforts
in another to the left; and feelings will lie
in the middle between the two. And you
must suppose that each of these three terri-
toriés has an independent government ; but
that their governments are very friendly,
and often take joint action—indeed, that
they hardly ever think of taking action of
themselves. Especially must you conceive
that both idea and effort have right of way
through any part of the dominion of feeling;
and that the communications are so open,
and the relations so close, that scarcely any-
thing can affect idea or effort, from the out-
side or from the inside, that does not also
exert an effect upon feeling. The detailed
survey of the three territories, and the laying
down of roads through them for the student
to follow—that is the further business of
E. B. TrrcHENER.
LOSS OF PROFESSOR MILNE’S SEISMOLOGI-
CAL APPARATUS, LIBRARY AND
COLLECTION.
Every one interested in Seismology
knows of the great work done by Professor
John Milne, F. R. S., during a residence of
nearly a quarter of a century in Japan,
which country became, a decade ago, the
earthquake lahoratory of the world.
Through his interest, and that which he
kindled in other foreign residents, the Seis-
mological Society of Japan was organized
about fifteen years ago. During its active
existence its Annual Reports contained the
SCIENCE.
431
most important contributions to Seismology
anywhere published, and it is not too much
to say that the work of this Society amount-
ed to a revolution in the methods of obser-
vation and research. To its Transactions,
Professor Milne was by far the largest con-
tributor. When the rapid decrease of the
number of foreign scientific men resident in
Japan threatened the life of the Society,
he tactfully enlisted the support and co-
operation of the Japanese. The issue, by
the University, of an extensive and valu-
able series of scientific memoirs, tended,
naturally, to divert much of the active in-
terest which they for a time manifested,
and a few years ago the publication of the
Transactions of the Seismological Society
ceased. Professor Milne was not discouraged
however, and at his own risk and expense
at once substituted a periodical which he
called the ‘Seismological Journal,’ which
he has continued to issue at great pe-
cuniary loss and which contains many val-
uable and important contributions to the
science.
During all of these years, with a tireless
and inexhaustible industry and a rare in-
genuity of design and wealth of mechanical
resource, he had invented, constructed and
put into use a variety of earthquake detect-
ors, recorders, measurers, wave and tremor
registers and even earthquake ‘ avoiders’ or
‘nullifiers,’ which, with the numerous de-
vices and inventions of other foreign stu-
dents of Seismology in Japan, the value of
which he was quick to recognize and utilize,
constituted a collection the like of which
never existed before. Besides these instru-
mental appliances Professor Milne had ac-
cumulated an extensive and valuable library
of Seismology, including many early and
rare pamphlets and volumes and almost
everything published on the subject during
the past fifteen years.
His connection with the Japanese Goy-
ernment is shortly to terminate, and he had
432
prepared a complete equipment for an ob-
servatory to be set up in England on his re-
turn to that country, by means of which he
hoped to show that earthquakes travel
around the globe, and to be able to study
them there.
Those who have been aware of all these
facts, and all who are now made aware of
them for the first time, will, I am sure, ex-
perience a feeling of great regret on learn-
ing of the destruction by fire on February
17th of practically all of these valuable ac-
cumulations of years of labor, together with
personal effects of great interest and value
to Professor Milne.
The observatory in which these things
were, and which is now gone forever, was
also an object of much interest in its relation
to the educational development of Japan
during the past twenty years. It was
erected nearly that many years ago, a little
before the close of Dr. Murray’s connection
with the Department of Education. It con-
tained in the beginning a good but small
Equatorial by Alvan Clark and a Transit.
One end of it was used as a meteorological
observatory under the direction of the writer
during several years, being equipped with a
good collection of self-registering instru-
ments obtained mostly from London, the
results of the use of which were published
as Annual Scientific Memoirs by the author-
ities of the University. The transit wing
was utilized by Professor W. 8. Chaplin in
his courses in Civil Engineering, until the
Astronomical part of it was placed in the
hands of Professor H. M. Paul, who served
the University as Professor of Astronomy
for several years, beginning in 1880. When
a few years later the Engineering College
became an integral part of the University
and the whole was located in the Kaga
Yashiki, the observatory was turned over
to Professor Milne, an addition to it was
built and he made a Seismological ‘ Labora-
tory and Bazaar’ out of it, residing in a
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 16.
part of it. It was a comfortable bungalow
sort of a structure, located in the Kaga
Yashiki, just in the rear of the row of dwel-
lings where, fifteen years ago, lived, begin-
ning at the entrance to the Compound,
Fenollosa, Mendenhall, Braun, Cooper,
Morse, Chaplin, Ewing and Atkinson, all
Professors in the University and exhibiting
a mixture of American, Spanish, German,
English and Scotch blood which illustrates
the disposition of the young-old nation to
get what it wants wherever it thinks it can
find it. When it became the home of Pro-
fessor Milne it became the source of a de-
lightful hospitality which many ‘ globe trot-
ters’ of all lands have enjoyed, and thous-
ands besides his scientific friends will sym-
pathize with him in his great loss.
In a recent letter from Professor Milne
he says :
“‘ Just now you and Paul may be breath-
ing all that is left of the old observatory
and my belongings.”’
He sends me a characteristic and graphie
account of the occurrence, ‘prepared,’ he
says, ‘for maiden aunts and relatives,’ from
which the following extract will, I am sure,
be of interest to all readers :
“¢ As nearly all the transactions of the Seismological
Society were packed up to go to Europe, a few that —
had middle places in the boxes may be sayed, but I
doubtif even out of 2500 copies I shall get more than
two or three hundred. All my old earthquake books,
some of which even dated from 1500 to 1600, but
which were perhaps more curious than useful, seem
to have gone. One function they had was to inspire
the globe trotter, or travelling clergyman, with respect
for a science that was apparently so ancient. Amongst
them there was a poem called ‘the earthquake,’ A.
D. 1750, but I know that by heart. The new
books were volumes of bound pamphlets in all sorts
of languages which I had slashed out of the publica-
tions of all sorts of societies. Perhaps the burning
of them was a visitation for my Goth-like behaviour.
Instruments were fused or vaporized. Sixteen
specially constructed clocks which would turn drums
once a day, once a week, or drive a band of paper for
two years, together with seismographs and horizontal
pendulums, self-recording thermometers and harome-
APRIL 19, 1895.]
ters, microscopes, and a museum of old and new con-
trivances are now in the scrap heap. Until to-day, I
felt I had the observatory I intended to put up in
England completely furnished, and I was proud of the
furniture.
One very cruel cut was the picking up of an insur-
ance policy dated 1878, which fluttered out of the
ruins. One reason that I have not insured for some
years past is because day and night I always had for
purposes of continuous photography open benzine
lamps burning in my house, and I should have had
to tell the agent about the little tricks they played
when first I used them. It may sound odd, but I do
not think a stranger to their ways can light one so
that nothing shall happen during the next three days.
Against eccentricities like these I insured myself by
having above them a bunch of fluffy paper, which, if
the lamp blazed up, was burned and burned its sus-
pended string. This was followed by the falling of a
lever, when an electric bell in my bedroom and one in
the kitchen was set going.
Outside the door of the instrument room stood fire-
extinguishers and a heap of rugs. From time to
time I had ‘fire drill,’ going through the operation
of turning up a lamp, burning the paper, ringing the
conflagration—in fact, very much like what happens
on ship-board, only I had real fire—which was easily
extinguished.
But what happened was the unexpected; the fire
broke out in the midst of a pile of wood in an out-
house, and this, with a nice wind blowing, on a Sun-
_ day morning, when there was no one near to help.
And now I have next to nothing—decorations,
medals, diplomas, clothes, manuscripts, extending
over twenty-five years, and everything else has gone
up in smoke; still it is not altogether a misfortune.
Ishall not have a sale, nor the worry of selecting
- amongst my accumulations; there will be no buying
boxes and packing up, neither will there be any hag-
gling with custom house officials, or trouble in col-
leeting on an insurance policy. On the other hand,
I shall have new clothes, and some time or other, I
hope, new clocks and new instrumeuts, whilst what
T have got is the knowledge that I have many sincere
-and kind friends. Their clothes don’t fit, but the
‘sympathy that they have expressed and the little
things they have sent me tells me that I should never
be homeless in Japan. Looked at in the right way;
like an earthquake, a fire may, after all, be a blessing
in disguise, but, of course, it is sometimes pretty well
wrapped up.
Dies ire, dies illa,
Solvet sxeclum in favilla.’’
SCIENCE.
bells, alarming everybody, and then putting out the
433
Professor Milne asks me to make public
the loss of his address book and his desire
to send to all to whom it may be due, cop-
ies of Vol. LV. of the ‘Seismological Journal.’
This, he says, is an unusually large number,
and he hopes an unusually valuable contri-
bution to Seismology—his ‘ expiring effort; ’
and he asks all to whom this volume should
be sent to address him, care Japan Mail
Office, Yokohama.
Out of the few hundred copies, more or
less, of the Transactions of the Seismolog-
ical Society of Japan, he will be able to
make up some sets; and those desiring to
obtain them should address him, care Geo-
logical Society, Burlington House, London.
And finally, he earnestly desires to receive,
in exchange or otherwise, copies of any
papers on or relating to earthquakes, vol-
canoes, or earth movements in general.
Iam sure that every one who can will
respond to this last appeal and cheerfully
do whatever is possible to assist Professor
Milne to replace, as far as may be, the ac-
cumulations of a quarter of a century, con-
verted into sunset-reddening dust in a few
short moments. TC: M,
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE IDEAL INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
To THE Eprror or Scrence: Since you
have been so kind as to ask me to con-
tribute to SctmncE my views as to how the
plan of cataloguing scientific literature may
best be accomplished, I venture to present
the following considerations. It is probable
that some of the ideas suggested are im-
practicable, and indeed that the plan is too
extensive and unwieldly to be undertaken
as a whole at the present time. The litera-
ture of science is so vast and the number of
workers so great, the degree of specializa-
tion in modern work so intense and the
participation in research so wide-spread
over the world, that a really adequate and
434
serviceable index must, of necessity, be of
great extent, and undertaken upon a scale
of considerable magnificence.
It may be that the time has not yet come
when the scientific men of all the world can
cooperate together in such a task as this,
but if codperation is possible in any field of
intellectual activity, surely it is in that of
science. Such codperation is not only es-
sential to thorough work in indexing, but
would also have a most important influence
in promoting united efforts in other branches
of scientific activity.
The considerations suggested are these:
1. The catalogue should be international
in name and scope. This is essential in
order to secure the unreserved support of
all nations engaged in the production of
scientific literature. It should, therefore,
not bear the imprint of any society or organ-
ization, or derive its distinctive character
from any one nation. Since the titles will,
of necessity, be quoted exactly, it might be
well that all annotations and comments
should be in the same language as the title.
To insist that only English or French
should be used would be fatal to its general
adoption by other countries. Titles in the
Scandinavian, Slavonie and Oriental Lan-
guages and dialects and others would, how-
ever, need to be translated into French,
German or English.
2. It should be exhaustive within its own
limits, no latitude being given to the judg-
ment and taste of its editors, in the matter
of rejecting titles.
3. It should be printed in annual in-
stallments, each installment including every
paper or work printed within a single year,
and each installment should be published in
not more than six (preferably not more
than three) months after the close of the
year.
4. The publication should be in the
form of a bibliographical catalogue, with
the titles arranged alphabetically by au-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 16.
thors, the papers by each author to be num-
bered, beginning with number one. This
would render it possible to identify any
paper, either in an annual or a general —
index, by simple reference to author, year
and number.
In recommending that the catalogue
shall be published in book form, I am by
no means unmindful of the merits of the
eard-catalogue system in work of this kind.
I use card-catalogues freely in my own
work, and in the National Museum there
are hundreds of thousands of cards by
means of which the vast collections of
specimens and papers are kept under con-
trol. The card-index has its limitations,
however, and these are nowhere more eyi-
dent than in connection with such a
scheme as a universal scientific catalogue.
The very bulk and unwieldiness of the
card system is an objection, which may be
partly appreciated if one can imagine the
contents of the ten volumes of the Royal
Society’s Catalogue transformed into card
form and arranged in drawers.*
In the volumes as they now stand, the
eye can sweep rapidly over page after page
in search of a given title, and thirty or
forty impressions pass to the mind at a
glance, instead of one, while the strain
upon the attention caused by turning over
the pages is much less than where each
title card is scrutinized singly.
For finding a book or reference when
the name of the author or its title is
known, the card system is without rival.
It is less useful, however, when, as often
happens, one is ‘looking up’ a subject in a
general way. A card-catalogue, after it has
attained to great bulk, requires much labor
*Dr. Carrington Bolton prepared the copy for his
‘Select Bibliography of Chemistry’ on slips of
standard sizes, and it filled 7 standard trays or @
length of nearly 9 feet. The slips were on thin paper
—if they had been of card the lengths would haye
been nearly 20 feet. When printed the 12,000 titles
were presented in alight convenient octavo volume
of about 1,200 pages.
APRIL 19, 1895.]
in consultation and a vast amount of pains-
taking care to insert new cards and keep it
in order. Then, too, one of its features
which makes it particularly advantageous
in the hands of an individual scholar, is
that the cards may be continually sorted
and rearranged. This would be practically
impossible with a great card index intended
_ for the use of many in a public institution.
Volumes like those of the Royal Society
index may be carried to the desk of the
student.
being also numerous rolled quartz grains.
The description of the material collected
by Professor Hill from Wray (B. & L. R.
R.), on the south side of the Republican
River, occurs in an interesting article by
Professor Merrill, ‘On the Composition of
Certain Pliocene Sandstones from Montana
and Idaho.’}
Three figures are given showing the shape
of the particles of voleanic glass found in
the sandstones. In the material from the
Devil’s Pathway (No. 35893) “‘there are
many disc-like bodies on the glass particles,
colorless and nearly circular in outline,”
but the other figures show angular and
fluted forms like those above referred to.
Merrill gives analyses of three samples of
the volcanic dust from Montana and Idaho,
and concludes that they are of andesitic or
tractytic origin. His analyses include lime
and alkali determinations, and the silica:
contents range from 67.76% to 68.92%.
Merrill also states that some volcanic
dust from Krakatoa fell on a ship 885 miles
from the source of voleanic activity, so that
the existence of a layer of volcanic dust at
a given point may not indicate the prox-
imity of the voleano from which the ma-
terial came, but a deposit forty or more feet
thick would hardly form at a great distance
from the source.
The volcanic dust obtained by the writer
from a layer in the Neocene Lake beds that
underlie Mohawk Valley, in Plumas county,
California, likewise resembles in the shape
of its particles the dusts figured by Diller
and Merrill. An analysis of this material
by Dr. W. H. Melville showed that it con-
tained 70.64% of silica, and it was there-
* See article by J. E. Todd, Scrence, Vol. VII., p-
373.
+ Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXII., pp. 199-204.
APRIL 26, 1895.]
fore presumed to be a rhyolitic glass.* The
material obtained by Professor H : 11 closely
resembles the Mohawk Valley material.
The Texas occurrence is of unusual interest,
being in a region where evidences of the
former existence of volcanoes are rare.
H. W. Turner.
WASHINGTON.
CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY (VI.).
THE CAUCASIC LINGUISTIC STOCK.
Cox. R. Von Ercxert, of the Russian
army, already known for an excellent work
on the ethnography of the Caucasus, has
just published an epoch-making volume on
the languages of that region (Die Sprachen
des Kaukasischen Stammes, Vienna, 1895).
Tn this he solves the intricate problem which
has so long puzzled linguists as to the rela-
tionship and place of these tongues. He dem-
onstrates by satisfactory evidence, structural
¥ and lexicographical, that these numerous
languages and dialects, some thirty in num-
ber (the Ossetic, which is Aryan, being of
course excluded), belong to one family,
which should be called the ‘ Caucasie.’ It
is divided in three groups, the Georgian,
the Circassian and the Lesghian. The
stock stands wholly independent, all simi-
_larities to either Ural-Altaic or Indo-Euro-
pean proving accidental or unimportant.
Which of the groups is nearest the ancient
original tongue he does not pretend to de-
cide; but he offers striking testimony to
4 the persistence of the traits of these lan-
- guages. The Georgian was written as
early as the ninth century A. D., and he
_ gives a letter composed by a bishop in 918.
It is quite identical, both in syntax and
| % words, with the current tongue of to-day.
All these facts are the more to the pur-
‘pose since so much has been made of late
years by Professors Sayce, Hommell and
eir followers, of what they call the ‘Ala-
* Bull. Phil. Soc. Washington, Vol. XI., p. 389.
SCIENCE. 455
rodian’ linguistic stock (7. e., the Geor-
gian), in connection with the pretended
‘Sumerian’ of lower Babylonia. It is
likely that they will have to ‘back water,’
now that comparisons can really be
made.
CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS.
Dr. Hueco Wrxckter, in his ‘ History of
Babylonia and Assyria,’ tells us that the
cuneiform method of writing was in use
among eight nations speaking entirely dif-
ferent languages. Whether this is quite
accurate or not, we need not stop to con-
sider, as there can be no question that it
had a much wider distribution than used to
be supposed. Last year the well-known
French archeologist, M. E. Chantre, un-
earthed specimens of it at Pterium and
Czesarea, in Asia Minor, as far west, perhaps,
as such inscriptions have been found in
place. The excavations continued by the
University of Pennsylvania at Niffer have
proved rich in finds of tablets. But the
champion recent discoveries appear to be
those of M. de Sarzec at Tello. A brief ac-
count of his eighth campaign in that rich
locality appears in the ‘Révue Archaéolo-
gique’ of December last, extracted from the
official report of M. 8S. Reimach. From it
we learn that M. de Sarzee opened a small
mound some hundreds of yards from that
which he had previously worked, and
chanced upon the very archives of the old
city themselves. They were inscribed on
tablets and neatly stored in trenches, where
they had rested undisturbed these thousands
of years. From these deposits he took out
more than thirty thousand tablets, about five
thousand in perfect condition, another five
thousand very slightly injured, and the
others more or less defaced. This magni-
ficent discovery will have the greatest im-
portance in revealing the history and
character of the ancient Babylonian civili-
zation.
456
THE ORIGIN OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURE.
Amone the Americanists of Europe, Dr.
Eduard Seler easily ranks in the first class.
He is lecturer on American archzeology in
the University of Berlin, and his numerous
writing are of the most solid merit. Two
recent articles by him are significant. One
in ‘Globus’ (Vol. 65, No. 20), entitled
‘Where was Aztlan?’ was inspired by Mr.
Wickersham’s aticle in ‘Screncr,’ December
8, 1893, in which that writer endeavored to
discover ‘Asiatic analogies’ between the
Aztecs, the Puget Sound Indians and vari-
ous Asian tribes. Seler’s second article is
broader. It is entitled ‘On the Origin of
the Ancient Civilization of America,’ and
appears in the Preussische Jahrbucher (Vol.
79, 1895).
In these able and pointed papers he sums
up with masterly force the arguments which
prove that the culture of ancient America
in all its details was indigenous, starting at
various centers independently, and in no
item or shred derived from instructors from
across the ocean or across Bering Straits.
‘American science,’ he pertinently says,
“can only win by giving up once for all the
vain attempts to construct imaginary con-
nections between the cultures of the old and
new continents,’ and he points out clearly
that this independence of historic connec-
tion is what lends to American archeology
its greatest importance.
In singular and sad contrast to these
truly scientific views are the efforts of a
local school of American students to rehabil-
itate the time-worn hypotheses of Asiatic
and Polynesian influences in the native cul-
tures of our continent. The present leader
of this misdirected tendency is Professor O.
T. Mason, whose articles in the ‘ Interna-
tional Archives of Ethnography’ and in
the ‘ American Anthropologist,’ bearing on
this question do the utmost credit to his
extensive learning and the skill with which
he can bring it to bear in a lost cause. His
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 17.
latest, entitled ‘Similarities of Culture”
(Amer. Anthrop. April, 1895), is so excel-
lent an effort that it is all the more painful
to see its true intent is to bolster up a mori- >
bund chimera. It is to be hoped that they
will not influence the younger workers in,
the field to waste their energies in pursuing
these will-o’-the-wisps of science which will
only lead them to bootless quests.
ARCHEOLOGICAL NEWS FROM SWITZERLAND.
Two or three years ago the curious dis-
covery was made in Switzerland that at one
time, during the neolithic period, a dwarf
race, true pygmies, flourished in Europe.
The bones of a number of them were un-
earthed at Schweizersbild, near Schaff-
hausen, in connection with polished stone
implements and pottery. Theaverage height:
of the adults was about 140 centimeters, close
to that of the Bushmen. They apparently
lived along with other tribes of ordinary
stature, as the remains of both were found
together. The cubical capacity of the skull
was about 1200 ¢.c. Several anatomists have
given the skeletons close attention, notably
Professor J. Kollman, of Basel, in the ‘ Ver-
handlungen der Anatomischen Gesellschaft,”
May, 1894, who appends to hispaper a bib-
liogrophy of articles relating tothe find.
The abundant richness of Switzerland as
an archeological field is strikingly shown
by an archeological map of the canton Zur-
ich, prepared by Dr. J. Heierli, and just pub-
lished in the city of the name. It is very
neatly printed in colors, showing by the
tint the relative age of the station, whether
neolithic, Roman, Allemannian, ete. The
author has added a pamphlet of explana
tions and an index, so as to familiarize stu-
dents with the local sites and what they
signify. It is heartily to be wished that
some State of our country would follow this
excellent example and thus lead to a more
intelligent comprehension and a better pre-
servation of the antiquities on our soil.
APRIL 26, 1895. ]
SOUTH AMERICAN TRIBES AND LANGUAGES.
In the February number of the Journal of
the Anthropological Institute, Mr. Clements
R. Markham, republishes his ‘ List of Tribes
in the valley of the Amazon,’ which first
appeared about twenty years ago. Of course
there are many improvements in the
enumeration ; but it is amazing to note that
by far the best recent authorities are not
referred to, and their material is ignored.
In the ‘list of authorities’ there is no men-
tion, for instance, of the names of Von Den
Steinen, Ehrenreich or Barbosa Rodriguez.
For the linguistics he quotes Dr. Latham as
still the authority. In fact, the best work
done in Amazonian ethnography within the
last decade is not mentioned nor utilized.
' Some interesting studies in the languages
_ of the Argentine Republic should not be
overlooked. The Allentiac was a language,
i now extinct, spoken in the vicinity of San
Juan de la Frontera. A little catechism,
? grammar and vocabulary of it was printed
by Father Louis de Valdivia in 1607, of
which only one perfect copy isknown. This
has been edited with a useful introduction
by José T. Medina (Sevilla, 1894), and has
been made the subject of a neat study by
_ General Bartolome Mitré (Estudio Biblio-
grafico linguistico de las Obras de Valdivia,
Ta Plata, 1894; pp. 153). He inclines to
; consider it a separate stock.
The well-known Argentine linguist, Sam-
uel A. Lafone Quevedo, has added another
to the list of his valuable monographs by a
thorough study of the mysterious Lule
Janguage ( Los Lules; Estudio Filologico,
Buenos Aires, 1894, pp. 145). It is based,
_ of course, on‘the grammar of Machoni, and
reaches the conclusion that the modern are
not the ancient Lules, and Machoni’s gram-
‘mar is that of a tongue which belongs with
the Quichuan group, and not among those
of the Gran Chaco.
4 D. G. Briyton.
* UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANTA,
SCIENCE.
457
CORRESPONDENCE.
A LARGE REFLECTOR FOR THE LICK
OBSERVATORY.
Mr. Epwarp Crosstey, F. R. A. S., of
Halifax, England, has offered to present
his 3-foot reflecting telescope to the Lick
Observatory with its apparatus and dome,
complete. The grateful thanks of the Ob-
seryatory are returned for this generous and
highly appreciated gift.
Epwarp 8. HoLpen.
Mount HaAmitton, April 4, 1895.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Alternating Generations. A Biological Study of
Oak Galls and Gall Flies. By Herman
Apter, M. D. Schleswig. Translated
and edited by CHartes R. Srraron.
. New York, Maemillan & Co.
The recent appearance, from the Claren-
don press, of an edition of Dr. Herman Ad-
ler’s celebrated work, which was published
some fourteen years ago, on alternating gen-
erations among the Cinipidz, being a bio-
logical study of oak galls and gall-flies, will
be welcomed by all interested in the sub-
ject, especially by those who do not read
German or French. The English transla-
tion is by Charles R. Straton. The work
consists of: (1) an introduction by the edi-
tor; (2) the translation proper, to which
the editor has added, in brackets and in
smaller type, the popular English name of
the gall, the particular oak upon which it
is found, and a list of the inquilines and
parasites that have been reared from each
species ; (3) as Appendix I., by the editor,
a full account of Cynips kollari Hartig;
(4) as Appendix II., a synoptical table of
oak galls ; (5) as Appendix IIT., a classifi-
cation of the Cynipidie, and (6) a bibliog-
raphy.
The synoptical table of oak-galls (Cynipi-
die alone included) is based on European
species; while the classification includes
not only European but a certain number of
458
the older American species, but it is very
imperfect in taking no note of the many
later described American species, especially
those described by Ashmead and Gillette.
The classification is based on Mayr’s, as was
that given in Lichtenstein’s translation of
1881, and comparatively few additional spe-
cies are included.
The introduction is very full and includes
a discussion of heredity and a rather full
summary of late embryologic work, with a
view of getting a clearer conception of the
philosophy of alternation in generations.
Mr. Straton particularly discusses Weis-
mann’s views, but by no means accepts
them, though a thorough believer himself
in natural selection.
Straton points out “that galls may be ar-
ranged in groups of greatly increasing com-
plexity and that they must have arisen by
gradual and complete improvements in the
initial stages of their formation, acting
through natural selection over an unlimited
period of time and through numerous con-
secutive species.”” Hach infinitesimal im-
provement in the gall itself, internally or
externally, which has been of service as a
protection against parasites or as favoring
the development of the larva, has been pre-
served. In this view of the case, which is -
one that certainly seems most reasonable,
the various characteristics of galls, such as
spines, prickles, glutinous secretions, indur-
ation, and even size and coloration, are all
acquired characteristics for the protection
of the larva within. This theory is cer.
tainly justified in a large number of cases,
but is equally at fault in many others. It
would be hard to conceive that the bright
colors which many galls assume in an early
stage of development or the succulent char-
acter and pleasantly sub-acid or fruity
flavor of others which renders them so prone
to be invaded and preyed upon by a host of
other insects could have any relation to the
benefits of the gall-maker within. Here, as
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Voz. I. No. 17.
in most other natural history phenomena,
natural selection can hardly be considered
an all-sufficient explanation. Likewise, the
assumed protective colors which galls often ~
take on in autumn will find more valid ex-
planation in the same causes which produce
the similar changes in the leaves themselves,
which can have no reference to the welfare
of the plant.
No subject connected with galls has per-
haps been more written about than the in-
citing cause of their formation. Adler and
Byerinck effectually disproved the older be-
lief that the exciting poison was inserted by
the parent in the act of oviposition, 2. e.,
that the initial force was due either to a
chemical secretion injected by the gall-
mother or to the mechanical stimulus of
traumatic irritation. A fluid is secreted in
the act of oviposition, but it is absolutely
unirritating and acts primarily as a lubri-
cant to facilitate the arduous mechanical
act and probably also as a mild antiseptic
dressing to the wound made in the plant.
Nevertheless there is an irritating salivary
secretion produced by the larva itself and
the gall growth is co-incident with the
hatching and feeding of this larva. The
fact that the influence on the plant tissues
sometimes begins before the egg-shell is
ruptured indicates that this fluid possesses
amylolytic and proteolytic ferments. That
the influence should be slightly exerted pre-
natally is not to be wondered at when we
consider the delicate nature of the egg cover-
ing which often makes it difficult to observe
the dividing line between the egg and newly
hatched larva.
While, therefore, it is the larva in the
Cynipidze which causes the gall, this is not
the case with the many other gall-produ-
cing insects, since many of the gall-gnats
(Cecidomyide) and most, if not all, of the
gall-making saw-flies (Tenthredinide) se-
crete a poison in the plant tissue in the act
of oviposition, causing the gall to form be-
APRIL 26, 1895. ]
fore the larva hatches. One must, there-
fore, in reading Straton’s Introduction, bear
in mind that he is treating solely of the Cy-
nipide. Adler himself recognizes the fact,
so far as the Tenthredinide are concerned,
from observations on Nematus vallisnerii,
which produces a gall on Salix amigdalina ;
but in sweepingly denying it for the gall-
gnats (p. 100), on the score that they have
no piercing apparatus, he makes one of those
generalizations which the facts do not jus-
tify, as most of the gall-making species have
a very effective and specialized piercing ovi-
positor. This is, of course, not homologic-
ally comparable to that of the Hymenop-
tera, but is no more exceptional than is the
wonderful piercing apparatus of Pronuba
among Lepidoptera, being, like this last, a
modification of the tubular tip of the abdo-
men and of the chitinous rods connected
therewith.
Adler shows very conclusively that, in
spite of the great variation in form, size,
appearance and manner of formation, or
whether they grow from bud, blossom, leaf,
bark or root, galls spring invariably from
the zone of formative cells or the cambium
ring, just as indeed does the whole life of
the plant. These cells are the theatre of
actual metabolism. They are not differen- °
tiated into stable tissue, but await a period
of developmental activity and possess the
very conditions essential to gall formation.
This explains the fact that Cynipid galls
_ formed from punctures in the leaf almost
always begin on the under surface of the
leaf, since the cells of the upper surface
have become stable and do not respond to
any irritation applied to them; while when
_ the eggs are laid in a dormant bud contain-
ing rudimentary leaves consisting of un-
modified cells, both surfaces may take part
in gall formation, the resulting gall, in such
ease, growing through the leaf substance.
Again, when the egg is laid in the cambium
Ying of the bark, there is a sharp zonal con-
SCIENCE.
459
trast in the resulting gall between the soft
and sappy parenchymatous cells and a
harder central zone of wood parenchyma
corresponding to the bast and to the wood
parenchyma, the softer parts of the gall
projecting from the bark while its woody
base penetrates into the woody tissue.
From the above facts we come to under-
stand why from winter buds, 7. e., where
eggs are laid during winter in a bud that is
dormant, only bud galls are produced, while
from buds pierced in spring, when meta-
bolism has begun, we get leaf-galls. More-
over, it has been proved by Adler, and ex-
plains the many failures in the efforts to
obtain gall growths by confining gall-flies
upon the plants, that if the parent fly fails
to reach the formative zone of cambium
cells the larva on hatching perishes without
forming a gall. Another interesting fact
which the writer has observed is that where
but one bud-gall is usually produced several
eggs are nevertheless inserted in the bud by
the parent, a prodigality not uncommon in
insects under similar circumstances, and
which has some profound significances
which we cannot discuss in this connection.
On the question as to what determines
the ultimate growth of each particular gall
so characteristic of its species Adler ven-
tures no theory or explanation; but all the
facts would indicate that it depends on the
specific quality of the larval secretion, each
having its distinct form of morbid poison
working in the same pathologic way as the
virus of the various eruptive diseases of
man. Bacteriology may, in fact, yet come
to our aid in this connection, as it has in
the study of the pathologic manifestations
of higher animals.
The process of oviposition in the Cynipidee
is a very elaborate one and has been much
written about. Adler gives a most full and
elaborate description of the mechanism of
the ovipositor, and particularly of the ven-
tral plates and bundles of muscles by which
460
the terebra is worked. The structure of the
Ovipositor is well known and its parts
homologize with those of the same organ in
all Hymenoptera. It consists of a large
bristle or seta, and of two spicule which
mortise into it by means of two tenons and
form the channel down which the egg passes.
The seta occupies half the area of a trans-
verse section of the terebra, and the two
spicule occupy the other half. The seta
has a central canal which contains an air
vessel, a nerve branch and some san-
guineous fluid. While appearing like a
single piece, it is in reality double or com-
posed of two parts which, indeed, are sepa-
rated at the extreme base, but otherwise
firmly soldered together. The spiculz are
serrate or notched near the tip, and the seta
often endsinaslight hook. The twospiculee
play by means of strong basal muscles, lon-
gitudinally up and down on the tenons of
the seta.
The eggs of Cynipide are characterized
by having a stalk or pedicel of varying
length according to the species, the ege-body
proper, according to Adler, being at the
apical or anterior end which first issues
from the body, and the posterior end being
also somewhat enlarged or spatulate. In
repose the ovipositor is concealed within
two sheaths, but in oviposition, according to
Hartig’s views, the spicule grasp the egg-
stalk and push it to the tip, the fluids in the
ege-body being pressed back in the oper-
ation, so that they come to be distributed
along the stalk or to lie at the opposite or
posterior pole of the stalk. The spiculz
then slightly separate at the tip from the seta
and extend beyond it so that the apical end
of the stalk becomes free. Now by pres-
sure the fluid at the posterior end passes
back through the stalk into the opposite or
apical end which is plunged in the plant,
the basal portion becoming emptied, the
swollen apical end thus remaining in the
plant when the ovipositor is withdrawn, fill-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 17.
ing the distal end of the puncture, which is
somewhat enlarged. The empty basal sack
of the egg and a portion of the stalk are
often left exposed, looking not unlike the
empty egg of some lace-wing fly (Heme-
robiid).
In short, Hartig’s view, very generally
adopted, was that the extensile and ductile
egg was driven through the ovipositor itself
while this was in the plant, and that the
contents of the egg-body were pressed back
into the ege-stalk or pedicel during the
operation and collected in the posterior end,
and only after the apical end had reached
the bottom of the puncture did these con-
tents stream back into it. Adler would re-
fute this view and draws attention to his
own figures on Plate 3, where the eggs and
ovipositor are illustrated side by side, all
taken from photographs and drawn from
the same amplification. These show that
the ovipositor is, in every case, longer than
the egg itself, the enlarged head of the egg
corresponding in direction to the tip of the
Ovipositor. He argues from this fact that
one end of the egg cannot be in the plant
tissue while the other is in the canal. He
further argues that it is not possible that
the whole egg can be received into the ovi-
positor and glide through it in the way in
which Hartig supposed. The operation of
oviposition according to his observations
consists of three distinct stages: (1) The
canal in the plant is first bored, after which
the fly rests; (2) the egg is then passed
from the ovarium to the entrance or base of
the ovipositor, the anterior swollen end or eqg-
body hanging out, since it is too large to be
passed down the channel. Itis then pushed
along by means of the egg-stalk behind be-
ing grasped between the two spicul. (3)
Finally, when the egg-body reaches the
perforation, the ovipositor is partially with-
drawn and the whole egg is then pushed in
till the ege-body reaches the bottom of the
puncture. Adler rightly expresses wonder
—
APRIL 26, 1895. ]
that this complex procedure should be re-
peated so often with such great accuracy,
and proceeds to describe the tactile hairs
connected with the ovipositor which permit
the fly to carry out the operation. He further
states that, while oviposition in the surface
of leaves is in its nature easier, the mech-
anism of oviposition is exactly the same as
in buds.
We thus have two diametrically opposed
views as to how the Cynipid egg passes
down the ovipositor, the oviduct or passage
of which is but one-fourth as wide as the
ege-body itself, and into the puncture pre-
pared for it. Hartig gave a perfectly sim-
ple explanation, and one generally accepted.
While it is difficult to understand how the
egg can be pushed into the puncture with
the swollen egg-body entering first, yet Ad-
ler goes into elaborate details and is so care-
ful that one is scarcely justified in question-
ing his conclusions. There is, however,
good reason for doubting their accuracy as
applied to all species and for believing that
the method described by Hartig does also
obtain and that there are even further modi-
fications of the process.
In controverting Hartig and referring to
his figures of eggs and ovipositors, Adler
gives no indication whether the eggs were
taken from the buds after being deposited,
or from the ovaries or from the ovipositor,
and my own experience with these and
other ductile and extensile eggs with long
ege-stalks would indicate a very varying
length of stalk according to these varying
circumstances. Again, he evidently has
misjudged Hartig in assuming that the lat-
ter describes the passing of the egg down
the minute channel of the seta, for Hartig’s
figures, as well as his description, make it
clear that he had in mind the actual facts,
viz., the passage of the egg down the channel
i formed by the connection of the two spi-
cule with the seta. He is quite clear on
this point and refers to the seta as the egg-
SCIENCE.
461
guide (Eileiter) and not as the oviduct.
He also elaborately describes and figures
the eggs in the ovaries, with the swollen
ego-body away from and the stalk directed
to the base of the ovipositor.
My own studies of the oviposition of Cal-
lirhytis clavula O. S. in the buds of Quercus
alba in April show that the eggs are in-
serted by the ege-stalk into the substance
of the leaf, and that the fluids are first
gathered in the posterior end which is not
inserted. The fluids are then gradually
absorbed from this exposed portion into the
inserted portion of the egg and by the time
the young leaves have formed the exposed
shells are empty, the thread-like stalk has
disappeared and the egg-contents are all
contained within the leaf tissue. The larva
now hatches and young galls rapidly form,
the colorless and shriveled egg-shell being
still often exposed in position and generally
some distance from the position of the larva,
a difference doubtless representing the orig-
inal length of the inserted egg-stalk.*
These observations certainly comport
more with the conclusions of Hartig than of
Adler, though they indicate a quite different
*This agamic gall-fly produces a hemispherical
gall involving both sides of the leaf, the cells in the
center being connected by loose spongy fiber, and
from it comes the sexual species, Callirhytis futilis O.
S. Thisin turn produces the twig gall from which
the agamic C. q-clavula is derived. Mr. H. F. Bas-
sett (Psyche, Vol. 5, pp. 235-8, December, 1889)
has connected Callirhytis futilis O. S. with a new spe-
cies which he there describes as Callirhytis radicis,
reared from a gall which is, practically, a blister-like
swelling of the root. There is here either an error as
to determination or else we have another interesting
discovery in connection with these insects, viz., that
the same species may indifferently produce a gall on
the root or on the twig. When we remember how
readily nature in many cases will convert a root into
a twig, and vice versa this last explanation will not ap-
pear so improbable. I may add that Mr. Ashmead,
who has reared the fly from the clavula gall, has care-
fully compared it with those actually observed ovi-
positing in the buds and agrees with me that they
are identical.
462
method of oviposition from that described
by either, in that the fluid ege-contents are
not passed from one pole to another rapidly
in the act of oviposition as described by
Hartig, but very gradually, the process not
being completed till just before the hatch-
ing. I had the assistance of Mr. Th.
Pergande in carefully watching the steps in
this particular case (in April 1884) and
have put them on record here for the first
time. Again, a small black wingless species
(Biorhiza nigra Fitch, subsequently described
as B. politus by Bassett), is not infrequently
found during winter under the shelter of
bark scales and oviposits during late winter
in the terminal buds of Quercus alba and Q.
obtusiloba. The ovipositor in this case, as in
most cases where eges are laid in dormant
buds, is thrust down between the bud-scales
until it reaches the soft latent cell tissue
toward the center of the bud. And here it
is easy to observe, by removing the scaly
coverings, as I have done, that the pedicel
or stalk only is inserted in the embryo leaf-
tissue and that the enlarged portion or egg-
body is at first external, being pressed and
somewhat flattened by the surrounding leaf-
scales.*
In still a third case of a small black in-
quiline ( Ceroptus politus Ashm.) oviposition
was observed by Mr. Pergande in the mid-
rib of Quercus rubra, May 20, 1894 ,and in
this case, as my notes show, the ege is
thrust down into the puncture made by the
terebra in the mid-rib until not a vestige of
the egg is visible, the pedicel being very
short.
There is, therefore, good reason for be-
_ lieving that oviposition in these insects fol-
lows no uniform system, and there is a
*This fly produces an undescribed vesicular bud-
gall from which issues a small black winged bisexual
species (Dryophanta vesiculoides MS. mihi). The gall
produced by this and from which the apterous agam-
ic generation comes is not yet known, though it will
probably be a leaf-gall similar to that of Acraspis eri-
nacee Walsh.
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 17.
serious question whether Adler’s rejection of
Hartig’s views are justified. In connection
with Adler’s views as to oviposition, he eon-
cludes from his own studies that the main
purpose of the egg-stalk is to supply oxygen
to the egg-body in the plant-tissues, but that
this is also an erroneous conclusion is, I
think, made manifest by some of the facts
just stated. That the function of the egg-
stalk is, rather, to facilitate the otherwise
difficult mechanical operation of the passage
of the egg down a narrow and elongate ovi-
positor in the manner indicated by Hartig
is supported by the fact that the puncture
is often closed at its mouth as also from
what we know of the similar oviposition in
other orders of insects. The facts, for in-
stance, connected with the oviposition of
Pronuba yuccasella, where the egg is thrust
deep into the ovarian cavity of the Yucca
pistil bear out this view. The egg, in this
case, as it passes down the ovarium has not
a definite pedicel or stalk, but becomes a
mere thread in passing through the oyi-
positor (the nature of which precludes any
external outlet during the passage), and the
fluids gradually concentrate in the apical or
anterior end as the embryo develops. More-
over, it is passed into the ovarian cavity
and has no connection through the pedicel
with the exterior wound which is closed
long before the larva hatches.*
The great service which Adler rendered
in the study of the gall-flies was, however,
to establish the fact of alternate generation
in so many cases. He thus proved the ex-
istence of alternate generation in the follow-
ing species: (See opposite page. )
The writer established, by breeding, the
connection of the agamic Callirhytis operator
O.S. and C. operatola Riley in 1872, the facts
and specimens having been communicated to
* Vide the Yucca Moth and Yucca Pollination, by
Charles V. Riley (from the Third Annual Report of
the Missouri Botanical Garden). Issued May 28,
1892.
APRIL 26, 1895. ] SCIENCE. 463
No. Parthenogenetic Generation. eee. Sexual Generation, be.
1. | Neuroterus lenticularis ....... April | Spathegaster baccarum ....... June "
OF ae leviusculusenssiaioce ttc? Ana “ albipes':,. 27,5) eee June
3. oe numismantis....... April re vesicatrix:. , < cise June
4. c fumipennisie) 2i5 er ¢ May fe tricolor’ 2755 jf neers July
mee jeaphilotrix radicis. 2. 2).0i9. ss: a Amarieus moduli) 2.) ee eee August
a a j f§ April te ,
6. Sieboldd .” 7m weemeiedts fi May, TESHAGEIDES cu) nn ener August
“ Eee { Apri cet July
ide COrticls' .. ./-\ceiLaeeAeNo May STEMNITAGUA 2). 5h) ceeoicins etn August
8. foe tobuli . Sewn a’. April Sl PSthaiator 2... eee { July
9. ut cOllaris: 2/7 Smeg April a6 Gurvator. } \ seeds ae June
10. se fecundatrix ..:. 4. .- April se PUOSUS:.: .) eee June
11. y callidoma, 3 cpeuanten ot oy) April sf CHITAGUS”.. .) 5k) suena June
12. a Malpighit’ ->spaerert. 0 : April Be MAGUS: 2 ))., 1c) jh eee June
13. os autumnalis. gua caiaia -) April se TAMU |, ' : ..”: ShaeReenemees July
14. | Dryophanta scutellaris ....... aa Spathegaster Taschenbergi. . . . . . vey e
te at p oe ce ba Cae May
15. longiventris....... Noy Bimi1i8 | i iiceeeeen ees Tate
“ ts *( Oct. « : aE J May
16. divisa « 5 uealan Now VEITTLCOSUB) 4. coset eerie | June
ive) | biorhizaaptera. . . . =f... { a MeranGerminalis’ .... .) «ae «ee smeks July
Dec i x 5 { Ma
18. aoe renam:: = Si ave see Spe: Ta Trigonaspis crustalis ........ HT eae é
Nov. itt J May
%,
49) | Neuroterus ostreus*....... .- aipRean Spathegaster aprilinus........ June
H. F. Bassett July 10th of that year, though
‘not published till 1873. The synoptical
table by Straton does not add to the list as
originally published by Adler. The subse-
quent discoveries have not been many, it is
true,; but their inclusion would have in-
creased its value. The facts incidentally
‘recorded in this review add two other
American cases to the list, though the alter-
nate gall in one instance has not yet been
discovered. It is not difficult to observe
these gall-flies in the act of oviposition and
_ *Franz Loéw (Verh. Zool.-Bot. Gesellsh. in Wien,
XXXIV., 1885, p. 324) has given good reasons for
elieving that there was an error here, and that the
agamic form of Neuroterus dprilinus Gir. is Neuwroterus
echtendali Mayr. It should also be noted that
athegaster is synonymous with Neuroterus.
_ tI now only recall, besides those already mentioned
in this notice, Chilaspis eitida Ger. as the agamic form
of ©. lowii Wachtl., and Dryophanta cornifex Hart., as
the agamic form of Syntomaspis lazulina Forst..
to follow up the investigation until the re-
sulting gall is produced, and there is a wide
and most interesting field of inquiry which
offers rich results for any American biologist
who has the time to take it up seriously.
The coupling of the alternate galls with each
other is, however, more difficult, by direct
observation, and is to be arrived at rather
from careful identification of the flies in con-
nection with the galls they have been reared
from. Even in an epoch-making work like
Adler’s, the conclusions respecting some of
the most interesting problems connected
with the economy of galls and gall-flies may
yet be questioned, as indicated in this re-
view, and there is unlimited opportunity
for careful and conscientious direct observa-
tion in a field where experience shows that
analogy and sweeping generalizations are
often misleading. C. V. RizEy.
WASHINGTON.
464
A Manual of Topographic Methods. By HENRY
Gannett, Chief Topographer U. 8. Geo-
logical Survey. Washington, Government
Printing office. Quarto, xiv-+300pp. 18
plates.
Whatever may be thought of the advisa-
bility of the publication of scientific manu-
als or text-books by the government, there
is probably little question but that a bureau
is justified in issuing volumes or bulletins
which are in the nature of instructions to
its officers and employees. Some publica-
tions of this kind, issued as parts of the re-
ports of scientific bureaus, have been of
great value to surveyors and engineers on
account of the new facts and methods that
they contain. The preface of this work
states that it was primarily prepared for
the information of employees, and further-
more that it ‘describes the stage of develop-
ment reached at present.’ Hence it should
presumably be of interest and value to all
topographers who are acquainted with the
excellent maps issued by the Geological
Survey. Of the eighteen plates in the vol-
ume twelve give beautiful illustrations of
types of topography, and these form its
most useful and attractive feature.
The 300 pages of the manual include 130
pages of text, 168 pages of tables and 2
pages of index. Although the form is
quarto, the size of the printed page is only
54 x 7; inches, and being in large type it
includes but little more matter than a com-
mon octavo page. Chapter I. devotes 14
pages to historical and general information,
chapter II. has 26 pages on astronomical
determinations, and chapter V. is an inter-
esting geological essay of 25 pages on the
origin of topographic features. Thus only
65 pages remain for the discussion of meth-
ods of topography, a space entirely inade-
quate to do justice to the subject.
On base line measurements with the
steel tape the corrections due to inclination,
temperature and elevation above sea level
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 17.
are explained, but nothing is said about the
sag of the tape, which as well known always
makes the recorded distance too long, and~
the effect of varying intensity of pull is also
unnoticed. The subject of primary trian-
gulation is presented more fully than any
other topic, the general methods of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey being adopted, with
somewhat different but excellent instruc-
tions for measuring angles. No statement
as to the allowable probable errors of an-
gular measurements is made, and the re-
mark that the average length of lines in
primary triangulation is 12 or 16 miles,
leaves a confused idea as to what class of
work is really under discussion.
On topography proper 5 pages are de-
voted to the plane table, 3 to traverses, 14
to stadia measurements and 9 to barome-
ters. It is difficult to ascertain from these
the details of the methods recommended or
used, and it is safe to say that the excellent
maps now being issued by the Geological
Survey were not made without the applica-
tion of principles and methods of which
this volume gives no adequate explanation.
It abounds, however, in useful generalities,
such as ‘Stations for sketching should be
selected with the utmost freedom;” “ Un-
der certain circumstances it is found advis-
able to use the stadia method for measuring
distances instead of the wheel ;” ‘‘ Constant
communication must be had between the
chief of party and his assistants,”’ etc.
The main feature of a small-scale topo-
graphic map is, of course, the contours. In
chapter IV. references to the determination
of heights by the barometer and stadia are
made, but no forms of field notes are given,
and the fact that these heights are to be
used for locating contours is scarcely men-
tioned. In chapter V., however, one page is
devoted to the subject, the essence of which
is that contours are sketched in the field by
the chief of party. It is stated that this
‘is artistic work,’ that “it is impossible
APRIL 26, 1895. ]
that any map can be an accurate, faithful
picture of the country it represents,” that
the topographer must be able to generalize
through his knowledge of geological pro-
cesses of origin, and that he should be able
to decide, ‘‘ where details are omitted, what
to put in their places in order to bring out
the dominant features.’”’ These are dan-
gerous doctrines. The earth exists, the
duty of the topographer is to map it truly,
and the study of the origin of its features
should come later. It is not a function of
the surveyor to interpret nature, and the
geologic discussions of Chapter V. seem out
of their proper place in a manual of topog-
raphy.
The book does good service in dwelling
upon the important idea that a topographic
survey must necessarily be based upon a
triangulation, so that an effective control of
_ accuracy may be everywhere at hand. This
is set forth with clearness as a sound estab-
lished principle.
Tt is difficult to understand why one gov-
ernment bureau should republish tables
_ issued by other bureaus unless they be out
_ of print or not easily accessible. Pages
163-174 and 190-224 give the well-known
‘ geodetic and astronomical tables issued by
the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and others
are taken from the publications of the Corps
of Engineers. Of the 168 pages of tables
_ only 24 appear to have been prepared by
_ the Geological Survey. Table XI., for the
reduction of stadia readings, gives merely
differences of altitude, the reduction to the
horizontal being only mentioned in the four
— lines of text on page 93, where it is said
_ “tables for this reduction are to be found in
% Bulletin.’ We know, however, of no au-
thor of this name who has published stadia
tables.
Still more difficult is it to understand
why a government bureau should republish
set of logarithmic tables prepared by a
reign author, thus committing a moral if
4
SCIENCE.
465
not a legal piracy. Pages 232-298 consti-
tute a reprint of the well-known five-place
tables of F. G. Gauss, which are for sale in
all bookstores. If the slightest improve-
ment in type or method of arrangement
had been introduced some excuse might be
seen for this procedure, but as a matter of
fact the type employed is far inferior to the
original, while the black rules between the
columns will prove an injury to the eyes of
all who make use of the tables. Moreover,
the marks indicating whether the last deci-
mal figures have been increased or not are
in all cases omitted; the reprint is thus
rendered a most unsatisfactory counterfeit
of the excellent original.
This Manual of Topographic Methods is
offered for sale by the Geological Survey at
one dollar per copy. It isan advantage for
many persons to be able to buy a govern-
ment publication, instead of attempting to
beg it through a member of Congress, but
in this case it is to be regretted that the
value of the contents is so much less than
the price demanded. Asa presentation of
actual field methods, as a manual for the
instruction of the employees of the Geological
Survey, and as a contribution to science,
this volume occupies a low plane compared
to what should be expected from a bureau
that has done and is doing topographic
work of high excellence.
MANSFIELD MERRIMAN.
LEHIGH UNIVERSITY.
Degeneration. By Max Norpav. New York,
D. Appleton & Co. 1895. 8vo. Pp.
560 + xiii. Price, $3.50.
This isan English translation from the
second edition of the original German, the
first edition of which was published in
1893, and a French translation of which ap-
peared in 1894.
The author is a pupil of Lombroso, to
whom he dedicates his work, and he states
that its object is to apply the methods em-
466
ployed by the modern Italian school in the
study of weak, imperfect, degenerate men
as found among the criminal and mentally
disordered classes, to the identification of
degenerates among modern authors and
artists. Such degenerates, he declares,
manifest the same mental characteristics,
and, for the most part, the same somatic
features, as do criminals, prostitutes and
lunatics.
The physical characteristics, or ‘stig-
mata,’ as they are called, of degeneracy in
man consist of various malformations which
have been described and classified by Morel,
Lombroso and others, and which are relied
upon to some extent in the diagnosis of
doubtful cases of insanity, especially in
criminals.
The mental stigmata of degeneracy are
also, In many respects, well known, and
consist in mental asymmetry, more or less
lack of the sense of morality, excessive
emotionalism, or its converse, 7. e., abnormal
apathy and sluggishness, morbid despond-
ency, incapacity for continued attention,
and lack of will power, tendency to ramb-
ling revery, mysticism, intense egotism, ab-
normal sexual instincts, ete.
Nordau distinguishes between the hysteri-
cal and the degenerate, applying the former
term to the admirers and followers of the
latter. In his sense there are quite as
many hysterical males as females. He is
not a physician, and his ideas of hysteria do
not precisely correspond with those of the
ordinary practitioner ; he is a literary critic
who has made a special study of morbid
mental phenomena and attempts to apply
this knowledge to the elucidation of the
characteristics of certain forms of modern
art and literature with which he is remark-
ably familiar. He takes up in succession
the impressionists, the mystics, the Pre-Ra-
phaelists, the symbolists and the decadents
and esthetes, discussing Ruskin, Holman,
Hunt, Rossetti, Swinburne, Morris, Ver-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 17.
laine, Mallarmé, Tolstoi, Wagner, Péladan,
Maeterlinck, Baudelaire, Oscar Wilde, Ib-
sen, Zola, Nietzsche and many others. The_
only illustration of degeneracy in a scienti-
fic man which he gives is Zollner. His
criticisms of these are by no means scien-
tifically impartial; they are at times almost
vituperative, but they are in the main just,
and substantiated by his quotations, and
his strong expressions of condemnation and
disgust will in the majority of cases meet
with sympathy on the part of an intelligent
reader, even if he does find some of the ad-
jectives too sweeping and unqualified.
The chief defect of his work considered
from the scientific point of view is its want
of logical order ; it may almost be said to be
composed of two different works, composed
in two different moods, one of which was
strongly pessimistic, the other more calm
and impartial ; the first an eloquent appeal
to the emotions, the second addressed
rather to the reason, and these two parts
are so arranged and mixed that it is neces-
sary to read the book from cover to cover
and to rearrange and classify the matter in
one’s own mind, before one can be reason-
ably sure that he knows the views of the
author, and this is the more necessary be-
cause the book has no index. For exam-
ple, the first chapter entitled ‘The Dusk of
the Nations,’ is an eloquent piece of pessi-
mism, yet Nordau is by no means a pessi-
mist; in fact, he considers pessimism as one
of the stigmata of degeneration, and the
reader after finishing the first chapter
should next read the last two chapters,
which relate to the prognosis and treatment
of the disorder under discussion, in which
chapters the author points out that the
symptoms which he has described pertain
mainly to the scum or froth and to the dregs
of population, that the great mass of the
people are sound, that the degenerates can-
not maintain themselves in the struggle for
existence, and that humanity as a whole is
APRIL 26, 1895.]
not yet senile. A degenerate organism
ean transmit to its offspring the morbid
peculiarities, but, as a rule, the stock soon
dies out.
In like manner, mysticism is treated with
considerable detail as a pathological phe-
nomenon, without a hint that it is ever
anything else, and it is only in a succeeding
chapter that we are told that ‘ Mysticism
is the habitual condition of the human race,
and in no way an eccentric disposition of
mind,” and that the difference between
what may be termed normal and patholog-
ical mysticism is that “the healthy man is
in a condition to obtain sharply defined
presentations from his own immediate per-
ceptions, and to comprehend their real con-
nection. The mystic, on the contrary,
mixes his ambiguous, cloudy, half-formed
liminal representations with his immediate
perceptions, which are thereby disturbed
and obscured.”
In his fourth chapter the author discusses
the causes of the disorder, summing them
up as alcohol and tobacco, the growth of
cities, and excessive fatigue due to the great
increase in the number of sense impressions,
perceptions and motor impulses which are
experienced in a given unit of time. His
argument from the supposed increase of in-
sanity has no sound basis, for there is no
good evidence that it has increased, and on
this point the recent report of the General
Board of Commissioners in Lunacy for Scot-
land is very satisfactory. The argument
that the present generation is aging much
‘more rapidly than the preceding one be-
cause there are more deaths from heart dis-
ease, apoplexy, etc., now than formerly is
also fallacious. Deaths from all the causes
which chiefly affect persons over fifty years
of age are becoming more frequent, because
the proportion of persons over fifty years of
age is becoming larger, and the death rates
of children are becoming smaller.
_ His therapeutics are not very definite,
SCIENCE.
467
being mainly the promotion of education,
the condemnation of works trading on un-
chastity, and the branding of the pornog-
raphist with infamy. This is rather the
treatment of a symptom than of the disease
itself.
The real problem of dealing with the de-
generate, and of checking their increase,
is no doubt mainly connected with the con-
ditions of city life and the increasing use of
mechanism, and is to be solved by changes
in municipal organization adapted to the
new conditions of the day, combined with
intelligent direction of the work of private
associations of various kinds.
The work of Nordau should be carefully
read by every one who is interested in so-
cial progress; the translation is excellent,
and it is a book well calculated to make
one think. His dogmatic statements as to
the mechanism of nerve cells in mental
phenomena are, for the most part, pure hy-
potheses based on materialism and taking
no account of the persistence of individual
consciousness, but they are in many ways
suggestive and interesting; and while one
must object to some of his premises, his
conclusions with regard to the majority of
the authors whom he discusses will proba-
bly be accepted by the majority of persons
who are competent to form a definite opin-
ion on the subject.
J.S. Bruures.
Darwinism and Race Progress. By Joun
Berry Haycrart, M. D., D. Sc., F. R.
8. E., Professor of Physiology, University
College, Cardiff. London, Swan, Son-
neschein & Co. New York, Charles
Scribner’s Sons. 1895.
This is an eminently sensible book, and
besides its scientific interest it deserves the
study of social reformers and_ religious
teachers. Dr. Haycraft holds that the
muscles and brains of a race are not bound
to decay, but that the human species in
468
civilized countries is in fact deteriorating
because we are breeding from inferior types.
The increased knowledge of recent years is
being applied to free mankind from those
hardships and diseases which have beset
them. But although we may improve an
individual during his lifetime, both in phys-
ical capacity and mental and moral power,
this improvement is not transmitted in any
appreciable degree to the offspring, who
have therefore to begin again where the
parents began. Men can leave their full
purses to their sons, but no legacies of
mental and moral improvement, or not
much. Therefore the action of healthy sur-
roundings will never produce a robust race
out of a feeble race, nor will the action of
the best educational system ever devised
develop a race of wise men out of a race of
fools.
This leads our author to a dicsussion of
the question whether acquired characters
are inherited, or whether the reproductive
cells remain unaffected by local changes in
the body cells, and he sides with Darwin
and Weismann rather than with Lamarck
and Herbert Spencer. Racial change is
brought about by selection, 2. e., by the death
or nonproductiveness of certain sorts of in-
dividuals, so that the others alone remain ;
and if this remnant is organically superior,
then the next generation will be so. But
at present we are not perpetuating our best.
The gardener perfects his stock by selecting
seed only from the best; and improved
breeds of cattle are produced in the same
way—not by any new method of ventila-
ting the cowshed, nor by any freshly discoy-
ered patent fodder—yet we foolishly fancy
we can regenerate society by better food
and improved dwellings. We must resort
to selection rather. Preventive medicine
is saving us from small-pox, measles, ty-
phoid fever, ete.; but these diseases previ-
ously exercised a selective influence to carry
off the feeblest, who are now preserved to
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 17.
become race-producers. Leprosy also ex-
terminates the unhealthy, and must be
looked upon as a friend to humanity. The
germs of phthisis or scrofula are our racial
friends. Sufferers from phthisis are prone
to other diseases as well, and are unsuited
for the battle of life, yet because of a certain
attractiveness of personal appearance they
easily marry, and they leave a large pro-
geny. It follows that by exterminating the
bacillus of consumption and giving this deli-
cate and fragile type of persons an adyan-
tage in the struggle of life we may imperil
the well-being of the future of the race.
Even drink may be looked upon as a selec-
tive agency, constantly thinning the ranks
of those who are weak enough by nature to”
give way to it, and leaving unharmed those
with healthy tastes and sound moral con-
stitutions. Besides the diseased and the
drunken there are the incorrigibly criminal,
the class whose feet take by nature the
crooked path, and who at present are al-
lowed to transmit the taint and the ten-
dency.
Whatis the remedy ? The argument might
seem to give a moral sanction to the broad-
cast scattering of the germs of disease, and
to the leaving of unlimited whisky on the
doorsteps of our weaker neighbors. But
no! other ways are open to us. Asregards
drink, indeed, Dr. Hayecraft would ‘not im-
pose any other restraining influence than a
man’s own conscience and sense of self-re-
spect. But as regards persons tainted with
disease, he does not suggest any such merci-
less measure as a lethal chamber for them or
their offspring. He is content that preven-
tive medicine should continue its work, so
beneficent to the individual ; but he thinks
we ought to replace one selective agency by
another. There is already a widespread
feeling against the marriage of persons with
a distinct family history of insanity. He
would try to strengthen that feeling and
extend it to other forms of weakness and
7
APRIL 26, 1895.]
disease. In the course of time public opin-
ion might sanction legislation of a prohibi-
tive character. As to inveterate criminals,
we must bring our minds to the remedy of
the perpetual confinement of the irreclaim-
able, so that they may die out and leave
no successors.
After discussing the competition of brain
against brain and the fact that property is
not always acquired by the most capable,
_ and considering the effect of modern demo-
eratic attemps to equalize the struggle, as
also the question of the relative sterility of
the capables and the possible swamping of
the capables by the incapables, our author
says he cannot doubt that by selection Eng-
land, in a hundred years, might have its
average man and woman as well endowed
in body and mind as are the best of us to-
day.
It should be mentioned that Dr. Hay-
craft has a high regard for the deserving
poor and wishes to see the criminal and va-
grant class separated from them in our
poor-houses and treated differently.
Geo. Sr. Crarr.
CARDIFF, WALES.
A Short History of Chemistry. By F. P.
VENABLE, PH.D. 12 mo. Pp. viii.,
163. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co. 1894.
Price, $1.00.
What may be called the historical habit
of mind is of great value to the student of
any science. Many things are constantly
met with which can only be understood in
the light of their historical setting. This
‘is especially true in the case of a science
which has seen so many vicissitudes and so
many changes in its point of view as has
chemistry. For this reason a book which
ives a clear, concise outline of the historical
elopment of the science is sure to find
an extensive field of usefulness.
- The present author follows, in general,
the division into periods as given by Kopp,
SCIENCE.
469
but discusses the periods of Medical Chem-
istry and of Phlogiston together under the
head of ‘ Qualitative Chemistry ’ and adds a
period to which the name of Structural
Chemistry is given. The opinion is ex-
pressed that this period has already passed
and that we are entering upon a new
and different phase of development for
the science. His characterization of the
present tendencies of the science is, how-
ever, necessarily vague and unsatisfactory.
The book is well written and there ap-
pear to be few errors. On page 141 the
value of 15.96 for the atomic weight of
oxygen is based, incorrectly, on the author-
ity of Stas, instead of on that of Dumas
and of Erdmann and Marchand.
For any student who desires more than
a very elementary knowledge of the science,
the book must, of course, be considered as
an outline which is to be filled out by ex-
tensive reading of larger works. But,
whether used by itself or in connection
with other books or lectures, it is hoped
that a book which is so easily accessible to
every one will give a new impetus to a
phase of chemical study which has been too
much neglected. W. A. Noyes.
RosE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE.
A Laboratory Manual containing directions for
a course of experiments in Organic Chemistry
systematically arranged to accompany Rem-
sen’s Organic Chemistry by W. R. Orn-
poRFF. Boston, Heath & Co. 1894.
As indicated by the title, this manual
contains directions for the experiments in
Remsen’s Organic Chemistry in a form suit-
able for students in the laboratory. The
page being printed on but one side, ample
room is left for the student’s observations
and, as the text-book is not open before him,
he is led to observe for himself, instead of
merely trying to see what the text-book says
heshould. Asstated by Professor Remsen in
the preface, ‘Great care has been taken to
470
determine the best condition for each ex-
periment, and in many cases the directions
given are undoubtedly better than those
given in my (R’s) book.” Frequently,
however, the only difference in the direc-
tions is that in the text-book they are more
or less general, whereas in the manual they
are given in great detail and, though the
student may thus fail less frequently the
first time he tries to make a substance, the
educational value is diminished. Often
more is learned by failure than success.
The student must determine the necessary
conditions himself. Thus he becomes self-
reliant and learns to think chemically.
This fault of the manual is to some extent
compensated by the questions asked on
almost every page. On the whole, the book
will be found a valuable aid, especially in
those laboratories in which the instructor
can not devote much time to each student.
Fevtrx LENGFELD.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
NOTES AND NEWS.
INVESTIGATION OF THE GOLD AND COAL RE-
SOURCES OF ALASKA.
ConereEss at its last session ordered a
special investigation of the gold and coal
resources of Alaska, appropriating $5,000
therefor. The investigation will be made
under the direction of the U. 8. Geological
Survey, and will be under the immediate
charge of Dr. George F. Becker, the well
known gold expert. With Dr. Becker will
be Dr. Wm. H. Dall, paleontologist, who
has a superior knowledge of the geography
and the general geology of the region.
These experts and a single geologic assistant
will comprise the party.
The party will leave Washington City,
May 15, and it is proposed, with the sum
available, to spend three months in actual
field work, spending a month in each of
three distinct districts along the Alaskan
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 17.
coast. Work will be begun in the Sitka
area, where both gold and coal are known
to occur. Transportation into and about
the various inlets and bays to the north
and west of Sitka will be furnished, through
the courtesy of Secretary Herbert of the
Navy, by the U.S. S. Pinta, which will be
stationed in those waters. From the Sitka
region the party will go to Kadiak Island
and Cook’s Inlet by mail steamer. In this
region both gold and coal will be looked for
also. The district to be visited last is
Shumagin, to be reached by mail steamer
from Kadiak. In the last named region,
as in the other areas, gold and coal will
be the main objects of inquiry, though the
district is otherwise of very considerable
geologic interest on account of its fossil re-
mains and the presence of an active voleano.
The search for coal is one of especial in-
terest to the Navy Department; if coal
suitable for use as fuel in the war vessels
and revenue cutters in the Pacific were
found to be available in quantities, it would
be of incalculable advantage to the Govern-
ment.
It will not be feasible with the limited
fund available to carry this investigation of
gold and coal resources as far as might be
desired. There is demand, for example,
for an investigation of the gold placers of
the Yucon river, but to do this work eftee-
tively the geologist will have to remain in
the Yucon region through one summer and
through the ensuing winter.
A REDFIELD MEMORIAL,
THE botanical section of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia, which
had under consideration the subject of a
monument commemorative of the services
to botanical science of the late John H.
Redfield, Conservator of the herbarium of
the Academy, has issued a cireular, saying:
“Tt has been decided that no better
monument to the memory of John H. Red-
‘
APRIL 26, 1895. ]
field could be erected than to arrange for
completing and caring for the work he
loved, and to which he gave freely so many
years of his life—namely, the Herbarium
of the Academy of Natural Sciences.
Mainly through his disinterested labors, it
_ stands to-day scarcely second to any in the
_ United States, containing, besides many
unnamed, over 35,000 named species of
flowering plants and ferns, the half of
_ which have been verified and fastened
down.
‘ “No one can probably be found to give
_ the years of time he so freely gave. In
order to carry on the work, and add to the
collection, as exploring expeditions afford
the opportunity, it has been proposed to
establish a Redfield Memorial Herbarium
Fund.
_ “Mr. Redfield’s will provides that his
herbarium, minerals, shells and scientific
_ works shall be sold to help the herbarium,
thus furnishing a nucleus for the proposed
fund. It is in mind to raise $20,000, but
the interest of any sum that may be con-
tributed can at once be made available.
} “Statements will be furnished from time
_ to time to contributors, keeping them in-
_ formed of the progress of the contributions.
_ Checks may be made payable to the order
_ of Thomas Meehan, Director, or Steward-
_ son Brown, Treasurer, and mailed to either
3 at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Nine-
F teenth and Race streets, Philadelphia.”
|
|
:
a
THE MOTION OF CLOUDS.
_ Ar a meeting of the Royal Meteorological
Society, of London, on March 20th, Mr. W.
N. Shaw, F..R.S., delivered a lecture on
_ *The Motion of Clouds considered with ref-
erence to their mode of formation,’ which
was illustrated by experiments. The ques-
tion proposed for consideration was how far
the apparent motion of a cloud was a satis-
factory indication of the motion of the air
‘in which the cloud is formed. The moun-
SCIENCE.
471
tain cloud cap was cited as an instance of a
stationary cloud formed in air moving
sometimes with great rapidity; ground fog,
thunder clouds and cumulus clouds were
also referred to in this connection. The
two causes of formation of cloud were next
considered, viz.: (1) the mixing of masses
of air at different temperatures, and (2) the
dynamical cooling of air by the reduction
of its pressure without supplying heat from
the outside. The two methods of formation
were illustrated by experiments.
A sketch of the supposed motion of air
near the centre of a cyclone showed the
probability of the clouds formed by the
mixing of air being carried along with the
air after they formed, while when cloud is
being formed by expansion circumstances
connected with the formation of drops of
water on the nuclei to be found in the air,
and the maintenance of the particles in a
state of suspension, make it probable that
the apparent motion of such a cloud is a bad
indication of the motion of the air. After
describing some special cases, Mr. Shaw re-
ferred to the meteorological effects of the
thermal disturbance which must be intro-
duced by the condensation of water vapor;
and he attributed the atmospheric disturb-
ances accompanying tropical rains to this
cause. The difference in the character of
nuclei for the deposit of water drops was
also pointed out and illustrated by the ex-
hibition of colored halos formed under
special conditions when the drops were
sufficiently uniform in size.
THE DISCRIMINATION OF COLORS.
Proressor ARTHUR K6niG (Zeitschrift fiir
Psychologie, Feb., 1895) has calculated, from
experiments previously published, the num-
ber of hues or colors that can be distin-
guished in the spectrum. Differences in
hue cannot be perceived beyond 4 = 655 py
and beyond 4 = 430 yu; between these
limits the normal eye can distinguish about
472
160 hues. According to K6nig, the dichro-
matic eye (green or red blind) can distin-
guish nearly the same number of hues, its
accuracy being greater than that of the
normal eye in certain regions. The seven
colors inherited from Newton should be
abandoned. Physically, any three wave-
lengths, sufficiently separated, suffice to
produce all the colors; psychologically, we
an distinguish about 160 hues, or, as Leo-
nardo da Vinci stated, there are four dis-
tinct colors—red, yellow, green and blue.
In the same paper K6nig caleulates that
about 660 degrees of intensity or brightness
can be distinguished between the light that
is just visible and the light so intense as to
be blinding.
THE KARAKORAM HIMALAYAS.
In a lecture before the Imperial Institute
of London, Mr. William Conway described
the expedition to the Karakoram Himalayas
made in 1892 under the auspices of the
Royal Geographical Society, the Royal So-
ciety, the British Associotion, and the Goy-
ernment of India. The party consisted of
the Hon. C. G. Bruce, Mr. A. D. M’Cor-
mack, the lecturer, and two others, with an
Alpine guide. The lecturer stated, accord-
ing to the report in the London Times, that
starting from Abbottabad, they went to
Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir, thence by
the Burzil pass to Astor and Bungi, in the
Indus valley. The party followed the road
to Gilgit, and a month was then spent in ex-
ploring the glaciers at the head of the Bagrot
valley, and the great peaks in the neighbor-
hood of Rakipushi. Returning to Gilgit
they ascended the Hunza-Nagar valley, and
visited the towns. From that point two
long expeditions were made into the snowy
region to the south and southeast before
pushing forward to Hispar, which was at
the foot of the longest glacier in the world
outside the polar region. Dividing them-
selves into two parties, they made the first
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 17.
known passage of Europeans up the Nushik
pass, and the first definitely recorded pas-
sage of the Hispar pass. The two parties
united at Askole, in Baltistan, and, proceed=
ing up the Braldo valley, arrived at the
foot of the remarkable Baltoro glacier.
Having forced their way to the very head
of the glacier, they camped for two nights
at an altitude of 20,000 ft. The Pioneer
peak, which was 3,000 ft. above the camp,
was also climbed, thus making, it was said,
the highest ascent yet authentically re-
corded. Returning to Askole, they crossed
the Skoro pass to Shigar and Skardo,
whence they rode up the Indus valley to
Leh, the capital of Ladak, or Western
Tibet. The Zoji pass to Kashmir was tray-
ersed, and the party returned from Srina-
gar to England.
* GENERAL.
Proressor JAMES D. Dana died at New
Haven, on April 14th, at the age of eighty-
two years.
TuE sixty-fifth meeting of the British As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science
will commence on Wednesday, the 11th of
September, under the presidency of Sir
Douglas Galton, well known for his works
upon sanitation, and as an adviser of the
Government in matters of sanitary engi-
neering. An invitation is issued to the
philosophers of England and other coun-
tries, by the Secretary, to support this
meeting by personal assistance and written
contributions. Americans who have been
the guests of the British Association know
how admirable the arrangements are for
the conduct of these meetings and how, by
invitation to the General Committee and
the Sectional Committees, a visitor from @
foreign country is soon made to feel that he
is a part of this great scientific organism.
At the last meeting of the Victoria Insti-
tute, of London, Sir George Stokes, Bart, F.
R. S., in the Chair, papers by Sir J. W.
APRIL 26, 1895.]
| Dawson, C. M. G., F. R. S., Professors E.
_ Hull, F. R. 8., Parker and Duns, the Rev.
_G. Whidborne, and Mr. J. Slater, F. C.S.,
} were read upon the questions in regard to
natural selection aid evolution, treated by
Professor Huxley in his recent address on
; ‘The Past and Present.’
_ Ow May 4th the Association for the Edu-
cation of Women is to hold a general meet-
ing in the Schools, Oxford, to consider the
i question of a petition to the University for
_ the admission of women to the B. A. degree.
Dr. SHERRINGTON, now Superintendent of
the Brown Institution, London, has been
appointed to the George Holt chair of Physi-
Biocy at Liverpool, vacant by the removal
of Professor Gotch to Oxford.
Dr. H. WeseEr, Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Géttingen, has accepted
a call to the University of Strassbourg, and
Professor Hilbert, of Kénigsberg, has been
ed to the vacant chair in Gottingen.
Dr. E. R. L. Goutp has accepted a call
to the Professorship of Statistics in the Uni-
versity of Chicago.
_ Mr. Treopore T. Groom, of St. John’s
Jollege, Cambridge, has been appointed
Professor of Natural History in the Royal
icultural College, Cirencester, succeed-
ing the late Professor Harker.
é Dr. Jowannes Brummer, Professor of
_ Agriculture in the University of Jena, died
ntly at the age of forty-three years.
Tue death is announced of the Irish
Diistoratict, Mr. A. G. More.
_ Tue Appalachian Mountain Club, of Bos-
_ ton, announces’ the following excursions for
1895: April 19, Long Walk; May 11, May
Walk—Nobscot Hill and Wayside Inn;
May 30, Mt. Tom and Mt. Holyoke; July
1-8, Field Meeting—Seal Harbor, Mt. Des-
ert; August, A probable excursion to the
Selkirk mountains in British Columbia, oc-
eupying an entire month.
SCIENCE.
473
A PsycnotocicaL InpEx, being a bibli-
ography of the literature of Psychology and
cognate subjects for 1894, has been pub-
lished by Macmillan & Co., as a supplement
to the Psychological Review. The index has
been compiled by Mr. Howard C. Warren,
of Princeton College, and Dr. Livingston
Farrand, of Columbia College. 1312 titles
are given, distributed as follows: General
135, Genetic, Comparative and Individual
Psychology 259, Anatomy and Physiology
of the Nervous System 190, Sensation 107,
Consciousness, Attention and Inhibition
176, Feeling 50, Movement and Volition
116, Abnormal 278. —
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
THE MINNESOTA ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCI-
ENCES, MINNEAPOLIS. JOINT MEETING
WITH THE ST. PAUL ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE.
March 6th, in the rooms of the St. Paul
Commercial Club.
The Physical Features of the Lake of the Woods:
Proressor Conway MacMitxan, State
Botanist.
Psychic Effects of the Weather: Epwarp S.
Brats, Observer U. 8. Weather Bureau,
Minneapolis.
Geology and Flora of the Mountain Region of
Northwestern Montana: D. R. McGuynts,
Secretary St. Paul Commercial Club.
April 2d in the Public Library, Minne-
apolis.
Fatigue; its Cause and Social, Religious,
Economie and Educational Aspects: H. 8.
Baker, Pu. D., Principal of the Jeffer-
son School. St. Paul.
Some Queer Forms of Shellfish: Prorgssor H.
L. Oszorn, Hamline University, St. Paul.
C. W. HAtt, Secretary.
NEW YORK BRANCH OF THE AMERICAN FOLK-
LORE SOCIETY.
On the evening of Saturday, April the 6th,
the annual meeting of the New York Branch
474
of the American Folk-Lore Society was held
with the following result:
The officers elected for the season of
1895-96 are as follows: President, Mr. B.
Francis Hyde; First Vice-President, Mr.
George B. Grinnell; Secretary and Treasurer,
Mr. William Burnet Tuthill; as members
of the Executive Council, Mrs. Henry
Draper, Mrs. Mary J. Field and Mrs. E.
Francis Hyde. The offices of Second Vice-
President and the fourth lady member of
the Executive Council were not filled, the
places being held vacant for the action of
the Executive Council.
It was determined to hold the final meet-
ing of the season on the evening of Tuesday,
May the 7th, at the Hotel Waldorf. The
speaker for the evening will be Dr. Mat-
thews, of Washington, the subject being
Navahoe Myths, illustrated by phonograph.
It is also the intention of the Council to
have four meetings during the coming sea-
son; three of them to be held at the Hotel
Waldorf and one at the Museum of Natural
History. At the meetings held at the Hotel
Waldorf the members of the Society will be
entertained after the reading of the paper.
Wma. B. Turmi11, Secretary.
THE NEW YORK MINERALOGICAL CLUB.
At the last meeting of the New York
Mineralogical Club the following officers
were elected for the ensuing year: Presi-
dent, George F’. Kunz; Secretary, Professor
Daniel 8. Martin; Treasurer, J. W. Freck-
leton; Executive Committee, E. Scherni-
kow, Dr. E. 8. Arnold and Professor A. H.
Chester; -Curators, Professor R. P. Whit-
field, Gilman §S. Stanton and William
Niven ; Committee on Admissions, J. Mc-
Carthy and Frederick Kato; Committee
on Executions, J. S. Walker, Professor D.
S. Martin and Frederick Kato; Delegates
to Scientific Alliance, George F. Kunz,
Professor D. 8. Martin and J. W. Schoon-
maker.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 17.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, APRIL.
Recent Researches on the Spectra of the Planets,
II.: H. C. Vocet. 7
A summary of recent work on Jupiter,
Saturn and Uranus. Photographic obser-
vations reveal no deviation in their spectra
from that of the sun, but in the less re-
frangible region bands due to the absorp-
tion in the atmospheres of the planets haye
been recorded visually. A comparison of
the visual spectrum of Uranus as mapped
by Keeler and by Vogel shows little varia-
tion. Repeated observations on the red
spot of Jupiter indicate no difference be-
tween its spectrum and that of the belts.
From a study of the red region, the satel-
lites probably have atmospheres similar to
that of the primary. The spectra of Sat-
urn and the ans of the ring on each side
are identical in the more refrangible por-
tion. That there is no absorption band at
A 618 py indicates the absence of an at-
mosphere around the rings.
On the Periodic Changes of the Variable Star
|Z Herculis: N. ©. Dune.
After discussing various observations
upon this variable and giving its ephemeris,
the writer concludes that Z Herculis is a
connecting link between the algol and the
Y Cygni types, differing from algol in hay-
ing both components bright, and from )
Cygni in that the components are of un-
equal brightness. It consists of two stars
of equal size, one of which is twice as
bright as the other. The stars revolve in
3 days, 28 hours, 48 minutes, 30 seconds,
in an elliptical orbit whose semi-major axis
is six times the diameter of the stars. The
plane of the orbit passes through the sun.
Preliminary Table of Solar Spectrum Wave-
Length, IV.: H. A. RowLanp.
The table is continued from 4 4266 to 4414,
T. Andromede: EH. C. PICKERING.
A study of later photographs indicate that
PRIL 26, 1895.]
the period of this variable, which was 281
days during 1891-1894, has changed for
A photometric observation before and
after eclipse, compared with the second
satellite.
ectrum of Mars: Lewis E. JEWELL.
_ A spectroscopic study of the water vapor
of the earth’s atmosphere shows that, unless
ars is greater than that in the earth’s at-
mosphere, it is useless to look for it there,
vith our present instruments. The chances
or detecting oxygen and chlorophyl are
etter.
On a New Method of Mapping the Solar Cor-
ona: GrorGE E. Har.
A method for using the differential bo-
lometer. Evidence is offered that the heat
radiation of the corona could be differen-
vely on different parts of the coronal image,
the galvanometer would indicate the vary-
g radiation of heat intensity. Methods
e also proposed for reducing the galva-
eter readings to a form suitable for com-
son with actual photographs of the
A translation from the Zeitschrift fir
nstrumentenkunde, describing a modifica-
ion of the Littron spectroscope.
linor Contributions and Notes.
Photographic Correcting Lens for Visual Tele-
scopes: JAMES E. KEELER.
he Color of Sirius in Ancient Times: W. TT.
In the Variability of Es.-Birm. 281: T.E.
Esper
SCIENCE.
475
The Displacement of Spectral Lines Caused by
the Rotation of a Planet: James E. KEEver.
Dr. Pulfrich’s Modification of the Littrow Spec-
troscope.
A list of the titles of recent publications
on astrophysical and allied subjects appear-
ing since the last number is a feature of
each issue.
THE PHYSICAL REVIEW, MARCH-APRIL, 1895.
Tue leading article in this number of
the Review is one by Dr. A. S. Mackenzie,
On the attractions of Crystalline and Iso-
tropic Masses at Small Distances The primary
object of the paper is to give in de-
tail the methods and results of an investi-
gation made for the purpose of determining
whether, within the errors of observation,
there is any deviation from the law of New-
ton in the case of attracting erystalline
matter with reference to its optic axis, and
the author gives also the results of some
experiments made with a view to testing
the application of the same law in the case
of isotropic matter at small distances.
Physicists do not yet fully appreciate the
value of the ingenious device suggested by
Professor Boys through which they have
lately been able to use quartz fibres, which
furnish a mode of suspending small masses
far ahead of anything before made use of
in stability or constancy of torsional re-
sistance. Like many other apparently mi-
nor discoveries or inventions, the introduc-
tion of the quartz fiber has greatly enlarged
the opportunities of the experimentalist, in
that it provides a ready means of measur-
ing forces so minute as to have been thought
until recently quite beyond our reach. The
solution of problems relating to near at-
tractions has especially been forwarded by
this device, as Professor Boys has himself
shown in several able and important inves-
tigations. In the paper under consideration
Dr. Mackenzie describes the apparatus used
in studying the attraction of crystalline
476
masses. Itis simple but effective, and so
delicate in its indications that the utmost
care was necessary to avoid interference for
external causes, often difficult to control.
Full details are given, as they are of great
interest, especially to those who contem-
plate the use of a quartz torsion fibre. It
is interesting to note that the author was
never able, throughout a long series of ex-
periments, to control absolutely the zero
point of his balance. Although quartz is
enormously superior to any other suspen-
sion thus far proposed, it is still defective
in this respect. For some cause which Dr.
Mackenzie is unable to give, the zero was
constantly shifting. He does not clearly
say whether this partakes of the nature of
a ‘drift’ in one direction or not. In a long
series of experiments, made by direction of
the writer of this notice, for the purpose of
trying to improve the existing form of the
vertical force magnetometer, quartz fibres
were used. Although apparently well pro-
tected from convection currents and changes
in temperature, the mirror attached to them
was never actually at rest. When this shift-
ing and drifting is small, as it usually is,
and observations are of the nature of those
described by Dr. Mackenzie, that is, not in
themselves extending over long periods, the
error arising from it may be readily and
correctly eliminated.
The apparatus used for observing the at-
traction of isotropic masses was of the same
character, and similar to that used by Pro-
fesser Boys. The conclusion reached, the ex-
perimental results being inagreement within
one or two-tenths of one per cent., is that
neither in the case of crystalline nor isotropic
masses was any deviation from the law of
Newton detected. The author fails to note
the very ingenious and interesting method of
attacking the problem of the attraction of
_ erystalline masses proposed by Poynting in
his Adams Prize Hssay on the Density of
the Harth. Poynting proposes to test the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 17.
question of there being different proper-
ties as to attraction along different axes of
erystals by the directive action which must
exist when one sphere of a crystal is in the
field ofanother. He made some experiments
along that line, and his work probably pre-
ceded by a year or two that of Dr. Macken-
zie. At the present moment, with library
out of reach, I am unable to say whether
he has published any further results.
The Influence of Temperature on the Trans-
parency of Solutions, by E. 8. Nichols and
Mary C. Spencer, is another prominent
article of the Review. Transparency to
various wave-lengths was tested and a num-
ber of color solutions were examined. There
are also papers on the Electric Conductivity
of Certain Salt Solutions, by A. C. Mae-
Gregory, a continuation of the paper on
Forces between Fine Solid Particles totally
Immersed in Liquids and among the minor
contributions is one interesting and useful
on the Variation of Internal Resistance of a
Voltaic Cell with Current, by Professor
Carhart. T. Cos
NEW BOOKS.
Die Chemie des Chlorophylls. i. MARcHLEW-
skI. Hamburg und Leipzig, Leopold
Voss. 1895. Pp.iv+82. M. 2.
Les Aurores polaires. ALFRED ANGOT. Paris,
Felix Alean. 1895. Pp. vii+ 316.
Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Psychologie. Jo-
HANNES REHMKE. Hamburg und Leipzig,
Leopold Voss. 1894. Pp. 582. M. 10.
Towa Geological Survey, Vol. LIT. Des Moines,
Published for the lowa Geological Survey.
1895. Pp. 501.
Magnetismus und Hypnotismus. G. W. GESs-
MAN. Vienna, A. Hartleben. 2d edi-
tion. Pp. xiv + 205.
Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the Uni-
versity of Upsala. Edited by Hs. S70GREN.
Upsala, Almqvist & Wiksells. 1893-1894.
Pp. 95, 293.
Cae NCE.
} New SERIES. Fripay,
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May 3, 1895.
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=
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EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE : S. NEwcomB, Mathematics ; R. S. WoopWARD, Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, As-
tronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics ; R. H. TourRsToN, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
JOSEPH LE ConrTE, Geology; W. M. DAvis, Physiography; O. C. MARSH, Paleontology; W. K.
BROOKS, Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; N. L. BRITTon,
Botany ; HENRY F. OsBoRN, General Biology ; H. P. Bowpircu, Physiology ;
J.S. Brnuines, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ;
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, May 3, 1895.
CONTENTS:
National Academy of Sciences. Report of the Wat-
son Trustees on the Award of the Watson Medal to
Seth C. Chandler: S. NEwcoms, B. A. GOULD,
477
Summary of Conclusions of a Report by Drs. D. H.
Bergey, 8. Weir Mitchell and J. S Billings upon
‘The Composition of Expired Air and its Effects
DERE MURAL TASC? os 6 oo s< ciclo ermiacael aie sia 481
American Metrological Society: J. K. R......2.50. 484
The International Mathematical Congress: GEORGE
PE CRTEPAE SUED, © 5 'a.0 0/60. +: «i vigiclastalainieinicininiaie o's 486
Current Notes on Physiography (V.): W. M
_ TE - oe oS SOR RAGRESHGRS «2 Hace Jara aees 487
Current Notes on Anthropology (VII.): D. G.
0 SL AS aes Foc cHicicie Seonte 488
IO NIRA 0 ia.'a's isin v:0;05 0 sintulee sini olett sists 'a 6 489
I RIRIONAD 2 — 5.5.3.0 0 sv sk cusfememne eeawiea mine's 490
The Distribution of Sledges, ete.: Otis T.
MASON.
Beientific Literature :— . 1.2.00. ..ec ccc eeccceeees 490
Geikie’s Life of Ramsay: JosEPH LE CONTE.
MeMurrich’s Invertebrate Morphology: A. 8S.
PACKARD. Vertebrate Zodlogy: C. H. M.
Spalding’s Botany: W.P. Witson.
RIENCE NEWS — . osc c nc cccvcnccccsscccccsens 497
Fossil Vertebrates of Argentina; Variation in
Orabs ; Regression and Organic Stability ; General.
Societies and Academies : — ...+-..020e.eeeeeeees 501
American Geographic Society ; The Biological Soci-
ely of Washington; The Academy of Science of
St. Louis. 7
WBCIENESflc Journals >—.....cceesncscnccccccccces 503
The Botanical Gazette ; The American Naturalist.
IE ola ou, Snare win © sles acanpamernni te ai vicinie 504
MSS. intended for publication and books, ete., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
‘McKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
_ Subscriptions and advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
REPORT OF THE WATSON TRUSTEES ON THE
AWARD OF THE WATSON MEDAL TO
SETH C. CHANDLER.
On the recommendation of the Board of
Trustees of the Watson Fund, the Academy
last year unanimously awarded the Wat-
son medal to Seth C. Chandler, of Cam-
bridge, Mass., for his investigations relative
to variable stars, his discovery of the period
of variation of terrestrial latitudes, and his
researches on the laws of that variation.
It is the pleasant duty of the Trustees to
set forth the grounds on which this award
was recommended.
It is a result of the well-known laws of
dynamics relating to the rotation of a rigid
body, as the earth is assumed to be, upon
its axis, that the poles of the earth may be
determined in two ways. Our globe, being
a spheroid flattened at the poles and pro-
tuberant at the equator, has a certain axis
passing between the points of greatest flat-
tening. This axis has no direct connection
with the rotation of the earth; it would ex-
ist if the latter, retaining its present form,
did not rotate at all. It is called the axis
of figure, being determined altogether by
the shape of the earth.
But the earth has also an axis around
which it rotates. Now, assuming the earth
to be a rigid solid, there is no necessity that
the axis of rotation should correspond to
that of the axis of figure just described.
478
We could take a solid body, pass an axis
through it in any direction, and make it
rotate on that axis.
It was shown by Euler, more than a cen-
tury ago, that if a solid body rotated on an
axis different from that of figure, the posi-
tion of the axis of rotation in the body
would be subject to a slow change, consist-
ing in a constant revolution around the axis
of figure. Were this body the earth, the
latitude of a place, as determined by astro-
nomical observation, would change in the
same way. The time of one revolution of
the pole would depend upon the figure of
the earth. The flattening of the earth is
such that, were it a perfectly rigid body, the
time of revolution would be about 305 days;
that is to say, the north pole would make
its circuit in a period of 305 days.
There being no necessity that the two
poles should coincide, the question was
naturally raised whether, perhaps, there
might actually be such a difference of the
two poles, and, in consequence, a change of
latitude of every place on the earth’s sur-
face having a period of 305 days. The first to
investigate this question with all the refine-
ments of modern astronomy was C. A. F.
Peters, who, half a century ago, was an as-
sistant at the Pulkowa Observatory. In
his classic paper on the parallax of the fixed
stars, one section is devoted to the question
of the variability of the latitude in a period
of 304 days, which, according to the then
accepted value of the flattening of the earth,
would be the time of one revolution of the
poles. He found a coefficient of 0.079,
with a probable error of 0.017. This re-
sult was so extremely minute that it might
have arisen from unavoidable sources of er-
ror; and the conclusion therefore reached
was that if there was any such separation of
the two poles, it was too small to be certainly
detected by the most refined observations.
In 1862 our late fellow member, Profes-
sor Hubbard, of the Naval Observatory,
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 18.
commenced a series of observations with
the prime-vertical transit of that institu-
tion, which would be available for the same
research. They were interrupted after a
little more than a year, by his untimely
death, but were continued four years longer
by his successors. The result was the same
as that reached by Peters; no change hay-
ing a period of 305 days could be detected.
In 1873 the question was investigated by
Nyrén in connection with a longer series of
observations on the latitude of the Pulkowa
Observatory. His results were somewhat dis-
cordant, and the only conclusion that could
be drawn from them was that the variation
could not be certainly detected by these
most refined observations.
Ten years later Nyrén repeated the de-
termination, in connection with his obser-
vations for the determination of the con-
stant of abberation. These observations,
made with the prime-vertical transit, were
earried through with the minutest attention,
and the utmost care to avoid every con-
ceivable source of error. Curious discord-
ances were nevertheless found in the re-
sults for the constant of abberation.
In 1885 Kistner showed that they could
be accounted for by supposing a change
going on in the latitude. But nothing
could be inferred respecting the law or the
cause of the change.
As a result of these investigations, the
coincidence of the earth’s axes of rotation
and of figure has, until within a very few
years, been assumed by astronomers as &
practically established fact; and all their
methods of observation have rested upon
the idea of absolute coincidence. This con-
fidence has not been disturbed until within
a few years, when the question has been
reopened. But it has now apparently been
settled upon a new and firmly established
basis.
Dr. Chandler’s work upon this subject
began with observations made by him in
May 3, 1895.]
1884-85, using a novel form of astronomical
instrument of his own invention. These
observations, continued uninterruptedly for
thirteen months, revealed a progressive
change of a pronounced periodical character
in the instrumental values of the latitude.
In publishing these results in 1885 he an-
nounced his intention to continue the re-
search throughout the remainder of that
year. Yet circumstances prevented him
from carrying out his intention at that time,
and he did not resume his examination of
the subject until six years later. Mean-
‘ while Dr. Kistner, at the Observatory of
Berlin, in 1888, published a memoir on the
Constant of Aberration, as deduced by him
from a series of observations also made in
1884-85, simultaneously with Chandler’s
series, which brought to light anomalies of
an entirely analogous character. Kiustner’s
series was not continuous enough to show
the periodic nature of the phenomenon ;
but, by an exhaustive examination of the
possible subjective sources of error, he
clearly demonstrated that it was no longer
permissible to retain the hypothesis of an
invariable position of the pole, and he
recommended that properly organized ob-
servations at various places be instituted
to settle the question definitely. It was
doubtless this work of Kiistner’s which
compelled the attention of astronomers to
the subject. As a result, by the codpera-
tion of three German observatories, under
the auspices of the International Geodetic
Association, and the independent action of
that at Pulkowa, the fact of the variability
of terrestrial latitude was placed beyond
question, and, by a corresponding series
made at the Sandwich Islands, the further
fact was established that the variable ele-
ment is the position of the axis of rotation
with respect to the earth’s body, and not
its position in space.
It was just before this point that a re-
wal of Chandler’s connection with the
SCIENCE.
479
problem began. The results are published
in a series of eighteen papers in the Astro-
nomical Journal (1891-94), exclusive of a
series of five papers upon a topic closely re-
lated thereto, and involving it; namely,
the abberation-constant, which will be
separately spoken of later.
The keynote of these investigations, and
the undoubted cause of the suecess which
has attended them, lies in the fact that at
the outset he first recognized the necessity
of deliberately disregarding all teachings
of the adopted theory, which had misled
previous investigators, and of examining
the facts by a purely inductive process,
taking nothing for granted, and basing all
conclusions strictly upon the observations
themselves.
It is impossible to give here more than a
bare statement of the principal results thus
established, which we arrange in their nat-
ural order, and not in the historical order
of their derivation.
1. The phenomenon is not a local or a
regional, but a terrestrial one; also it is a
displacement of the earth’s axial rotation
with reference to the principal axis of in-
ertia, and not of the direction of the former
in space.
2. The axis of rotation, although fixed
as regards its direction in space, performs
a relative revolution about that of inertia
in a period of 428 days. This motion is
cireular, with an average radius of about
fourteen feet, and its direction is from west
to east.
3. Simultaneously with the above motion,
the actual position of the principal axis of
inertia on the earth’s surface is in motion
about a mean position, in a period of a year.
Its direction is also from west to east, but
is in an ellipse, three or four times as long
as broad, the major and minor axes being
about twenty-five feet and eight feet re-
spectively. The major axis is inclined at
present, by about 45° to the Greenwich
480
meridian. The motion is central, obeying
the law of proportionality of times to areas
described by the radius vector about the
center of the ellipse.
4. Both the radius and period in the cir-
cular 428 days’ revolution are systemati-
eally variable; the former between about
eight feet and eighteen feet, the latter be-
tween about 423 and 434 days; in a long
period of apparently about sixty-six years.
In this inequality of motion the average
angular velocity is attained when the size
of the circle is least or greatest when the
circle has its mean dimensions.
5. Similarly there are simultaneous
changes in the apparent dimensions and
velocity in the annual period, which are
complementary in their character to those
in the 428 days’ revolution; but whether
they are the result of real changes in the
form and dimensions of the ellipse, or the
effect of an apsidal motion of long period,
cannot at present be determined from the
observations available. All that can be
said is that observations during five years
show that the line of apsides is either fixed,
or, if variable, revolving only at a very slow
rate.
6. Besides these two motions of relatively
short period, there is distinct evidence of a
third motion of rotation in a much larger
term, probably not far from twelve years,
with a radius of ten or fifteen feet, which
reconciles similar indications of slow
changes which had been pointed out by
other investigators. (A. J., XII, 178;
XIITI., 35, 36.)
The results thus established are the out-
come of the examination of an immense
number of observations, covering the whole
interval since the era of refined practical
astronomy began, and in fact practically ex-
haust the materials which may be drawn
for this purpose from existing astronomical
annals. The endeavor to make the discus-
sion exhaustive in this respect made it neces-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 18-
sary to completely reduce, from the original
instrumental readings, extensive older series
of observations. It has, incidentally, for
example, rescued from almost complete ob-~
livion the series of Pond, 1825-36, and
shown that work to be of a character which
will compare favorably with the most re-
fined observations made with the meridian
instruments of the present day.
Intimately connected with the work on
the variation of latitude are five additional
papers, containing a redetermination of the
value of the aberration-constant from eight
different series of observations at the Pul-
kowa Observatory, with the prime vertical
transit and the vertical circle. The correct
value of this fundamental element is one of
the most important questions occupying the
astronomy of the day.
VARIABLE STARS.
THE subject of variable stars was erected
into a distinct branch of astronomical science
by Argelander, beginning in 1843, and oe-
cupied a large share of his activity and in-
terest during a score of years. His classical
labors were succeeded or overlapped by
those of Schonfeld, who assumed the prin-
cipal charge of the subject for another score
of years, when his devotion to the great
work of the Southern Durchmusterung, and
later his failing health, left opportunity for
other hands to take up and continue the
work where they had left it. Since the is-
sue of Schonfeld’s Second Catalogue the
number of known variables has more than
doubled, while the fund of observations per-
taining to them has vastly increased.
Chandler’s work in this direction, besides
the incidental work of observation and dis-
covery which he has contributed to it, has
involved the collection of all the data in
astronomical history, their discussion, and
the formulation of the elements of their
light-variations into numerical laws. The
catalogues of 1888 and 1893, while filling a
May 3, 1895.]
very moderate number of pages of print,
are a crystallization of all the known facts.
Especially may be mentioned the investiga-
tions of inequalities in the periods of these
‘bodies. While the number of these in-
equalities known in Schonfeld’s time
amounted to only about half a dozen, Chand-
ler has detected their existence in about
eighty other stars, and has deduced the
numerical laws in about fifty ofthem. This
will indicate, in one direction only, how the
labor of caring for these objects is increasing.
It would be unjust if, while alluding to
these important researches, no mention
were made of Mr. Chandler’s ingenious and
successful device of a new form of instru-
ment for making that class of measure-
ments of position which had previously been
made by meridian instrument alone. Both
the instrument and the method were novel.
In the former, instead of a motion of rota-
tion, determined mechanically by the pivots
of a horizontal axis, there was substituted
one about a vertical axis determined by
-gravitative action of an instrument resting
in mercury.
As to method, instead of a vertical plane
passing through the pole, which is the fun-
damental plane of reference for meridian in-
struments, there was substituted a horizon-
tal circle. The value possessed by such an
entirely different method consists in substi-
tuting a totally different sort of observation,
and hence a different set of the systematic
errors to which all observations are liable,
so that the combined results of the two
methods are likely to be freer from them
than those obtained by an adherence to a
single system of observation. In a memoir
of 222 pages Dr. Chandler develops the
ry of the instrument and method math-
tically, and gives the result of its
ractical use in observations made with it
a year, and directed to various astro-
nomical problems.
_ Although not mentioned as forming any
SCIENCE.
481
part of the grounds for the award of this
medal, Dr. Chandler’s important labors for
many years upon cometary orbits are well
known to astronomers. Casual mention
may be especially made of his computations
relative to the principal component of
1889V, and the action of Jupiter in 1886
upon it, which led to a complete transforma-
tion of its orbit; also the definite deter-
mination of the relative orbits of the sev-
eral components into which the comet be-
came separated in consequence of that dis-
turbance.
The Trustees of the Watson Fund feel
that this brilliant series of investigations is
preéminently deserving of the highest rec-
ognition which can be given by the Nat-
ional Academy, and have therefore not hes-
itated in recommending the award of the
medal to Dr. Chandler.
S. Newcomes.
B. A. GouLp.
AG bari.
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS OF A REPORT BY
DRS. D. H. BERGEY, S. WEIR MITCHELL
AND J. S. BILLINGS UPON ‘THE
COMPOSITION OF EXPIRED
AIR AND ITS EFFECTS
UPON ANIMAL LIEE.’*
1. THe results obtained in this research
indicate that in air expired by healthy mice,
sparrows, rabbits, guinea pigs or men
there is no peculiar organic matter which
is poisonous to the animals mentioned
(excluding man), or which tends to pro-
duce in these animals any special form of
disease. The injurious effects observed of
such air appeared to be due entirely to the
diminution of oxygen or the increase of
earbonic acid, or to a combination of these
two factors. They also make it very im-
probable that the minute quantity of organic
* Results of an investigation made under the pro-
visions of the Hodgkin’s Fund. Read before the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, April 16, 1895, by permis-
sion of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
482
matter contained in the air expired from
human lungs has any deleterious influence
upon men who inhale it in crowded rooms,
and hence it is probably unnecessary to take
this factor into account in providing for the
ventilation of such rooms.
2. In ordinary quiet respiration no bac-
teria, epithelial scales, or particles of dead
tissue are contained in the expired air. In-
the act of coughing or sneezing such organ-
isms or particles may probably be thrown
out. :
3. The minute quantity of ammonia, or
of combined nitrogen or other oxidizable
matters found in the condensed moisture of
human breath appears to be largely due to
products of the decomposition of organic
matter which is constantly going on in the
mouth and pharynx. This is shown by the
effects of cleansing the mouth and teeth
upon the amount of such matters in the
condensed moisture of the breath, and also
by the differences in this respect between
the air exhaled through a tracheal fistula
and that expired in the usual way.
4, The air in an inhabited room, such as
the hospital ward in which experiments
were made, is contaminated from many
sources besides the expired air of the occu-
pants, and the most important of these con-
taminations are in the form of minute par-
ticles or dusts. The experiments on the air
of the hospital ward, and with the moisture
condensed therefrom, show that the greater
part of the ammonia in the air was con-
nected with dust particles which could be
removed by a filter. They also showed
that in this dust there were microorganisms,
including some of the bacteria which pro-
duce inflammation and suppuration, and itis
probable that these were the only really
dangerous elements in this air.
5. The experiments in which animals
were compelled to breathe air vitiated by
the products of either their own respiration
or by those of other animals, or were in-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 18.
jected with fluid condensed from expired
air, gave results contrary to those reported
by Hammond, by Brown-Séquard and d’Ar-
sonval, and by Merkel; but correspond=
ing to those reported by Dastre and Loye, ~
Russo Gilibert and Alessi, Hofmann Wel-
lenhof, Rauer, and other experimenters re-
ferred to in the preliminary historical
sketch of this report, and make it improb-
able that there is any peculiar volatile poi-
sonous matter in the air expired by healthy
men and animals, other than carbonic acid.
It must be borne in mind, however, that the
results of such experiments upon animals
as are referred to in this report may be ap-
plicable only in part to human beings. It
does not necessarily follow that a man
would not be injured by continuously liv-
ing in an atmosphere containing 2 parts
per 1,000 of carbonic acid and other prod-
ucts of respiration, of cutaneous excretion,
and of putrefactive decomposition of organic
matters, because it is found that a mouse, a
guinea pig, or a rabbit seems to suffer no
ill effects from living under such conditions
for several days, weeks or months, but it
does follow that the evidence which has
heretofore been supposed to demonstrate
the evil effects of bad ventilation upon hu-
man health should be carefully scrutinized.
6. The effects of reduction of oxygen and
increase of carbonic acid, to a certain de-
gree, appear to be the same in artificial
mixtures of these gases as in air in which
the change of proportion of these gases has
been produced by respiration.
7. The effect of habit, which may enable
an animal to live in an atmosphere in which
by gradual change the proportion of oxy-
gen has become so low and that of carbonic
acid so high that a similar animal brought
from fresh air into it dies almost instantly,
has been observed before; but we are not
aware that a continuance of this immunity
produced by habit has been previously
noted. The experiments reported in the
May 3, 1895.]
appendix show that such an immunity may
either exist normally or be produced in cer-
tain mice, but that these cases are very ex-
eeptional, and it is very desirable that a
special research should be made to deter-
mine, if possible, the conditions upon which
such a continuance of immunity depends.
8. An excessively high or low tempera-
ture has a decided effect upon the produc-
tion of asphyxia by diminution of oxygen
and increase of carbonic acid. At high
temperatures the respiratory centers are
affected when evaporation from the skin
and mucous surfaces is checked by the air
being saturated with moisture ; at low tem-
peratures the consumption of oxygen in-
creases, and the demand for it becomes
more urgent. So far as the acute effects of
excessively foul air at high temperatures
are concerned, such, for example, as ap-
peared in the Black Hole of Calcutta, it is
probable that they are due to substantially
the same causes in man as in animals.
9. The proportion of increase of carbonic
acid and of diminution of oxygen, which
has been found to exist in badly ventilated
churches, schools, theatres or barracks, is
not sufficiently great to satisfactorily ac-
count for the great discomfort which these
conditions produce in many persons; and
there is no evidence to show that such an
nitary condition of the British Army,
operly lays great stress upon the fact that
civilians at soldiers’ ages in 24 large
towns the death rate per 1000 was 11.9,
while in the foot guards it was 29.4, and in
he infantry of the line 17.9; and shows
that this difference was mainly due to dis-
uses of the lungs occurring in soldiers in
SCIENCE.
483
These
have since been repeatedly
confirmed by statistics derived from other
armies, from prisons, and from the death
rates of persons engaged in different occu-
pations, and in all cases tubercular disease
of the lungs and pneumonia are the dis-
eases which are most prevalent among
persons living and working in unventilated
rooms, unless such persons are of the Jew-
ish race.
But consumption and pneumonia are
caused by specific bacteria, which, for the
most part, gain access to the air passages
by adhering to particles of dust which are
inhaled, and it is probable that the greater
liability to these diseases of persons living
in crowded and unventilated rooms is, to a
large extent, due to the special liability of
such rooms to become infected with the
germs of these diseases. It is by no means
demonstrated as yet that the only deleterious
effect which the air of crowded barracks or
tenement house rooms, or of foul courts and
narrow streets exerts upon the persons who
breathe it, is due to the greater number of
pathogenic microorganisms in such locali-
ties. Itis possible that such impure atmos-
pheres may affect the vitality and the
bactericidal powers of the cells and fluids of
the upper air passages with which they
come in contact, and may thus predispose
to infections the potential causes of which
are almost everywhere present, and espe-
cially in the upper air passages and in the
alimentary canal of even the healthiest per-
sons; but of this we have as yet no scientific
evidence. It is very desirable that re-
searches should be made on this point.
10. The discomfort produced by crowded,
ill-ventilated rooms in persons not accus-
tomed to them is not due to the excess of
carbonic acid, nor to bacteria, nor, in most
cases, to dusts of any kind. The two great
causes of such discomfort, though not the
only ones, are excessive temperature and
crowded and unventilated barracks.
observations
484
unpleasant odors. Such rooms as those re-
ferred to are generally overheated; the
bodies of the occupants, and, at night, the
usual means of illumination, contributing
to this result.
The results of this investigation, taken in
connection with the results of other recent
researches summarized in this report, indi-
eate that some of the theories upon which
modern systems of ventilation are based
are either without foundation or doubtful,
and that the problem of securing comfort
and health in inhabited rooms requires the
consideration of the best methods of pre-
venting or disposing of dusts of various
kinds, of properly regulating temperature
and moisture, and of preventing the en-
trance of poisonous gases like carbonic
oxide, derived from heating and lighting
apparatus, rather than upon simply dilu-
ting the air to a certain standard of propor-
tion of carbonic acid present. It would be
very unwise to conclude, from the facts
given in this report, that the standards of
air supply for the ventilation of inhabited
rooms, which standards are now generally
accepted by sanitarians as the result of the
work of Pettenkofer, De Chaumont and
others, are much too large under any cir-
cumstances, or that the differences in health
and vigor between those who spend the
greater part of their lives in the open air of
the country hills and those who live in the
city slums do not depend in any way upon
the differences between the atmospheres of
the two localities except as regards the
number and character of microorgan-
isms. .
The cause of the unpleasant, musty odor
which is perceptible to most persons on
passing from the outer air into a crowded,
unventilated room is unknown. It may in
part be due to volatile products of decom-
position contained in the expired air of per-
sons having decayed teeth, foul mouths, or
certain disorders of the digestive apparatus,
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 18,
and it is due in part to volatile fatty acids
produced from the excretions of the skin
and from clothing soiled with such excre-
tions. It may produce nausea and other:
disagreeable sensations in specially suscep-
tible persons, but most men soon become
accustomed to it and cease to notice it, as
they will do with regard to the odor of a
smoking car or of a soap factory after they
have been for some time in the place. The
direct and indirect effects of odors of various.
kinds upon the comfort, and, perhaps also,
upon the health of men are more consider-
able than would be indicated by any tests.
now known for determining the nature and
quantity of the matters which give rise to
them.
The remarks of Renk upon this point
merit consideration.
Cases of fainting in crowded rooms usual-
ly occur in women, and are connected with
defective respiratory action due to tight
lacing or other causes.
Other causes of discomfort in rooms
heated by furnaces or by steam are exces-
sive dryness of the air and the presence of
small quantities of carbonic oxide, of illu-
minating gas, and, possibly, of arsenic, de-
rived from the coal used for heating.
AMERICAN METROLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Tuts Society held its annual meeting
at Columbia College, on April 22d, at 3
P.M.
The President, B. A. Gould, of Cam-
bridge, Mass., presided. There were present,
Wolcott Gibbs, of Newport, R. I.; A. A.
Michelson, of the University of Chicago;
T. Egleston and J. H. Van Amringe, of
Columbia College ; T. R. Pynchon, of Trim-
ity College; T. C. Mendenhall, of Wor-
cester, Mass.; George Eastbourn, of Phila-
delphia; J. M. McKinlay and J. K. Rees,
of New York City.
President Gould made an informal ad~
=, ©F 8@
he Co
teme nee Qe ayee! e
May 3, 1895.]
dress, and called attention to the rapid
progress of the zone standard-time system
throughout the world. This system the
society did important work in introducing.
Allusion was made to the report that
Turkey had made the Metric System obli-
gatory. The principal countries that do
not use the Metric System are England, the
United States and Russia. Through the
action of the New Decimal Association of
England, and of the American Metrological
Society, it was hoped that some steps might
be taken in the two countries named which
would bring about a larger use of the Metric
System. It was stated that Utah proposed
to adopt the Metric System as the standard
when she was admitted to statehood.
The society appointed an important com-
mittee on Metric Gauges. This committee
consists of the President, B. A. Gould, Wol-
eott Gibbs, T. C. Mendenhall, A. A. Michel-
son, and T. Egleston as chairman.
Reports were made by various officers and
the following officers were elected for the
year 1895-96: President, B. A. Gould, Cam-
bridge, Mass. Vice Presidents, Wolcott
Gibbs, Newport, R. I.; T. R. Pynchon,
Hartford, Conn.;Sandford Fleming, Ottawa,
Canada; T. C. Mendenhall, Worcester,
Mass.; T. Egleston, New York City; J. H.
Van Amringe, New York City. Treasurer,
John K. Rees, New York City. Recording
_ Secretary, John K. Rees, New York City.
eg ~~ A
Corresponding Secretary, O. H. Tittmann,
Washington, D.C. Members of the Coun-
ceil, H. A. Newton, New Haven, Conn.;
Cleveland Abbe, Washington, D. C.; R. H.
Thurston, Ithaca, N. Y.; A. M. Mayer,
Hoboken, N..J.; Henry Holt, New York
City ; W. F. Allen, New York City ; Simon
Newcomb, Washington, D. C.: S. P. Lang-
_ ley, Washington, D. C.; F. H. Smith, Uni-
versity of Virginia; George Eastbourn,
Philadelphia, Penn.
Edward Atkinson, of Boston, was elected
a member of the society.
SCIENCE.
485
In this connection it may be of interest
to state the objects of this society :
1. To improve existing systems of weights,
measures and moneys, and to bring them
into relations of simple commensurability
with each other.
2. To secure universal adoption of com-
mon units of measure for quantities in
physical observation or investigation, for
which ordinary systems of metrology do not
provide; such as divisions of barometer,
thermometer, and densimeter ; amount of
work done by machines; amount of me-
chanical energy, active or potential, of bod-
ies, as dependent on their motion or posi-
tion; quantities of heat present in bodies of
given temperatures, or generated by com-
bustion or otherwise ; quantity and inten-
sity of electro-dynamic currents ; aggregate
and efficient power of prime movers; ac-
celerative force of gravity; pressure of steam
and atmosphere; and other matters analo-
gous to these.
3. To secure uniform usage as to stand-
ard points of reference, or physical conditions
to which observations must be reduced for
purposes of comparison, especially tempera-
ture and pressure to which are referred
specific gravities of bodies, and the zero of
longitude on the earth.
4. To secure the use of the decimal sys-
tem for denominations of weight, measure,
and money derived from unit-bases, not
necessarily excluding for practical purposes
binary or other convenient divisions, but
maintained along with such other methods,
on account of facilities for calculation, re-
ductions, and comparison of values, afforded
by a system conforming to our numerical
notation.
MODES OF OPERATION,
1. Tue society will endeavor to carry out
its objects, by appeals to Congress, State
Legislatures, boards of education, higher
institutions of learning, and to directors and
486
teachers of schools of every grade through-
out the country, urging adoption of meas-
ures in their several spheres for diffusing
information as to the present state of the
world’s metrology and recent progress in
its reform, and specially for instructing the
rising generation in these matters, to the
end that our people may be early and fully
prepared to act intelligently on the impor-
tant questions connected with weights and
measures.
2. By invoking the aid and cooperation
of bodies organized to consider questions of
scientific or social interest, boards of trade,
chambers of commerce, societies of engi-
neers, industrial associations, professions
and trades, in this country and elsewhere.
3. By specially urging scientific bodies to
Open communications with similar bodies
in other countries, with a view to general
agreement on values to be henceforth uni-
formly given to units of measure and points
of reference which particularly concern
them . 7. ¢., to the so-called constants of sci-
ence.
4. By memorializing Congress in favor of
laws requiring the use, in certain depart-
ments of the public service, of metric weights
and measures, wherever such legislation
may tend to relieve commerce of some of
its burdens, to facilitate international com-
munication, to promote international juris-
prudence, and to familiarize our own peo-
ple with the benefits of that system of met-
rology, with the least interference with
their ordinary habits of thought or daily
business.
5. By direct appeals to the people through
the public press, and by circulating, so far as
means allow, books and documents inform-
ing the public of the defects of the common
system of weights and measures, the means
most proper for its amendment, and the
great advantages which the acceptance of a
universal system would insure to all man-
kind. J. K.R.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 18.
THE INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL
CONGRESS.
Prorerssor A. Vasrirey, President of the
Physico-mathematical Society of Kasan,~
Russia, has sent me a document prepared
by him for the Minister of Public Instrue-
tion, with a request that I translate such
part of it from the Russian as bears on the
founding of an International Mathematical
Congress, and make it known in America.
This is in substance as follows:
After recapitulating the action of the
French Association for the Advancement of
Science at Caen (August 14, 1894) [already
translated by me and published on pp. 21-22
of the Bulletin of the American Mathemat-
ical Society, October, 1894], he gives the res-
olution offered by me that very same day,
August 14, 1894, for their signatures to all
the members of the American Mathemat-
ical Society present at the Brooklyn meet-
ing, and signed unanimously, which was as
follows: ‘The undersigned members of the
American Mathematical Society present at
its summer meeting, 1894, take this method
of expressing their cordial approval of a
series of International Congresses of Math-
ematicians to take place from time to time,
as suggested by A. Vasiliev and OC. A.
Laisant.’””’ The names of the signers may
be found on page 290 of Vol. L., of the
American Mathematical Monthly. I ex-
plained the plan as contemplating a réunion
préparatovre at Kasan in 1896, a congres con-
stituant in Belgium or Switzerland in 1897,
which perhaps might fix the First Interna-
tional Congress at Paris in 1900.
Professor Vasiliev then goes on to state
the decisive step taken by the deutsche Mathe-
matiker- Veremmigung in a reunion at Vienna,
September, 1894. It was there unanimously
resolved to take part in the organizing Con-
gress. The action was as follows :
“Concerning future International Con-
gresses, the Mathematiker-Vereinigung de-
cides in principle to participate, and charges
May 3, 1895.] SCIENCE.
its bureau to take in regard to this subject
the measures that appear necessary. In
particular, it leaves to each of its mem-
bers entire freedom, considering alone as
essential that the Society, on this important
- occasion, may be assured of having the
place due it.”
Professor Vasiliev expects that the inau-
guration of the Lobachévsky monument at
_ Kasan will take place in August or Sep-
} tember, 1896, and counts on having there
a large number of eminent mathematicians,
and will profit by the occasion to propose
definitely the organization of the Interna-
_ tional Congress, and then official calls will
be issued to meet for the purpose of final
organization in 1897 at a city of Belgium or
Switzerland.
GrorGE Bruce HAtstep.
AUSTIN, TEXAS.
CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY (V.).
THE EXTINCT LAKE PASSAIC.
Tue annual report of the Geological Sur-
vey of New Jersey for 1893 contains a long
report on surface geology, in which there
is an interesting chapter on Lake Passaic,
an extinct glacial lake, by R. D. Salisbury
and H. B. Kiimmel. First mentioned by
Professor Cook in his annual report for 1880,
_ Lake Passaic is now carefully traced by its
shore lines and the deltas built in it by
streams. Its basin was limited on the west
_ by the slope of the crystalline highlands;
on the south and east by one of the curved
trap ridges of the Watchung or Orange
elosed by ice. Most remarkable of all the
‘" ore deposits i in the lake waters is the “Dl
kK standing up with great distinctness
north of a marshy plain, which now rep-
resents part of the lake bottom.
487
The outlet of the lake was, for a time at
least, by a notch in the trap ridge near its
southern end, at a height of 331 feet above
sea level. Twenty-five miles to the north,
the records of the lake level now stand
sixty-seven feet above the lowest shore line
at the southern end of the basin. Many
details of interest are considered in the re-
port ; none more surprising than the depth
of the drift-filling in the notch of one of the
trap ridges at Summit (where the Morris and
Essex Railroad crosses the ridge), from
which a preglacial discharge of the inner
valley at this point is fairly inferred. An
excellent map accompanies the report.
LOCAL DISPLACEMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI.
THE annual report of the Iowa geologi-
cal survey for 1893, just issued, contains a
chapter by C. H. Gordon on a former channel
of the Mississippi, now filled with drift.
The modern river has cut a narrow rock-
bound gorge, five miles to the east of the
former valley, and about ten miles long ; its
lower end being at Keokuk, where the Des
Moines river comes in from the west. A
general study of the surface and the records
of a deep well indicate that the earlier
valley was about three times as broad and
twice as deep as the new gorge. The gorge
being hardly more than in its youth, the
earlier valley was certainly not advanced
beyond its early adolescence. It therefore
clearly indicates that during only a com-
paratively short preglacial time did the
region stand as high as or a little higher
than now; most of its preglacial history
must have been passed at a less elevation
above baselevel. To speak of the pre-
glacial channel as a ‘measure of vast de-
nudation’ (p. 250) therefore seems some-
what inappropriate ; it was only the begin-
ning of a denudation that could in a geo-
graphical sense be called vast. The vast
denudation is more really shown in the
stripping of an unknown thickness of strata
488
from the region, thus preparing the general
surface in which the adolescent preglacial
valley was eroded.
The relation of displacements of this kind
to the location of settlements along the
river and to the choice of places for bridge-
building across it, would furnish material
for an interesting physiographical essay, ex-
tending the well-known report by Gen. War-
ren. The outline map on which the old
and new courses of the river are represent-
ed, is unfortunately without names, mak-
ing the careful reading of the chapter a
difficult matter for those unacquainted with
with such places as Fort Madison and Sand
Prairie.
W. M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY (VIL).
RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS IN EASTERN AMERICA.
Ir is well known that venturous Norwe-
gian navigators in the eleventh century
visited at divers times the eastern coast of
North America. The ancient sagas of Ice-
land which narrate the events of these
voyages are provokingly meager and ob-
scure; so that it has been quite impossible
to decide how often such voyages were
made, or how far south the explorers ad-
vaneed. Of course, it is to be supposed
that of some such expeditions we have no
account whatever.
The late Professor E. N. Horsford per-
sistently maintained that positive evidence
of a pre-Columbian European settlement on
the Charles river, Mass., had been discover-
ed by him. The testimony he presented did
not convince many, and his daughter, Miss
Cornelia Horsford, has done well to pursue
and extend the lines of investigation which
her father began. The results are said to
be confirmatory of his theory, but the only
one which has as yet been made public is a
neatly illustrated, privately printed pam-
phlet, of 22 pages, entitled ‘An Inscribed
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 18.
Stone,’ By Cornelia Horsford (Cambridge,
1895).
The stone referred to was discovered at
Weston, Mass., in an uncultivated field,
and came under Miss Horsford’s notice
merely by accident. One of its sides bore
a partly obliterated series of lines which
Mr. J. B. Woodsworth, of the U. 8S. Geo-
logical Survey, pronounces to be of arti-
ficial origin. They are arranged after the
manner of a runic futhore, and simulate
certain forms of such writing. Miss Hors-
ford does not offer an interpretation.
A second inscribed stone near New York
city is depicted, the runes on which Miss
Horsford both transliterates and provi-
sionally translates as referring to a census
of the inhabitants by the church officials.
On a loose sheet a large number of runic
and ogham inscriptions from Great Britain,
the north of Europe and Greenland are
given for the purpose of comparison.
The publication is one well worthy the
attention of historians.
WHERE WAS THE GARDEN OF EDEN?
WE have not yet done with seeking on
the earthly plane the pristine Paradise,
Hden, ‘ the land of joy’.
The latest explorer of its whereabouts is
the distinguished Professor Paul Haupt, of
the Johns Hopkins University, in an article,
‘Wo Lag das Paradies?” in the ‘ Ueber
Land und Meer,’ No. 15, 1895. He differs
from Friedrich Delitsch, who, in his work
with the same title, asserted that the de-
scription of the locality in Genesis applied
directly to the canal and river system of
Babylonia; he differs from himself in his
opinion as expressed in a paper published
last year in the proceedings of the American
Oriental Society, and concludes that the
four rivers mentioned in the Hebrew record,
the Pison, the Gihon, the Hiddekel and the
Euphrates, are, reversing the order, the
Euphrates, the Tigris, the Karun and the
May 3, 1895.]
|
Kercha. The two latter are small streams
flowing, one into the Persian Gulf, and one
into the Schott el Arab, near the ancient
mouth of the Tigris, both east of it.
Though Professor Haupt supports his
opinion with his customary depth of erudi-
tion, I doubt if it will be adopted. That
part of Genesis was written by the Hebrew
author about 650 B. C., and at that period
he certainly knew what he was talking
about when he mentioned the Gihon and
identified it with the river Nile. Professor
Haupt’s former theory, which recognized
this, seems much more plausible.
But all such theories do not touch the
kernel of the question. The myth of the
Paradise, watered by its four streams, is
found in native American mythologies as
prominently as in those of the Old World;
and no explanation is valid which does not
apply to both continents.
The true interpretation is that the four
streams refer to the four cardinal points
and the four winds, the rain bringers. They
are the cosmic and celestial causes of the
weather and its changes, and hence of fer-
tility and growth. It were easy to prove
this by abundant examples. The Hebrew
realist merely endeavored to transport the
ancient myth into terrestial geography.
D. G. Brryton.
_ UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
JAMES D. DANA.
We cannot pay a tribute to the memory
of Dana more appropriate than the letter
addressed to him by a number of his older
colleagues on his eightieth birthday and
communicated by Prof. George P. Fisher to
the Evening Post.
New Haven, February 12, 1893.
Dear Pror. Dana: Having had the pri-
vilege for many years, of being associated
with you as colleagues at Yale, we wish to
bring you our cordial congratulations on the
oceasion of your eightieth birthday.
SCIENCE.
489
It gives great pleasure to your friends
that after so extended a period of incessant
and most faithful activity you are still able
with unimpaired mental vigor to carry for-
ward the studies which have contributed so
much to the advancement of science and
have conferred so great distinction, not on
yourself alone, but equally on the Univer-
sity and on the country.
We recall the circumstance that it was only
four years after your graduation, in 1833,
that the first edition of your work on miner-
alogy, a work which has remained a classic
to this day, was issued. Two years later
you embarked on the voyage of discovery,
undertaken under the auspices of the
government by the American Exploring
Expedition, and during four industrious
years collected the materials for the subse-
quent reports on geology, mineralogy, corals
and crustacea, which established your repu-
tation at home and abroad as a scientific
man of distinguished ability.
It is now well-nigh half a century since
you entered upon your labors as an editor
of the American Journal of Science, your name
having first appeared on the title-page of
the journal in 1846. The long series of
volumes of this periodical are a noble mon-
ument of the extent and thoroughness of
your labors as a naturalist.
Tt is in truth surprising that in connec-
tion with this continuous employment and
with your work as professor you have been
able to send forth from the press, in succes-
sive editions, the elaborate text-books and
other writings, the solid excellence of which
is everywhere recognized. ‘
We cannot revert without admiration to
the universally broad field of scientific in-
vestigation in which you have maintained
your place as an acknowledged master.
Tt would be a signal achievement for any
man to hold this position as regards geol-
ogy, and the branches of zodlogy connected
with it ; but when, as in your case, the sci-
490
ence of mineralogy is added to the list, the
eminence which you have attained is quite
exceptional.
It is gratifying to know that your services
to the cause of science have obtained full
recognition from teachers and students of
science and from learned bodies in all civil-
ized countries. None will question that the
honors which have thus been so abundantly
bestowed and so modestly received are well
deserved. The consciousness that the mo-
tive of your researches has been an unal-
loyed love of truth and an unselfish desire
to enlarge the bounds of human knowledge
must give to these testimonials all the value
that such marks of honor can ever possess.
We congratulate you that your academic
relations both with fellow-professors and
with pupils have been so uniformly pleasant.
The classes which, in long succession, have
listened to your instructions, could their
voices be heard, would unite in expressions
of sincere respect both for the qualities of
character and for the talents and learning
of their revered instructor. But it is no
part of our purpose to enter into a detailed
statement of the reasons which render it
peculiarly agreeable for us, your old friends
and neighbors, to offer to you to-day our
heartfelt congratulations. Had it been
thought worth while to extend the list of
subscribers to this letter, no doubt all the
members of the teaching body in the Uni-
versity would gladly have added their
names.
But our communication is simply in-
tended as an expression, from a few of your
older associates, of interest in this anni-
versary and of our earnest hope that the
blessing of a kind Providence may continue
to be with you and with the members of
your family.
Very sincerely yours,
Timotay Dwieut, Grorce H. Day,
GrorcE P. FisHer, Grorce J. Brusu,
Wii1amM H. Brewer, O. C. Marsu, FRANK-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 18.
tin B. Dexter, Epwarp E. SAtispury,
Wittram D. Wuaitnrey, Huserr A. New-
Ton, Samurt W. Jounson, Daniet C.
Eaton, A. E. VeErrizt, Appison VAN~
Name, Srpney I. Surrn.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SLEDGES, ETC.
Dip anybody ever read or hear of sledges,
snowshoes or goggles for the eyes in aborig-
inal South America? I have traced the
skee entirely across Asia, the netted snow
shoe from the Amur around to Klamath
river, Cal., with extension throughout Can-
ada, New England and our northern tier of
States. The ice creeper for the foot covers
the region of my migration track from
southern Kamchatka around to the Yukon.
The built-up sledge is everywhere in the —
Hyperborean area of two hemispheres, the
form depending on the exigencies of timber
growth. The great broad skee or snow shoe
of the Amur is the flat toboggan of the
Dominion of Canada.
Otis T. Mason.
U.S. Nationa Musreum, April 20.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Memoir of Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay. By
Str ARCHIBALD GxIKIE, Director of the
Geol. Surv. of Great Britain and Ireland.
London and New York, Macmillan & Co.
1895. Pp. x + 397.
This is really a charming book and ought
to be read not only by every geologist, but
by every one interested in the story of a
noble life. Indeed, the memoir of such a
man as Ramsay by such a writer as Geikie
could hardly be otherwise than deeply im-
teresting.
Ramsay’s career overlaps on the one hand
with the old heroic days of the founders of
English Geology—Lyell, Buckland, Sedg-
wick, Murchison, De la Beche, etc., and on
the other with modern times and modern
methods. He shared with the former the
{
_ May 3, 1895.)
enthusiasm of grappling with the great gen-
eral problems of geology ; but he himself did
much to introduce and urge forward the
more accurate methods, if less daring theo-
ries, of modern times. The story of his
forty year’s connection with the British
Survey, first as assistant and then as local
director for England under De la Beche,
_ then as local director of England and Scot-
land under Murchison, and finally as Di-
| rector General himself, is literally a history
of the Survey itself. The book is illumin-
: ated too and its value enhanced by the
pictures of all the principal men of the
_ Survey, whose work every geologist knows,
but whose faces are now perhaps seen for
the first time.
= The story of Ramsay’s career is also in
no small degree the history of the develop-
ment of geological science in England. For
in the beginning he sat at the feet of the
geological Gamaliels, imbibing their spirit,
and at the end he gathered about himself
all the most ardent and progressive spirits
and guided their course. Many modern
ideas he himself initiated, while others he
earried forward with his characteristic ar-
in the history of science, the transfer of
study from the remote to the near at hand, from
the abstract to the concrete and often from the
obscure to the obvious. Thus the field of
study was Astronomy before Geology, the
Science of the Stars before the Science of
_ the Earth. So also it was dead things be-
fore living things, and man last of all. This
is doubtless mainly due to the fact that the
earest things.and things most closely con-
ected with our highest interests are also
e most complex and most difficult to re-
duce to law. But this is not all. There is
fascination in the remote, the hidden and
obscure which piques our curiosity, while
ve neglect phenomena which lie on the sur-
e and which therefore seem common and
. In this connection it is interesting to note,
SCIENCE.
491
trivial because we see them every day.
The history of geology is an excellent illus-
tration of this. The early geologists loved
to speculate on the interior of the earth and
its mysterious forces. Next rock strata,
their positions, successions, foldings, faults,
ete., engaged attention. In the meantime
the surface configuration of the earth, moun-
tains and plains, ridges and valleys, soils
and underlying rock surfaces, in fact all the
most obvious and obtrusive features were
neglected. Now, the change from the study
of interior structure alone to the study of
surface configurations in relation to interior
structures, one of the most fascinating
branches of geology, took place during Ram-
say’s times, and he himself was one of the
most active agents in bringing it about.
From the first he was deeply interested in
the agency of exterior forces as contrasted
with interior forces; with destructive as
contrasted with constructive agencies. Still
later he became interested in the signifi-
cance of soils and underlying rock surfaces.
He it was, therefore, who first gave strong
impulse to glacial geology in England.
For the seed sown by Agassiz found, at
first, but poor soil in England.
Again, it is instructive to note also the
effect of physical environment on the course
of geological science. The incessant beat-
ing of waves on the limited shore line of
the ‘tight little sea-girt island’ of Great
Britain, and the ravages produced by these
attacks on some parts, early impressed the
minds of British geologists with a strong
sense of the power of the sea. In the study
of erosion, therefore, all the early geologists,
Ramsay among the number, attributed far
too much to marine denudation, while rain
and rivers were almost neglected as being
of little importance in comparison. It was
apparently for the same reason that the
iceberg theory of glaciation took so firm a
hold and was so hard to displace in Eng-
land. It was only by travel on the conti-
A492
nent of Europe, and especially in the Alps,
‘that Ramsay was led to appreciate the great
importance of rain and rivers, as compared
with the sea, as a land-destroying and land-
‘sculpturing agent ; and of land ice as com-
pared with floating ice as a glaciating agent.
But his ardent, candid nature knew no
half-measures. His conversion was com-
plete, and some think that he even carried
his later views on this subject somewhat
too far.
The work of Ramsay is well known to
geologists. But the readers of ScrencE are
notall geologists. Itmay be well therefore to
briefly mention some of the main points on
which he contributed to geological knowl-
edge or modified the course of geological
thought.
His greatest direct contribution to ge-
‘ological knowledge is undoubtedly that
embodied in his admirable map of Wales.
‘The problem of Wales had been attacked
successively by Sedgwick, Murchison and
De la Beche. But the work of the older
geologists was far too cursory. Nothing but
the most careful foot-by-foot mapping could
unravel its intricate structure. This was
first done by Ramsay, and he devoted a large
portion of life to its completion. His map
is a monument of industry combined with
rare geological insight.
Again, he was undoubtedly one of the
founders of the study of geographical formsin
relation to geological structure. Surely
this is one of the most fascinating depart-
ments of geology (or of geography, for it
may be claimed by both). It is this which
constitutes the chief charm of his admirable
work on the ‘Physical Geology and Geogra-
phy of Great Britain.’
Again, he was the originator of the idea
of other possible glacial periods in the his-
tory of the earth and especially of glaciation
in Permian times. His ardent uniformita-
rianism naturally led him in this direction.
Again, finally, he was the originator of
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 18.
the doctrine of the origin of lake basins by
glacial erosion. It is possible that in the
enthusiasm of the originator, he may have
carried this idea alittle too far; but it is &@
mnisrepresentation to say, as has been done,
that he attributed all lake basins to this
cause. His original paper was entitled
‘Origin of Certain Lakes by Glacial Ero-
sion.’
So much for Ramsay the geologist. But
the greatest charm of the book is found in
the vivid picture it gives of Ramsay the
man; his intense interest in life in all its
phases and in literature in all its depart-
ments; his large human sympathy, embra-
cing alike all true men from the rudest coun-
try people in their sport and dances to the
most eminent scientists in their discussions ;
his deep love of art, poetry and music; his
ardor of temperament, showing itself alike in
the intensity of his work and in his keen en-
joyment of fun and frolic. I never saw Ram-
say but once, viz., at the Montreal meeting
of the A. A. A. S. in 1857, when he was in
his prime. I remember well on the occa- —
sion of a geological excursion in the vicin-
ity the rapid, eager way in which he scram-
bled over the rocks, hammer in hand, firing
all of us with his own enthusiasm. Is it
any wonder that he wore himself out pre-
maturely? Although he lived to 77, yet he
resigned and quit work ten years earlier,
and was already an old man at 63.
In closing this brief account of Ramsay,
I cannot do better than quote the closing
words of the memoir itself, ‘‘ But above and
beyond the impress of his scientific achieve-
ments, Sir. Andrew Ramsay’s high posi-
ton among his contemporaries was largely
determined by his individual personality.
His frank, manly bearing, his well-cut fea-
tures beaming with intelligence and a sweet
childlike candor, his ready powers of con-
versation, his wide range of knowledge, his
boyish exuberance of spirits, his simplicity
and modesty of nature, his sterling integrity,
perfect straightforwardness and high sense
of duty, his generous sympathy and untir-
May 3, 1895.]
ing helpfulness, marked him out as a man
of singular charm and endeared him to a
wide circle of friends who, while they ad-
| mired him for his genius, loved him for
the beauty and brightness of his charac-
ter.”
But I cannot close this notice without a
~ final word concer ning the memoir itself as
a work of art. What we wish to know of
_ great men is not only their achievements,
but also all, even the trivial details of their
daily life; for these, more than aught else,
show character. All things, great and
small, must be brought together into a liy-
ing whole. This Geikie has done in a mas-
terly way. Journals of petty daily occur-
rences, narratives of more continuous work,
discussion of important scientific problems,
letters on all kinds of subjects to all sorts
of people, some full of weighty scientific
matters, some full of fun and jokes and
humorous verse, some full of deepest filial
or conjugal affection—all these are skill-
fully woven into a vivid picture of the man
as he really lived. Happy is the man who
Shall have such a biographer.
JosEPpH LE ConTeE.
A Text-Book of Invertebrate Morphology. By
J. Puayrarr McMourrick, M. A., Ph. D.
New York, Henry Holt &Co. 1894.
In preparing this book the author has
Bisttowea the zodlogical method, and has
given us a succinct though general account
of the morphology of the different ‘ types,’
classes and orders of the animal kingdom;
no special forms under each being described.
Speaking of the word ‘type,’ we much
prefer the older terms, branch, sub-king-
dom or phylum, to the the rather meaning-
ess word ‘type;’ the first and last terms
ing naturally suggested from the evolu-
mal point of view, the main sub-divisions
the animal genealogical tree being more
SCIENCE.
493
naturally referred to as branches or phyla.
The increase in the number of ‘ types’ from
eight to twelve results from dividing the
Vermes into several, such as the Platyhel-
minths, Nemathelminthes and Annelida,
which the author regards as of the same
rank as the Mollusca. The Arthropoda
also, somewhat prematurely, we think, are
divided into three types, viz.: Crustacea,
Arachnida and Tracheata. That the di-
vision is somewhat artificial is indicated by
the fact that Limulus is assigned to the
Crustacea, though placed in an appendix,
whereas it is plainly neither a genuine
Crustacean nor a true Arachnidan, and be-
longs to an independent phylum. And then
if we begin thus to manufacture ‘ types’ out
of the Arthropoda and out of the Vermes,
we can scarcely end at the point the author
reaches.
In agreement with some German authors,
the Echinodermata, written Echinoderma,
are interpolated between the highly special-
ized Tracheata and the Protochordata.
This seems to us in a text-book of this sort
a shade objectionable, when we consider
how closely allied to the lower worms, both
in embryology andin some points in their
adult structure, Echinoderms are. Of course
this is a matter of individual opinion, but
we should look for some expression of the
reasons why they are placed so far away
from worms, in a situation between such
closely circumscribed and specialized groups
as insects, and the Chordata. If the posi-
tion assigned the Echinoderms is due
solely to the resemblance of the Tornaria
larve of Balanoglossa to the larve of
Echinoderms, this seems a rather slight
reason.
While the descriptions of the types and
classes are evidently clear and accurate ;
though not always presented in simple
Saxon words, the salient points of resem-
blance or difference do not seem in all cases
successfully brought out. Thus in writing
494
of the Brachiopoda the author speaks of
the bivalved shell, ‘similar to that of a
bivalve mollusk,’ but he does not add that
the shells are dorsal and ventral, a point
in which they differ from any mollusk. On
p. 271 it is stated that eyes do not occur in
these animals, meaning, of course, the
adults, though on the next page the young
Argiope is credited with eye-spots ; the fact,
however, that they occur in the larva of The-
cidium not being mentioned. In the bibliog-
raphy the papers of Morse on the develop-
ment of Terebratulina and of Kowalevsky
on Argiope, Thecidium, etc., are omitted, al-
though the lower half of the page is left
blank, and there was abundant room for
the titles.
The treatment of the mollusea is in some
respects unsatisfactory, though the anatom-
ical details appear to be correctly and care-
fully stated. We should decidedly differ
from the view that Lamellibranchs, or Pely-
cypoda, as it is now the fashion to call them,
though the name is not nearly so apt or gen-
erally applicable as the older term, are in-
termediate between the Gastropoda and
Ceptalopoda. They have no head, and it
seems much more natural to suppose that
they have more or less directly descended
from the Amphineura. The position as-
signed them by Gegenbaur, next above the
last named group and below the Cepha-
lophora, seems to us to be a more natural
one. And speaking of the last named
group, it is a pity that there should not be
more figures of these obscure generalized
forms, especially of the ladder-like nervous
system of the different genera to show their
relationship to Chiton, though the discus-
sion of their affinities is excellent. In
speaking of the Gastropods the use of the
clumsy German term ‘visceral hump’ seems
objectionable ; we should prefer to call it
the visceral mass. The visceral ‘hump’ in
a Cephalopod is in reality all of the body
behind the head.
SCIENCE.
LN. S. Von. I. No. 18.
The definitions or diagnoses of the sub-
divisions of the ‘types’ placed at the end
of each chapter are too brief or defective
and not always, it seems to us, happily
worded. In those of the Gastropoda and
Cephalopoda, the fact that they have a well
differentiated head is not mentioned, though
the ‘ visceral hump,’ if the student clearly
understands what that is, is.said to be well
developed.
The same lack of completeness applies to
the diagnoses of the Crustacea, and particu-
larly to those of the insects, while those of
the Arachnida are much better.
The Tracheata (myriopods and insects),
as in some other recent works, are not
treated with such detail and thoroughness,
nor in the case of the present book, so care-
fully and accurately as the Crustacea. It
appears to be wholly a compilation, and
not the result of autoptic study. This isnot
the case in Siebold’s excellent Anatomy of
the Invertebrates, which, though published
forty years ago, is still for Tracheata useful
and reliable. Our author’s account of the
anatomy of insects is somewhat faulty and
needs revision in numerous places.
The spiral band of the trachea is said to
extend along the tube, whereas it is not con-
tinuous, but varies much in length and
makes from one to four or five turns, a
single tracheal branch thus haying many
such disconnected spiral bands.
The olfactory organs of the antennz are
not set alone, but the pits to which the
auther does not refer are far more numer-
ous. The elements of the ovipositor are no&
situated on the ‘last abdominal segment’
(p. 414), while the cerci (p. 489) are not
regarded by the author a& equivalents of
the jointed appendages, though they are
obviously so, whatever may be said of the
parts of the ovipositor. It is also a ques-
tion whether the ‘spring’ of Collembola is
not the homologue of the legs.
It is rather venturesome to say that im
MAy 3, 1895.]
butterflies and Diptera the thoracic seg-
- ments seem to be reduced to two, ete., when
three segments are easily observed. Vesti-
gial mandibles are attributed to the sphinx,
though the structures so called have been
shown by Walter not to be such.
The chapter on the Protochordata is well
prepared and illustrated. Why, however,
_ Rhabdopleura and Cephalodiscus are, with-
out apparent hesitation, regarded as belong-
ing in this type, should, we think, be care-
fully explained, the chordate features being
so slight compared with those of the Enter-
opneusta. One also is somewhat startled to
find Amphioxus included in a work on
invertebrate morphology when its structure
and embryology associate it so intimately
with the Chordata ; and why it should be
regarded as-a lower or more generalized
_ type than the Tunicata we do not under-
stand. It has been the nearly universal
opinion of anatomists that the lancelet is
nearer to vertebrates than are the as-
cidians.
The figures are mostly diagramatic, and
earefully drawn, though often coarsely so.
We should have preferred, in many cases,
exact and not schematic representations.
The figures of Buccinum undatum, as regards
the shell, reminds us more of a Strombus;
and the figure of Nautilus should have been
credited to Owen; several of the figures
are credited to Leunis, and not to the ori-
_ ginal author or artist. The style cannot
_ always be said to -be simple and clear; the
tendency being towards the use of long words
worthy absence of typographical errors.
But whatever we have said by way of criti-
, we desire to commend the book as
excellent in its general plan and_treat-
2ent, usually reliable, and forming a useful
manual of the subject.
; A.S. Packarp.
‘Brown UNIVErsITy.
SCIENCE.
495
The Land-Birds and Game-Birds of New
England. By H. D. Mryor. 2d edition,
edited by William Brewster. Houghton,
Mifflin & Co., April, 1895, 8°, pp. xxiv+
492, outline figures. Price, $3.50.
Eighteen years have passed since the first
appearance of Minot’s ‘ Land-Birds and
Game-Birds’ (published in February, 1877).
It had a good sale and was soon out of
print. Practically the whole book was
original—the descriptions of the birds, nests
and eggs, and the biographies. The latter
are based on the author’s own field experi-
ence and are interesting, truthful, and in the
main well written.
The body of the work is followed by an
appendix comprising a bird calendar for
eastern Massachusetts, and keys to the
Land Birds of New England and the eggs
of Massachusetts birds. These keys are
based primarily on color and are not likely
to prove of much value.
The personality of the author deserves
a word. When only a boy of seventeen he
had amassed a large quantity of field notes
and had writtenthe book now under review.
As the editor of the new edition says in his
preface: ‘‘ The author had a clear head, a
true heart, and a well-defined purpose, com-
bined with an amount of literary taste and
ability very rare in one so young. He was
deeply in earnest, full of warm yet rever-
ential love of nature, wholly unconscious of
or indifferent to certain conventional meth-
ods of investigation and expression, yet in
the main careful in observation, temperate
of statement, and singularly logical and
dispassionate in argument.’’ In his thirtieth
year he was chosen President of the Eastern
Railroad in Minnesota, and soon after lost
his life in an accident on another road.
The new edition is accompanied by a por-
trait of the author and is an attractive,
well-printed volume. The editor, William
Brewster, tells us that his ‘ editorial touches
have been of the lightest.’ He has substi-
496
tuted current nomenclature for the old, and
has added numerous foot-notes, always over
his own initials, amplifying or correcting
statements made in the body of the work,
which has been allowed to stand essentially
as in the original edition. Mr. Brewster
has also added an appendix comprising ad-
ditions to Minot’s list and containing an ab-
stract of the results of his study of the
gyrfalcons—a most perplexing group. He
agrees with Ridgway in the number and
nomenclature of the forms, and records the
authentic New England specimens of each.
It is a great compliment to the worth of
Minot’s book that one of the most eminent
of American ornithologists, and one who
could ill spare the time from his own im-
portant work, was willing to edit it.
C. H. M.
The Central Nervous System of Desmognathus
fusca. By Pirrre A. Fisn. Reprinted
from Journal of Morphology, x, 1, 1895.
Mr. Fish has made an important contri-
bution to our knowledge of the brain of
salamaders. His preliminary remarks em-
brace two-statements of interest: (1) That
the adult Desmognathus fusca lives equally
well in the open air or wholly under water,
even where no trace of lungs exists; and
(2) that the mouth cavity and esophagus
are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium.
During arial respiration the floor of the
mouth is alternately raised and lowered very
rapidly, while when the animal was kept
under water it was raised and held in that
position along time; the inference being that
the blood is oxygenated by means of the
epithelium of the mouth.
The simplicity of the amphibian brain
renders it, as the author states, ‘‘a most
admirable object for the study of morpho-
logical relations; its general absence of flex-
ure, its successive segmental arrangement
and the degree of exposure and differentia-
tion of these segments, give it a great ad-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 18.
vantage over most other generalized forms.”
It was found to be remarkable for the large
number of ‘embryological’ features pre-
served. 5
About 40 pages are devoted to the brain
and cranial nerves, and the paper is ac-
companied by a bibliography and four
plates. C. H. M.
Introduction to Botang. By Vounny M.
SpaLpine, Professor of Botany-in the
University of Michigan. Boston, D.C.
Heath & Co. 1895. Pp. 287.
PROFESSOR SPALDING has added to his
valuable book that which was needed to
make it complete, namely, a full glossary,
an index, a brief chapter on the organs of
flowerless plants, and a chapter on fungi.
These added chapters are in keeping with
the general plan of the book. ‘The material
required is briefly indicated and directions
given for its care. Laboratory directions,
brief notes directing the student’s attention
to prominent features, follow. These are
extremely good, and it is hoped this feature
of Spalding’s method of studying plants, cor-
responding, as it does, with Dodge’s method
in biology, will be pursued by future mak-
ers of text-books, and that we have seen
the last of full accounts of what is to be
seen, requiring on the part of the student
very little thought, and only the attention
necessary for the verification of the state-
ments. It is remarkable, when one stops:
to think of it, how little the inductive meth-
od is used in the study of biology. After
the directions, comes a little review or sum-
mary, giving information not likely to be
attained from laboratory practice. This is
a very marked feature of the volume andis
especially valuable because the information
givenis soup todate. A very slight exami-
nation of the foot-notes will reveal the fact
that the very latest research work has beem
consulted in the preparation of this text-
book. -
May 3, 1895.]
Since the book is only a year old, and
since its title is rather misleading, it may
not be out of place here to give a short ac-
count of it. Its strong point is that along
with the study of the morphology of the
seed, the root, the stem, the leaf, the flower,
the fruit, there is an excellent course of
physiological work indicated. Indeed, the
whole subject is discussed on the life side,
and, although in spite of its title, it is a
book adapted to the needs of rather ad-
vanced students, yet such a student could
easily adapt it to work even in primary
schools, according to the most modern peda-
gogical ideas.
After the general discussion of the life
history of the plant, follows a similar work
with each of the natural group of flowering
plants, the Algze, Fungi, Mosses, Ferns,
Equiseta,and the Club mosses, conducted
on the same genaral plan. Then follow the
Pines, the Monocotyledons and the Di-
cotyledons, a special point being made of
the relationship of the orders to each other.
In this, as in the physiology, a thorough
knowledge of the latest thought on the
subject is shown, and more than this, the
knowledge is given to the student often in a
much more logical and understandable way
than by consulting the original sources.
Altogether it is the best of the modern
text-books on the subject, both in matter
and method, and is admirably adapted for
use in colleges, either as a basis for advanced
work or to give the undergraduate a good
general knowledge of the subject.
‘ W. P. Wuson.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
NOTES AND NEWS.
FOSSIL VERTEBRATES OF ARGENTINA.
_ WE have recently received Part II. of the
Paleontologia Argentina, forming a continua-
tion of the Anales del Museo de la Plata, pub-
lished under the direction of Francisco P.
Moreno, Director of the Museum. This
SCIENCE.
497
sumptuous Memoir in royal quarto size con-
sists of ‘ Contributions to a Knowledge of the
Fossil Vertebrates of Argentina, by R. Lydek-
ker, in three parts covering the Dinosaurs
and Cetacea of Patagonia and the Ungulates.
of the Argentine. The text is in English
and Spanish in parallel columns, and is ac-
companied by thirty-two large plates which
give us some conception of the superb col--
lection of fossils in this Museum. In the
first section the author describes the Dino-
saurs from Patagonia belonging to Marsh’s
division of Sauropoda, which have not
hitherto been described from South America.
The agreement of some of these animals
with the North American Dinosaurs seems
to be strikingly close, so far as can be judged
from Mr. Lydekker’s description. The re-
mains, however, are not well preserved..
There are several plates principally illus--
trating the family Titanosauride. The
Cetacea come from a marine deposit in the
Territory of Chubet, and embrace especially
three skulls which are far more complete
than any of their European congeners and’
represent the Physodontidie, Squalodon-
tidee, Argyrocetidze and Platanistidee. The
most important section of the Memoir, how-
ever, is that relating to the extinct ungu-
lates which are described from the superb
collection in the La Plata Museum, belong-
ing to the aberrant Toxodontia and Litop-
terna, besides the typical Artiodactyla and
Perissodactyla. The author gives a clear
and concise description of the principal
characters of each family and of each genus,.
and has shown considerable skill and great
clearness in matters of priority, for the con-
fusion in South American paleontological
literature and reduplication of terms is
second only to that which prevails in our
own country, and has arisen from the simul-
taneous and independent publications of
Ameghino, Moreno and Mercerat. The
author has not gone into the labyrinthine
problems of specific priority, but has en-
498
deavored to clear up the genera with what
appears to be considerable success. Palzeon-
tologists everywhere are placed under a
great debt both to the author for his most
timely review of these forms and to the
Argentine Government for the liberal style
in which these Memoirs have been pub-
lished.
VARIATION IN CRABS.
Tur English monthly, Natural Science,
under its recent change of publishers, has
not lost any of the vigor which has charac-
terized it since its establishment three years
ago, and continues to be one of the most
interesting of the reviews of progress in
biology and geology which come before us.
The general editorial attitude is that of
entire independence of all traditional theo-
ries and authorities. There is shown no
bias in the present evolution controversy,
either towards the Darwinian or the La-
marckian side, but an impartial considera-
tion of each. In the April number are some
comments upon the recent discussion in the
Royal Society of the facts brought out by
Professor W. T. Weldon’s extensive statis-
tical investigation of variations in the shore
crabs, from which we take the following:
“Although Professor Weldon did not say
so, it must have occurred to many listeners
that this first result of statistical inquiry
upon yariation was in direct contradiction to
those who asserted that variation is not a
matter of ‘ chance,’ but has its course in de-
termined directions... . . Hisresults have
already established the importance of these
methods, and we cannot doubt that wher-
ever the methods are applied with discrim-
ination equally important results will be
obtaimed. .... . Pending such inquiry, he
may be taken to have shown that there is
a relation between selection and minute
variation, not that selection operates upon
minute variations.”
It seems to us too early even to make such
guarded inductions as these from these re-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 18.
searches, for their significance is very largely
diminished, if not completely destroyed by
our absence of a knowledge of the condi-
tions under which these seven thousand
crabs developed. If the variations were
due to congenital tendencies then their se-
lection has a bearing upon the eyolution
problem, but if the variations were due to
varying conditions of development, as is
more than probable in a large percentage of
cases, their selection has no bearing what-
ever upon the evolution problem. This is
the uncertainty which vitiates this method,
and is strangely overlooked by the editors
of Natural Science as well as by others.
None the less, this investigation is a step
in the right direction towards a sound in-
ductive basis for the solution of this most
pressing biological problem of the day.
REGRESSION AND ORGANIC STABILITY.
Mr. Francis Gatton (42 Rutland Gate,
London W.) would be glad to receive infor-
mation regarding :
(1) Instances of such strongly marked
peculiarities, whether in form, in color or
in habit, as have occasionally appeared in a
single or ina few individuals among a brood;
but no record is wanted of monstrosities, or
of such other characteristics as are clearly
inconsistent with health and vigor.
(2) Instances in which any one of the
above peculiarities has appeared in the
broods of different parents. In replying to
this question, it will be hardly worth while
to record the sudden appearance of either
albinism or melanism, as both are well
known to be of frequent occurrence.
(3) Instances in which any of these pecu-
liarly characterised individuals have trans-
mitted their peculiarities, hereditarily, to
one or more generations. Especial mention
should be made whether the peculiarity was
in any case transmitted in all its original
intensity, and numerical data would be par-
ticularly acceptable, that showed the fre-
5
May 3, 1895.]
- quency of its transmission (@) in an undi-
_ luted form, (4) in one that was more or less
diluted, and (c) of its non-transmission in
any perceptible degree.
GENERAL.
Ar a meeting of the secretaries of the
Scientific Societies of Washington on April
18th, Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard, Presi-
dent of the Joint Committee, presiding, it
was decided to print in Scrence regular re-
ports of the meetings of all the societies.
PHILADELPHIA has been selected as the
place for the next meeting of the Society of
American Naturalists. In conjunction with
it will meet the affiliated societies—the
American Morphological Society and the
American Physiological Society, and prob-
ably the Geological Society of America, the
Association of American Anatomists and
the American Psychological Association.
Proressor Wo.corr Grpps, President of
the National Academy of Sciences, Professor
Herman Knapp of Columbia College and
Professor Hugo Miinsterberg of Harvard
University have been appointed an Ameri-
an committee to collect money for the
memorial to Helmholtz to be erected in
Dr. Lovts-FLoRENTIN-CAMEIL died at
ontenay-sous-Bois on March 11th, at the
great age of ninety-seven. He was for
any years head physician of the Asylum
the Insane of Charenton, being the suc-
cessor of Royer Collard and Esquirol.
Mr. J. C. Sumner, of the Royal College
‘ti on to Man.’
climbers organized in Oregon last year, pro-
ose sending by heliograph a message and
SCIENCE.
499
reply from British Columbia to Mexico on
July 10th. The codperation of societies
and individuals is requested in order that
all the intervening mountain peaks may be
occupied. Communications should be ad-
dressed to Mr. T. Brook White, Secretary,
Portland, Oregon.
A NationaL ErunoiocicaL Exposrrion
will be held at Prague from May 16th to
October 12th.
Amone the papers read at the annual
spring meeting of the Institution of Naval
Architects on April 3d, 4th and 5th, at
London, were ‘ Notes on Further Experience
with First-class Battleships,’ by Sir William
White; ‘On Solid Stream Forms,’ by D.
W. Taylor, U. S. Navy, and ‘On the
Method of Initial Condensation and Heat
Waste in Steam Engine Cylinders,’ by Pro-
fessor R. H. Thurston.
Mr. CuristopHer Hearn, of University
College, has been elected President of the
Royal College of Surgeons, to fill the vacaney
caused by the death of Mr. J. W. Hulke.
Mr. HERBERT SPENCER has begun a new
series of articles in The Popular Science
Monthly for May. His general subject is
‘ Professional Institutions,’ one of the divi-
sions of his Synthetic Philosophy, and he
will aim to show how each of the professions
has been developed out of the functions of
the priest or medicine-man.
Tue New York Legislature has appropri-
ated $16,000 for scientific work in horticul-
ture. The work will be under the imme-
diate charge of Professor L. H. Bailey of
Cornell University.
Tue Legislature of California has appro-
priated $250,000 to erect a building in San
Francisco for the professional departments
of the University of California.
Tue international importance of the work
done at the Columbia College Observatory
in investigating the subject of variation of
500
latitude has been recently indicated by an
offer, from the Royal Geodetic Institute at
Potsdam, of a considerable sum of money
to be used in employing computers to re-
‘duce the results.
A society has been incorporated in the
State of New York for the preservation of
‘scenic and historic places and objects. Mr.
Andrew H. Greene, to whom the move-
ment is chiefly due, is president of the so-
ciety, which includes among its trustees a
number of the leading citizens of New
York.
THE University of Kansas will send into
the field the present season five different
scientific expeditions. Professor Dyche
leaves the first of May to collect and
study the birds and mammals of Green-
land and adjacent regions; Professor Wil-
liston will have two expeditions for the col-
lection of vertebrate fossils, one in Western
Kansas and one in Wyoming; Chancellor
Snow, it is expected will spend the summer
in the Southwest with a party collectiug en-
tomological specimens; a fifth party under
Professor Haworth will be in the field dur-
ing the next six months engaged in map-
ping the Tertiary outcrops of the State.
The cost of the three geological expeditions
is borne by special appropriations from the
State Legislature.
Mr. Marx W. Harrineton, Chief of the
Weather Bureau, has issued a circular stat-
ing that a periodical is proposed, devoted to
Climatology and its relation to health and
disease, similar in size and general appear-
ance to the monthly weather review. The
cooperation is requested of sanitary boards
and societies, and of individuals interested
in this work.
Tue Italian Botanical Society met this
year at Palermo on the 13th and 26th of
April. The German Zodlogical Society
will meet at Strasburg on the 4th to the
6th of June.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 18,
AccorDING to the Zeitschrift fiir Luftschrift-
fahrt and the Revue Scientifique, Herr Berson,
on December 4, made the highest baloon
ascent on record, attaining an altitude of
9,100 metres. The temperature at this alti-
itude was —47.8° C. The highest tempera-
ture, 6.1° C., was at a height of 1,400 metres.
Tue death is announced of Dr. Peck,
director of the Museum of Natural History
in Gorlitz.
Aone recent new appointments in Ger-
many we note that Dr. Himstedt, professor
of physics in Giessen, has been called to
Freiburg ; Dr. Czermak, professor of oph-
thalmology in Innsbruck, to Prague, and
Dr. Steinmann, professor of minerology in
Freiburg, to Tibingen. Dr. Minkowski has
been made professor of mathematics in
Ko6nigsberg.
THE mathematician, Dr. E. D. F. Meissel,
died at Kiel, on March 11, at the age of
sixty-eight years.
The Revue Scientifique of April 13th reports
the speeches made at the banquet given in
honor of M. Berthelot on April 4th.
Speeches were made by MM. Poincaré, Bris-
son, Perrier, Richet, Zola and M. Berthelot
himself.
Proressor Ryper at the time of his death
had nearly completed the MS. of a book,
and left other scientific work of importance
which will probably be published shortly
under very competent editorship.
Tur Prince of Wales has formally pre-
sented to Sir Joseph Lister the Albert
Medal of the Society of Arts for ‘the dis-
covery and establishment of the antiseptic
method of treating wounds and injuries, by
which not only has the art of surgery been
greatly promoted and human life saved in
all parts of the world, but extensive indus-
tries have also been created for the supply
of materials required for carrying the treat-
ment into effect.”
[Ay 3, 1895.]
The American Naturalist for March con-
tains illustrations of some remarkable forms
deep sea fishes dredged by the U. S.
National Museum. The genera have been
named Hariotta, Rondletia and Cetomimus.
M. w’Asst Maze has communicated to
fore Fahrenheit’s invention.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
Av the regular meeting of the National
Geographic Society in the large hall of
Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C., Friday
evening, April 19, Mr. Robert T. Hill, of
the U. 8. Geological Survey, delivered an
address upon the Geography and Geology
of Costa Rica and Panama. The fact that
he has only recently returned from a tour
scientific investigation of the region,
ng which he saw a good deal of the
ailing revolutionary spirit, gave special
iterest to his remarks. ,
Grateful acknowledgment was made for
e opportunity to study the geology of the
jacent continental and island areas fur-
ed the speaker by the enlightened lib-
ity of Prof. Agassiz.
‘Mr. Hill’s lecture, illustrated by a large
number of very interesting lantern slides,
'y from photographs taken by him dur-
s recent trip, was partly popular and
tly technical in character, descriptive of
® topography, vegetation, products, archi-
SCIENCE.
501
tecture and customs of the widely contrast-
ing regions of the Isthmus of Panama and
the modern Spanish American Republic of
Costa Rica to the northward.
The Isthmus was discussed as a type of
the low-lying costal lands of the tropical
region, where Caucasian population could
only be maintained by constant immigra-
tion, and which would be uninhabited did
it not lie in the track of commerce between
two oceans. All of its population, except
a few unconquered Indian tribes, is concen-
trated in the two seaports of Colon and
Panama, or along the right of way of the
railway and canal. On either side it is
still an unconquered jungle. The impor-
tant commercial and political American in-
terests in this region were discussed, show-
ing that its traffic is entirely in the control of
Americans, and that it is an important point
between our Atlantic and Pacifie sea-ports.
Costa Rica, on the other hand, is an ex-
ample of the higher and better climatic
conditions existing in the Tropical Ameri-
can region, where indigenous civilization
flourishes under healthy climate conditions.
Mr. Hill spoke of this as an ideal country
and praised the hospitality and progressive
spirit of the people. Illustrations were
given of the entire course of the Panama
canal, showing the topography, cuttings,
machinery and laborers at present working
upon the construction. While not commit-
ting himself to any preference of canal
routes, he said that the affairs of the Pana-
ma Canal Company had been painted in
this country much darker than they de-
served. A far greater amount of work had
been accomplished than is supposed. The
machinery instead of rotting is kept in the
best of condition and the affairs of the
Company are not as hopelessly involved as
represented. A liberal sum is still in the
treasury, and while the concern is in the
hands of the courts, it looks as if the French
had no intention, after having completed
502
the hardest part of the canal construction,
of abandoning it. The terminal port facili-
ties have been completed. Nearly 25 miles
of the canal is finished, reducing the dis-
tance between the oceans from 47 to 22
miles; about two-fifths of the necessary
grading has been accomplished, and every
possible machine and tool for its completion
is upon the ground. The great problem of
controlling and diverting the waters of the
Chagres has also been accomplished. It is
the general opinion of all Americans who
have observed the work, including the en-
gineering of our own famous Cabin John
Bridge, that no great obstacle stands in the
way of the early completion of this work
except the recuperation of its financial
affairs from the shameful mismanagement
they have suffered.
The lecturer gave interesting accounts of
the various zones of vegetation seen in as-
cending the great voleanoes of Costa Rica,
and, incidentally, a general description and
classification of the region bordering the
Gulf and Caribbean Sea. Especial atten-
tion was called to the important bearing of
this Spanish American region, between the
latitude of the Orinoco and the southern
boundary of the United States, upon the
great problems of continental development,
and its correlated biologic and meteorologic
problems ; and to the great work Prof. Alex-
ander Agassiz has undertaken at his own
expense in studying the marine physiog-
raphy of the region, especially as regards
the origin of its vast areas of coral reefs.
The relief of this portion of the earth’s
surface, a knowledge of which involves a
study both of the land and the submarine
topography, was provisionally classified
into four great divisions: mountains of
accumulation; mountains of corrugation;
coastal plains of uniformly uplifted mar-
ginal sea-bottom, and land formed by the
combined action of coral polyps and wind
and tide (as described by Prof. Agassiz).
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 18.
In speaking of the mountains he classified
the systems as follows:
1. The southern extension of the Cordil-
leran region of the United States, which
terminates with the great scarp of the Mex-
ican plateau in the latitude of Vera Cruz.
2. The Andes proper, the north and south
ridges of which end abruptly in Northern
Colombia.
3. A system of more ancient mountains
having an east and west trend and com-
posed of folded Mesozoic rocks, with Paleo-
zoic axes, extending along the north coast
of South America (between the Caribbean
and Orinoco); throughout the Greater An-
tilles; and through Guatemala, Nicaragua
and British Honduras. For this Mr. Hill
proposed the name of the ‘ Antillean Sys-
tem.’ It was shown that there were sub-
marine topographic ridges connecting the
Honduras peninsula with the islands of
Jamaica, Hayti and Puerto Rico, probably
also parts of this ancient corrugation.
4, Protuberances of oldér volcanic ac-
cumulation, such as the Windward Islands
and Isthmian region.
5. Mountains of recent voleanic accumu-
lation, including the three widely separated
groups, with different trends, of southern
Mexico, Central America and the northern
Andes, all more or less parasitic upon the
termini of the antecedent and fundamental
mountain systems of corrugation, and to a
certain extent (owing to their newness and
greater mass) concealing them.
EVEerREerT HAYDEN,
Secretary.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
Ar a meeting on April 6th, Dr. Theo.
Gill read a paper ‘ On the Torpedoes.’
The subject was discussed from two points:
view, taxonomic and nomenclatural.
The family of Torpedoes, or cramp fishes,
is well differentiated from all others by the
development (from original muscular tis-
May 3, 1895.]
sues) of a pair of electric batteries in the re-
gion between the cranium and anterior ex-
_ tension of the pectoral fins. The family is
divisible naturally into three sub-families
which should be called Narcobatinz, Nar-
einine and Hypnine. These sub-families
are differentiated by modifications of the
eranium and skeleton generally, disk, tail,
position of spiracles and structure of teeth.
The nomenclature involves a_ singular
point. The name Torpedo was first applied
(by Forskal in 1775) asa generic term to
the electric catfish of the Nile subsequently
ealled Malapterurus, and was accompanied
by a tolerable generic diagnosis. (The full
history and etymology of the word Tor-
pedo was given.) Therefore Torpedo must
be used for the Nematognath fish. The
electric ray must consequently receive an-
other name, and Narcobatis, of Blainville, is
therefore available. The genera would then
have the following names: Narcobatine,
with Narcobatis and Tetranarce; Narcinine,
with Narcine, Discopyge, Narbe (Astrabe)
and Temera ; Hypninw, with Hypnos.
Mr. L. O. Howard cited the name Taran-
tula as a similar case in which a generic
name had long been misapplied. It was
first given to a scorpion, and after long ser-
vice as the name of a spider it has recently
been restored to its original meaning. Dr.
W. H. Dall and Dr. C. Hart Merriam both
eed that in all such cases the strict law
of priority should govern.
Major J. W. Powell spoke on the Classi-
fication of the Subject-Matter of Biology
and the paper was discussed at length.
Freperic A. Lucas,
Secretary.
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS.
Tue Academy held its regular meeting on
April 15 with President Green in the Chair
d twenty-nine members and _ visitors
) "es ent.
‘Miss Mary E. Murtfeldt read a paper on
.
SCIENCE.
503
‘Habits of Certain Seed Feeding Insects,’
giving the result of her observations and
experiments with insects which feed upon
the seeds of weeds and other injurious
plants. Some of these insects were new to
science. Miss Murtfeldt stated as her con-
clusion that the seed feeding insects exer-
cise a very pronounced effect in preventing
the spread of weeds, and in many instances
almost exterminate them.
A. W. DovGtas,
Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
BOTANICAL GAZETTE, APRIL.
Issued April 20, 1895.
Present Problems in the Anatomy, Morphology
and Biology of the Cactacee: W.F.GANonG.
This is the first installment of a paper (to
be concluded in the May number) setting
forth in brief statement what is at present
known of this group in regard to the topics
enumerated in the title, and the problems,
mainly to be solved by careful field observa-
tion and a study of development, which still
remain to be worked out.
64 pp., 2 pl.
Flowers and Insects, XIV.: CHAR LES ROBERT-
SON.
In this paper and its predecessor (Bot.
Gaz. 20: 104, Mr. 1895) Mr. Robertson has
somewhat changed his plan of contributions
to the relations of flowers and insects, in
now bringing together his information in
regard to the several species of a genus, ac-
companying it with a voluminous bibli-
ography. Species of Gentiana, Frasera,
Phlox, Lithospermum, Physalis and Mim-
ulus are discussed.
Notes From My Herbarium, IL:
DEANE.
The herbaritim of Mr. Deane is one of the
finest private collections in this country in
the excellence and completeness of the
plants represented, viz., those of the range
of Gray’s Manual. It is specially rich in
.
WALTER
504
its representation of life histories of plants
so far as these can be shown by dried speci-
mens. In this series of notes Mr. Deane is
putting on record some of the information
gained in the making of this collection.
The fruit of Nymphea odorata Ait., a case of
teratology in Apocynum androsemifolium L.,
and Typha latifolia L. are discussed in No.
Il.
Synopsis of North American Amaranthacee, IT. :
Epwin B. Utine and Wm. L. Bray.
This installment of the paper gives a sys-
tematic enumeration of the N. Am. species
of the genera Acnida and Gomphrena.
Acnida tamariscina prostrata and Gomphrena
Tuerckheimii are described as new. To the
latter Telanthera Tuerckheimii Vatke is prob-
ably to be referred.
A Reply to Dr. Robinson’s Criticism of the ‘ Last
of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta of North-
eastern America :’ FREDERICK Y. COvVILLE.
Among Briefer Articles Mr. J. Schneck
describes and figures the flowering and fruit-
ing of the spider-flower, Cleome spinosa L., a
subtropical species which reaches up the
Mississippi valley as far as S. Ills.; Mr.
Geo. H. Shull records some observations on
the branching, inflorescence and flowers of
Enslenia albida, illustrated with a plate;
Mr. F. H. Blodgett adds some points to a
paper (Bot. Gaz. 19: 61. F 1894) on the
development of the bulb of the adder’s
tongue, Erythronium Americanwm Ker.; Mr.
Thomas Meehan gives a short biographical
sketch of the late John H. Redfield of Phil-
adelphia, and Professor W. W. Bailey does
the same for the late Mr. George Hunt of
Providence, R. I. In a note on the Syste-
matic Botany of North America, Professor
N. L. Britton, the chairman of the Board of
Editors, gives a list of the parts at present
assigned to the collaborators named.
The editorials deal with the discussion on
nomenclature and the progress of the Syste-
matic Botany of North America. In the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 18.
department of Current Literature Sayre’s
Materia Medica (botanical part), Thomas
and Dudley’s Manual of Histology, and
Lister’s Monograph of the Mycetozoa are re-
viewed, with briefer mention of several
other works. The number closes with six
pages of notes and news regarding botanists,
their doings and writings.
THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, APRIL.
On the Presence of Fluorine as a Test for the
Fossilization of Animal Bones.
Experimental Evolution Amongst Plants: L.
H. Batry.
Observations on a so-called Petrified Man: J. M.
STEDMAN.
On -the Validity of the Genus Margaritana:
Caas. T. SmMPson.
Editor’s Table ; Recent Interature ; Recent Books
and Pamphlets; General Notes; Geography
and Travels ; Mineralogy ; Petrography; Ge-
ology and Paleontology; Botany; Zoology;
Entomology; Embryology ; Psychology; Arche-
ology and Ethnology ; Microscopy.
Proceedings of Scientific Societies; Scventifie
News.
NEW BOOKS.
The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. IIL.,
Molluscs. A. H. Cooxr. Brachiopods
(recent), A. E. Surerey. Brachiopods
(fossil), F. R. C. Rrrp. New York and
London, Macmillan & Co. 1895. Pp.
xi + 535. $2.60.
Elements of Mineralogy, Chrystallography and
Blowpipe Analysis. ALFRED J. Moses and
CHARLES LATHROP Parsons. New York,
D. Van Nostrand Company. 1895. Pp.
vii + 342.
Steam Power and Mill Work. Gro. W. Sut-
cLIFFE. New York, Macmillan & Co,
1895. $4.50.
A Treatise on Bessel Functions. ANDREW
Gray and G. B. Marraews. New Yorky
Macmillan & Co. 1895, $4.50.
=
Se eee
DUE NCE.
NEw SERIES.
VoL. I. No. 19.
Fripay, May 10, 1895.
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schen Analyse. Mit einem Vorwort von Prof. 8.
Hoogewerff in Delft. Mit 92 Figuren im Text.
224 Seiten 8°. M. 6.
BETHAULT, PRoF. F., Les Prairies. Prairies natu-
relles. _ Prairies de Fauche. 223 pages pet. in 8°.
Cart. Fr. 3.
BIEDERMANN, Pror. W., Elektrophysiologie.
Erste Abteilung. Mit 136 Abbildungen. 440 Seiten.
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BOHM, PROSEKTOR A. A., und M. von DAVIDOFF,
Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen einschliesslich
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440 Seiten. gr. 8°. Leinwandband. M. 8.
GIRARD, PRor. HENRI, Aide-Mémoire de Zoologie-
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GRAETZ, PRoF. Dr. L., Compendium der Physik.
Fiir Studirende. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte
Auflage. Mit 257 Abbildungen. 454 Seiten. 98°.
M. 7.
HAssE, ProF. Dr. C., Handatilas der sensiblen und
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Studirende. 36 Tafeln. gr. 8°. Kart. M. 12.60.
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LAUE, MAX., Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. Ein
Vertreter deutscher Naturforschung im neunzehnten
Jahrhundert 1795-1876. Nach seinen Reiseberichten,
seinem Briefwechsel mit A. v. Humboldt, v. Chamisso,
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me .“6.
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biologie auf historischer Grundlage. Mit 50 Abbil-
dungen. 432Seiten. 8°. M. 6.
MARCHLEWSKEI, Dr. L., Die Chemie des Chloro-
phylils. 82Seiten. 8°. M. 2.
MERKEL, PROFESSOR FR., und O. BoNNET, Ergeb-
nisse der Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte
Ill. Band: 1893. Mit 49 Textabbildungen. 633
Seiten. gr. 8°. M. 20.
METZGER, Pror. Dr. A., und Pror. Dr. N. I. C.
Mutter, Die Nonnenraupe und ihre Bakterien Un-
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botanischen Instituten der Kénigl. preuss. Forstaka-
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Thre Geschichte und Lehre. Mit zahlreichen Abbil-
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M. 12.
Pavy, Dr. F. W., Die Physiologie der Kohlen-
hydrate. Ihre Verwendung als Nahrungsmittel und
ihr Verhiiltnis zum Diabetes. Autorisirte deutsche
Ausgabe von Dr. Karl Grube. Mit 32 Abbildungen.
257 Seiten. 8°. M. 7.50.
PETERS, Dr. Karu, Das Deutsch—Ostafrikanische
Schutzgebiet. Imamtlichen Auftrage. Mit 23 Voll-
bildern und 21 Textabbildungen, sowie 3 Karten in
besonderer Mappe. 467Seiten. Lnwdbd. M. 1.50.
Puoss, Dr. H., Das Weib in der Natur und Vdél-
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SCHENCK, Dr. F., Physiologisches Practicum. Eine
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TUBEUF, DR. KARL FREIHERR. VY. Pflanzen-
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VERWORN, Dr. MAX. Allgemeine Physiologie.
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li SCIENCE.—AD VERTISEMENTS.
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Chemical Analysis of Oils, Fats and Waxes,
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cine, Edinburgh. 3rd Edition. 8vo. 782pages. [Nearly Ready. ]
A Treatise on Bessel Functions,
And their Applications to Physics. By ANDREW GRAY, M. A., Professor of Physics in the University of
North Wales, and G. B. MATHEWs, M. A., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. 8yvo, cloth, $4.50, net.
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CONTENTS :
Current Notes on Physiography (VI.): W. M.
MOST eintelsie/a?ole eic'e\a's «o\on'=\s sistettiaalm ne @inia/aiei= eb. 505
Notes on Agriculture (IJ.): Byron D. HALSTED .509
Lagoa Santa; ERWIN F. SMITH .......--+-00-- 510
The Progress of Paronymy: Burt G. WILDER...515
The Marine Biological Laboratory ........++++.++ 516
The Generic Names of the Three-toed Echidna: T.
BEBATEMMISES gis 0.6, 2:05 s+ 0 0» so bsleidien (eae emis = 518
EMMESVIUNCTICS 2— a) 0.0. s os w1osiscnnasee uations 519
Spectroscopic Observations of Saturn at the Alle-
gheny Observatory: JAMES E. KEELER. A
General Subject-Index to Periodical Scientific Lit-
erature: EDWARD 8. HOLDEN.
Beientific Literature :— .... 2.22. seeceeeeseeecees 522
Rothpletz’ Ost-Alpen: ANDREW C. LAWSON.
Yokoyoma’s Mesozoic Plants: Wm. M. Foun-
TAINE. Arnold’s Chemistry: EDWARD H.
Keser. Gray’s Botany: N. L. B. Botan-
ical: JOSEPH F. JAMES.
MPMTMLELOTUPNLD So ac occ ccnls soe cedete dem aniaatetss 528
_ Societies and Academies : — .2---..-eeeeeeeeeeee 531
The Biological Society of Washington; The Bos-
ton Society of Natural History.
Mileientific Jotrnals:—.....cccccccscccccccsccees 532
MSS. intended for publication and books, ete., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
eKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Subscriptions and advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
‘CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY (VI).
SURFACE CURRENTS OF THE GREAT LAKES,
A REVISED edition of the atlas of ‘ Surface
Currents of the Great Lakes,’ as deduced
from the movements of bottle papers during
the seasons of 1892, 1893 and 1894, by Pro-
fessor M. W. Harrington, has lately been
ed as Bulletin B of the Weather Bureau.
The text describes the method of study, and
gives tables of the prevailing winds of the
lake-port stations and a list of recovered
bottles, 672 being found out of nearly 5000
floated. The chief drifts are: eastward
along the south side of Superior, westward
along the north side; south along the west
side of Michigan and Huron, north along
the east side; generally eastward in Erie
and Ontario. Many irregular movements
are noted, especially near shore. Local
and transient currents, formed during se-
vere gales, are sometimes strong enough to
drag vessels from their moorings. ‘“ There
also oceurs, occasionally, on the Great
Lakes a phenomenon which may be called
a seiche, namely, a wave of considerable
height which travels unaccompanied by
other waves, and is seen by navigators as a
white wall approaching and rapidly passing
them.” Following the use of the term seiche
on the Swiss lakes, where it originated, it
would be more properly applied to the rise
and fall of the water on the shore, in periods
of generally less than an hour; these being
well known at our Lake ports, but as yet
very little studied. These white-walled
waves also call for investigation.
BUCHAN’S CHALLENGER REPORT ON OCEANIC
CIRCULATION.
Tue latest volume of the Challenger re-
ports contains thirty-eight pages of text and
sixteen maps, prepared by Dr. Alexander
506
Buchan, of Edinburgh, to illustrate the
density and temperature of ocean water at
different depths; all available material
being employed in this elaborate discussion,
whose ultimate object is the determination
of the oceanic circulation. The charts ex-
hibit the mean annual specific gravity of
the surface and the bottom waters, the mean
annual surface temperatures, and the tem-
peratures at every hundred fathoms of
depth to 1000, then at 1500, 2000 and at
the bottom. At 400 and 500 fathoms the
South Atlantic and the North Pacific are
the colder oceans; the North Atlantic and
the Indian are exceptionally warm. At 600
and 700 fathoms the most remarkable fea-
ture is the relation of North Atlantic tem-
perature to the warm over-saline water that
issues from the Mediterranean; a similar
but less marked effect being noticeable in
the Indian ocean near the Red Sea. The
average at 700 fathoms being 38.°1, the
northwestern Indian ocean is 44°, the
eastern North Atlantic is 51°, with the
maximum centering precisely towards Gib-
raltar. At 900 and 1000 fathoms the tem-
peratures in low latitudes are symmetrically
warmer than in high latitudes; but the
difference is less than two degrees.
Dr. Buchan’s text summarizes the facts
and deals little with theories ; but he ac-
cepts the winds as the chief cause of the
surface currents, and he ascribes deep
movements to differences of density, thus
indicating the truth of both sides of the
Croll-Carpenter controversy of a quarter
century ago.
THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN,
Tue third series of the ‘Berichte der
Commission fir Erforschung des ostlichen
Mittelmeeres,’ recently issued in the me-
moirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences
of Vienna, contains further physical investi-
gations by Luksch and Wolf on the basis of
soundings on the ‘ Pola’ in the Megan sea
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 19,
in 1893. The sea consists of a number of
separate basins, of which the deepest (2250
met.) lies north of the east end of Candia.
Much greater depths occur in the Mediter-
ranean east and west of thisisland. Charts
of temperature and salinity at the surface
and at successive depths to the bottom ex-
hibit the distribution of these features with
much detail. The surface temperatures are
maintained to a depth of about thirty meters;
then follows a rapid cooling for seventy or a
hundred meters, below which there is a
gradual cooling to the bottom, where tem-
peratures a little lower than 13° C. preyail.
AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNALS.
It is regrettable, but for the present per-
haps not surprising, that no American
geographical society issues a journal from
which a student, teacher or general reader
can gather a thorough acquaintance with
geographical activity over the world. A
journal of thorough and scientific character
needs a background of accumulated ex-
perience, a large library and exchange list,
a good number of active contributors and
correspondents, and a large subscription
list; and we have not yet been fortunate
enough to develop all these conditions under
a single control. The best association for
such a journal in this country would be
with the American Geographical Society of
New York, its membership being large, its
funds comparatively munificent and its
library of long-continued growth and cer-
tainly much superior to that of any other
similar society in the United States ; but,
although this society counts explorers,
travellers, government officials, professors
and a large representation of the general
public among its members, the number of
its producing geographers is small, and its
quarterly Bulletin, now in its twenty-sixth
volume, can hardly at present be included
among the important geographical periodi-
cals of the world. We understand that
_ plans for greater activity and enlarged form
of publication are in consideration. The
National Geographic Society of Washington
is but a few years old. Its activity at pres-
ent is greatest in its home city in the matter
; of geographical lectures, which are very suc-
cessful. A list of this winter’s lectures was
given in Scrence No. 11. Its Magazine is
of irregular publication, presumably on ac-
count of lack of funds. While it contains
a larger proportion of physiographic matter
than any other publication in this country,
it gives practically nothing of general news
or literature. Appalachia, the organ of the
Appalachian Mountain Club of Boston, the
Bulletin of the Geographical Club of Phila-
delphia, the Bulletin of the Geographical
Society of the Pacific, and the papers of the
Sierra Club, both of San Francisco, com-
plete the list of geographical publications in
this country as far as known to the writer.
Geographical notes are given in the Amer-
ican Naturalist and in the Popular Science
Monthly. All these geographical journals
deserve warm support, especially in their
own communities, but none of them pre-
sents the subject of geography nearly as fully
as itis presented by several journals abroad.
-
FOREIGN GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNALS.
Tue small amount of space that can be
allowed in Scrence to geography makes it
impossible to report on the progress of ex-
_ploration, save when results of especial im-
portance or of immediate physiographic
interest are announced. Exploration is,
however, fully presented in various foreign
geographical journals ; and, in the hope of
extending their circulation in the libraries
of our country, occasional notes of their
haracter and contents will be here intro-
duced. Preéminent among all such publi-
cations stand the Geographical Journal of
the Royal Geographical Society of London,
and Petermann’s Geographische Mitthei-
lungen, issued by the great geographical
- May 10, 1895.) SCIENCE.
507
publishing house of Justus Perthes of Gotha
and now conducted by Professor Alex.
Supan. The Geographical Journal has for
the great body of our students of geography
the advantage of being in our own lan-
guage, and it will therefore long continue
to reach the larger circle of readers. Be-
sides general articles and current news,
ten or twelve pages are given in each num-
ber to notes on geographical literature by
Dr. H. R. Mill, the entries being conven-
iently summarized by brief headings in
bold type, arranged under countries. Ex-
tended reviews are made of important
works. But those who can consult Ger-
man sources—and this ability is now gen-
erally demanded of students in higher col-
legiate and university work—will find in
Petermann’s Mittheilungen an unrivaled
bibliography of the whole range of geo-
graphical literature, from the geology of
the earth beneath to the meteorology of the
air above. Reviews of the more important
publications are given in so extended a
form that reference to original sources is
unnecessary, except for the specialist in
some particular division of the subject.
Anyone who follows these reviews and the
items of monthly news will acquaint him-
self very fully with the general progress of
current geographical work. Other foreign
journals will be referred to in subsequent
numbers of ScIENCE.
WAGNER’S GEOGRAPHISCHES JAHRBUCH.
Tis indispensable annual, founded in
1866 by Behm and now in its seventeenth
volume, is a fitting supplement to the other
geographical publications of the house of
Perthes in Gotha. The most important re-
views and summaries in the Jahrbuch for
1894 are: on terrestrial magnetism by
Schering, map projections by Hammer, eth-
nology by Gerland, geographical meteor-
ology by Briickner, and on the geographical
literature of the European countries by va-
508
rious contributors. Several of the latter are
of great thoroughness and may serve as
guides in ordering the best recent publica-
tions for public and college libraries. The
most thorough are by Fischer on Southern
Europe, Neumann on Germany and Sieger
on Austria-Hungary. That by Schlichter
on Great Britain and Ireland unwarrant-
ably omits mention of the recent editions
of Geikie’s Scotland and Ramsay’s England.
The volume closes with a series of small
scale index-maps, giving the state of ad-
vance of topographical surveys in Europe,
India and the United States up to the au-
tumn of 1894. One may thus determine at
a glance whether the sheet for a certain lo-
eality in any country is yet published or
not. The practical use of these indexes
would have been increased if the name and
address of the official bookseller from whom
the maps may be purchased had been given.
FORSCHUNGEN ZUR DEUTCHEN
VOLKSKUNDE.
LANDES- UND
THE eighth and latest volume of these val-
uable essays, edited by Kirchhoff of Halle,
and published at Stuttgart by HEngelhorn,
contains studies by Schreiber on the climate
of Saxony, Partsch on the glaciation of the
Riesengebirge, and Follman on the Hiffel,
besides three others on historical and eth-
nological subjects. Schreiber’s essay gives
a full account of the periodic values of vari-
ous climatic factors, but it is deficient in
omitting all account of the unperiodic or
eyclonie changes, which in winter are
dominant, and fully deserve recognition as
climatic elements. Partsch presents a care-
ful study of the moraines and associated
terraces of the Riesengebirge, which rise a
few miles south of the extreme limit as-
cribed to the northern ice sheet in that re-
gion. The height of the snow line during
glacial times is placed at about 1200 meters,
by means of ratios between length of gla-
ciers and area of snow fields, as determined
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Voz. I. No. 19,
in the Alps. An older and a younger gla-
ciation are separated by a considerable in-
terval, during which normal valley making
was in progress. The author dissents from
Berendt’s views concerning a more general
glaciation of the Riesengebirge. Follman’s
account of the Hifel is chiefly geological
and descriptive, little attention being given
to the development of the existing topog-
raphy or to the explanation of the present
courses of the streams. The volcanoes and
the maare, of course, receive special atten-
tion.
PENCK’S MORPHOLOGIE DER ERDOBER-
FLACHE.
Tus is the most important work on physi-
ography that has appeared during the past
year; indeed, in many respects it is a
unique work, one that will stand long at the
head of works of its class. It is a worthy
successor of earlier volumes in the series
of geographical handbooks (published by
Engelhorn, Stuttgart) to which it belongs—
Ratzel’s Anthropogeographie, Hann’s Kli-
matologie, Heim’s Gletscherkunde, Bogus-
lawski and Krimmel’s Oceanographie and
others ; and in the matter of citations of
authorities it is much superior to any of its
predecessors. Penck’s acquaintance with
the literature of his subject is truly remark-
able. Each topic is outlined historically,
as well as in its present status. A subject
relatively so subordinate as the effect of the
earth’s rotation on rivers has thirty-five cita-
tions; sand dunes have fifty-one. Pro-
cesses of deformation, deposition and denu-
dation are all considered elaborately, with
special reference to the forms that they pro-
duce, and this part of the book might prop-
erly be called Morphogenie. The forms them-
selves-are considered afterwards at length.
The more general headings in the table of
contents are: Form and size of the earth;
area of land and water, mean altitude of
lands and depth of seas, volume of lands and
May 10, 1895.]
seas ; continents and oceans and their per-
manence. Land surfaces; weathering and
denudation by wind, rivers and ice; defor-
mations of the surface. The forms of the
land; plains, hills of accumulation, valleys,
basins, mountains, depressions, caverns.
The sea; its movements, coasts and bot-
tom; islands.
The chief deficiency of the book is the
scarcity of illustrations and the rough qual-
ity of nearly all the few cuts that are intro-
duced. Many are merely diagrams, often
with excessive vertical exaggeration. This
is to be regretted in a subject where graphic
aid of the highest quality is necessary for
the adequate presentation of the facts. But
as the work is in two volumes of 471 and
696 pages, the omission of illustrations has
evidently been a matter of necessity.
W.M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
NOTES UPON AGRICULTURE (II.).
MUSCARDINE DISEASE OF CHINCH-BUGS.
One of the most serious of insect depre-
dations to wheat and corn is that caused by
the chinch-bug, and for years methods of
checking it by employing a parasitic fungus
have been the subject of research. In
Kansas special appropriations have been
made by the Legislature to determine the
best means of propagating and applying the
virus. The latest information upon this
subject comes in the shape of a sixty-page
- bulletin with eight plates (No. 38, March,
95) from the Illinois Experiment Station
prepared by Dr. Forbes. The fungus experi-
mented with is Sporotrichum globuliferum,
Speg., which was cultivated successfully
upon a mixture of corn meal and beef broth
and afterwards distributed to farmers in the
chinch-bug infested portions of the State.
The White Muscardine (Sporotrichium)
spreads most rapidly in the field when the
weather is moist and the ‘ catch’ is quickest
in the low spots in the field and among
SCIENCE.
509
fallen herbage. Professor Forbes is of the
opinion that the disease may be developed
without infection by artificially producing
the above conditions by trampling down the
grain in spots or cutting and stocking small
portions as starting points for the infection.
It was observed that mites feed upon the
Muscardine and in some of the artificial
cultures eat up ‘the last vestige of the
fungus.’ The Sporotrichium lives upon many
kinds of insects, and a plate is given of the
appearance of it upon a leaf skeletonizer
(Carnarsia), June Beetle (Lachnosterna),
Walnut caterpillar (Datana).
BACTERIOSIS OF RUTABAGA,.
THE number of diseases of plants of bac-
terial origin is rapidly on the increase, or,
more strictly writing, the nature of these
troubles is in these later days being better
understood. A portion of Bulletin 27 of
the Iowa Experiment Station is devoted to
a disease of rutabagas that Professor Pam-
mel finds, through a long course of bacteri-
ological study, to be caused by a micro6ér-
ganism which he names Bacillus campestris
Heesp:; and figures in details in a plate.
This disease is distinguished by its strong
odor, the decay usually beginning at the
crown of the root, the fibro-vascular zone
becomes black, while the softer portions of
the root become soft and finally watery.
Healthy roots were caused to decay by in-
troducing the Bacilli, previously isolated
by cultural methods, into their tissue.
WEED SEEDS IN WINTER WINDS. .
Tr is well known that winds play an im-
portant réle in the distribution of seeds,
Professor Bolley, in the North Dakota Ex-
periment Station Bulletin (No. 17, March,
1895), records that in two square feet of a
three-weeks old and three-inch deep snow
drift upon an ice pond ten yards from any
weeds he found nineteen weed seeds, and
and in another drift quite similarly situated
thirty-two seeds representing nine kinds
510
of weeds. While the wind was blowing
twenty miles per hour a peck of mixed
seeds was poured upon the snow crust, and
ten minutes after 191 wheat grains, 53 flax
seeds, 43 buckwheat and 91 rag weed seeds
were found in a trench thirty rods from
where they had been poured upon the crust.
BLACK KNOT OF PLUMS AND CHERRIES.
Tue Black Knot fungus (Plowrightia mor-
bosa Schw.) is an old orchard enemy. Pro-
fessor Lodeman, in Bulletin 81 (December,
94) Cornell Experiment Station, has given
the long bibliography of the subject and
shows, by means of cuts, how the spores of
the fungus may find their way between the
adjoining layers of bark in the forks of the
small limbs. At these places the bark is
thin and the growing layer (cambium)
comes near to the surface, thus facilitating
the inoculation. Iuodgement is also pro-
duced at these angles between stems, and
besides it is here that knots are most apt
to form. Experiments in spraying knotty
trees with Bordeaux mixture gave results
that were decidedly encouraging.
RECENT APPLE FAILURES.
In another bulletin (No. 84) from the
Cornell Experiment Station—and there are
many and fine ones—‘The Recent Apple Fail-
ures of Western New York’ are considered
by Professor Bailey. A glance at the cuts
shows that failures may be due to imperfect
pollination, injudicious application of fun-
gicides, but more particularly to the ravages
of the Apple Scab (Fusicladium dendriticum
Fl.), of which Professor Bailey gives a full
page colored plate showing the scab enemy
in detail from the appearance of the young
distorted fruit to the microscopic structure
of the fungus shown in leaf sections. That
the scab fungus is the leading cause of
apple failures is demonstrated by the fact
that thorough spraying to check it produc-
tiveness has been obtained. The essentials
for success in apple culture, as given by the
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 19.
author as his concise summary, are: ‘ till,
feed, prune, spray.”
DETASSELING CORN.
Tue removal of the male flowers from a
large or small per cent. of the corn plants in
a fleld has been experimented upon at va-
rious stations. Thus in Maryland where
two-thirds of the tassels were removed the
detasseled rows gave a decrease of nearly
10 per cent. At the Kansas Station by
detasseling alternate rows of six varieties in
every case there was a reduced yield aver-
aging 22 per cent. Delaware obtained
under similar circumstances an increase of
6.6 per cent.
Before us is the bulletin (No. 37 Feb.,
1895) upon ‘Corn Experiments’ of the Illi-
nois Experiment Station in which detassel-
ing receives its share of consideration. “ In
eighteen out of twenty-three comparisons
the yield of corn was greater for the rows
(alternate) having the tassels removed.
For tassels pulled we have an increase of
twenty-seven per cent., and for those cut
only six per cent. Removed before expand-
ing gives an increase of eleven per cent.
The average increase is thirteen per cent.”
At the Cornell Station one report (1890)
gave an increase of fifty per cent. for detas-
seling, but the next year there was no differ-
ence. The results thus far obtained teach
that the end of experimentation in this
direction is not yet reached.
Byron D. HAtstep.
RUTGERS COLLEGE.
LAGOA SANTA.
Suc# is the title of a memoir published
in 1892 by Professor Eugene Warming, of
the University of Copenhagen. It is also
styled Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeo-
grafi, and this sub-title sufficiently explains
the aim of the work. Lagoa Santa is &
small village about 835 meters above the
sea and 200 miles north of Rio de Janeiro,
May 10, 1895.]
in the Brazilian campos, or hilly region be-
yond the great virgin forests of the coast
mountains. Warming spent three years at
this place, 1863-66, and made large collec-
tions of plants, which have been studied
and described by various specialists. Now,
_ after nearly thirty years, the author gives
_ his general conclusions as to the flora of
_ this region, which he considers typical of a
great part of the interior of Brazil. The
mean temperature is 20.5°C, with a range
of 3.5° to 37°C. There are two seasons—
_ dry, from April to September, correspond-
ing to our winter, and wet, during the rest
of the year. Spring opens in August. June
is the coldest month, and December and
January are the warmest months, but there
is no winter in our meaning of the term,
the means of the coldest month being only
a few degrees below that of the warmest.
The annual rainfall is not known, but it is
_ considerable during part of the year, and
_ there are heavy dews in the dry season.
_ The heaviest rainfalls are in November,
December and January. The soil is a red
pee Aa
_ the decomposition of the primary rocks.
In places cavernous limestones occur.
There are no plains here, but only an in-
_ terminable succession of hills with narrow
valleys through which streams have cut
_ gorges or in which there are lakes or ponds.
_ Forests line the water courses and cover the
calcareous rocks. These are a meager con-
tinuation of the luxuriant coast forests.
; The greater part of the country is, however,
_ destitute of trees or bears only scrubby
growths. These surfaces are the campos.
They consist either of barren, pebbly pla-
_ teaus and flanks of hills which are subject to
Washing, covered with scant herbage and
often entirely destitute of trees, or of simi-
Jar areas bearing deeper and more fertile
lays and covered more or less densely with
herbs, shrubs and smalltrees. The marsh
and water plants form only an insignificant
SCIENCE.
511
part of the vegetation, and may be left out
of account in this synopsis. The contrast
between the forest vegetation and that of
the campos is very sharp, the plants of the
latter resembling desert vegetation in many
interesting particulars. Exceptin very rich
parts of the campos the herbaceous vegeta-
tion is never dense enough to hide the hard
red earth. Grasses are the most important
part of the herbaceous covering. There are
about sixty species, mostly Panicums, Pas-
palums and Andropogons. All are peren-
nial and grow in thin scattered tufts, never
forming a sod. The Cyperacez also grow
in the same way. The composites are rich
in species, especially the Vernoniese and
Eupatoriez. The Leguminosze come next
in number ofspecies. There are 554 species
of herbs on the campos, but there are no
biennials, and the number of annuals is very
few, i. e., less than 6%. There are also
very few climbers or twinersalthough the
campos bears many forms intermediate be-
tween erect herbs and climbing and twining
plants. The great dearth of annuals is
attributed to the great dryness and hard-
ness of the soil at the time the seeds are shed,
to the annual fires which consume seeds
and seedings and may perhaps have trans-
formed some annuals into perennials, and
to the hard struggle for existence with tall
herbs and bushes. Herbaceous shoots de-
velop ordinarily in tufts and are not
branched or but slightly, arising in great
numbers from subterranean stems or roots.
Exclusive of certain grasses, sedges and
Bromeliaceze, herbs with rosettes of basal
leaves are almost entirely wanting. Hori-
zontal rhizomes and stolons are absent and
horizontal cauline organs always remain
very short. Almost all of the perennial
Dicotyledons have a short, thick, lignified,
irregular, and more or less tuberous subter-
ranean axis. Sometimes a delicate little
shoot only ten to fifteen centimeters high
arises from a tuberous axis as large as one’s
512
fist. Juicy tubers and tender bulbs are
very rare on the campos. Typical shrubs
are not rare and in some places they form
thickets. In other instances unbranched
shoots arise in great numbers from a big,
lignified, root-shaped axis and form tufts
which are often very large. Generally,
these tufts are only 0.85 to one meter high,
but they cover a diameter of one to three
meters and often more. This manner of
growth resembles that of the herbaceous per-
ennials, but the shoots are woody. The
campos bears 170 to 180 shrubs. The fami-
lies represented by most species are: Myr-
taceze 40-50, Malpighiacez 30, Melasto-
mace 20, Composite 15, Huphorbiacez and
Lythracez 6-10, the rest of the species be-
ing scattered among twenty-five families.
The tallest trees of the campos are three to
eight meters high, and the densest growth
forms a kind of forest, but this is never close
enough to shade the earth. Sometimes the
trunks rise obliquely, and both trunk and
branches are twisted and stunted with thick,
rough, channeled and cross-fissured bark.
Many of them are also blackened and
charred by the campos fires. There are
eighty-six arborescent species on the campos,
but many are only one to three meters high,
and all resemble stunted fruit trees rather
than ordinary arborescent vegetation. Phe-
nogamic epiphytes and epiphytic mosses
and lichens areveryrare. Lianas are want-
ing, but some species show a tendency to-
ward such types and these belong to genera
which in the forest are developed largely or
exclusively as lianas, e. g., there are eigh-
teen species of Serjania in the dense forest,
all lianas, while on the campos the one spe-
cies, 8. erecta, is a shrub with litne slender
branches. Cactaceze and all fleshy plants,
exclusive of members of the orchidaceous
genus Cyrtipodium, are also wanting and
spiny plants are very rare. Certain fami-
lies very common on the high mountains of
Brazil, e. g., Vellosaceze and Ericacez, have
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 19.
no representatives on the campos. Finally
the soil bears no mosses, lichens, algze or
fungi. This region is dry. The coast
mountains and their virgin forests retain —
the moisture of the air, and the dryness is
increased by the altitude. ‘‘ The vegetation
of the campos, properly speaking, is xero-
philos. It is strange to see two forest
growths developed side by side and often
touching but differentiated in the sharpest
possible manner, namely, the wooded cam-
pos and the forests. The latter accompany
the water and streams everywhere. The
trees are close together, tall and slender;
lianas twine about them and epiphytes live
upon them, and a coolness that is sometimes
exquisite reigns in them. Proceeding from
the streams the forests have invaded a cer-
tain territory on both sides to which, in
course of time, they have brought a fertile
humus. All at once, the forest stops and
we find ourselves on the edge of the campos,
where there is neither moisture nor shade,
nor humus, and where the red clay earth
cracks open in the dry season under the in-
fluence of the heat and desiccation. It is
the soil conditions which have caused this
antithesis. The difference in the quantity
of water contained in the soil in the bot-
tom of the valleys and on the summit and
flanks of the hills of the campos has brought
about these strong and curious contrasts
between the two floras. Itis certain that
the geological formation exhibits no differ-
ence. In the campos and under the humus
of the forests it is everywhere the same red
clay.”
The xerophilous character of the cam-
pos vegetation is manifest first of all in the
shapes of the trees. On account of the
dryness of the air these are small, stunted
and twisted the same as in the high moun-
tains of Brazil or in the maritime forests of
“ Restinga,’’ along the sandy shores. Fires
have also played a great réle in developing
stunted forms. The strong development
May 10, 1895.]
of the cortical system and the heavy suber-
ization are due to the dryness of the air
and probably also to the fires. The thick,
irregular, ligneous, subterranean axial
organs (it is often difficult to tell which
part is stem and which is root) are also,
both in herbs and shrubs, related to the
aridity and to the fires. The absence of
_ mosses and of hymenomycetous and other
_ sayrophytic fungi is another indication of
the dryness. The leaves show the dryness
: of the climate in numerous ways. An
abundant hairy covering is very frequent,
and the leaves of some species have both
surfaces covered with a white or greyish
_ felt, while others have only the lower sur-
face felted. The leaves of other species
are scabrous, hispid, glandular-hairy, or
shining as if lacquered. A few have a
Waxy covering. Almost always, even in
the herbs, the leaves are stiff and cori-
aceous, unless both surfaces are tomen-
tose, and on some trees they are so stiff
as almost to jingle in the breeze. Most
of the grasses and sedges have narrow
stiff leaves. The direction of the leaves
also shows the aridity. Many are vertical or
pointed upward, so as to receive the sun’s
rays at an acute angle. Some species
are aphyllous and in others the leaves are
much reduced. Usually, the leaves of the
_ forest species are larger and especially
broader than those of the campos species,
j even when of the same family or genus.
“The most of the peculiarities which dis-
tinguish xerophytes are also found in the
_ plants of the campos, although rarely to
such a pronounced degree. The environ-
ment does not reach the excessive dryness
of the deserts of Africa and Asia, of the
high plateaux of Mexico, etc., and this ex-
plains the absence of catacez and other
fleshy plants and the rarity or absence of
Succulent organs, such as tubers and bulbs.
The dryness is never so great that vegeta-
tion is forced to disappear or dry up en-
,
SCIENCE.
513
tirely for a longer or shorter period, as hap-
pens in the steppe or the desert, and the
spring awakening is not so sudden as in
these places. The dryness of the campos
is also manifest in the fall of the leaves.”
Every year, when the sun has parched the
herbage so that it is almost like hay, the
campos are fired so as to get new growths
for the cattle. These firings occur most
frequently from July to September, but also
earlier and later. The fires sweep every-
thing that is close to the ground, including
the lower branches of the trees, and cause
the leaves to fall by thousands. When
they are set too early, 7. e., in May or June,
the succeeding vegetation is feeble, and
when they are set too late in the spring, i.
e., after the spring vegetation has begun,
they cause immense and lasting injury.
When set at the proper time the campos
are covered in a week or two with a rich
carpet of green. Plants blossom earlier on
the burned campos, and many species are
seldom found in bloom elsewhere. The
rarity of annuals has already been men-
tioned. The unbranched tufted habit of
many shoots and the numerous swollen tu-
berous axial organs also seem to be due to
the fires, and the numerous big under-
ground stubs of trees and shrubs are un-
doubtedly due solely to this cause.
The forests of Lagoa Santa are notas im-
posing, as dense or as moist as those of the
coast mountains. Those on the calcareous
rocks in particular are quite open, dry and
light. Tropical forests sometimes pass for
being poor in flowers, but this is only an ap-
pearance, the blossoms being concealed in
the tops of the trees. Most of the trees
have small flowers. Like tropical forests in
general the ground between the trunks is
densely covered, in places impenetrably
tangled, with bushes, small trees and lianas.
The author observed nearly 400 arborescent
species in the forest and thinks the actual
number much exceeds this. These trees
514
belong to sixty-seven families, the leading
ones including nearly one-half of the species,
being Papillionaceze, Myrtacez, Rubiacec,
Lauracee, Artocarpacez, Cesalpinacec,
Euphorbiaceee, Meliacez, Mimosacee and
Anonacez. The individuals of a species
are widely scattered and it is often difficult
to find more than one or two of a kind.
The great number of species is attributed to
the uninterrupted development of the forest
during many geological ages, the campo-
growths being a derived and more recent
flora. The height ofthe treesis rarely more
than 20 to 25 meters. The trunks are not
seragey like those of the campos, and the
bark is smoother and less corky. The well
lighted forests havea dense undergrowth of
shrubs 1-3 meters high, most of which bear
small white flowers. The soil ofthe forests
is poor in herbaceous and suffrutescent
species. There is no carpet of mosses or
lichens. Agarics are small and very rare.
Grasses form no part of the covering of the
soil, and if any exist in the forest they are
tall perennials such as Olyra and Bambusa.
The forest is rich in climbing and twining
plants, in striking contrast to the campos.
The big woody lianas belong principally to
Bignoniacez, Convolvulacez, etc., and the
herbaceous climbers to Cucurbitaceze, Passi-
floraceze, ete. The Convolvulace of the
forests are generally voluble, while those of
the campos are erect under-shrubs.
numerous Aristolochias of the forest are also
all voluble, while the single species of the
campos is an under-shrub with stems 15-30
centimeters high from a woody, tuberous,
subterraneanaxis. The air isso dry that even
in the forests there are but few Epiphytes.
Cactaceze and other fleshy plants, and num-
erous hairy, thorny and stinging plants grow
in the more open forests on the calcareous
rocks. ;
Only the forest lands are used for agricul-
tural purposes. The trees are felled, and
after the clearing has been subject to the
SCIENCE.
The ~
[N. 8. Von. I. No. 19.
heat of the dry season for some months it is
fired and then planted—sometimes to sugar
cane and rice, but more generally to Indian
corn, with castor bean, perennial cotton,
beans, cucumbers, pumpkins, etc., between
the hills. After the second year the clear-
ing is abandoned. These neglected clear-
ings are soon covered with a dense growth
of weeds, which are quickly crowded out
by various shrubs—felted leaved and spiny
Solanums, hispid Lantanas, dirty green or
brown hairy Crotons, numerous Sidas and
other Malvaceze,dull composites often sticky,
tall grasses with large leaves and many
other plants, mingled with which are shoots
from the tree stumps. Gradually the area
becomes once more a forest, twenty or thirty
years sufficing. It is said that after the
forest has been cleared away three or four
times it will not return, its place being
taken by bushes, thickets of Pteris aqui-
lina var. esculenta and dense masses of the
glandular hairy Panicum Melinis ; 48% of
the weeds of the gardens and clearings are
annuals, and a few of these weeds are old
acquaintances, e. g., Chenopodium ambro-
sioides, Gnaphalium purpureum, Xanthium
Strumarium, Erechthites hieracifolia, Son-
chus oleraceus, Panicum sanguinale, Eleu-
sine Indica, Argemone Mexicana, Phyto-
lacca decandra, Portulacea oleracea, Phys-
alis pubescens, Datura Stramonium and
Solanum nigrum.
The flora of the forest is twice as rich in
species as that of the campos. Of the 755
genera observed at Lagoa Santa 82 belong
exclusively to the campos, 61 are tributary
to the water and 364 belong to the forests,
although the latter only occupy a small part
of the country. The forest flora is probably
much more ancient than that of the campos.
Composite and Papilionacee form about
one-quarter of the entire flora of the campos.
The flora of the forest is made up chiefly of
Compositee, Polypodiacez, Orchidacez, Ru-
biaceee and Euphorbiacee. A large num-
May 10, 1895.]
ber of genera are common to both campo
and forest, but often the species are not
nearly related. In other cases the species
resemble each other so closely that some
botanists regard one asa variety of the others.
The Brazilians have also noticed this in case
of certain trees and designate one form as
do campo and the other as do mato. Woody
species are more common in the forest than
on the campos, 7. e., 800 to 250. The num-
ber of herbaceous species on the campo and
in the forest is about thesame. Hygrometric
eonditions determine essentially the an-
atomy and the morphology of plants. This
causes the difference in form and in thick-
ness of bark of the trees of the campos and
of the forest. In the campo plants there
is a marked reduction of foliar surface to
prevent excessive transpiration, and pilosity
is most frequent in these species, although
common in the forest, where it occurs most
abundantly on the foliage of the trees and
lianas, the glabrous plants of the forest be-
ing the lower and shaded species. A great
many of the weeds are abundantly hairy.
These grow principally in the clearings in
narrow valleys exposed to a burning sun.
Plants with lacquered leaves oceur both on
the campos and in the forest. Spiny plants
are rare on the campos, more frequent in the
forest, especially on the calcareous rocks,
and most common in the clearings. Waxy
leaved plants occur in various situations,
but are not frequent. Coriaceous leaves
oecur on the woody plants of the campos
and also frequently on the forest trees. They
are not so common on the forest shrubs and
are still rarer on the marsh plants. Many
plants of the forest have large thin leaves,
entirely unsuited for the campos. The fall
of leaves is brought about by the increasing
dryness of the air and soil rather than by any
change of temperature. This is much more
_ decided in the trees of the campos than in
those of the forest and is most noticeable
_ in the woody plants on the calcareous rocks.
SCIENCE.
515
Some trees shed their leaves in winter and
remain bare for several months, but most
of the leaves fall in the spring (August to
October) simultaneously with the appear-
ing of new leaves, so that the forest is always
green and retains about the same coolness
and depth of shade. The trees of the cam-
pos as well as of the forest show annual
rings, and the author thinks that the same
periodicity of growth takes place every-
where, even in the trees on the Amazon.
Buds are not generally protected by bud-
scales, although some of the woody plants
of Lagoa Santa bear as characteristic buds
and budscales as any forest trees in Den-
mark. The author’s principal collections
were made from the small area of 170 sq.
kilometers, from which he obtained about
2,600 species of vascular plants.
Erwin F. Smita.
WASHINGTON.
THE PROGRESS OF PARONYMY.
TEN years ago* I urged the desirability
of the general employment of technical ana-
tomic terms consisting, so far as practicable,
of one word each (mononyms), and derived
directly or indirectly from the Latin, consti-
tuting paronyms of the originals. Such paro-
nyms might be either identical with the ori-
ginal, e. g., English pons, or changed in va-
rious ways in conformity with the custom of
each language, e. g., French pont, Italian
ponte. The subject was further discussed
in connection with Prof. 8. H. Gage in
1886+ and in 1889,{ and the principle of
* Paronymy versus heteronymy as neuronymic prin-
ciples. Presidential address at the 11th annual meet-
ing of the American Neurological Association, 1885.
Transactions of the Association, pp. 21. Also Journal
of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. XII.
t+ Anatomical technology: an introduction to hu-
man, veterinary and comparative anatomy. Second
ed., 1886, O., pp. 600, 120 figs., 4 plates.
ft Anatomical terminology. Reference Handbook
of the medical sciences. A. H. Buck, editor, VIIL.,
pp. 24. 1889.
516
paronymy was approved by the Committee
on Biological Nomenclature in the Report
adopted by the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, August, 1892.
Naturally the application of the principle
has been easier with the French and Italian
than with the German. Yet nearly all
recent works in this language contain paro-
nyms either unchanged (excepting for
capitalization), e. g., Dura, or with slight
changes, ¢. g., Hippokamp for hippocampus.
The last example of Germanization to
come under my notice is in Hisler’s ‘ Das
Gefass- und periphere Nervensystem des
Gorilla,’”’ where the customary heteronym,
Herzbeutel,is abandoned for the regular paro-
nym of pericardium, Perikard. Curiously
enough in English we have hitherto re-
tained the useless termination, but analogy
with pericarp (from pericarpium) not only
warrants but demands the abbreviated form,
pericard. — Burt G. WILDER.
IrHaca, N.Y.
THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.
THE annual announcement of the ‘ Ma-
rine Laboratory’ for the eighth season,
1895, has recently appeared.
The officers are as follows: Dr. C. O.
Whitman, Director, Head Professor of Zo-
ology, University of Chicago, and editor of
the Journal of Morphology; Dr. H.C. Bumpus,
Assistant Director, Professor of Compara-
tive Anatomy, Brown University.
ZOOLOGY.
A. Investigation. Howard Ayers, Pro-
fessor of Biology, University of the State of
. Missouri; E. G. Conklin, Professor of Bi-
ology, Northwestern University ; S. Watase,
Assistant Professor of Zoology, University
of Chicago; M. M. Metcalf, Professor of Bi-
ology, The Woman’s College of Baltimore ;
C. M. Child, Fellow in Zodlogy, University
of Chicago; F. R. Lillie, Instructor in Zo-
ology, University of Michigan ; 0.8. Strong,
Instructor in Zodlogy, Columbia College ;
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 19.
H.S. Brode, Fellow in Zodlogy, University
of Chicago.
B. Instruction. W. M. Rankin, Instrue-
tor in Zoology, Princeton College; J. L. 7
Kelloge, Professor of Biology, Olivet Col-
lege; P. A. Fish, Instructor in Physiology
and Anatomy, Cornell University; A. D.
Mead, Fellow in Zoology, University of
Chicago; H. E. Walter, Chicago.
BOTANY.
W. A. Setchell, Instructor in Botany,
Yale University; W. J. V. Osterhout, In-
structor in Botany, Brown University.
PHYSIOLOGY.
Jacques Loeb, Associate Professor of
Physiology, University of Chicago; W. N.
Norman, Professor of Biology, University of
Texas.
The work of the laboratory is definitely or-
ganized with reference to the needs of three
classes of workers, namely, (1) students, (2)
teachers of science, and (3) investigators.
There are regular courses of instruction, con-
sisting of lectures and laboratory work under
the supervision of the instructors, given in
Zoology, Botany, Embryology and Physi-
ology. In addition to these, there will be
courses of lectures on special subjects as fol-
lows: Embryology, by the Director, Pro-
fessor C.O. Whitman; on Botanical Museum
Development, by J. M. McFarlane, and on
Matter and Energy, by E. A. Dolbear.
There will also be evening lectures on
biological subjects of general interest.
Among those who contribute these lectures
may be mentioned: G. F. Atkinson, E. G.
Conklin, Northwestern University; J. M.
Coulter, President Lake Forest University;
A. E. Dolbear, Tuft’s College; Simon Flex-
ner, John Hopkins Hospital; E. O. Jordan,
University of Chicago; William Libbey, Jr.,
Princeton College; F.S. Lee, Columbia Col-
lege; W. A. Locy, Lake Forest University;
J. M. MacFarlane, University of Pennsyl-
vania; O.S. Minot, HarvardMedical School;
May 10, 1895.]
E. S. Morse, Peabody Academy of Science;
H. F. Osborn, Columbia College; W. B.
Scott, Princeton College; W. T. Sedgwick,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology;
William Trelease, Director Missouri Botan-
ical Garden; S. Watase, University of Chi-
eago; E. B. Wilson, Columbia College; B.
G. Wilder, Cornell University; W. P.
Wilson, University of Pennsylvania.
The laboratory has been considerably en-
larged and now consists of four two-story
buildings, with forty private rooms for the
exclusive use of investigators, and seven
general laboratories. It is supplied with
aquaria, a steam launch, boats, dredges,
and all the apparatus necessary for collect-
ing and keeping alive material reserved for
class work or research.
A Department of Laboratory Supply has
been established in order to facilitate the
work of teachers and others at a distance
who desire to obtain material for study or
for class instruction. Circulars giving in-
formation, prices, etc., may be obtained on
application.
The forty private laboratories are dis-
tributed as follows: Zoology, twenty-two ;
Physiology, eight; Botany, ten. These
rooms are rented at one hundred dollars to
colleges, societies or individuals.
The general laboratories for research are
for the use of students engaged in special
work under the supervision of the Director
and his assistants, and for advanced courses
preparatory to beginning investigation, such
as the course in Embryology. There are
_ forty-two tables, of which Zodlogy has twen-
ty-two, Physiology ten, and Botany ten.
Applications should be made to Professor
©. O. Whitman, University of Chicago,
Chicago, Ill.
EMBRYOLOGY.
Tue course in Embryology extends from
July 10th to August 17th. The aim is not
_ only to master the details of development,
SCIENCE.
517
but also to acquire a thorough knowledge
of preparing surface-views, imbedding in
paraffin and celloidin, staining, mounting,
drawing, reconstructing modeling, ete. The
study is mainly confined to the fish egg as
the best type for elucidating vertebrate de-
velopment ; but the eggs of amphibia and
other vertebrates as well as some inverte-
brates will receive attention. The fee is $50.
INVESTIGATION.
THE course in Investigation extends from
July 3d to August 17th. For those pre-
pared to begin original work, ten tables are
reserved in Zodlogy, and the same number
in Physiology and Botany.
Special subjects for investigation are as-
signed to the occupants of tables, and the
supervision of the work is so divided that
each instructor has the care of but three or
four students. In this way all the advan-
tages of individual instruction are secured.
The fee is $50.
SEMINAR.
A Semrar has been instituted, and,
though specially designed for members of
the class in Embryology and beginners in
inyestigation, it is open to all. The third
volume of the Biological Lectures will be
made the basis of discussion. Most of the
authors of these lectures will be present ;
and from two to three mornings will be de-
voted to the consideration of each lecture
and such questions as may be raised.
LABORATORY FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
IN ANATOMY.
In the Laboratory for Teachers and
Students in Anatomy, which is open from
July 2d to August 30th, two courses are
offered : the first, in Invertebrate Anatomy,
and the second, a newly arranged course
in Vertebrate Anatomy. The fee for either
course is $40.
VERTEBRATE ANATOMY.
Tue list of lecturers on Vertebrate An-
atomy will be as follows: Professor H. P.
518
Bowditch, Harvard Medical School; Dr. F.
S. Lee, College of Physicians and Surgeons;
Dr. C. F. Hodge, Clark University; Dr. O.
§. Strong, Columbia College; Dr. C. 8. Minot,
Harvard Medical School; Dr. J.S. Kingsley,
Tuft’s College; Dr. J. P. MeMurrich, Uni-
versity of Michigan; Dr. H. F. Osborn,
Columbia College.
Applications for admission to the labo-
ratory for students and teachers should be
made to Prof. H. C. Bumpus, Brown Uni-
versity, Providence, R. I.
BOTANY.
TueE laboratory work in Botany (July
10-August 17) will be restricted to the
study of the structure and development of
types of the various orders of the crypto-
gamous plants, and especial attention will
be given to the study of the various species
of Marine Algae which occur so abun-
dantly in the waters about Woods Holl.
The following colleges and societies con-
trolled private rooms or tables during the
season of 1894:
Boston University School of Medicine,
Brown University, Bryn Mawr College,
College of Medicine, Syracuse University,
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Colum-
bia College, Hamilton College, Harvard
University (Professor Farlow), Lake Forest
University (President Coulter), Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology, Miami Uni-
versity, Mt. Holyoke College, Missouri Bo-
tanical Garden, Northwestern University,
Princeton College, Smith College, University
of Chicago, University of Cincinnati, Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania (Provost Harrison),
Vassar College, Wellesley college, Williams
College, Women’s College Baltimore, Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of
Science, American Society of Naturalists,
Beta Alpha Chapter of the K. K. G. Fra-
ternity of the University of Pennsylvania,
Lucretia Crocker Scholarship, Woman’s
School Alliance Milwaukee.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 19.
THE GENERIC NAMES OF THE THREE-TOED
ECHIDNA.
TuE three-toed Echidna discovered by M.
Bruijn in northwestern New Guinea, and
described by Peters and Doria in 1876 as
Tachyglossus bruijnii, has been commonly
recognized as belonging to a different genus
from the common five-toed Echidna of Tas-
mania and Australia. Although the species
was described less than twenty years ago,
four generic names have been proposed for
it. Early in 1877 Dr. Theodore Gill erected
the genus Zaglossus* for it, and Gervais sepa-
rated it in November of the same year
under the name Acanthoglossus ;; but a few
days later, finding that this name had been
pre-occupied, he renamed the genus Proe-
chidna.{ Five years later M. Dubois pro-
posed to replace Acanthoglossus by Bruynia.$
Of these four names Proechidna has come
into general use, while Zaglossus Gill seems
never to have been mentioned by any sub-
sequent author. My attention was first
called to it several months ago by Dr. Gill
himself, who suggested that it would prob-
ably antedate Proechidna, but no copy of
Gervais’ Ostéographie being at hand I could
not determine which name had priority.
Recently I have had an opportunity of ex-
amining a copy of the Ostéographie des
Monotrémes, and find that not only does
Zaglossus antedate Proechidna, but in fact it
was the earliest name proposed for the
genus, and should be adopted to the exclu-
sion of all the others.
The second chapter of the Ostéographie,
apparently the only part of the text ever
published, contains the name Proechidna on
page 43. In the introductory foot-note on
*Ann. Record of Science & Industry for 1876,
May 5, 1877, p. clxxi. °
+ Comptes Rendus, Ixxxy., No. 19, séance du 5&
Noy., 1877, p. 838.
{Ostéographie des Monotrémes Viv. et Fossiles,
Nov. 30, 1877, p. 43.
ZBull. Soe. Zool. de France, vi. No. 6 (1881) 1882,
pp. 267-270, pls. ix—x.
May 10, 1895.]
page 41, dated ‘30 Novembre, 1877,’ M.
Gervais gives the reasons for publishing the
second chapter first, and states that the
first and third chapters will probably ap-
pear during the year 1878. From this
statement it is evident that Proechidna could
searcely have been published prior to De-
eember 1, 1877. The Annual Record of
Science and Industry for 1876, on the other
hand, was received at the Library of Con-
gress, Washington, D. C., on April 28,
1877. This date, however, may be the date
of entry for copyright, and does not neces-
sarily show that the book was issued on
April 28. A copy of the same volume in
the library of the U. S. Patent Office,
Washington, D. C., was received early in
May, while the publishers, Messrs. Harper
__ & Brothers, give the exact date of publica-
tion as May 5, 1877.
The synonomy of the genus should stand:
Zaglossus Gill, May 5, 1877.
Acanthoglossus Gervais, Nov. 5, 1877 (Date
of reading, not of publication).
Proechidna Gervais, Noy. 30, 1877 (Date
of prefatory foot-note ).
Bruynia Dubois, , 1882.
The evidence seems sufficient to show that
Zaglossus was published at least as early as
May 5, 1877, and, therefore, antedates Acan-
thoglossus by six months and Proechidna by
nearly seven months. T. S. Parmer.
WASHINGTON.
CORRESPONDENCE.
SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS OF SATURN AT
THE ALLEGHENY OBSERVATORY.
To THE Epiror oF Science: As certain
observations of mine on the spectrum of
Saturn have been widely noticed by the
daily press, and various reports have been
spread, some of which are correct and some
incorrect, but none of which were made by
my authority, I take this opportunity to ex-
_ plain the real character of the observations.
It is hardly necessary for me to say here
SCIENCE.
519
that I have made no ‘ claims’ whatever re-
specting them.
The observations furnish a direct proof of
the accepted hypothesis that the ring of
Saturn consists of a multitude of small
bodies revolving around Saturn in circular
orbits. The hypothesis is an old one, but
its universal acceptance dates from the pub-
lication of Maxwell’s prize essay in 1859.
While the mathematical proofs given by
Maxwell and his predecessors are conclusive,
a demonstration of the hypothesis by the
widely different method of direct observa-
tion with the spectroscope is not, I think,
without interest.
The proof depends upon an application of
the well-known principle of Doppler, by
which the motion of a heavenly body in the
line of sight can be determined by measuring
the displacement of a line in its spectrum.
Under the two different hypotheses, that
the ring is a rigid body, and that it is a
swarm of satellites, the relative motion of
its parts would be essentially different ;
hence, to distinguish between these two
hypotheses it is only necessary to find a
method of sufficient delicacy, in order to
bring the question within the province of
the spectroscope. Any method depending
on the successive comparison of the spectra
given by different parts of the ring would
be almost certain to fail. The method which
I have employed is explained below.
If two planes, at right angles to each
other, are passed through the observer and
the system of Saturn, one (A) passing any-
where through the system and the other
(B) through its center, the velocity, resolved
in the direction of the line of sight, of any
point on the surface of the system where it
is intersected by plane A can be expressed
as a function of the perpendicular distance
of the point from plane B. It is only nec-
essary to consider the case when the plane
A is parallel to the major axis of the appar-
ent ring. On the assumption that the
520
ball of Saturn rotates as a solid body, and
the ring as an assemblage of particles, each
of which moves with a velocity determined
by Kepler’s third law, the expressions for
the ball and for the planet are very dif
ferent, the former being linear, and the lat-
ter an equation of a degree higher than the
second. I have determined these expres-
sions for the special case above mentioned.
They are still further simplified by assum-
ing that plane A also passes through the
center of the planet.
Now, if we bring the image of Saturn,
formed by a telescope, upon the slit of a
spectroscope, with the slit in the intersect-
ing plane A, the expressions above referred
to are also the equations to the curves of
which the lines in the spectrum of the
planet are a part, referred to an undis-
placed spectral line and the perpendicular
line through its center as axes; for, in these
curves, x is proportional to the perpendicu-
lar distance from plane B, and, by Dop-
pler’s principle, y is proportional to the ve-
locity in the line of sight. The simplest
ease is, of course, that in which the slit co-
incides with the major axis of the ring; this
is also the condition for which the differen-
tial velocity of points on the surface of the
ring is a maximum, and it is one which can
be approximately realized in observation.
Hence the laws of rotation of the com-
ponent parts of the system can be determined
(within certain limits) by the form of the
special lines, and the form can be determin-
ed with very considerable accuracy by
photographing the spectrum with a suitable
instrument.
According to the assumptions which have
been made above, and which represent the
accepted hypothesis, lines in the spectrum
of the ball are straight, but inclined; as
compared with their direction the general
inclination of the (theoretically) curved
lines in the spectra of the opposite sides of
the ring is smaller, and it is reversed. The
SCIENCE.
LN. S. Vou. I. No. 19.
actual aspect of the lines on my photo-
graphs is in exact accordance with that re-
quired by the hypothesis.
If the ring rotated as a whole, the lines in
its spectrum would be straight, and their
direction would pass through the origin;
they would be very nearly prolongations of
the planetary lines. Such an aspect of the
lines as this could be recognized on my
photographs at a glance.
The direction of a line free from displace-
ment was obtained by photographing the
spectrum of the full moon on the same plate,
on each side of the spectrum of Saturn.
For further details, with the numerical
results of measurement of the plates, I must
refer to the May number of the Astrophysi-
cal Journal, in which I have described these
observations at some length.
James E. KEELER.
ALLEGHENY OBSERVATORY.
A GENERAL SUBJECT-INDEX TO PERIODICAL
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Tue Eprtor or ScrenceE—Iy Dear Sir:
I notice that you are printing in ScrlENcE
various replies to the circular of the Royal
Society of London relating to the matter
of a general subject-index to all scientific
publications. Your correspondents have so
far been in favor of such an undertaking.
As I do not believe it to be practicable, it
may be of interest to some of your readers
to see my own reply which I venture to
send herewith. I have made a few trifling
changes in the copy which I enclose.
I am, very respectfully,
Epwarp 8. HoLpEn.
THE LICK OBSERVATORY,
March 30, 1895.
Mount Hamitton, April 24, 1894.
To Prorsssor M. Fostur, Secretary R. S.,
Chairman of the Committee on a Subject-In-
dex, ‘ete., ete.
My Dear Sir : I beg to acknowledge receipt
of the circular of April 6 relating to a pro-
ee
- May 10, 1895.]
posed subject-index of scientific papers, and
to express my opinions on some of the points
contained therein. I will not burden you
with the arguments that might be brought
forward in support of the opinions, at this
time; but, of course, lam very ready to give
my reasons in detail should you desire
them.
I. It appears to be of the utmost impor-
tance that the Royal Society should continue
to issue its author-indexes, 7. e., the quarto
Catalogues of Scientific Papers. Such in-
dexes can be made at comparatively small
_ expense, and by comparatively unskilled
workers, under the direction of a single
competent scientific head.
II. It is entirely otherwise with a subject-
index. Here the routine work must be done by
the expert. Professor Helmholtz was none
too good to make the subject-index of his
Optics. Ifit had been made by one of his
pupils, it would have been less valuable ;
if it had been made by clerks, it would have
been of little use except to beginners. It
is perfectly clear that, in general, we can-
not expect our bibliographies, etc., to be
made by the heads of science, as Helm-
holtz, Houzeau, etc., and it therefore seems
to me that it is unadvisable to attempt
a general subject-index to science on any
plan whatever.
Ill. If it is ever attempted at all, it
should not, in my judgement, be done by
international codperation, but by a single
society responsible only to itself. Inter-
national cooperation has, I believe, gener-
ally failed (the only marked exceptions
that I recall are the International Geodetic
Association and the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures). The Zone obser-
yations of the German Astronomical Society
are of the highest use and excellence, but
they were begun by international codpera-
tion about 1866 and are not yet published.
_ IY. If the work is attempted, it should
be printed in English alone, one would
SCIENCE.
521
think. If the past is not ours, the future
surely is to be.
V. My own opinion, therefore, is that the
general subject-index should not be attemp-
ted. The Royal Society and other great
academies might well subsidize the making
of special bibliographies, for example, Hou-
zeau’s Bibliographie de 1’ Astronomie (al-
ready printed), or Professor Cleveland
Abbe’s Bibliography of the Literature of
Meteorology (now in MS.), and other under-
takings of the kind, when they are directed
by men of special learning, and not other-
wise.
VI. It, however, appears to me that the
Royal Society can do a great work in the
direction aimed at, at comparatively litttle
expense and trouble, as follows: I would,
first, say that it is necessary—essential—
that an author-index should be complete.
It is very desirable, but by no means essen-
tial, that a subject-index should be exhaus-
tive. A subject-index is generally required
to set the inquirer on his way, and once
fairly started in his reading, the foot-notes
will keep him informed. This being
granted, the plan I refer to is for the Royal
Society to undertake the publication, in one
volume, of a subject-index, or guide, to the
ten quartos of author-indexes already pre-
prepared. The work could be easily done
as follows: Select a scheme of subject-
headings, under the advice of specialists.
The Melville Dewey plan of library cata-
loguing* would serve as a basis, and it is
capable of indefinite and logical subdivision.
This subdivision should be made under the
advice of the heads of English science ; and,
in my opinion, the thing to be avoided is
too minute division. A practical point is,
also, that the same paper should be cata-
logued under all the headings under which
it might be sought, not merely under the
strictly logical and appropriate heading.
* Which is based on the scheme of Dr. W. T. Harris,
Editor of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy.
522
This is a detail, but it is of prime impor-
tance.
For each subject, as Astronomy, appoint
a Director who should be the best man ob-
tainable, but who may be any competent
and faithful astronomer, even if he is
without very wide experience and read-
ing. Let each Director go over the author-
indexes already in type, and mark each
entry there printed with the numerals ex-
pressing its class or classes. Many, in fact
most, of these papers can be pretty well
classified from their titles alone, especially
if the subject-index is not too minutely sub-
divided. All cases of doubt must be re-
solved by a reference to the original memoir.
A clerk follows the Director. He finds
under Newcomb certain papers which have
been marked by the Director as relating to
Astronomical Opties—Class XX XIT., say.
He, therefore, collects these on a card, thus:
XXXII.
Newcomb (S): Nos. 1, 11,19, 26 (vol. 1.).
In a subsequent volume he finds other
entries belonging under class XX XII. and
under Newcomb, and makes a separate card
for them, noting the volume. The same
thing is done by the Director for Astronomy
for all his classes and for each author; and
by the Directors of other subjects in like
manner; and they are followed by copyists.
Finally all cards are sorted into one series :
First, by the class—as XX XII.
Second, alphabetically by authors, and
then revised and printed thus.
Class XX XII.—Astronomical Optics—
Optics of the Telescope; see also classes
XCV., ete., ete.
Abbe (C): Vol. i., 17, 34; ii., 80; ix., 92,
ete.
Albrecht (fT): Vol. vii., 13 ; viii., 31.
Auwers (A): ii., 7, 235 iii., 18, 37; iv.,
ete., etc., etc., ete.
By following out this plan under intelli-
gent Directors for the special topics, the
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vor. I. No. 19.
Royal Society would very soon have a
nearly complete subject-index in one vol-
ume, covering its author-indexes, vols. 1.—x.;
and the plan, once in operation, could be
carried on without trouble and at small
expense. Such a subject-index would, in
my view, supply all real needs in science.
It certainly would in my branch of it.
The only objection that I can see to this
plan is that it is not perfectly complete and
logical to the extremest point. If the pref-
ace to the proposed book declares that it is
not intended to be so, it seems to me that
the Royal Society need not mind. After the
book was printed it would, I think, be used
by everyone; and it would, I believe, meet
the wants of every one as nearly as any
practicable plan could do.
If I have extended my remarks too far,
I beg you to excuse me. I have desired to
show what seems to me to be an easily ob-
tained benefit to science, and I trust my
suggestion is not impertinent to your in-
quiry. I am, My Dear Sir, with high re-
gard, Very faithfully yours,
Epwarp 8S. HoLprEn.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Ein Geologischer Querschnitt durch die Ost-
Alpen, nebst Anhang iiber die sog. Glarner
Doppelfalte von A. RorupietTz, mit 2
Tafeln und 115 Abbildungen im Text.
Stuttgart. 1894. Pp. 268.
This valuable contribution to our knowl-
edge of mountain structure is arranged in
three parts. The first of these is a state-
ment of the petrography and stratigraphy,
and the second an account of the tectonie,
of a cross-section of the Alps, in the merid-
ian of Munich, from the plain of the Po
to the Bavarian plateau, a distance of about
230 km. The third part is a discussion of
the general results of the author’s study.
The details of the first two parts are well
illustrated, both by the fine geologically
colored profile on a scale of 7345, and by
i
May 10, 1895.]
the numerous excellent cuts throughout the
text. Only the conclusions of the author
can be adverted to in the present brief
notice.
The eastern Alps have an east and west
trend and the section js normal to the
strike. The highest mountains have an
elevation of about 3500 m., and lie towards
the northern end of the section. The aver-
age elevation is 1800 m. In the northern
Alps there are three principal folds, in the
middle Alps four, and in the southern
three, with many subordinate folds through-
out. None of these folds remain in their
original continuity. Fractures separate
one from another and chop each of them
up into a series of blocks. By faulting on
these fractures the folded arrangement of
the strata is greatly disturbed and ob-
secured.
The special features of the faulting are :
1. The prevalent dislocation of synclines
‘in such a manner that their axial troughs
are thrust up and the wings dropped.
_ 2. Anticlines with dropped crests so that
the newer strata of the crests appear below
the older strata of the wings. Not well ex-
emplified in the section.
3. The occasional downthrow of the axial
troughs of synclines with uplift of both
ying’s.
4. The faulting of anticlines on longitu-
dinal axial planes and the conversion of the
convexity of the anticlines into concavity
by subsequent compression.
5. Thrusts. There are five important
overthrusts in the section ranging in in-
for a proper appreciation of Alpine struc-
ture. They are subsequent to the folds and
ated longitudinal faults, and are the
SCIENCE.
523
latest manifestations of the orogenic forces.
As such they have exerted a powerful in-
fluence upon the topography, giving the
Alps, in the opinion of the author, their
transverse drainage outlets and many of
their lake basins.
7. There are also faults which antedate
the period of Alpine folding.
In discussing the age of the folding of
the Alps the author makes it clear that
there have been at least two chief periods of
folding, one pre-Permian, and the other
post-Miocene. There were, however, dia-
strophic movements in the interval. This
is proved, first, by the faults which antedate
the later folding, and second, by the oscilla-
tion of the ocean border in the intervening
time. In discussing the latter argument
the author gives a series of nine profiles
showing the hypothetical relative distribu-
tion of land and water over the Alpine
region in old Paleozoic, Permian, Muschelkalk,
Rhetic, Lias, Neocomian, Eocene, Miocene and
the Present. These show a trangression of
the sea up to the close of the Triassic, fol-
lowed by a steady recession from then on
to the present time. The sections, consider-
ed by themselves, might lend support to the
hypothesis of Suess that the oscillation is
due to the variation of the surface of the
ocean. But other sections in neighboring
parts of the Alps give discordant results,
and it is concluded that the Alpine region
was the scene of diastrophic movement
between the Permian and Miocene, whether
the ocean surface oscillated or remained
constant.
The shortening of the are of the earth’s
surface in the line of the author’s section
is 18 per cent., 7. e., the region has, in con-
sequence of the folding, now only about
four-fifths of its original breadth. If the
folding of the central Alps be assumed to
be pre-Alpine, then the shortening is re-
duced to from 12 to 13 per cent., or about
one-eighth. The author contrasts these
524
figures with the much higher values ob-
tained by Heim, who places the shortening
of the arc in the north and central Swiss-
Alps at one-half. He discredits the struc-
tural interpretations which have led Heim
to so large a value. He takes issue with
the latter, particularly in the interpretation
of the so-called Glarner double fold, and
discusses this structure at length in an ap-
pendix to the volume, interpreting the
structure as an overthrust and not a double
fold.
In discussing the mechanies of the lateral
thrust, to which all are agreed the Alpine
structure is due, the author says the earth’s
crust may be considered a virtual arch.
Then the continents must be either arches
of less radius than that of the earth as a
whole, or they must be superficial masses
reposing upon the arch. In the latter case
the continental masses would suffer no fold-
ing, but would lie as a dead weight upon
the laterally compressed and folding arch
below. This being contrary to experience,
it is rejected, and the alternative is adopted
that the continents are arches of smaller
radius. The condition of folding of strata
by lateral compression is, then, that they
must lie below the limiting curve of the
continental arch. So long as they lie above
this curve they escape folding. Where
folding occurs under the dead weight of
rocks lying above the curve it is manifest
at the surface only as elevation or depres-
sion. But the load tends to restrain fold-
ing and the latter takes place most readily
where the load is least. This occurs where
the continental arch merges into the geoid
arch. Here is the weakest part of the
arch; here the strongest folding should
arise. Orogenic folding is most effective
on the borders of the oceans. This fact the
author finds in accord with his theoretical
deductions, for it is on the oceanic borders
that the continental and geoid arches inter-
sect.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 19.
This principle is resorted to in explana-
tion of the common up-throw of synclinal
troughs. The deep synclinal folds will suf-
fer most from the lateral compression. The
consequence is that the axial troughs of the
synclines are faulted up and the anticlines
relatively dropped.
Part of the transverse cleavage of the
rocks is ascribable to pre-Permian oro-
genic forces and part to the later com-
pression which gave rise to the Alps.
Most of the pre-Permian strata show
this cleavage in a pronounced degree.
This cleavage is best developed in the Zil-
lerthaler towards the middle of the section,
and least so on the margins of the Alpine
region. The author suggests, in explanation
of this deficiency of cleavage on the mar-
gins, that these parts were folded under a
less load than the more central portions and
were earlier lifted above the line of com-
pression. The limestones are characterized
by suture-like cracks so well known in lime-
stones and marbles the world over. These
are held by the author to be due to solution
under pressure, and evidence in favor of this
view is adduced.
The discussion of the metamorphism is
perhaps the least important section of the
book, and contributes little of importance
to the general subject.
The discussion of the cause of mountain
uplift and folding is chiefly interesting for
the clear and concise statement of the ex-
pansion theory as an adequate explanation
of the origin of mountain structures and
plateau uplifts. The advantages of this
theory over the doctrine of the earth’s con-
traction under secular cooling are clearly
set forth. The doctrine of secular contrac-
tion fails to give an adequate explanation
of the phenomena of voleanology; it does
not account for the distribution of the force
of gravity; and it involves too great a
shortening of the earth’s radius. The ex-
pansion theory does not have these objec-
May 10, 1895.]
_ tions.
_ theory is based on the assumption that the
earth magma may expand on solidifying as
The admissibility of the expansion
water does. The recent work of Barnes,
however, with which our author was proba-
bly not familiar at the time he wrote, so in-
validates this assumption that it is no
longer worthy of serious consideration.
A. C. Lawson.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Mesozoic Plants From Kosuke, Kii, Awa and
Tosa. By Merasrro Yoxoyoma, Professor
in the Imperial University of Japan.
| In this paper, illustrated by nine plates of
_ good figures, and published as part III.,
_ Vol. VII., of the Journal of the College of
Science, Imperial University of Japan, Pro-
fessor Yokoyoma has given us a valuable
addition to our knowledge of the lower Cre-
taceous flora. The plants of this age,
known for a long time mostly in their
Wealden types, and from a few localities in
England and on the continent of Europe,
have, by recent discoveries, been greatly in-
creased in number and variety. The extent
of the territory known to have been occu-
pied by them has of late been still more
‘ notably enlarged. We now know lower
_ Cretaceous plants from such widely sepa-
_ rated series of strata as the Potomac of the
_ Atlantic States: the Comanche series of
Texas, the coal group of Great Falls, Mon-
tana; the Kootanie series of British Co-
lumbia ; the Shasta group of California ; the
lower strata of Newton’s Dakota group in
Dakota and Wyoming. Professor Yoko-
yoma’s investigations add still another
region on the Asiatic side of the Pacific, and
make it probable that the lower Cretaceous
flora was in Asia no less important than it
in North America. These additions
are especially gratifying, as the flora of this
time was the last one in which angiosperms
did not predominate. It is the flora of an
era when predominating Mesozoic elements
SCIENCE.
525.
were about to disappear forever. If we are
ever to learn what changes caused a flora
consisting only of Equiseta, Cycads, Ferns
and Conifers to give way to one in which
angiosperms overwhelmingly predominate,
and in which all these groups, except the
conifers, play an insignificant part, we shall
most probably find the solution of this as
yet unsolved problem from the examination
of lower Cretaceous plants.
In 1890 Prof. Nathorst, of Stockholm, ex--
amined a number of fossil plants from Shi-
koku, Japan, and determined their age to
be either upper Jurassic or Wealden. Pro-
fessor Yokoyoma states that he was induced
to carry the investigation of this flora far-
ther than the Swedish paleontologist had
done, with the hope of fixing more definitely
its age. In consequence of this he col-
leeted not only from the localities of Nath-
orst, but from several others showing a
similar flora. He succeeded in adding a
number of species not seen by Nathorst,
and in procuring, in some cases, better
specimens of those previously obtained.
In this way the total number of species was
brought up to 26, with 2 varieties. It is
noteworthy that, while the flora is without
doubt lower Cretaceous in age, as Professor
Yokoyoma determines it to be, it contains
no angiosperms. He identifies several of
the species with certain ones found in the
lower Potomac strata of the eastern United
States. He states his conclusion as to the
age of the plants in the following words :
“T go a step farther than Professor Nath-
orst and say that the plant-bearing beds of
Kozuki, Kii and Shikoku represent the
whole Neocomian series, corresponding to
the Potomac of America.’’ This statement,
so far as the Potomac is concerned, would
be more correct if it made the Japanese
beds correspond to the ower Potomac. Amer-
ican geologists now include in the Potomac
the Tuscaloosa group and the South Amboy
series of beds, both of which contain few, if
526
any, of the characteristic plants found in the
lower strata of the Potomac of Virginia,
while angiosperms overwhelmingly predom-
inate in each. Until the Japanese beds
show angiosperms they cannot be consid-
ered as young as the uppermost portion of
the lower Potomac, which, in the Brooke
locality, Virginia, and at Baltimore, Mary-
land, show many angiosperms.
Prof. Yokoyoma has followed Prof. Nath-
orst in changing from Dioonites to Zamio-
phyllum, the name ofa cycad that, so far,
is confined to the lower Cretaceous. This
is the species known as Dioonites Buchianus.
This change does not seem to be called for.
The reason assigned by Prof. Nathorst
does not seem weighty enough to remove a
name so well fixed as this, and, if a change
be made, the name Zamiophyllum seems
open to more objections than Dioonites.
The leaflets of Zamia are articulated at
their junction with the rachis and deciduous,
characters which are decidedly not found in
Dioonites Buchianus. These features seem
to be of more importance than the obliquity
of the leaflets and their narrowing towards
the base, which characters in Dioonites
Buchianus Professor Nathorst presents as
objections to regarding this plant as a
Dioonites. Wu. M. Fonrarne.
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA.
Repetitorium der Chemie. By Dr. Cart Ar-
NOLD. Sixth Revised and Enlarged Hdi-
tion. Hamburg and Leipzig, Leopold
Voss. 1894. 8°. Pp. x+613. Paper.
Price, 6 marks.
This book has been written for medical
students and is intended to be used by them
as a convenient reference book in connec-
tion with lectures upon inorganic and or-
ganic chemistry and in preparing for ex-
aminations. That there is a demand for
such a book is shown by the fact that since
it first appeared, in 1884, six editions have
been called for.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 19.
The work is divided into three sections.
In the first one of fifty pages the general
principles of the science are considered.
Such topics as the laws of stoichiometry,
the atomic and molecular theory, the deter-
mination of molecular and atomic weights,
theory of valence, constitutional formulas
and the periodic classification of the ele-
ments are here discussed. The treatment
of these subjects is necessarily very brief and
is not intended to be exhaustive. As far
as it goes, however, it is clear and concise,
and, on the whole, the views of the author
represent fairly well the present position of
the science. Toa few statements, such as
those on pages 6 and 31 that heat, light,
electricity and chemical affinity are known
to be different forms of motion (bekanntlich
nur verschiedene Bewegungsformen darstellen),
one is inclined to take exception.
The second section of 216 pages deals with
descriptive inorganic chemistry. The ele-
ments are arranged under two heads, first
the non-metals, then the metals. The more
important facts as to the occurrence, prepa-
ration and properties of each element and
its chief compounds are here systematically
and concisely presented. Newly discovered
facts in this field of chemistry have not been
overlooked. Thus, for example, we find
here described the preparation of azoimide,
H N;, from inorganic substances ; the elec-
trolytic preparation of aluminium and mag-
nesium ; the statement that red phosphorus
is crystalline, ete. .
The last section of 295 pages gives a sum-
mary of the more important facts of organi¢
chemistry. After some preliminary para-
graphs upon the analysis of carbon com-
pounds, molecular weight determination, —
constitutional formulas and stereochemis-
try, the organic compounds are taken up in ©
the usual way. In connection with each
class of compounds the general behavior
and chemical characteristics of the class
are discussed. In this section of the book,
May 10, 1895.]
as in the earlier ones, the author has en-
deayored to keep abreast of the times, and
we find mentioned here the results of recent
synthetical experiments, such as those upon
the sugars ; and many new substances that
in recent years have become prominent be-
cause of their medicinal properties have
been introduced. While the book is not
intended to be a text-book in the ordinary
sense, nor to serve as an introduction to
the science, it can, nevertheless, be strongly
recommended to all students of chemistry,
who, in connection with their lecture and
laboratory courses, desire to have a con-
venient and compact reference book—a
book containing all the more important
facts of general and descriptive chemistry
clearly stated and provided with an ex-
cellent index. Epwarp H. Keiser.
Field, Forest and Garden Botany. A simple
introduction to the common plants of the
United States east of the 100th Meridian,
both wild and cultivated. By Asa Gray.
Revised and extended by L. H. Bartry.
American Book Co. 1895. 8vo. pp. 519.
The first edition of this useful popular
botany was issued in 1868 as a companion
book to the author's ‘ Manual of the Botany
of the Northern United States.’ The present
revision is planned to fill the same place as
relates to the sixth edition of the ‘ Manual,’
giving, as it does, concise descriptions of the
more common native plants, and of the
large number of species cultivated for use
or ornament. The number of the latter
category has greatly increased during the
enty-seven years which have elapsed
since the first issue of the work, and as re-
s these the treatment is exceedingly
complete. The selection of the ‘ common’
native species has been a matter of great
culty, and in this the book will prob-
ibly be found unsatisfactory. The more
sual plants of the region north of Virginia
md Tennessee are for the most part in-
SCIENCE. 527
eluded, but the Southern native flora is
almost wholly omitted, so that in this re-
spect the title is misleading. As a guide to
the cultivated species it will find its greatest
value. It is our opinion, however, that if
the scope of the work had been restricted
to the domesticated flora, and the descrip-
tions of these plants been more fully drawn
out, it would have been more generally
serviceable than by treating them with the
native species.
The necessity which has been felt of
making the book a companion to the
‘Manual’ has kept up the old and unfor-
tunate arrangement of groups which we
find in that work, although we are pleased
to find that the Gymnosperms have been
brought into their logical position.
Nine
Description des ravageurs de la vigne. Insects
et champignons parasites. HENRI JOLI-
coEuR. 4°. Riems et Paris. 1894. Pp.
vili., 236, pl. 20.
This sumptuous volume with large pages
and wide margins is one of the latest con-
tributions to the rapidly increasing litera-
ture of disease of plants. The French have
always taken the greatest interest in dis-
eases of the vine, and quite naturally, be-
cause of the extent of the industry in their
country. The author of the present vol-
ume is the general secretary of the Society
of Viticulture and Horticulture of Reims,
and while he brings to the subject a knowl-
edge of what various French authors have
to say upon the subjects discussed, from its
pages there never could be gleaned the fact
that the English speaking races had ever
done any work upon the various diseases.
This is, perhaps, a general fault of the
French, since they are so imbued with ad-
miration for their own country that other
countries hold a very subordinate place.
The work under notice is divided into
two parts, one treating of parasitic ani-
528
mals, the other of parasitic plants. The
‘animals’ treated of are mainly insects,
and the various orders taken up are Lepi-
doptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera
and Arachnida. Under each of these heads
the species belonging to the orders are dis-
cussed, and facts are given regarding their
life history, geographical distribution, nat-
ural enemies, influence of external condi-
tions on development, means of destruction
and bibliography. The cryptogamic ene-
mies of the vine form the subject of the
second part, and we have here discussions
of Oidium, mildew, anthracnose, pourridie
(caused by Agaricus melleus), Vibrissea hypo-
gea, melanose, black rot and one or two
others. There are no especially new facts
given in the volume as far as observed.
The plates are beautifully drawn and col-
ored and have the merit of being mainly
new, only a very few figures having been
copied from other authors.
J. F. JAMes.
Leones fungorum ad usum Sylloges Saccardiance
Accommodate. A. N. Brrursn. Vol. 2,
fase. 1, pp. 28, pl. 45.
This, the first part of a new volume of
this sumptuous work, has just been pub-
lished. It sustains the high character of
the first volume. In it Dr. Berlese dis-
cusses the species of Saccardo’s section Dic-
tyospore. of the Spheriacee, giving diagnosis
of the species of Pleomassaria, Karstenula
and Pleospora. Only two new species are
deseribed, viz., Pleospora parvula on stems
of Berberis vulgaris, and P. magnusiana on
culms and leaves of Gilyceria vahliana. The
latter name is proposed for P. pentamera of
Berlese’s monograph, as the form is now ~
considered distinct from Karsten’s species
of this name. Pleospora carpinicola Ell. &
Ever. is transferred to the genus Karste-
nula; and P. hysteroides Ell. & Ever. is re-
garded as a sub-species of P. andropogonis
Niessl. These are all the changes proposed,
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 19.
which seems quite remarkable in these
days. The illustrations are excellent, and
while some species seem to be perilously
near others, doubtless a carefully discrimi-
nating eye would be able to separate them,
JosEpH F. JAMES.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
NOTES AND NEWS.
GENERAL JoHN Newron, U.S. A., engi-
neer, died on May 1, at the age of seventy-
two years. He was elected a member of
the National Academy of Sciences in 1876.
Dr. Kart Lupwie, professor of physi-
ology in the University of Leipzig, died on
April 27, at the age of seventy-nine years.
THE Johns Hopkins University Circular for
April contains the address made by Presi-
dent Low on the Nineteenth Commemora-
tion Day, February 22. The address was en-
titled ‘A City University,’ and gives an
admirable review of the scope of a great
university and its relation to the city in
which it is situated. After describing the
different plans of the American, German,
French and English university, Mr. Low
continued: ‘‘The aim which the German
university has set before itself and which
it has very largely realized under the con-
ditions natural to German life, is the aim,
in my judgment, which the American uni-
versity also should set before itself, and
which it must realize under the conditions
natural to American life. Because, after
all has been said, the world is ruled by its
thinkers, and civilization is carried for-
ward by the patient investigators of natural
laws; the lives of men are largely shaped
by the teachings of experience as reyealed
by historic study; and the literature of
men is enriched by every addition to our
knowledge of the literature and language
of the past. Nature’s craftsmen in all these
directions will produce results according to
their gifts outside of a university ifthey get
no opportunity within it. But the history
May 10, 1895.]
of Germany clearly shows that the oppor-
tunity to serve mankind along such lines is
much enlarged if to train such men is the
chosen aim of the university; in part, be-
cause, in that case, the university affords
the material apparatus by the aid of which
the natural thinker or investigator can best
do his work, and, most of all, because, in a
university so constituted, the atmosphere
of the place and the spirit of the men who
work there are friendly to such labors.’’
TurovuGH the courtesy of the Assistant
Secretary of the Royal Meteorological So-
ciety, we are informed that at the meeting
of that Society on April 17th Messrs.
‘A. C. Bayard and W. Marriott com-
municated a paper on ‘The Frost of Janu-
ary and February, 1895, over the British
Isles.’ It was stated that the cold period
which commenced on December 30th and
terminated on March 5th was broken by a
week’s mild weather from January 14th to
21st, otherwise there would have been con-
tinuous frost for 66 days. Temperatures
below 10° Farenheit, and in some cases be-
low zero, were recorded in parts of England
and Scotland between January Sth and
13th, while from the 26th to the 31st, and
from February 5th to 20th, temperatures be-
low 10° occurred on every day in some part
of the British Isles. The coldest days were
February 8th to the 10th. The lowest tem-
peratures recorded were —17° at Braemar,
and —11° degrees at Bucton and Drumlan-
rig. The mean temperature of the British
Isles for January was about 7°, and for
February from 11° to 14°, below the aver-
age, while the mean temperature for the
period from January 26th to February 19th
was from 14° to 20° below the average.
The distribution of atmospheric pressure
was almost entirely the reverse of the
normal, the barometer being highest in the
north and lowest in the south, the result be-
ing a continuance of strong, northerly and
easterly winds. The effect of the cold on
SCIENCE.
529
the public health was great, especially on
young children and old people. The num-
ber of deaths in London due to diseases of
the respiratory organs rapidly increased
from February 2d to March 2d, when the
weekly number was 1448, or 945 above the
average. From a comparison of previous
records the authors are of opinion that the
recent frost was more severe than any since
1814.
THE Popular Science Monthly for May prints
an interesting account of the naturalist
Conrad Gesner, by Professor W. K. Brooks.
It is illustrated by twelve photo-engravings
taken from the original wood cuts in his
work, Historia Animalium, published in the
latter half of the sixteenth century.
In the Atlantic Monthly for May Mr. Per-
cival Lowell begins a series of articles on
the planet Mars. He concludes that we
have proof positive that Mars has an atmos-
phere, that the air is thinner at least by
half than that on the summits of the Hima-
layas, that in constitution it does not differ
greatly from our own, and that it is rela-
tively heavily charged with water vapor.
Professor Holden, on the other hand, in the
May number of the North American Review,
concludes from the observations on the
spectrum of Mars made by Professor Camp-
bell, and printed recently in the Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, that
there is no more evidence of aqueous vapor
nor of an atmosphere in Mars than there is
in the case of the Moon.
Tue American Academy of Medicine met
at Johns Hopkins University on May 4th
and May 6th, under the Presidency of Dr.
J. MeF. Gaston.
Mr. Henry SEEBouM will write the text
for a new work on the eggs of British Birds,
to be published by Pawson and Brailsford, of
Sheffield, England. The work will contain
colored illustrations of the eggs of 400
species.
530
Proressor F. N. Coin, now of the Uni-
versity of Michigan, has been appointed
Professor of Mathematics in Columbia Col-
lege and Barnard College, filling one of the
three new chairs recently endowed in
Barnard College.
PrRorEssorR FRANZ Posepny, known for
his researches on mineral deposits, died on
March 27th, at the age of fifty-nine years.
Tue Association of Military Surgeons of
the United States will meet at Buffalo, New
York, on May 21st, 22d and 23d, under the
Presidency of Dr. George M. Sternberg.
THE twenty-second National Conference
of Charities and Correction will be held in
New Haven during the week beginning
May 24th.
Gov. Morton has signed the bill incor-
porating the New York Zoological Society
and providing for the establishment of a
Zoological Garden in New York.
Mr. Ropert Frrcu, antiquarian and ge-
ologist of Norwich, England, died recently
at the age of 93 years.
THE death is announced of Lothar von
Meyer, Professor of Chemistry at the Uni-
versity of Tubingen, at the age of 65.
Tue presidential address delivered before
the recent meeting of the American Society .
of Naturalists by Professor C. 8. Minot on
The Work of the Naturalist in the World is
printed in the May number of the Popular
Science Monthly.
TuE tenth annual meeting of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of
Physical Education was held at the Teach-
ers’ College, New York, on April 25, 26
and 27. The program included a large
number of papers of scientific interest.
Dr. Kurt RumKer has been called to a
professorship of agriculture in the Univer-
sity of Breslau.
COMMISSIONERS are being appointed by
Governor Morton with a view to the acqui-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 19.
sition of the Hudson River Palisades by the
United States.
Mr. M. 8. Reap, now of Cornell Uni- ~
versity, has been appointed Professor of
Philosophy in Colgate University.
THE departments of Mining and Geology
of Columbia College will hold their annual
summer school in Colorado. The School in
Practical Mining will be in Central City
under the charge of Professor Peele, and
the Geological School will meet at Golden
under the charge of Professor Kemp.
Dr. Hans THIERFELDER has been ap-
pointed Director of the Chemical Depart-
ment of the Physiological Laboratory in
Berlin.
Tur Amherst Summer School of Library
Economy, under the direction of Mr. Wil-
liam I. Fletcher, will be in session from July
1 to August 3.
THe April number of the Bulletin of the
Torrey Botanical Club contains a biographical
notice of John H. Redfield by Mr. William
M. Canby. There is an excellent portrait
and a bibliography containing fifty-four
titles. ‘
Tue presidential address on ‘ The United
States Geological Survey,’ given before the
Geological Society of Washington, on De-
cember 18, 1894, by Mr. Charles D. Wal-
cott, and published in the February num-
ber of the Popular Science Monthly, has been
reprinted. It should be in the hands of all
who are interested in the great work ac-
complished and in progress under the direc-
tion of the United States Geological Survey.
Wirsx the permission of the Prussian
Minister of Education the University of
Gottingen has conferred the degree of doc-
tor of philosophy on Miss Grace Chisholm.
This is a first degree conferred on a woman
since Gottingen became a Prussian univer-
sity.
ProFessor Hatstep writes to Garden and
Forest that the late winter has been very
May 10, 1895.]
' trying upon the English Ivy which covers
many of the older buildings in New Bruns-
wick, New Jersey. The leaves are mostly
brown, many of them dead, and have the
appearance of having been scorched by fire.
It may be that the plants will revive with
warm weather, but these old vines, which
have been the pride of the city, are just now
anything but attractive.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
Ar the meeting of April 20 Dr. Frank
Baker exhibited specimens and gave de-
scriptions of two anomalous forms of human
lumbar vertibrie hitherto undescribed.
Dr. Theobald Smith read a paper entitled
* An Infectious Entero-hepatitis of Turkeys,
Caused by Protozoa.’
The first intimation of the existence of
this hitherto unrecognized disease was given
by some diseased organs sent by Mr. Sam-
uel Cushman of the Rhode Island Experi-
meet Station in 1893. In 1894 the speaker
had an opportunity of studying a number
of cases in various stages of the disease.
This begins in the ceca and manifests
itself by a more or less uniform thickening
of the wall. When this has continued for
some time an exudate is poured out from
the mucous membrane, which coagulates
firmly and occludes the tube itself more or
less completely. The cause of the thicken-
ing of the cecal wall is a protozoon from
6 to 10 y» in diameter, which multiplies very
rapidly within the connective tissue inter-
stices of the mucous and submucous tissue.
The irritation produced by these bodies in-
duces proliferation of the connective tissue
eells. The thickening is further increased
by cell infiltration, due to inflammatory
processes which appear later on, and which
may be due to the absorption of bacterial
products from the denuded mucosa.
In almost every case the liver is second-
arily and usually very severely involved by
SCIENCE.
531
the transportation of these protozoa from
the seat of the disease in ceca through the
portal system. The liver becomes covered
with round isolated and confluent patches
of a yellowish or brownish color, which rep-
present necrotic foci in the substance of the
liver itself. Within these, in the earlier
stages, large numbers of the same protozoa
may be found.
The protozoon, as stated above, is a
spherical or slightly oval body, of a homo-
geneous appearance and containing an ex-
ceedingly minute ring-like nucleus. It has
shown none of the characters of sporozoa.
Its rapid multiplication within the tissue
spaces, where it may be seen either isolated
or in groups of two, three, four or many in-
dividuals, as well as the absence of any in-
tercellular stage, has induced the writer to
place it, at least provisionally, in the genus
Ameeba, and, in consultation with Dr. Stiles,
to denominate it Amaba meleagridis. A de-
tailed account of this investigation is to ap-
pear in a forthcoming bulletin of the Bu-
reau of Animal Industry.
Dr. G. Browne Goode read a paper on
‘The Horizontal and Vertical Distribution
of Deep Sea Fishes.’ The paper had for its
object to demonstrate that the accepted
ideas in regard to the distribution of deep
sea fishes, having been founded on incom-
plete data, are erroneous ; and that, con-
trary to the commonly accepted opinion,
no separation of deep sea fish life into hori-
zontal strata is possible. On the other
hand, the idea that the fish fauna of the
depths of the sea is the same in all parts of
the world is without foundation.
Through the application of a percentage
method eleven well marked faunal regions
were shown to exist, as well as two sub-
regions. The regions proposed were as fol-
lows :
1. Boreal Atlantic.
2. Eastern Atlantic or Lusitanian, with a
Mediterranean sub-region.
5382
3. Northwestern Atlantic or Virginian,
with a Caribbean-Mexican sub-region
4, Southwestern Atlantic or Brazilian.
. Boreal Pacific or Aleutian.
. Eastern Pacific or Galapagean.
. Northwestern Pacific or Japanese.
. Polynesian.
9. Zealandian.
10. Antarctic.
11. Indian.
MAID oO
M. B. Waite,
Recording Secretary.
BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
THE annual meeting was held on Wed-
nesday, May Ist.
A paper was read by Mr. J. L. Tilton
On the Geology of the Southwestern part of the
Boston Basin.
Reports of the officers were received and
officers for 1895-6 were elected as follows:
President, William H. Niles.
Vice-Presidents, Nathaniel S. Shaler, Wil-
liam G. Farlow, Charles P. Bowditch.
Curator, Alpheus Hyatt.
Secretary, Samuel Henshaw.
Treasurer, Edward T. Bouve.
TInbrarian, Samuel Henshaw.
Councillors for Three Years, Hermon C.
Bumpus, Charles B. Davenport, William A.
Jeffries, George G. Kennedy, Augustus
Lowell, Miss Susannah Minns, Thomas A.
Watson, Samuel Wells.
SAMUEL HENSHAW,
Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, MAY.
James Dwight Dana.
Color Relations of Atoms, Ions and Molecules :
By M. C. Lua.
Further Notes on the Gold Ores of California :
By H. W. Turner.
Some Relations between Temperature, Presswre
and Latent Heat of Vaporization: By C. B.
LINEBARGER.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vox. I. No. 19.
Double Halides of Cesium, Rubidium, Sodium
and Lithium with Thallium: By J. H. Prarr.
Argon, Prout’s Hypothesis, and the Periodic
Law: By EH. A. Hix1. a
Improved Rock Cutter and Trimmer: By EB.
KIDWELL.
Relation of the plane of Jupiter’s orbit to the
mean-plane of four hundred and one minor
planet orbits: By H. A. NewrTon.
Chemistry and Physics; Geology; Miscellane-
ous Scientific Intelligence ; Obituary.
BULLETIN OF THE TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB,
APRIL.
Notes on Some Florida Plants: Gzo. V. NAs#.
John H. Redfield: Wm. M. Cansy.
A Fossil Marine Diatomaceous Deposit at St.
Augustine, Florida: CHARLES 8. BoyER.
New Species of Parastic Fungi: 8. M. Tracy
and F. 8. EARLE.
The Systematic Botany of North America; Bo-
tanical Notes; Proceedings of the Olub; In-
dex to Recent Literature Relating to Ameri-
can Botany.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY, MAY.
On the Two Isomeric Chlorides of Orthosulpho-
benzoic Acid: TRA REMSEN.
I. The Action of Aniline and of the Tolui-
dines on Orthosulphobenzoic Acid and its Chlo-
ride: IRA RemMsEN and C. EH. Coarss, JR.
IT. Further Study of the Action of Aniline
on the Chlorides of Orthosulphobenzoie Acid :
Ira Remsen and EH. P. KonuEr.
III, Separation of the Two Chlorides of
Orthosulphobenzoic Acid: IRA ReMsEN and
A. P. SAUNDERS.
The Sugar of the Agave Americana: W. B.
Srone and D. Lorz.
The Law of. Mass Action: J. E. TREyoR.
Chromates of the Rare Earths: Chromates oj
Thorium: CHASE PALMER.
On a New Method for the Separation of Copper
and Cadmium in Qualitative Analysis: Ax-
LERTON S. CUSHMAN.
Reviews.
id
i
SCIENCE.
New SERIEs.
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tronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics ; R. H. THuRSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
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CONTENTS:
The Ballistic Galvanometer and its use in Magnetic
Measurements: THOMAS GRAY .....-+++---- 533
The Scientific Method and Modern Intellectual Life :
CONWAY MACMILLAN......--.ceeseeeseeees 537
The Liquefaction of Gases—A Controversy: JAMES
DREMISSELONV ESN \o les os vic o'sonas ene bem anes 5 542
BRINTON
James Edward Oliver : GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED. .544
James Dwight Dana
Correspondence : —
The Education of the Topographer: M.
Davis. The Helmholtz Memorial: Huco Mtn-
STERBERG.
muctentajic Viterature — .....00..scccccccccccness 548
Dana’s Geology: JosEPH LE CONTE. Warm-
ing’s Systematic Botany ; Chambers’ Story of the
Stars: DayipP. Topp. Ballard’s The World of
Matter: Wyatt W. RANDALL.
RIMES PIAL Sn) cc. c'xro/a 9/50. « gine rin ee iiniepatelsteiaiars 554
Societies and Academies : — ...+-..+0+eeeeeeeeeee 558
The Geological Society of Washington; The En-
tomological Society of Washington.
OIE N oi g.aiz 0'0ie.0.c 5x10; 4:1=!a vicina, sin wsleidtoleiaiaatte 560
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
McKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Subscriptions and advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
THE BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER AND ITS
USE IN MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS.
Tue ballistic galvanometer gives one of
the most convenient and reliable means of
Measuring the total quantity of electricity
conveyed through a circuit by a transient
current when the conditions are such as to
admit of its legitimate application. It is
ol known, however, to experienced ob-
servers that in a large number of the com-
mon applications of the instrument the re-
sults are doubtful because the fundamental
principle on which the calculations are based
is not sufficiently attended to. The object
of the present note is to direct more par-
ticular attention to the conditions under
which accurate results may be obtained.
Most text-books on electrical measure-
ments give formule for the calculation of the
quantity of electricity required to produce
a given deflection, or throw, of the galva-
nometer needle, and also indicate how the
constant of the instrument may be de-
termined, and how the damping effect of
the air and of induced currents may be al-
lowed for. The formule assume as funda-
mental that the duration of the flow is
negligibly small in comparison with the
time which the needle takes to reach its
greatest deflection. This fundamental con-
dition is of course implied in the name bal-
listic, but it does not seem, from the appli-
cations which we find continually made of
the instrument, that the simple statement,
as commonly given, is sufficiently explicit
to prevent a vicious use of this method of
experiment. For the measurement and the
comparison of the capacities of condensers
and similar purposes the ballistic galva-
nometer is generally reliable, providing the
constant is properly determined and suit-
able appliances used for manipulation. In
magnetic measurements, however, it not
5384
unfrequently happens that the duration of
the current is much too great, and not only
too great, but variable throughout the series
of observations, the results of which are
compared. The carelessness with which
this method of experiment is recommended
by authorities who ought to know better is
astonishing. We find, for instance, in one
of the most widely used text-books on the
practical application of electricity the state-
ment that to measure the total induction
across the armature of a dynamo a few
turns of wire may be wound round the sec-
tion of commutation and connected in series
with a ballistic galvanometer, and the throw
of the needle, when the field circuit is closed
or broken, will indicate the induction. For
any ordinary galvanometer such statements
are simply nonsense.
Let us take, for the purpose of illustra-
tion, the measurement of the magnetic
quality of iron, according to Rowland’s
method, or some one of the modifications
of it which have come into use. Here the
specimen is a ring, which, in most of the
recent determinations, is made up of wire
or thin sheet iron. The ring is surrounded
along its whole length by one or more mag-
netizing coils, and over a short length by a
secondary or induction coil, included in the
circuit of a ballistic galvanometer. The
inductions produced by different magnetiz-
ing forces are then measured by observing
the corresponding throws of the ballistic
galvanometer needle. Various modes of
operation are adopted, as, for instance,
the magnetizing force is changed by suc-
cessive steps from an extreme value in
one direction to an equal extreme in the
opposite direction, and then back by simi-
lar steps, thus passing the iron through a
complete cycle of magnetization. The cor-
responding successive throws of the galva-
nometer needle are then taken to indicate
the increased or diminished magnetic in-
duction, due to the different changes of
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 20.
magnetizing force. In another method the
magnetization is changed always from the
extreme in one direction as the zero for
each observation. The change of magneti-
zation is in this case produced either by
diminution, and, if necessary, reversal of
the magnetizing force in one magnetizing
coil, or by the use of a second coil and a
current sent through it in such a direction
as tends to reverse the original magnetiza-
tion. The reverse half of the cycle is then
obtained by passing the extreme current
through the second coil, then slowly de-
creasing it to the required value, and after-
wards suddenly breaking the circuit. The
changes of induction are measured as be-
fore by the deflections of the ballistic gal-
vanometer. needle. Other methods might
be mentioned, but these will serve for our
present purpose.
In order to illustrate the variable condi-
tions under which such experiments are
made, the curves given in figures 1-4 have
been drawn by an autographie recorder
showing the actual character of the in-
duced current which is sent through the
galvanometer under different circumstances.
In figure 1 the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, give
the curves of variation of current with
time (the ordinate being current and the
abscisse time) for the following set of oper-
ations: Two magnetizing coils being placed
on the iron a constant current was estab-
lished in one of them; next, for curve 1, a
small reverse current was sent through the
other coil; for curve 2, the second coil was
closed across the battery and the battery
cut out; for curve 3, the battery put in cir-
cuit and the current again established ; for
curve 4, the current was increased by short
circuiting part of the resistance in the cir-
cuit; for curve 5, the short circuit was
taken off and the current reduced to the
same valve as at the end of 3; for curve 6,
the coil was closed across the battery termi-
nal and the battery taken out of circuit.
- May 17, 1895.]
Figure 2 shows the result of a similar
‘series with the magnetizing force for curve
1 greater and the operations 2 and 3 of
figure 1 omitted. Figure 3 illustrates the
result when the whole of the reverse cur-
rent was put on in operation 1, and the
eurve 2 shows the effect of short circuiting
the battery in the second cireuit. Figure
4 is the same as figure 3 so far as the first
operation is concerned, but in the operation
which gave curve 2 the second magnetizing
circuit was simply broken. The scales of
these curves are arbitrary, but are the same
the different curves, and hence the rela-
tive magnitudes of the changes of current
may be estimated from the curves. The
reverse current in the second coil was not
at any time adjusted so as to give an equal
he coil through which the constant current
as kept flowing. The two primary objects
drawing the curves were (a) to show
the great difference in the time required to
produce changes of magnetization as de-
pending on the magnitude of the change,
md (b) to show the differences in time
or the two cases of short circuit and
SCIENCE.
535
complete break of the magnetizing coil
cireuit.
The fact that the time required to pro-
duce the change of magnetization is depend-
ent on the amount of change shows that,
unless the period of the galvanometer
needle be so long that even the longest of
these times is short in comparison, the
measurements of the higher magnetizations
will be more in error than the lower. The
effect of this on the magnetization curve of
iron is to render the steep parts of the curve
less steep. The curves 1 and 2 of figure 4
show the effect of the diminished inductive
retardation when the circuit is broken in
shortening the time required for the mag-
netization to change back as compared with
the time required to produce it. Curve 2
of figure 3 compared with curve 2 of figure
4 shows the relative times when in the first
case the e. m. f. is removed, but the circuit
left closed and in the other case the circuit
is broken. Comparisons between the de-
flection due to the application and the re-
moval of magnetizing force should always
be made in such a way that the circuit has
the same inductive retardation in both cases.
536
The e. m. f. should therefore be introduced
and removed without breaking the circuit.
If we assume no damping action on the
needle the equation to its motion is
where n is a constant depending on the gal-
vanometer and the intensity of the mag-
netic field at the needle, while X depends
on the galvanometer and on the nature of
the transient current. If we suppose the
impulse given to the needle to be due to
the charge or discharge of a magnetic field
and take the permeability of the core as con-
stant we may put X — A e@t where A is
a constant depending on the galvanometer
and a = + where Ris the resistance and L
the co-efficient of induction.
We thus get 4 —; + n= Ae t
The solution of this equation is
)
A
6 —a t pd
or) 2 Cm += , Sint cosnt j
2 2
a feet a a Z xin(ata)}
n
where term 2 = aie
The constant n is equal to 2z/T, where T
is the free period of the needle.
Take, as a particular case, a ring of mean
circumference / = 30 centimetres, and cross
sectional area S = 2 square centimetres, and
suppose the total number of turns on the
magnetizing coil to be N = 600, the per-
meability » = 2000, and the resistance 1
ohm. Then the increase or decrease of in-
duction per unit current x N = L =
Ge NPS og i F y
cp =e nearly in henrys. Hence
we have a or R/L = 42, and the current at
time t, after the removal of the e. m. f., the
circuit remaining closed, is C, = ©, e° ¢
where Co is the current just before the
e.m.f.is removed. Giving ¢ different val-
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. I. No. 20.
ues in seconds we have the following values
of the ratio Ct / Co:
tin seconds = 1 2 3 4 5
Ct / Co = 0.1889 0.03565 0.00673 0.00127 0.00024
If the resistance be taken equal to 10 ohms
then the unit of time in the above table is
to be taken as one tenth ofa second, and so
on for different resistances. Precisely the
same calculation applies to the case of in-
creasing magnetization, only C, is then the
final steady current, and the numbersin the
line C, / CG. are the differences from unity
of the ratio C, / C,,, that is, the equation
becomes (; / C, = 1—e~® ¢.
Hence, remembering the high value which
L may have at certain parts of the eycle in
the case of iron, we see that to insure the
whole quantity ef electricity getting through
the galvanometer coil in a small fraction of
the quarter period the resistance would re-
quire to be in the neighborhood of 1000
ohms for a needle of 4 seconds period, and
of 100 ohms for a needle of 40 seconds
period.
The quantity of electricity which flows
through the coil in time ¢ is given by the
equation
t R
Q=f Ge °=o,8 oe
on aa =
Hence in the case supposed above the
quantity which flows in one second is about
2 of the whole when the resistance is one
ohm, and about # of the whole in ;{5 of a
second when the resistance is 100 ohms.
2 2
eat ve 1. aa
n
=
The equatim i amg a
(n—2)| reduces to @/ — in the case
of « being very great in comparison with n
and this form can be readily reduced to the
equation commonly given on the supposi-
tion of the time of discharge being small in
comparison with the period of the needle.
Keeping to the case taken above of the
May 17, 1895.]
period 4 seconds or quarter period 1 second
we have the following values of a :—
10/6 2
a = 1
= 0.774 0.810
md! — _ 0.632
The middle one of these values corre-
sponds to the ring discussed above when the
resistance is one ohm. . In these three
- eases the maximum deflection is reached
after 1.54 seconds, 1.45 seconds and 1.40
seconds from the time when the e. m. f. is
applied to or removed from the circuit. The
conditions here taken may be considered ex-
treme in so far as the period of the needle
is concerned, but it is not difficult to find
examples of actual measurements in which
the period has been equally short.
j The examples here given are probably suf-
ficient to direct attention to the care that
must be taken in the choice of apparatus
and the arrangements of circuits when the
ballistic galvanometer is used in magnetic
measurements. The method is only appli-
_ cable when a is so large that @ and #’ are
practically equal to each other and this
condition is approximated to by making R
large and Las small as possible. Hence,
high e. m. f. s. should be used with high non-
inductive resistance in the circuit and mag-
netic force should be secured with small
numbers of turns by using large currents.
_ It is well always when comparing charge
with discharge to keep the induction of the
circuit the same in both cases by means of
_ an apparatus which cuts out the battery and
at the same time keeps the circuit closed
_ through an equal resistance, instead of
breaking the circuit when the discharge is
measured. A check on the accuracy of the
observations in any particular case may be
obtained by observing the successive ex-
treme deflection of the needle. If the first
deflection has the proper magnitude the
mean ordinate of the curves drawn through
the extreme deflections to opposite sides of
zero should be at all points zero. When
EE eT ee
a gy ol
SCIENCE.
537
the duration of the current is a large frae-
tion of the time of swing of the needle the
mean of the deflections to opposite sides
will lie for the first few swings on the same
side of zero as the initial deflection.
Tuomas GRAY.
RosE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND MODERN IN-
TELLECTUAL LIFE.
SCIENCE, as a necessary term, is possibly
upon the verge of obsolescence. Within the
last half-century it has spread the mantle
of its meaning over almost every depart-
ment of thought until to-day knowledge
and science are perceived to be so nearly co-
extensive that the newer term might rightly
yield to the priority of the older. While
twenty-five years ago one heard much about
science and the languages as rival claim-
ants for place in the college curriculum,
one now listens to the message of that use-
ful science, classical philology. Then the
polemic between science and religion seemed
earnest indeed; now theologians and lay-
men are alike shocked when Mr. Benjamin
Kidd suggests that there can not be a sci-
ence of religion. Antithesis has softened
into synonymy. It is not that the lion of
science has devoured the lambs of art, liter-
ature and philosophy ; it is rather that sys-
tematists of opinions and beliefs have deter-
mined a generic unity where before variety
was supposed eternally to exist. Such con-
dition has arisen, it may be presumed, from
the prevalence at least among Western na-
tions of what has come to be denominated
the scientific method. This prevalence is
not yet universality. It does not yet extend
in full measure to every individual; nor does
it, perhaps, persistently characterize the
intellectual life of any man at the present
time. The atavism of superstition must
somewhere mar the image and superscrip-
tion of one’s intellectualinheritance. Ney-
ertheless, so widespread and so dominant
588
everywhere is this scientific method that in
a broad sense it might be accorded univer-
sality.
matter to discover, if one can, what effects
upon the intellectual life, not only of the
individual, but of society in general, are re-
sulting from the method now and will de-
velop in the future.
It is possible to define science as that
orderly mass of facts and hypotheses with-
in experience by which we criticise our
primitive ideas. Social, not merely individ-
ual, experience and the broader implication
of criticism are intended. The scientific
method is therefore that intellectual process
by which facts are recognized, accumulated
and arranged, hypotheses framed, tested and
exploited and conclusions drawn, verified,
accepted and applied where they may seem
best to fulfil their function in the enginery
of social progress. It would be an error to
suppose that any clear demarcation exists
between knowledge that is scientific and
other knowledge that is not; nor can one,
search as he will, discover the birth-place
or learn the natal day of the scientific
method. As Dr. Osborn has shown, from
the Greeks to Darwin there exists a con-
tinuity of speculative evolution. Bacon
was not the first to make use of induction.
Franklin did not discover electricity, nor
Lamarck the impermanence of species.
Everywhere the older phases of thought
merge into the newer, much as one picture
seems to follow another in the cunningly pre-
sented dissolving views or phantasmagoria
ofthestage. Yetit willscarcely be gainsaid
that while yesterday the scientific method
was indeterminate and sporadic, to-day it is
definite, characteristic of most that is valu-
able in thought and in a sense universal.
Carrying farther the definitions which
are so useful if one desires to make one’s
meaning plain, it will appear that the intel-
lectual life is a concept that has enlarged,
imperceptibly at first, but surely during
SCIENCE.
It becomes, then, an important
[N. S. Vox. I. No. 20:
these later days. When one sees the phrase
in type one does not stop with Hamerton:
Insensibly the meaning of the word life has~
expanded in the minds of thoughtful men
until the limits of individualism are instine-
tively transcended and the instant idea is
of the greater social, not of the lesser indi-
vidual organism. No more impressive evi-
dence of an onward movement in thought
could be offered, no more conclusive demon-
stration of some welding, hnmanizing force
unconsciously at work generalizing and ex-
tending the point of view. The intellectual
life is seen to be not merely an efflorescence
of culture; it is not the knowing of the best
that has been said and written in the his-
tory of the world; it is not the peace of in-
trospective calm, nor serenity in a delightful
oasis amid the desert sands of a crass and
insentient materialism ; it is a strenuous, an
austere exertion of those high human powers
that command the world of things for the
world of thought. Culture, essentially in-
dividualistic, is not the concretely social
and dynamic intellectual life. Itis true one
must not altogether forget the traditional
meaning of the phrase, but that traditional
meaning is after all suggestive principally as
a vestigial character. Jts peculiar interest
lies in the fact that it has been outgrown.
Having indicated the content of such
phrases as intellectual life and scientific method,
it remains to show briefly how the latter in
its slow but massive development has in-
fluenced the former, or rather how the two
have unfolded themselves in unison. In
the course of the examination, it will perhaps
become apparent that the larger modern
implication of such a phrase as intellectual
life is due, above all, to precisely such in-
fluences as have been brought to bear upon
the texture of society by the progressively
larger, though in great part unconscious,
activity of what has been termed the scien-
tific method.
Noting first the evident contact points,
May 17, 1895.]
especially in pedagogics, between the scien-
tific method and the intellectual life of the
individual, one cannot but reaffirm in the
light of experience what has long been main-
- tained by those who advocate the funda-
mental position of science in every educa-
tional system. In the domain of reason,
breadth, grasp and clarity are developed as
under no other discipline. Sanity in emo-
tion is secured, and vigor, together with
modesty and a reasonable deliberation,
tends to distinguish the active life of the
- man who has brought himself into what
may be styled a scientific frame of mind.
The accumulation of any mass of facts, if
the search be tireless, must stimulate the
_ growth of a certain cosmopolitanism. The
_ Scarabean doubtless found more foreign let-
ters in his mail than did the Autocrat.
When one goes farther and attempts an in-
duction or an hypothesis he must hold
firmly the facts he has, his eye must be un-
clouded, his step steady, or he will fail.
Still more certainly will his office remain an
humble one if, when he ventures to make
known to others his discoveries or conclu-
sions, he want in transparency and pre-
cision. Nor will the man whose life is truly
illuminated by the sun of science lack some-
- what of self-control ; under less favorable
4 conditions this equipoise may take the guise
of unenthusiasm, but at its best it is activity
y —sympathie, tolerant, enlightened. Such
_ being their recognized educational produc-
tivity, the so-called sciences have taken
_ masterful positions in the schools of Europe
and America. It will not be necessary here
to point outin detail the precise pedagogic
adaptability and the importance of the
various sciences in a general educational
scheme ; it will suffice to inquire whether
it be not true that whatever branch of learn-
g popularly classed outside of the sciences
maintains itself in school curricula, it does
by virtue of the scientific method being
ible in its presentation,
SCIENCE.
539
Although clearly not so fundamental in
their effect upon the individual character
as must be these simple reactions where the
scientific method is brought into an alem-
bie with nascent intellect, there are some
relatively subtle yet far-reaching influences
that should not be overlooked. From a
number that might be chosen I will bring
forward three. A just appreciation and
personal application of the scientific method
tends to discourage introspective and meta-
physical habits of thought, to counteract
the insidious pessimism with which so much
of modern life is tinged, and to impel one
unmistakably toward a rational and sober
altruism. I would not be understood to
regard metaphysics as altogether pernicious.
At its worst it may be as Walter Pater
thought it, ‘the art of methodically mud-
dling one’s self,’ but it has its place and its
mission. Yet there is an individualistic
and almost a selfish tendency in much of
what passes for philosophy. One need not
pursue the thorny path of dialectics to the
end that one denies the existence of all but
himself. Whatever intellectual attitude de-
mands, an attentive scrutiny of one’s own
mental, moral or physical mechanism can
not but be self-centered. For this reason,
if for no other, the failure of deductive phi-
losophy to carry its influence beyond the
lecture room or seminarium might easily
have been predicated in advance. The stu-
dent of the history of philosophy is scarcely
more impressed by the cumulative intricacy
of philosophic speculation than by its pro-
gressive futility as a guide in the every-day
affairs of life. Employment of the scien-
tific method discourages on the whole that
naive self-inspection which was the badge
of the older intellectual cultus, just as on the
other hand it lends encouragement to the
open-eyed, outward searchings of the mod-
ern investigator. This objectivity, whether
or not it be an indication of intellectual
maturity in a nation, is distinetly charac-
540
teristic of modern Occidental civilization in
no less degree than the reverse condition is
supposed to mould the thought and life of
the Orient. Such objectivity—not without
the stigma of materialism—seems to result
from the general prevalence of the scientific
methods in contemporaneous thought.
If it be protested that the scientific
method is blighting in its tendency to sup-
press metaphysics, not so certain objections
will be made to its efficiency as a counterfoil
against philosophic pessimism. Whether
one professes with Schopenhauer to believe
that this is the worst possible world, or joins
von Hartmann in that more dismal sugges-
tion that this is the best possible world, but
not worth living in; whether one sigh with
De Musset, weep with LeConte de Lisle,
or rave with Baudelaire, one must give the
sanction in so doing to existence, and if to
existence then to evolution, by which such
existence became possible, and if to evolu-
tion then to progress. Therefore, if we
have the scientific spirit two escapes are
possible from the darkness of pessimism—
superficially by occupying one’s self with
some scientific protocol, or more profoundly
by turning one’s despairing thoughts aside
in the recognition of an indwelling power
in the social organism which makes, if not
for righteousness, at least for social evolu-
tion. If under the leadership of the scien-
tific method one can actually grasp the form
of truth there is in positivism; if one can
really feel the existence of a social organ-
ism and listen to his ideals as did Comte,
believing them to be the sealed orders of
humanity; if one can learn with Weismann
to know the profound sense in which all
men are brothers, for all men are one, it will
make little odds to him whether he be
shown with most convincing logic that the
constitution of the nervous system makes
pain the positive and pleasure the negative
and that death is merely an acquired physi-
ological trait useful to insure the perma-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 20.
nence of the species at the zenith of its
youth and power. But after all, perhaps
the most fatal blow that the scientific
method strikes to pessimism is, as argued
above, in its settled antagonism to intro-
spection. For pessimism as an ethical and
metaphysical system is based peculiarly
upon self-observation. A man does not
despair of the world from what he sees
around him, but from what he sees in the
secret places of his own heart. By its dis-
couragement of morbid subjectivity the sci-
entific method cuts the very foundation
from under the philosophic pessimist.
We are led then to the third postulate—
that the scientific method impels us unmis-
takably toward a rational and sober
altruism. This indeed links itself insepa-
rably with the others. If defective this type
of altruism is defective in fire and in en-
thusiasm. Domination by the calm reason-
ableness of the inductive philosophy does
not stimulate one to take up the tambourines
and drums of the Salvation Army. He who
has ordered his mental processes in accord-
ance with a scientific method is inclined to
prefer the charity organization to personal
alms-giving; he shrinks a little from the zeal
of the social reformer; he is unlikely to bea
poet in literature, a rhapsodist in music or
a revivalist in religion. He is rather to be
sought among the rank and file of the great,
silent army which is behind every reform
as ‘ public sentiment’ or as the ‘moral sense
of the community.’ But as has been
pointed out elsewhere this quiet acqui-
escence is a necessary factor in social re-
form, just as underneath every successful
revolution there has been a subtile and
tacit confession of faultiness in the estab-
lished order by the very party that storms
barricades in the struggle for its mainte-
nance. To sum it up in a word, under the
scientific method men may not be so ready
to conquer rights and privileges for others,
but they are prepared unflinchingly to con-
——$— =
ee
May 17, 1895.]
cede such rights when the request has come
with authority.
From this point the transition is easy to
the consideration of what influence the
scientific method may exert in a general
Way upon society as a whole. There is not
space in the compass of a review article to
discuss adequately a matter of so many
complications, but it is possible to offer a
syllabus for reflection. It must first of all
be kept in mind that world-wideness is in the
fabric of all sceince. Since induction is
objective, the scientific method is cosmopol-
itan. The humble describer of a new
species of butterfly must have passed, in
orderly fashion, all the butterflies of the
earth before his mind ere he ventures to set
his own over against the rest as new. The
question of the German University labora-
tory— Was haben Sie neues gefunden ? ’—
presupposes a knowledge of what the world
has done before. This characteristic of the
scientific method cannot be too strongly
emphasized. What then must be the na-
tural reflex of the method upon social in-
stitutions ?
Science has bound the world together by
its spirit no less than by its discoveries. In-
terest in others would make communication
easy even if the telegraph did not exist.
Sympathy is a stronger cable than those
that lie along the bottom of the Atlantic.
Hence in every region of human intellectual
activity one traces the broadening influence
of the scientific method. In polities, de-
mocracy ; in warfare, humanity; in com-
merce, freedom; in art and in literature,
realism ; in all the social relations of life,
kindliness and charity; in religion, toler-
ance and dynamic helpfulness—these are
the children of this scientific method. Per-
_ haps nowhere better than in the field of re-
ligion has the change to the new order made
itself felt. Religion is to-day recognized as
social rather than as individual. Faith is
blended in works, and in place of a pitiful
SCIENCE.
541
solicitude for the welfare of one’s own im-
mortal soul there has been developed a mis-
sionary spirit, boundless in its self-sacrifice,
a magnificient phenomenon of altruism.
It is very remarkable when comparing
theological literature of say the Oxford
Tractarian movement with that of the pres-
ent decade, such as the discourses of Wash-
ington Gladden or the Unitarian writings
of Martineau, to note that the essential dif-
ference between the two groups is that in
the former everything is discrete and indi-
vidualistic in tone, while in the latter every-
thing is concrete and social. Under the
stress of the scientific method, sanctity has
seemed second to helpfulness, just as indi-
vidual culture has seemed a less noble end
than social progress.
On the whole the influence of the scien-
tific method upon society is two-fold. Stati-
cally it has added organizability to the
social character, and by virtue of this it has
dynamically contributed to the advance in
social progress. The influence mentioned
upon character could scarcely strike more
profoundly, for the capacity to take part in
organization is possibly the most important
trait of all in social character. Precisely
as organization becomes most perfect will
progress be most rapid. And here one per-
ceives that a veritable intellectual sanction
for progress is to be sought. The au-
thor of Social Evolution has denied that
such sanction exists, but apparently without
taking into account the very method by
which he arrived at this conclusion. There
is quite as strong an instinctive quality in
science as in religion. Each takes progress
for granted, each in its own field contributes
to the advance, and in so doing each gives
its sanction to the movement. Since prog-
ress lies principally within the realm of
the social organism, its sanctions are social
rather than individual. And the error has
been in failing to perceive the strong social
nature of a certain type of intellection
542
and in assuming the metaphysical or intro-
spective type to be the only one worthy of
consideration. In the phrase ‘ devotees of
science’ there is a gleam of true meaning,
for in its social quality, its instinctiveness,
science is akin to religion. One might term
science an intellectual religion and not go
wide of the mark. While itmay be argued
that philosophy in the traditional sense does
not sanction progress, it cannot be argued
that science withholds either sanction or its
encouragement. Science is social thought
reflected back into the mind of individuals ;
metaphysics is individual thought radiated
outward upon society. ‘The sanction for
social progress is therefore derived rather
from society as a whole than from individual
introspection. For this reason the intellec-
tual sanction is all the more forceful and
takes its place beside the moral sanction
offered by religion. ‘There need then be no
fear that progress is intrinsically irrational,
and there may be a science of religion, as
there is a religion of science. It is the
function of the scientific method to organize
for victorious contest the battalions of the
intellect, while religion may bring on the
moral forces. Therefore it appears that
progress is an open-minded movement on-
ward, of which we are all a part, and to
which reason, under the sway of the scien-
tific method, gives sanction no less than
does emotion.
Conway MacMiruan.
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA.
THE LIQUEFACTION OF GASES.—A CONTRO-
VERSY.
THE scientific world has been treated
during the last few weeks to one of those
happily to-day rather infrequent contro-
versies which are always unseemly, the
more so when the parties are men of emi-
nent scientific reputation. Polemics in
science may sometimes be entertaining,
but are always unprofitable and tend to
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 20:
bring discredit upon the participants, if
not on their work. The recent discussion*
on the subject of liquefaction of gases is no
exception to the rule.
Prof. Dewar, in defending his failure to
give Prof. Olszewski due credit, has made
what might have been looked on as a pardon-
able omission appear almost as intentional
deceit. In taking up the cudgels in Prof.
Olszewski’s defense, Professor Muir has
seemed to make an unjust and almost spite-
ful attack upon Professor Dewar ; while Pro-
fessor Olszewski, whose work was already
too well and favorably known to need any
defense, has added nothing to his reputation;
indeed, he has rather laid himself open to the
charge he prefers against Professor Dewar,
inasmuch as in his article in the Engineer-
ing and Mining Journal he makes but
slighting reference to the work of Pictet and
Cailletet, and the name of Wrdéblewski is
but once, and that incidentally, mentioned.
The following is asummary of the more im-
portant work of these investigators in this
field :
In 1877 two independent experimenters
almost simultaneously succeeded in con-
densing to liquids the so-called permanent
gases. Cailletet, the French ironmaster at
Chantillon-sur-Seine, used a hydraulic press,
and obtained the necessary lowering of tem-
perature by suddenly diminishing the pres-
sure on the compressed gas. A mist ap-
pears in the glass tube containing the gas,
and, except in the case of hydrogen, con-
denses to small drops. Pictet, at Geneva,
used the pressure occasioned by the genera-
tion of the gas in wrought iron cylinders,
and cooled his steel condensing tube with
liquid carbon dioxid. In experimenting
with hydrogen, Pictet obtained an opaque
steel blue liquid, which appeared to solidify
*On the Liquefaction of Gases. Charles Olszew-
ski, James Dewar, M. M. Pattison Muir, Nature, Jan.
10, 1895, and following numbers. Letters to the
Editor. Also in The Philosophical Magazine.
May 17, 1895.]
on striking the ground. Later researches
of Olszewski and Krzyzanowski have shown
that this liquid could not have been hydro-
gen, and that the gas obtained, as Pictet’s
was, from potassium formate and caustic
potash is by no means pure hydrogen. To
Cailletet and Pictet belongs the credit of
being the pioneers in this field, and to them
in 1878 was awarded the Davy medal of the
Royal Society.
A few years later (1883) the work was
taken up by Wréblewski and Olszewski at
the University of Cracow, and after the
death of the former in 1886 was carried on
by Olszewski alone, and more recently by
Olszewski and Witkowski. The apparatus
used was derived from that of Cailletet, the
production of cold being by the boiling of
liquid ethylene in a vacuum.
The aim of Olszewski’s researches has
been the exact investigation of the proper-
ties and conditions of matter at low tem-
peratures. Many physical constants of the
so-called permanent gases have been deter-
mined, and especially the optical properties
of liquid oxygen have been thoroughly
studied. More recently Olszewski was en-
trusted by Lord Rayleigh and Professor
Ramsay with the liquefaction of Argon, and
the results of this investigation have been
widely published. His latest work is the
determination of the critical temperature
(—233°) and the boiling point (—2438°) of
hydrogen, the last gas which still resists
condensation to a static liquid.
Professor Dewar, in his position at the
Royal Institution of Great Britain, has been
looked upon, perhaps, rather as a public
lecturer and brilliant experimenter than as
an exact investigator. In 1884 he delivered
an address at the Royal Institution on the
work of Wréblewski and Olszewski, during
which oxygen and air were liquefied for the
first time in public. He later so improved
the apparatus, which was founded on the
principles used by Cailletet and by Olszew-
SCIENCE.
543
‘ski, that he could obtain with safety and
without great difficulty very considerable
quantities (‘several pints’) of liquid oxy-
gen or air, and his public experiments with
this liquid are famous. By the use of
liquid air he has studied the electrical re-
sistance of metals and alloys at low temper-
atures, extending greatly the work of Clau-
sius, Cailletet and Bouty, and Wréblewski
in this direction, and has undertaken work
on the tension of metals at low tempera-
tures. As far as these latter experiments
have been carried, they seem to show that
the breaking stress of metals increases de-
cidedly at low temperatures (—182°) and
hence that there is no decrease of mo-
lecular attraction as absolute zero is ap-
proached, although the most powerful chem-
ical affinities are in abeyance, as Professor
Dewar has shown. He was also the dis-
coverer of the magnetic properties of liquid
oxygen.
In his earlier work Professor Dewar cer-
tainly did not fail to give Professor Olszewski
due and full credit. Of late years he has
failed to often refer to him, and the charge
that he has sometimes apparently claimed
as his own that which he should have at-
tributed to the Polish professor is, perhaps,
not wholly unfounded ; yet the claim of
the latter for priority was so well under-
stood by scientific men that his attack on
Professor Dewar was at least unnecessary.
That the Englishman, possibly somewhat
rankled that his countrymen should have
called on a foreigner to assist in their study
of Argon, was led to make a spirited
rejoinder, to pose as more of an inde-
pendent investigator than the facts warrant,
and to depreciate the work of his op-
ponent, is perhaps not to *be wondered
at, but certainly not to be excused. Alto-
gether the discussion is profitless and un-
fortunate.
Jas. Lewis Howe.
WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY.
544
CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY (VIII).
A SPELHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
OF course, everybody knows what spelz-
ology means—or perhaps there are one
or two who do not, considering that the
word was manufactured only last year. Its
sponsor was M. H. A. Martel, a French
scientist distinguished for his numerous
and skillful explorations of caves for scien-
tific purposes. In Greek Speleus means a
cave, and ‘speleology’ is the science of
cave-hunting,as it-was called by the English.
A society has been formed in Paris with that
as a specialty, concerning which the curious
inquirer can learn more if he addresses M.
Martel, No. 8. Rue Menard.
The subject is one richly deserving this
kind of concentrated and special study. No
localities preserve more perfectly the records
of the past than caverns. In their darkness
and silence, guarded by their massive walls,
layer after layer of deposits have been
strown by their occasional visitors, by inun-
dations and by percolation. A stalagmitic
floor, clean, hard and imperishable, seals the
traces of every occupant in perfect preser-
vation through all time. Some of the most
important discoveries in geology and arche-
ology are due to these conditions. I need
but mention the labors of Lartet, Christy,
Boyd Dawkins, and in this country of Cope
and Mercer, to attest this.
But nowhere is ignorant excavation more
fatal than in cave-deposits. There isa high
science in their examination ; and M. Mar-
tel has planned an admirable scheme to
disseminate valuable instruction on this
essential point.
A VALUABLE STUDY IN PRIMITIVE ART.
A srupy in-primitive art of the most satis-
factory character has been lately published
by the Royal Irish Academy. It is entitled
“The Decorative Art of British New Guinea:
A Study in Papuan Ethnography,’ by Alfred
C. Haddon, M. A., Professor of Zodlogy in
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 20.
the Royal College of Science, Dublin. The
author approaches his topic with an exten-
sensive personal knowledge of it, and a~
thorough appreciation of its bearings on the
leading questions of ethnology in general.
The memoir is in large quarto, with twelve
full-page plates and many cuts inserted in
the text. Some of the designs are colored,
and all are copied with fidelity and clear-
ness. Their variety is astonishing, con-
sidering that we are dealing with the art of
cannibalistic savages, and the sense of pro-
portion and harmony often manifested is
just and real. The rapid development of
conventionalism is evident, and even in
such primitive examples one soon loses the
traits of the original design. This has often
been commented on in American aboriginal
art.
Professor Haddon corrects the impression
which sometimes. prevails, that art decora-
tion, for itself, is unknown to savages. Art
is related to ease; as he says, ‘ Art flourishes
where food is abundant.’ Another vital
conclusion he expresses in these words:
“The same processes operate on the art of
decoration, whatever the subject, wherever
the country, whenever the age, illustrating
the essential solidarity of mankind.” No
truer words have been spoken on the sub-
ject, and ethnographers should learn them
by heart.
In every respect the memoir is most
creditable to the writer and to the institu-
tion which publishes it.
D. G. Brinton.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
JAMES EDWARD OLIVER.
On March 27th, 1895, after an illness of
ten weeks, died Professor J. E. Oliver, of
Cornell University, universally honored and
beloved.
For more than twenty years he has been
at the head of the department of mathe-
matics in this great institution. 4
May 17, 1895.]
Born in Maine in 1829, even from his
graduation in 1849 he ranked as a mathe-
matical genius, one of the most remarkable
America has produced. But he seemed to
have no ambition to leave an adequate
record of his mental life in print. In per-
sonal character he resembled Lobachéysky,
whom he intensely admired.
He was spontaneously loyal to the good
and the true, enthusiastic, thorough, pains-
taking. He loved poetry ; he loved Shake-
speare; he was averse to religious creeds.
For Professor Oliver goodness was spon-
taneous. He did the right not because it
was right, but because he intensely wished
todojustthat. The spring of action seemed
a combination of sympathy, perception,
; knowledge, scientific logic.
j In mathematics Professor Oliver worked
_ for the love of it and because he was deeply
convinced that mathematics affords that
fine culture which the best minds seek for
its own sake.
He was a pronounced believer in the non-
Euclidean geometry.
I vividly recall how he came up after my
H lecture on Saccheri at Chicago, and express-
_ ing his interest in the most charming fash-
7 ion, proceeded unhesitatingly to give me a
profound lecture on stellar parallax, the
measurement of the angles of astronomical
triangles and the tests of the quality of
what Cayley called ‘the physical space of
our experience.’
Again, after the Brooklyn meeting of the
American Association, he took up the same
subject with me, explained a plan for com-
_bining stellar spectroscopy with ordinary
parallax determinations, and expressed his
disbelief that C. S. Pierce had proved our
space to be of Lobachévsky’s kind, and his
conviction that our universal space is really
finite, therein agreeing with Sir Robert
Ball.
GrorGE Bruce HALsTED.
UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS.
SCIENCE.
545
JAMES DWIGHT DANA.
We take from the authorized account by
Professor Edward 8. Dana, in the May num-
ber of the American Journal of Science, the
following facts concerning Dana’s life. He
was born in Utica, N. Y., on February 12,
1813, his father and mother being from
Massachusetts. He early showed an inter-
est in natural history, which increased dur-
ing his course at Yale College from 1830 to
1833. Immediately after graduation, Dana
spent fifteen months as instructor in mathe-
matics to the mid-shipmen of the United
States Navy, the time being passed in the
Mediterranean. He then spent two years
at New Haven, being part of the time as-
sistant in chemistry to Benjamin Silliman.
The four following years were spent with
the exploring expedition sent by the govern-
ment of the United States under Wilkes to
the Southern and Pacific Oceans. The fol-
lowing years were devoted to the study of
the material collected. In 1844 he married
a daughter of Prof. Silliman, who survives
him, and in 1846 became associated with
him in the editorship of the American Jour-
nal of Science. In 1850 Dana was made pro-
fessor in Yale College. The remainder of
his life was spent as teacher, editor, author
and investigator.
Dana was President of the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science in
1852, and was one of the original members
of the National Academy of Sciences ; he
received the Wollaston Medal of the Geo-
logical Society of London, the Copley Medal
from the Royal Society, and the Walker
Prize from the Boston Society of Natural
History. He received honorary degrees
from the University of Munich, Edinburgh
and Harvard. He was a member of the
Royal Society of London, the Institute of
France, the Royal Academies of Berlin,
Vienna and St. Petersburg, and many
other societies.
In addition to a large number of papers
546
printed in the American Journal of Science
and elsewhere, he is the author of the fol-
lowing works :
A System of Mineralogy, 1837, 1844, 1850,
Zoophytes, 1846.
Manual of Mineralogy, 1848, 1857, 1878,
1887.
Coral Reefs and Islands, 1853.
Crustacea, 1852-54,
Manual of Geology, 1862, 1874, 1880,
1895.
A Text-Book of Geology, 1864, 1874,
1882.
A System of Mineralogy, 1868.
Corals and Coral Islands, 1872, 1890.
The Geological Story Briefly Told, 1875.
Characteristics of Volcanoes, 1890.
The Four Rocks of the New Haven Re-
gion, 1891.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE EDUCATION OF THE TOPOGRAPHER.
To THE Epitor oF Science: Part of
Professor Merriman’s review in SCIENCE
for April 26 interests me as being the
direct opposite of my own opinion. He
says, apropos of Mr. Gannett’s statement
that the topographer must be able to gener-
alize through his knowledge of geological
processes : ‘‘ These are dangerous doctrines.
The earth exists, the duty of the topo-
grapher is to map it truly, and the study of
the origin of its features should come later.”’
T should like very much to learn through
the columns of Science the opinions of
other geographers and topographers on this
question.
It is not alone the earth that exists; a
large series of topographical maps of various
parts of the earth also exist; and through
their study the young topographer can learn
much about the kind of work he will have
when surveying those separate parts of the
earth that are not yet mapped. This kind of
knowledge will help him in mapping new
regions in about the same way that prelimi-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 20,
nary study of known forms of plants and
animals helps the systematist to describe
new forms when he finds them. BS
It is certainly the duty of the topographer
to make true maps; but the truest map is
always only a generalization. Something is
necessarily omitted, and the topographer
has to choose between what he shall omit
and what he shall represent. He sees
many things that he can not map. How
shall he be best aided in making on the
small sheet of paper before him an expres-
sive map of the broad surface of country
around him? I do not say ‘an accurate
map,’ because the word ‘accurate’ is so gen-
erally misunderstood in this connection.
It is often taken to imply that the topog-
rapher has actually measured every part
of the surface of the country and carefully
constructed every line on his paper. As a@
matter of fact, by far the larger part of all
maps is sketched, and in the sketching more
facts often have to be omitted than can be
represented. Hence, everything should be
taught to the topographer that will aid him
in really seeing the facts that are before
him and faithfully representing such of them
as come within the limit of the scale he em-
ploys.
Nothing is of more assistance in seeing
the facts, and in thus making a good begin-
ning towards sketching them properly, than
some understanding of their origin and
meaning. Hence I believe that the best
course of education for topographers while
yet in school should include a careful study
of the development of land forms, and that ~
the best practical work by topographers
will require a very careful and sympathetie
study of the origin of the land forms on
the ground before him. The prepossession
that contour lines bend up-stream has de-
ceived many a topographer into giving a
wrong expression to flat alluvial cones. In-
difference to the significance and impor-
tance of the sharp edge of a gorge or a cliff
May 17, 1895.]
has rounded off many a truly angular con-
tour line into an inexpressive curve.
The objection that is sometimes made
against this view of a topographer’s educa-
tion and work is that, if he tries to sketch
what he thinks he understands, he will
sometimes sketch what is not really before
him. There may be a certain amount of
truth in this, but there are sufficient an-
swers to it. A topographer who is too far
guided by his imagination has been badly
taught, or else he is of a mental quality that
will prevent his ever becoming a good topog-
rapher, quite apart from whatever education
he has had. The well taught topographer
will make no larger share of mistakes on
account of being well informed on his sub-
ject than will the well taught systematic
botanist or zoologist. The few mistakes of
interpretation that the well taught topog-
rapher may make will, I believe, be far out-
weighed by excellence of the other part of
his work.
It is perhaps because I have a higher
idea of a topographer’s work than ordina-
rily obtains that I should like to see him
generally better educated for it. To my
mind, a map is so far from being a copy of
nature that I should prefer to call it a
graphic description of nature, and in the
making of this graphic description the
topographer should study his subject and his
graphic signs with the same care that a
writer should study his thoughts and the
words he employs to represent them. In-
struments, to which some topographers
seem to give their first attention, ought to
have about the same place in their real
work that a typewriting machine has in
the work of a literary man.
The chief subject of the topographer’s
study should be the form of the land before
him; and until this is recognized in en-
gineering schools and enforced by a careful
course of preparatory physiographical study,
I believe we shall not have the best maps
SCIENCE.
5AT-
that can be made. Even further, it is as
impossible to make a good topographer by
merely teaching him about plane tables and
stadia and logarithms as it is to make an
essayist by teaching him about writing and
spelling. It seems to me, in fine, that Pro-
fessor Merriman’s interest in the mathe-
matical aspects of the art of topography
leads him to place too low a value on the
importance of studying the chief subject of
the topographer’s attention, the forms of the
land. W. M. Davis.
CAMBRIDGE, Mass., April 30, 1895.
THE HELMHOLTZ MEMORIAL,
A FEW months ago Hermann von Helm-
holtz died, one of the greatest scientific
geniuses of all time, whose name will not be
forgotten as long as men care for the knowl-
edge of Nature. His invention of the oph-
thalmoscope made the success of the modern
oculist possible; his papers on the conserva-
tion of energy gave the strongest impulse to
modern physics; his books on seeing and
hearing became the basis of modern psy-
chology.
It seems a matter of course that the pres-
ent generation should express its gratitude
ina lasting monument. Not only his friends
and pupils all over the world, but men of
science and physicians everywhere have
supported this idea, and so last month an
International Committee was formed to col-
lect money for the erection of a great Helm-
holtz monument in Berlin, where for the
past twenty-five years he lived and worked.
The plan has nothing to do with local pa-
triotism ; America, France, England, Italy
and Russia are represented on the Commit-
tee; not a decoration of the city of Berlin
is in question, but a universal expression of
devotion to the spirit of natural science.
No doubt America will take a very high
place in the list of givers. There has been
seldom such an opportunity to show that
the United States does not stand behind any
548
‘other country in intellectual interests. But
America has a special reason for paying her
respects to the genius of Helmholtz, since
Helmholtz in his seventy-second year paid
his tribute of respect to the genius of Amer-
ica. One year before his death he crossed
the ocean to study and to enjoy the scien-
tific institutions of this country from the
Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, certainly
the most famous European who has visited
America for many years, and nobody who
saw his noble personality in New York or
Boston or Baltimore, in Philadelphia or
Washington or Chicago, will ever forget -
him.
The American members of the Interna-
tional Committee are Dr. Wolcott Gibbs,
President of the National Academy of Sci-
ences ; Dr. Herman Knapp, Professor of Co-
lumbia College; and Dr. Hugo Munsterberg,
Professor of Harvard University.
Contributions may be sent before May
25th to the undersigned Secretary and
Treasurer of the American Committee.
The lists of contributors will be published
weekly in ScrENCcE.
Huco MunstEerBerc.
38 QUINCY STREET, CAMBRIDGE, MAss.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Manual of Geology. By James D. Dana.
Fourth Hdition. American Book Co.
1895.
The announcement, a few months ago, of
a new edition of Dana’s Manual filled ge-
ologists with liveliest expectations. It is
needless to say that these expectations are
more than realized. The Manual is so well
known that a full account is wholly un-
necessary—geologists need no urging to
buy it. They simply must have it; they
cannot do without it. I write this, there-
fore, not to call attention to the book ; but
partly because Iam glad to have this op-
portunity to express my unstinted admira-
tion for the author and for the book; and
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 20.
partly because I wish to draw attention to
the author’s position on some important
questions which have come into prominencé
since the last edition.
1. Every geologist will be gratified to
see that the author now comes out frankly
for evolution; not, indeed, evolution in a
materialistic sense, but in a reverent, theis-
tic sense. In a certain Agassizian sense
he has always been an evolutionist, but he
has been often quoted by the opponents of —
evolution as now understood (i. e., ‘ origin
of organic forms by descent with modifica-
tions’) as sustaining their position. In
this edition his utterances are not to be any
longer mistaken ; although he is, perhaps,
more nearly Lamarckian than Darwinian,
or, at least, than Neo-Darwinian. Surely
such plasticity and open receptiveness of
mind retained even to the very last is a
noble evidence of the true scientific spirit.
2. In this edition he separates the Pale-
ozoic into two primary divisions with Ho-
Paleozoic, including the Cambrian and Lower
Silurian, and the Neo-Palewozoic, including
the Upper Silurian, Devonian and Carbonic.
Thus he makes the greatest break occur be-
tween the Lower and Upper Silurian. If
this be so, would it not be better to use
Lapworth’s term ‘Ordovician’ for Lower
Silurian, retaining the term Silurian for the
Upper Silurian alone? Probably this would
violate the priority-rule of nomenclature ;
but, perhaps in this, as in many other cases,
rules too strictly interpreted stand in the
way of a rational classificatiqn.
3. He accepts the probability of a Per-
mian glaciation, especially in the Southern
Hemisphere ; and of an elevation and en-
largement of an Antarctic continent and
its connection with the southern points of
South America, South Africa and Australia
as a cause of such glaciation. These great
changes of physical geography and climate,
and consequent wide migrations of faunas
and floras, would go far to account for the
May 17, 1895.]
enormous and apparently sudden changes
‘in organic forms which took place during
and at the end of the Permian period.
4. In connection with the last he accepts
also the idea of a land-connection (Gond-
wanaland) between India and South Africa,
and perhaps indirectly through the en-
Jarged Antarctic continent—with Australia
—in Permian and Triassic times, as evi-
denced by the great similarity of the plants
and the reptiles of that time in these now
widely separated countries. It is true that
there is very deep sea between these points
now; but it is possible that the idea of the
permanence of deep sea basins, originated
by Dana, may have been pushed a trifle too
far by Wallace as a means of separating
faunas and floras.
5. He does not accept Algonkian as a
system of rocks codrdinate with Paleozoic
and Mesozoic, but regards these pre-Cam-
brian strata as the upper part of the
Archean, 7. e., as Huronian and upper
Laurentian. Perhaps the time is not yet
come to settle this question definitely.
6. He accepts as probable the existence
in Quaternary times of a greatly elevated
and enlarged Antarctic continent, connect-
‘ing with and connecting together the south-
ern parts of South America, South Africa
and Australia similar to that of Permian
times, as evidenced by the faunas, and as
accounting for the Quaternary glaciation
of these regions.
7. He agrees with Hilgard in thinking
that the LaFayette formation (many geo-
logists seem to forget that we owe this
name to Hilgard) is a torrential river de-
posit of the early Quaternary and not a
marine deposit of the Pliocene times as
aintained by McGee, and that therefore it
indicates elevation and not depression of
e continent.
8. He does not accept Croll’s theory of
e cause of the glacial climate ; but, along
with most American geologists, regards it as
SCIENCE.
549
mainly due to elevation of northern land.
This would not only directly increase the
cold in high latitude regions, but would in-
directly increase the ice-accumulation by
connecting America and Europe in these
regions and thus limiting the northward
extension of the Gulf Stream, which, cireu-
lating around the Atlantic in mid-latitude
regions, would furnish abundant warm
vapors to be condensed as snow on the
elevated northern land.
9. As might have been expected, his dis-
cussion of mountain-making is masterly.
But one is interested, though not surprised,
to observe that he does not accept the recent
theories of Reade, Dutten and others as to
the cause of mountain formation, but still
regards the contraction-theory in some form
as more probable.
But a reviewer is ‘nothing if not critical.’
I must vindicate my character as reviewer
by finding some faults, even though they be
trifling.
10. This edition, we observe, drops out
the graphic illustrations of the distribution,
in time, of families, orders and classes of
animals, which constitutes so conspicuous,
and, we may add, so attractive a feature of
previous editions. We observe also that
the index of authors quoted and of those
from whom figures are taken is omitted.
This is to be regretted in a work which
will be so constantly referred to.
11. We observe also a few errors of over-
sight or of misunderstanding of authors
quoted. On page 359, and again on page
380, he gives, on King’s authority, the whole
thickness of Wahsatch sediments, from the
Cambrian to the Laramie inclusive, as 31,-
000 feet. In fact, King gives between 31,-
000 and 32,000 for the Paleozoic alone, page
122; and in addition 3,800 feet for Jura-
Trias, page 537, and 12,000 feet for the Cre-
taceous, page 539 (49th parallel, Vol. 1).
Again, he states on page 520 that the oldest
known insect—Protocimex—is found in the
550
upper part of the lower Silurian; but on page
566 he says that the oldest known insect is
the Palcoblattina of the wpper Silurian.
We might mention others, but they are
all trifling. In fact, the accuracy of the
book is extraordinary.
In conclusion, we must heartily and most
gratefully welcome the new edition. It is
hard to say what American would be with-
out Dana’s Manual. Its encyclopedic full-
ness and yet extreme conciseness makes it
hard reading for those who come to it with-
out serious purpose. The word ‘Manual’ ex-
actly expresses its purposes and uses. It
must be in the hands of every special stu-
dent; it must lie on the table of every
teacher of Geology to be consulted on every
subject of doubt.
I had just finished this notice when the
sad news of Dana’s death was flashed across
the continent. All recognized that this
event could not be long delayed; but none
the less it came as a shock to every man of
science in the country. We are thankful
that he lived to finish this new edition, for
it is indeed the only fitting monument. No
monument is worthy of a man of science
except that which he erects for himself.
JosePH Lr Conte.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
A Handbook of Systematic Botany. By Dr. E.
Warmine. Translated and edited by M.
C. Potter. 8vo. pp. 620, fig. 610. -Lon-
don, Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. New
York, Macmillan & Co. 1895.
This excellent English translation of Pro-
fessor Warming’s important work will be
welcomed by all students and it cannot fail
to have a wide use as a text-book. . The de-
scriptions of the groups are clear, concise
and complete, the illustrations capital and
many of them original, and the press-work
leaves nothing to be desired.
The arrangement of groups is from sim-
ple to complex—the only arrangement com-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Voz. I. No. 20.
patible with our present knowledge. The
special application of this principle may be
best stated in Dr. Warming’s own words as
printed in the preface:
“Each form which, on comparative morphological —
considerations, is clearly less simple, or can be shown
to have arisen by reduction or through abortion of
another type having the same fundamental’ structure,
or in which a further differentiation and division of
labor is found, will be regarded as younger, and as
far as possible, and so far as other considerations will
admit, will be reviewed later than the ‘simpler,’
more complete or richer forms. For instance, to serye
as an illustration: EpigyNy and PERIGYNY are less
simple than Hypocyny ; the Epigynous Sympetalz,
Choripetalz, Monocotyledones are, therefore, treated
last; the Hydrocharitacex are considered last under the
Helobiex, etc. ZYGOMORPHY is younger than ACTINO-
MORPHY ; the Scitaminee and Gynandrx, therefore,
follow after the Lilliflore, the Scrophulariacex after
the Solanacex, Linaria after Verbascum, etc. FORMS
WITH UNITED LEAVES indicate younger types than
those with free leaves; hence the Sympetale come
after the Choripetalx, the Silenex after the Alsinex,
the Malvacez after the Sterculiacee and Tiliacex, ete.
““ AcyCLic (spiral-leaved) flowers are older than
cyclic (verticillate-leaved) with a definite number,
comparing, of course, only those with the same funda-
mental structure. The Veronica-Type must be con-
sidered as younger, for example, than Digitalis and
Antirrhinum; these again as younger than Scrophularia;
Verbascum, on the contrary, is the least reduced, and,
therefore, considered as the oldest form. Similarly
the one-seeded, nut-fruited Ranunculacew are con-
sidered as a later type (with evident abortion) than
the many-seeded, follicular forms of the order; the
Paronychiex and Chenopodiacee as reduced forms of
the Alsinex type ; and the occurrence of few seeds in
an ovary as generally arising through reduction of the
many-seeded forms. The Cyperdcexr are regarded as
a form derived from the Juncacex through reduction,
and associated with this, as is so often the case, there
is a complication of the inflorescence ; the Dipsacacew
are again regarded as a form proceeding from the
Valerianacee by a similar reduction, and those in
their turn as an off-shoot from the Caprifoliacer, ete.
Of course these principles of systematic arrangement.
could only be applied very generally ; for teaching
purposes they have often required modification.”
While there is wide difference of opinion
among botanists as to the relative degree of
complexity of some of the families, and the
sequence adopted by Engler and Prantl in
May 17, 1895.]
their ‘ Natiirliche Pflanzenfamilien ’ will ap-
peal to many students as in some respects
more philosophical, all the suggestions con-
tained in this book must be regarded as
-yery valuable.
Plants are here divided into five great di-
visions: (1) Thallophyta; (2) Muscinese ;
(8) Pteridophyta ; (4) Gymnosperme ; (5)
Angiospermze. We note in this a departure
from some recent views where the divisions
2, 3 and 4 have been grouped under the
‘primary division Archegoniate, and from
others where the divisions 4 and 5 have been
grouped as Spermatophyta.
_ Dr. Warming does not discuss the rela-
tive value of these different views, content-
ing himself with alluding to them. We
“may note that the disadvantage of recog-
nizing the Archegoniatze as above circum-
scribed is found in the fact that the female
organs of the Angiosperms are also arche-
-gones. It must be admitted that the group-
ing here maintained has many points in its
favor, but it is our opinion that the term
‘sub- kingdom’ is more explicit for the
primary groups than ‘ division.’
. The Thallophyta are divided into ‘ sub-
: (a) Myxomycetes, (b) Algze, (c)
It is said of the Myxomycetes that
are treated, unphilosophically,it would seem
to us, asa family of Algz, being grouped
with the Schizophyce under the class Schi-
zophyta. The treatment of the higher Algwe
and Fungi is not essentially different from
that of other recent authors. (It should be
remarked that the arrangement and descrip-
tion of the Thallophytes is largely contri-
buted by Dr. E. Knoblauch.) The Fungi
imperfecti are placed at the end of the sub-
ision, and the only groups admitted to
this category are the Saccharomyces-forms,
fhe Oidium-forms and Mycorhiza. Lichens
SCIENCE.
551
are discussed under Ascomycetes and Basi-
diomycetes.
The Muscinee are treated as (1) Hepatic
and (2) Musci frondosi. Neither in these
nor in the Pteridophyta do we find any
yiews very different from those of other re-
cent authors. In the Gymnosperms we
find the three classes, Cycadez, Conifers
and Gnetez, maintained ; the Conifers are
distinctly separated into two families, Tax-
oidez and Pinoidez, which is a suggestion
of much importance.
Under the Angiospermee we find a discus-
sion of the systematic value of the primary
group Chalazogams, recently suggested by
Treub. It will be remembered that Treub
found that in the curious genus Casuarina
the pollen-tube entered the ovule near the
chalaza, and on this character proposed to
divide the Angiosperms into Chalazogames
and Porogames, Casuarina being the only
genus known to him that would fall into
his first group. Dr. Warming concludes,
from the more recent observations of Na-
waschin and Miss Benson, which indicate
the similar entrance of the pollen-tube in
Betula, Alnus, Corylus and Carpinus, that
our knowledge of this phenomenon is as yet
too meagre to warrant us in maintaining
the views of Treub, and so he adopts the
usual grouping into Monocotyledones and
Dicotyledones. His primary grouping of
the Monocotyledones is as follows : (1) He-
lobiew, Juncaginaceze being taken as the
lowest type; (2) Glumiflorz, in which he
includes the Juncaceze, a position which we
do not believe can be satisfactorilly main-
tained; (3) Spadiciflore; (4) Enantio-
blaste ; (5) Liliifloree; (6) Scitamines and
(7) Gynandre. It will be observed that in
this arrangement he differs considerably in
detail from that of Eichler and Engler and
Prantl. The primary division of the An-
giosperme is into (1) Choripetal, begin-
ning with Salicaceze and ending with Hys-
terophyta (parasites such as the Lorantha-
552
cere and Santalacez), and (2) Sympetale,
beginning with Bicornes and ending with
Ageregatee.
An appendix, contributed by the trans-
lator, gives a useful tabulation of the sys-
tem of Ray (1703), Linneeus (1783), A. L.
de Jussieu (1789), A. P. DeCandolle (1819),
Endlicher (1836-40), Brongniart (1843),
Lindley (1845), A. Braun (1864), Bentham
and Hooker (1862-83), Sachs (1882), Hich-
ler (1883), Engler (1892). N. L. B.
The Story of the Stars. G. F. CHAMBERS.
New York. D. Appleton & Co. 1895.
Pp. 160.
Tue Messrs. Appleton have begun with
this small monograph their Library of Use-
ful Stories, a series of paper covered booklets
intended to embrace the ground of science,
history, ete. This initial number, by Mr.
George Chambers, an English astronomical
writer of long experience, proves to be
rather better than a first impression would
lead one to judge; for the illustrations,
which first strike the eye, are for the most
part simply execrable. What excuse for
the absence of more and better ones, in
these days of inexpensive engraving? Its
curiously insular mannerisms might readily
have been corrected by a half hour’s work
of an American editor, who should also
have toned down those provincial oddities
of style which mar this book even more, be-
cause of its smaller size, than the same
author’s large Descriptive Astronomy.
Curiously false implications are wrought
into the first chapter, though only a page or
two in length. If the manifold uses of as-
tronomy are to be competently brought be-
fore the public mind to-day, and the rea-
sons for the support of that science from the
public exchequer suitably defended, it is
only by telling a few simple things exactly
as they are. Now, it may be true in Eng-
land that, if “‘ the staff belonging to either
establishment [the Royal Observatory or
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 20,
the Nautical Almanac Office] were to re-
sort to the fashionable expedient of a strike
for higher pay,” then, among other dire re-
sults, * Our railway system would become
utterly disorganized. A few trains could
run, but the intervals between them would
have to be considerable, and they could only
travel by daylight and at very low speeds,”
but we do not exactly see why. Rather the
fact is that, if both these establishments
were permanently closed henceforth, the
present state of astronomy is such that all
the public business of determining time for
railways and of preparing data for naviga-
ting ships could be done for the fiftieth part
of the budget now devoted to the Nautical
Almanac and the Royal Observatory ; and
any government maintaining such costly es-
tablishments, with their corps of trained ob-
servers and expert computers, merely for this
simple though important purpose, would
be very foolish indeed. Not only would
the expenditure be extravagant, but wholly
unjustifiable. These institutions are main-
tained for quite other purposes; and the
significant work of the great government
observatories (excellently done in England,
France and Russia, and which in this coun-
try we have been trying for a half century
to do, though not succeeding very well be-
cause the proper organization is lacking)
lies in quite other fields, the immediate ser-
viceableness of which is by no means univer-
sally conceded. Blanketing all this under
the antiquated plea of utility in time and
navigation is clearly wrong and wholly in-
defensible.
Mr. Chambers’s attempt to popularize
seems rather hard, and on the whole of
doubtful success. Excellent scientific ex-
planations go on for a while, when suddenly
the author, seemingly suspecting that he is
less interesting than he ought to be, plunges
patchily into something purely literary, or —
indulges in some incongruous expression not
exactly ludicrous, but giving an undignified
“May 17, 1895.]
east to essays on the most dignified subject
in the whole range of the sciences. No
carelessness or vulgarity in style was ever
a compliment to the literary taste of a
reader, and neither the cause of literature,
science nor anything else is likely to be en-
hanced by allusions to ‘some Germans
nibbling’ at stellar photometry; or by pon-
derous anecdotes about hypothetical carrots,
“that grew so well that the roots reached
_ right through to the other side of the earth.”
The proof revision has been none too care-
fully done—illustrations on pages 60 and
116 have been interchanged ; the incorrect
spelling of Palitzsch would not perhaps at-
tract attention, except that the author, being
also the compiler of a handy little German-
French-English lexicon, we expect better
things of him; and while ‘ Bob’ passes cur-
rent everywhere for Robert, ‘ Boberts’ will
searcely do for Roberts. The general scien-
tifie reliability of statement is fully up to
the standard expected of Mr. Chambers, and
only one or two inaccuracies need be pointed
out—at the: middle of page 18, where he
_ should have written, ‘a vertical plane pass-
ing through the zenith;’ and on page 73,
where the exact opposite of what is meant
is inadvertently said, regarding the stars
‘converging towards’ a point in Hercules.
Of course in so small a book one must
not expect everything ; but some omissions
are noteworthy. In evena magazine article
about the stars a single page about their
distances would be only too brief, but Mr.
Chambers gives only this amount in a
volume of 150 pages, with no allusion to the
name of Bessel in this connection, or Briin-
now or Gill. The classic work of Dr. Gould
should not have been omitted. The superb
advances of stellar photography in the hands
of the brothers Henry, Russell, Gill,
Barnard, Roberts, Wolf and others are
barely alluded to, or left out entirely. The
accurate researches on the brightness of
by the Potsdam astronomers are wholly
SCIENCE.
5d3:
ignored. If the space of six pages could be
given to ‘ The Stars in Poetry,’ and a third
of that amount to speculative ‘rubbish’ re-
garding the origin of the Milky Way, is it
quite the thing to have crowded out com-
pletely the nebular hypothesis, which has
engaged such master minds as Herschel,
La Place, Lord Kelvin and Darwin?
Several chapters are almost purely descrip-
tive, or mere geography of the heavens, asi
if a handbook for the use of small tele-
scopes ; a little yeast here would have done
no harm; but it should be pervasive and
inherent—not added as an afterthought.
Mr. Maunder has appended an excellent
chapter on the marvels of the spectroscope:
as applied to the stars and nebule.
It is not, however, intended to imply that
there is not much that is excellent in Mr.
Chambers’s Story of the Stars, both as to form
andarrangement. Its convenient size, clear
type and authoritative statements (even
with occasional lapses into ‘ dread’ techni-
calities) render it, on the whole, an in-
telligible and interesting booklet, which will
be a vast help to the student and general
reader, and is worth double what the pub-
lishers ask for it. But the author has far
from succeeded in making the most and best
of his opportunity. Davin P. Topp.
AMHERST COLLEGE.
The World of Matter: A Guide to the Study of
Chemistry and Mineralogy. By Harian H.
Batiarp, A. M. Boston, D. C. Heath
& Co. 1894.
The object of this book is apparently to
enable those who may not have an oppor-
tunity to study natural phenomena in a
thorough way to obtain some comprehen-
sion of the objects and methods of scienti-
fie investigation by means of a few well
chosen experiments. The object is a good
one; will a study of this book further it?
It is impossible to say definitely, yes or
no. The explanations, so far as they go, are
generally excellent, but the tendency of the
554
author to preach rather than to guide is
often noticeable. After most properly bid-
ding the student accept as fact no scientific
statement capable of easy demonstration
until he has proved it such, the book con-
tains several chapters with hardly a single
one of the statements made supported by
experiment. For instance, we find (p. 179)
that “we have now become somewhat
familiar with,” among other elements,
“aluminum and iron; and we have inci-
dentally become acquainted with a number
of their more important compounds.” Ex-
perimentally, how? Thus: The student is
bidden to look for iron ore in soil, to write
down what he already knows about iron, to
examine the physical properties of siderite,
to heat a piece of pyrite, and to note the
physical properties of slate and of feld-
spar. That is all. Now, this is not experi-
mental chemistry; it is boiled-down ency-
clopeedia.
On the other hand, after having studied
Ice, Water, Fire, Air, Earth and Quartz,
molecules and atoms and all the other fas-
cinating mysteries are brought in in a chap-
ter called A Lesson in Chemistry (!); later,
atomic weights are given and symbols in
plenty. After having stated as facts the
Laws of Chemical Combination, the author
later, without further explanation, gives the
following formule for some of the minerals
the studentis to work with—of course, with
their names: FeS,, (FeMnZn).0,, (CaMg
AlFe)SiO,, (KFeMgAl1), Si0,, Li,AJ,Si,.0,.,
(CaMg),(AlFe),Si0...
The directions are in some cases almost
tediously explicit, and this is right; fre-
quently, however, they err on the other
side. The student is given directions to
use phosphorus, and occasionally other dan-
gerous substances, without a word of cau-
tion. Considering the inexperience of the
student, and the fact of his working proba-
bly alone, this is a matter of some impor-
tance.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 20.
To sum up, if all the theoretical portion
of the book, all symbols, atomic weights,
ete., had been left out, and a few experi>
ments on the chemical properties of substances
like iron and aluminium—to mention but
two—put in to fill the vacuum, Mr. Bal-
lard’s book would have filled a lack. It
cannot at present—at least, unassisted.
Wyatt W. RanpatLt.
NOTES AND NEWS.
Art the meeting of the trustees of Colum-
bia College, on May 6th, President Low sub-
scribed one million dollars for the construe-
tion of the new library building. He stated
that it is to be a memorial to his father, the
late A. A. Low, ‘a merchant who taught
his son to value the things for which Colum-
bia College stands.’ The trustees passed
the following resolution :
Resolved, That the trustees accept with the deepest
sense of gratitude the offer conveyed by President
Low in his letter of May 6, 1895, subject to all the
conditions therein expressed ; and that the Clerk of
the Board be instructed to convey to the president the
thanks of the trustees for this most munificent and
opportune gift, unprecedented in the scale of its gen-
erosity, and affording fresh evidence of the president’s
unbounded devotion to the interest of the College,
President Low’s gift: was accompanied
by the following conditions which add to
rather than detract from its value: That
twelve Brooklyn scholarships for boys be
established in Columbia College, and twelve
Brooklyn scholarships for girls in Barnard
College ; that eight university scholarships,
to be known as the President’s University
Scholarships, be established; that a uni-
versity fellowship, the Class of ’70 Fellow-
ship, be established. President Low gradu-
ated in the class of ’70.
At the same meeting Mr. W. C. Scher-
merhorn, chairman of the trustees, sub-
scribed three hundred thousand dollars for
the Natural Science Building, or other build-
ing or part of building that may be more
needed.
‘May 17, 1895.]
Caru Voer, Professor of Natural History
in the University of Geneva, died in Geneva
on May 5th, at the age of seventy-seven
_ years. Vogt made important contributions
to physiology, zoology and geology, but be-
came most widely known through his work
‘On Man’ (1863), written from a material-
istic point of view. He was born at Giessen,
July 5, 1817, studied at that place, under
Liebig, and at Berne, worked with Agassiz
and was made professor at Giessen. After
taking a prominent part in the Frankfort
Parliament of 1848, he considered it prudent
to retire to Switzerland, and from 1852 was
_ professor in the University of Geneva.
Miss Crane, through her excellent re-
views and synopses of current brachiopod
literature, certainly keeps the public well
informed of the progress made in this de-
partment, and from time to time she ventures
to make contributions of her own to the
knowledge of the class. Her latest paper,
The Evolution of the Brachiopoda (Geolog-
ical Magazine, February and March, 1895),
is a combination of the results and con-
clusions reached in the most recent invest-
igations by various authorities, together
with a general application of the facts to
_@ scheme of phylogeny. The profound
_ changes which have been made of late
the classification of the Brachiopoda
evolution are graphically stated :—‘‘ The
Brachiopoda now seem to justify the pre-
science of Darwin. Formerly regarded as
favor of it.’
Tue building containing the entomolog-
ical department of the Amherst State Col-
lege is being enlarged so that the capacity
of the laboratories will be doubled.
Moyey has been given to defray the ex-
SCIENCE.
555
penses of transporting to Mount Hamilton
and erecting there the great reflecting tele-
scope presented to the Lick Observatory by
Mr. Edward Crossley, of England. A re-
flecting telescope was included in the plans
for the Lick Observatory made 21 years
ago, and before Mr. Crossley presented the
telescope to the observatory Professor Hol-
den had been in correspondence with him,
with a view to purchasing it. It is hoped
that the telescope will be ready for use be-
fore the close of the current year.
TuRovuGH a gift of W. C. McDonald, Mc-
Gill University has secured 35 acres of land
for botanical gardens and an observatory.
Tue bill consolidating the Astor, Tilden
and Lennox libraries has been approved by
Goy. Morton. The present site of the Len-
nox library will probably be adopted.
Dr. Gustav Hirscureitp, Professor of
Classical Archzeology in the University of
Konigsberg, died on April 20th.
A sJomnT meeting of the Scientific Societies
of Washington, was held on May 10th, on
the occasion of the delivery of the annual
address of the President of the National
Geographic Society, the Hon. Gardiner G.
Hubbard. The subject of the address was
‘ Russia.’
Dr. FERDINAND Brawn, of Tubingen, has
been appointed Professor of Physics in the
University of Strasburg, succeeding Pro-
fessor Kohlrausch.
Dr. W. S. Hatt has accepted the Davis
Professorship of Physiology in the North-
western University Medical School, of
Chicago.
Tue trustees of the University of Penn-
sylvania have accepted with regret the re-
signation of Professor Harrison Allen from
the Professorship of Comparative Anatomy
and Zoology.
Accorpine to the American Geologist, Mr.
Warren Upham, recently of the Minnesota
506
Geological Survey, has removed to Cleve-
land, Ohio, to accept the position of libra-
rian for the Western Reserve Historical So-
ciety, and Mr. H. F. Bain has been elected
Assistant State Geologist ‘of Iowa in place .
of Dr. Charles R. Keyes, who recently
resigned to take charge of the Missouri
Survey.
Tue Provincial Legislative Assembly of
Ontario has authorized a grant of $7,500
towards defraying the expenses of a meet-
ing of the British Association at Toronto in
1897, should the Association decide to ac-
cept the invitation that has already been
received from Toronto.
Tue Society of German Naturalists and
Physicians will meet at Lubeck from Sep-
tember 16th to 21st.
Tue death is announced of Dr. Tomsa,
Professor of Physiology in the University of
Prague.
It is stated that Dr. Bertillon has discov-
ered a new method for identifying hand-
writing by enlarging the letters by photog-
raphy and measuring the alterations due
to beating of the pulse.
_ THe celebrated Villino Ludovisi, in Rome,
has been leased for the new American
School of Architecture and Archeology.
Accorpine to the Medical Record 14 of the
140 Medical Schools of the United States
now require a four years’ course.
Swan, SonnENSCHEIN & Co. announce for
publication next autumn a translation by
Professor H. B. Titchener, of Cornell Uni-
versity, of Professor O. Kulpe’s Grundriss
der Psychologie.
Accorpine to a note in the London Times,
the excavations by the American School at
the Heraion of Argos, under the direction
of Professor Waldstein, which were resumed
this spring, have been very successful. Two
hundred and fifty men have been employed
on the work. Besides the two temples and
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 20.
five other buildings previously discovered,
a large and well-preserved colonnade 45
metres long has now been found 25 feet be= _
low the surface south of the second temple.
The discoveries include parts of metopes,
two marble heads of the best Greek period, —
a hundred objects in bronze and gold, gems,
vases and terra cottas of the Homeric period,
as well as numerous scarabs and several
Mycenean tombs with Argive inscriptions
on bronze, probably of a religious character.
The excavations, which are now in the
fourth season, will be completed this year.
They rival the French excavations at
Delphi in magnitude and importance, rep-
resenting all the periods of Greek life from
prehistoric to Roman epochs.
THE residue of the estate of Mary D.
Peabody has been left to the Catholie Uni-
versity of Washington, for the foundation
of scholarships (probably three or four of
the value of $5,000 each) in the chemical
and physical sciences.
THE Medical Record gives an account of
the malarial map of Italy, recently issued
by the Italian Bureau of Statistics. It is
based upon the death returns during the
years 1890-92. The varying intensity of
the disease in different sections is shown by
modifications of color. In the three years
there were 50,000 deaths from malarial
causes, or 54 in 100,000. The worst dis-
tricts, where the mortality is as high as 8
in 1,000, are in southwestern Sardinia,
southeastern Sicily, the Pontine marshes,
the district at the head of the Gulf of Ta-
ranto, and the southeastern slope, from the
promontory of Gargano south to the Ionian
Sea. Districts where malaria prevails, but
not so intensely as to be fatal, are the lower
reaches of the Po, Grosseto in Tuscany, the
mouth of the Tiber, and the district near
Salerno and the temples of Piestum. In
Rome itself malaria has sensibly declined;
the deaths in 1881 were 600, in 1892 only
May 17, 1895.]
139. The general mortality from this cause
in Italy has remained pretty constant ; the
average is 15 or 18 per 1,000.
Procrams of the School of Applied Ethics,
which opens at Plymouth, Mass, on July
8th, may be obtained from the Secretary,
§. B. Weston, 1305 Arch street, Philadelphia.
Tae Metropolis Law School has been
united with the Law School of the Uni-
versity of the City of New York.
AccorDInG to the prospectus of the Cot-
ton States and International Exposition,
which opens at Atlanta, Ga., on Septem-
ber 18th, science will be well represented.
There will be special buildings for machin-
ery, minerals and forestry, agriculture, elec-
tricity and transportation. The United
States Fish Commission will supply an
- aquarium with tanks occupying 10,000
square feet, and the National Bureau of
:
eo
ee ae Taye
Forestry will exhibit models showing meth-
ods of forest cultivation and preservation.
We learn from a notice by Prof. Ziwet,
in the April number of the Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society, that the first
installment of the Répertoire bibliograph-
ique des Sciences Mathématiques has been is-
sued. This consists of a set of 100 cards,
14x8 em., on each of which about 10 titles
are printed. The series is published by
_ Gauthier-Villars in Paris and sells for two
{ francs. It was decided at an international
meeting held in Paris under the auspices of
_ the French Mathematical Society to pre-
\ pare a complete bibliography of the litera-
ture of mathematics since 1800 and of the
history of mathematics since 1600.
re |
Mr. Ciemens R. Marxuam, President of
the Royal Geographical Society, in a paper
read before the Royal United Service Insti-
tution, urges the importance of an Antarctic
expedition from a scientific and naval point
of view, and recommends that it be under-
taken by the British Government.
Tue correspondent of the Evening Post
SCIENCE.
557
announces the following new appointments
at Bryn Mawr College: Dr. Florence Bas-
com, the only woman who has received the
Ph. D. from Johns Hopkins University,
now of the Ohio State University, Reader in
Geology ; Mr. Richard Norton, Lecturer in
Archeology; Dr. M. L. Earle, Ph. D., of
Columbia, Associate Professor of Greek ;
Mr. P. E. More, Associate in Sanserit; and
Dr. Alfred Hodder, Lecturer in English
Literature.
Dr. Peat, of Butler, Pa., has cast a lens
60 inches in diameter for the telescope for
the American University (of Washington).
Mr. Leonarp T. Mercarr has been ap-
pointed Professor of Mathematics in the
Amherst State College.
The Bakerian Lecture before the Royal
Society on May 9th was based upon a re-
search conducted by Messrs. A. Vernon
Harcourt and William Esson, on ‘The
Laws of Connexion between the Conditions
of a Chemical Change and its Amount.’
In a brochure of fifty pages issued in con-
nection with an exhibit at the World’s Fair,
Mr. Gifford Pinchot gives an account of an
attempt to introduce a proper system of
forest management upon the estate of Mr.
George W. Vanderbilt in North Carolina,
together with the result of the first year’s
work. Biltmore is about two miles from
Asheville, on the tableland in western North
Carolina. The estate includes 3,891 acres
of woodland on the banks of the French
Broad River. The forest is composed chiefly
of young oaks and other deciduous trees,
the best timber having been cut away.
Fires and neglect have also done much in-
jury. This forest has been divided into
suitable blocks and compartments, and put
into the care of a competent forester for
improvement while at the same time yield-
ing money returns to the owner. The loca-
tion of the forest, soil, climate, kinds of
trees, treatment previous to coming into the
508
hands of the present owner, improvement,
euttings and other topics are discussed.
While it was not expected that the forest
would be self-supporting from the start, it
has been nearly so, the expenditures for the
year ending April 30, 1893, being $9,911.76,
and the income from sale of ties, cord-wood,
lumber and posts, together with the esti-
mated value of stock on hand, amounting
to $9,519.36. Part of the tract will be man-
aged on the regular high forest system with
a 150-year rotation; the rest, on a selection
system. Steps have also been taken to re-
forest a thousand acres of waste land, using
many kinds of native and foreign trees.
In connection with this work it is de-
signed to build up an arboretum second to
none in the world. This is under the di-
rection of Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted.
Already there are in the nursery more kinds
of trees and shrubs than in the gardens at
Kew, and the number is being steadily in-
ereased. This arboretum will form the
borders of a drive about five mile long.
Careful records are being kept in connection
with the work, and a forest botanical library,
already of considerable extent, will furnish
the necessary aid to study. Accompanying
the report is a map of the forest and a num-
ber of good half-tones showing original con-
dition, proper and improper methods of
lumbering, ete. This is the first time proper
forest management has ever been under-
taken in the United States, and as time
goes on the results will undoubtedly become
an object lesson of prime importance, and
one badly needed by the American public,
whose delight from the earliest settlement
of the country has been to destroy trees.
EK. F.S.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
TuE following are abstracts of the com-
munications presented at the 33d meeting,
April 24, 1895 :
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 20.
W J McGee. ‘The topographic devel-
opment of Sonora.’
The territory described, lying between the
Gila river on the north and the Rio Sonora
on the south, and extending from the Sierra
Madre to the Gulf of California, is about
400 by 200 miles square. Hssentially it
consists of an undulating plain with em-
bossed mountain ranges. The plain varies
from sea-level to some 4000 feet in altitude;
the mountain ranges, commonly 4000 feet
or less in height above the plain, are rug-
ged, narrow and generally parallel, trending
somewhat east of south. These ranges are
remnants of larger mountain areas, shaped
by erosion, and sometimes they are con-
nected by transverse ridges which, like the
ranges themselves, are residua of ancient
masses. Thearea is one of complete grada-
tion within itself, 7. e., the rainfall is so
slight that the material degraded from the
mountain is aggregated on the intermon-
tane plains, as the storm-waters sink or
evaporate —for none of the rivers between
the Gila and Yaqui ever reach the sea.
Certain peculiarities of the topography
grow out of this condition.
The entire plain inclines southwestward,
having evidently been tilted in this diree-
tion during late geologic time, though the
date is not yet fixed. A consequence of
this tilting was the stimulation of the
streams flowing westward, southward and
southwestward, and partial paralysis of the
streams flowing in the opposite direction ;
and by reason of previous adjustments of
topographic processes and products under
the peculiar climatal conditions of the re-
gion these effects were greatly increased.
Accordingly the southwestward-flowing
streams retrogressed and pushed their head-
waters through the parallel ranges and
sometimes through the transverse ranges
connecting them, while the northeastward-
flowing streams practically ceased to cor-
rade. Accordingly the area is characterized
May 17, 1895.]
by retrogression ; the main waterways di-
verge from the main valleys, and cut
through the ranges and athwart the val-
leys; and the primary and secondary di-
vides do not coincide with the mountain
ranges, but traverse the valleys in a singu-
larly erratic manner. By reason of the
combination of epeirogenic and meteorologic
conditions, the region affords a remarkable
example of the retrogression of streams and
of the development of unusual topographic
forms thereby.
Wuirman Cross. ‘The Geology of the
Cripple Creek Gold Mining District, Col-
orado.’ This important new gold district
lies on a granite plateau, some ten or twelve
miles southwest of Pike’s Peak, at an eleva-
tion of 9,000 to nearly 11,000 feet. There
is at this point a small voleanic vent, to be
regarded as an outlier of an extensive vol-
eanic region to the westward, lying between
South Park and the Arkansas River.
While the area of the Cripple Creek vol-
eano is small, there has been a very com-
plete cycle of events at this center. Explo-
sive eruptions in the earlier periods built
up a cone of fine tuff and breccia, through
which numerous eruptions in narrow fis-
sures and irregular channels took place in
later times. Erosion has now removed a
large part of the ejected material, though
not clearly disclosing the voleanic neck.
The igneus products of the voleano are
andesites of several kinds, phonolite, pho-
nolitic trachyte, nepheline-syenite, syenite-
porphyry, and several dense varieties of
basalt. Phonolite is the specially charac-
teristic rock of the center, and in dike form
in granite occurs for several miles about it.
Fumarole and solfataric emanations of
chlorine, fluorine and sulphurous gasses un-
doubtedly characterized certain periods of
the yoleano, followed by hot waters con-
taining the same agents in solution. By
these processes the rocks of the district have
been very extensively decomposed. The
SCIENCE. 559
ore deposits are very intimately connected
with the volcanic center.
This communication presented the general
geological results of a detailed study of the
district made last fall. An examination of
the ore deposits was made at the same time
by Prof. R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., and the two
reports, with a geological map, will be issued
by the U. S. Geological Survey during the
coming summer.
W. H. Weep. ‘The Shonkin sag, an
abandoned channel of the Missouri river.’
The Shonkin sag is a peculiar topographic
feature of the country south of the big bend
of the Missouri River in central Montana.
It is an abandoned river channel which was
formed by the waters of the Missouri River
flowing around the margin of an extension
of the great Canadian ice sheet (the Lauren-
tide glacier). The sag consists of a wind-
ing valley from a quarter of a mile to two
miles wide with rocky bluff walls, and holds
a succession of lakes, several of them with-
out outlet. The continuity of the channel
is interrupted by modern stream valleys
cutting it transversely, but their later origin
is clearly apparent, and even the settlers of
the region recognize the fact that the sag is
anold water way. Itbegins near the mouth
of Highwood Creek, east of the Great Falls
of the Missouri River, and extends in a
general easterly direction over 100 miles to
the mouth of Judith River. Throughout
its course the northern wall marks the limit
of the glacial moraine. Glacial drift is
found in a few places a short distance south
of the channel, but in small quantity. In
general the sag defines the moraine front.
It is, therefore, believed that the ice sheet
ponding the waters of the Missouri near the
mouth of Sun River deflected the stream,
which at that time flowed northward, and
caused it to flow about the margin of the
ice. Upon the recession of the glacier the
river abandoned this temporary channel for
the old valley to the northward, which was
560
but partially filled by glacial material. The
present course of the Missouri, for some dis-
tance below the cataracts, is cut in black
shales of the Fort Benton period, capped
by 100-250 feet of glacial till and silt.
Wauuitman Cross,
Secretary.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
TuE 108th regular meeting was held May
3d. Mr. L. O. Howard read a paper en-
titled ‘Some New Scale Parasites,’ in
which he discussed several species of the
family Chalcididze which are new to sci-
ence, and which are important parasites of
destructive scales. A paper entitled ‘Two
Leaf-beetles that Breed on the Golden-rod,’
by F. H. Chittenden, was read by title, and
another, ‘Sexual Dimorphism in the Scoly-
tid Genus Xyleborus,’ by E. A. Schwarz,
was also read by title and referred to the
committee on publications. Mr. Ashmead
presented a communication on Lysiognatha,
a new and remarkable genus in the Ich-
neumonide. The form described was an
extraordinary one, possessing the head and
jaws of the Braconid sub-family Alysiine,
the wings and remainder of the body re-
sembling those of the Ichneumonid sub-
family Ophionine. Mr. Ashmead con-
sidered it typical of a new sub-family of the
Ichneumonide. Dr. Theodore Gill ex-
pressed himself as of the opinion that the
form is really typical of what should be a
new family. A note from Mr. H. G. Bar-
ber, of Lincoln, Neb., a corresponding mem-
ber of the Society, was read by the secre-
tary. The note was entitled ‘ Food-habits
of Hypatus bachmanni.’ This butterfly,
which has recently been observed migra-
ting in great numbers in the Southwest, has
been previously supposed to feed only on
species of Celtis. Mr. Barber considers
Symphoricarpos to be probably its favorite
food plant. Mr. W. T. Swingle made some
remarks on the effects of the December and
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 20.
February freezes in Florida upon the in-
sects injuring the orange. The really im-
portant insects, namely, the red scale and>
the white fly, have been seriously checked.
All specimens occurring upon foliage have
been killed. In discussing this paper, Mr.
C. L. Marlatt called attention to the fact
that the serious injury to the trees caused
by the cold has already resulted in the ap-
pearance of a number of bark-boring beet-
les, which will undoubtedly do much dam-
age during the next two or three years.
L. O. Howarp,
Recording Secretary.
NEW BOOKS.
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The Geological and Natural History Survey of
Minnesota, Vol. III., Part I., Paleontology.
N. H. Wryewetzt. Minneapolis, Minn.,
Harrison and Smith. 1895. Pp. lxxy +
A474.
John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemastry.
Sir Henry E. Roscor. London and New
York, Macmillan & Co. 1895. Pp. 212.
$1.25.
Missouri Botanical Garden.
Report. Witt1amM TRELEASE. St. Louis,
Mo., The Board of Trustees. 1895. Pp.
134.
The Origins of Invention.
London, Walter Scott;
Charles Seribner’s Sons.
$1.25.
Chemical Analysis of Oils, Fats and Wames.
New York,
1895. Pp. 413.
Sixth Annual —
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Bernepict. Revised and enlarged by Dr..
J. Lewxowrtsce. London and New
York, Macmillan & Co. 1895. Pp. xviii
+683. $7.00.
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{ Botany ; HENRY F. Osporn, General Biology ; H. P. Bowprrcu, Physiology ;
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9 pementsfic Titerature —.....ce0 en nccccvececsnes- 577
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NE VENTS os oe cc sein vince cele enueees a 581
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Preparation of Argon: J. E. GiPIn. Helion ;
Gravity Measurements ; General.
- Societies and Academies: — ....- 4.0 ee cece eeeeees 586
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é Sho a Ge Pe Se Cie oscar 588
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CONTENTS :
Variation of Latitude: J. K. REES.........+--- 561
| Current Notes on Physiography (VII.): W. M.
BD DAVIS... 22.1. ee eee eee ene 568
_ Gravity Measurements: HERBERT G. OGDEN ....571
_ The Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto :
SEO STAR MUCNIIAASY «o's ajeie= «niin claimsiniein(aeisielsisic 573
: BMITESPONUENCE S— . oo ccccscccsscececesscas sos 575
{
i
- VARIATION OF LATITUDE.*
Tue question is frequently asked, ‘‘ How
can latitude change?” There are two ways
obviously. First, we may imagine that a
rtion of the earth slips on the surface of
e globe, due say to earthquake shock.
*From a lecture before the New York Academy of
iences, April 29, 1895.
Then if the movement of the mass has been
toward the equator the latitude of that
place is decreased; if toward the pole of
the earth the latitude is increased. But
suppose that some forces at work on the
earth cause it to revolve about a new
axis, then we have at once a new equator,
and the latitudes of all points on the earth’s
surface change except at those places where
the old and new equator intersect.
If, for example, the earth’s axis of revolu-
tion should be changed so as to pass through
this hall, the latitude would be changed
from a little over 40 degrees, as it now is,
to 90 degrees. There are changes no doubt
produced by the slipping of portions of the
earth’s strata, but we know that these causes
are insignificant and local. The only way
that latitudes could be made to change
throughout the world would be by changes in
the axis of rotation of the earth, thus chang-
ing the position of the equator.
Are there any undisputed evidences of a
variation in the latitude of a place and is it
large?
To-day the evidence is overwhelming,
but the amount is small, so small, in fact,
that only the refined instruments of the
present day have been able to discover it ;
though now, that it is discovered, older ob-
servations show it.
La Place, in his Mécanique Céleste
(Tome V., p. 22), says ‘‘ All astronomy de-
pends upon the invariability of the earth’s
562
axis of rotation and upon the uniformity of
this rotation.”’
He considered that down to the begin-
ning of this century astronomical instru-
ments had not been able to show any varia-
tion of latitudes. There were differences,
but these he thought could be accounted
for as errors of observation.*
To-day, however, we feel certain that
small variations in latitude are taking
place, but so small that practically, in map
making, for example, and in navigation,
they are of no importance, though scien-
tifically very important.
It might also, in this connection, be stated
that there are theoretical reasons which
seem to indicate that the earth’s rotation
time is not only changing, but also is not
altogether uniform. The effect of the tide-
wave as it moves west over the earth is to
act as a friction-brake on the revolving
earth, and so slow up the rotation time, and
as this tide effect is not always the same
the retarding effects differ, and theoretically
produce a non-uniformity in the rotation
time. But the shrinkage of the earth, due
to loss of heat, would tend to make it re-
volve more rapidly. These effects may
work against each other. However, obser-
vations and calculations to-day do not fur-
nish us with any certain evidence that the
rotation time is longer or shorter than it
was ten centuries ago.
It no doubt will happen that, when ob-
servations and instruments are much im-
proved, astronomers will discover these
slight changes in rotation time that theory
seems to require.
The idea that the latitudes of places
change is not a new one.
Down to about the time that the tele-
scope was invented there were many learned
persons who believed that the latitudes of
* The writer is much indebted to the paper by Pro-
fessor Doolittle on ‘ Variations of Latitude’ read be-
fore the A. A. A.S., at Madison, Wis., August, 1893.
SCIENCE.
A
[N.S. Vor. I. No. 21. ©
places changed several degrees in the course
of centuries. These ideas were based on —
a comparison of maps made at different
times.
A disciple of the illustrious Copernicus
considered that the evidence was conclu-
sive, and was satisfied that the pole of the
earth was changing its position in a pro-
gressive manner ; he considered that in time
the torrid and frigid zones would change
places.
However, these views of Dominique
Maria de Ferrare were founded on poor data.
The latitudes of a few places had been deter-
mined, by very imperfect means, in the
best way they had, viz., from the shadow
cast by a gnomon; but the latitudes of many
places on the maps were put in from the
accounts of travelers, the time it took to
travel from one point to another being used
as the basis of calculation.
Even in these enlightened days, as we
like to consider them, there is no good
map of our own Empire State. The lati-
tudes of a few points only in New York
State have been determined with accuracy.
But there are many places in the State
whose positions are not known within more
than a mile.
In the latter part of the 16th century
Tycho Brahe, of Denmark, improved the
instruments in use (without the telescope),
and later, about 1610, the telescope was dis-
covered and applied to astronomical instru-
ments. Then new and more accurate
methods were used to determine latitude,
and the large discrepancies disappeared.
Some observers found differences between
latitudes determined in winter and in sum-
mer, and they supposed those differences to
be due to changes of the pole.
In the latter part of the 17th century J.
D. Cassini summed up the state of the prob-
lem in his day, and arrived at the conclu-
sion that, notwithstanding the apparent
variations in the latitudes, the pole of the
earth did not change to any large extent;
that most of the apparent changes in lati-
tude were due to errors of observation and
defects in theory, but he thought it probable
that small changes did occur in the position
of the pole; he thought the changes were
periodic, and did not amount to more than
two minutes of are equal to about 12,000
feet. ‘Thus, instead of several degrees
which were conceded by the astronomers of
of previous centuries, but a paltry two min-
utes was now allowed; but with improved
instruments, with the discovery of aberra-
tion and nutation and the perfection of the
theory of refraction, even this modest al-
lowance was gradually reduced to a vanish-
ing quantity.”
The geologists, in their investigations,
have found fossil remains in the cold regions
of the north, belonging to the Miocene,
Upper and lower Cretaceous, Jurassic and
other geological periods, which seem to in-
dicate a former temperature much higher
than the present. In 1876 Dr. John
Evans, then President of the British Geo-
logical Society, discussed the problem, and
concluded that the amount of polar light
and heat in the past must have been much
eater than it is now. He invited the at-
tention of the mathematicians to this prob-
, and asked : Would a considerable ele-
vation and depression of the sea bottoms and
continents produce a ‘change of 15 degrees
to 20 degrees in the position of the pole?’
Sir William Thomson discussed this
problem and gave his conclusions in 1876
to the British Association for Advancement
of Science. He said: ‘Consider the great
facts of the Himalayas and Andes and
Africa, and the depths of the Atlantic, and
America and the depths of the Pacific, and
one-tenth of the mean ellipticity of the
meridianal sections of the sea level.
SCIENCE.
563
“We need no brush from a comet’s tail to
account for a change in the earth’s axis;
we need no violent convulsions producing
a sudden distortion on a great scale, with
change of axis of maximum moment of
inertia, followed by gigantic deluges; and
we may not merely admit, but assert as
highly probable, that the axis of maximum
inertia and the axis of rotation, always
near one another, may have been in ancient
times very far from their present geograph-
ical position, and may have gradually shifted
through ten, twenty, thirty or forty or more
degrees without at any time any perceptible
sudden disturbance of either land or water.”
Sir William Thomson gave no account of
the calculations made by him as the basis
of these conclusions.
In 1877 Mr. G. H. Darwin made a care-
ful and elaborate mathematical discussion
of the problem. He showed that, in a per-
fectly rigid globe, the pole could not have
wandered more than 3 degrees from its
original position, as the result of the con-
tinents and oceans changing places. ‘If,
however, the earth is sufficiently plastic to
admit of readjustment to new forms of
equilibrium, by earthquakes and otherwise,
possible changes of ten or fifteen degrees
may have occurred. This would require,
however, such a complete changing about
of the continents and oceans, with maximum
elevations and depressions in precisely the
most favorable places, as has certainly never
occurred in geologic times.”’
The evidence indicates, in fact, that the
continental areas have always occupied
about the same positions as now.
Thus it would seem that the geologists .
must abandon the hypothesis of great
changes in latitude as a factor in the earth’s
development, unless a new cause can be
found that will move the pole to the extent
required by the geologists.
In an address made before Section A, of
the British Association in 1892, Professor
564
Shuster stated that he believed the evidence
at hand was in favor of the view that there
was sufficient matter in interplanetary space
to make it a conductor of electricity. This
conductivity, however, must be small, for if
it were not, he said, the earth would gradu-
ally set itself to revolve about its magnetic
poles. However, changes in the position of
the magnetic poles would tend to prevent
this result. Perhaps the investigator in the
near future, working on the suggestion of
Dr. Shuster, may find some connection be-
tween the earth’s magnetism, rotation time
and position of rotation axis.
The evidence, then, at this phase of the
discussion, is in favor of the view that there
is no adequate reason for believing that any
large changes of latitude, amounting to sev-
eral degrees, have occurred in geologic
times. The evidence shows, however, that
there are small changes. Are they progres-
sive; does the north pole of the earth wan-
der slowly but surely further and further
away from its positions of ages gone by?
At the International Geodetic Congress
held in 1883 at Rome, Sig. Fergola, of the
Royal Observatory Cappodimonti, Naples,
gave a tabular statement which seemed to
show that small but progressive changes had
taken place in Europe and America. This
table showed, for example, that the latitude of
Washington, D. C., had decreased from 1845
to 1865, 0.47” ; at Paris, from 1825 to 1853,
the decrease was 1.8’’; at Milan in 60 years,
1.5’; at Rome during 56 years, 0.17”; at
Naples in 51 years, 0.22”; at K6onigsberg in
23 years, 0.15”; at Greenwich in 19 years,
0.51”. Fergola, at the Congress mentioned,
suggested a plan for making systematic ob-
servations, and he pointed out the favora-
ble location of several observatories that
were on nearly the same circle of latitude,
but differing widely in longitude. Unfor-
tunately this suggestion of Fergola’s was
not carried out in any way until 1892, when
the Columbia College Observatory arranged
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 21.
to work in conjunction with the Naples Ob-
servatory on the problem. This series of
observations was begun in the spring of
1893, and will be continued several years.
The data given by Fergola at Rome in
1883 showed a diminution of latitude in
every case; other data showed a similar
diminution ; however there were excep- —
tions, where the latitudes seemed to in-
crease.
The investigations that have been going
on since 1883 throw doubt on the progressive
changes in latitude, or at least such changes
are masked by proved periodic changes.
For a long time, since 1765, periodic
changes have been looked for, because the
theory of a rotating earth, an earth hay-
ing the form of a sphere flattened at the ©
poles, or, more accurately, an ellipsoid of
revolution, demanded such changes ; but
the theory did not furnish any clue to the
amount of changes, except that they must
be very small. This theory shows that if
the earth was absolutely rigid and revolved
about its shortest axis (called the axis of
figure) at any time it would continue to
revolve about such axis forever, unless dis-
turbed by some outside force. If so dis-
turbed, then the axis of rotation would no
longer coincide with the axis of figure—the ~
axis of rotation would intersect the earth’s
surface at points away from the points
where the axis of figure comes out. But
the theory also showed that the new axis”
of rotation would revolve about the old one —
in a period of 304.8 days. This period
comes from the knowledge of the magni-
tude of precession and nutation, and is }
known very accurately.
We would expect therefore that change
in latitude would show this 305-day period. —
Several attempts have been made to do-
termine the distance between the two axes:
(figure and rotation axis) from changes “ ‘
latitudes.
The celebrated astronomer Bessel made .
Be fai
May 24, 1895.]
the first attempt, and was unsuccessful, it
was supposed until recently.*
_ Observations were also made at Pulkova,
Russia, Greenwich and Washington. The
Washington observations were made _ be-
tween 1862 and ’67,and included six complete
periods of 305 days each. A rigorous dis-
eussion by Newcomb gave the separation
of the axes as 3 feet, or 0.03”.
C. A. F. Peters, of Pulkova, had in 1842,
obtained ’’.079 = 8 feet.
These figures are small, but fairly accord-
ant. A reinvestigation, however, showed
that the various calculations did not agree
in showing the same displacement at the
same time. This made the whole result
doubtful, so that Newcomb (in 1892, March,
Mon. Not. R. A. S.) remarked that “the
observations showed beyond doubt there
could be no inequality of the kind looked
for.”
It was while investigations of this kind,
* Tisserand says in Ann. Bur. Long. ’95 (P. 42,
B. 11) that there is a letter of April 7, 1846, in which
Humboldt replies to Gauss that Bessel had told him
in 1844 that his observations showed that his latitude
had decreased 0. 3’ in two years. Bessel attributed
this variation to changes accomplished in the interior
of the globe. See also Hagan’s letter in Astr. Nach.,
September, 1894.
In this connection it ought to be noted also that
Prof. J. C. Maxwell read a paper April 20, 1857,
before the Royal Society of Edinburgh (see Transac-
tions Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. XXI., Part iv., pp.
559-571), ‘On a Dynamical Top for exhibiting the
phenomena of the motion of a system of invariable
form about a fixed point, with some suggestions as
to the earth’s motion.’ He deduced a period of 325.6
solar days. He examined the observations of Polaris
made with the Greenwich Transit Cirele in the years
1851-54. He found the apparent co-latitude of Green-
wich for each month of the four years specified.
“There appeared a very slight indication of a
maximum belonging to the set of months, March, ’51;
February, '52; December, ’52; November, ’53; Sep-
tember, ’54.”” This result, he says, “is to be re-
ed as very doubtful, as there did not appear to
be evidence for any variation exceeding half a second
space and more observations would be required to
blish the existence of so small a variation at all.’’
SCIENCE.
565
to determine the separation of the axis of
rotation and axis of figure, were going on
that Sir Wm. Thomson (now Lord Kelvin)
announced, at the Congress of the British
Association at Glasgow in 1874, that the
meteorological phenomena, the fall of rain
and snow, the changes which occur in the
circulation of the air and of the sea waters
would modify a little the mechanical con-
stitution of the globe, and displace a little
the axis of figure, 7%. e., the form of the
earth would be changed by the causes men-
tioned, and so a new shortest axis would
be made. The effect of this would be to
produce a change in the latitudes of places,
evidently. He thought that it might
amount to ".50, which would correspond
to a movement of the old axis (at the pole)
of 50 feet on the earth’s surface. Sir W.
Thomson did not publish his calculation,
but the authority of the great English
mathematician and physicist was such as to
make scientific men give the statement
great attention. These meteorologic phe-
nomena of which Sir William Thomson
spoke are annual in character. When this
annual period is combined with the 305-
day or ten-month period of Euler we see
that complexity results. This was the
state of the investigation when Dr. Kist-
ner, of the Berlin Observatory, published the
results of his observations made in 1884—
1885. Dr. Kiistner undertook some obser-
vations for the trial of a new method for
the determination of the constant of aber- ”
ration. On reducing his observations he
obtained results which were not at all sat-
isfactory. A careful examination of his
work led him to make the announcement
that the unsatisfactory value for the aberra-
tion constant was due to a comparatively
rapid, though very small, change in the lat-
itude of the Berlin Observatory—‘that from
August to November, 1884, the latitude of
Berlin had been from ".2 to ’’.3 greater than
from March to May in 1884 and 1885.”
566
This would indicate that from August to
November, 1884, the pole of the earth had
approached Berlin more closely by 20 to 30
feet than in the time from March to May.
This conclusion was fortified by the ex-
amination of other data, obtained from the
observations made at Pulkova by Nyrén.
Here, then, was evidence of a compara-
tively rapid change in latitude. New ob-
servations were undertaken at Berlin, Pots-
dam, Prague, and Bethlehem, Penn. (all by
Talcott’s method), and all agreed in show-
ing plus and minus changes in latitude for
the years 1888-90.
There were still some doubters. More-
over it was decided to critically test the
matter by sending an expedition to the
Sandwich Islands, which is 180 degrees
(nearly) in longitude from Berlin. If it
was known the latitude of Berlin increased,
then a point in the northern hemisphere 180
degrees away from Berlin should simul-
taneously show a decrease in latitude, for if
the pole moves toward Berlin it must move
from the point on the other side of the earth.
Our own Government joined in the effort.
Marcuse of Berlin and Preston of Wash-
ington spent more than a year on the Sand-
wich Islands observing for latitude, while
at the same time observations were con-
tinued at Berlin, Prague and Strassburg in
Europe, and at Rockville, Bethlehem and
San Francisco in the United States. The
results of all these observations have been
published, and show, without a chance of
error, that the earth’s axis is moving, that
the latitudes at the Sandwhich Islands in-
ereased when the latitudes in Germany di-
minished and vice versa.
The law of the change was eagerly and
industriously sought for by some of the
ablest mathematical astronomers of the
world. They first worked on the idea that
the changes must conform to the 305-day
period of Euler, combined with an annual
change due to causes set forth by Sir W.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 21-
Thomson, and which I have previously men-
tioned. None of these investigations haye
given a satisfactory formula for the predic-
tion of the latitude of any place.
In 1891 Dr. S. C. Chandler, of Cambridge,
Mass., began his investigation of the prob-
lem. He remarks:
“‘T deliberately put aside all teaching of
theory, because it seemed to me high time
that the facts should be examined by a
purely inductive process; that the nugatory
results of all attempts to detect the exis-
tence of the Eulerian period (of 305 days)
probably arose from a defect of the theory
itself, and that the entangled condition
of the -whole subject required that it
should be examined afresh by processes
unfettered by any preconceived notions
whatever. The problem which I therefore
proposed to myself was to see whether it
would not be possible to lay the numerous
ghosts in the shape of various discordant,
residual phenomena pertaining to determi-
nations of aberration, parallaxes, latitudes
and the like, which have heretofore flitted
elusively about the astronomy of precision
during the century, or to reduce them to
some tangible form by some simple consis-
tent hypothesis. It was thought that if
this could be done a study of the nature of
the forces as thus indicated, by which the
earth’s rotation is influenced, might tend to
a physical explanation of them.”
Dr. Chandler proceeded to examine his
own work with the Almucantar at Cam-
bridge, the observations of Kustner, Gyldén,
Nyrén, the Washington observations and
others. He found that they all seemed to in-
dicate that the pole of the rotation axis was
moving from west to east about the axis of
figure of the earth in a period of 427 days.
Other observations did not seem to confirm
this period. Finally he made an elaborate
analysis of 33,000 observations between 1837
and 1891, and the result was an empirical
law which can be announced as follows :
=e
May 24, 1895. ]
The pole of the rotation axis of the earth
moved with its greatest velocity about the
pole of the axis of figure about the year
1774; the period then was 348 days. The
velocity has diminished with an accelerated
rate since then. In 1890 the period was
443 days. The distance of one pole from
the other was about 22 feet = 0.22”.
Further elaborate examination of this
material developed the exceedingly impor-
tant and interesting result that the changes
in latitude were the sum of two periodic fluc-
tuations superposed on each other. One had
a period of about 427 days and an ampli-
tude of 0.12” The second had a period of
a year with an amplitude that was variable
between .04” and .20”
Sometimes these two fluctuations worked
together, giving a total range of .33”, and
at times they conspired against each other,
reducing the range to a minimum of a few
hundredths of a second. He compared his
theory with the observations, and the result
was in the main exceedingly satisfactory.
His conclusions were attacked as to the
427-day term. The annual term could be
explained as due to meteorologic causes.
Professor Newcomb, however, in March,
1892, explained in a paper communicated
to the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society that in deducing the Eu-
lerian period of 305 days the earth, as we
have remarked, was considered absolutely
rigid ; that when the effect of the mobility
of the oceans and of the lack of perfect rig-
idity of the earth were taken into account,
the mathematics required a time of rotation
of the true pole about the axis of figure
longer than the previously accepted 305
days. Making certain assumptions New-
comb obtained a period of 443 days.*
An additional interesting conclusion
* Professor R. S. Woodward has lately obtained by
a new discussion of the theoretical problem a formula
that seems to indicate the correctness of Chandler’s
empirical formula.
SCIENCE.
567
which Dr. Chandler has lately published is
that the fluctuation with a period of 427-
428 days is a circular one, as theory seems
to demand, while the annual fluctuations
appear elliptical in character.
An exceedingly interesting and important
confirmation of the Chandlerian period of
427 days, or about 14 months, was lately
announced by M. Tisserand. Examination
has been made of the tide records of the
Helder in Holland. These are kept with
greataccuracy. It has been found that be-
tween 1851 and 1893 these tide records
show a variation in the average sea level
indicating a 14-month period. The greatest
divergencies are very small, only 14 mm.=
4 inch about, but they appear unmistakably
and are what theory would demand.
In a letter recently received from Dr.
Chandler he states that he finds that the
annual part of the polar motion is an ellipse
three or four times as long as broad, and
he expresses the law of the motion of the
pole in this ellipse as that the areas de-
scribed from the centre are proportional to
the times.
We can conclude safely, therefore, that
no large changes of latitude have taken
place for many thousands of years; in
fact, in geologic times, that there is no
adequate proof of progressive changes in the
latitude of any place ; but finally that very
small periodic changes have occurred, and
they are such as can be and are observed.
The feeling is growing in the minds of
those who have given the subject close at-
tention that we shall find that many and
various causes enter into the problem of
determining the law of changes. It will, no
doubt, take many years of careful observa-
tion to obtain the data necessary to fully
test Dr. Chandler’s or any other hypothesis.
The scientific men abroad are discussing
the advisability of establishing several ob-
servatories at various places on the earth’s
surface, for the purpose of collecting the data.
568
Ultimately Dr. Chandler’s formula, or a
slight modification of it, may be proved
correct, and with it we may be able to state
what the latitude of any place will be at
any time.
The lecture was followed by some illus-
trations showing that revolving bodies pre-
ferred to revolve about their shortest axis
or around the axis about which the moment
of inertia was a maximum.
Charts and diagrams were exhibited show-
ing the results of observations made at
Pulkova, Prague, Berlin, Strassburg, Bethle-
hem and the Sandwich Islands, ete.
These results were compared with the
deductions from Chandler’s formula and
shown to agree therewith to a remarkable
extent.
The preliminary results of the observa-
tions made at Columbia College from May,
793, to July, ’94, were exhibited.
The lecturer threw on the screen illus-
trations of several forms of Zenith Tele-
scopes and described the new form made
by Wanschaff, of Berlin.
J. K. REEs.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE.
CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY (VII).
AREA OF LAND AND WATER.
Proressor H. WaeGner, of Gottingen, con-
tributes to the April number of the Scottish
Geographical Magazine an abstract of his
recent studies on the land and water areas
of the globe for successive latitude belts.
He contends that Murray’s figures, pub-
lished in the same magazine for 1886 and
1888 and based on Bartholemew’s maps,
are inaccurate to a significant extent.
Wagner’s measures of the better known
lands between 80° north and 60° south
latitude is 51,147,100, against Murray’s 51,-
298,400 square miles. Taking 250,000 for
lands yet undiscovered in the Arctic regions,
and 3,500,000 for Antarctic lands, the total
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 21.
land area of the globe would be 55,814,000
square miles. Wagner finds confirmation
of his figures in the results independently
obtained by K. Karstens, who has recently
made a new reckoning of the area and mean
depth of the oceans.
THE ‘FLY-BELT’ IN AFRICA.
Tue remarkable control over the oceupa-
tion of Africa, exercised by the little tse-tse
fly, whose bite is fatal to horses and cattle,
leads to the introduction of cheaply con-
structed narrow-gauge railways across the
belt of country dominated by this pest.
Portuguese district, next south of the Zam-
besi river on the east coast, with its capital
at the little settlement of Beira, attains some
commercial importance from its relation to
Mashonaland and the gold district of the in-
terior; but in order to connect the two, a
railway a hundred and twenty miles long
has been made ‘to bridge the fly-belt.’
The coast exhibits a combination of equa-
torial and tropical rainfall, having high
temperature and heavy rain from October
to April, but from June to September ‘the
weather is almost pleasant.’ At Beira the
scarcity of water in the dryseason threatened
a few years ago to be a serious question, as
a supply had to be brought from the upper
course of the rivers at a considerable cost;
but “in 1893 a Scoteh plumber was im-
ported, and all anxiety on this score came —
to an end,’ as he made galvanized iron
tanks in which rain water could be gathered
and stored from the roofs (Scot. Geogr.
Mag., April, ’95).
COLD AND SNOWFALL IN ARABIA.
Tue ordinary association of heat with
the dryness of deserts tends to give the im-
pression that Arabia has no cold weather.
Nolde’s account of his expedition into the
Nefud desert of the Arabian interior, lati-
tude 28 north, altitude 3,000 feet, tells of
the severe cold that he experienced there in
The |
_
May 24, 1895.]
February, 1893. The days were warm and
pleasant ; but the nights cooled to —5° or
--10° C; the changes of temperature being
extremely sudden. For example, on Feb-
ruary 1, at noon, the thermometer read
+5°.5, with a cool wind; at 2 o’clock, +6°,
at 4, 7.5°; then came a rapid rise to 25.5°
for hich no special explanation is given.
Just after sunset there was a sudden fall of
thirty-three degrees, to -8°; and the mini-
mum of the night was-11°. The cold and
blustering wind caused much discomfort in
traveling. The greatest surprise that Nolde
met was on February 2, when a storm
clothed the Nefud far and wide with a
sheet of snow several inches deep, making
it resemble a Russian steppe rather than
an Arabian desert. The Bedouins, how-
ever, said that snowfall there was very un-
usual. (Globus, 1895, No. 11.)
CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL.
Pror. M. W. Harrineron shows in an
article under the above title (Bull. Phil. Soc.
Washington, xiii., 1895, 1-30) that the
northeast slope of Guatemala and Hon-
duras has rainfall maxima in June and Oc-
tober, following the zenithal passages of the
sun and a moderate winter maximum in
January, ascribed to the encroachment even
in these low latitudes of cyclonic areas from
the westerly winds of the temperate zone.
This gives an interesting repetition of the
ase of northern India, as described by
Blanford. The rainfall on the southwest
while that of January and February is very
w and for a time almost rainless. It is
are often accompanied by strong squally
vinds from the southwest, suspected of
eing occasional extensions of the southeast
ade wind across the equator into our
SCIENCE.
569
hemisphere. It may be remarked that the
association of these winds with the counter
current that runs eastward in the Pacifie
a little north of the equator confirms the
suggestion that the equatorial counter
currents in general are caused by the exten-
sion of the trade winds of one hemisphere
across the equator into the other hemi-
sphere. They are thus deflected from a
westward to an eastward course, and hence
locally produce eastward currents.
THE METEOROLOGISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT.
Tue thoroughness so characteristic of
German scientific work appears in this ex-
cellent journal, the leader of its class, with
its able original articles, its rich variety of
notes and its exhaustive bibliographic re-
views. Originally established thirty years
ago by the Austrian Meteorological Society,
and edited successively by Jelinek and
Hann, of Vienna, it was enlarged eleven
years ago by further assistance from the
German Meteorological Society, when Kép-
pen, of the naval observatory at Hamburg,
became associate editor; his place being
lately taken by Hellman of the Prussian Me-
teorological Institute at Berlin. Dr. Hann,
however, still retains his position as leading
editor and is a frequent contributor to the
pages of the journal. One of his latest es-
says (January, 1895) is on the rainfall of
the Hawaiian Islands, in which he brings
together all available material, and dis-
cusses it more completely than has hither-
to been done. Dutton’s explanation of the
considerable rainfall on the southwest slope
of Hawaii is quoted with acceptance. A
meteorological peculiarity of these islands
seems to be that their richer windward
sides, sloping to the northeast with a plen-
tiful rainfall, are on a large part of the coast
with difficulty approached from the sea on
account of the cliffs that have been cut
along the shore by the strong surf from
waves driven by the trade winds.
570
FOEHN-LIKE EAST WINDS IN AFRICA.
DANCKELMAN, who for some years has
made a special study of African meteor-
ology, contributes a note on the foehn-like
east winds felt on the southwest coast of
Africa, about the southern tropic (Met.
Zeitschr., January, 1895). In the interior,
temperatures above 27°C are unknown in
the winter (April to October); but on the
coast in this season, maxima over 30°, and
even as high as 39°, are reported, east
winds and low humidity occurring at the
same time. Asso high a temperature can-
not be ascribed to heat from the interior,
Danckelman explains it as the result of the
dynamic warming of the wind during its
descent from the interior highlands. This
is only one more illustration of the impor-
tance of adiabatic changes of temperature in
meteorological phenomena ; the Swiss foehn
and our western chinook, the extraordinary
foehn-like winds of west Greenland, the
‘hot winds’ of India and of Kansas, as
well as the ordinary warm or hot southerly
cyclonic winds, or ‘siroccos,’ all owing a
greater or less share of their high tempera-
tures to the heat developed by compression
during the descent of air from higher to
lower levels.
THE AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL.
Tue American Meteorological Journal,
conducted for a number of years by Profes-
sor Harrington at Ann Arbor, and since
1892 edited by R. DeC. Ward and published
by Ginn & Co., Boston, is an able exponent
of the science of the atmosphere for this
country. The closing number (April, 1895)
of the eleventh volume opens with a note
by the editor, reviewing the recent work of
the journal, and making an excellent show-
ing for its continuation.
cles make it of value to the investigator ;
its notes and reviews place much important
material before the general student; and
its more elementary or educational articles
SCIENCE.
Its original arti-
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 21,
must prove useful to the teacher, for in
spite of a recent assertion to the effect that
the meteorological aspects of geography are-
well taught in our schools, there is room
for much improvement in this direction,
The April number contains notes on signs
of a recent change of popular opinion con-
cerning the effect of cultivation on rainfall
in Iowa, the proceedings of the last meeting
of the New England Meteorological So-
ciety—the only society of the kind, we be-
lieve, in this country—and diagrams of a
curiously curved storm track from the Pilot
chart of the Hydrographic office ; reviews
of the Blue Hill (Mass.) observations for
1893, of Ley’s new work on clouds, and of a
new Danish series of monthly pressure
charts for the North Atlantic. The editor —
contributes an account of Swiss studies of
thunderstorms, and a description of meteor-
ological work in India and Australia. The
wind known as the ‘southerly burster,’
as felt at Sydney, has recently been studied
in a prize essay ; it recalls in many particu-
lars the ‘northers’ of our Texan coast.
NOTE ON CROLL’S GLACIAL THEORY.
A BRIEF article by the undersigned (re-
printed in Amer. Met. Journal for April
from the Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe., vii.,
1894, 77-80) suggests a common explana-
tion for three forms of geologically recent
climatic change, namely, the glaciation of
many northern lands, the expansion of
many interior lakes, and the production of
wadies by water action in the now dry
Sahara. Accepting Croll’s theory of the
coincidence of glacial conditions with long
aphelion winters during periods of great
orbital eccentricity, it is argued that the
chief cause of snowy precipitation at such
times must be the greater activity of eyclonie
processes, then intensified by the stronger
general cireumpolar circulation, in turn ac-
celerated by the increased winter contrast
of polar and equatorial temperatures;
——
May 24, 1895.]
Hann’s dynamical theory, instead of Ferrel’s
econvectional theory of extra-tropical cy-
clones, being adopted. All those regions
whose precipitation is in large part de-
pendent on extra-tropical cyclonic storms
would under these conditions have an in-
creased annual rainfall; and the lakes of
interior basins in temperate latitudes would
consequently increase in volume. The
winter rains of subtropical belts, such as the
northern Sahara, would extend further to-
wards the equator, for the equatorward mi-
_ gration of the tropical belt of high pressure
in winter is essentially a result of the in-
ereased vigor of the cireumpolar circulation
at such times; thus the formerly greater
rainfall indicated by the desert wadies might
be explained. The coincidence of greater
_ precipitation during the same epochs of time
over the glaciated, the lacustrine and the
desert areas is, however, not yet independ-
ently proved. W. M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS.*
RELATIVE measurements of the force of
gravity were made in 1894 by the U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey at twenty-six
‘stations, mostly located along the thirty-
ninth parallel from the Atlantic coast to
Utah. Points were included on the Atlan-
tie coast, Appalachian mountains, central
plains, Rocky mountains (including the
summit of Pike’s Peak, 14,085 feet in alti-
tude), western plateaus, and the eroded
valleys of the Green and Grand rivers.
* ‘Results of a Transcontinental Series of Gravity
Measurements,’ ‘by G. R. Putman, read February 2,
1895, Philosophhical Society of Washington, Bulletin
Vol. xiii.; preliminary results were presented before
e National Academy of Sciences by Dr. Menden-
mall, November, 1894. Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U.
Geological Survey coéperated in this work by mak-
a geological examination of the stations. His
conclusions and a discussion of the results in connec-
ion with the theory of isostasy are published in the
same Bulletin.
SCIENCE.
571
The half second pendulum apparatus de-
signed by Dr. T. C. Mendenhall was used,
with methods not before employed with
short pendulums. They were swung at a
low air pressure (60 mm.), each swing last-
ing eight hours, and the successive swings
covering the entire interval between the first
and last time observations, usually forty-
eight hours. The two chronometers used
were rated by star observations made with
a portable transit in the meridian. The
flexure of the support was measured and
correction applied. The results indicate
the entire elimination of errors due to diur-
nal irregularities of rate, and show that
there was practically no wear of the agate
knife-edge. Determinations made at the
base station (Washington) several times
during the year show a range of only
-000,004 second in the mean period of the
three pendulums, indicating a high perma-
neney of period, and throwing some light
on the invariability of gravity. The aver-
age time required per station was slightly
over five days.
Values of gravity for Washington de-
rived relatively from absolute determina-
tions made in various parts of the world show
a considerable discordance, the range being
from 980.047 to 980.285 dynes. The re-
sults of the past season are based on a pro-
visional value adopted for Washington. As
they were carried out with the same instru-
ments and uniform methods, it is probable
that their relative accuracy is much higher
than that of many of the absolute measures.
The results are discussed principally in
connection with the question of reduction
to sea level, the distribution of the stations
with respect to an unusual variety of conti-
nental conditions rendering the series valu-
able in this connection. This is an impor-
tant question in the application of pendu-
lum observations to the geodetic problem
of the earth’s figure, and involves the vari-
ous theories as to the condition of the
572
earth’s crust. It has given rise to many
diverse opinions, and the apparent anoma-
lies in the force of gravity have been so
great with various methods of reduction as
to necessitate the rejection of certain classes
of stations even in the most elaborate dis-
cussions, as those of Clarke and Helmert.
Three methods of reduction were applied to
these stations, and the effect of latitude was
eliminated by comparison with a theoret-
ical formula based on Clarke’s figure of the
the earth. In each of these methods cor-
rection was made for the elevation above
sea level and for topographical irregularities
near the station, and they differ only in the
allowance made for surface attraction, as
follows :
1. Bougner’s reduction. The vertical at-
traction of the entire mass above sea level
was subtracted. With this method the re-
sults show a large defect of gravity on the
western mountains and plateaus, closely
proportional to the average elevation, but
having no relation to the altitude of the
particular point of observation or to dis-
tance from the ocean.
2. Elevation reduction. No correction
was made for attraction. The defect of
gravity in general disappears, but there are
large residuals in the mountainous regions,
gravity being in excess at stations above
the average level of the surrounding coun-
try, and in defect at those below. The
size of the residuals is nearly proportional to
the difference in elevation between the sta-
tion and the average level.
3. Faye’s reduction. On the theory that
the surface of the earth is in general ina
condition corresponding to hydrostatic
equilibriun, M. Faye proposed that no cor-
rection be made for the attraction of the
average mass above sea level, but that ac-
count be taken of local deviations from the
average level, as, for instance, the attraction
of a mountain on a station at its summit.
Developing this idea we may consider that
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vox. I. No. 21.
all general continental elevations are com-
pensated by a lack of density or other
cause below sea level, but that local irregu-
larities of surface are not so compensated,
but are maintained by the partial rigidity
of the earth’s crust. The measure of this
lack of compensation will be the attrae-
tion of a plain whose thickness is the differ-
ence in elevation between the station and
the average surrounding country. The lat-
ter was estimated within an arbitrarily
adopted radius of 100 miles of each point,
and the correction applied, positive for
stations below the average and negative for
those above.* With this reduction all the ©
large residuals disappear. For the four-
teen stations (4n mountainous regions)
where it was applied, the sums of the re-
siduals are: with Bougner’s reduction 2.577
dynes, with elevation reduction 0.677 dynes,
with Faye’s reduction 0.175 dynes, indica-
ting a decided advantage for the latter.
A similar discussion made of former
Coast and Geodetic Survey observations on
oceanic islands and coasts shows that the
excess of gravity that has been found on
islands with Bougner’s reduction largely
disappears on the application of Faye’s idea,
subtracting the attraction of islands con-
sidered as displacing sea water. The resid-
uals with Bougner’s reduction are probably
a measure of the lack of density below sea’
level, and with the elevation reduction a
measure of the lack of compensation. The
general conclusion is that the so-called
anomalies of gravity may be largely ac-
counted for on general principles, and that
the value of these measurements in connec-
tion with the problems of geodesy and the
intimately related questions of terrestrial
physics will be proportionately enhanced.
By comparing the values of g measured
on the summit and near the base of Pike’s
Peak the value 5.63 was deduced for the
*Mr. Gibert independently applied this method
of reduction, using a radius of 30 miles.
May 24, 1895.]
mean density of the earth. The attraction
of the mountain was computed from contour
maps and from information as to its density
furnished by Mr. Whitman Cross of the U.
§. Geological Survey. A set of quarter-
second pendulums designed by Dr. Menden-
hall was tested at four of the stations with
satisfactory results. This is the smallest
apparatus yet made for the purpose, weigh-
ing but 106 pounds with packing boxes.
Hersert G. OGDEN.
_ WAsHINGTON, D. C.
| THE ASTRONOMICAL AND PHYSICAL SO-
CIETY OF TORONTO,
Tuts Society, now very widely known,
was originally formed in 1884 by a few gen-
tlemen who, while actively engaged in busi-
ness pursuits, were kindred spirits in their
love for scientific study and met at inter-
yals more or less regular at their respective
residences for recreative reading, observa-
tion and experimentation. The member-
bership gradually increasing, it was finally
_ decided to secure incorporation under a
general Act permitting the acquiring and
holding of real and personal property, etc.,
and in 1890 the Society became a corporate
body. The first president of the new asso-
ciation was the late Mr. Chas. Carpmael,
M. A., F. R. A. S., the Director of the To-
ronto Magnetic Observatory; the vice-presi-
dent was Mr. Andrew Elvins, who had
indeed been the first to gather together the
few friends who had formed the original
nucleus, and who is still highly esteemed
and honored as the father of amateur as-
_tronomy in Toronto, A constitution mod-
eled upon that of the Astronomical Society
of the Pacific having been framed and by-
laws adopted, a circular was addressed to
many scientific societies and distinguished
astronomers and physicists throughout the
world. Several of the latter became corre-
sponding members, while various scientific
bodies contributed many volumes of reports,
SCIENCE.
573
ete., which formed the beginning of what
is now a very valuable library. Without
this very material aid the progress of the
Toronto Society would have been very slow
indeed, but as, at meeting after meeting, the
secretary’s and librarian’s reports were read,
it became soon apparent that the heartiest
sympathy and support were being extended,
without exception, by all who had been
addressed.
The first annual report of the Society was
an unpretentious little volume of 40 pages,
containing abstracts of papers read during
the year 1890, and records of the more im-
portant work done at the telescope by the
various members who were particularly in-
terested in observation. The frontispiece
was a drawing of sun-spots and also of
hydrogen flames, by Mr. A. F. Miller, who
has always taken a keen interest in solar
physics. Mr. T. 8. H. Shearmen contrib-
uted a paper on ‘Coronal Photography, in
the Absence of Eclipse.’ In common with
many other enthusiastic observers, Mr.
Shearmen is still engaged upon this work.
Referring to the objection raised regarding
the impossibility of photographing the cor-
ona in full sunshine on account of the very
slight difference between the intensities of
the two lights, Mr. Shearmen cites ob-
servations of the inferior planets seen pro-
jected on the corona.
The appendix to this volume contains
a list of the presents donated by the
various observatories and scientifie bod-
ies in the United States, and by Mr.
John Goldie, of Galt, Ont., a life member
of the Society. The list of the Society’s ex-
changes increased very rapidly after the
publication of the first report. The vol-
ume for 1891 contained papers by Dr. J.
Morrison, Mr. J. Ellard Gore and Mr. W.
F. Denning. An opera-glass section had
been formed which met during the weeks
alternating with the regular fortnightly
meetings of the Society, and much interest
574
began to be taken in active telescopic work.
An essay by Mr. G. E. Lumsden, entitled a
‘Plea for the Common Telescope’ (subse-
quently reprinted in the Scientific American
Supplement), was the means of creating a
very general desire for the possession of in-
struments of moderate aperture, and there
are now a great many telescopes ranging to
5-inch among the members of the Society.
Mr. Lumsden’s own telescope is a 104-inch,
With-Browning reflector. It was with this
that he made an observation of a double
shadow of Sat. I in transit across the disc
of Jupiter, on the night of September 20,
1891. The particulars of the observation
and comments upon theories accounting
for the possible cause of the phenomenon,
which has been seen but three or four
times, appeared subsequently in L’Astrono-
mie. A drawing of Jupiter made on the
night of the observation forms the frontis-
piece to the volume of Transactions of the
Society for 1891.
During this year the Society lost a sin-
cere friend and earnest worker by the death
of the Hon. Sir Adam Wilson, Chief-Jus-
tice of Ontario. This distinguished jurist,
one of the most eminent of Canada’s public
men, had actively interested himself in
scientific matters after retiring from the
Chief-Justiceship, and had erected and
equipped an observatory at his residence.
Shortly after Sir Adam’s decease, which was
quite sudden, Lady Wilson donated to the
Society his telescope, a six-inch reflector,
together with other apparatus and many
works on science. Sir Adam had intimated
that he wished these to pass to the Society
at his death. The reflector is now mounted
at the residence of Mr. John A. Paterson,
M. A., vice-president, and is used by the
members in regular observation.
In 1892 McHlvins resigned the office of
vice-president, in order to have more time
at his disposal during which to take up
active work on special lines, notably meteor-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 21.
ology. The constitution was amended to
admit of election of two vice-presidents, and
Dr. Larratt W. Smith, Q. C., and Mr. John
A. Paterson, M. A., wereappointed. During
this year also the Hon. G. W. Ross, LL. D.,
Minister of Education, became Honorary
President. The Society was now becoming
very extensively known, and its list of cor-
respondents rapidly increasing. The meet-
ings were particularly well attended, and
the Toronto press was most courteous and
obliging in publishing reports of the Society’s
work from time totime. Meetings were fre-
quently held at the Toronto observatory,
where practical use was made of the large
equatorial and other instruments of the
equipment. The great magnetic storm of
February 13, 1892, was charted by Mr. F,
L. Blake, of the observing staff, and a pho-
tographic reproduction accompanied the
volume for that year. Towards the close
of 1892 a committee was appointed to act
conjointly with a committee from the Cana-
dian Institute with a view to moving in the
matter of a change in astronomical time
reckoning. The report of the committee
was presented on April 21, 1893, and
adopted. It is now widely known that the
great majority of astronomers are in fayor
of reckoning the astronomical as the civil
day, from midnight to midnight, and it
remains for the Government of the United
States to decide whether the ephemeris shall
be changed accordingly. The Admiralty in
England has expressed a desire to meet
the views of other nations.
During 1893 the Society was enabled to —
further the object always kept in view, the
popularizing of science, by the kindness of
the University authorities, who gave the use
of the physical lecture room for popular
lectures, illustrated by experiment. Mr.
C. A. Chant, B. A., and Mr. G. F. Hull, B.
A., have taken charge of this department
of the Society’s work with eminent success.
A very liberal interpretation of the physics
- May 24, 1895.]
relating to astronomy having been made,
there has resulted a keen interest in experi-
mental science; so that he is a welcome
addition to the membership who takes in-
terest in any branch of what was formerly
styled natural philosophy.
During the years 1893 and 1894 the sub-
_ ject of magnetism and electricity engaged a
large portion of the time spent at the reg-
ular meetings. Spectroscopy, quite apart
from its bearing upon astronomy, has also
been a subject of interest. A valuable
note, by Mr. A. F. Miller, on the spectrum
of the light emitted by insects, appeared in
the volume of Transactions for 1893.
In the earlier years of the Society’s ex-
_istence the meetings were held at the resi-
_dences of members, but it was ultimately
found that one central place of meeting
would be preferable, and for some time past
the regular meetings have been held in the
rooms of the Young Women’s Christian
Guild building. Here the library is kept
and the secretary has his office. The So-
ciety suffered another loss in October, 1894,
by the death of the president, Mr. Carpmael,
whose health had been impaired for some
time previously. A short sketch of Mr.
Carpmael’s very active life is appended to
the Transactions for 1894.
Dr. Larratt W. Smith, Q. C., sueceeded
. Carpmael in the presidential chair, and
the office vacated by the former is now ably
Toronto is the founding of a popular ob-
servatory, in the true sense of the term;
steps will soon be taken to this end. It is
amatter of regret that there is no astro-
nomical equipment in Canada able to meet
il the requirements of modern astronomy.
SCIENCE.
575
Two of the members of the Society,
Messrs. Z. M. and J. R. Collins, have been
very successful in making silver-on-glass
specula, and have figured several of eight-
inch; having recently fitted up apparatus
for the work, it is confidently expected that
they will soon be able to undertake the
construction of very large reflectors. It is
not too much to hope that they will be able to
execute the telescope when the public spirit
of the Toronto people demands a great ob-
servatory, and this may be in the near
future, for, in regard to popularizing science,
the Toronto Society has been eminently
successful. A branch of the association at
Meaford, Ont., has recently been formed,
and other similar societies are already
spoken of. Tuomas Lrnpsay.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE RIVERS OF EDEN.
To tHE Epiror or Science: Referring to
a note on the ‘Garden of Eden’ in Scrence
(May 3, 1895), I desire to point out that in
a series of articles, under the heading ‘ Gold,
Bedolach and Shoham Stone,’ in the ‘ Ex-
positor’ (London, 1887), I showed that the
only possible scientific explanation of the
geography of Eden in Genesis is that based
on the geological explorations of Loftus, and
now advocated by Prof. Haupt, namely, that
the four rivers are the Kherkhat, Karun,
Tigris and Euphrates. Farther I showed
that the geography and geology of this
ancient anthor are more accurate than those
of modern maps and popular statements
until within a very recent time, and that
the local standpoint of the original writer
was on the Euphrates, and his date not
long after that of the historical deluge,
whatever views may be held by critics as to
the ultimate editing of the book. Delitsch
and others have been misled by their want
of knowledge of the condition of the dis-
trict in the earliest human (Palanthropic)
age, whereas this was evidently known
576
to the original writer, though the geograph-
ical conditions must have been somewhat
changed in his time.
I rejoice that a scholar like Dr. Haupt
has advocated a view which will almost for
the first time bring this very ancient and
very accurate geographical description be-
fore the notice of modern biblical scholars
in a manner which will be intelligible from
their point of view.
I may add that a popular view of the
geological argument on the subject will be
found in my work, ‘Modern Science in
Bible Lands,’ published in 18887* where
will also be found a sketch-map of the
region, illustrating the bearing of the geo-
logical and geographical researches of
Loftus and others on this much vexed and
much misunderstood question.
J. Witi1Am Dawson.
MONTREAL, May 7, 1895.
COLOR-ASSOCIATIONS WITH NUMERALS, ETC.
(THIRD NOTE).
To tHE Eprror oF Scrence: Jn Science,
old series, Vol. vi., No. 137, p. 242, I printed
the results of some experiments upon the
association of colors with letters of the
alphabet, with numerals, etc., in the case
of one of my daughters. In Nature for
July 9, 1891, I gave a table exhibiting the
results of these experiments in the years
1882, 1883, August, 1885, December, 1887,
June, 1889, and June, 1891, a period of
about nine years. The table can be readily
consulted by anyone interested, so that it
need not be reprinted here. In February,
1895, I again questioned my daughter on
the subject, and I find that the colors given
in her replies of June, 1891, are unchanged
except in two cases. The figure 8 was
visualized by her as white (August, 1885),
cream color (December, 1887), white (June,
1889), cream (June, 1891), and is again
seen as white (February, 1895). The figure
*Harpers, New York.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 21.
10 was noted as brown (1885), brown
(1887), black ? (1889), black or brown
(1891), and black (1895). With these ex-
ceptions there are no material changes.
My remarks on the table, given in Nature,
do not seem to call for any additions or sub-
tractions. The present note, taken with
the others cited, seems to be of value, as it
records the results of experiments made
under exceptionally good conditions and
now extending over a period of some thirteen
years. Epwarp S. HoiprEn.
Mount HAmMILTon, May, 1895.
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS STATE GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY.
In conformity with the law under which
the University of Kansas is now working,
the Board of Regents at a recent meeting
formally organized the University Geolog-
ical Survey of Kansas with Chancellor F.
H. Snow, ex-officio Director; Professor §S.
W. Williston, Paleontologist; Professor
Erasmus Haworth, Geologist and Mineralo-
gist, and Professor H. H. S. Bailey, Chemist.
In addition to these, other members of
the University Faculty will be engaged upon
the work of the Survey, as well as the ad-
vanced students of the departments of
Geology and Paleontology. An effort will
also be made to centralize and unify the
energies of different geologists in the State
who have been doing valuable work along
different lines of geological investigations.
Already a considerable start has been made
and the cooperation of different geologists of
the State has been secured.
The policy of the Survey will be conserya-
tive, with the expectation that it will be
continued and eventually include all other
branches of the natural history of the State.
The general stratigraphy of the State will
first be elaborated in order that it may be
used in the further study of various ques-
tions of economic and scientific importance,
all of which will be taken up as rapidly as
May 24, 1895.]
existing conditions from time to time will
permit.
Work in the Coal Measures of the State
has been in progress for two summers, and
Volume I. of the Report is now almost ready
for publication. Other volumes will appear
atirregular intervals. Those already under
preparation are: One on Coal, Oil and
Gas; one on the Vertebrate Paleontology
of the State; and one on the Salt and
Gypsum deposits of Kansas.
F. H. Syow,
Chancellor University of Kansas.
LAWRENCE, KANSAS,
April 20, 1895.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Our Native Birds of Song and Beauty. By H.
NEBRLING. 4°,36 colored plates from orig-
inals by Rpeway, Gorrmne and Mtrzet.
Published by Geo. Brumder, Milwaukee.
To be completed in 16 parts, $1.00 each.
Part eleven of this excellent work, carry-
ing it nearly half through the second vol-
ume, has been delivered to subscribers. It
is enough praise to say that the high stand-
ard of the first volume is maintained. Mr.
Nehrling is a field naturalist of the kind
who deem a bird in the bush worth two in
the hand. He loves everything in the woods
and fields, and in telling about the birds
and their lives he tells also of the trees and
flowers.
The aim of the book is to give trust-
worthy accounts, in popular style, of the
haunts and habits of our birds. Occasionally
it does more and introduces a new fact of
scientific interest, as when the breeding of
the Pine Grosbeak (Pinicola) is recorded
fornorthern Wisconsin. On the other hand,
it is not always down to date. For instance,
under the Black Rosy Finch (Leucosticte
ata), the statement is quoted from Ridg-
y that ‘“‘ nothing has yet been learned as
its range during the breeding season.”’
a matter of fact, the species is common
SCIENCE.
577
in summer in the higher parts of the
Salmon River Mountains in Idaho, where
it was obtained by the reviewer five years
ago (see North American Fauna, No. 5,
1891, 102). Similarly, the Gray-crowned
Rosy Finch (L. tephrocotis) is said to be ‘a
resident of the interior of British America,
near or in the Rocky Mountains,’ and fur-
ther, that ‘none seem to breed in our ter-
ritory.’ If Mr. Nehrling had consulted
the ‘Report on the Ornithology of the
Death Valley Expedition,’ by Dr. A. K.
Fisher, he would have found the state-
ment that this species ‘‘is a common sum-
mer resident in the higher portions of the
White Mountains and the Sierra Nevada in
eastern and southern California,’’ where it
breeds abundantly and where nearly 40
specimens were secured by the expedition
(North Am. Fauna, No. 7, 1893, 82).
The plates are of two kinds, some show-
a single species in appropriate surround-
ings; others showing a number of species
grouped together on a background of land-
scape or dense vegetation. The reproduc-
tions, while amply sufficient for purposes of
identification, are evidently inferior to the
originals, the number of stones used in
printing being too small, and the workman-
ship not of the best. By far the most ef-
fective picture in the second volume is one
of a group of winter birds—Evening Gros-
beak, Pine Grosbeak, Redpoll, White-
winged Crossbill, Nuthatch and Chickadee
—on top of a spruce tree laden with snow.
The combination of colors is striking and
is aided by the red berries of a giant moun-
tain ash, which, by the way, forgot to drop
its leaves! Among the earlier plates of
high merit, both in conception and execu-
tion, are several by Robert Ridgway that
give charming glimpses of birds in charac-
teristic attitudes and surroundings. Of
these, the Golden-crowned Kinglet, Pro-
thonotary Warbler, and Canon Wren are
among the best.
578
By some accident in binding, the two
plates of part 10 (pls. 18 and 15) are re-
peated from the first volume.
The nomenclature is that of the Ameri-
can Ornithologists’ Union, except that the
authority given is for the combination, not
for the species—an unfortunate departure,
inasmuch as it does not tell who was the
original describer of the species.
To those unfamiliar with the first volume
it may be said that the work is not a scien-
tific treatise at all, but a popular book de-
voted to the life histories of birds, and
based mainly on the authors’ extensive field
experiences, supplemented by quotations—
perhaps too lengthy and frequent—from
the writings of well-known ornithologists.
It does not profess to cover all North Ameri-
can birds, omitting the water birds, birds
of prey and a few others, but treats prima-
rily, as its title indicates, of ‘Our Native
Birds of Song and Beauty.’ It is a large,
well printed quarto, and of its kind is in-
comparably the best book yet published
in America. C. H. M.
Municipal Government in Great Britain: By
ALBERT SHAw. New York, The Century
Co. 1895, 8°, viii + 385.
The modern increase of cities, and of the
proportion of urban population as compared
with that of rural districts, is, according to
Mr. Shaw, to be accepted as a permanent
fact for this generation and its immediate
successors, and,instead of lamenting over it,
it is the duty of thinking men to devise
ways and means to do away with or dimin-
ish the evils which are at present connected
with city life. The author states his point
of view as being that a city government
should so order the general affairs and in-
terests of the community as to conduce
positively to the welfare of its people, or, at
all events, to make it certain that for the
average family the life of the town shall not
be necessarily detrimental. The object of
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 21.
the book is to show how some of the older
and larger British cities have dealt with
this problem, giving details as to their
modern forms of government, method of
elections and modes of securing pure water, —
cleanliness, rapid transit, prevention of
contagious diseases, ete.
The cities selected for this purpose are
Glasgow, Manchester, Birmingham and
London, and for each a vast amount of in-
formation is clearly and concisely given.
Taking Birmingham as an example, it is
shown that in twenty years the death rate
of the city was lowered twenty per cent.,
and, in some parts of the city, sixty per
cent.; that the provisions for the comfort
and recreation of the people have been
greatly increased, and that, while over forty
millions of dollars have been expended in
securing these improvements, the taxes
have not been increased, because the muni-
cipal gas and water works, street railways,
markets, etc., have been from the financial,
as well as from the utilitarian, point of
view completely successful. Surely it is
worth while for the citizens of American
cities to inquire how this has been ac-
complished.
The description of the means used by the
city of Glasgow for the isolation and treat-
ment of infectous disease is worthy of care-
ful study. The Contagious Diseases Hos-
pital has been given the semblance of a
lovely village, and Mr. Shaw truly says that
‘“‘the difference between popularity and un-
popularity in a public hospital for infectious
diseases may well mean all the difference
between a terrible epidemic and its easy
prevention.’”’ The sanitary wash houses of
Glasgow are a feature of the work of the
Health Department which finds no parallel
in American cities but which is of great im-
portance. One of these cost $50,000, an-
other $75,000, and they far more than repay
their cost.
The author promises a second yolume
May 24, 1895.]
treating of municipal government in the
_ chief countries of Continental Europe, and
if we could be assured of a third volume,
_ prepared with equal care and accuracy,
~*£On Municipal Governments in the United
States, or how not to do it,’ it would be, as
Artemus expressed it, ‘a sweet boon.’
_ Meantime, let Mr. Shaw’s first volume be
made a subject of special study by the
younger professional men in this country,
for the time is near at hand when they will
be compelled to take some definite line of
action with regard to our own cities, each
_ of which presents its own peculiar problems,
but problems upon which much light is
thrown by the experiences of our transatlan-
tic brothers. J.S. B.
Theoretical Chemistry. By Prorressor W.
Nernst, Ph. D., University of Géttingen,
translated by Proressor C. S. Parmer,
Ph. D., University of Colorado. Mac-
millan & Co. Pp. 697. Price $5.00.
It has long been evident that the treat-
ment of the physical side of chemistry, in
_ text-books avowedly devoted to chemical
_ theory, is not satisfactory. In the present
_ work Physical Chemistry is the main object
in hand, and, correspondingly, chemical
_ theory proper is relegated to a subordinate
position. The treatment of purely chemical
_ topics is clear and suggestive, but brief, and
occasionally inadequate. Thus the discus-
sion of the stereochemistry of nitrogen is
confined to the mere statement of the views
of Hantzsch and Werner, with not even the
barest mention of the difficulties and ex-
ceptions which have led many to regard the
“spatial conception, so far as it applies to
itrogen, as prematurely developed.
But insufficiency of this kind is to be ex-
pected whenever the attempt is made to
cover the whole field of chemical and
physico-chemical theory within the limits
of the same work, and it would be unfair to
criticise Professor Nernst’s book adversely
SCIENCE.
579
on the ground of inadequate treatment of
purely chemical topics which, presumably,
were introduced simply for the sake of com-
pleteness. We pass, therefore, to the main
subject.
For some time a work has been needed
which would give concisely the remarkable
results of the new Physical Chemistry, and
this want Professor Nernst’s work is well fit-
ted to meet. The material is well selected,
the sections are well proportioned, the facts
are accurately and concisely stated, and the
translation has been faithfully made, too
faithfully perhaps, by one who is evidently
well fitted, on the scientific side, for the task.
It may not be out of place to express the
opinion that the almost complete abandon-
ment of the historical method which char-
acterizes Professor Nernst’s work is a mis-
take, even in so small a volume. This is
particularly plain in the account of the doc-
trine of electrolytic dissociation. One who
reads the fascinating chapter ‘Geschichte
der Electrochemie’ in Ostwald’s ‘ Lehrbuch
der Allgemeinen Chemie,’ Vol. I., part II.,
observes this concept vaguely adumbrated
in the minds of Grotthus and Daniell, sees
itimplicitly present in the remarkable views
of Clausius, and finally recognizes it freed
from all obscurity in the papers of Arrhe-
nius. In Nernst, on the contrary, one is
introduced to the doctrine fully formed, and,
looking about him in some bewilderment
to ascertain its source, discovers an incom-
plete justification for its existence in the be-
havior of aqueous salt solutions.
The student who desires to devote him-
self specially to Physical Chemistry may
read the book with profit, but he would do
better, having acquired the necessary phys-
ical, mathematical and chemical prepara-
tion, to go directly to Ostwald’s ‘ Lehrbuch’;
to those who wish simply to obtain a broad
view of the present state of the science the
work will be decidedly acceptable, and this
will be its chief function.
580
It is not pleasant to be obliged to record
the complete failure of Professor Palmer’s
attempt to ‘make the sound German speak
good English.’ The‘sound German ’ seems
to be unusually refractory in his hands, and
frequently refuses not only to ‘speak good
English,’ but also to speak any kind of
intelligible English at all.
An unpleasant appearance is given to the
pages by the translator’s unfortunate prac-
tice of introducing phrases from the original,
sometimes directly, sometimes in curiously
infelicitous translation. Thus, in the sec-
tion in which the applications of the first
law of heat to chemical reactions are dis-
cussed we read, to express thermal evolu-
tion or absorption, either ‘ Warme-
tonung,’ which is clear enough, but out of
place, or ‘heat toning,’ a phrase which one
struggles vainly to comprehend. Thus he
replaces the word element by the remark-
able expression ‘ ground-stuff.’ He advo-
cates the introduction of the term ‘ Knall
gas,’ and employs it faithfully himself.
Rarely the translation attains to complete
unintelligibility, e. g., on page 149:
‘The choice of a suitable hypothesis to
be advanced can be easily made, now or
never, in the case before us.”
It must be admitted that Professor
Palmer’s English is by no means pleasant
reading. Those with any feeling for the
right use of language will be incessantly ir-
ritated by it, and even others will be not
infrequently annoyed by the unnecessary
difficulties which it introduces.
The defects of the translation are un-
doubtedly serious. But for this there is
much compensation. It is plain that the
translator has followed the wonderful de-
velopment of the new science faithfully, and
his own comprehension of the subject is
evident on every page. The student who
will forgive the obvious defects, which, after
all, concern rather the appearance than the
substance, and give to the book an earnest,
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Voz. I. No. 21.
thoughtful reading, can not fail to derive
from it a large amount of valuable infor-
mation.
Ropert H. BRADBURY.
Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of
Engineering Education, Vol I1., Brooklyn
Meeting, 1894. Edited by Professors
Swain, Baker and Johnson. $8vo, pp.
vili., 292. $2.50.
This excellent collection of interesting
and helpful papers is issued to the members
of the Society ; but, as we understand from
an inserted slip, copies may be obtained
from the Secretary, Professor J. B. Johnson,
of Washington University, St. Louis, at the
regular price paid by members. The yol-
ume is well made up, and its contents justify
a good form of make-up. The book con-
tains the usual statement of the objects of
the Society, the rules, and the lists of
officers and members, followed by the com-
plete papers of the the meeting of 1894.
The Society was organized in Chicago in
1893, and its next meeting, at Brooklyn, is
that here given record. Its membership,
already about 160, includes probably the
majority of the recognized leaders among
representatives of the department of educa-
tion to which its belongs. The discussions
are mainly on subjects of immediate inter-
est to the teachers in the professional engi-
neering schools, and are necessarily of great
importance to them and their pupils, though
perhaps less attractive to the average reader
than are discussions of educational mat-
ters generally. The requirements for ad-
mission, the character and designation of the
degrees properly conferred, the teachers and
the text-books, methods and extent of shop
and laboratory work, and forms of curri-
cula suitable to this special work, are the
main topics, and they are well and dispas-
sionately treated. The volume is full of
useful and instructive matter.
R. H. T.
“MAy 24, 1895.]
Steam Power and Millwork: By Gro. W. Sut-
cuirre. Whittaker & Co., London; Mac-
millan & Co., New York. 12mo, pp. xv.
886. 1895. $4.50.
_ This book is one of the excellent series
for specialists published recently by this
firm, and is a very good example of the
kind of work now coming to be so common
in technical departments. It is written for
those who are interested in the design, man-
ufacture and use of steam engines, mill ma-
chinery and similar apparatus, and pre-
sumably represents the condensed experi-
ence of its author. The book gives valu-
able information relative to the most mod-
ern systems of production and transmission
of power, and the latest forms of engine
boilers and transmitting mechanisms, and
their details, including also instructions re-
garding their proportions and for their
maintenance. The 157 illustrations are
numerous and good, representing every es-
sential detail of which description is given.
Numerous tables are distributed through
the pages of text, and afford a condensed
‘presentation of facts and data required in
the computation of designs. The discussion
relates principally to the steam engine;
but considerable space is given to rope and
other transmissions, and the customary
forms of power-transmission by the older
methods. References are freely given, and
e book is thus made, not only intrinsically
valuable, but a key to the extensive litera-
ture of its subject and field. The book will
prove an excellent contribution to the
library, Eepeeially of the young engineer.
Reet. AD.
NOTES AND NEWS.
JOINTS IN THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON.
in the last number of the Archiv fiir Ent-
wickelungsmechanik der Organismen is the
completion of Gustav Tornier’s elaborate
investigation upon ‘ The Origin of the Forms
of the Joints in the Vertebrate Skeleton.’
SCIENCE.
581
The writer is apparently unaware of the
work which has been done upon the same
subject by Ryder, Cope and others in this
country, and his conclusions are therefore
of all the greater interest since, while inde-
pendently reached, they are in accord with
the American Neo-Lamarckians so far as.
the adaptive power of individual reaction
is concerned. He concludes as follows:
The forms of the joints arise by the adapta-
tion of the organism to external conditions
of life, and are the results of mechanical in-
fluences which are directed upon the joint.
apparatus by the action of the muscular
system. These mechanical stimuli act
directly upon the joints, and lead not
through the reproductive cells, but directly
through the transformation of those parts.
of the body which are under these changing
influences. Joints, therefore, arise accord-
ing to the principle announced by Wilhelm
Roux of ‘ functional adaptation,’ and of the
‘self formation of the useful,’ ‘ of adaptation
of the organism to functions through the
exercise of these functions.’ Since com-
parative anatomy affords the surest tests of
the truth of these principles, proofs which
have not had their inspiration in Roux’s
declarations, but have led a long way to-
ward them and are still showing the appli-
cation of these principles in questions of
theoretical evolution, how useful it would
be were these principles also extended into
other fields of research! At the same time
these proofs indicate that comparative an-
atomy united with pathology present two
of the routes by which this goal can and
will be reached. This number also con-
tains the experimental studies in teratogeny
by Mitrophanow, and a continuation of
Driesch’s experimental work.
This journal has become the medium of
publication of the new school in Germany
which revolts against the extreme to which
Weismann has carried the.theory of selec-
tion, and represents partly the thought
582
which is independent of all theories, partly
that which, as seen in the above quotation
from Tornier’s paper, is analogous to Amer-
ican Neo-Lamarckism. It differs from the
American school in the cardinal point, how-
ever, that judgment is suspended as to the
inheritance of acquired characters.
H. F. O.
THE PREPARATION OF ARGON.
Sryce the announcement, by Lord Ray-
leigh and Prof. Ramsay, of the isolation of
a new constituent of the atmosphere, any
information as to the nature of this sub-
stance has been received with interest by
the scientific world. Guntz has recently de-
scribed, in the Comptes Rendus, a modification
of the method used by Rayleigh and Ram-
say for its preparation. This author has
substituted lithium for magnesium, thereby
securing the absorption of the nitrogen
more readily at a lower temperature. The
preparation of pure lithium in quantity has
hitherto been a difficult problem, but Guntz
has devised a simple method for its prepara-
tion in large quantities.
This consists in the electrolytic decom-
position of a mixture of equal parts of
lithium chloride and potassium chloride, the
latter being introduced to lower the temper-
ature at which the decomposition takes
place.’ The decomposition is carried on
in porcelain crucibles and the molten lithium
poured into molds. It is free from iron and
silica, but contains a small amount of potas-
sium chloride.
The experiment showing the presence of
argon in atmospheric nitrogen and its ab-
sence from chemical nitrogen, the latter
term being used for nitrogen obtained from
chemical substances by decomposition, con-
sists in introducing the nitrogen into a
glass tube containing the lithium in a boat.
The glass tube is connected with a manom-
eter to show the change in pressure. Upon
heating the metal to dull redness, combina-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 21.
tion of the nitrogen and lithium takes place
with incandescence. The manometer after
the operation shows a pressure of about
10 mm. Upon introducing another vyol-
ume of nitrogen and repeating the opera-
tion about the same amount of argon is
obtained, and this process can be continued
until the tube is filled with argon. I,
however, chemical nitrogen is used there is
total absorption, showing that atmospheric
nitrogen contains some constituents not
present in chemical nitrogen.
J. HE. Grip. .
HELION.
Pror. Ramsay has kindly sent us the
following abstract of his paper on ‘ Helion,
a Gaseous Consistent of certain Minerals.’
Part I., received by the Royal Society on
April 27th:
An account is given of the extraction of
a mixture of hydrogen and helion from a
felspathic rock containing the mineral clé-
veite. It is shown that in all probability
the gas described in the preliminary note
of March 26 was contaminated with atmos-
pheric argon.
The gas now obtained consists of hydro-
gen, probably derived from some free metal
in the felspar, some nitrogen and helion.
The density of helion, nearly free from
nitrogen, was found to be 3.89. From the
wave-length of sound in the gas, from which
the theoretical ratio of specific heats 1.66 is
approximately obtained, the conclusion may
be drawn that helion, like argon, is mona-
tomic. Evidence is produced that the gas
evolved from cléveite is not a hydride, and
a comparison is made of the spectra of
argon and helion. There are four specially
characteristic lines in the helion spectrum
which are absent from that of argon; they
are a brilliant red, the D, line of a very
brilliant yellow, a peacock-green line, and
a brilliant violet line. One curious fact is.
that the gas from cléveite, freed from all
- May 24, 1895.]
impurities removable by sparking with
oxygen in presence of caustic potash, ex-
hibits one, and only one, of the character-
istic bright red pair of argon lines. This,
and other evidence of the same kind, ap-
pears to suggest that atmospheric argon
and helion have some common constit-
uent.
Attention is drawn to the fact that on
subtracting 16 (the common difference be-
tween the atomic weights of elements of the
first and second series) from 20, the ap-
proximate density of argon, the remainder
is 4, a number closely approximating to the
density of helion; or, if 32 be subtracted
from 40, the atomic weight of argon if it be
a monatomic gas, the remainder is 8, or
twice the density of helion, and its atomic
weight if it too is a monatomic gas.
GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS.
Ar a meeting of the Philosophical Society
of Washington on March 16th Mr. G. K.
Gilbert discussed the gravity determinations
reported by Mr. G. R. Putnam, an account
of which is given elsewhere in the present
number of Scrence. Mr. Gilbert summa-
rizes his conclusions as follows:
“The measurements of gravity appear
far more harmonious when the method of
_ reduction postulates isostacy than when it
‘postulates high rigidity. Nearly all the
local peculiarities of gravity admit of simple
and rational explanation on the theory that
the continent as a whole is approximately
isostatic, and that the interior plain is al-
‘most perfectly isostatic. Most of the devia-
ations from the normal arise from excess of
matter and are associated with uplift. The
Appalachian and Rocky mountains and the
Wasatch plateau all appear to be of the
nature of added loads, the whole mass above
the neighboring plains being rigidly upheld.
SCIENCE.
583
The fact that the six stations from Pike’s
Peak to Salt Lake City, covering a distance
of 375 miles, show an average excess of
1,345 rock-feet indicates greater sustaining
power than is ordinarily ascribed to the
lithosphere by the advocates of isostacy.
It indicates also that the district used in
this discussion for estimating the height of
the mean plain is far too small; even the
radius of 100 miles selected by Mr. Putnam
may not be large enough.”
GENERAL.
Iy a paper read before the Paris Academy
on April 29th MM. Hericourt and Ch.
Richet announce that they have applied
the method of injecting serum in the treat-
ment of cancer. Two patients only have
undergone this treatment, one of whom is
said to have been completely cured.
Rey. J. M. Seetys, president of Amherst
College from 1877 to 1890, died at Amherst
on May 12th, at the age of seventy. For
nineteen years before his election to the
presidency he filled the chair of mental and
moral philosophy and retained this chair
until his death. His original contributions
to philosophy were not important, but he
exercised great influence as an educator
and teacher.
We learn that Deputy Surgeon-General
John §. Billings, of the army, has requested
that he be placed on the retired list; and
that in October that distinguished officer
will leave the Army Medical Museum, of
which he is curator, and the Library of the
Surgeon-General’s Office, of which he is
librarian, and these magnificent institutions,
that have been made what they are largely
by his ability and zeal, will know him no
longer. Before the date he has selected for
his retirement he hopes to complete his
work on the final volume of the Index
Catalogue. In seeking official retirement
Dr. Billings does not propose to give up
work, as he has accepted the chair of
584
hygiene in the University of Pennsylvania.
—N. Y. Medical Record.
Dr. Cart Turerscu, professor of surgery
in the University of Leipsic, died on April
20th at the age of seventy-three. He was
appointed professor of surgery at Erlangen
in 1854, and in 1867 proceeded to Leipsic.
During the Franco-Prussian war he was at-
tached as senior surgeon to the 12th Army
Corps. He was the author of standard
works on cholera and embryology.
THE number of medical journals at pres-
ent published in Russia is 38. Of these 20
are published in St. Petersburg, 5 at Mos-
cow, 4 at Warsaw, 2 at Odessa, 2 at Char-
koff, and 1 at Kasan, Kieff, Saratoff, Wor-
onesz and Pultawa, respectively. The old-
est of them all is the Medizinskoie Obozrenie,
which is twenty-one years old; next comes
the Russkaia Medizina, which is in its nine-
teenth year; the Vratch, which is in its fif-
teenth, being third.—N. Y. Medical Record.
WE much regret to learn that the publi-
cation of Insect Life will cease with the next
number. Two new series of bulletins will
be started from the Division of Entomology
of the Department of Agriculture to take
its place. The one will contain articies of
a general economic and biological character
—practically such articles as have been
published most frequently in Insect Life—
and the other will contain results of the
purely scientific work of the office force.
THERE has been established in Leicester,
England, a bacteriological institution under
the direction of a medical officer in the
interests of anti-vaccination.
Epwarp Burnerr Tynor, M. A., Reader
in Anthropology in the University of Ox-
ford, has been made Professor of Anthro-
pology.
Pror. W. M. L. Copziy, who holds the
Chair of Pathology at Jefferson Medical
College in Philadelphia, has accepted the
call tendered him by the Trustees of Vander-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 21.
bilt University, Nashville, Tenn., to take
charge next fall of the departments of —
Pathology, Biology and Bacteriology, for
which they have just completed a new
building.—N. Y. Evening Post.
BRIGADIER GENERAL THomas L. Casey,
having reached the age requiring retirement
from the active list, has relinquished com-
mand of the corps of engineers and charge
of the engineer department. He is suc-
ceeded by Col. William P. Craighill.
We learn through the NV. Y. Medical
Record that the Medical Department of the
State University of Minnesota was granted
$40,000 by the Legislature for a laboratory
building, making a total of $150,000 appro-
priated for buildings alone in a period of
four years. The medical law was likewise
amended to require of all graduates of later
date than 1898 ‘attendance upon four
courses of medical lectures, in different
years, of not less than six months’ duration
each.’
TuE trustees of Williams College have ac-
cepted’ the legacy of $20,000 from Mme.
Souberville, in memory of her father, Horace
F. Clark, D. D. The College has also re-
ceived a gift of $3,500 from ex-Governor
Pennoyer, of Oregon, to found a scholarship
in memory of his son. :
Dr. Ernst Ritter, of the University of
Gottingen, has been elected Assistant Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in Cornell University.
Tue death of Mrs. Henry C. Lewis, of
Coldwater, Mich., leaves the art collection
possessed by her late husband, valued at
$300,000, at the disposal of the University
of Michigan. At present the university has
not accommodation for the bequest, but
President Angell expects an art building to
be erected by private contributions. WV. Y.
Evening Post.
Aw exhibition of California food products
will be held in Berlin from the 5th of May
to the 5th of July.
May 24, 1895. ]
| Tue Scientific American for May 11th con-
tains an interesting illustrated account of
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.
THEopoR JOHANN CuHRISTIAN AMBDERS
BrorsEn, the astronomer, died on April 3d
at Norburg in Schleswig at the age of 76.
He was director of the observatory of Seuf-
tenberg for twenty years.
Tue death is announced, at the age of 64,
of James Price, President of the Society of
Civil Engineers of Ireland, Professor in the
University of Dublin and Engineer in Chief
of the Midland and Great Western Railway
Company.
Tue third International Congress of Zoél-
ogy at Leyden is divided into six sections, as
follows: (1) General Zoélogy, Geographical
distribution, including fossil faunas. (2)
Classification of Vertebrates, Geographical
distribution. (3) Comparative Anatomy
of Vertebrates, living and fossil. Embry-
ology. (4) Classification of Invertebrates,
Geographical distribution. (5) Entomology,
(6) Comparative Anatomy and Embryology
of the Invertebrates.
_ Tue Craven Studentship at Cambridge
has been awarded to Mr. R. C. Bosanquet.
This is an endowment for advanced studies
abroad in the languages, literature, history,
archeology, or art of ancient Greece or
Rome, or the comparative philology of the
Indo-European languages.
In a demurrer filed by Mrs. Jane L.
Stanford in the United States Circuit Court
at San Francisco it is contended that, since
no valid claim was ever presented to Leland
anford during his life or to his widow
ce his death, any claim the United
ates Government might have had on the
Stanford estate is vitiated.
_ Hon. Ecxtey B. Coxe, a prominent min-
ing engineer and writer, at one time Presi-
dent of the American Institute of Mining
Engineers, died at Hazleton, Pa., at the
ge of fifty-four years.
SCIENCE.
585
BRIGADIER GENERAL CHARLES SUTHER-
LAND, formerly Surgeon-General of the
Army, died at Washington, on May 11th,
at the age of sixty-five years.
TueE first conversazione of the Royal Society
for the season was held on the evening of
May 1st in Burlington-house, and there was
a very large attendance of guests. The ex-
hibits were exceptionally numerous, electric
science and applied mathematies being well
represented, while some interesting exhibits
were also shown in the department of
chemistry, astronomy and biology.— London
Times.
Principat Perrrson, of Dundee College,
has been offered the presidency of McGill
University, Montreal.
Dr. J. H. Hystop has been made pro-
fessor of logic and ethics in Columbia Col-
lege, and Dr. Frederick 8. Lee, adjunct
professor of physiology.
Liorotp Trovveror died on April 22d
at the Observatory of Meudon at the age of
68. After the coup détit he left France
and came to America, living in Cambridge
until 1882. His first published work ap-
peared in Boston in 1866. At this time he
was a student of natural history, but later
he obtained a position as astronomer at
Harvard College. His most important work
was on the planet Venus, published in 1892.
He was well known for his drawings, many
of which still remain unpublished. He
leaves an unfinished memoir on the planet
Mars, and at the time of his death was en-
gaged on a study of Jupiter.
Dr. Joun W. Byron, who died on May
8th at the age of 34, was known for his re-
searches in bacteriology carried out at
Havana during the yellow-fever epidemic,
later in the laboratories of Berlin and Paris,
and during the last five years in the Loomis
Laboratory, where he occupied the position
of bacteriologist. Dr. Byron is said to have
contracted the disease of which he died in
586
carrying out his experiments on tubercle
bacilli.
Tur American Forestry Association pro-
posed holding its annual peripatetic meet-
ing in southern New Jersey from May
16th to May 19th. The privileges of this
expedition are open to all members of
the American Forestry Association, New
Jersey Forestry Association and Pennsyl-
vania Forestry Association. On May 15th
Prof. B. E. Fernow was to deliver an il-
lustrated lecture at Camden, from which
place the party would start, going down the
Delaware by steamboat, visiting all places
of interest along the shore from Cape May
to Atlantic City and in the pines. On the
evening of May 17th an illustrated lecture
was to be delivered in Atlantic City by
Prof. Joseph Rothrock, Forestry Commis-
sioner for Pennsylvania.
_ Av a meeting of the Fellows of the Royal
Botanical Society held in the Societies’ gar-
dens at Regent’s Park, London, the question
of the desirability of opening the gardens to
the public on Bank holidays was discussed.
It was stated at the same meeting that
unless some fresh source of income could be
obtained the gardens could not be kept up.
Amr the spring meeting of the Iron and
Steel Institute the Bessemer gold medal of
1895 was unanimously awarded to Henry
Marion Howe, of Boston, in recognition of
his contributions to metallurgical literature.
Among the previous recipients of the medal
were Peter Cooper, Abram 8. Hewitt, Alex-
ander L. Holley and John Fritz. Mr.
Howe’s most important work is a treatise
on the ‘Metallurgy of Steel,’ which was
published in 1890 and for which he received
a prize of $500 from the Société d’ Encour-
agement of Paris.
THE 66th anniversary meeting of the
Zoological Society of London was held on
April 29th. The chair was taken by Sir
William H. Flower. The report of the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Voz. I. No. 21.
Council stated that the silver medal had
been awarded to Mr. Henry H. Johnston,
Commissioner for British Central Africa;
for his distinguished services to all branches
of natural history. The total receipts of
the Society for 1894 amounted to £25,107,
a decrease of £1,110 being attributed to the
unfavorable weather of the past year. The
expenditure amounted to £23,616, a decrease
of £1,661. The number of animals in the
Zodlogical Gardens on December 31st last —
was 2,563, of which 669 were mammals,
1,427 birds and 467 reptiles. About 30
species of mammals, 12 of birds and one of
reptiles had bred in the gardens during last
summer. Sir William H. Flower was re-
elected president.—London Times.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF WASHINGTON.
A sornt meeting of the Scientific Societies
of Washington was held May 10th, on the oe-
casion of the delivery of the annual address
of the President of the National Geographic
Society, Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard. Dr.
G. Brown Goode presided, and in the in-
troductory remarks briefly outlined the
development of the Societies and their joint
commission.
Mr. Hubbard’s subject was ‘ Russia.’ He
considered it in the light of his own obser-
vations while making an extensive journey
through that country in 1881. Its climate,
physiographic features, government and the
customs and conditions of its people were
all graphically portrayed. At the close of
the address a series of views were shown
upon the screen.
In response to a motion by Prof. Simon
Newcomb, seconded by Postmaster General
Wilson, the large audience gave Mr. Hub-
bard a hearty vote of thanks for his address.
J. 8. Driuer, Secretary.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
At the meeting on May 4th, Mr. Charles
Torrey Simpson read a paper ‘On the Geo-
May 24, 1895.]
graphical Distribution of the Naiades,’ an
abstract of a paper on classification and
distribution soon to be published.
After stating that the classification
adopted by most authors, in which the
family Unionide is founded on forms without
siphons, and the Mutelide on those in which
they are developed, cannot stand, since
these characters vary in the same genus or
species, the writer showed that von Ihe-
ring’s new definition of the families, in
which the former was based on the embry-
onic state being a glochidium and the latter
by its larvee being a lasidium agreed with
the shells. In the Unionide these are schizo-
dont, in the Mutelide they are irregularly
taxodont. The new arrangement shows the
former family to be world-wide; the latter
as belonging essentially to the southern
hemisphere.
The Naiads are distributed in Geograph-
ical Provinces whose boundaries may be
mountain chains which act as watersheds
_ between river systems, deserts or oceans,
but these do not always divide regions,
which sometimes have no tangible barriers.
In the Old World and South America these
provinces essentially agree with those es-
tablished by Sclater and Wallace; in North
America they do not.
The Palearctic Region includes all Asia
south to the Thibetan Plateau, and all the
western part of the continent, all Europe
and northern Africa, and all of North
America west of the Great Cordillera; an
area of 16,000,000 square miles, with only
a few, not over 50, simple forms. The
Oriental Region includes all of Asia south
of the Himalayas, north to the Amoor,
west to the Indus, Japan and the Malay
Archipelago to the Salomon Islands. The
forms are numerous, often heavy, distorted,
elegantly sculptured, and closely related to
ose of the United States.
The Australian Region includes Austra-
, Tasmania and New Zealand, with a
SCIENCE.
587
few simple unios related to those of South
America. Africa south of the Desert is an-
other great region, the Ethiopian, contain-
ing the African Mutelide and small unios
allied to those of India. South America is
all included in another province, the Neo-
tropical, the Andes proving a barrier to the
passage of all forms except unios, which
have crossed to the western slope. All the
central United States drainage from West
Florida to the Rio Grande, including, for
the most part, the Great Lakes and the
Mackenzie System, constitutes a wonder-
fully rich region of naiad life, having the
finest and most varied forms of the globe.
The waters of North America draining into
the Atlantic are peopled by simple forms,
which may have descended from those of
the Mississippi Valley. Mexico and Central
America constitute another region of naiad
life, having three distinct faunas, an ancient
one derived from the United States, a more
recent one from that region, and a few im-
migrants from South America.
Mr. Simpson attempts to trace the de-
velopment and past history of the naiads,
and their evidence regarding past changes
of land and sea and the Glacial Epoch.
The paper was illustrated by a sketch-
map in colors, showing the different regions.
The second paper of the evening, ‘The
Other Side of the Nomenclature Question,’
was by Dr. Erwin F. Smith, who spoke, in
reply to a previous paper by Mr. F. V.
Coville, against the unfounded claims put
forth in behalf of the Botanical Club Check
List. This list has introduced many radical
changes into our existing botanical nomen-
clature without sufficient reason. The re-
vival of the long disused generic names of
Rafinesque ef al., and the retro-active appli-
cation of the rule ‘‘ Once a synonym always
a synonym,’’ whereby many generic names
of long standing have been discarded, are
specially objectionable, and will not bear
the light of criticism. Only a few people
588
are urging the adoption of these ultra rules.
The best systematic botanists of the world
are opposed to them, and there is such a
widespread and determined opposition to
them in the botanical fraternity generally,
both in this country and in Europe, that
the movement is certain to amount only to
a lamentable schism. It has been claimed
that nine-tenths of our American botanists
are in favor of these rules, but such state-
ments are wide of the mark. Some of these
rules are’in conflict with the Paris Code,
and others claim to be a strict interpretation
of it; but de Candolle himself, the author of
this code, considered such interpretations of
it as ‘abuses,’ and urged that the Paris
Code of 1867 be so amended as to prevent
the swamping of our nomenclature by ultra
theorists.
One fact lost sight of by the movers of
this new American system, for it has no
following in Europe, is that science is an
international affair, that the bulk of the
botanical work of the world is done outside
of the United States, and that even if we
were all agreed on this side of the water,
which is far from true, it would still be
necessary to gain consent of botanists else-
where before giving to these rules any more
weight than mere suggestions. It will be
time enough for American botanists to put
them into practice when they have received
the sanction of an International Botanical
Congress. Another very strong objection
to making radical changes in our botanical
nomenclature is the extent to which botan-
ical names are used in agriculture, forestry,
horticulture, floriculture, pharmacy and
medicine. There is nothing comparable to
it in zoology. Only intolerable confusion
can result from calling a plant by one name
in botany and by another in horticulture or
pharmacy, and it is surprising that the force
of this argument was not perceived long ago.
Finally, the Botanical Club rules do not
have the sanction of the A. A. A. S., as
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 21,
might be inferred from some statements
which have been made, and the organization
of the Club is so loose as to be a fatal ob=
jection to regarding its doings or recommen-
dations as in any sense binding on Ameri-
can botanists, when these are opposed by
counter-recommendations proceeding from
the most famous botanists in the world.
F. A. Lucas, Secretary.
BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY,
MAY 15,
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Especial Reference to the Brain: Pror,
Tuomas DwicuHr.
The Conditions of Escape of Gases from the In-
terior of the Earth: Pror. N. 8. SHALER.
SAMUEL HENSHAW,
Secretary.
THE MINNESOTA ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCI-
ENCES, MINNEAPOLIS, MAY 7.
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Fripay, May 31, 1895.
CONTENTS :
On the Electrification of Air; On the Thermal Con-
ductivity of Rock at Different Temperatures : LORD
KELVIN we we cece ccc cece cee eee eeeeeserceses 589
Hacekel’s Monism: DAvid STARR JORDAN.
; patho Genus Zaglossus: ELLioTr Cours.
DANO LTMLATOLUTE S— ce cecs sucnscsecueasgens 610
The Cambridge Natural History: W.H. DALL.
hd Laboratory Guide of Chemistry: W.
Oo.
SEEMMEL ELAR 9 aa) 0 0,010 wa o\e.siv's adeleieie nieiorais 612
The Helmholtz Memorial; The Geological Society
of America ; Nominations before the Royal Society ;
, aed A, Ryder ; General.
(SS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
review should be sent to the seeperielas editor, Prof. J.
een Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
ibscriptions and advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
(1) ‘ON THE ELECTRIFICATION OF AIR.’*
§ 1. Continvovs observation of natural
atmospheric electricity has given ample
roof that cloudless air at moderate heights
bove the earth’s surface, in all weathers,
*Two communications by Lord Kelvin, P.R.S.,
the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, meeting in
1¢ Natural Philosophy lecture-room of the Univer-
ity of Glasgow, March 27, ‘On the Electrification of
is electrified with very far from homogene-
ous distribution of electric density. Ob-
serving, at many times from May till Sep-
tember, 1859, with my portable electrometer
on a flat open sea-beach of Brodick Bay in
the Island of Arran, in ordinary fair weather
at all hours of the day, I found the differ-
ence of potentials, between the earth and an
insulated burning match at a height of 9
feet above it (2 feet from the uninsulated
metal case of the instrument, held over the
head of the observer), to vary from 200 to
400 Daniell’s elements, or as we may now
say volts, and often during light breezes
from the east and northeast it went up to
3,000 or 4,000 volts. In that place, and in
fair weather, I never found the potential
other than positive (never negative, never
even down to zero), if for brevity we call
the earth’s potential at the place zero. In
perfectly clear weather under a sky some-
times cloudless, more generally somewhat
clouded, I often observed the potential at
the 9 feet height to vary from about 300
volts gradually to three or four times that
amount, and gradually back again to nearly
the same lower value in the course of about
two minutes.* I inferred that these grad-
ual variations must have been produced by
Air’; ‘On the Thermal Conductivity of Rock at Dif-
ferent Temperatures.’ Printed from proof sheets for
Nature contributed by the author.
* *Electrostatics and Magnetism,’
Thomson. xvi. 27 281, 282.
Sir William
590
electrified masses of air moving past the
place of observation. I did not remark
then, but I now see, that the electricity in
these moving masses of air must, in all
probability, have been chiefly positive to
cause the variations which I observed, as I
shall explain to you a little later.
§ 2. Soon after that time a recording at-
mospheric electrometer * which I devised,
to show by a photographic curve the con-
tinuous variation of electric potential ata
fixed point, was established at the Kew
Meteorological Observatory, and has been
kept in regular action from the commence-
ment of the year 1861 till the present time.
It showed incessant variations quite of the
same character, though not often as large,
as those which I had observed on the sea-
beach of Arran.
Through the kindness of, the Astronomer
Royal, I am able to place before you this
evening the photographic curves for the
year 1893, produced by a similar recording
electrometer which has been in action for
many years at the Royal Observatory,
Geeenwich. They show, as you see, not
infrequently, during several hours of the
day or night, negative potential and rapid
transitions from large positive to large
negative. Those were certainly times of
broken weather, with at least showers of
rain, or snow, or hail. But throughout a
very large proportion of the whole time the
curve quite answers to the description of
what I observed on the Arran sea-beach
thirty-six years ago, except that the varia-
tions which it shows are not often of so
large amount in proportion to the mean or
to the minimums.
$3. Thinking over the subject now, we
see that the gradual variations, minute af-
ter minute through so wide a range as the
3 or 4 to 1, which I frequently observed,
and not infrequently rising to twenty times
the ordinary minimum, must have been due
* ‘Electrostatics and Magnetism.’
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 22.
to positively electrified masses of air, within
a few hundred feet of the place of obserya-
tion, wafted along with the gentle winds of
5 or 10 or 15 feet per second which were
blowing at the time. If any comparably
large quantities of negatively electrified air
had been similarly carried past, it is quite
certain that the minimum observed poten-
tial, instead of being in every case positive,
would have been frequently large negative.
$4. Two fundamental questions in re-
spect to the atmospheric electricity of fair
weather force themselves on our attention :—
(1) What is the cause of the prevalent posi-
tive potential in the air near the earth, the
earth’s potential being called zero? (2)
How comes the lower air to be electrified
to different electric densities whether posi-
tive or negative in different parts? Obser-
vations and laboratory experiments made
within the last six or eight years, and par-
ticularly two remarkable discoveries made
_by Lenard, which I am going to deseribe to
you, have contributed largely to answering
the second of these questions.
§ 5. In an article ‘On the Electrification
of Air by a Water-jet,’ by Magnus Mae-
lean and Makita Goto,* experiments were
described showing air to be negatively elee-
trified by a jet of water shot vertically
down through it from a fine nozzle into a
basin of water about 60 centimeters below it.
It seemed natural to suppose that the ob-
served electrification was produced by the
rush of the fine drops through the air; but
Lenard conclusively proved, by elaborate
and searching experiments, that it was in
reality due chiefly, if not wholly, to the
violent commotions of the drops impinging
on the water surface of the receiving basin,
and he found that the negative electrifica-
tion of the air was greater when they were
allowed to fall on a hard slab of any material —
thoroughly wetted by water than when they
fell on a yielding surface of water several
*Philosophical Magazine, 1890, second half-year.
May 31, 1895.]
centimeters deep. He had been engaged in
studying the great negative potential which
had been found in air in the neighborhood of
waterfalls, and which had generally been
attributed to the inductive action of the
ordinary fine weather electric force, giving
negative electricity to each drop of water-
spray before it breaks away from conduct-
ing communication with the earth. Before
he knew Maclean and Goto’s paper, he had
found strong reason for believing that that
theory was not correct, and that the true
explanation of the electrification of the air
must be found in some physical action not
hitherto discovered. A less thorough in-
quirer might have been satisfied with the
simple explanation of the electricity of
waterfalls naturally suggested by Maclean
and Goto’s result, and might have rested in
the belief that it was due to an electrifying
effect produced by the rush of the broken
water through the air; but Lenard made an
independent experimental investigation in
the Physical Laboratories of Heidelberg and
Bonn, by which he learned that the seat of
the negative electrification of the air electri-
fied is the lacerated water at the foot of the
fall, or at any rocks against which the water
impinges, and not the multitudinous inter-
faces between air and water falling freely in
in drops through it.
§ 6. It still seems worthy of searching in-
quiry to find electrification of air by water
falling in drops through it, even though we
now know that if there is any such electrifi-
cation it is not the main cause of the great
negative electrification of air which has been
found in the neighborhood of waterfalls.
For this purpose an experiment has been
very recently made by Mr. Maclean, Mr.
Galt and myself, in the course of an investi-
gation regarding electrification and diselec-
trification of air with which we have been oc-
eupied for more thana year. Theapparatus
which we used is before you. It consists of
a quadrant electrometer connected with an
SCIENCE.
591
insulated electric filter* applied to test
the electrification of air drawn from differ-
ent parts of a tinned iron funnel, 187 centi-
meters long and 15 centimeters diameter,
fixed in a vertical position with its lower
end open and its upper end closed, except a
glass nozzle, of 1.6mm. aperture admitting
a jet of Glasgow supply water (from Loch
Katrine) shot vertically down along its
axis. The electric filter (rR in the draw-
ing), a simplified and improved form of
that described in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society for March 21, consists of
twelve circles of fine wire gauze rammed as
close as possible together in the middle of a
piece of block tin pipe of 1 em. bore and 2em.
length. One end of it is stuck into one end
of a perforation through a block of paraffin,
K, which supports it. The other end (G@)
of this perforation is connected by block
tin pipe (which in the apparatus actually
employed was 4} meters long, but might
have been shorter), and india-rubber tubing
through bellows to one or other of two
short outlet pipes (a1 and P) projecting from
the large funnel.
§ 7. We first applied the india-rubber
pipe to draw air from the funnel at the
upper outlet, Pp, and made many experi-
ments to test the electricity given by it to
the receiving filter, R, under various condi-
tions as to the water-jet ; the bellows being
worked as uniformly as the operator could.
When the water fell fairly through the fun-
nel with no drops striking it, and through
90 em. of free air below its mouth, a small
negative electrification of R was in every
case observed (which we thought might
possibly be attributable to electrification of
air where the water was caught in a basin
about 90 em. below the mouth of the
funnel). But when the funnel was slanted
so that the whole shower of drops from
the jet, or even a small part of it, struck
* Kelvin, Maclean, Galt, ‘On the Diselectrification
of Air.’ Proc. Roy. Soc., March 14, 1895.
592
the inside of the funnel the negative
electrification of R was largely increased.
So it was also when the shower, after falling
freely down the middle of the funnel, im-
pinged on a metal plate in metallic com-
munication with the funnel, held close under
its mouth, or 10 or 20 em. below it. For
example, in a series of experiments made
<— loch Katrine Supply
SG OSe Gers GOO BUS EeSa OOD
2 === ==187. Cms. =
last’ Monday (March 25), we found .28 of a
volt in 15 minutes with no obstruction to
the shower ; and 4.18 volts in five minutes,
with a metal plate held three or four centi-
meters below the mouth of the funnel; the
air being drawn from the upper outlet (2).
Immediately after, with p closed, and air
drawn from the lower outlet (at) ,but all other
circumstances the same, we found .20 of a
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 22.
volt in five minutes with no obstruction;
and 6.78 volts in five minutes with the
metal plate held below the mouth as before.
§ 8. These results, and others which we
have found, with many variations of de-
tail, confirm, by direct test of air drawn
away from the neighborhood of the water-
fall through a narrow pipe to a distant
electrometer, Lenard’s conclusion that a
preponderatingly strong negative electrifi-
cation is given.to the air at every place of —
violent impact of a drop against a water-
surface or against a wet solid. But they
do not prove that there is no electrification
of air by drops of water falling through it.
We always found, in every trial, decisive
proof of negative electrification; though of
May 31, 1895.]
comparatively small amount when there
was no obstruction to the shower between
the mouth of the funnel and the catching
basin 90 em. below it. We intend to con-
tinue the investigation, with the shower
falling freely far enough down from the
mouth of the funnel to make quite sure
that the air which we draw off from any
part of the funnel is not sensibly affected
by impact of the drops on anything be-
low.
§ 9. The other discovery * of Lenard, of
which I told you, is that the negative elec-
trification of air, in his experiments with
pure water, is diminished greatly by very
small quantities of common salt dissolved
in it, that is brought to nothing by .011 per
cent.; that positive electrification is produced
in the air when there is more than .011 per
cent. of salt in the water, reaching a maxi-
mum with about 5 per cent. of salt, when
the positive electrical effect is about equal
to the negative effect observed with pure
water, and falling to 14 per cent. of this
amount when there is 25 per cent. of salt
in the solution. Hence sea-water, contain-
ing as it does, about 3 per cent. of common
salt, may be expected to give almost as
strong positive electrification to air as pure
water would give of negative in similar cir-
cumstances as to commotion. Lenard in-
fers that breaking waves of the sea must
give positive electricity to the air over
them; he finds, in fact, a recorded observa-
tion by Exner, on the coast of Ceylon,
.showing the normal positive electric poten-
tial of the air to be notably increased by a
storm at sea. I believe Lenard’s discovery
fully explains also some very interesting
observations of atmospheric electricity of
my own, which I described in a letter
to Dr. Joule, which he published in the
Proceedings of the Literary and Philo-
*‘Ueber die Electricitiit der Wasserfiille.’ Table
XVii. p. 228. Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1892,
vol. xlvi.
SCIENCE.
593
sophical Society of Manchester for Octo-
ber 18, 1859. * ‘The atmospheric effect
ranged from 30° to about 420° [of a heteros-
tatic torsion electrometer of ‘the divided-
ring’ species] during the four days which I
had to test it; that is to say, the electro-
metric force per foot of air, measured hori-
zontally from the side of the house, was
from 9 to above 126 zinc-copper water cells.
The weather was almost perfectly settled,
either calm, or with slight east wind, and
in general an easterly haze in the air.
The electrometer twice within half an hour
went above 420°, there being at the time a
fresh temporary breeze from the east.
What I had previously observed regarding
the effect of east wind was amply confirmed.
Invariably the electrometer showed very
high positive in fine weather, before and
during east wind. It generally rose very
much shortly before a slight puff of wind
from that quarter, and continued high till
the breeze would begin to abate. I never
once observed the electrometer going up
unusually high during fair weather without
east wind following immediately. One
evening in August I did not perceive the
east wind at all, when warned by the
electrometer to expect it; but I took the
precaution of bringing my boat up to a safe
part of the beach, and immediately found
by waves coming in that the wind must be
blowing a short distance out at sea, al-
though it did not get so far as the shore
. .. . On two different mornings the ratio
of the house to a station about sixty yards
distant on the road beside the sea was .97
and -96 respectively. On the afternoon of
the 11th inst, during a fresh temporary
breeze of east wind, blowing up a little
spray as far as the road station, most of
which would fall short of the house, the
ratio was 1.08 in favour of the house electro-
meter—both standing at the time very
* Republished in ‘ Electrostaties and Magnetism.’
‘ Atmospheric Electricity,’ xvi. 7 262.
}
594 SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. I, No. 22, —
high—the house about 350°. I have little north-east of it; and now it seems to me
doubt but that this was owing to the nega-
tive electricity carried by the spray from
the sea, which would diminish relatively
the indications of the road electrometer.”’
$10. The negative electricity spoken of
in this last sentence, ‘as carried by the
spray from the sea,’ was certainly due to
the inductive effect of the ordinary electro-
static force in the air close above the water,
by which every drop or splash breaking
away from the surface must become nega-
tively electrified ; but this only partially
explains the difference which I observed
between the road station and the house
station. We now know, by the second of
Lenard’s two discoveries, to which I have
alluded, that every drop of the salt water
spray, falling on the ground or rocks
wetted by it, must have given positive
electricity to the adjoining air. The air,
thus positively electrified, was carried to-
wards and over the house by the on-shore
east wind which was blowing. Thus, while
the road electrometer under the spray
showed less electrostatic force than would
have been found in the air over it and above
the spray, the house electrometer showed
greater electrostatic force because of the
positively electrified air blowing over the
house from the wet ground struck by the
spray.
§ 11. The strong positive electricity,
which as described in my letter to Joule, I
always found in Arran with east wind,
seemed at first to be an attribute of wind
from that quarter. But I soon found that
in other localities east wind did not give
any very notable augmentation, nor per-
haps any augmentation at all, of the ordi-
nary fair weather positive electric force, and
for a long time I have had the impression
that what I observed in this respect, on the
sea-beach of Brodick Bay in Arran, was
really due to the twelve nautical miles of
sea between it and the Ayrshire coast, east-
more probable than ever that this is the ex-
planation when we know from Lenard that.
the countless breaking waves, such as even
a gentle east wind produces over the sea
between Ardrossan and Brodick, must ey-
ery one of them give some positive elec-
tricity to the air wherever a spherule of
spray falls upon unbroken water. It be-
comes now a more and more interesting
subject for observation (which I hope may
be taken up by. naturalists having the op-
- portunity) to find whether or not the ordi-
nary fine weather positive electric force at
the sea coast in various localities is in-
creased by gentle or by strong winds from
the sea, whether north, south, east or west
of the land.
$12. From Lenard’s investigation we
now know that every drop of rain falling on
the ground or on the sea,* and every drop
of fresh water spray of a breaking wave,
falling on a fresh water lake, sends negative
electricity from the water surface to the air;
and we know that every drop of salt water,
falling on the sea from breaking waves,
sends positive electricity into the air from
the water surface. Lenard remarks that
more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface
is sea, and suggests that breaking sea-
waves may give contributions of positive
electricity to the air which may possibly
preponderate over the negative electricity
given to it from other sources, and may
thus be the determining cause of the nor-
mal fair weather positive of natural atmos-
pheric electricity. It seems to me highly
probable that this preponderance is real for
atmospheric electricity at sea. In average
weather, all the year round, sailors in yery
small vessels are more wet by sea-spray
than by rain, and I think it almost certain
that more positive electricity is given to the
air by breaking waves than negative elec-
*“Ueber die Electricitiit der Wasserfille.’ Annal- °
en der Physik wnd Chemie, 1892, vol. xlvi., p. 631.
ni
4
May 31, 1895.]
tricity by rain. It seems also probable that
the positive electricity from the waves is
much more carried up by strong winds to
considerable heights above the sea than
the negative electricity given to the air by
rain falling on the sea; the greater part of
which may be quickly lost into the sea, and
but a small part carried up to great heights.
But it seems to me almost certain that
the exceedingly rapid recovery of the nor-
mal fair weather positive, after the smaller
positive or the negative atmospheric elec-
tricity of broken weather, which was first
found by Beccaria in Italy 120 years ago,
and which has been amply verified in Scot-
landand England, *could not be accounted
for by positively electrified air coming from
the sea. Even at Beccaria’s Observatory, at
Garzegna di Mondovi in Piedmont,or at Kew
or Greenwich or Glasgow, we should often
have to wait a very long time for reinstate-
ment of the normal positive after broken
weather, if it could only come in virtue of
positively electrified air blowing over the
place from the sea; and several days, at
least, would have to pass before this result
could possibly be obtained in the centre of
Europe. $
§ 13. It has indeed always seemed to me
probable that the rain itself is the real
restorer of the normal fair weather positive.
Rain or snow, condensing out of the air
high up in the clouds, must itself, I believe,
become positively electrified as it grows,
and must leave positive electricity in the
air from which it falls. Thus rain falling
from negatively electrified air would leave it
less negatively electrified, or non-electrified
or positively electrified ; rain falling from
non-electrified air would leave it positively
electrified ; and rain falling from positively
electrified air would leave it with more of
positive electricity than it had before it
lost water from its composition. Several
times within the last thirty years I have
* *Electrostatics and Magneticism,’ XVI., 2 287.
SCIENCE.
595
made imperfect and unsuccessful attempts
to verify this hypothesis by laboratory ex-
periments, and it still remains unproved.
But I am much interested just now to find
some degree of observational confirmation
of it in Elster and Geitel’s large and care-
ful investigation of the electricity produced
in an insulated basin by rain or snow fall-
ing into it, which they described in a com-
munication published in the Sitzwngsberichte
of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, of May,
1890. They find generally a large electri-
cal effect, whether positive or negative, by
rain or snow falling into the basin for even
so short a time as a quarter of a minute,
with however, on a whole, a preponderance
of negative electrification.
§ 14. But my subject this evening is not
merely natural atmospheric electricity, al-
though this is certainly by far the most
interesting to mankind of all hitherto known
effects of the electrification of air. I shall
conclude by telling you very briefly, and
without detail, something of new experi-
mental results regarding electrification and
diselectrification of air, found within the
last few months in our laboratory here by
Mr. Maclean, Mr. Galt and myself. We
hope before the end of the present session
of the Royal Society to be able to communi-
cate a sufficiently full account of our work.
§ 15. Air blown from an _ uninsulated
tube, so as to rise in bubbles through
pure water in an uninsulated vessel, and
carried through an insulated pipe to the
electric receiving filter, of which I have al-
ready told you, gives negative electricity to
the filter. With a small quantity of salt
dissolved in the water, or sea water sub-
stituted for fresh water, it gives positive
electricity to the air. There can be no
doubt but these results are due to the same
physical cause as Lenard’s negative and
positive electrification of air by the impact
of drops of fresh water or of salt water on a
surface of water or wet solid.
[N. S. Voz. I. No. 22. j
596 SCIENCE.
§ 16. A small quantity of fresh water or
salt water shaken up vehemently with air
in a corked bottle electrifies the air, fresh
water negatively, salt water positively. A
‘Winchester quart’ bottle (of which the
cubic contents is about two litres and a
half ), with one-fourth of a litre of fresh or
salt water poured into it, and closed by an
india-rubber cork, serves very well for the
experiment. After shaking it vehemently
till the whole water is filled with fine bub-
bles of air, we leave it till all the bubbles
have risen and the liquid is at rest, then
take out the cork, put in a metal or india-
rubber pipe, and by double-acting bellows
draw off the air and send it through the
electric filter. We find the electric effect,
negative or positive, according as the water
is fresh or salt, shown very decidedly by
the quadrant electrometer; and this, even
if we have kept the bottle corked for two
or three minutes after the liquid has come
to rest before we take out the cork and
draw off the air.
§ 17. An insulated spirit lamp or hydro-
gen lamp being connected with the positive
or with the negative terminal of a little
Voss electric machine, its fumes (products
of combustion mixed with air) sent through
a block-tin pipe, four meters long, and one
centimeter bore, ending with a short insu-
lating tunnel of paraffin and the electric
filter, gives strong positive or strong nega-
tive electricity to the filter.
§ 18. Using the little biscuit-canister and
electrified needle, as described in our ‘ com-
munication ’* to the Royal Society ‘On the
Diselectrification of Air,’ but altered to
have two insulated needles with varied dis-
tanees of from a half a centimeter to two
or three centimeters between them, we find
that when the two needles are kept at equal
differences of potential positive and nega-
tive, from the enclosing metal canister,
little or no electrification is shown by the
* Proceedings of the Royal Society, March 14, 1895.
electric filter ; and when the differences of
potential from the surrounding metal are
unequal, electrification, of the same sign as_
that of the needle whose difference of po-
tential is the greater, is found on the filter.
When a ball and needle-point are used,
the effect found depends chiefly on the dif-
ference of potentials between the needle-.
point and the surrounding canister, and is
comparatively little affected by opposite
electrification of the ball. When two balls
are used, and sparks in abundance pass be-
tween them, but little electricity is deposited
by the sparks in the air, even when one of
the balls is kept at the same potential as
the surrounding metal. [The communica-
tion was illustrated by a repetition of some
of the experiments shown on the occasion
of a Friday evening lecture * on Atmos-
pheric Electricity at the Royal Institution
on May 18, 1860, in which one-half of the
air of the lecture-room was electrified posi-
tively, and the other half negatively, by
two insulated spirit lamps mounted on the
positive and negative conductors of an elec-
trie machine. |
(2) ‘ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
ROCK AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.’
EXPERIMENTS by Lord Kelvin and Mr,
Erskine Murray were described, and the
apparatus used in them was shown, by
which it was found that the thermal con-
ductivity of specimens of slate, sandstone
and granite is less at higher temperatures
than at lower for each of these rocks. The
last tested was Aberdeen granite, for
which experiments of fairly satisfactory ac-
curacy showed the mean conductivity for
the range from 146° C.to 215°C. tobe 86
per cent. of the mean conductivity in the
range from 81° ©. to 146° C. They hope
to send a communication to the Royal So-
ciety describing their work before the end
of the present session.
* ‘lectrostatics and Magnetism,’ xvi., 27 285, 286.
May 31, 1895.]
A DYNAMICAL HYPOTHESIS OF INHERI-
TANCE.* t+
Tue doctrine of the preformation of an
organism in the germ is as inconsistent
with the fact as with the requirements of
dynamical theory. The effects of the pre-
conceptions of preformationism have been
only too apparent in framing hypotheses of
inheritance. The now dominant hypothe-
sis is simply an amplification, in the light
of numerous modern facts, of the preforma-
tionism of Democritus. He supposed that
almost infinitesimally small and very nu-
merous bodies were brought together in the
germ from all parts of the body of the par-
ent. Theseminuterepresentative corpuscles
were supposed to have power to grow, or
germinate, at the right time, and in the
right order, into the forms of the parts and
organs of the new being. In this way it
was supposed that the characteristics of the
parent were represented in a latent form in
the germ, which might grow as a whole, by
the simultaneous and successive develop-
ment of the germinal aggregate composed,
so to speak, of excessively minute buds, or
rudiments of the organs. In such wise also
did the successors of Democritus, namely,
Aristotle, Buffon, and Erasmus Darwin,
suppose that the inheritance of parental
likeness by offspring was to be explained.
The later and greater Darwin greatly am-
plified this hypothesis and proposed, pro-
visionally, to account for the phenomena of
inheritance by its help. Conceiving the
process somewhat as above supposed, he
consistently gave to his provisional hypoth-
*From ‘Thé Biological Lectures’ of the Marine
Biological Laboratory, Vol. III., 1895. Printed from
the proofs by the courtesy of the editor, Professor
Whitman.
+ It is interesting to note that the views developed
in this lecture lead to conclusions in some respects
similar to those held by Professor Whitman in his
discourse entitled: ‘The Insufficiency of the Cell-
Theory of Development,’ published in the series of
lectures delivered in 1893.
SCIENCE.
597
esis the name of pangenesis, since the minute
latent buds of the germ were supposed to
come from, and thus represent potentially
every part of the bodies of the parents, and
possibly of still remoter ancestry.
With the discovery of the presence of
germinal substance in multicellular organ-
isms, from the embryonic stages onwards,
by Owen, Galton, Jager, Nussbaum and
others, the theory of continuity of germinal
matter came into vogue. Upon this basis
Weismann distinguished two kinds of
plasma in multicellular beings, namely, the
germ-plasm and the body-plasm, and at
first assumed that because of this separation
the latter could not modify the former,
since the fate of the respective sorts of
plasma was predetermined by virtue of this
separation. The one kind was the mere
carrier of the other, and the germ-plasm
was immortal because it was produced in
each species from a store of it which always
existed, either in a latent or palpable form,
from the very beginning of development.
He seems, however, in recent years, to have
admitted that this germ-plasm could be in-
directly modified in constitution through
the influence of the body-plasm that bore
and enclosed it. Beyond this point Weis-
mann again becomes a preformationist, as
truly as Democritus, in that he now con-
jectures that the supposed innumerable
latent buds of the germ, representative of
the organs of the future being, are minute
masses which he sees as objective realities
in the chromosomes of the nuclei of the sex-
cells. These chromosomes of the germ he
calls ‘ids’ and ‘ idants,’ according to their
condition of sub-division, and supposes them
to grow and become divided into ‘ deter-
minants’ and ‘biophors’ in the course of
embryonic development. To these he as-
cribes powers little short of miraculous, in
that he asserts that these infinitesimal
germinal particles grow and divide just at
the right time and order, and control de-
598
volopment so as to build up anew the ar-
rangement of parts seen in the parent type.
This elaborate system of preformationism is
bound to produce a reaction that is already
becoming apparent; in fact, it is probable
that its very complexity, its many incon-
sistencies, as well as the numerous subsid-
iary hypotheses that must be worked out to
support it, will be fatal to it as a system.
The path along which the solution of the
problem of heredity is to be effected lies in
a wholly different direction, namely, in
that of the study of the mechanics and dy-
namics of development, and in the resolute
refusal to acknowledge the existence of
anything in the nature of preformed organs
or of infinitesimal gemmules of any kind
whatsoever. Such devices are unnecessary
and a hindrance to real progress in the so-
lution of the questions of inheritance.
They only serve to divert the attention of
the observer from the real phenomena in
their totality to a series of subordinate de-
tails, as has happened in Weismann’s case.
All this while he has been watching the re-
sults of an epigenetic process, as displayed
by an inconceivably complex mechanism in
continuous transformation, and out of all of
this the most essential thing he has wit-
nessed has been one of the effects of the op-
eration of that contrivance in the mere
splitting of chromosomes that are his ‘ids,’
‘idants,’ ‘biophors,’ ete. The potentiality
of the part has been mistaken for that of
the whole.
We must dismiss from our minds all im-
aginary corpuscles as bearers of hereditary
powers, except the actual chemical meta-
meric or polymeric molecules of living mat-
ter, as built up into ultramicroscopic struc-
tures, if we wish to frame an hypothesis of
heredity that is in accord with the require-
ments of dynamical theory. The ‘ discover-
ing’ and naming of ‘ids,’ ‘biophors’ and
‘pangenes’ time will show to have been
about as profitable as sorting snowflakes
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 22.
with a hot spoon. We must also dismiss
the idea that the powers of development
are concentrated in some particular part of-
the germ-cell, nor can we assume the latter
to be homogenous.* This we are compelled
to deny on the ground of the organization
of the egg itself. Nor is it possible to deny
the reciprocal effects of cells upon each
other ; the parts are reciprocals of the whole,
as the latter is reciprocal to a part. The
organism during every phase of its existence
is a molecular mechanism of inconceivable
complexity, the sole motive force of which
is the energy that may be set free by the
coordinated transformation of some of its
molecules by metabolism. An appeal to
anything beyond this and the successive
configurations of the molecular system of
the germ, as a whole, resulting from the
changing dynamical properties of its mole-
cules, as their individual configurations and
arrangement change, must end in disap-
pointment. We must either accept such a
conclusion or deny that the principle of the
conservation of force holds in respect to
the behavior of the ultimate molecular con-
stituents of living substance. But to deny
that that principle is operative in living
creatures is to question direct experimental
evidence to the contrary, since Rubner has
been able to actually use an organism as a
fairly accurate calorimeter.
The initial configuration or mechanical
arrangement and successive rearrangements
of the molecules of a germ, the addition of
*The writer finds himself unable to agree with
Haacke, if he has properly understood that author's
assumption as to the homogeneity or monotonous
character of living matter, as set forth in his admir-
able work Gestaltung und Vererbung, 1893. Nor does
it appear that anything is gained by the acceptance
of Haacke’s theory of Gemmaria that is not easily
understood upon the far simpler grounds that will be
set forth here, though there is much in the book cited
with which epigenesists must agree, aside from the
weighty character of its criticisms and its pregnant
suggestiveness.
‘
‘
4
May 31, 1895.]
new ones by means of growth, plus their
chemical and formal transformation as an
architecturally self-adjusted aggregate, by
means of metabolism, is all that is required
in an hypothesis of inheritance. The other
properties of living matter, such as its vis-
cosity, free and interfacial surface-tension,
osmotic properties, its limit of saturation
with water, its segmentation into cells, in
short, its organization, must be the result
of the operation of forces liberated by its
own substance during its growth by means
of metabolism. We cannot exclude exter-
nal forces and influences, such as chemism,
light, heat, electricity, gravity, adhesion,
exosmosis, food, water, air, motion, etc., in
the operation of such a complex mechanism.
It is these agencies that are the operators
of the living mechanism, which in its turn
makes certain successive responses in a way
that is determined within limits by its own
antecedent physical structure and conse-
quent dynamical properties. The parts of
the whole apparatus are kept in a condition
of continuous ‘ moving equilibrium’ by ex-
ternal agencies, to borrow a phrase of Mr.
Spencer’s.
This view, it will be seen, leads to a de-
terminism as absolute as that of the Neo-
Darwinists, but upon a wholly different
basis. It leads to the denial of the direct
mutability of the germ by any means other
than the transformation, chemical and
structural, through metabolism of the
germinal mechanism. It not only compels
us to deny that the germ can be at once so
effected by external blows as to transmit
changes thus’ produced hereditarily except
under exceptional conditions, as we shall
see later. It denies also, by implication, that
the cytoplasm can be so modified, except
— indirectly, or through architectural transfor-
mations of its ultramicroscopic structure.
It is also compelled to deny that spon-
taneous or autogenous characters can either
arise or be transmitted without involving
SCIENCE.
599
the principle of the conservation or correla-
tion of force, since no transformation of
such a mechanism can take place without
involving forces directly or indirectly ex-
erted by the external world. In short, the
energy displayed by a living molecular sys-
tem from within must be affected by ener-
gies coming upon it from without. All
characters whatsoever were so acquired, so
that the truth is that there are no others to
be considered. Characters acquired through
the interaction of inner and outer forces are
the only ones possible of acquirement.
That through reciprocal integration (fer-
tilization and formation of an oésperm) this
rule may have apparent exceptions, through
the compounding of two molecular mechan-
isms of different strengths, dynamically
considered, it is impossible to deny in the
face of the evidence of breeders. Such ex-
ceptions are apparent, however, and not
real, as must follow from dynamical theory.
The sorting process, called natural selec-
tion, is itself dynamic, and simply expresses
the fact that, by an actual operation with a
living body of a certain kind, something
more than a balancing of forces is involved
between internal and external energies
whenever a survival occurs. The princi-
ples of dynamics therefore apply in all
strictness to natural selection.
What it is that makes crosses or hybrids
more variable and often more vigorous
than inbred forms must also have a dynamic
explanation, since there can be no increased
activity of metabolic processes without an
increased expenditure of energy and an in-
creased rate of molecular transformation.
Variations cannot be spontaneous, as
Darwin himself was aware. The only way
in which they can be supposed to have
arisen is by the blending of molecular dy-
namical systems of differing initial potential
strengths, by the conjugation of sex-cells
(reciprocal integration), and by means of
variations in the interactions of such result-
600
ant systems with their surroundings.
This, however, Weismann and his followers
deny, though no proof whatever has been
offered that such is not the fact. Indeed,
it is probable that,so long as the ultimate
machinery of metabolism is beyond the reach
of ocular demonstration, there can be no
proof or disproof of the position assumed by
the performationists or Neo-Darwinists.
Such proof or disproof is, however, non-
essential, since we are forbidden by the first
principles of dynamics to assume that trans-
formation of any living physical system
whatever can occur without involving some
forces or influences that emanate from the
external world.* The separation and eval-
uation of the internal and external forces
incident to the manifestation of life, in the
present state of our knowledge, and from
the very nature of the case, plainly tran-
seends the capacity of present available ex-
perimental methods in biology. The dis-
cussion as to whether ‘acquired characters’
are inherited can, therefore, have but one
outcome, since external forces can never be
excluded in considering the life-history of
any organism.
Nageli, in seeking to account for the phe-
nomena of growth, gave us a most ingenious
physical hypothesis of the constitution of
living matter. This, later on, he modified
so as to develop an hypothesis of hereditary
‘transmission. But the micelle that were
representative of the germinal matter of a
*“Some of the exponents of this [preformation]
theory of heredity have attempted to elude the dif-
ficulty of placing a whole world of wonders within a
body so small and so devoid of structure as a germ,
by using the phrase structureless germs (F. Galton,
Blood-relationship, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1872). Now one
material system can differ from another only in the
configuration and motion which it has at a given in-
stant. To explain differences of function and develop-
ment of agerm without assuming differences of struc-
ture is, therefore, to admit that the properties of a
germ are not those of a purely material system.’’—
JAMES CLERK-MAXWELL, article Atom, Encycl.
Britan., 9th ed., Vol. III., p. 42, 1878.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 22.
species he isolated in the form of rows or
chains of micelle traversing the rest of the
_ living substance of the organism, and called ~
it idioplasm. Here again the germinal mat-
ter was conceived as separate from that
forming the rest of the body. Mr. Spencer
supposed “‘that sperm-cells and germ-cells
are essentially nothing more than vehicles
in which are contained small groups of the
physiological units in a fit state for obeying
their proclivity towards the structural ar-
rangement of the species they belong to.”
These ‘physiological units’ are neither
chemical nor morphological in character,
according to Mr. Spencer’s system, but itis
admitted that their properties and powers
must be determined in some way by their
own constitution, conditions of aggregation,
and relation to the outer world. The views
of Nageli and Spencer are akin in certain re-
spects, but they still retain a certain amount
of resemblance to the older ones, namely, —
those hypotheses which assume that the
forces of inheritance are lodged in certain
very small corpuscles forming part only of
the germ or organism. These hypotheses
are also dynamical in nature, and have been
worked out with the consciousness, in both
cases, that the mechanism of inheritance
must also be the one through which metab-
olism operates. Indeed, these two authors
seem to be the first to have distinctly recog-
nized the necessity for such a supposition.
Later still, with the advent of the discoy-
ery that the male nucleus was fused with
the female nucleus during sexual reprodue-
tion, it was assumed that the nuclear con-
tents were the only essential material bear-
ers of those hereditary forces that shape
the growing germ into the likeness of the
parentage. With the development of this
idea the name of Weismann is perhaps most
closely associated. He has utilized the
facts of development, nuclear cleavage, ex-
pulsion of polar bodies, halving and subdi-
vision of chromosomes, etc., as the founda-
May 31, 1895.]
tion of his hypothesis of inheritance. Its
extreme elaboration is its greatest weakness,
and in it, no less than in all preceding hypo-
theses, the theory of a separate category of
particles carrying hereditary potentialities
again appears.
The one criticism that holds of all these
hypotheses is that they are one-sided and
ignore a most important set of factors in in-
heritance, namely, the purely statical ones,
or those arising from the mere physical
properties of the living matter of the germ
viewed as if it were a dead, inert mass, sub-
ject to the operation of the reciprocal at-
traction for one another of its constituent
particles. All of these hypotheses, more-
over, assume that it is only some of the mat-
ter of the germ that is concerned in the
process of hereditary transmission, and that
the remainder may be regarded as passive.
The entire germ, on the contrary, or all of
it that undergoes development, must be
considered as a single whole, made up of a
vast number of molecules built up into a
mechanism. Such a molecular mechanism,
it must be supposed, cannot set free the po-
tential energy of its parts except in a cer-
tain determinate order and way, within
certain limits, in virtue of the initial phys-
ical structure ofthe whole. If the germ is
free to do that, as must happen under
proper conditions, as a mechanism, its parts,
as they are thus formed by their own metab-
olism, it may be assumed, will inevitably
and nearly recapitulate the ancestral devel-
opment or that typical of the species. It
must do this as a mere dynamical system
or mechanism, the condition of which at
one phase determines that of the next, and
so on, to the completion of development.
In the present state of our knowledge we
are not prepared to frame a purely mechan-
ical hypothesis of inheritance that shall an-
swer every requirement, in spite of the fact
that no other is possible. Herbert Spencer
and Professor Haeckel long ago pointed out
SCIENCE.
601
that such an hypothesis is a necessity grow-
ing out of the very requirements that must
be satisfied in any attempt to coordinate
the phenomena of biology with those of the
not-living world. The material basis of
life is always a chemically and mechanically
compounded substance. To the very last
molecule, such a body must betray evidence
of arrangement or structure of its parts that
should make it a mechanism of the utmost
complexity and requisite potentiality as a
transformer of energy through the mere
transposition and rearrangement of such
parts. We find indeed that living matter
is chemically the most complex and unsta-
ble substance known. It is composed
largely of carbon, a quadrivalent element
that stands alone in its power to combine
with itself and at the same time hold in
chemical bondage groups of atoms repre-
senting other chemical bodies. Such groups
are probably held together in great num-
bers metamerically by the reciprocal or
otherwise unsatisfied affinities of the large
number of carbon atoms entering into the
composition of the proteid molecule. In
this way the massive and structurally com-
plex molecule of protoplasm may be sup-
posed to have arisen. We may thus trace
the genesis of the peculiarities of living
matter to this singular property of the car-
bon atom. On such a basis we may sup-
pose that the ultimate molecular units are
identical with the physiological units, so
that their structures may not only deter-
mine the nature of the metabolism they can
undergo, but also be the ultimate units of
form or morphological character.
What especially gives color to these sus-
picions is the extraordinary variety of
changes, alteration of properties or powers,
and the vast variety of living matter, as
represented by the million or more of known
distinct living species of organisms. It is
as if the permutations, transformations, and
the dynamical readjustment of the meta-
602
meres of the molecules of living matter
were the source of its varying potentialities
as manifested in its protean changes of
specific form and function. That some me-
chanical and consequently dynamical in-
terpretation of these transformations may
yet be forthcoming is, I take it, distinctly
foreshadowed by the advances in the newer
theories of stereo-chemistry developed by
LeBel and Van’t Hoff. If this is the case
we may yet hope for a mechanical and
dynamical explanation of the phenomena
of life and inheritance. Especially is this
true if we further suppose that the large
molecules of living plasma are rather feebly
held together by a force almost of the na-
ture of cohesion. We may be permitted
thus to find an explanation of that phenom-
enon which is always so characteristic of
living matter, namely, the large and rela-
tively fixed amount of water it contains,
and also the mobility of its molecules in
respect to one another, its jelly-like char-
acter at one instant, its fluidity and power
of motion at another. Itis indeed probable
that the amount of water contained in liy-
ing matter is controlled within certain limits
by the forces of cohesion exerted between
adjacent molecules against the osmotic
pressure or capillary action of water tend-
ing to drive them asunder, as supposed by
Nageli, in his hypothesis of micelle. Such
an hypothesis enables us to explain much
that is otherwise quite unintelligible in re-
lation to living things. Jt renders us an
explanation of amceboid motion, of the
surface tensions of protoplasm and lastly
of metabolism itself through osmosis and
the specific characters of the chemical
transformations that must take place in
each kind of living substance.
Such an hypothesis may also afford us
mechanical constructions of atoms, grouped
into very large metameric or polymeric
molecules of the utmost diversity of powers,
capable of undergoing a long series of suc-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 22,
cessive transformations, so as to manifest
in the long run, starting with a molecular
germinal aggregate, what we call ontogeny~
or development. These transformations,
we must suppose, are effected by the metab-
olism incident to growth, and moreover,
that starting with an initial configuration
of a system of molecules, as a mechanical
and consequently a dynamical system of
determinate powers, in the form of a germ,
it cannot undergo any other transformations
except such as lead to an approximate re-
capitulation of the ancestral development
or phylogeny. This supposition follows
from the rule that must hold of determinate
systems of molecules, as well as of systems
formed of larger masses, namely, that the
initial changes in the configuration of such
a complex system must dynamically deter-
mine within certain variable limits, under
changing conditions, the nature of all of its
subsequent transformations, including those
due to growth and consequently increased
complexity. We thus escape the necessity
of invoking certain ‘ proclivities’ of physio-
logical units, or the necessity of appealing
to the growth and fission of ‘biophors’ or
the scattering of ‘determinants’ at the
proper times and places in the course of
development. We thus escape, too, the
mistake of assuming that a part of a germ
controls the whole, a proposition that has
been so long advocated by one school of
biologists that it is astounding that its fal-
lacy has not long since been more generally
understood. Such a doctrine is not credi-
ble in the face of the fact that we know of
no development except that which takes
place in intimate association with cyto-
plasm, which seems to be the principal
theater of metabolism and growth. We
cannot conceive of the transformations of
a germ without considering the metabolism
of all its parts, such as nucleus, cytoplasm,
centrosomes, archoplasm, chromatin, spin-
dles, astral figures, microsomata, etc.
May 31, 1895.]
‘Tendencies’ and ‘ proclivities’ are words
that have no legitimate place in the discus-
sion of the data of biology any more than
they have in natural philosophy or physics.
Karyokinesis, now admittedly inseparable
in thought from the idea of multicellular
development, is a rhythmical process so
complex in its dynamical aspects as to some
extent lead one unwittingly to underesti-
mate the absolute continuity of the accom-
panying processes of metabolism. But that
is no reason why the importance of nuclear
metamorphosis should be exaggerated at
the expense of the far more important
forces developed by metabolism and growth.
In fact, the ‘ids,’ ‘idants,’ ete., of that
school of biologists are not causes but mere
effects, produced as passing shadows, so to
speak, in the operation of the perfectly con-
tinuous processes of metabolism incident to
development. Reciprocal relations are sus-
tained between nucleus and cytoplasm of
such importance that the transformation or
fission of the one is impossible without the
other,
The so-called ‘reducing divisions’ probably
have nothing but a passing and purely adap-
tive physiological significance in every on-
togeny of ova and sperms. The far-fetched
and extraordinary teleological significance
given by some to the reducing divisions
would lead one to suppose that the clairvoy-
ant wisdom of the original egg that thus
first threw out the excess of its ancestral
‘germ-plasm ’ in order to save its posterity
from harm through the fatality of reversion
thus entailed was greater than anything
human, if not god-like. The complete par-
allelism of the ‘reducing division’ in the
sperm and egg has never been established.
The comparison of these processes in the
two is still only approximate, because in
the truly holoblastic egg there is, in some
eases, an apparent temporary substitution
of the male nucleus for the female, as is
shown by the former’s assuming a position
SCIENCE.
603
of equilibrium at the center of the ovum
(Ascaris), a condition of things that does
not and could not occur in the sperm cell.
A still more important contrast is the al-
most incredible difference of volume of the
two kinds of sex-cells of the same species.
In man the ratio of volume of the male cell to
the female cell is as 1 to 3,000 approximately.
This extreme contrast of volume is asso-
ciated with corresponding contrasts in their
properties. There can hardly be any doubt
that the mature male cell is in a nearly po-
tential or static state of metabolic transfor-
mation of its substance, and is characterized
by an almost complete want of stored meta-
bolizable reserve material. The egg is in a
similar static state, but, on the other hand,
contrasts with the male element in that the
development of a more or less voluminous
mass of reserve material within it has
seemingly been also associated with its loss,
as a rule, of the power to begin an inde-
pendent development. The power of the
male cell to begin its transformation and
growth through metabolism appears to be
arrested until it finds the material in which
its mere presence will set up transforma-
tions. This it must do by in some way set-
ting free and diffusing some of its own mole-
cules osmotically and mechanically through
the egg. The substance of the egg appears
therefore to be complementary to that of
the spermatozoon. The power to set up
transformations within the egg leading to
the development of a new being is not
manifested aside from the presence of the
male element except in cases of partheno-
genesis. Even the expulsion of the polar
cells is not initiated until the stimulus of
the presence of the male element is experi-
enced by the egg.
Another contrast is found in the times of
the advent of the ‘reducing division’ in the
two kinds of sex-cells. In the male cell
the ‘reducing division’ occurs earliest, or
while it is still in more or less close nutri-
604
tive relation to the parent; in the egg the
‘reducing division’ or expulsion of polar
cells does not occur till the egg is freed, as
a rule, from the parent gonad, and generally
asa consequence of the stimulating effect of
the presence of the male cell. These dif-
ferences of behavior of the two sorts of sex-
cells seem to be correlated with their dif-
ferences in size.
We may contemplate the sex-cells as
molecular mechanisms which, in virtue
of their mechanical structure, are ren-
dered capable of controlling the order
and manner of rearrangement of their con-
Stituent molecules, because of the new suc-
cessive attractions and repulsions set free,
amongst the latter, immediately upon the
completion of conjugation. The new forms
of metabolism thus initiated enable us to
conceive a mechanical theory of fertiliza-
tion. At any rate, the two sorts of sex-cells
are potentially the reciprocals of each other,
and their initial or statical states cannot
begin to set free their energy and thus pass
into the successive kinetic states of formal
change until the two mechanisms are recip-
rocally and mechanically integrated into a
single one by means of conjugation. The
parts of this new single body now act in
unison. Eyen the manner in which the
two conjoined molecular mechanisms oper-
ate can actually be to some extent traced,
as expressed in the complex movements as-
sociated with fertilization, the division of
the chromosomes and centrosomes. The ef-
. fect of conjugation is to afford opportunity
also for new and various combinations of
molecular mechanisms, though the recipro-
eal integration of pairs of cells having a
widely different parentage.
The great size of the egg-cell provides an
extensive reserve material that enables the
embryo thus built up usually to reach a rel-
atively great size without entering for a
time into competition for food in the strug-
gle for existence. Sexuality is therefore
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 22.
altruistic in nature, since it has led in both
plants and animals to the evolution of a
condition of endowment, or the storage of
potential energy in the germ, so that the
latter is the better able to cope with natural
conditions. While it may be assumed that
sexuality has arisen, in the main, under
conditions determined by natural selection,
once sexuality was attained, the added
power thus accumulated potentially in large
germs of double origin enabled the latter
the more easily to overcome untoward
natural conditions. Natural selection thus
becomes altruistic or dotational in that it
tends through sexuality to defeat the deadli-
ness of the struggle for existence, just as
we may also assert that the theory of super-
position to which the mechanical theory of
development is committed is also finally
altruistic. It may be remarked that the
greatest mortality of a species, under the
conditions of the struggle for existence,
also takes place inthe egg and embryonic
stages, or before organisms can experience
acute pain; so that here again we have a
result that must materially ameliorate the
pains and penalties of the struggle for
life.
These details are, however, of minor im-
port for us just now. The important thing
to bear in mind is that all of the forces of
development are ultimately metabolic in
origin, and that the wonderful order and
sequence of events in any given ontogeny
arise from the transformation or transposi-
tion of the parts of a molecular system that
also thus increases in bulk by the addition
of new matter. The steps of this trans-
formation are mechanically conditioned by
dynamical laws with as much unerring cer-
tainty of sequence as those that control the
motions of the heavenly bodies. The con-
sequence of such a view is that we can thus
free our minds of all traces of belief in a
theory of preformation. The embryo is not
and cannot be preformed in the germ, as
f
May 31, 1895.]
observation and physiological tests prove ;
nor is such preformation necessary if a me-
chanical hypothesis is adopted.
Joun A. Ryper.
(To be concluded.)
CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY ( VIII.)
CROWLEY'S RIDGE.
CrowLey’s Ringe, rising above the al-
luvial lowland of the Mississippi in Missouri
and Arkansas, has long been a subject of
discussion. Branner (Geol. Sury. Ark.,
Ann. Rep., 1889, ii., p. xiv.) has suggested
that the lowland to the west of the ridge
was excavated as an early path of the Mis-
sissippi, from which it was diverted into
its present course east of the ridge by the
Ohio; but it is difficult to understand how
the smaller of the two rivers could divert
the larger one. A new explanation of the
ridge has recently been offered by C. F.
Marbut (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. xxvi.,
1895), to the effect that the ridge is
homologous with the Chunnenugga ridge of
Alabama, and that it belongs to a family of
geographical forms frequently found on
coastal plains during the mature stages of
their development. These ridges or up-
lands normally run parallel to the coast
line; they mark the outcrops of compara-
tively resistant strata, dipping toward the
coast; they descend inland by a relatively
rapid slope, often strong enough to be
called an escarpment, towards an inner
lowland which has been eroded on an
underlying and weaker member of the
eoastal formations; they descend more
gently on the coastal side. The inner low-
Jand is drained by longitudinal streams,
which enter transverse streams that cut their
way through the ridge or upland on the way
to the sea. Ina region of uniform uplift
all these features of relief and drainage have
a regular rectangular system of trends; but
where the former shore line or the uplift is
irregular the trends will depart more or
SCIENCE.
605
less from a rectangular towards a curved
pattern. Marbut regards Crowley's ridge
as a portion of an inland-curving ridge of
this kind. The master stream of the region
is the Mississippi, which bisects the inland
curvature of the ridge. The upland along
whose eastern base the Tennessee river flows
northward in an adjusted subsequent course
forms the eastern part of the curve; while
Crowley’s ridge forms the western part.
The lignitic strata by which the ridge is de-
termined weaken southwestward, and hence
the ridge soon disappears in that direction.
The lowland west of Crowley’s ridge,
ascribed by other writers to erosion by the
Mississippi, is explained by Marbut as com-
parable to the lowland on the inland side
of the Chunnenugga ridge of Alabama, and
the rivers which follow this lowland are
thought to be adjusted subsequent rivers.
THE CUSPATE CAPES OF THE CAROLINA COAST.
THE systematic repetition of certain
features in Capes Hatteras, Lookout and
Fear is explained by C. Abbe, Jr. (Proce.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvi., 1895) as the
result of a number of backset eddying cur-
rents, turning from right to left between the
Gulf Stream and the coast. The generally
southward movment of the sands along the
shore being well known, some special explan-
ation is needed for the acutely pointed capes
between the smooth concaye curves of the
sand bars. Although this is a conspicuous
feature of the coast, it seems to have been
little considered. Shaler, in his recent
general account of Harbors (U. 8. Geol.
Survey, 13th Ann. Rept., 1893,180 _), sug-
gests that the greater inflow of the tides
in the middle of the curved bays between
the capes would cause a lateral current in
either direction, and that the cusps would
form where the outward flow from two
curves became confluent; but this is contra-
dicted not only by the general southward
movement of sands along the shore, but also
606
by certain minor features to which Abbe
gives special attention, and which indicate
an outward movement of the prevailing cur-
rents on the north side of each cape, but an
inward movement on the south side. The
V-shaped bars on the shore of ancient
Bonneville (Monogr. I., U. 8. Geol. Survey,
57) seem to correspond with the cuspate
capes in essential features, but their relation
to eddying currents is not clearly brought
foward by Gilbert. Penck, in his recent
Morphologie der Erdoberfldche, mentions back-
set shore currents as of frequent occurrence,
and suggests that the V-shaped bars of the
Bonneville shore may have been produced
by such movements (II., 485, 486), but he
does not refer to other examples of this
kind. Yet cuspate sand-bar capes of
moderate size are certainly not rare, as may
be seen by consulting the maps of our coast
in the lower part of Chesapeake Bay.
Dungeness, on the southeastern coast of
England, seems to be a similar form; but no
other examples are known of so great a size
as those of our Carolina coast, nor has any
other instance been adduced of so pro-
nounced a control exerted by the general
oceanic circulation upon the form of the
continental shore line.
THE MIGRATION OF CAPE CANAVERAL.
In connection with the foregoing, mention
may be made of the southward migration
of Cape Canaveral, as indicated by the
Coast Survey Charts (Nos. XIII., and 159-
163). Like the capes further north, Can-
averal is a sand-bar cusp, the details of its
form indicating a control by two adjacent
eddying currents,after the manner described
by Abbe. Its history appears to have been
in brief as follows: The position taken by
the first blunt cusp between the adjacent
eddies seems to have been about ten
miles south of Mosquito inlet and forty
miles north of the present cape; this
being, as it were, a provisional location
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No: 22.
adopted by the currents before much work
had been done in shaping the coast by
building long bars for the transportation of f
sand. As an improved and continuous bar
grew from north to south, its relation to
the general curvature of the Carolina bight
was such that it ran past the first-formed
cape, and a new location for the cusp was
then chosen thirty miles farther south, the
outline of the old cape being still faintly
traceable inside the newer bar. Buta still
better adjustment of the currents to the
shore brought another bar down from the
north, this one running past the apex of the
second cape in much the same way that the
second bar ran past the first cape; and
thus the third cusp, the present Canaveral,
was formed ten miles south of the second.
The southward migration of the cape ap-
pears to be still continued, as indicated by
the arrangement of the sand dunes; but it
is now going on with a slowly progressive,
creeping advance, and not by a leap, such
as that which shifted the second cape from
the first, or the third from the second. All
this, however, is based only on a study of
the charts. Those who have opportunity
for a study of the cape on the ground
might make it the subject of fruitful obser-
vation. W. M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
ANNUAL MEETING OF THE CHEMICAL SO-
CIETY (LONDON).
In the course of his address at the anni-
versary meeting of the Chemical Society of
London, the President, Professor Arm-
strong, after referring to the notable growth
of the Society in the twenty years during
which he had been a member, stated that
the Council had decided to break through
the practice which had always obtained and
by which the Faraday Lectureship has in-
variably been filled by some foreign scien-
tist, and had bestowed the Faraday Medal
upon Lord Rayleigh ‘in recognition of the
;
May 31, 1895.]
services rendered to chemical science by the
discovery of argon.’ The President added
that the Medalist would address the Society
on the subject of argon.
Lord Rayleigh said that, in returning his
thanks to the Society, he was somewhat
embarrassed, because he felt that there
ought to be another standing at his side.
It was true that his researches, to which
the President had referred, upon the densi-
ties of gases had rendered it almost certain
that a new gas of some sort was concerned,
and probably that the new gas was in the
atmosphere. But from this point to the
isolation and examination of argon was a
long step, and the credit must be shared
equally between Professor Ramsay and him-
self. In some quarters there had been a
tendency to represent that antagonism ex-
isted between chemists and physicists in the
matter, though such a thought never entered
hismind. Professor Ramsay was a chemist
by profession, while he himself had dabbled
in chemistry from an early age, and had
followed its development with a keen in-
terest.
During the course of the same meeting
Professor Ramsay and Mr. Crookes spoke
of the isolation and spectroscopic examina-
tion of the gas containing helium derived
from cléveite.
At the anniversary dinner in the even-
ing of the same day the principal address
was made by the Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour.
The following extracts from this will be of
interest. Speaking of the attitude of the
statesman towards science, he said: ‘ For
my own part, though the last thing I wish
to do is to suggest that the work of a prac-
tical politician is other than a work which
taxes the highest qualities of a man, still I
have to admit, on looking back at the his-
tory of civilization, that if we want to iso-
late the causes which more than any other
conduce to the movements of great civilized
Societies, you must not look to the great
SCIENCE.
607
politician of the hour, on whom it may be
all eyes are fixed; you must look to those,
often unknown by the multitude, whose
work, it may be, is never properly realized
by the mass of their countrymen till after
they are dead. You must look at them,
and at their labors, to find the great sources
of social movement. We, who are carry-
ing on a work which I hope is not useless,
which, I am sure, receives its full meed of
public recognition, do, after all, not belong
to that class to which the community is
most beholden for all that is to improve the
lot of man upon earth. It is to those who,
very often with no special practical object
in view, casting their eyes upon no other
object than the abstract truth and the pure
truth which it is their desire to elucidate,pen-
penetrate ever further and further into the
secrets of Nature and provide the practical
man with the material upon which he works.
Those are the men who, if you analyse the
social forces to their ultimate units, those are
the men to whom we owe most, and to such
men, and to produce such men, and to
honor such men, and to educate such
men, the Society whose health I am now
proposing devotes its best energies.
“T should like to do what I can to dispel
the prejudice which certainly exists at
this moment in many influential quarters
against technical education properly under-
stood. Technical education, properly under-
stood, suffers greatly under technical educa-
tion improperly understood, and there is so
much nonsense talked upon this subject;
there is so much money uselessly spent ;
there are so many things taught to persons
who do not want to learn them and who, if
they did want to learn them, could by no
possibility turn them to practical account ;
that it is no matter of astonishment that
some persons are disposed to say that
‘technical education is only the last bit of
political humbug, the last new scheme for
turning out a brand new society ; it is worth-
* *K
608
less in itself; not only is it worthless, but
it is excessively expensive.’ I am sure Mr.
Bryce * would agree with everything I have
said upon this point, and everything I am
going to say upon it—for I shall not go
into controversial matter—because, while I
think that those who object to technical
education have their justification, it yet re-
mains true that if you include, as you ought
to inelude, within the term technical educa-
tion the really scientific instruction in the
way of turning scientific discoveries to prac-
tical account, if that is what you mean—
and it is what you ought to mean by tech-
nical education—then there is nothing of
which England is at this moment in greater
need. There is nothing which, if she, in her
folly, determines to neglect, will more con-
duce to the success of her rivals in the
markets of the world, and to her inevitable
abdication of the position of commercial
supremacy which she has hitherto held.”
““T do not deny that, if manufactures and
commerce have an immense amount to gain
from theoretical investigations, on the other
hand—as everybody will admit that has
even the most cursory acquaintance, let us
say, with the history of the discoveries in
electricity and magnetism—pure science it-
self has an enormous amount to gain from
industrial development. While both these
things are true, I am the last person to deny
that it is a poor end, a poor object, for a
man of science to look forward to, merely
to make money for himself or for other
people. After all, while the effect of science
on the world is almost incaleulable, that
effect can only be gained in the future, as it
has only been gained in the past, by men
of science pursuing knowledge for the sake
of knowledge, and for the sake of knowledge
alone; and if I thought that by anything
that had dropped from me to-night I had
given ground for the idea that I looked at
* The Rt. Hon. James Bryce, President of the
Board of Trade.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 22.
science from what is commonly called the
strictly utilitarian standpoint—that I meas-
ured its triumphs by the number of success
ful companies it had succeeded in starting,
or in the amount of dividends which it gave
to the capitalist, or even by the amount of
additional comfort which it gave to the
masses of the population—I should greatly
understate my thought; but I know this
great Society, while it has in view these
useful objects, still puts first of all the pur-
suit of truth, which is the goddess to which
every man of science owes his devotion.
And truth, not profit, must necessarily be
the motto of every body of scientific men
who desire to be remembered by posterity
for their discoveries. These things can
only be done through a disinterested mo-
tive, and it is because I believe that so-
cieties like the great Society I am address-
ing do more than any other organization to
attain that great object: because I think
they bring together men engaged in con-
genial pursuits; because the stimulus of
mind brought close to mind, and the hon-
orable ambitions and the honorable rival-
ries of men engaged in the same great task
must lead to an enormous extension of our
knowledge of the secrets of Nature; that I,
as an outsider, not belonging to your body,
do, in the name of a public for which I
venture to speak, wish you all success and
wish you all prosperity.” W. W. &B.
CORRESPONDENCE.
HAECKEL’S MONISM.
Epiror or Scrence: In reponse to your
kind note of recent date concerning Haeck-
le’s ‘ Monistic Creed,’ I may state that I
find myself in the fullest sympathy with
the views expressed by Professor Brooks.
I may perhaps be permitted to add the
following :—
These nses of man, as of other animals,
yield certain impressions which so far as
they go are of the nature of truth. We
s |
May 31, 1895.]
know truth only through approximation,
the revision and extension of these sense
impressions. These impressions and the
inductions from them serve as guides to ac-
tion. - In this relation these common im-
pressions must be true, because trust in
them has been safe. Wrong action must
have led to the destruction of the actors.
One test of truth, perhaps the only one, is
the safety that comes from trusting it. The
power of choice implies that right choice
must be made. Only those who in the nar-
row range of choice choose safely can sur-
vive. To this end of safe choice, sensa-
tions, desires and reason must codperate.
The adaptation to complex conditions rests
on the ability of the individual to receive
the degree of truth he needs to make safe
choice possible, and no more. For truth-
fulness in sensation exists only in the range
within which action and choice are de-
pendent on it. Beyond this range truth
would have no value as an aid to adapta-
tion. Our senses tell us something of truth
as to bread and fruit and stones, which we
may use or touch or avoid. They do not
give us just impressions of the stars or sky,
which we cannot reach,nor of the molecule,
which we cannot grasp. Our sense powers,
as well as our powers of reasoning, are emi-
nently practical. They are bounded by the
needs of the lives of our ancestors, to whom
any form of hypercsthesia would have been
destructive and not helpful.
The methods and the appliances of science
serve as an extension of the truthfulness of
the senses into regions in which truth was
not demanded for the life-purposes of our
ancestors. ‘These methods yield truth of a
similar kind, which can be measured by
the same test. We may trust the informa-
tion given by the electrometer or the micro-
scope or the calculus just as implicitly as
we receive what our own eyes have seen or
our own hands have felt. We may depend
on the truth given by these instruments of
SCIENCE.
609
precision to a greater degree than on that
which the common senses furnish us, be-
cause the guards and checks on scientific ap-
pliances are more perfect. The information
gained by observation and sifted by reason
constitutes science. In the struggle for ex-
istence, knowledge is power. Our civiliza-
tion rests directly on the growth of scien-
tific knowledge and on the availability to
the individual of its accumulated power.
Its basis is the safety of trusting to human
experience. The ‘ Laws of Nature,’ as we
know them, are generalizations of such ex-
perience. Their statement may form part
of a ‘scientific creed’ to those who have
tested them, if such feel that ‘I believe’
adds force to ‘I know.’
The essence of the ‘ Monistic Creed’ as
set forth by Haeckel is not, as I understand
it, drawn from such sources. It is an out-
growth from Haeckel’s personality, not from
his researches. So far as I know, no change
has taken place in it as a result of any dis-
covery its author has made. If its details
have been changed at any time since it was
first formulated, the reason for such change
must be sought for in Haeckel, not in Sci-
ence.
Perhaps, indeed, there is ‘‘ one spirit in
all things, and the whole cognizable world
is constituted and has been developed in ac-
cordance with one fundamental law.” But
this is no conclusion of science. It rests on
no human experience. If it be the indue-
tion resulting from all human experience,
that fact has not been made plain to us.
The hypereesthesia of the microscope or the
Caleulus brings one no nearer to it. Its
place is in the boundless realm of guess-
work. It value lies in the stimulus which
clever guesses give to the otherwise plod-
ding operations of scientific men. It seems
to me that ‘ Monism’ belongs to the domain
of speculative philosophy, a branch of
thought which, according to Helmholtz,
deals with such ‘schlechtes stoff;’ that its
610
conclusions, however brilliant, can have no
value as guides to life or as guides to re-
search, which is the second power of life.
The theory of Monism has no interest to
Science, until men can come to deal with
the ‘Stoff’ on which its speculations rest.
Every conceivable theory of life, its nature,
origin and destiny, can be traced back to
the pre-scientific philosophy of the Ancients,
Monism with the rest. What we have
found to be true was not unknown to the
Greeks. But that which we find to be false
had equally the weight of their authority.
It is the business of Science to test by its
own methods the value of the supposed basis
of these theories. The use of logic is one of
these methods. The only logical necessity
Science can recognize, as Dr. Brooks has
well said, is “that when our knowledge
ends we should confess our ignorance.”
I have myself not the slightest objection
to ‘Monism’ as philosophy. As a dogma
it is certainly more attractive than many
others which have been brought like light-
ning from the clouds, as a stimulus to creep-
ing humanity. My objection lies against
the use of the divining rod in connection
with the microscope. These instruments do
not yield homologous results. If both yield
Truth, then Truth is a word of double mean-
ing. This method seems to carry us back
to the days when truths were made known
to the spirit without the intervention of the
body. When some theologian of the past
brought to Luther the revelations his spirit
made to him, the sturdy Reformer said,
“Thren Geist haue ich tiber die Schnautze ”’
(1 slap your spirit on the snout). Scientific
men may have as individuals their own
visions and guesses and formule of Uni-
versal Philosophy. Spiritual gymnastics are
not without value to any worker, and men
of science have often suffered from their
neglect. But this suffering is purely indi-
vidual. The running high jump does not
hasten the progress of knowledge. Science
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 22.
will have none of it. Nor will she tolerate
a divining rod even in the hands of her
wisest devotees. In other words, where —
the facts stop Science stops also.
Davin STARR JORDAN.
STANFORD UNIVERSITY.
THE GENUS ZAGLOSSUS.
To tHE Eprror or Scrence: Mr. T. §.
Palmer’s article in Scrence of May 10th fixes
the synonymy of this genus with precision ;
but one statement he makes is incorrect,
namely, that ‘ Zaglossus Gill seems never to
have been mentioned by any subsequent au-
thor.’ The Century Dictionary has three
articles from my pen on the subject. 1. Zag-
lossusis defined as ‘the proper name of that
genus of prickly ant-eaters which is better
known by its synonym Acanthoglossus (which
see).’ 2. Under Acanthoglossus the genus 1s
characterized, with the statement that this
name ‘is antedated by Zaglossus of Guill.’
3. Under Echidnide the animal is figured
with the legend ‘ Zaglossus or Acanthoglossus
bruni.’ Exxiotr Cougs.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
The Cambridge Natural History, ITI., Molluses :
By the Rev. A. H. Coox; Brachiopods
(Recent) : By A. E. Surerey ; Brachiopods
(Fossil): By F.R.C. Remp. New York,
Macmillan & Co. 1895. XIYV., 536.
Pp. 8°. Illustrated.
This work is one of a series intended es-
pecially for intelligent persons without
scientific training, but in which the attempt
is made to combine popular treatment and
untechnical language with the latest re-
sults of scientific research.
Mr. Cooke, who is known as a pains-
taking and well informed conchologist, has
endeavored to unite in one general classifi-
cation the views of specialists in the various
groups, such as Hoyle for the recent, Foord
and Fischer for the fossil Cephalopods, Bergh
for the Nudibranches, Pelseneer for the
Pelecypoda, etc.; but, in conformity with
AA
——
May 31, 1895.]
the general purpose of the work, much
more space is devoted to the geographical
distribution and general natural history
of mollusks than to the details of system-
atic arrangement or technical discussion.
Twelve chapters of 377 pages are devoted
to generalities, and four, comprising 66
pages, to classification.
The work deserves high commendation
for the thorough manner in which Mr.
Cooke has foraged for fresh data, bringing
together a vast number of facts on the
biography, distribution, growth, anatomy
and reproduction of mollusks. The style is
clear and easy, and the facts are well selected
and agreeably presented. For the audience
for which the book is intended it seems ad-
mirably adapted, and so far as we know
there is no work available at present which
can be more cordially recommended to a
beginner or the general reader.
It would be easy to criticise details of
classification here and there, and on many
points the opinions of experts will differ in
the present state of our knowledge; but in
recognizing the aim of the author and pub-
lishers it must be conceded that it has been
well carried out.
It does not appear to have been necessary
to separate the recent from the fossil brach-
iopoda, and recent efforts at a revised
classification of the group have been so
successful and complete that Mr. Reed’s
work appears already somewhat antiquated
and too brief, but this perhaps was inevit-
able from the necessity of preserving due
proportion between the parts of the series.
Mr. Shipley’s account of the anatomy and
embryology is good, and his conclusions as
to the relations of the class are conservative
and reasonable.
The book is fully illustrated with rather
unequal woodcuts, many of which are good
and others rather ‘wooden,’ but an un-
usually large proportion of them are original
and fresh. There are four very good maps
SCIENCE.
611
of geographical distribution and an excel-
lent index. W. H. Dat.
A Laboratory Guide for a Twenty Weeks’ Course
in. General Chemistry. By Grorcre WiL-
LARD Benton, A. M., Instructor of Chem-
istry, High School, and Chemist for the
City of Indianapolis. Boston, D. C. Heath
& Co.
This book might be better termed ‘A
Guide for a Course of Test-Tubing,’ since
nearly all the reactions are performed in a
test-tube, and the sole object of the book
seems to be to acquaint the unfortunate pu-
pil who uses it with ‘ Tests’ for the various
elements and compounds.
The manual is supposed to be put into
the hands of beginners in the subject, and
yet before a single element is considered or
anything is said about elements, compounds
or formulas, quite a number of formulas and
reactions are given. As an illustration of
what the author calls compounds, a piece
of wood and granulated sugar are taken
and the equation C,,H,,0, , +H,SO,=12C
+11H,O+ H,SO,, is written out. Then
the student is asked to explain the equation
and to define a compound. And yet the
author, according to his preface, is one of
those ‘who see in the Laboratory (with a
big L) the means of high development on
approved pedagogical grounds.’
It would require more space than the
book is worth to point out all its faults.
It will, perhaps, be sufficient to state that
directions are given for making dangerous
compounds without any mention of the
danger connected with the work. The pu-
pil is asked, for example, to determine the
odor of carbon monoxide, and not an inti-
mation is given that it is one of the most
poisonous gases known to the chemist.
Altogether, the book is one that can be
most cordially recommended as the kind of
a book for both teachers and students to
avoid using, if possible. W.R.O.
612
NOTES AND NEWS.
THE HELMHOLTZ MEMORIAL.
Tue following subscriptions have been
paid to Prof. Hugo Miunsterberg, Secretary
and Treasurer of the American Committee,
Cambridge, Mass. Further subscriptions
should be sent to him at an early date :
A. Agassiz, Cambridge,....................- $ 25
S. P. Avery, New York, .................. 10
Clarence J. Blake, Boston,................. 20
Francis Blake, Boston,..................... 50
H. P. Bowditch, Boston..................... 20
W.N. Bullard, Boston,..................... 10
J. McK. Cattell, New York,.............. 5
FF. A. Christie, Meadville, Pa............. 2
Clarence N. Clark, Philadelphia,......... 25
A.. Monner, Boston,................-.------»- 25
Mrs. M. A. P. Draper, New York,...... 50
W. G. Farlow, Cambridge.................. 5
H. N. Gardiner, Northampton,.......... 3
E. Griining, New York,.....:...........-.- 15
C. C. Harrison, Philadelphia,............. 100
A. Jacobi, New York,...........-2.2-2-2-++- 10
W. James, Cambridge,..................... 5
J. Jeffries, Boston,.....:.........52-.20e0e005 5
H. Knapp, New York,..................... 100
Seth Low, New York,..................-+-- 100
‘Oswald Ottendorfer, New York.,......... 200
E. C. Pickering, Cambridge,............... 20
J.J. Putnam, Boston,.............. 02.2... 5
WAS.) New, Works .k 10
G. de Schweinitz, Philadelphia,......... 25
N.S. Shaler, Cambridge,.................. 5
Society of Eye Surgeons, San Francisco, 25
D. P. Todd, Amherst, Mass.,.............. 10
Q. F. Wadsworth, Boston,................ 20
H. C. Warren, Cambridge,................. 25
D. Webster, New York,.................... 5
Henry W. Williams, Boston,............. 25
NN. Wilmer, Washington,.................. 10
ARON eee onehcodscoqsacccoasencOMee $970
THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA.
THE Geological Society of America will
hold its seventh Summer Meeting at Spring-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 22.
field, Mass., Tuesday and Wednesday, Au-
gust 27 and 28. The Council will meet
Monday evening and the Society will con-
vene Tuesday morning at 10 o’clock.
The Fellowship of this Society includes
nearly all the working geologists upon the
continent. The roll now contains 223
names of Fellows.
The former Presidents of the Society have
been James Hall, James D. Dana, Alexander
Winchell, G. K. Gilbert, J. William Daw-
son and T. C. Chamberlin.
The officers for 1895 are as follows:
President, N. S. Shaler, Harvard Uni-
versity.
Vice-Presidents, Joseph Le Conte, Uni-
versity of California; Charles H. Hitch-
cock, Dartmouth College.
Secretary, H. L. Fairchild, University of
Rochester.
Treasurer, I. C. White, Morgantown, W.
Va.
Editor, J. Stanley-Brown, Washington,
D.C.
Councillors :
F. D. Adams, McGill College, Montreal.
Rk. W. Ells, Geological Survey of Canada.
I. C. Russell, University of Michigan.
E. A. Smith, University of Alabama.
C. R. Van Hise, University of Wisconsin.
C. D. Walcott, U. 8. Geological Survey.
The Society has just completed the sixth
volume of its Bulletin, which is a handsome
octavo, with 528 pages and 27 plates. This
volume includes twenty-one brochures.
Information concerning the Society and
its publications can be obtained by address-
ing the Secretary, H. L. Fairchild, Roches-
ter, N. Y.
NOMINATIONS BEFORE THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Tue following fifteen candidates were i
selected by the Council of the Royal Society —
to be recommended for election into the —
Society: J. Wolfe Barry, civil engineer, a
Vice-President of the Institution of Civil —
i
j
ee ea eee
May 31, 1895.]
Engineers ; Alfred Gibbs Bourne, Profes-
sor of Biology in the Presidency College,
Madras ; George Hartley Bryan, Fellow of
Peterhouse, Cambridge, and Lecturer on
Thermodynamics on the University list;
John Eliot, Meteorological Reporter to the
Government of India; Joseph Reynolds
Green, Professor of Botany in the Pharma-
ceutical Society of Great Britain; Ernest
Howard Griffiths, physicist Private Tutor;
Charles Thomas Heycock, Lecturer on Na-
tural Science, King’s College, Cambridge ;
Sydney John Hickson, biologist, Fellow of
Downing College, Cambridge ; Henry Capel
Lofft Holden, Major Royal Artillery, electri-
cian; Frank McClean, astronomer; William
Mac Ewan, Professor of Surgery, University
of Glasgow; Sidney Martin, Assistant Physi-
cian, University College Hospital and Hos-
pital for Consumption, Brompton ; George
M. Minchin, Professor of Mathematics in
the Royal Engineering College, Cooper’s
Hill; William Henry Power, Assistant
Medical Officer, H. M. Local Government
Board ; Thomas Purdie, Professor of Chem-
istry in the University of St. Andrews.
JOHN A. RYDER.
A somnt meeting of members of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, the American
Philosophical Society and the Academy of
Natural Sciences was held in the hall of
the Academy of Natural Sciences on the
evening of Wednesday, April 10, in mem-
ory of the late Professor John A. Ryder.
General Isaac J. Wistar presided and Philip
P. Calvert acted as secretary. Addresses
were made by Dr. Harrison Allen on ‘ Dr.
Ryder’s Relation to the Academy of Natural
Sciences;’ Dr. Bashford Dean, of Columbia
College, on ‘ Dr. Ryder’s Work in the U. S.
Fish Commission’; Dr. Horace Jayne, on
“Dr. Ryder and the School of Biology’;
Prof. E. D. Cope, on ‘The Evolutionary
Doctrine of Dr. Ryder;’ Dr. H. F. Moore,
on ‘Dr. Ryder as a Teacher,’ and Dr. W.
SCIENCE.
613
P. Wilson, on ‘Dr. Ryder as a Collegian.’
The speakers all bore testimony to Professor
Ryder’s merits as an investigator and as a
teacher and to his amiability and honesty
as a man.—American Naturalist.
GENERAL.
THE Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde at Berlin
has just issued the first volume of a bibli-
ography of geographical science entitled
Biblioteca Geographica, edited by Otto Bas-
chin with the assistance of Dr. Ernst Wag-
ner. The volume covers 1891 and 1892 and
the society proposes to continue the publi-
cation annually. The scope of the work is
in full accord with the widest understand-
ing of the word geography. The editor,
Otto Baschin, Berlin, W. Schinkenplatz 6,
requests that authors send titles and works
relating to geography to him.
Tue Imprimerie Polytechnique at Brussels
announces an important Egyptological work
by G. Hagemans, which will include a his-
tory of Egyptian civilization, a summary of
Egyptian literature and a discussion of the
Egyptian writing, including a comparison
between its hieroglyphs and those of Yuca-
tan; this is to be followed by a Copto-
Egyptian grammar, an Egyptian-French
and a French-Egyptian dictionary. The
entire work will appear in sixty parts at
25 cents per part.
WE learn from La Nature that at the an-
nual meeting of ‘Le Congris des Sociétés
Savantes’ at the Sorbonne, Paris, on April
20th, under the presidency of M. Poincaré,
M. Moissan called attention to the rapid
progress and brilliant discoveries of modern
chemistry, and their practical outcome in
stimulating national industries. He passed
under review the processes of manufacturing
iron, steel, aluminium, ete., the artificial
production of the diamond, the erystaliza-
tion of metallic oxides, and the use of elec-
tricity in the decomposition of those oxides
hitherto regarded as irreducible. At the
614
close of the meeting M. Poincaré was elected
president for a second term, The Legion
of Honor was conferred on MM. le comte
d’Avenal, O’Ehlert and Herluison.
Tue honorary degree of D. Sc. has been
conferred on Mr. Francis Galton by the
University of Cambridge.
Tue statute establishing degrees for re-
search at Oxford has now been finally ap-
proved by Congregation, with the adoption
of several amendments, principally of a
technical nature.
THE University of Aberdeen is about to
confer the degree LL. D. on Miss J. E.
Harrison in recognition of her researches
in Greek archeology. Miss Harrison will
be the first woman to receive this degree
from a British university.
Dr. RichHarp HanitscH, demonstrator of
zoology at University College, Liverpool,
has been appointed tothe curatorship of the
Raffles Museum, at Singapore.
THe Evening Post states that the Her-
barium of Rousseau, composed of fifteen
quarto volumes in cardboard and contain-
ing about 1,500 plants, is about to be sold
at Orleans.
Av a recent sale in London, Gilbert
White’s Natural History of Selborne, the
author’s original manuscript, in the form of
letters to Thomas Pennant and Daines Bar-
rington, first printed in 1789, was sold for
£294. Themanuscript contains many pass-
ages not printed in the several editions, and
has never before been out of the possession
of the lineal descendants of the author.
A CATALOGUE of the Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society from 1824 to
1893 has been issued by Dulau & Co., Lon-
don. A large number of separate articles
are included. Especially worthy of note is
a paper on ‘ Observations on the Parallel
Roads of Glen Roy * * * with an attempt
to prove that they are of Marine Origin’
(1839), by Darwin, as also articles by Sir
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 22.
Humphrey Davy, William and Sir F.
Herschell, Sir E. Sabine, Sir David Brews-
ter, Faraday, Sir Richard Owen and Cayley.
Mr. Arrnaur M. Wetiineton, the well F
known engineer, died in New York at the
age of forty-eight.
Pror. E. Ray LANKESTER is giving a
course of four lectures at the Royal Insti-
tution on ‘Thirty Years’ Progress in Bio-
logical Science.’
Mrs. Ropert E. Prary delivered an
illustrated lecture based on her experiences
in the North on May 23. This lecture was
given under the auspices of the National
Geographic Society, which aided Lieut.
Peary in his first enterprise. The proceeds
of the lecture will be devoted to a fund
which is being raised to defray the expenses
of an expedition that will enable Lieut.
Peary to return to America. It is not be-
lieved, however, that he is in any immediate
danger. The expedition (which will cost
from $9,000 to $12,000, of which about $7,
000 has already been raised) will probably
start about July 5th, so as to reach Lieut.
Peary’s headquarters before September Ist.
Art the meeting of the Boston Scientific
Society, was held on May 28th, an address
on ‘Some Problems in the Use of Water
Power as Applied to the Electrical Trans-
mission of Power’ was delivered by Allan
V. Garratt.
Proressor DycuE, of Kansas University,
is starting for Greenland in search of speci-
mens of mammals and birds to add to his
collection.
CHANCELLOR JAMES HULME CANFIELD has
accepted a call to the presidency of the
Ohio State University, Columbus.
Aw infirmary in connection with Harvard
University, which is proposed as a me-
morial to Dr. Peabody, is projected, costing
not less than $12,000. President Eliot, in
the name of the overseers of Harvard Uni-
versity, has offered a site for the infirmary,
May 31, 1895.]
providing the money to build it can be
raised.
Dr. James E. Russert has been made
professor of pedagogy in the University of
Colorado.
Tue American Institute of Archeology,
which had already given a fellowship of
$600 to the American school at Athens,
voted a second fellowship of $600-$800 at
the semi-annual meeting of the committee
held at Middletown, Conn., on May 17th.
These scholarships will probably — be
awarded to students and graduates of the
codéperating colleges on competitive ex-
amination. The first examination will
probably be held at the end of a year.
Pror. E. §. Horpen has been made a
commander of the Order of the Ernestine
House of Saxony in recognition of his
services to science.
Dr. P. DancEarD has been appointed
professor of botany to the Faculty of
Sciences at Poitiers.— Nature.
We learn from the Naturwissenschaftliche
Rundschau that Prof. Overbeck of Greifswald
has been appointed professor of physics in
the University of Tiibingen as successor to
Professor Braun. Dr. Hermann Struve,
astronomer in the Observatory of Pulkowa,
has been made professor of astronomy in
the University of Kénigsberg; Prof. Koken
of Kénigsberg, professor of geology and
mineralogy in Tiibingen; Prof. Hauser of
Erlangen, Director of the Erlangen Anatom-
ical Institution; Prof. Brauns of Karlsruhe,
professor of geology and mineralogy in
Giessen, and Dr. Schutt of Kiel, professor
of botany in the University of Greifswald.
Proressor V. Knorr has been called to
the new chair of electro-chemistry in the
technical High School at Berlin-Charlotten-
burg.
Tue death is announced on May 4th of
Surgeon-Major Carter, F. R. S., also of
Prof. Manuel Pinheiro Chagas, General
SCIENCE.
615
Secretary of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Lisbon, at the age of fifty-three.
Ir is announced that Dr. J. P. D. John,
who resigned the presidency of De Pauw
University a few days ago, will be asked by
the trustees to reconsider his resignation.—
Evening Post.
THEOBALD Situ, M. D., has been elected
professor of applied zodlogy, and Henry
Lloyd Smythe assistant professor of mining,
in Harvard University.
Ar the semi-annual meeting of the trus-
tees of the American University it was an-
nounced that $127,300 had been subscribed
towards the erection of the first building
(the Hall of History), but that $150,Q00
were required. Those present at the meet-
ing subscribed and assumed the entire
deficiency.
Dr. Ros. Sacussg, assistant professor of
agricultural chemistry in Leipzig Univer-
sity, died on April 26.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, MAY.
The Modern Spectroscope, XII: WU LLIAM
Hveens. :
Dr. Huggins here describes the Tulse
Hill ultra-violet spectroscope. An earlier
arrangement of telescope and spectroscope
had consisted in exchanging the small mir-
ror of an eighteen-inch Cassegrain telescope
for a spectroscope with its slit in the prin-
cipal focus of the large mirror. Difficulties
of adjustment and the sacrifice of either
light or purity due to the restricted size of
the spectroscope led to the abandonment of
this form. The small speculum was re-
placed and the collimator was then inserted
in the hole through the large mirror. The
long equivalent focal length of the Casse-
grain form is of advantage where it is de-
sirable to have images of considerable di-
mensions upon the slit, while the instrument
itself and the building may remain of mod-
erate size.
616
On the Spectrographic Performance of the Thirty-
inch Pulkowa Refractor: A. BELOPOLSKY.
The work of the great refractor with a
spectrograph not well adapted to it com-
pares unfavorably with that of the new
thirteen-inch photographic telescope.
Note on the Spectrum of Argon: H. F. NewaLu.
A line spectrum obtained last year under
peculiar conditions of low pressure has been
identified as that of argon. A glass bulb
was sealed to a mercury pump and the air
exhausted. Two photographs, with an ex-
posure for each of thirty minutes, differed
in that the second showed the nitrogen
bands much weaker than the first, besides
containing lines since identified as those of
argon.
Preliminary Table of Solar Spectrum Wave-
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The table is continued from A 4414 to A
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The spectrum of the planet was photo-
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Remarks on Professor Pickering’s ‘Comparison
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A criticism of the Cambridge catalogues,
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The Short Wave-Lengths of the Spark Spectrum
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A Large Eruptive Prominence; On a Photo-
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Photographing the Solar Corona Without an
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CONTENTS :
A Dynamical Hypothesis of Inheritance (II.):
& JoHN A. RYDER........ urtecteere Sieweesee=< sOL7
Science in Canada: J.T. C....-. .--628
Carl Ludwig: FREDERICK S. LEE.............630
PERE PONTENOE S——) < x\a\e bvie 0 sien uieieisla dein ease ie sje 632
The Frog was not Brainless, but Decerebrized :
Burt G. WILDER. Text-book of Invertebrate
Morphology: J. PLAYFAIR MCMURRICH; A.
S. PACKARD. :
Scientific Literature :— .......++
|
| Kent’s Engineers’ Pocket- Book: :
'
sere eee
eeieisinteiaiasisies< Got
“ROW. Tae RS-
TON. Birderaft: C.H.M. Behren’s Anleitung
zur Microchemischen Analyse: E. RENOUF.
NOLES ANG NNEWS — ...cccscccccecnscancctcncer: 636
The American Association ; ; The British Associa-
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The Missouri Botanical Garden ; The Royal Astro-
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ICIENEHIC JOUTNAIS2—...0.cccccae cescvnccverss 642
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A DYNAMICAL HYPOTHESIS OF INHERIT-
ANCE (II.).
THE egg cannot be isotropic—as follows
from observation as well as experiment—in
the sense in which the word isotropy is used
by physicists of repute. If the egg is a dy-
namical system it cannot be isotropic or ab-
solutely the same throughout, or along
every possible radius from its center, as is
proved by its reactions in respect to its sur-
roundings. Itmay, however, be potentially
zolotropic in directions parallel toa certain
axis, as experiment has shown by separa-
ting the cells that result from segmentation
of the egg. Such fragments, if in excess of
a certain minimal size, will undergo a larval
development of apparently normal char-
acter. But this result is fatal to the ordi-
nary corpuscular hypotheses, according to
which every future part is represented in
the chromosomes by certain hypothetical
corpuscular germs. It has, indeed, been
shown by Loeb that larval development of
portions of an egg can go on whether the
divisions be equal or unequal or in any
radius. This seems to indicate that an egg
is not necessarily isotropic in the undivided
state, but that the moment that separation
of its mass has occurred there is a readjust-
ment of the relations and potentialities of
its molecules simulating that of the original
entire egg. The very definition of isotropy,
as given by one author (Lord Kelvin),
states that it may be assumed only of a
spherical mass of matter whose properties
are absolutely the same along every one of
the infinite number of radii drawn from its
center outward, and, as tested by any means
whatsoever, shows that such a condition
cannot be assumed, on the ground of obser-
vation alone, of any known egg. The con-
dition of the egg we must therefore also as-
sume from its known properties to be seolo-
tropic, or different along every one of the
618
infinite number of radii drawn from its
center. When we make this assumption,
however, we need not necessarily assume
that nucleated fragments that will still de-
velop into larve after division of the oos-
perm, natural or artificial, must be isotropic.
They may be eolotropic from the beginning,
but in precisely the same way in each case,
as a result of the successive cleavages of the
germ-mass, by means of planes that cut each
other at right angles, as in the diagram Fig.
1, where each of the four segments are pre-
cisely alike from the pole a to that of b.
Fie. 1.
The unlikeness of the pole a from 6 is indi-
cated by the stippling. This unlikeness
would manifestly be unimpaired by segmen-
tation of the germ into four quadrants by
the first two cleavages, as shown in the dia-
gram. The same might hold of octants of
the spherical germ. Here the initial
embryo, the relations of which to that
already formed alongside of it will be modi-
fied by the statical conditions of surface-
tension afforded by the adjacent embryo or
the underlying yoke, or by both combined.
This is beautifully illustrated by a host of
facts. Double toes must have so arisen, as
is proved by the direct experiments of
Barfurth, some of which I have repeated,
as well as by what happens when the toes
of an Axolotl are persistently nibbled off
by another animal, when duplication may
not only take place in the horizontal plane
of the foot or hand, but also in the vertical
one. In this way a number of supernum-
erary toes may be caused to arise from a
single stump, provided the re-growth of the
toe be so interfered with as to compel
regeneration from two terminal re-
generative surfaces instead of one. This
must follow from the law demonstrated by
Barfurth’s experiments, namely, that the
regeneration of an organ tends to occur uni-
formly over and in a direction normal to
the regenerating surface. In this way it is
possible to mechanically determine the di-
rection in which a regenerated part shall be
reproduced by merely making changes in
the angular relations of the plane of the re-
generating surface to that of the axis of the
body, as indicated by the diagram in Fig. 2
of the regenerated tail of a tadpole. Here
Fic. 2.
the line I indicates the plane along which
the tail has been removed, upon which re-
generation will restore the tail straight
JuNE 7, 1895.]
backward to the dotted area a. If the
plane of section is along the line II the tail
will regenerate upward so as to be restored
over the area indicated by the dotted line
enclosing 6. If the plane of section of the
tail be along III the tail will be regenerated
downward to the dotted line enclosing the
area c. It is therefore evident that Bar-
furth’s law determines the inclination of the
axis of the regenerated part to the body-
axis, through the different conditions of
surface tension that must be set up over re-
generating surfaces, whenever the inclina-
tion of these to the axis of the whole or-
ganism is changed.
New equilibria of surface tension estab-
lished reciprocally between the cohering
but independently developing segments of
the odsperm of the sea-urchin, that have
been imperfectly separated by mechanical
or other means, also cause changes to be
produced in the forms of the single larve
of such coherent groups, and in the spicular
skeleton, for the same reason, as is proved
by Figs. 23 to 25 given by Professor Loeb.*
Those figures also illustrate the thesis that
the xolotropy of the distinctly developing
segments of the egg must be nearly the
same, and that component or resultant equi-
potential surfaces are developed by the in-
teracting molecular machinery of such co-
herently developing or compound larve.
The angular divergence of duplicated tails
and toes as well as the axes of monstrous
embryos is explained by Barfurth’s discoy-
ery, taken together with the principle that
division of a germ does not change the
eolotropy of its segments. If this inter-
pretation is the correct one, the origin of
supernumerary digits must be traced back
to mechanical disturbances of the processes
of ontogeny. The rationale of the manner
in which divergent supernumerary toes
may be produced is shown in Fig. 3, repre-
* Biological Lectures (No. I11.). Delivered at Woods
Holl, Mass., in 1893. Ginn & Co., Boston.
SCIENCE. 621
senting the regenerating toes of the foot of
a salamander.
If the toes were cut straight across at
the points I., II., I1I., IV., the toes would
regenerate normally. If, however, the re-
generating surfaces were divided into two
areas in each case by a line along which re-
generation were prevented, two toes would
arise from each surface. The angular
divergence of the pairs of supernumerary
toes thus produced would be measured by
the angular inclination to one another of
the two areas at the end of each original
toe that was thus doubly regenerated. In
other words, supernumerary digits are the
results directly or indirectly of something
akin to mutilations. That such duplica-
tions may be produced by mutilations there
can be no doubt, and of their transmission
by inheritance to offspring there is also no
doubt. These facts make it probable at
any rate that regeneration of distal parts,
and the likelihood with which they reappear
in duplicate, is due to causes similar or
identical in character with those that lead
to the production of double monsters, by
shaking, mutilation or other physical inter-
ference with the normal development of the
odsperm. The question of the inheritance
of mutilations is consequently far from be-
ing concluded as viewed from this new
standpoint. Much evidence might be ad-
duced in support of my contention did space
allow. The hereditary transmission of
such monstrosities as supernumerary digits
622
is well known, and it is a singular fact that
it is only the outer digits, 7. e., minimus and
pollex, or hallux, or those most exposed to
the liability of injury during development,
that are, as a rule, duplicated. If the fore-
going view is correct, the origin of super-
numerary digits is not always to be ascribed
to reversion. It must not be understood,
however, that the theory is here defended
that mutilations effected after adolescence
is reached are likely to be transmitted.
The ‘mutilations’ here referred to are
hardly to be regarded as such, but rather
as the results of mechanical interference or
disturbance of the statical equilibrium of
those parts of the developing germ that are
duplicated, as we see, in obedience to the
principle discovered by Barfurth.
Another dynamical factor in develop-
ment is so generally ignored that it must be
especially referred to here. I now refer to
the statical properties of the germinal sub-
stance in modifying development. Some of
its effects we have already taken note of
above. Karyokinesis has been shown by
Hertwig to be dominated by the principle
that the plane of division of a cellis always
at right angles to its greatest dimension, a
fact readily verified. The greatest dimen-
sion of the cell in turn is also often, if not
usually, determined by the conditions of
free and interfacial surface-tension mani-
fested between the members of a cellular
ageregate composing a segmenting egg.
This appears to have a determining effect
upon the plan of the cleavage. How far
and in what way the remarkable move-
ments of the centrosomes that occur during
cleavage, and that have been most exhaus-
tively studied by Professor E. G. Conklin,
regulate segmentation still remains to be
determined. There can, however, be but
one explanation of such movements, and
that must be a mechanical one, but its nature
is entirely unknown. Wilson has shown
that the conditions of free and interfacial
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 23.
surface-tension in Amphioxus vary in dif-
ferent eggs from some unexplained cause,
so that the earlier cleavages of this form~
also vary to a corresponding and remark-
able degree. In other cases surface-ten-
sional forces operate under similar recurring
conditions. In the fish-ege I have wit-
nessed the reappearance of the same or
similar interplay of statical energies thrice
in succession, so as to produce three similar
successive sets of formal changes in the egg
that are traceable to the action of simi-
lar statical agencies. In A, Fig. 4, the
ms
Fie. 4.
germ a has assumed a lenticular form of
statical equilibrium; after segmentation of
the same disk has proceeded some way, as
in B, the disk, as a cellular aggregate, has
again assumed the lenticular form of equi-
librium, while the outermost row of cells, ec,
are individually in a similar condition of
equilibrium.
These facts are quite sufficient to estab-
lish the general truth of the statement that
at no stage is the ontogeny of a species ex-
empt from the modifying effect of the sur-
face-tensions of its own plasma acting be-
tween the cells as if they were so much
viscous dead matter. Such statical effects
are not overcome at any stage of the devel-
opment, or even during the life of any or-
ganism. On account of the universal pres-
ence and effect of this factor in both the
plant and animal worlds, as a modifier of
form, we are obliged to consider it as an
agent of the first importance in the possible
development of the future science of exact
dynamical morphology. Its action is so
Se ey ee ee eee
JUNE 7, 1895.]
constant an accompaniment of development
that the forces of the latter may be divided
into the kinetogenetic, or those that develop
movement, and the statogenetic, or those
that develop rest or equilibria, amongst the
partsof thegerm. The kinetogenetic forces
are the consequences of metabolism, but
the statogenetic forces, though dependent
upon metabolism, are produced as a conse-
quence rather of the interaction of the sur-
face layers of the plasma of the cells, con-
templated as if they were small cohering
masses of viscous dead matter. These
masses are separated, in the organism or
germ, by interfacial planes, free and inter-
facial curved surfaces that are the results
of segmentation and growth, and the extent
of the areas of which obey a law first pointed
out in relation to soap-bubbles by the blind
physicist Plateau, who showed that such
bubbles tended to form interfacial films and
surfaces, wherever in contact with each
other, of an area that was the minimal con-
sistent with their statical equilibrium.* In
this connection it may also be remarked
that, inasmuch as the cells of a germ or or-
ganism are always in statical equilibrium,
their surface layers of molecules also always
represent complex systems of equipotential
surfaces, no matter how intricate the form
of the organism may be. Since the equi-
libria between the molecules of the surface
layers of cells can normally be disturbed
only by the metabolism incident to physio-
logical activity, it is evident that the figure
of the organism must ultimately be ascribed
to the action of metabolism or to the func-
tions of the organism as affecting the phys-
ical properties of its plasma.
A statical equilibrium in a living cell
may be one in which it is not in contact
with others at any point on its surface, as
* Some interesting applications of the geometrical
theory of radical axes and centers also apply here
that have never been studied in connection with the
phenomena of segmentation.
SCIENCE.
623
in the case of blood-corpuscles or disks.
Or a cell may be greatly extended in one
direction, as in the case of the axis-cylinder
of a nerve-cell, owing to very unequal sur-
face-tensions developed in one or more di-
rections so as to draw it out into a condi-
tion of equilibrium, in assuming which it
acquires a greatlength. Formal changes in
cells, no matter how irregular these may
become, must be due to alterations of sur-
face-tension due to molecular transforma-
tions at certain points on the surface 6f
globular or polyhedral embryonic cells.
The final mature form of a cell is a conse-
quence of the assumption of a statical equi-
librium amongst its parts, due to the nature
ofits metabolism and its consequent molecu-
lar structure. The statogenetic factors of
development are therefore of just as much
importance as the kinetogenetic, or those
involving motion. The statical forces that
are developed in individual cells also act
reciprocally between all of the cells of the
organism, so that in this way the effect of
statogeny extends throughout the entire
organism.
If there were no such statical forces to be
overridden by the purely kinetic ones de-
veloped by the molecular transformations
and consequent motions incident to metab-
olism, provided the latter, together with
assimilation, took place, during develop-
ment, with great rapidity, the ontogeny of
an organism would take place with such
swiftness that it could not be successfully
studied by embryologists. In other words,
ontogeny would take place in the twinkling
of an eye, and organisms as large as whales
might even mature in an instant, provided
the coefficients of viscosity and surface-ten-
sion of their plasma were to fall nearly to
zero, while assimilation and metabolism
proceeded with infinite rapidity.
It follows also from what has preceded
that we can now form some idea why ap-
parent rejuvenescence occurs in every on-
624
togeny. Every germ must, for assignable
reasons, begin its existence in the original,
highly complex, zolotropic condition of the
plasma of its species. It must therefore
begin its career somewhat in the guise of
the mechanically unspecialized plasma of a
remote unicellular ancestor. Unlike that
ancestor, however, the cells that result from
its growth and segmentation cohere until a
multicellular aggregate results, the different
regions of which fall into certain statical
states in relation to one another and to the
earth’s centre, in virtue of the action of the
forces of cohesion, friction, gravitation, ete.
The different regions of such an aggregate
now adjust themselves to the surroundings
in such a way that nearly constant effects
of light, heat, etc., begin to control or affect
the functions of such an aggregate dynamic-
ally through its metabolism. Function,
thus conditioned, asserts itself under the
stress of mechanical adaptation or adjust-
mentthat becomes increasingly complex with
every advance in ontogeny. Every step in
ontogeny becomes mechanically adaptive
and determinative of the next. It is thus
only that we can understand the wonderful
molecular sorting process that goes on in
ontogeny, for which others have invoked
infinite multitudes of needless ‘ gemmules,’
‘pbiophors’ and ‘ determinants.’
It is the whole organism that develops in
continuity or codrdination ; not its nuclei,
centrosomes, and asters only. The whole
organism, molecularly considered, is as
fixed and immutable, within variable limits,
as a crystal. Its development, moreover,
becomes intelligible only if we contemplate
its ontogeny somewhat as we would the
growth of a crystal, with the additional
supposition that its growth is not condi-
tioned by forces operating along straight
lines having a constant angular divergence
as in the latter. On the contrary, living mat-
ter is capable of developing curved bound-
ing surfaces in consequence of the perma-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 23.
nently mobile nature and cohesion of its
molecules, that, as a complex dynamical
mechanism, can operate so as to tell off the
tale of its transformation in but one way, in
consequence of the order and way in which
the energy of its constituent molecules is
set free during ontogeny. Upon the com-
pletion of ontogeny a phrase is reached in
which the income and outgo of metabolism
is in equilibrium. The duration of life de-
pends upon the length of time that this
equilibrium can be maintained without fatal
impairment of the harmonious operation of
its mechanism under the stress of the dy-
namical conditions of life. This may be
considered the cause of death, so that the
length of the life of the individual is deter-
mined by the possible number of harmo-
nious molecular transformations of which its.
plasma is capable as a mechanism.
The doctrine that cells undergo differen-
tiation in relation to other adjacent cells, or
that the destiny of a cell is a function of its
position (Driesch), is no doubt true. Ney-
ertheless, we have in organisms machines of
such complexity, dynamical potentiality,
and power of transformation, that in com-
parison a study of the theories of erystal-
lography is simplicity itself. In organisms.
we have the polarities of head and tail,
stem and root, right, left, dorsal and ven-
tral aspects, as definitely marked out as.
are the relations of the axes of crystals. In
the organism we have diffuse, intussuscep-
tional growth in three dimensions, by means
of the osmotic interpolation of new mole-
cules, whereas, in the crystal, growth is
superficial, but consequently also tri-dimen-
sional. In the organism the molecules are
mobile within limits ; in the crystal they are
fixed. Nevertheless, we may justly regard
organisms as developing after the manner
of crystals, but with the power of very
gradually varying their forms by means of
variation in the structure, forms and pow-
ers of their constituent molecules, in the.
JUNE 7, 1895.]
course of many generations of individuals.
This variation may be directed by the
concurrence of a series of natural conditions
operating dynamically (natural selection).
Or, interbreeding and crossing, with care
or under Nature, may unite by means of
reciprocal integration (fertilization) two
molecular mechanisms whose total struc-
ture and sum when thus united, as in sex-
ual reproduction, may vary by the mere
combination of the two dynamical systems
(egg and sperm), differing slightly from one
another in potentiality. Finally, adaptive
changes may be called forth dynamically in
the internal structure of such developing
reciprocally integrated systems that must
be traced back to changes in the mechanism
of metabolism of the parent as well as in
the germs it gives off. Such changes pro-
duced in the germ must become visible in
the effects they produce, as transmitted for-
mal changes exhibited in the course of de-
velopment.
The tendency or trend of development,
however, of a given form must be pretty
constant, and controlled within compara-
tively narrow limits by the initial adult or
attained structure. That is, what has been
attained must formally affect that which is
to be attained in future. This is the idea
that underlies the Vervollkommnungs-Princip,
principle of perfecting, of Nageli. This
view also tacitly recognizes the theory of
change of function proposed by Dohrn, as
well as the theories of substitution, super-
position and epimorphosis of Kleinenberg,
Spencer and Haacke. Once a condition of
stable equilibrium has been reached in the
series of transformation of the molecular
_ mechanism represented by the germ, dur-
ing the development of an organism, we may
have what Eimer has called Genepistasis, re-
sulting in the fixity or stability of an or-
ganic species, under stable conditions.
The cell is a complete organism, but it
loses its physiological and morphological
SCIENCE.
the centrosome as focal points.
625
autonomy when combined with other cells.
We may regard the nucleus, cytoplasm and
centrosome as reciprocally related parts;
one of them not much more important than
the others. The observed behavior of the
centrosome would indicate, as Verworn has
held, that it is the important agent in cellu-
lar metabolism. If this is true, metabolism
has certain centers in the cell to and from
which molecular transformations are ef-
fected rythmically in every direction, with
This view
agrees perfectly with the facts, since the
rays of the asters may be regarded as the
morphological expression of a dynamical
process of intermolecular diffusion due to
metabolism, as Kolliker has suspected ( Ge-
webelehre, 6th ed.).
Such a process would not only serve to
alter the surface and interfacial-tensions of
the cells during ontogeny, but also vary the
osmotic pressure within them. Conse-
quently, we may conceive that all of the
phenomena of development, including the
appearance and disappearance of cavities
within a germ by changing conditions of
osmosis, may receive a dynamical explana-
tion. The centrosomes may, moreover, be
conceived to lie at the foci of very complex
material figures, the boundaries of which
are finite equipotential cellular surfaces.
These focal points are clearly near or within
the nuclei. The equipotential surfaces de-
veloped by the sorting or readjusting pro-
cess that goes on during segmentation in
order continually and rythmically to re-
store the dynamical equilibrium of the molec-
ular germinal aggregate as a mechanically
constructed system during life and develop-
ment, through growth and metabolism,
must maintain the shapes of organisms as
we see them. The epigenetic theory of in-
heritance therefore promises us a secure
basis upon which to found a theory of the
mechanics of development, as well as a
theory of the origin of morphological types.
626
The theory of life may indeed be regarded
as having its foundations in cellular, inter-
and intra-cellular mechanics and dynamics
as conditioned by ontogentic metabolism.
The fact that centrosome, nucleus and cy-
toplasm are represented almost coexten-
sively with the presence of life itself is
proof that the fundamental machinery of
organization must be the same in the prin-
ciples of its action, no matter how widely
its forms may differ from one another.
The theory that the surface layer of
molecules of organisms, whether interior or
exterior, are in equilibrium also carries with
it the idea that the configuration of all
organs and organisms are merely the ma-
terial expression of gradually built up equi-
potential surfaces. This gives us a far
more rational foundation for a theory of
general morphology than the hypothesis of
gemmaria proposed by Haacke. During
growth and metamorphosis these equipo-
tential surfaces undergo formal changes in
size and shape, due to the internal processes
of molecular transformation or metabolism.
But such changes are continuous, and one
stage or form passes into the next palpable
one through an infinite number of slightly
different forms. Examples of such surfaces
may be seen in any organism, vegetable or
animal, and at any stage of thesame. The
principle istherefore of universalapplication.
Summary.—Preformation of any organ-
ism in the germ has no foundation in fact.
All that it is possible to account for upon
the basis of a theory of preformation may
be much more logically and scientifically
accounted for upon the ground of dynamical
theory. Such a theory must deny the ex-
istence of separate corpuscles or gemmules
of any sort in the germ, whose business it
is to control development. All that is re-
quired is the assumption of a determinate
ultra-microscopic molecular mechanism, the
initial structure of which determines all of
its subsequent transformations. The pres-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 23.
ent theory also denies that there is or can
be anything passive in the germ that enters
into its composition.
_ A dynamical hypothesis of inheritance is
correlated with all the facts of physiology.
It is in harmony with the dynamical theory
of sex, that sees only in sexuality the means
developed by another dynamical process
(natural selection ) that increases the powers
of a compound germ to survive and vary.
It is consistent with the facts of morpho-
logical super-position, with the dynamical
theory of the limit of growth, and duration
of life of organic species. It is also consis-
tent with the view that the initial or poten-
tial states of the germs of species are those
that must result whenever they are relieved
from physiological service to the parent or-
ganism. The apparent continuity of germ-
plasm is, in many cases, only an effect of
the equilibration of the forces of the organ-
ism, and has no further significance. It
must also deny any assumed isotropy of the
germ as inconsistent with fact. It assumes
that the zeolotropy of the molecular struc-
ture of the germ is followed by a gradually
increasing simplification of molecular struc-
ture of organs as these are built up. Metab-
olism is assumed to be the sole agent in
effecting the mechanical and dynamical re-
arrangement or sorting of the molecules
into organs during development. Specially
endowed corpuscles or ‘biophors’ are not
only needless as conditioning form or func-
tion, but also outof the question, dynamically
considered. No creature can be supposed
to have its life or germinal properties asso-
ciated only with certain corpuscles within
it, since we cannot suppose an organized
whole dominated by a portion of it; it is
not possible, for example, to conceive of in-
dividual life except from the entire organ-
ism that manifests it. There can be no
‘pbiophors ’—bearers of life; the whole or-
ganism must do that as an indivisible unit.
Corpuscular doctrines of inheritance are
JUNE 7, 1895.]
merely a survival in philosophical hypothe-
sis of a pre-Aristotelian deus ex machina.
The dynamical hypothesis rejects the deus
ex machina, but finds a real mechanism in
the germ that is an automaton, but that is
such only in virtue of its structure and the
potential energy stored up within it. Every
step in the transformation of such a mech-
anism is mechanically conditioned within
limits by what has preceded it, and which
in turn so conditions within limits what is
to follow, and so on forever through a suc-
cession of descendants. The theory of
equipotential surfaces, as here applied to
organisms, leads to a theory of general mor-
phology that holds of all living forms, and
that is at the same time consistent with the
facts of development.
EXPLANATORY NoTE TO PARAGRAPH ON PAGE 618.
It now appears that the statement that the quarters
or eighths of an odsperm are to be regarded as ‘ mole-
cular mechanisms of precisely the same type of po-
tentiality ’ as the whole egg, must be taken with con-
siderable qualification. Loeb (Ueber die Grenzen
der Theilbarkeit der Eisubstanz, Archiv fiir Ges.
Physiologie, vol. L.IX., 1894) has shown that the eggs
of echinoderms, if artificially divided, by means of a
method of his devising, into quarters or eighths, lose
the power of developing beyond the blastula stage.
This would appear to indicate that if the egg is sub-
divided so as to have its parts fall below a certain size,
these parts no longer have locked up within them, as
molecular mechanisms, as Loeb points out, enough
potential energy to transform themselves into com-
pletely equipped larvee. Or, perhaps, the initial
zolotropy of the egg does not permit of its subdivision
into quarters and eighths without impairing their
structure and powers of development.
My own recent experiments have shown that it is
possible to incubate for some time the germ of the
bird’s egg outside of the egg-shell in a covered glass-
dish. These experiments also show that restraints to
growth developed by the dying of a film of albumen
over the germ causes it to be most extraordinarily
folded, with many abnormal tumor-like growths from
both entoderm and ectoderm, that differ, however, in
histological character from the cells of both these
layers. These experiments also prove that it is pos-
sible to mechanically divide the germ of the warm-
blooded Avian type into halves or quarters, and to
have these continue to develop for a time.
SCIENCE.
627
The converse of the process of mechanical division
of the germ we have in Bor’s remarkable experi-
ments in cutting recently-hatched Amphibian em-
bryos in two, and placing the separated halves again
in contact under such conditions as to cause them to
grow together, or even to thus graft the half of a larva
of one species upon that of another. Thatsuch graft-
ing is possible, I can testify, asa result of a repetition
of some of the experiments. See Born’s paper in
Schlessischen Gesellsch. f. viterliindische Cultur : Medi-
cinische Section, 1894. pp. 13. Supplementing Born’s
results are Roux’s experiments on eytotropism, or the
reciprocal attraction of isolated blastomeres of Am-
phibian eggs (Archiv f. Entwickelungsmechanik, L.,
1894), if brought close together, though at first not in
actual contact. There is also some evidence of
asexual caryotropism as witnessed in the conjugating
nuclei of the cells of the intestinal epithelium of land-
Isopods (Ryder and Pennington, Anéit. Anzeiger,
1894).
The experiments of O. Schultze (Anat. Anzeiger,
Ergiinzungsheft zum Bd. IX., pp. 117-132, 1894), by
very slowly rotating in a mechanically fixed position
the segmenting eggs of Amphibians on a specially
constructed clinostaf, with the result of disorganizing
and killing them, show that such eggs are not
isotropic. His production of double monsters in such
ova by disturbing, for a time, their geotropic relations,
is also significant, while his conversion of the mero-
blastic amphibian egg into a holoblastic, evenly seg-
menting one by merely rotating it through 180° out
of its normal geotropic relation, and allowing it-to
complete its segmentation in an inverted position,
proves that. the egg can be made structurally homo-
genous by mere mechanical means, but at the expense
of its power to complete its development. This is
further proof that the egg is not isotropic in the sense
in which that word is used by natural philosophers.
Since the appearance of the short but important
paper by Prof. E. B. Wilson and A. P. Mathews
(Jour. of Morphology, Vol. X., No. 1, 1895), in which
they deny the existence of the centrosome, it becomes
necessary for me to explain that the word ‘centro-
some’ is used in the text in the sense in which they
use the expression ‘attraction spheres.’ Their dis-
covery that the ovocenter, or attraction sphere of the
egg, disappears after the expulsion of the two polar
cells in echinoderm eggs, to be replaced by the sperm-
center, is of the greatest significance, and may ex-
plain the reason why parthenogenetic eggs develop,
namely, as a consequence of their retention of an
ovocenter. The new facts that these two able work-
ers have disclosed are entirely in harmony with a
dynamical theory of fertilization and sex.
Joun A. Ryper.
628
SCIENCE IN CANADA.
THE awakening from long indifference
as to the constant wasting, from various
causes, of the timber resources of this conti-
nent, which some dozen years ago gave
rise to a series of forestry congresses, has
produced a considerable mass of literature,
mainly economic, but to some extent also
scientific, in Canada as well as in the United
States. Not only the Dominion, but the
provincial authorities as well, took action
on the matter for the purpose of at once
arresting wanton destruction of still exist-
ing forests, of re-afforesting denuded areas
and of planting trees in the scantily tim-
bered region between the Great Lakes and
the Rocky Mountains. Something has also
been done in the introduction of varieties,
for sanitary and ornamental uses, from the
like climates of the Old World. The scien-
tific societies have done their share in keep-
ing alive the interest created by this far-
reaching movement. The latest of the
monthly meetings of the Natural History
Society of Montreal was devoted to this
subject, the Hon. J. K. Ward having
réad a comprehensive paper on ‘ Canada’s
timber resources and lumber industry.’
Mr. Ward’s paper was largely historical
and economic. He gave an interesting
sketch of the lumber business from the year
1667, when the first timber ship was des-
patched from Canada to Europe; spoke of
the relations between lumbering and colo-
nization and touched on the great wealth of
precious timber growing in Canada west of
the Rockies. The lecture was scientific in-
directly only and in its suggestions.
In view of the agitation for the admis-
sion of the island of Newfoundland into
the Dominion, it may be of interest to re-
call that Mr. B. L. Robinson and Mr. Her-
mann Schrenk, of Harvard University,
made a botanical exploration last July and
August through the Exploits Valley and
other parts of that island. They obtained
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 23.
more than 7,000 specimens of flowering
plants and vascular cryptogams, as well as
CGneidentally) a number of thallophytes.
What is especially noteworthy, as parallel
phenomena are well known in Canada, is
that though the Exploits Valley is more
than 200 miles north of St. John’s it
“showed a richer and more advanced vege-
tation, indicative of a deeper soil and milder
climate.’ The report was published in the
Harvard Graduates’ Magazine.
A society that is destined to give a fruit-
ful impetus to botanical research in the
Dominion is the Botanical Club of Canada,
which originated in a recommendation of
the Fourth Section (Biology and Geology)
of the Royal Society of Canada, at the an-
nual meeting held in Montreal, in May,
1891. It is, however, entirely independent
of that Society, with which it holds only
the relations common to the other associated
scientific societies of the Dominion. “ The
objects of the Club are to adopt means, by
concerted local efforts and otherwise, to
promote the exploration of the flora of
every portion of British America, to publish
complete lists of the same in local papers as
the work goes on, and to have these lists
collected and carefully examined in order
to arrive at a correct knowledge of the pre-
cise character of our flora and its geograph-
ical distribution.” This Club comprises
Newfoundland (as does the Royal Society of
Canada), not only in the scope of its opera-
tions, but by official representation. Prof.
George Lawson, Ph. D., LL. D., of Halifax,
N.5S., is president; Dr. A. H. MacKay, B.
Se., Halifax, is general secretary-treasurer.
Prof. D. P. Penhallow, B. Se., MeGill Uni-
versity, is secretary for the province of
Quebec; Dr. J. A. Merton Wingham, for
Ontario; Dr. A. H. MacKay, for Nova
Scotia; Mr. G. U. Hay, M. A., Ph. D., St.
John, for New Brunswick; Mr. Francis
Bain, North River, for Prince Edward Is-
land; Rey. A. C. Waghorne, St. John’s,
JUNE 7, 1895.]
for Newfoundland; Rey. W. A. Burman, B.
D., Winnipeg, for Manitoba; Mr. T. N.
Willing, Calgary, for Alberta; Rev. C. W.
Bryden, Battleford, for Saskatchewan; Mr.
A. J. Pineo, B. A., High School, Victoria,
for British Columbia. The foregoing officers
were elected on the 25th of May, 1894.
An interesting report of the work of the
year 1893-94 was presented at last year’s
May meeting of the Royal Society at Ottawa,
and is published in the Proceedings. What
is most striking in it is the evidence which
it affords that the creation of the Society
has proved an incentive to increased in-
dustry in field work in distant and out-of-
the-way places—in Newfoundland (special
attention being called to Mr. Waghorne’s
work), in the Territories, in British Colum-
bia and on Prince Edward Island. In
British Columbia 100 members had been
enrolled through Mr. Pineo’s efforts, and
1,400 species (of which 30 were new) col-
lected under the direction of Prof. Macoun.
In Nova Scotia the work was largely asso-
ciated with phenological observations. Be-
sides excellent local work, the operations in
Ontario included a series of papers by Mr.
James Macoun on the plants in the Her-
barium of the Geological and Natural His-
tory Survey at Ottawa, which appeared in
the Canadian Record of Science. In Quebec
the most important work done was that of
Prof. Penhallow, in the determination of
the species of American Coniferze by the
structure of the stem, a research of recog-
nized importance in the development of
phanerogamic botany. In all the provinces
the creation of the Club has already had a
marked educational effect, the more intelli-
gent teachers in many localities having en-
gaged with energy in the work. Before
the formation of the Club the only Canadian
institution whose operations covered the
Dominion was the Survey just mentioned,
to the botanical work of which Mr. Robin-
son makes laudatory mention in his Ex-
SCIENCE.
629
ploits Valley report. In all the older prov-
inces, however, there have long been scien-
tifie societies of whose objects botanical ex-
ploration formed a leading feature.
The gift by Mr. W. C. McDonald, of
Montreal, of thirty-five acres of convenient
and suitable land for the formation of a
Botanic Garden in connection with MeGill
University, must very materially aid in the
promotion of botanical research in Montreal
and will prove a prized boon to Prof. Pen-
hallow and his students. This gift, the
deeds for which were formally signed on the
3dinst.,is only one ofmany substantial proofs
that Mr. McDonald has given of his interest
in scientific education. At the convocation
of the University on the 30th ult. the vice-
principal was able to announce that, during
the session just closing, the students had for
the first time surpassed the thousand. That
this augmentation is largely due to the in-
creased attendance of the Scientific Facul-
ties (medicine, comparative medicine and
applied science) is an open secret. Ten
years ago the attendance did not reach five
hundred. As the vice-principal (Dr. Alex-
ander Johnson) pointed out, increase of
numbers, though desirable, is not the swm-
mum bonum. He hoped the time would
come when all graduates would be first of
all graduates in arts. Prof. Callendar,
without decrying Latin or Greek, depre-
cated the neglect by scientific students of
their mother tongue, which every student
of science should be able to write correctly
and clearly.
Professor Bovey, D. C. L., M. Inst. C. E.,
Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science, af-
ter saying that the students enrolled in his
Faculty this year numbered 187, an in-
crease of 15 per cent. over the previous
year, mentioned among recent improve-
ments a course in Kinematics (Professor
Nicholson); the addition of practical min-
ing and underground surveying to the
course in Mining Engineering (Professor
630
Carlyle); the establishment of graduates’
courses and arrangements made to facilitate
the prosecution of research work, so as to
take advantage of the splendid equipment
for that end now possessed by the Univer-
sity. This consists of laboratories of mathe-
matics and dynamics, fully provided with
instruments of measurement, gravity bal-
ances, machines for experimenting on the
laws of motion, ete.; three chemical labora-
tories for qualitative and quantitative work
and for original investigation, and supplied
with Becker & Son (4) and Bunge (1) bal-
ances; a Troemner bullion-balance ; a Lau-
rent polariscope, Dubosq spectroscope, etc. ;
the McDonald physical laboratory of five
stories, each 8000 square feet area, includ-
ing elementary and special laboratories for
heat and electricity; rooms for optical work
and photography; two large laboratories
arranged for research, with solid piers and
the usual standard instruments, etc.; the
electric laboratory, with Kelvin electric
balances, a Thomson galvanometer, two
dynamo-meters (Siemens), voltmeters, am-
meters, ete.; the magnetic laboratory, the
dynamo room, the lighting station, the ac-
eumulator room, geodetic, hydraulic test-
ing, thermo-dynamic and mechanical labor-
atories. The McDonald Engineering Build-
ing and its equipment were the gift of the
same generous friend of scientific education
whom McGill University has just thanked
for its botanic garden. Mr. McDonald also
contributed liberally towards the erection
of the workshops built on the endowment
of the late Thomas Workman, merchant, of
Montreal. These consist of machine shop,
foundry, smith shop and carpenter, wood-
turning and pattern-making departments,
and are intended, under the direction of
the professor of mechanical engineering, to
familiarize the student with the materials
and implements of construction.
Although Prof. Milne (whose recent loss
every friend of science deplores) and other
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 23.
seismologists are wont to class the earth
movements of the United States and Canada
under a common head, Canada has had a ~
fair proportion of such disturbances all to
herself. Every student. of Canada’s annals
has had his attention drawn to the series of
earthquakes which caused such consterna-
tion in the year 1663, and its extraordinary
moral effects. On the 17th ult. a shock
varying from severe to slight or barely per-
ceptible was felt on both sides of the St.
Lawrence, though mainly on the south side
in what are called the Eastern Townships.
Nearly two years ago a somewhat similar
shock was felt, and nearly at the same hour,
between eleven and noon. This earthquake
was distinctly felt in Montreal. The most
formidable visitation of the kind in recent
times occurred twenty-five years ago. It
cleared even the court rooms and filled the
streets with frightened groups.
The Royal Society of Canada met at Ot-
tawa on the 15th inst. A programme of
considerable scientific interest was gone
through.
The death of Mr. Walter H. Smith, well
known in Montreal for more than twenty
years as an astronomer and publisher of
Smith’s Planetary Almanac, is sincerely
regretted by all who knew him. He was
for many years connected with the Montreal
Witness, in which paper his contributions
on astronomical subjects were always read
with interest, and were widely reproduced.
He died on the 3d inst., in his forty-third
year. He was a native of Wiltshire, Eng-
land, but had lived more than half his life
in Canada. J. Die;
CARL LUDWIG.
WirHin a few months Germany and the
world have lost three great men, Helm-
holtz, Freytag and Ludwig. Of these three
Carl Ludwig, the physiologist, and the inti-
mate friend of the other two, died in Leip-
sic on April 27th, 1895, at the age of
JUNE 7, 1895. ]
seventy-eight, after a life rich in scientific
achievement.
The world at large can never realize the
great debt that the world of science, and
through it the world at large, owes to the
tireless brain and the skilful hand of this
modest Leipsic professor. Ludwig com-
bined, in an almost ideal manner and insep-
arably, great investigating power and great
teaching power. An investigator himself,
throughout the course of his busy life he
trained between two and three hundred in-
vestigators, and more than any other man
since Johannes Miiller he has directed the
course of physiological research. The num-
berless publications from his laboratory
bear the names of his pupils and rarely his
own, but the inscription, ‘Aus dem physio-
logischen Institut zu Leipsic,’ is the seal of
their worth.
Ludwig was a man of the broadest sym-
pathies and culture, restless and eager for
knowledge within or without the bound-
aries of his own science. But he was con-
tent to study specific problems and to refrain
from baseless and sweeping hypotheses. In
the fifty-three years of his constant labor
he left untouched few fields of the physiol-
ogy of his time, and he never delved lightly
or superficially. A record like his is rarely
equalled. To the end he maintained his
interest and activity fresh, and at the age of
seventy-five he wrote to an American
friend, ‘‘ Ueberall liegt so viel brach, iiberall
giebt es so viele Liicken, dass man bald
mehr Aufgaben als Krafte besitzt.”’
It was a memorable day for biology when
Ludwig conceived the idea of the kymo-
graph, the instrument used for recording
physiological movements, for the invention
of the kymograph marked the introduction
of the graphic method into physiology.
Ludwig once wrote, ‘‘ Observation and ex-
periment alone bring the light that illumin-
ates the secret ways ofnature.’’ The graphic
method has made observation and experi-
SCIENCE.
631
ment exact, and has revolutionized the bio-
logical sciences. Ludwig is responsible
for much of the apparatus of precision now
in use in physiological laboratories. To
him must be ascribed also the fruitful
method of separating single organs from the
rest of an animal body, and maintaining
them for study in a vital condition, a pro-
cess indispensable to the understanding of
function in a complicated organism.
Besides these additions to method, among
the more noteworthy of his many contribu-
tions to physiology, either alone or in con-
junction with his pupils, may be mentioned:
numerous facts and principles regarding the
dynamics of the circulation of the blood;
the details of the heart’s action; the loca-
tion of the vaso-motor centre ; the discovery
of the depressor nerve ; the mutual relations
of respiration and circulation ; the blood
gases ; many anatomical and physiological
advances regarding the lymphatic system ;
the secretory function of the chorda tym-
pani nerve ; the mutual relations of gland
secretion and blood circulation; gas exchange
and production of heat in tissues ; the pres-
ence of inosit, uric acid and other substan-
ces in the animal body; numerous facts
regarding the metabolism of specific tissues;
the course taken by the food-stuffs in ab-
sorption ; the minute physiological anatomy
of the kidney, the liver, the intestine, the
pancreas, the salivary glands, the heart, the
skin, ete.; many facts regarding general
muscle and nerve physiology, the central
nervous system and the special senses.
The leading events in Ludwig’s life are
as follows: Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Lud-
wig, the son of a Hessian army officer who
served in the Napoleonic wars, born in Wit-
zenhausen December 29th, 1816; studied in
Erlangen and Marburg; M. D., Marburg,
1839 ; prosector inanatomy, Marburg, 1841;
privat-docent in physiology, Marburg, 1842;
extraordinary professor of comparative anat-
omy, Marburg, 1846; professor of anatomy
632
and physiology, Zurich, 1849; professor of
physiology and zodlogy, Vienna, 1855; pro-
fessor of physiology, Leipsic, 1865.
Probably few American physiologists re-
ceived the news of Ludwig’s death without
a feeling of sadness far beyond that occa-
sioned by the losstoscience. Ludwig liked
America and Americans, and many of his
colleagues upon this side of the Atlantic
have been his pupils and have found in
him a warm personal friend. His wit, his
sympathy, his breadth of mind, his love of
books and of music, were conspicuous. To
work with him was to receive the undy-
ing stimulus of a master mind and to feel
the charm of a simple, sweet, winning per-
sonality.
FREDERIC §. LEE.
CoLUMBIA COLLEGE.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE FROG WAS NOT BRAINLESS BUT DECERE-
BRIZED.
In the report of the meeting of the Asso-
ciation of American Anatomists last De-
cember in Science for March 15, 1895, p.
297, it is said that ‘ Dr. Wilder exhibited a
Brainless Frog, etc.’ The animal shown
had been deprived of his cerebrum Dee. 7,
1894, for demonstration to my class in physi-
ology of the points first, I believe, observed
by Goltz. The brain was transected at the
diencephal (thalami) and the entire cere-
brum removed as described by mein 1886.*
The frog was unusually large and vigorous,
and was exhibited partly on that account,
and partly because when it dies the condi-
tion of the brain will be determined and re-
ported to the Association. At this writing,
however, it is still living and has been
*Remarks upon a living frog which was decere-
brized more than seven months ago. Amer. Neurol.
Assoc. Trans., 1886. Jour. Nerv. and Mental Dis.,
XIII, p. 30. (Abstracts in V. Y. Med. Record, July
31, 1886, SCIENCE, Aug. 7, 1886, and JDedical News,
Aug. 7, 1886. )
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 23.
photographed in various attitudes, amongst
others while maintaining its balance on a
cylinder by ‘backing’ instead of going for-
ward as usual.
The object of the present note is to repro-
bate the use of brainless and decerebrized as’
interchangeable terms. The latter alone
was used by me at the meeting, and was
accessible in type-writing to all who were
present. Nevertheless, both at that time
and afterward, there appeared many news-
paper paragraphs as to ‘Dr. Wilder’s
brainless frog.’ An attempt to correct the
misapprehension through the Associated
Press only made the matter worse, for I
was promptly credited with ‘another brain-
less frog.’
Perhaps, however, we ought not to con-
demn the popular confusion of terms too
strongly in view of the following example
among professional anatomists. At the
Tenth International Medical Congress in
Berlin, August 5, 1890, Professor Sir Wil-
liam Turner, F. R. S., ete., delivered an
address, the official title of which, as printed
in the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology for
October, is ‘The Convolutions of the
Brain ;’ the real subject is The Fissures of
the Cerebrum.
Burt G. WILDER.
ItHaca, N. Y., May 25, 1895.
TEXT-BOOK OF INVERTEBRATE MORPHOLOGY.
To THE EprTor oF Science: A reply to
a book review is undoubtedly in many cases
inadvisable, but there are certain state-
ments in the review of my Text-book of
Invertebrate Morphology in your issue of
May 3d which seem, as a matter of justice,
to call for some comment. 5- NH,-2 NH,O1
while the unsymmetrical one forms the am-
monium salt of orthocyanbenzenesulphonie
acid,
Cy Ha \Florida, referred to ‘ B. caribeum,’ has (385+
17+7—=) 59 myotomes. Inasmuch as no
other differential characters have been given,
it is evident that Dr. Andrews was mainly
influenced by the consideration of associ-
ation or geographical distribution rather
than morphological characters in the iden-
tification of the different specimens. The
relations of the forms of our coast, indeed,
still remain to be determined, and it is
doubtful whether any American forms will
prove to be conspecific with the European.
Specific characters may perhaps be found in
numerous details, e. g., the number and pro-
portions of the dorsal and ventral or sym-
podial rays, the development of the cirri
and skeletal bases; details of the velar ten-
tacles and gillbars, form of the caudal,
relative proportions of the various regions,
ete. But numerous as have been the me-
moirs on Branchiostoma lanceolatum, no de-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 24.
tailed study of variations has yet been
published. Until this is done much is left
undone. The material now in museums, ~
however, is generally insufficient for such
studies and should be especially prepared
therefore. If the labor of students, so often
frittered away in verifying oft-repeated
observations, could be in part directed to
such preparation and observation, a boon
to systematic zodlogy would be realized and
certainly no less would be the benefit to the
student. We may hope that Mr. Willey
will continue studies so well begun and
enlighten us on some of the many points
still obscure. That we are ignorant as to
the questions in point is not his fault.
The ancestry of the vertebrates is a fas-
cinating subject for consideration, and the
search for their nearest relatives began
early in the century. Before the lancelet
was known—at least as a vertebrate—Hti-
enne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire endeavored
to homologize constituents of the bodies of
insects and vertebrates. (We may here re-
mark that Mr. Willey has repeatedly refer-
red to the French naturalist as Saint Hi-
laire, but Saint Hilaire was only an ag-
nomen, the true cognomen or family name
being Geoffroy.) Long after the lancelet
had been carefully investigated, and indeed
very recently, a naturalist trained in mod-
ern methods, but who did not exercise a
‘scientific use of the imagination,’ actually
contended that the vertebrates had arach-
noid or rather limuloid ancestors! A less
extravagant view has been that Annelid
worms were nearest of kin to the vertebrate
ancestors, and this has gained several fol-
lowers. But the highly specialized character
of annelids and still more of arthropods
appears to forbid the serious consideration
of such conceptions. Much more probable
‘is the view that the nearest relatives of
typical vertebrates are the Tunicates.
This is the idea adopted by Mr. Willey,
who has accepted a ‘group’ called ‘ Proto-
: :
G
oe ed
JUNE 14, 1895.]
chordata’ and included thereunder three
divisions, (1) Hremrcnorpa, or Balanoglos-
sids, Cephalodiscids and Rhabdopleurids ; (2)
UrocuorbA, or Ascidians, and (3) CepHALo-
cHORDA, or Lancelets. It is the present fash-
ion to consider this affiliation as established,
but it has not been proven beyond cavil.
As a provisional hypothesis, however, it is
the best of those that have been proposed,
and there is no need to offer here any ob-
jections. Nevertheless, we should recall the
fact that the lancelets and all other so-called
* Protochordata’ must have very widely di-
verged from their common ancestors and
that some of the characteristics of the first
are probably the result of degeneration.
When, for example, we find a specialized
heart and auditory organs in Tunicates, as
well as in many true invertebrates (even
though they be not homologous), it is diffi-
cult to resist the inference that their ab-
sence in the lancelets is due to loss rather
than to original failure of development.
But now, with the necessary precautions
and much hesitancy, we may assent to the
possibility of the conclusions with which
Mr. Willey closes his work.
‘For the present we may conclude that
the proximate ancestor of the Vertebrates
was a free-swimming animal intermediate
between the Ascidian tadpole and Amphi-
oxus, possessing the dorsal mouth, hypophy-
sis, and restricted notochord of the former;
and the myotomes, ccelomic epithelium, and
straight alimentary canal of the latter.
The ultimate or primordial ancestor of the
Vertebrates [or Chordates] would, on the
contrary, be a worm-like animal whose or-
ganisation was approximately on a level
with that of the bilateral ancestors of the
Echinoderms.”
The length to which this notice has already
extended forbids attention to various other
features of Mr. Willey’s work. It must suf-
fice to add that the fourth and fifth sections
are devoted respectively to ‘the Ascidians ’
SCIENCE.
649
(pp. 180-241) and ‘the Protochordata in
their relation to the problem of vertebrate
descent’ (pp. 242-293). For these we owe
further thanks, and for all we feel assured
future students of the groups in question will
be grateful. TueEo. GILL.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY (IX.).
THE RITUAL CALENDAR OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
In the Globus, No. 18, 1895, Dr. E. Forste-
mann has one of his ingenious studies of the
Central American Calendar, this time that
portion of it called by the Nahuas the
Tonalamatl, or Book of Days. This consisted
of a period of 260 days, and strenuous efforts
have been made by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall and
other writers to treat it as a time-count,
that is, as an aliquot part of the computa-
tion of astronomical years and cycles.
In this article Dr. Férstemann shows that
this certainly ‘does not hold good for the
Tonalamatl as it constantly recurs in the
Mayan manuscripts. In them it appears to
be introduced for exclusively divinatory
purposes, a basis for predicting events re-
lating to persons or tribes, or else the
weather, wars, disasters, ete. Not unfre-
quently a multiple of the period is embraced
in the forecast, and very generally refer-
ence is made to the divinities assigned to
the subdivisions of the TYonalamatl. Or,
again, it is occasionally divided into its
fourths, fifths or tenths; and what is note-
worthy, the manuscripts present numerous
similarities in these respects, proving that
their writers were working on a like system
of horoscopy.
I may add that the result of this investi-
gation corroborates the position that I took
in my ‘ Native Calendar of Central America
and Mexico’ (Phila. 1893), in which I
maintained that the Tonalamatl was invented
for and practically exclusively applied to
divination, and not to the cyclical measure
of astronomical time.
650
THE TREE AND THE CONE.
Every one who has given the least atten-
tion to works on ancient Assyria is familiar
with the engraving which shows a winged
deity, holding in one hand a small basket
or bucket, and in the other something like
a pine cone, which he is generally present-
ing toward a tree. This used to be con-
strued as the ‘cherub’ offering the cone,
a symbol of reproduction, etc., to the ‘ sacred
tree’ of Babylonian mythology.
A few years ago Dr. E. B. Tylor advanced
the explanation that the true meaning is a
representation of the fertilization of the fe-
male date palm, artificially, by the agricul-
turist impregnating its flowers with the in-
florescence of the male tree. This was at
once accepted by many writers, while others
withheld their assent, asking why a winged
cherub instead of a mortal should be de-
picted; and still further pointing out that
this same ceremony is not rarely shown
where there is no tree at all, but, say, the
gate of a city, or some exalted personage,
like a king.
These arguments have been repeated
with emphasis by Dr. H. Bonavia in his re-
cent work, ‘The Flora of the Assyrian
Monuments’ (London 1894). He shows
that the bucket or basket is certainly a
bucket, intended for fluids, and inappropriate
to carrying flowers. He offers the very
plausible theory that it was designed to
contain holy water, and the cone was an
aspergillum, as it still is in the Hast. The
winged cherub is the rain-bringer typified,
ete.
This is far the most satisfactory interpre-
tation which has yet been offered, and allies
itself closely with numerous rites and myths
of ancient Mesopotamia.
NATIONAL VERSUS INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT.
Tue French have a knack of putting their
conclusions in an aphoristic form, which,
whether they are right or wrong, impresses
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 24
the mind. An example is the following
from a memoir by M. Dumont, published
by the Paris Society of Anthropology last
year:
“The inerease of a nation in numbers is
in inverse ratio to the efforts of its imdi-
vidual members toward personal develop-
ment.” f
Now, if this is true, it means the discovery
of a momentous law in sociology, which,
among other consequences, will do away
with all fears of over-population in free
and enlightened states. Its corollaries
would also dismiss both the dread of
socialism and likewise of unscrupulous in-
dividualism, which two are the Sceylla and
Charybdis of modern political economists.
Of course, ‘efforts toward personal de-
velopment’ must be construed as sensible
and properly directed efforts towards a de-
velopment which is really such, according
to the highest criteria we now have. ‘The
reasons why such efforts would necessarily
limit the numerical increase of a nation are
evident enough. Whether these in the
long run might not work as badly as the
laissez faire, or ‘go as you please’ policy,
is the question underlying this sociological
puzzle.
THE SOURCES OF PERUVIAN CIVILIZATION.
In a paper in the Denison Quarterly, Vol.
IIl., Dr. George A. Dorsey discusses ‘ The
Character and Antiquity of Peruvian Civi-
lization.’
He is inclined to assign it a greater age
than has usually been allowed it. He
would place its earlier periods contempora-
neous with ‘the golden age of Greece, or
when the people of the Nile valley were in
the zenith of their power.’
Generally, the historic or even the tradi-
tional cycles of the Quichuas are not sup-
posed to carry us beyond about 1000 A. D.
One historian, Montesinos, who names dy-
nasties far more remote than this, has been
cae: ea
JUNE 14, 1895.]
generally discredited, though he claimed
native sources for them; and it is fair to
add that we have no positive certainty how
the Quichuas, their knotted and colored
cords, the quipus, may have been. It has also
been more than once argued that there must
have occurred important modifications in
climate since the great temples and cities
on the cold plateaus were built, and har-
bored the large populations which must
have dwelt in them. This would require a
long period.
As Dr. Dorsey speaks from personal ob-
servations and extensive archeological ex-
plorations in Peru, his opinion, however at
variance with that usually entertained,
merits careful consideration.
D. G. Brinton.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY (IX.)
THE GLACIAL ORIGIN OF LAKE BASINS.
As tone as lakes are regarded simply as
locally deepened valleys, their explanation
by glacial erosion may be fairly maintained;
for when the problem is thus vaguely stated,
the requirements to be met by the theory
are so simple that the hypothesis of glacial
erosion finds perhaps better reasons for ac-
ceptance than any other hypothesis. But
as the facts to be explained are more care-
fully observed, they generally become more
highly specialized and more peculiarly cor-
related; and their glacial origin may then
be either confirmed or excluded. The pe-
culiar association of features described by
‘Lincoln (Amer. Jour. Sci., xliv., 1892, 290)
and by Tart (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., v.,
1894, 339), regarding Cayuga Lake, seems
on the one hand to demonstrate the glacial
excavation of this basin; but, on the other
hand, the extraordinary correlation of facts
determined by various observers around
Lake Zurich does not seem to be within
reach of explanation by so simple a process
SCIENCE.
great the value of the mnemonic system of
651
as glacial erosion. In spite of so good a
general argument for the competence of ice
action as has been presented by Bohm
(Verein zur Verbreit. Naturw. Kenntnisse
in Wien, xxxi., 1891, 477), and in spite of
the emphatic disapproval by J. Geikie of
various other processes that have been sug-
gested for the production of Alpine lakes
(Great Ice Age, 3d ed., ch. xix.), the origin
of Lake Zurich is certainly not to be ac-
counted for by generalizations at a dis-
tance, but only by a special process that will
fit all the facts found on the ground. Evi-
dence tending to this end has gradually been
accumulating for a number of years; but at
an accelerated rate since Heim and Bodmer
interpreted the meaning of the rock tet-
races on the valley sides, and since Penck,
DuPasquier and others deciphered the rec-
ords of the several glacial epochs on the
north slope of the Alps.
THE ORIGIN OF LAKE ZURICH.
Tue problem of Lake Zurich is presented
in a masterful manner by Aeppli in the
thirty-fourth number of the Beitrdge zur
Geologischen Karte der Schweiz, in brief as
follows: The valley of the Limmat, in which
the lake lies, was eroded in broad upland
over which the Deckenschotter of the first
glacial epoch had been previously spread.
That the erosion of the valley was performed
in the normal fashion by weather and water,
and not by ice, is shown by the graded ter-
races or rock benches, traceable more or
less continuously along its sides ; these ter-
races being independent of rock structure,
and associated with similar terraces in .
other valleys, all leading agreeably to the
conclusion that after the first glacial epoch
the region was generally elevated and the
streams thereby given increased power of
erosion. The Deckenschotter, where preserved
on the ridges between the adjacent valleys,
together with the terraces on the valley
slopes, are bent backwards across a belt six
652
or eight kilometers broad, so as to slope
towards instead of from the Alps; and the
deformation of the Deckenschotter and of the
earlier higher terraces is greater than that
of the lower and younger terraces, thus
proving the progressive action of the de-
forming forces. Associated with this change,
there was a general depression of the Molasse
belt, between the Jura and the Alps, and in
the depressed part of the valley of the
Limmat, thus generally outlined by the
latter process and locally deepened by the
former process, the lake had its birth.
The belt in which the terraces are deformed
crosses the valley somewhat obliquely, but
runs parallel to the strike of the general
Alpine deformations of the region. Into
the lake thus formed, the glaciers of the
second and third epochs advanced; but
they exercised so little destructive power
that they did not obliterate the terraces on
the valley sides. The lateral moraines of
the last epoch are distinctly discordant with
the terraces ; the moraines reaching succes-
sively higher and higher terraces up-stream,
and crossing the belt of deformation with-
out indication of disturbance. Outside of
the several terminal moraines, the former
lower end of the lake received the valley
gravels that were washed from the ice.
Hence while the later glaciers may have
acted to some degree in altering the form of
the lake, their chief effect was to diminish
its size by supplying plentiful gravels from
the inner Alps, with which a part of the
lake basin that they entered was filled.
TARNS OF THE ENGLISH LAKE DISTRICT.
J. E. Marr has examined the tarns or
smaller lakes of the mountainous district of
northwest England, and finds that their re-
puted dependence on rock basins is not jus-
tified by local study. They appear to re-
sult from drift obstructions, by which their
outlets have been turned to one side of the
former valley troughs and detained in dis-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 24,
charging the lakes by settling on rock ledges.
In many cases lakes of similar origin have
been converted into meadows when their
outlets did not depart greatly from the for-
mer valley line, and hence encountered only
drift in trenching new discharging channels
(Quart. Jour. [London] Geol. Soce., li.,
1895, 35-48). This does not bear so much ~
on the general question of glacial erosion as
on the particular question of the ability of
glaciers to form basins by local erosion in ex-
cess of their general action along their floor.
THE REGION ABOUT MUNICH.
In celebration of its twenty-fifth anniver-
sary, the Geographical Society of Munich
has issued a handsome volume of 440 pages,
containing a number of essays by Gunther, ~
Ratzel, Penck and others. Ratzel makes
the coast line of Maine 4,300 miles in actual
length; though a direct line from Eastport
to Kittery measures only about 200 miles.
The essay most likely to interest American
readers is on the geology of the region
about Munich by Ammon, illustrated with
a geological map, plate and cuts. It may
serve as a guide to excursions from this at-
tractive center; from few other points can
so many phases of piedmont glacial geology
and geography be seen to so good adyan-
tage. Wurm and Ammer lakes lie twenty
odd miles to the southwest, enclosed by the
younger morainic belt. Older moraines
stretch farther out from on the plain, es-
pecially to the east of the city ; and beyond
them are’ spread the flat confluent gravel
fans that are associated with various epochs
of ice advance. On the sloping plain stands
Munich, and across it the Isar and the Am-
per have trenched their new valleys. The
illustrations of morainic topography are
very characteristic. A good bibliography
accompanies the article; while on an ear-
lier page, Simonsfeld contributes a thirty-
page Bibliotheca geographica bavarica.
W. M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
2 0
«t dy
JUNE 14, 1895.]
SCIENCE IN CANADA.
THE CANADIAN ROYAL SOCIETY’S ANNUAL
MEETING.
THE annual meeting of the Royal Society
of Canada opened at Ottawa on the 14th
ult. and closed on the 17th. Mr. J. M. Le
Moine, the well known historian and friend
_of Parkman, presided. This institution,
which was founded in 1882 by the Marquis
of Lorne, then Governor-General of Can-
ada, consists of four sections, of which two
are entirely scientific—the third being de-
voted to the mathematical, physical and
chemical sciences; the fourth to the geo-
logical and biological sciences. The first
and second have also a scientific element,
for though nominally set apart for English
and French literature, respectively, they
admit, under the head of archeology a
class of subjects that are not unrelated to
important branches of science. During the
recent session, for instance, three papers of
a scientific character were presented in the
second section: ‘The present position of
American Anthropology,’ by Professor John
Campbell, LL. D., of Montreal ; ‘ Religion
and Aerolites,’ by Mr. Arthur Harvey; and
‘An Iroquois Condoling Council,’ by the
venerable ethnologist, Mr. Horatio Hale.
Those who are acquainted with Mr. Hale’s
excellent monograph, ‘The Iroquois Book of
Rites,’ in Dr. Brinton’s ‘ Library of Abo-
riginal American Literature,’ will not be en-
tire strangers to the subject of Mr. Hale’s
paper.
Of the papers of the scientific sections,
the first read in Section 3 was the presiden-
tial address of Dr. Harrington (MeGill Col-
lege), which dealt with a subject of consid-
-erable interest. Professor Harrington urged
the necessity of using absolutely pure ma-
terials in chemical operations where the ob-
ject was to establish formule. The address,
which was illustrated by abundant exam-
ples, gave rise to an interesting discussion,
in which Mr. T. Macfarlane, chief analyst
SCIENCE.
653
of the Dominion; Professor Goodwin, of
Kingston, Ont., and Dr. Ells, of Toronto,
took part. Professor Harrington also read
a paper on ‘The Chemical Composition of
Andradite from two localities in Ontario.’
It gave the results of the examination of a
black garnet, occurring in association with
the magnetic iron ore of the Paxton mine,
Lutterworth, Ont., and of a brown andra-
dite present in the nepheline syenite of
Dungannon, Ont. Of these andradites the
former was found to be free from titanium,
the latter to be titaniferous.
Other papers read in Section 3 were the
following : ‘A short essay on an attempt to
measure the relative easterly and westerly
transmission lines through an Atlantic ca-
ble,’ by Professor C. H. McLeod (McGill
College); ‘On the estimation of Starch,’ by
Mr. Thos. Macfarlane, Ottawa; ‘ Viscosity
in Liquids and Instruments for its Measur-
ment,’ by Mr. Anthony McGill; ‘ Periodi-
city of Aerolites,’ by Mr. Arthur Harvey,
Toronto; ‘On Some Applications of De
Moivre’s Formule,’ by Professor F. N.
Dupuis, Queen’s College, Kingston, Ont.;
‘On the Hypotheses of Dynamics,’ by Pro-
fessor McGregor, of Dalhousie College, Hali-
fax. Ina former paper Professor McGregor
had tried to express the ordinary hypotheses
employed in dynamics in a form suited to
the conception of bodies as consisting of
particles acting upon one another at a dis-
tance. In the later paper he endeavors to
express those hypotheses in a form suited
to the conception of bodies and intervening
media, as consisting of parts which act
directly on one another only across sur-
faces of contact.
In the 4th Section Sir J. William Daw-
son, of Montreal, read a ‘ Note on Tertiary
Fossil Plants from the vicinity of the City
of Vancouver, B. C.’ This important
paper related to a series of beds holding
lignite and vegetable fossils and estimated
at 3,000 feet or more in thickness and oc-
604
curring in the southern part of British
Columbia, between Burrard Inlet and the
United States boundary. These beds, which
have been noticed in the Reports of the
Geological Survey by Dr. G. M. Dawson
and the late Mr. Richardson, are believed to
be newer than the Cretaceous coal-measures
of Nanaimo and Comox, and probably
equivalent to the ‘Puget group’ of the
United States geologists in the State of
Washington. Collections of the fossil plants
have been made at various times by officers
of the Geological Survey, and more recently
by Mr. G. F. Monckton, of Vancouver, who
placed his material in the hands of the
author, along with that previously en-
trusted to him by the Geological Survey.
The species contained in the several col-
lections are mentioned in the paper, and
are compared with those of the Puget
group, as described by Newberry and Les-
quereux, and with those of other localities
in British Columbia and the United States.
The conclusion as to the age of the flora is
similar to that arrived at by Newberry for
the Puget flora, making it equivalent to the
Upper Laramie or Fort Union group. It
thus intervenes in date between the Upper
Cretaceous of Nanaimo and the Oligocene
or Lower Miocene of the Similkameen dis-
trict, and is therefore of Eocene age, filling
a gap hitherto existing in the mesozoic
flora of the West coast. Much, according
to Sir W. Dawson, still remains to be
known of this interesting flora, and as the
formation containing it, which seems to be
estuarine in character, extends over a wide
area in British Columbia and Washington,
and is of considerable thickness, more es-
pecially in its extension south of the Cana-
dian boundary, it may ultimately be shown
to include several sub-divisions represent-
ing the long interval between the Cretaceous
and the Middle Tertiary.
Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, paleontologist of
the Geological Survey, Ottawa, read an in-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 24.
teresting ‘ Note on the occurrence of Prim-
noa Reseda on the coast of British Colum-
bia.’ The main value of Mr. Whiteaves’ paper
lies in the fact that Primnoa Reseda (a tree-
like Aleyonarian coral), though known for
over a century as occurring in the Atlantic,
has not hitherto been with certainty as-
signed a Pacific habitat. Dr. R. W. Ells
and Mr. A. E. Barlow presented a joint
paper on ‘ The Geology of the proposed Ot-
tawa Ship Canal,’ the route of which is of
unusual interest from a geological, as well
as historical and commercial, point of view.
A contribution to the history of botanical
research on this continent was offered by
Prof. (Mgr.) Laflamme, of Laval Univer-
sity, who seeks an answer to the question,
‘Where did J. Cornut, who published his
Canadensium Plantarum Historia 11 1635, ob-
tain the specimens from which he wrote his
descriptions, and by whom were they trans-
ported to Europe?’ Mr. G. U. Hay dis-
cussed ‘some variations in Epigea repens.’
Dr. G. F. Matthew, of St. John, New
Brunswick, continued a series of studies on
the organic remains of the Little River
Group in that province. Dr. Wesley Mills
(McGill College) presented a series of
papers embracing results of investigations
into the psychology of the dog, the cat, the
rabbit, the guinea pig and certain birds,
with corresponding physical indications.
The papers also compared the mongrel with
the pure-bred dog; the dog with the cat, the
rabbit with the guinea pig, ete. These in-
quiries were conducted with extreme care
with the aid of the best equipment for ob-
servation and experiment.
ee > pie
One of most important of the scientific
papers contributed to the Society was pre-
sented, not in section, but before a public
audience. Prof. John Cox, M. A. (Cantab), —
late fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, —
and William C.
Experimental Physics in MeGill Univer-
sity, Montreal, had been asked to give a —
McDonald Professor of —
JUNE 14, 1895.]
public lecture on Thursday evening the
16th inst., in connection with the Royal
Society’s meeting. Prof. Cox has a gift too
rare with men of science, and most precious
to him whose chosen path of research leads
him into selve oseure of abstruse problems
where for the many no light shines—the
gift of clear and eloquent exposition. His
subject was ‘ Unsolved Problems in The
Manufacture of Light,’ and, in order to illus-
trate it worthily, he had brought with him
from Montreal the admirable apparatus of
his laboratory necessary for a series of exper-
iments and lantern views. He was assisted
by Messrs Barnes and Pitcher, and the large
and cultivated audience gathered in the
hall of the Normal School listened enrap-
tured as he made plain mysteries that most
of them had regarded as impenetrable.
After referring to the time-honored sources
of light—the candle, oil lamp, gas, Auer
light, and the lime light—and showing that
each consisted in heating something till it
was incandescent, the lecturer pointed out
that none of these gave an efficiency of more
than one per cent., the only scientific sys-
tems of combustion being the Auer light
and lime light. The modern method of elec-
trie lighting dated from Sir Humphrey
Davy’s first production of the are, with a
battery of 2,000 cells. The current thus
produced was still ample to heat refractory
substances to incandescence, but as zine and
acid were many times as expensive as coal
and air the light could not come into prac-
tical use until the invention of the dynamo
forty years afterward. With the dynamo
the modern system was completed, and con-
sisted of three stages—the steam-engine, the
dynamo and the lamp. The purpose of
the lecture was to show that in the steam-
engine and the lamp there is still an enor-
mous waste. After pointing out that light
was not created but was produced by the
conversion of energy, and explaining the
nature of energy as stored up in coal, Prof.
SCIENCE. 655
Cox dealt with the three stages in detail.
“The conversion of the coal-energy into the
mechanical energy,” he said, ‘‘ is of course
effected by the steam-engine, but in practice
not more than from 7 to 16 per cent. of the
energy stored in the coal can be extracted by
the steam-engine, and theoretical considera-
tions fix an absolute limit to the perfection of
the steam-engine, showing that we can never
hope to convert so much as 30 per cent. of
the energy of coal by any form of heat-
engine. This is one unsolved problem in
the manufacture of light—unsolved but still
capable of solution if some means of extract-
ing energy from coal otherwise than by heat,
and more like the methods used in burning
zine in a battery, can be discovered. At
present we are recklessly wasting our coal
supplies, and posterity will have a serious
grievance against us for squandering these
priceless stores.”
In the second stage of the process, the
dynamo, though sv recently invented, is
already nearly perfect, and scarcely any
energy is lost in its conversion by the
dynamo into an electrical current. We
reach the third stage, that is, the lamp,
with some 7 per cent. of the original energy
still available. The lecturer here showed
a number of interesting experiments to
prove that the only form of energy useful
in producing vision consisted of a short
series of very minute waves, ranging from
the forty-thousandth to the sixty-thous-
andth of an inch in length, and that to pro-
duce these our only means at present was
to heat the molecules of some substance,
whereby we were compelled to waste the
greater part of our efforts in producing heat,
which was worse than useless, before we ob-
tained the luminous rays. ‘ Here then,”
said Professor Cox, ‘‘ is the second unsolved
problem, since even in the incandescent
lamp and the are lamp not more than from
three to five per cent. of the energy supplied
is converted into light. Thus, of the original
656
store in the coal less than three parts in a
thousand ultimately become useful. In the
last six years, however, some hint of means
to overcome this difficulty has been obtained
from the proof by Maxwell and Hertz that
light is only an electric radiation. Could
we produce electric oscillations of a suffi-
cient rapidity we might discard the mole-
cules of matter and directly manufacture
light without their intervention. To effect
this we must be able to produce oscillations
at the rate of five hundred billions per
second. Tesla has produced them in
thousands and millions per second, and
Crookes has shown how by means of high
vacua to raise many bodies to brilliant fluor-
escence at a small expense of energy.” Il-
lustrations of these processes having been
given, the lecturer concluded: ‘These are
hints toward a solution of the problem, but
give no solution as yet. Professor Langley
states that the Cuban firefly spends the
whole of its energy upon the visual rays
without wasting any upon heat, and is some
four hundred times more efficient as a light
producer than the electric are, and even ten
times more efficient than the sun in this re-
spect. Thus while at present we have no
solution of these important problems we
have reason to hope that in the not distant
future one may be obtained, and the human
inventor may not be put to shame by his
insect rival.”
At the general final meeting on Friday
(17th inst) it was moved by Dr. Sandford
Fleming, C. M.G., of Ottawa, and seconded
by Sir William Dawson, F. R.S., that the
Royal Society of Canada was of opinion that
it is in the interests of science and seamen
in all parts of the world that a final de-
termination be speedily reached regarding
the unification of the nautical, astronomical
and civil days, so that all may begin every-
where at midnight, and that as the proposal
can with least difficulty be carried into
effect on January Ist, 1901, the Council
SCIENCE.
LN. S. Vou. I. No. 24.
be requested in the name and on behalf of
the Society to adopt such measures as may
be considered expedient to bring about the
desired result. This isa subject to which
Dr. Sandford Fleming has devoted much
and fruitful attention.
The following officers were elected for
the ensuing year: President, Dr. R. 8. C.
Selwyn, C. M. G., F. R.8., ex-Director of the
Geological and Natural History Survey ;
Vice-President, the Archbishop of Halifax,
Dr. O’Brien ; Secretary, Dr. J. G. Bourinot,
C. M. G.; Treasurer, Prof. J. Fletcher.
Prof. Bovey, Dean of the Faculty of Ap-
plied Science, McGill University, was chosen
president of the third section ; Prof. Dupuis,
of Queen’s College, Kingston, Ont., Vice-
President, and Capt. E. Deville, Surveyor-
General of the Dominion, Secretary. In the
fourth section, the following choice was
made: President, Prof. Wesley Mills, M.
A., M. D., MeGill University ; Vice-Presi-
dent, Prof. Penhallow, B. Sc., of the same
institution ; Secretary, Dr. Burgess, Super-
intendent of the Protestant Insane Asylum,
Verdun, near Montreal. Sete (C.
CORRESPONDENCE.
VOLCANIC DUST IN UTAH AND COLORADO.
Scrence of April 26th contains an article
by H. W. Turner, of Washington, D. C:,
upon ‘ Volcanic Dust in Texas.’ It may perhaps
be of interest to some of the readers of Scr-
ENCE to learn that large deposits of voleani¢
dust occur in Utah, and also in the extreme
northwestern portion of Colorado. In the
year 1890, while I was a professor in the
University of Utah, my attention was called
to an extensive deposit of a grayish-white
substance near Stockton in the Oquirrh
range of mountains, some sixty miles south-
west of Salt Lake City, by Mr. Ben Johnson
of that place. Upon examination I found
it to consist almost wholly of microscopic,
transparent, siliceous flakes of various, ir-
regular forms, one of the most common be-
a
_ JUNE 14, 1895.]
ing curved and nearly triangular. When
put into pure water, it invariably showed
a slight acidity, reddening blue litmus pa-
per. It can be taken from the deposit in
lumps ; but they readily fall to powder, the
particles or flakes becoming separated by the
pressure of one’s hand. During a tour
through southern Utah in the year 1893 I
found another large deposit of the same
kind of voleanic product on the east side of
the Wasatch Mountains in the vicinity of
Monroe village, in Sevier county. I could
find no difference between this latter and
that which occurs near Stockton. Both
give a slight acid reaction, which, I suspect
to be due to a sulphur compound.
In the same year, 1893, there was brought
to me a good sample of grayish white, strati-
fied mineral substance, said to be kaolinite
and to have been taken from an immense
deposit of a similar character east of Green
River and in northwestern Colorado. This
so-called ‘ kaolinite’ proved upon examina-
tion to be similar volcanic dust, which had
been subjected to the action of water mixed
with clay, deposited in layers under the
water, and afterwards hardened.
Henry MontTGoMery.
TRINITY UNIVERSITY, TORONTO.
VOLCANIC DUST IN TEXAS.
Unper the above title Mr. H. W. Turner
contributes an article to Scrence of April
26, 1895, briefly describing a specimen
from the Llano Estacado region. Some of
the previous notices of this or similar ma-
terial are noted below.
- The first specimen of the material which
came under my notice was received by the
Texas Survey in February, 1890, with other
material forwarded by Professor W. F.
Cummins. It was collected from the beds
to which he gave the name ‘ Blanco Can-
yon’ from the place of their most char-
acteristic development, and in his first de-
SCIENCE.
657
scription of them* he calls it chalk.
Later, microscopic slides of this material
were prepared in the Survey laboratory, by
Mr. J. 8. Stone, under the direction of Pro-
fessor R. T. Hill, and these exhibited a
large number of very finely preserved
diatoms.
These diatoms were partially identified
by Mr. C. H. Kain and published by Prof.
Cope in his first notice of the probable
Pliocene age of the Blanco Canyon beds.+
The diatomaceous character of this ma-
terial was further noted by Messrs. Lewis
Woolman and C. Henry Kain, and list of
species given in The American Naturalist for
1892, p. 505, under the title ‘ Fresh-Water
Diatomaceous Deposit from Staked Plains,
Texas.’
In 1892 an examination of this material
by the writer showed the presence of vol-
canic dust, but the diatoms constituted by
far the greater part of the mass examined,
and it was therefore classed with other ma-
terials of a similar kind from the coast
region as diatomaceous earth, and only
those siliceous deposits of like character
which failed to reveal diatoms were classed
as voleanic dust and briefly described in
the Transactions of the Texas Academy of
Science.t Further reference to these sili-
ceous deposits are also made by Kennedy
in the Fourth Annual Report Geol. Sur.
Texas, pp. 20, etc.
The stratigraphic position of the deposit
referred to by Mr. Turner has been accu-
rately determined, as will be seen by refer-
ence to the different reports of Professor
Cummins on northwest Texas and the
Llano Estacado. The hill mentioned, on
Duck Creek, in Dickens county, is in the
type locality of the Blanco Canyon beds,
and sections are given of it in the first three
*First Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Texas, p. 190.
+ Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1892, p. 123.
t Vol. I., Part I., 1892. P. 33. ‘Voleanic Dust
in Texas.’
658
annual reports of the survey. The fossils
of these beds (one of them, a turtle, from
the hill in question) were sent Professor
Cope, and are described by him in the fourth
annual report of the survey. He says:
““Tts position is between the Loup Fork
and Equus terranes. The fauna is inter-
mediate and peculiar, as nota single species
occurs in it which has been found in ter-
ranes prior or subsequent to it in time.
The horizon is more nearly and strictly
Pliocene than any of the lacustrine terranes
hitherto found in the interior of the conti-
nent.” HB. T. DuMBLE.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF SKULLS.
To THE Eprror oF Science: I learn from
an article by Dr. Harrison Allen (ScimENcE
April 5, 1895) that, in a paper entitled
‘Observations on the Cranial Forms of the
American Aborigines,’ Proceedings of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-
phia, 1866, 232, J. Aitkin Meigs classified
various types of crania, using nomenclature
which in some part coincides with that pro-
posed by me in my new ‘ Method of Classifi-
cation of Skulls.’
I am very glad to learn that Meigs dis-
tinguished the various forms of human
skulls as early as 1866, as I have done
twenty-six years later. When two men, at
so great a distance in time and space, have
conceived a similar idea it is a strong argu-
ment that this idea is not a fantastic one.
I first tested my new method in the
summer of 1891, examining a large collec-
tion of Malanesian skulls, and published
my first memoir in the spring of 1892,
which was translated into German (Die
Menschen Varietiten in Malanesian. Archiv.
fur Anthropologie, XXI., 1892). In the
same year, 1892, I had fortunately the
opportunity of examining more than 2,200
skulls of the Mediterranean and Russian
races, ancient and modern. I then sys-
tematized my classification, which was im-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 24.
perfect, and distinguished varieties and sub- _
varieties of human skulls in a systematic
catalogue of ancient Russian skulls.
This method has the approval of many
Italian anthropologists, a notable excep-
tion being Mantegazza, a strange type of
man, and of some German anthropologists,
as Ranke and Benedict. The French ‘an-
thropologists are indifferent, but they find
the method useful as an analysis of forms.
The memior of Meigs is not known in
Europe. The only work of this author that
I possess is the Catalogue of the Specimens
contained in the collection of the Academy
of Natural Science of Philadelphia, 1857.
In view of the notice published by Dr. Allen
in Scrence, I am anxious to read the work
referred to, and I should be much obliged
if some American friend will procure a copy
for me. I shall be glad to refer to the work
of Meigs in a special note. G. SERGI.
UNIVERSITY OF ROME, April 23, 1895.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
The Geological and Natural History Survey of
Minnesota, Volume IlI., Part I. Palwon-
tology. 4to, 1895, Pp. Ixxv., 474. Plates
XXXIV.
Considerable activity has been manifested
of late in a more careful and systematic
study of the invertebrate faunas of the
various geological horizons of this country,
and several works upon the subject have
already been published or are now under
preparation. The value of a thorough ex-
amination and proper illustration of the
faunas of many of our geological divisions.
will be very great to the stratigraphical
geologist, for many problems are now ob-
scure on account of the lack of knowledge
of the very criteria most important for cor-
relative purposes.
What is most required in this field is not
so much the increase in number of species,
although many horizons even in the eastern
portion of the country have as yet been but.
~
JUNE 14, 1895.]
partially explored, as the thorough revision
of the synonomy and geological distribu-
tion of the well-known forms described by
the earlier paleontologists. At present the
confusion is so great in many faunas that it
becomes almost a hopeless task for the
geologist to use the evidence with any hope
of satisfactory results.
It is therefore very gratifying to find that
- the elaborate volumes upon the geology of
Minnesota are to be accompanied by ex-
haustive reports upon the paleontology of
the State. The first of these monographs,
constituting Part 1., of Volume III., of the
Final Reports, has just appeared and treats
chiefly of the Lower Silurian faunas of the
southeastern portion of the State.
The introductory chapter consists of an
‘Historical sketch of investigation of the
Lower Silurian in the Upper Mississippi
Valley’ and contains a chronological cata-
logue of the paleontological writings upon
this subject, including lists of the species
described.
Although the introduction deals only
with the Lower Silurian, the first chapter
is devoted to the Cretaceous fossil plants,
a posthumous publication of Leo Lesque-
reux. Some twenty-eight species, six of
them new, are described, the majority of
the forms being also figured. More than
half of the determinable species have been
found in the States to the west, and the
flora as a whole indicates the Dakota group
as the geological horizon.
The second chapter deals with the micro-
scopical fauna of the Cretaceous and is chief-
ly given up to a description of the Foramini-
fera, most of which are from boulder clay, al-
though regarded as derived originally from
the Cretaceous. Thirty species, represent-
ing eighteen genera, are determined. The
authors are Woodward and Thomas.
The three remaining chapters of the
volume are devoted to the fauna of the
Lower Silurian, the third and fifth chapters
SCIENCE.
659
being by Winchell and Schuchert and deal-
ing with the ‘Sponges, Graptolites and
Corals’ and the ‘ Brachiopoda.’ The au-
thors follow Hinde in placing Receptaculites
and Ischadites among the Hexactinellid
sponges, and Ulrich in regarding Cylindro-
coelia and Heterospongia as Calcispongiz.
If the latter reference should prove correct
it is of interest as the earliest occurrence of
representatives of that order. Among the
corals a new genus, Lichenaria, regarded
as related to Columnaria, but without septa,
is established.
The rich Brachiopod fauna receives very
exhaustive treatment, as might be antici-
pated from so thorough a student of the
subject as Mr. Schuchert. Altogether
eighty-two species with many varieties are
recognized, of which several are new.
The longest chapter in the volume is that
upon the Bryozoa by E. O. Ulrich. As a
class the fossil Bryozoa are most difficult,
and the different attempts at their syste-
matic classification have not been attended
hitherto with the most satisfactory results.
To the author of the present chapter we
are indebted more than to any one else for
our knowledge of the Paleozoic repre-
sentatives of this group. In the classifica-
tion adopted, however, the reference of the
Monticuliporoid forms to the Bryozoa is not
in accordance with the more recent conclu-
sions in this line.
The report as a whole is a most valuable
contribution to the paleontology of the
Upper Mississippi basin, and will supply a
distinct want to the invertebrate palzon-
tologist. The State Geologist is deserving
of much credit for the admirable manner in
which the volume has been brought out,
and it is to be hoped that other State Sur-
veys, which pay little attention to the
paleontology of their States, may be in-
duced to pursue the same course.
Wiiiam B, Ciark.
JoHNS Hopkins UNIVERSITY.
660
Fossil Mammals of the Puerco Beds. By HENRY
FAIRFIELD OsBorN and CHARLES EARLE.
Bull. American Museum of Natural
History. Vol. viil., Art. I. Pp. 1-70.
The Puerco Eocene (or Post-Cretaceous)
was discovered and named by Cope in 1880,
and up to the present time our knowledge of
its very remarkable and interesting fauna
has been due almost entirely to his labors.
It is a fauna which in many ways is very
‘puzzling and raises many exceedingly diffi-
cult problems. To the solution of these
problems the admirable work of Osborn and
Earle is an important contribution. While
adding but few new names to the long list
of genera and species already established
by Cope, the authors have accomplished
what is of far greater value, namely, materi-
ally increased our knowledge concerning
the structure and systematic relationships
of many mammals which had previously
been known only from fragmentary remains.
In this way the character of the fauna as a
whole is set in much clearer light than ever
before.
Of the more significant results of this in-
vestigation, the following deserve particu-
lar mention: (1) The determination of the
complete dentition of Polymastodon, a repre-
sentative of the Multituberculata, which
was one of the dominant types of Mesozoic
mammals. (2) The description of parts of
the skeleton of Indrodon, showing that it
was a true lemuroid, as had been doubtfully
surmised before, and the reference of the
Chriacide to the same group. Cope had re-
ferred the genera of this family to the creo-
donts, an example which I had followed,
though expressing the opinion that Chria-
eus and its allies might eventually prove
to be lemuroids. (3) A very welcome con-
tribution to our knowledge of the Puerco
creodonts is the description of an excellent
skeleton of Dissacus, the ancestral form of the
Mesonychide. What renders this particular-
ly valuable is the fact that the Bridger genus
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I.. No. 24.
Mesonyx is already very completely known,
and the comparison of the two forms is very
instructive for discerning some of the modes-
of mammalian development. (4) A nearly
complete skull of the primitive tillodont
Onychodectes is described and has an im-
portant bearing upon the early morphology
of the mammalian skull. (5) The skull of
Pantolambda, the forerunner of the corypho-
donts, which became so abundant and varied
in the succeeding Wasatch time, is for the
first time made known. This is one of the
most valuable results of the whole investiga-
tion. (6) The suggestion originally made
by Schlosser, that Mioclenus and its allies
are ungulates rather than creodonts, is con-
firmed, and a new family of Condylarthra is
established for their reception. (7) The
upper teeth of Protogonodon are determined
and the likeness of its dentition to that of
the primitive artiodactyls poimted out.
Of the greatest general interest to both
geologists and biologists are the conclusions
reached regarding the character of the
Puerco fauna as a whole, which is shown
to be of a prevailingly Mesozoic type. Only
a small fraction of this fauna is ancestral
to Wasatch and Bridger types, and of these
most do not persist beyond the Eocene,
while by far the greater number of Puerco
genera die out without leaving any succes-
sors behind them. This generalization is
of much importance in clearing away cer-
tain stratigraphical difficulties. Itis hardly
an exaggeration to say that the Puerco
mammalian fauna differs more from that
of the Wasatch than does the latter from
therecentfauna. Ifthe Wasatch mammals,
as a whole, were derived from those of the
Puerco, then we must assume the existence
of a long, unrecorded gap between the two
formations, an assumption which geological
data do not support. When, however, we
examine the Wasatch genera which clearly
were derived from Puerco ancestors, such
as Coryphodon, Pachyena, Didymictis, Ana-
JUNE 14, 1895.]
codon, ete., we find that the degree of advance
displayed by these forms is not so very great
and that it does not involve any very long
lapse of time. The radical difference be-
tween the two faunas consists in the ordinal
groups which are present in one and not in
the other. Thus the Puerco has neither
artiodactyls, perissodactyls nor rodents,
while the Wasatch has no Multituberculata
and relatively few Condylarthra, and the
creodonts of the two formations belong, for
the most part, to quite different types. The
obvious significance of these facts is that at
some time between the Puerco and the
Wasatch a great migration of mammals
from some other region took place and
revolutionized the character of the North
American fauna.
A distinction that is likely to be fruitful
of important results is Osborn’s division of
the placental mammals into the Mesopla-
eentalia, of early and more or less Mesozoic
type, and the Cenoplacentalia, characteristic
of later Tertiary and recent time. ‘The
difference between these two groups consists
mainly in the lower state of evolution and
apparent incapacity for higher development
exhibited by the Mesoplacentals, in contrast
with the capacity for rapid development
shown by the Cenoplacentals.” It can
hardly be right, however, to include the
creodonts in the lower group, since they
not only underwent a great expansion in
the Puerco, but in later times they also
gave rise, by independent development
along at least three lines, to the true Car-
nivora. Such a group cannot be fairly
charged with ‘incapacity for higher de-
velopment.’
This necessarily brief review cannot do
more than indicate the many points of un-
usual interest in this paper, and must refer
to the original those who would learn more
of it.
W. B. Scorr.
PRINCETON COLLEGE.
SCIENCE.
661
The Ornithology of Illinois; Descriptive Cata-
logue. By Roperr Ripeway. Published
by authority of the State Legislature.
Vol. II. May,1895. Large 8°, pp. 282,
pls. 33.
Ridgway’s Ornithology of Illinois has a
eurious history. It was conceived by the
able Director of the Illinois State Labora-
tory of Natural History, Prof. S. A. Forbes,
who twelve years ago asked the leading
American ornithologist to undertake its
preparation. Mr. Ridgway finished the
manuscript early in July, 1885. The first
volume was finally printed, but the entire
edition, together with the plates and cuts,
was destroyed by fire. This was in Febru-
ary, 1887. It was reprinted from proof
sheets, and proof of the reprint was not
submitted to the author. It was issued in
November, 1889.
By a singular fatality, the manuscript of
the second volume was consumed in the
same fire; and, excepting proof of the first
90 pages, which was preserved, the entire
book had to be rewritten. This formidable
and disheartening task was accomplished
in 1891, and the printed book has just been
received (May 7, 1895).
The original plan contemplated two dis-
tinct parts: Part I., Descriptive Catalogue,
by Robert Ridgway; Part II., Economic
Ornithology, by 8. A. Forbes. The present
volume completes the Descriptive Catalogue,
and it is earnestly hoped that the volume
on Economic Ornithology will follow ;
though the labor of preparing such a work
is too great to be accomplished in a single
lifetime or by a single man.
The first volume is prefaced by an intro-
duction of 35 pages, treating of the physical
features of the State, the climate, and charac-
teristic features of the avifauna, and end-
ing with a bibliography. The systematic
part begins with a key to the higher groups,
which are arranged in the old style, the
Thrushes coming first. The orders, fami-
662
lies and genera are defined, as well as the
species. Some of the descriptions are orig-
inal, but most of them are quoted from
‘Baird, Brewer and Ridgway’s History of
North American Birds’, and its continu-
ation, the ‘Water Birds of North Ame-
rica,’ for which work, as everyone knows,
they were originally written by Mr. Ridg-
way. The general matter is not very full
and is frequently quoted from the same
work. Unfortunately about two-thirds of
the biographical part was omitted because
of the necessity of limiting the number of
pages. There are numerous quotations
from Mr. EK. W. Nelson’s papers on the birds
of Illinois, and a few personal observations
by the author, chiefly relating to the Aus-
troriparian fauna of the extreme southern
part of the State, where he has done much
field work, extending over a long period of
years. A novel feature is a synonomy of
popular names, given under each species.
The first volume covers 520 pages and is
illustrated by 32 plates; the second volume
covers 282 pages and has 33 plates. Nearly
all the plates in both volumes are from
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, and Ridgway’s
Manual. Most of those in the second
volume were made originally for this work,
but owing to delay in publication were first
used in the ‘Manual.’ The great majority
are outline figures of heads, wings and feet;
but some are shaded cuts of birds. Owing
to the destruction of the electros, part of
these are process reproductions made from
proofs and are poorly printed. The frontis-
piece is a beautiful colored picture of a
Meadowlark in full song, drawn by the
author, and of unusual excellence.
In faunal works relating to particular
areas it is customary to record somewhat
in detail the manner of occurrence of each
species, to indicate breeding ranges, time
of nesting, dates of migration and so on.
Very little information of this kind is to be
found in the Ornithology of Illinois. The
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 24.
work consists mainly of technical .descrip-
tions and synonymy, to which is added,
under each species, a paragraph or two of —
general matter which as a rule, excepting
the quotations from Nelson, is hardly more
pertinent to the State of Illinois than to
any other part of America where the bird
occurs.
Of 49 species classed by Mr. Ridgway as
rare, detailed records of occurrence within
the State are given for 36.
Mr. Ridgway states that the intent of the
book was ‘“‘ to supply the people of Illinois
with an inexpensive work which would
enable them to identify the birds they de-
sired to learn the names of, and to acquaint
them with their leading characteristics.”
These primary aims the work certainly has
fulfilled. C. H. M.
Tests of Glow-Lamps: W. E. Ayrron and E.
A. Mrepitey. The Philosophical Maga-
zine, May, 1895.
Readers of ScteNcE who are interested in
the matter of electric lighting from a prac-
tical standpoint will find much that is in-
structive in this paper recently printed in
the Philosophical Magazine and published
as a separate. For several years Professor
Ayrton has been investigating the question
of the economy of incandescent lighting and
and especially the behaviour of the glow-
lamp under continuous use. Some of the
earlier results of this investigation have
been announced from time to time in the
English journals, having been communi-
cated by Professor Ayrton to the Physical
Society of London. The present pamphlet
contains some additions made in January,
1895, and from these additions it appears
that the results previously obtained have
not been entirely supported by subsequent
tests. The principal result reached in these
tests was the rather unexpected fact that
the glow-lamps examined appeared to in-
crease in effectiveness during the first 80 or
JUNE 14, 1895.]
100 hours of their use. It had been very
generally assumed that a glow-lamp was at
its best, under fixed conditions of pressure,
at the very beginning of its life and that it
would deteriorate from that time on. The
authors of this paper appear to have
found, however, that this is not the case
and that, on the contrary, the light is
increased from the beginning through a
certain considerable part of the life of
the lamp, after which it slowly fails. One
form in which this conclusion is put is
that if a group of glow-lamps, such as were
examined in this case, being the Edison-
Swan Lamps, marked 100-8 and run at a
pressure of 100 volts, be kept continuously
in operation by putting in a new lamp of
the same character whenever a filament
breaks, and never replacing the lamps by
new except for a broken filament, the light
given out by the group will never be as
small as at the beginning. Some reference
*is made to the probable cause of the rise in
candle power by use, and the explanation
given a year or two ago by Mr. Howell, at
a meeting of the American Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers, 7. e., that such a rise in
candle power is due to an improvement of
the vacuum of the lamp during the early
part of its life, is commented upon. Some
of the earlier examinations of the increase
in candle power and improvement in vacuum
by the authors of this paper seem decidedly
to confirm this explanation by Mr. Howell;
but subsequent tests, referred to in the addi-
tion to the paper made in January, 1895,
are not so favorable to that hypothesis.
The authors suggest that the rise in candle
power may possibly have been due to a
change in the surface of the filament caus-
ing the emissivity for heat to decrease, since
that would raise the light emitted, as well
as the number of candles per watt; but they
declare that they have not yet discovered
whether such change in heat-emissivity
takes place. The methods of carrying on
SCIENCE.
663
the investigation, both electric and photo-
metric, are explained in sufficient detail, and
the whole is a valuable contribution to the
subject. Or
NOTES AND NEWS.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Dr. T. A. Cuapman has been publishing
in the Entomologists’ Record of London,
and has now completed, a paper of no great
length but of much importance, on the clas-
sification of butterflies, based on the struc-
ture of the pup, and a comparison of the
same with the pupze of the lower lepidop-
terous families. He places special empha-
sis on two points hitherto entirely neg-
lected: The relative freedom of motion of
the middle joints of the abdomen, and the
relation of the parts on the head on dehis-
cence. His conclusions are that the Pa-
pilionidee (excluding the Pierinz) are the
nearest relatives of the Hesperidie (which
agrees with all latest researches), but fur-
ther that the Lycznids “should no longer
be regarded as in any way intermediate be-
tween the Papilionids and Nymphalids;
rather should the Lemoniide and Lyczenidie
be regarded asa branch which developed
from the primeval butterfly (above the
Hesperids) in one direction, whilst the Pa-
pilionids arose and branched to the Pierids
and Nymphalids quite independently. An-
other point is that the Pierid separated
from the Papilionid at a very early stage of
the evolution of the latter, and that the
Nymphalid almost immediately thereafter
separated from the Pierid.” These conclu-
sions are borne out by many facts in the
structure of the other stages and especially
render the position of the Libytheinz less
anomalous.
BRUNNER VON WATTENWYL has just pub-
lished his Monographie der Pseudophylli-
den, the last large group of Orthoptera that
has specially needed monographic treat-
664
ment. The group is essentially a tropical
one, unknown in Europe and with only one
species (as recognized by Brunner) in the
United States—our true Katydid. Others
will doubtless be found upon our southern
borders, for in Mexico, Central America
and the Antilles Brunner recognizes 34 gen-
era and 73 species, the larger part of them
new. The work, which is published in Vi-
enna in 8°, contains descriptions of 434 spe-
cies, divided among 122 genera, and is ac-
companied by a quarto atlas of ten plates.
A NEW QUADRUPLE EXPANSION ENGINE.
Messrs. HALL AND TREAT announce, in the
Sibley Journal of Engineering for April, ‘A
New Quadruple Expansion Engine.’ This
machine, built for regular working at 500
pounds pressure, and with its boiler, tested
to 1300 pounds, has now been in operation
in Sibley College, at Cornell University, for
many months. It was designed by the au-
thors of the paper, built by them in the
shops of the College, and has since been
tested under a great variety of conditions.
The design was entirely original, although,
of course, embodying the principles taught
them in their college course, the one being
a graduate of ’93 and the other of 794, and
both now candidates for advanced degrees,
the one for a doctor’s, the other for the
master’s, degree in engineering. The valve-
gear is new and the invention of the build-
ers of the engine. The proportions of the
multiple-cylinder system are those derived
by application of their text-book and lec-
ture-room work ; and the engine as a whole
is a success. The boiler has worked well
and economically up to above 600 pounds
per square-inch, and its waste heat is util-
ized in the re-heating apparatus of the
engine and so thoroughly as to make the
temperature of the chimney very low. The
steel for ‘running parts’ was obtained from
the Bethlehem Iron Company and proves
to be of very fine quality. Special devices
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 24.
have been required, in every direction, to
make the operation of the machine with such
high-pressure steam satisfactory and safe. _
Even the injector was necessarily recon-
structed, as no ordinary instrument would
force water into the boiler against 600
pounds pressure. The figures reported for
economy are something under ten pownils of
steam per h. p. per hour, and the best condi-
tions of operation are not yet fully identi-
fied, though unquestionably corresponding
closely with the preliminary computations
of the designers. This figure is the lowest
yet reported, even for engines of many
times the size of that here described. It
will require authoritative revision and cor-
roboration ; but there seems no reason to
doubt its substantial accuracy, as the result
of many engine-trials under a great variety
of conditions. If thus corroborated, it will
stand as the ‘record of the world’ for the
nineteenth century. The thermodynamic
consumption of this engine should be about
7 pounds of steam per h. p. per hour, exclu-
sive of all thermal wastes, and this should
be approximated much more closely in en-
gines of similar type built on a large scale.
The figure attained is extraordinary, and
almost incredible, for a model engine such
as is described ; yet it indicates a waste, by
conduction and radiation, after all, of no
less than twenty-five per cent. of all heat
sent to the machine from its boiler.
PAPERS FOR THE MATHEMATICAL CONGRESS
AT KAZAN.
Own the occasion of the dedication of the
Lobachévski monument at Kazén will be
held a mathematical congress of a week’s
duration.
It is very much desired by the manage-
ment that some papers may be contributed
by Americans. As a complete program of
the scientific communications to be made in
the session will be issued this coming Feb-
ruary, it is not too early to solicit Ameri-
‘
JUNE 14, 1895.]
can scientists to think of preparing some-
thing for this memorable occasion. Dr. G.
B. Halsted has been asked by President
Vasiliev to act for him in this matter,
to correspond on questions of detail with
any who hope to attend the Congress in
person, to take charge of the communica-
tions of those who do not anticipate being
present and to guarantee their proper pre-
sentation.
THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
THE annual award of the honours of the
Royal Geographical Society was made on
May 14th, as follows: The Founders’ medal
to Dr. John Murray for his services to
physical geography, and especially to
oceanography during the last 23 years, and
for his work on board the Challenger and
as director of the Challenger Commission
and editor of the Challenger publications
since the death of Sir Wyville Thomson in
1882; the Patrons’ medal to the Hon.
George Curzon, M. P., (1) for his work on
the history, geography, archeology, and
politics of Persia, (2) for his subsequent
journeys in French Indo-China, which have
resulted in further publications of geo-
graphical as well as political and general
value, and (3) for his journeys in 1894 to
the Hindu Kush, the Pamirs and the Oxus,
together with his visit to the Ameer of
Afghanistan in Kabul; the Murchison
grant was awarded to Mr. Eivind Astrup
for his remarkable journey with Lieuten-
ant Peary across the interior glacier to the
northern shores of Greenland, and for his
independent journey along the shores of
Melville Bay, during which he laid down
a portion of the northern part only pre-
viously seen at a great distance ; the Back
grant was awarded to Captain C. A. Larsen
for the geographical and meteorological
observations made by him during his Ant-
arctic voyage in 1894; the Gill memorial
was awarded to Captain J. W. Pringle, R.
SCIENCE.
665
E., for his share in the railway survey
operations carried on under the direction.
of Captain Macdonald, R. E., in the country
between the coast from Mombasa to the
Victoria Lake; the Cuthbert Peek grant
was awarded to Mr. G. F. Scott-Elliot for his
explorations of Mount Ruwenzori and the
region to the west of the Victoria Nyanza.—
London Times.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
Tue National Geographic Society. of
Washington held its annual business meet-
ing on May 31. Reports from the various
officers bore witness to the increasing use-
fulness of the Society. When it was first
organized, in 1888, there were but 205
members. Since then there has been a
steady increase, the membership now num-
bering 1,193. A similar increase may be
noticed in the number of public lectures
delivered; sixty-two lectures having been
given during the past winter, while in the
winter of 1890 there were but eighteen.
Mr. Gardner G. Hubbard was reélected
President and Lieut. Everett Hayden Re-
cording Secretary, and the following were
elected Vice-Presidents: C. W. Dabney,
Jr., Assistant Secretary of Agriculture; H.
G. Ogden, Coast and Geodetic Survey; Gen.
A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Service; C. Hart
Merriam, Agricultural Department; W.
W. Rockhill, Assistant Secretary of State,
and Henry Gannet, Chief Topographer
United States Geological Survey; Board of
Managers, Marcus Baker, United States
Geological Survey; G. K. Gilbert, Chief
Geographer, United States Geological Sur-
vey; John Hyde, Statistical Expert, Agri-
cultural Department; Prof. W J McGee,
Bureau of Ethnology; F. H. Newell, Chief
Hydrographer, United States Geological
Survey; Prof. W. B. Powell and John R.
Proctor; Treasurer, C. J. Bell; Recording
Secretary, Everett Hayden; Corresponding
Secretary, Miss E. R. Scidmore.
666
BOTANICAL BOOKS AT AUCTION.
Amone the botanical books in the library
of William B. Rudkin sold at auction in
New York by Bangs & Co. were the fol-
lowing: H. Baillon’s ‘ Natural History of
Plants,’ 7 vols., Svo, brought $15.87; Ben-
tham and Hooker, ‘Genera Plantarum,’
London, 1862-83, $17.25; Bentley and Tri-
men, ‘ Medicinal Plants,’ 306 colored plates,
London, 1880, $34; Botanical Gazette, 13
vols., Madison, Wis., v. b., $19.50; Charles
Darwin’s Works, a rare ‘set’ of 15 vols.,
8vo, uniform green morocco, full gilt, $41.25;
D. C. Eaton, ‘Ferns of North America,’
colored plates by Emerton and Faxon,
Salem, 1879, $27; Elwes, J. H., ‘Genus
Lilium,’ grand 4to, London, 1880, $12.50;
Emerson, ‘Trees of Massachusetts,’ 1878,
$8.50; John Gerarde, ‘The Herball,’ en-
larged by Thomas Johnson, London, 1636,
$14.75; Goodale, ‘ Wild-flowers of America,’
Boston, 1882, $8.25; Lesquereux, ‘ Coal-
Flora of Pennsylvania,’ Harrisburg, 1880,
$10; J. C. Loudon, ‘Arboretum Britan-
nicum,’ London, 1854, $17; M.'T. Masters,
‘Vegetable Teratology,’ London, 1869,
$8.25; Michaux and Nuttall, ‘ N. A. Sylva,’
277 colored engravings, 5 v., 8vo, embossed
morocco, Philada., 1871, $51.25; Parkinson,
‘Theatrum Botanicum,’ 4to, panelled calf,
London, 1640, $16.40; Ch. Pickering, ‘Chro-
nological History of Plants,’ Boston, 1879,
$6; Powell, ‘A Compleat History of Druggs,’
London, 1725, $5.50; Seeman, Berthold,
‘Plants of the Fiji Islands,’ 100 fine colored
plates, London, 1865-73, $20.50; Sowerby,
‘English Botany, colored figures by
Sowerby, Fitch and others, 12 vols., 8vo,
$63; Torrey Botanical Club, various Bul-
letins, etc., 17 vols., $26.35.
GENERAL.
Ar the monthly meeting of the trustees
of the University of Pennsylvania the acting
provost, Charles C. Harrison, made a dona-
tion of $500,000 to the University, in honor
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 24.
of his father, the late George L. Harrison,
LL.D. Mr. Harrison stipulates that the
fund shall be known as ‘The George L.
Harrison Foundation for the Encourage- |
ment of Liberal Studies and the Advance-
ment of Knowledge.’ The principal of
this fund must be retained intact, the in-
come alone to be used for the purposes of
foundation. The following suggestions as
to the use of the fund were made by the
donor: 1 The establishment of scholar-
ships and fellowships intended solely for
men of exceptional ability. 2 The increas-
ing the library of the University, particularly
by the acquisition of works of permanent
use and of lasting reference, to and by the
scholar. 3 The temporary relief from
routine work of professors of ability, in
order that they may devote themselves to
special work. 4 The securing men of dis-
tinction to lecture and, for a term, to reside
at the University.
AccorDING to an announcement from
Maemillan & Co., the University Press of
Columbia College will issue an Atlas of Fer-
tilization and Karyokinesis, by Professor Ed-
mund B. Wilson, with the codperation of
Dr. Edward Leaming. The work will con-
tain forty figures, photographed from nature
by Dr. Leaming from the preparations of
Professor Wilson at an enlargement of one
thousand diameters, and reproduced, with-
out retouching or other alterations, by the
gelatine process by Bierstadt, of New York.
The photographs are very perfect and con-
vey a good idea of the actual object. They
illustrate nearly every important step in
fertilization, from the first entrance of the
spermatozodn onwards to the cleavage-
stages, and not only present a very clear
picture of the more familiar outlines of the
subject, but embody many original discoy-
eries as well. They are accompanied by an
explanatory text, comprising a general ele-
mentary introduction, a critical description
of the plates and a large number of text-cuts.
:
:
:
i
\
}
:
1
_ June 14, 1895.]
Tue death is announced of Theodor Bror-
sen, at the age of seventy-six. He dis-
covered at Kiel, on February 26, 1846, the
- small comet called by his name, which was
found to have a period of about 54 years,
1873 and 1879, but has not since been seen,
though a conjecture has been thrown out
that it had some connexion with one dis-
covered by Mr. Denning last year. Brorsen
discovered another comet in 1846, a third
in 1847, and two more in 1851.
Dr. HucH Francis CLarKE CLEGHORN
died at Strabithie, in Fife, Scotland, on May
19th. He was appointed Professor of Botany
in Madras University in 1852, and was an
authority on Indian botany and arboricul-
ture. While in Madras he organized a
forest department, having for its object the
preservation of tree life, and established an
admirable system of management. Dr.
Cleghorn returned to Scotland in 1869, fill-
ing temporarily the chair of Botany in
Glasgow University. He wasalso president
of the Royal Arboricultural Society and an
active member of the Edinburgh Botanical
Society.
Ar the commencement exercises of Stan-
ford University, President Jordan stated
that Mrs. Stanford had been spending $1,000
a day of her private fortune to maintain
the University. In case Mrs. Stanford’s
fortune should be exhausted before the de-
cision of the Courts in regard to the Stan-
ford estate had been reached, it would be
necessary to close the University.
Joun Pact Pavuwison died at Tenafly,
New Jersey, on May 30th. Mr. Paulison
was interested in astronomy and owned a
private observatory.
Proressor J. J. Srevenson, of the Uni-
versity of the City of New York, will spend
the summer in the coal fields of Arkansas,
Indian Territory and Texas, with incidental
studies in New Mexico and Colorado.
SCIENCE.
and was observed at returns in 1857, 1868, -
667
Dr. Avotr Etsass, Professor of Physics
in the University of Marburg, died on May
12th, at the age of forty years.
Tue June issue of the Amherst Literary
Monthly will be a special memorial number
devoted to President Seelye.
Tue Royal Natural History, edited by
Richard Lydekker (reviewed in Scrence,
April 5, p. 387) is being published in
America by Frederick. Warne & Co. It
will be issued in thirty-six fortnightly num-
bers and will be completed at the same time
as the English edition.
Dr. D. K. Pearson has offered $50,000
to Mount Holyoke College if an additional
$150,000 can be raised. It is said that Dr.
Pearson has already given $2,000,000 to
various colleges.
Haroitp Wuitrine, Professor of Physics
in the University of California, was among
those lost in the submergence of the steam-
ship Colima.
Ar the May meeting of the Victoria In-
stitute, London, the subject of ‘ Early Man’
was considered. In dealing with it the evi-
dence for the existence of a ‘missing link’
was first examined, the subject being intro-
duced in a paper by Professor E. Hull, late
Director-General of the Geological Survey
of Ireland. In dealing with it he reviewed
all the known instances of so-called ‘ miss-
ing links,’ including that discovered by Dr.
Dubois in Java, and concluded that none
could be regarded as in fact ‘a missing
link.’ After this the question of the earli-
est man was discussed in a paper by Sir
William Dawson, in which he described the
physical character and affinities of the
Gaunches, an extinct race in the Canary
Islands.
Mr. W. W. Rocxuitt, Assistant Secre-
tary of State, who has been appointed by
the State Department a delegate to the In-
ternational Geographical Congress, meeting
in London this summer, will join with a
668
delegation from the National Geographic
Society in an effort to persuade the Con-
gress to hold its next meeting in Wash-
ington.
THE death is announced of Dr. Franz
Neumann, the oldest active teacher
Germany. In 1826 he was called to the
Professorship of Physics and Mineralogy in
the University of Konigsberg, and for
sixty-nine years has been teaching and
working in the same institution. Dr. Neu-
mann was the first man in Germany to
teach Mathematical Physics.
Iv is stated that Professor E. H. Barnard
and Professor Burnham have accepted posi-
tions in the Yerkes Observatory, Chicago.
PRincIpAL PETERSON, who has accepted
the Principalship of McGill University, in
succession to Sir William Dawson, eradu-
ated at Edinburgh University in 1875, and
afterwards gained an open scholarship at
Corpus Christi College, Oxford. For two
and a half years he acted as assistant to the
Professor of Humanity in Edinburgh Uni-
versity. On the inauguration of University
College, Dundee, in 1882, Mr. Peterson was
unanimously appointed Principal and Pro-
fessor of Classics and Ancient History.
Masor Wiiu1am A. SHEPARD, for twenty-
five years Professor of Chemistry in Ran-
dolph Macon College, died in Ashland, Va.,
on June 3d.
A statue of the late Professor Billroth
was unveiled in the Hospital Rudolfinerhaus
on April 25th.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
TuE following are abstracts of the com-
munications presented at the thirty-fourth
meeting, May 8, 1895 :
G. F. Broker. ‘Gold Fields of ‘the
Southern Appalachians.’ This communica-
tion presented a summary of a report upon
SCIENCE.
in -
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 24.
these gold fields, based upon field work of
the last season, which will appear in the
Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of
the U.S. Geological Survey, and will be is-
sued in separate form very soon.
The geographical position, history and
statistics of the known deposits were first
given, followed by a discussion of the rock
formations and the structural features of
the regions in which the deposits occur.
The gold-bearing veins and impregnations
were then described, and a long list of the
observed gangue minerals was given, with
comments upon their significance. The
secondary, or placer deposits, were also con-
sidered.
C. Wiitarp Hayers. ‘Notes on the
Geology of the Cartersville Sheet, Georgia.’
The region covered by the Cartersyille
sheet is in northwest Georgia, its northern
and western borders being about thirty
miles respectively from the Tennessee and
Alabama lines. Its topography is domi-
nated by two peneplains, the older pre-
served by the harder metamorphic and
crystalline rocks on the eastern side of the
sheet, and the younger developed on com-
paratively soft limestones and shales. The
older peneplain shows a decided southward
inclination from an altitude of 1,400 feet at
the north edge of the sheet to 1,000 at the
south edge. Above the peneplain rise a
few monadnocks from 800 to 1,000 feet,
while the larger streams have cut their
channels several hundred feet deep within
it. The lower peneplain has an altitude of
between 800 and 900 feet, and a slight in-
clination toward the west. The two plains
probably coincide a short distance east of
this region, in the vicinity of Atlanta.
Two distinct groups of rocks are found
in this sheet, separated by a profound fault.
The rocks west of the fault are unaltered
Cambrian and Silurian, while those to the
east are crystalline and metamorphic, prob-
ably Archean and Algonkian. The most
.
|
|
JUNE 14, 1895.]
striking structural feature on the sheet is
the Cartersville fault by which the meta-
morphic rocks are superposed upon the
unaltered Paleozoics. In the northern
portion of the sheet the fault plane dips
eastward at a low angle, in general less
than 15°, the Cambrian limestone and shale
passing under the black Algonkian slate
and conglomerate which lie in open folds
to the eastward.
In the vicinity of Cartersville the fault
plane dips eastward much more steeply,
probably not less than 75°. A short dis-
tance east of this portion of the fault is a
large mass of granite, probably Archean,
to which the change in the character of
the fault is doubtless due. While to the
north and south of this granite mass the
sedimentary rocks were readily moved upon
their bedding planes, so that they trans-
gressed a long distance upon the Paleozoics,
- the absence of planes in the granite retarded
movement at this point, causing a deep re-
entrant angle in the course of the fault. A
further effect of the anchoring of the strata
by this granite mass is seen in the abnormal
strikes at its northern end. The sedimen-
tary rocks have been carried past it toward
the west, so that for a distance of fifteen
miles they strike northwest, at right angles
to the normal axes of this region.
Atrrep H. Brooxs. ‘ Notes on the Crys-
talline Rocks of the Cartersville Sheet,
Georgia.’ In this paper Mr. Brooks gave
petrographical descriptions of the granites,
diorite, gabbro and hornblende schist of the
Cartersville district.
Lester F. Warp. ‘The Red Hills and
Sand Hills of South Carolina.’ The speaker
considered these well known topographic
features of a broad band crossing South
Carolina, concerning which various opinions
have been held, to be remnants of the Lafay-
ette formation. He described localities
where the red and white sands were ob-
served to grade into, or alternate with, each
SCIENCE.
669
other as parts of one formation. As this
formation overlaps various older beds to the
granite, the discovery of Eocene fossils by
Tuomey at the base of certain hills may be
understood.
The red and white sands are associated
with shales and clays, and Professor Ward
believed that they were to be considered as
a northeastern extension of the ‘ Red loam’
(Lafayette) formation of the Gulf States.
Wuitman Cross,
Secretary.
NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
THE section of geology met on May 20,
and listened to the following papers :
J. F. Kemp, ‘The Iron-ore Bodies at
Mineville, Essex County, N. Y.’ The
history of iron mining in this district was
briefly outlined by the speaker, and the
early development of the enormous ore-
bodies at Mineville was sketched. Their
geological relations were then shown by
means of a series of sections, about twenty-
five in number, which had been prepared
by the engineer of the companies operating
the mines, Mr. S. B. McKee, assisted by the
speaker. These sections had been drawn
under the guidance of Prof. Kemp on panes
of thin crystal plate glass about one-eighth
inch in thickness and 21x33 inches. The
glass is of such transparency that the
entire series of sections came out very
clearly and showed the relations of the
ore-bodies with great vividness. The scale
was one inch to the hundred feet, making
thus twenty-five vertical sections, one hun-
dred feet apart and extending nearly half a
mile. It was at once apparent that Miller
Pit, Old Bed, ‘21,’ the Bonanza and the
Joker ore-bodies were all really parts of
one enormous mass which lies on a pitching
anticline. Miller Pit and Old Bed are
faulted from each other and from ‘21.’ A
trap dike intersects Miller Pit. In the field
the relations are very confusing, and it can
670
not be stated that the model clears them
all up, but it shows the broader features
admirably and will be later described in
greater fullness.
The speaker gave some further details of
the geological relations of the ore and the
character of the rocks as shown by drill
cores. The presence of intruded sheets of
gabbro in the gneisses was especially em-
phasized, and in particular their existence
as proved by the cores, immediately be-
neath some thin beds or veins of ore. The
paper was further illustrated by a large
series of lantern slides of the mines.
The second paper, by G. van Ingen, on
‘The significance of the recent studies of
Mr. G. F. Matthew on Cambrian Faunas as
published by the Academy,’ covered prac-
tically the same ground as did Mr. Mat-
thew’s abstract printed in Scrence April 26,
p. 452. Mr. van Ingen added many ad-
ditional particulars based on his field ex-
perience in collecting the fossils, and also
exhibited comparative sections of the Cam-
brian in both Europe and America.
The third paper, by W. D. Matthew,
‘The Effusive and Dike Rocks, near St.
John, N. B.,’ was postponed on account of
the lateness of the hour. It appears, how-
ever, in full in the Transactions of the
Academy, and adds much to our knowledge
of the Pre-Cambrian volcanic rocks of New
Brunswick. J. F. Kemp,
Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
THE PHYSICAL REVIEW.
Vol. IL, No. 6. May-June, 1895.
The Capacity of Electrolytic Condensers: By
SAMUEL SHELDON, H. W. Lerrom and A.
N. Saw.
This paper contains a description of
experiments performed upon two types
of Platinum—H,SO, cells, which, when
charged to potentials less than the E. M. F.
of polarization, are found to act as con-
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Von. I. No. 24.
densers. The capacity of such condensers
is dependent upon the impressed E. M. F. as
well as upon the surface and character of
the electrodes. By a method quite anal-
ogous to the ‘ballistic method’ of testing
iron the authors have shown the presence
of a very considerable hysteresis in the re-
lation between potential and charge. The
curves showing this relation present in fact
a striking resemblance to the ordinary hys-
teresis loop. Considerable difficulty was
met with in reducing the electrodes to an
unpolarized condition, even with new speci-
mens of platinum. Here also an applica-
tion of magnetic methods was found useful,
the cells being conveniently depolarized by
reversals. The paper contains also an in-
vestigation of the effect of temperature and
concentration upon the capacity. In spite
of the large capacity of electrolytic con-
densers, the authors are of the opinion that
the high temperature coefficient and low ~
efficiency of such cells are prohibitive to:
practical usage.
Thermal Conductivity of Copper, I. By R-
W. Quick, C. D. Curzp and B. S. Lan-
PHEAR.
In this article is begun the description of
observations made to determine the thermal
conductivity of a bar of copper intended for
use as a standard of length. The method
used was that of Forbes. The measure-
ment of the temperature at different points
of the bar was made by a method different
from that usually employed, and depended
upon the variation in the resistance of a.
coil of fine copper wire, which could be
shifted from point to point throughout the
length of the bar. Results were obtained
for the conductivity through a range of
temperatures extending from 74° to 167°,
the extreme values being 0.914 at the lower
of these two temperatures and 1.024 at the
higher. Observations at temperatures.
below 0° will appear in a subsequent article.
-
¥
é
j
4
: JUNE 14, 1895.]
On the Absorption of Certain Crystals in the
Infra-red as Dependent Upon the Direction of
the Plane of Polarization. By Ernest Mer-
RITT.
By means of a spectro-bolometer the
writer has determined the transmission
eurves for Quartz, Iceland Spar, and Tur-
malin out to a wave length of 5.5 4. In
order to detect the differences between the
absorption of the ordinary and extraordinary
rays the radiation used (that of a Zirconium
lamp) was polarized by reflection before
passing through the crystal specimen. On
account of diffuse rays from the surface of
the fiuorite prism considerable difficulty
was met with in obtaining a pure spectrum;
a difficulty which was finally met by using
two spectrometers ‘in series;’ i. e., the
spectrum formed by one spectrometer was
thrown upon the slit of another. The re-
sults show that the transmission curves of
the ordinary and extraordinary rays are
entirely independent in all three cases. In
the case of Iceland Spar the differences be-
tween the two curves is especially marked,
sharp absorption bands being present in the
one curve which are entirely absent in the
other. At = 3.3 » Iceland Spar is found
to behave as turmalin, 7. ¢., the ordinary ray
is suppressed, while the extraordinary ray
is transmitted in considerable amount. The
difference between the two curves is less
marked in the case of Quartz, but is very
considerable with Turmalin. In the latter
case the two curves are found to intersect,
and in the region lying between the points
of intersection the dechroism of turmalin is
reversed.
Resonance in Transformer Circuits.
Bepext and A. C. CREHORE.
In this article the writers discuss the
action of a condenser in either circuit of a
transformer, and develop by purely graphical
methods the conditions necessary for primary
resonance due to a secondary condenser, a
By F.
SCIENCE.
671
phenomenon to which Dr. Pupin has given
the name electrical consonance. A primary
circuit alone, and with no condenser, would
have no natural period of oscillation; but
it may have such a period when a neighbor-
ing secondary circuit contains a condenser.
The elastic influence of the condenser is
transferred from one circuit to the other,
on account of their mutual relationship;
and the natural period of the primary cir-
cuit depends not only upon the value of its
own constants, but those of the secondary
as well. There is a surging of energy back
and forth between the primary circuit and
the secondary condenser by intervention
of their common magnetic field; the
period of these surgings determines the
period of the system. In addition to the
graphical analysis, Drs. Bedell and Cre-
hore subject the problem toa brief analyt-
ical treatment leading to identical results.
It is shown that there are two values of
the capacity of the secondary condenser
which will give rise to consonance. It is
pointed out that a condenser in the second-
ary of the transformer may compensate
for the drop due to magnetic leakage;
in fact, this drop may be over-compen-
sated for, so that the secondary poten-
tial will actually rise as the transformer
is loaded down.
Aside from the particular conclusions
reached, the paper is of interest for the
methods employed, the problem in hand
illustrating well the writer’s method of re-
ciprocal points in constructing admittance
and current diagrams from diagrams of
impedance and electromotive forces.
On the Secular Motion of a Free Magnetic
Needle, I. By L. A. Bauer.
This article forms the introduction to an
important paper on the secular variation
of terrestrial magnetism which will be con-
cluded in the next number. The present
article is devoted to a description of the
672
methods of accumulating and discussing the
available data. An abstract is postponed
until the appearance of the remainder of
the paper.
New method of Testing the Magnetic Properties
of Iron. By W.S. FRANKLIN.
In determining the curve of magnetiza-
tion, the sample, in the form of a long nar-
row f], is suspended from the arm of a bal-
ance, the legs of the q being surrounded by
fixed magnetizing coils. The induction
may then be calculated from the weight
necessary to hold the specimen in equi-
librium. A novel method of determining
hysteresis loss is also described. In this
ease the sample was in the form of a long
rod, and was magnetized by a rather short
coil. The rod was suspended from one
part of a balance, and was weighed first
while the coil was moved slowly upward and
afterwards during a slow downward motion
of the coil. A method is developed by
which the hysteresis loss may be computed
from the difference of these weights. Ex-
perimental data accompany the paper.
New Books. The following books are re-
viewed: RayiercH. Theory of Sound, Vol.
I. Porncare. Les Oscillations Electriques.
Carwarr. University Physics.
THE JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
THE Journal of Comparative Neurology
for March contains three original papers.
The first, ‘Modern Algedonic Theories,’ by
C. L. Herrick, is a critique based primarily
upon Marshall’s Pain, Pleasure and Ais-
thetics, though most of the other recent
literature is reviewed in the same connec-
tion. The physiological theory of emotion
finally adopted by the writer is in the main
a composite drawn chiefly from the nutrition
theory of Meynert, the discharge theory of
Lange and James, and the theory of habit
of Gilman. In brief, it is a resistance
theory. When we have agreed upon the
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Vou. I. No. 24.
nature of the simplest sense, pain and grati-
fication, the foundation will have been laid
for the more complex esthetic phenomena.
This foundation is believed to consist in the
recognition of a special kind of neurosis for
the feelings due to two classes of stimuli of
avery similar but notidentical kind. Given
an excessive stimulus which for whatever —
reason freely irradiates, and pleasure is felt;
OO EEE —_— <<< —— .
M
4
given another stimulus, or the same exces- —
sive stimulus with other neural conditions
which prevent irradiation and produce a
summation and overflow, and pain is felt.
Emotion consists (1) of general sensations —
of total, organic or irradiating varieties
which have in common a lack of localization —
and, as a result of associational laws, are ©
amalgamated more or less closely with the
empirical ego; (2) of more or less explicate
or implicate cognitions (perceptions, intu-
itions) of the relation between the cause of
the sensation and our well-being; (3) the
emotion is more or less closely attached to
various impulsive expressions which tend in
various ways to intensify the two preceding.
The psychical element of emotion is essen-
tially intellectual, and the attempt to secure
a serial relation of the ‘ faculties’ must be
abandoned.
The second paper by M. A. Raffalovich
deals with ‘Uranism, or Congenital Sexual
Inversion.’ It is a plea for the early recog-
nition of congenital inversion in children
and the proper education of such children.
Inversion is no excuse for debauchery and
Krafit-Ebbing’s pity for the race of inverted
persons is largely misplaced. The psycho-
logical history of a superior uranist is traced
and commented upon at length.
In a brief paper entitled ‘The Histogen-
esis of the Cerebellum,’ C. L. Herrick
notices the recent work of Dr. Shaper upon
the cerebellum of teleosts and calls atten-
tion to the gratifying harmony between
these results and his own studies published
in 1891.
le Dy TOE os
New SERIES.
Vou. I. No. 25.
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SCIENCE.
EpIToRIAL CoMMITTEE : S. NEwcoMB, Mathematics ; R. S. WoopwArp,
tronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THursToN, Engineering ;
W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MARSH, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks,
J. LE Conte, Geology;
Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, As-
IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; S. H. ScupDER, Entomology ;
N. L. Brirron, Botany ; HENRY F. OsBorN, General Biology ; H. P. BowpiTcH,
Physiology ; J. S. Brntrnes, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ;
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
FRIDAY, JUNE 21, 1895.
CONTENTS:
On the Distribution and the Secular Variation of
Terrestrial Magnetism: L. A. BAUER.......--- 673
On a Devonian Limestone-Breccia in Southwestern
Missowri : OSCAR HERSHEY .........--00005- 676
Current Notes on Physiography (X.): W. M.
HER eee yore oye ln) a)n cn 9) wlnielooua,xiain Inietoln wid msl e.° 678
Notes on Agriculture (III. ) : BYRON D. HALSTED. .680
PRWRESVONTIATICE ®— - ote cee ce waeaecesisnias cat 682
The Illustrattons in the Standard Natural History :
ELuiotrr Cours ; C. HART MERRIAM.
Scientific Literature :— ......02 0-2 eee eee eee eee 684
Vermeule’s Report on Water Supply ; Geological
Survey of New Jersey: ROLLIN D. SALISBURY.
Roscoe’s John Dalton and the Rise of Modern
Chemistry: EpDWARD H. Ketser. Bach’s Elas-
ticitat und Festigkeit: MANSFIELD MERRIMAN.
The Pocket gl of the United States: J. A.
ALLEN. Collett’s Norway Lemming: C. H. M.
BV OLER INA News — . wove scccccevcceves or oe 692
Astronomy ; General.
Societies and Academies :— .......00e0eceeeeeee 698
Biological Society of Washington ; The New Jer-
sey State Microscopical Society.
Scientific Journals: —......-..+++- PAD AG ene Beer 700
The American Journal of Science.
MSS. intended for publication and books, ete., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
McKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
gsubseriptionsand advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND THE SECULAR
VARIATION OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.
In two papers* read before the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington, May 25th,
the following main results were obtained :
**On the Secular Variation of Terrestrial Mag-
netism’ and ‘ A Preliminary Analysis of the Problem
of Terrestrial Magnetism and its Variations.’
The minimum change in declination along a
parallel of latitude at any particular time, and
the minimum average secular change along a
parallel of latitude during a given interval of time
occur near the equator; both quantities generally
inerease on leaving the equator.
Exactly the reverse is the case with re-
gard to the inclination, viz. :—
The maximum change in inclination along a
parallel of latitude at any particular time, and
the maximum average secular change along a
parallel of latitude during a given interval of
time occur near the equator; both quantities
generally diminish on leaving the equator.
These laws were established with the aid
of data scaled from magnetic charts from
1780 to 1885 at points 20° distant in longi-
tude and in latitudes 60°N, 40°N, 20°N,
equator, 20°S, 40°S and 60°S. They
again point to the same conclusion reached
previously by the writer in a somewhat
different way, namely, that the distribution
and the secular variation of terrestrial magne-
tism appear to be closely related; they are sub-
ject to similar laws. It is henee probable that
they are both to be referred primarily to the same
cause. This common cause seems to be connected
in some way with the earth’s rotation.
If we regard the earth as uniformly mag-
netized, having its magnetic poles coinci-
dent with the geographical poles, and take
the X axis of a system of coordinates whose
origin is in the center of the earth, parallel
to the magnetic axis, we shall get the fol-
674
lowing expression for the potential function
at any external point, viz.:
x
ee
Ppa eh
a is the mean radius of the earth, r the dis-
tance of the point from the origin, and pz
the intensity of magnetization per unit of
volume.
For points on the earth’s surface, this re-
duces to:
= Wa = 7 p. sind =e. sin ¢
9 is the geographical latitude and c= $zy.
This formula is doubly interesting just
now, as it has been recently deduced em-
pirically by Professor W. von Bezold.* This
eminent investigator, when considering the
mean values of the geomagnetic potential
along parallels of latitude, found them sub-
ject to the simple law ¢, = c. sin ¢ = 0.330
(1)
sing. Sincec=447z p, and the magnetic
moment, M, of the earth is equal to
4x .a%, we find that von Bezold’s empiri-
eal coefficient implies a value of the mag-
netic moment equal to 8.52 x 107° against
8.55 x 102° as determined by Gauss. We
thus see the theoretical significance of von
Bezold’s factor.
Since for the case supposed the horizon-
tal component of the intensity, H, is di-
rected meridionally, it follows from (1) that:
r)
H = — ce. cos¢
aod i
(2)
Furthermore, with the aid of simple
transformations :
V=2e. sin ¢ (3)
F=c /3 sin? ¢+1 (4)
tan I = 2 tan @ (5)
V being the vertical force, F, the total and
I, the inclination. Formule (2), (3), (4)
and (5) are familiar to every nautical geo-
magnetician.
*See his admirable paper ‘Uber Isanomalen des
erdmagnetischen Potentials,’ Sitz. berichte d. Kel.
Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin. Phys.-math.
Classe, April 4, 1895.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 25.
Now the writer finds that these formule —
give the mean values of the magnetic ele- —
ments along parallels of latitude with a high —
degree of precision.
printed in full in the American Journal of
Science beginning with the August number,
I will select but one typical example.
1885.
| Latitude | Tobs’d* |I Comp’d, 0O.-C.
| 60° N | 74°.9N| 73°.9N | + 19.0
40° 59 .7N| 59.2N|+0.5
20° 34 3 N SAN 18 |
Equator| 3.28 | 0.0 |—3.2 |
20° 36 88 | 36.18 |—0.7 |
40° 57.28 | 59.28 |+2.0 |
eos | 70.28 | 73.98 | +3.7 |
Since, according to equation (2).
M
ee Bs ary eile GL) (6).
we can get a fair value of the magnetic
moment of the earth without the aid of the
laborious Gaussian computation by simply
scaling the value of H for equidistant
points along a parallel of latitude from iso-
dynamic charts and substituting the mean of
the values thus found in (6).
Thus I get for 1885 as the mean result of
the scalings along 40° N, 20° N, Equator,
20° S and 40° S, the value of 0.325 a® for
M, against 0.322 a° resulting from the 1885
Neumayer-Petersen re-computation of the
Gaussian co-efficients.
But why should the values obtained on the
assumption that the earth is uniformly magnet-
ized, and its magnetic axis coincident with the
geographical axis, so nearly agree with those
based wpon observed quantities? It seems to
me that this opens the question whether
the asymmetrical distribution of land and
water is the primary cause of the asymmet-
rical distribution of telluric magnetism, as
generally supposed. Why do the ‘anoma-
lies’ in the distribution so nearly cancel
each other in going along a parallel of lati-
* These quantities are the results of the scalings of
Neumayer’s charts for the points mentioned.
As this paper willbe |
_ JUNE 21, 1895.]
tude? Does this again imply that the ro-
tation of the magnetic earth is an important
factor ?
If we connect by lines all the places on
the earth’s surface having the same de-
parture (with due regard to sign) from the
values as computed from above formulie
we get a series of curves that converge
around two foci of maximum and minimum
departures. I have carried out this idea
with the aid of my collected data in the
case of the inclination for three epochs, 1780,
1880 and 1885. I call the curves thus ob-
tained lines of equal departing inclination,
or, briefly, ‘isapoclinics.’ It is especially
remarkable that these lines close around
two points not on opposite sides of the
equator, but on the same side.* Their pre-
liminary positions are:
Latitude. Longitude.
For 1885.
North end attracting focus, 20°S. 40°W of Gr.
South end attracting focus, 5°S. 40°E of Gr.
For 1780.
N. F. 0° 50°W.
Ss. EF. 0° 60°F.
These positions are subject to a slight re-
vision. The main part, however, is brought
out very clearly in both cases, viz. : that the
chief cause of distortion of the primary sym-
metrical field can be represented as due to a
secondary polarization approximately equatorial
in direction.
I then showed that the isapoclinies obey
in a remarkable degree the laws governing
a magnetic system. They do not run at
random. Thus, for example, the foci or
poles of this secondary system fall nearly
on the agonic lines of the actually observed
field, and the secondary magnetic equator
running roughly north and south marks
out approximately the places where occurs
* Similar results have been obtained by von Bezold
in the paper cited, and by A. von Tillo as seen in his
preliminary paper in Comptes Rendus, Oct. 8, ’94,
pp. 597-599. It is very much to be hoped that von
Tillo’s charts will soon be published.
SCIENCE.
675
the maximum declination. Jn a word, the
magnetic field which we actually observe can be
nearly obtained by super-imposing a secondary
equatorial field upon a primary polar one.
By comparing the maximum horizontal
intensities of the the two systems, as found
in the respective magnetic equators, I find
that the polar field is about five to six times
stronger than the secondary, and that the axis of
the resultant system would make an angle of
about 10° with the rotation axis.
Furthermore, the secular variation phe-
nomena can be qualitatively explained by
the shifting of just two such poles as be-
long to the secondary system. It cannot
be explained by the disturbance of poles on
opposite sides of the equator.
Weshould thus have to refer both the distribution
and the secular variation to apparently the same
kind of a polarization.
This harmonizes with the empirical con-
clusions at the beginning of this paper.
Since the intersection of the agonic lines
with the equator fall so nearly together
with the positions of the isapoclinic foci, a
fair idea, perhaps, can be obtained of the
shifting of these foci from the motion of the
agonic lines along the equator. I find that
both agonie lines have been moving west-
wardly along the equator for the last 300
years at the average rate of about 0.°2 per an-
num. If the motion continues around the
equator at this rate the resulting period
would be about 2000 years, but I do not
wish to be understood as asserting that this
is the secular variation period.
A possible third field, which has been
made probable by Dr. A. Schmidt’s beau-
tiful researches, was also pointed out.
Schmidt found, namely, that not the en-
tire observed magnetic effect on the earth
can be referred to a potential; currents
that pierce the earth’s surface seem to make
themselves felt. Perhaps his currents can
be explained thus: If an arbitrarily mag-
netized sphere rotates in a conducting fluid,
676
the surface of contact of sphere and fluid
being conducting, currents will be incited
in the fluid that will pass into the sphere
and out again.
In the case of the earth there is no fluid
with reference to which the solid earth per-
forms a total differential rotation; still
there are partial differential rotations due
to moving streams, ocean currents, tidal
waves and air currents. Such a field, if it
exist, can be differentiated with the aid of
the potential theory. if
Purely local disturbances would consti-
tute a fourth—the ‘ anomalous field.’
We as yet have no satisfactory answer as
to the origin of the earth’s primary mag
netic field, neither has the astronomer an
answer to the query ‘ Whence the moon.’
He, however, accepts the moon’s existence
and computes its disturbing effects upon
the earth’s motions. Just so it is with the
earth’s magnetism. We do not know
whence it has come, but we know it is
there. We know that to-day the mag-
netic earth is rotating about an eccentric
axis, and so let us ask ourselves What
is the effect of the self-inductive action of the
rotating magnetic earth? How is the prin-
ciple of the conservation of energy when applied
to the motions of the magnetic earth to be ful-
filled ? L. A. BAUER.
ON A DEVONIAN LIMESTONE-BRECCIA IN
SOUTHWESTERN MISSOURI.
Tue brecciated limestone which it is pro-
posed to describe in this paper outcrops
near the base of Hagle Ridge, on the west
side of the valley of Dry Creek, five miles
west of the town of Galena, county seat of
‘Stone County, Missouri. The several mem-
bers of the Devonian strata in this portion
of the State are, in their normal condition,
very regular and evenly bedded, and are
perfectly conformable, from their base, to
and with the overlying Kinderhook Group.
They rest, with slight local unconformity,
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 25.
on the magnesian limestones of the Ozark
Series, and then out toward the east, at the
expense of the lower members, each stratum
overlapping that which is under it.
vicinity of the limestone breccia they pre-
sent the following sections: 1. Green Shale,
7 feet. 2. Shaley Limestone, 10 feet. 3.
Speckled Crinoidal Limestone, 3 feet. 4.
Basal Conglomeratic Sandstone, 4 inches.
Proceeding south along the west side of
the valley we find the first indication of
a disturbance in the form of a gentle undu-
lation of the upper portion of the shaley
limestone, No. 2 of the section. A few
hundred yards further we encounter the
first of a series of huge masses of breccia,
consisting of the light gray, amorphous
limestone and thin shale of No. 2, broken
into angular fragments of various sizes, and
recemented, partly by a similar substance,
and partly by the subsequent infiltration of
calcareous matter occurring now in the form
of calcite. The original bedding planes
have been mostly obliterated, and the bree-
cia weathers out along the hillside in boul-
der-like masses, 10 to 20 feet thick, and 50
to 100 feet in width. A stratum of shaley
limestone at the base of these masses parti-
ally retains its original appearance, and
from its relation to the more massive brec-
cia overlying it the whole is seen to haye
been subjected to violent contortion and
fracture, such that boulders of hard lime-
stone have been forced into the midst of
ealeareous shale. There are about half a
dozen of these masses exposed along the val-
ley side, in a distance of about 1000 feet;
then the undulations decrease, and at one-
half mile from where the first disturbance
in the strata was noticed they entirely
cease, and from thence down the valley the
strata are in their normal condition.
There is no indication of the action of
water in the formation of the breccia. All
the fragments are sharply angular, and fre-
quently a fossil has been broken through
|
{
In the
JUNE 21, 1895.]
and the positions of the pieces slightly
changed, but not widely separated as they
would inevitably have been had the brec-
ciated masses been accumulated by wave
action on a seashore. The hypothesis that
the brecciation and contortion were pro-
duced by undermining of the strata and by
subsequent crushing from the weight of the
superincumbent rock is inconsistent with
the facts. The lower members of the De-
vonian strata are undisturbed, and in the
central portion even the whole of No. 2
seems to be present and perfectly horizon-
tal and the breccia rests on it increasing
the thickness of the Devonian strata from
its normal 20 feet to 40 feet in the central
portion of the disturbance.
In short, the only theory which will ex-
plain all the phenomena is that which has
been applied, in explanation of the manner
of formation of similar but vastly more
extended Devonian limestone breccias in
Iowa, viz., by lateral pressure produced by
the ‘ creep’ or sliding on a sloping sea bot-
tom of the displaced strata immediately
after their deposition.
From a study of the strike of the undu-
lations, displacements and other attendant
phenomena, it becomes evident that the
pressure was applied from the northeast.
The Devonian strata at present rise in that
direction at a rate not exceeding 8 or 10
feet per mile, and during the Devonian age
were doubtless still more nearly horizon-
tal. It is remarkable that so slight a slope
could have given rise to a sliding of a por-
tion of the sea bottom, but it is undoubtedly
the fact that, while the deposition of the De-
yvonian strata had proceeded without in-
terruption to the top of the shaley limestone
No. 2, the upper 2 or 3 feet began to slide on
the underlying stratum. About the western
line of Stone county the resistance over-
eame the weight of the ‘creeping’ strata,
and the tension becoming too strong, at one
‘place certainly and perhaps at others not yet
SCIENCE.
677
discovered, that they suddenly gave way,
were contorted, brecciated, forced forward
and hurled in boulder-like masses on to other
undisturbed strata.
Considering the intensity of the force and
the conditions under which it was applied,
it is surprising that the area of the disturb-
ance should be so small; on the opposite
side of the valley, one-eighth of a mile dis-
tant, there is not the slightest sign of it, and
in the next valley, one-fourth ofa mile south-
west from it, the Devonian strata are undis-
turbed. Its areal extent cannot be greater
than one-fourth square mile.
The lithification of the shaley limestone
was practically complete at the time of the
displacement, for the fragments are all
sharply angular and must then have been
very hard. And as the relation of the over-
lying strata shows that the period of the
disturbance immediately succeeded that of
deposition of No. 2, deposition and lithifica-
tion must have proceeded contemporane-
ously.
The green shale, which is the upper mem-
ber of the Devonian in this region, thins
out in the hollows between the dome-shaped
prominences of the surface of the breccia,
and totally disappears over the higher por-
tions of the disturbed area. The points
where it is absent are not now and never
were more than twenty feet higher than the
surrounding sea bottom, where the green
shale was deposited in very regular lami-
ne, without wave action. The areal dis-
tribution of the green shale is such as to
show that it was deposited in a compara-
tively small and shallow esturine basin,
connecting with the sea toward the south,
and supplied with fine sediment from the
land on the east and north. The limited
extent of this body of water accounts for
the feebleness of its waves, which did not
affect the green shale at the depth of only
twenty feet around the elevated area formed
by the breccia. The higher prominences
678
of the breccia were slightly eroded by wave
action during the deposition of the green
shale in the surrounding water, but the
leveling had not proceeded far when the
Devonian age came to a close; the entire
region was depressed, and the Louisiana
limestone (formerly known as the Litho-
graphic limestone), or basal member of the
Kinderhook Group, was laid down over the
breccia. It is usually a regularly bedded,
dark gray limestone, everywhere perfectly
conformable to the green shale, but over
the distributed area it is irregularly bedded
and slightly arched, but soon succeeded, by
thickening in the hollows and thinning over
the prominenees, in leveling off the ancient
sea bottom. The Lower Carboniferous
strata are here locally unconformable with
the Devonian. We have thus seen that the
thinning of the green shale over the area of
disturbance fixes the time of said disturb-
ance at the period between the deposition
of Nos. 1 and 2 or the shaley limestone and
the green shale. From a general resem-
blance between the shaley limestone of this
region and portions of the Cedar valley
limestone of Iowa, and from the fact that
this peculiar mode of brecciation obtained
in both regions, I wish to suggest that the
light brown or gray, amorphous, shaley
limestone of southwestern Missouri may be
the equivalent of the Cedar valley lime-
stone of central Iowa.
Oscar H. HursHey.
GALENA, Mo.
CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY (X.)
LEY’S CLOUDLAND.
Tus long expected work (Stanford, Lon-
don, 1894. 208 p.) is an effort to establish
a classification and terminology of clouds
on a genetic basis. While such a plan has
much to commend it, and must eventually
be adopted in fully developed form, its
presentation now is perhaps premature; for
there is yet much to learn regarding the
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 25.
origin of certain cloud forms, and much
difference of opinion still prevails on the
subject. Four chief classes are recognized
in Ley’s scheme: clouds of radiation, such
as ground fogs; of inversion, such as cum-
ulus, dependent on overturnings in an un-
stable atmosphere; of interfret, such as
waving stratiform clouds formed at the con-
tact of layers of different temperature ; and
of inclination, such as pendent cirrus wisps,
caused by the settlement of particles from
one atmospheric stratum into another. The
illustrations, reproduced from photographs
by Clayden, are for the most part excellent.
The chief deficiency of the work is the ab-
sence of comparative tables, by which the
terms proposed by Ley may be translated
into those adopted by the International
Meteorological Congress. In a number of
passages exceptions must be taken to the
manner of physical explanation of cloud
formation, especially to statements concern-
ing the relation of water and ice particles
in cumulus and cirrus clouds, and to the re-
peated implication that the liberation of la-
tent heat in the condensation of vapor ac-
tually warms the air. The chapters on the
theory of atmospheric currents and on the
prevailing winds of the globe are hardly
relevant to the rest of the book and add
little value to it. Remembering that the
author has devoted years of observation to
cloud study, and that latterly his work has
been much interrupted by ill health, it is
doubly a regret that his book cannot be
more highly commended.
BUREAU CENTRAL METEOROLOGIQUE.
TuHE latest series of Annales of this im-
portant Bureau contain as usual a volume
of memoirs in which, besides the statistical
studies of thunder storms in France by Fron
and several reports of magnetism, there are
essays by Angot on the advance of vegeta-
tion and the migration of birds in France
for ten years, 1881-1890, and on the meteor-
JUNE 21, 1895.]
ological observations on the Hiffel tower
during 1892; and by Durand-Gréville on
squalls and thunderstorms. Nearly all the
features of the advance of vegetation exhibit
the accelerating influence of the Mediter-
ranean and the retarding influence of the
Bay of Biscay. The records of the Eiffel
tower are chiefly interesting in showing in-
versions of nocturnal temperature in the
means of all the months, and consequently
in proving a distinct variation in the diurnal
values of the vertical temperature gradient
in the lower atmosphere; as well as a change
of the time of maximum wind velocity from
afternoon at surface stations to night at the
top of the tower. Durand-Gréville’s essay
is illustrated by an excellent chart of the
distribution of pressure during an extended
squall that occurred on August 27, 1890;
the isobars being drawn for every milli-
meter, and showing a sharp N-like double
bend at the place of the squall.
WINTER STORMS IN THE NORTH SEA.
Tue famous Christmas storm of 1821,
which led Brandes and Dove to their
early statements concerning the system of
storm winds, finds a modern parallel in a
storm of December 22-23, 1894, described
by K6ppen in the Annalen der Hydrographie,
edited by the Naval Observatory at Ham-
burg, and published in Berlin. On the morn-
ing of December 22 the storm center, with a
pressure of 715 mm., lay just east of Scot-
land; on the evening, with a pressure of
725, the center lay just west of Denmark.
The whirling courses of the winds are well
illustrated ; a southerly gale crossed the
Baltic, while a northerly gale raged on the
North sea; violent east winds blew off the
coast of Norway, and westerly gales were
recorded in northern Germany. Disastrous
storm floods were felt at many points on
the coast, and salty rain fell at many points
in England. Other storms were felt a week
earlier and later ; but, apropos of this ap-
SCIENCE.
67S
parent periodicity, Képpen remarks that
thus far all efforts to establish weekly,
monthly or longer weather cycles have,
without exception, failed, and that, while
the faint and easily obliterated traces of
such periods have a certain scientific in-
terest, they have not yet a practical value.
The Annalen der Hydrographie is a character-
istic German journal, in which a serious
and scientifie style of work is carried into
the accounts of foreign coasts and harbors,
as reported by officers of the marine. It
frequently contains articles and reviews of
interest on winds, tides and currents.
ELEVATION AS A CAUSE OF GLACIATION,
Ir is probable that no one questions the
sufficiency of elevation to account for gla-
ciation, if other things, such as external
controls of climate, remain unchanged; but
there are serious difficulties in the way of
aecepting the thesis maintained by Upham
(latest expressed in Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
vi., 1895, 343-352) to the effect that
the glacial sheets of northeastern America
and northwestern Europe were caused by
and hence were coincident in time with the
elevation that permitted the erosion of the
deep marginal valleys of the continents.
Upham cites the case of the Sogne fiord, on
the west coast of Norway with a maximum
sounding of 4,080 feet, as a measure of the
epirogenic uplift which at its culmination
caused the glaciation of northern Europe.
The difficulty here is that while a compara-
tively long period of elevation must be pos-
tulated for the excavation of the valley of
Sogne fiord, and while climatic change
would respond immediately to elevation,
yet glacial conditions are not known to
have occured until the erosive effects of
elevation were practically completed. The
steepness of the fiord walls indicates that
the elevation was not slowly progressive,
but was rather promptly completed and
steadily maintained; being in this unlike
680
the elevation by which the erosion of the
flaring and benched valleys of the northern
Alps has been allowed. The problem in-
volved in the relation of elevation and gla-
ciation would therefore seem to be not the
simple one of immediate cause and effect,
but on the other hand the difficult one of
why the apparently competent cause should
not have at once had its expected effect;
why glaciation should have waited so long
after elevation, not attaining its maximum
until a time of depression.
FORESTS AND TORRENTS.
THE much-debated problem of the influ-
ence of forests on rainfall remains unproved,
after all that has been said and done; but
the influence of forests on torrents admits
of no question. The soil is washed from
the deforested slopes and the torrents spread
it over the valleys, greatly to the injury of
both high and low land. The Shenandoah
Valley, for example, one of the most beauti-
ful and productive farming districts in our
country, is suffering along its margin from
the encroachments of gravels and sands
washed from the enclosing deforested ridges.
Those who wish to present this matter to
forestry meetings in popular and impres-
sive form will find an abundance of illus-
trative material with references to European
literature on the subject in an essay by
Toula: Ueber Wildbach-Verheerungen and die
Mittel thnen vorzubeugen (Schr. Vereins zur
Verbreitung naturw. Kenntnisse in Wien,
Xxxii., 1892, 499-622, with forty-one views
from photographs). W. M. Davis.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
NOTES ON AGRICULTURE (IIL)
THE EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD.
Tur Experiment Station Record, a
monthly (practically) published from the
office of Experiment Stations of the U.S§.
Department of Agriculture gives under
the heads of Chemistry, Botany, Zoél-
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 25.
ogy, Meteorology, Soils, Fertilizers, Field
crops, Horticulture, Forestry, Seeds, Weeds,
Diseases of Plants, Entomology, Foods, _
Veterinary Science, Dairying, Technol-
ogy, Statistics and Miscellaneous, the prog-
ress made in these various branches in the
Experiment Stations of our country. The
recent work in Agricultural Science in for-
eign countries is also briefly summarized.
From the last issue of the Record, just
received, the reader is first of all informed
as to the amounts of the appropriations
made by Congress for the U.S. Department
of Agriculture for the year ending June 30,
1896. The total amount is $2,578,750,
which includes $720,000 for the Experi-
ment Stations established under the act of
Congress of March 2, 1887. There will be
two new divisions in the U. S. Division
of Agriculture, namely, that of Agrostology,
which contemplates ‘field and laboratory
investigation relating to the natural history,
geographical distribution and use of the
various grasses and forage plants,’ and that
of Soils.
Among reports of agricultural science in
foreign lands is a paper upon ‘ Agricultural
Investigations in Switzerland,’ by Dr.
Grete, director of the Swiss Station at Zu-
rich. In 1878 a Station for control of fer-
tilizers and feeding stuffs was established,
and recently its work has been extended to.
include culture tests of soils. There is a
Seed Control Station which at the present
time has eight workers besides the director,
and tests by germination thousands of sam-
ples of seeds.
Under the head of chemistry the Record
gives the new methods of obtaining solutions
in soil analyses and the determination of
phosphoric acid. The department of Botany
contains a review of Professor Scribner’s.
‘Grasses’ of Tennessee, which is a valuable.
contribution to the Agrostology of the whole
country. ‘Notes on Maize,’ by Dr. Sturte-
vant, contains generalizations upon the
4
|
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a:
JUNE 21, 1895.]
effect of climate upon corn, the view being
maintained that northern grown varieties
are not necessarily earlier than southern
sorts. The popping of corn is due to the
starch lying within a tough layer which
bursts upon the application of heat.
Under meteorology winds injurious to
crops are considered at length in a digest
of Mr. Curtis’ bulletin. Three classes of
destructive winds are considered, namely,
violent, cold and drying winds. Of the
cold winds there are two classes, the moun-
tain and valley, and those associated with
cyclones, the so-called blizzards and ‘ north-
ers,’ chiefly destructive to orchard crops.
The extent of the latter has increased with
the progress of deforestation, and the Michi-
gan peach belt, with its failures in late years,
isgiven asanexample. Under‘ Variations
in the Character of the Seasons,’ Mr. Gaw-
throp shows cause and makes an appeal for
the exploration of the upper atmosphere.
Mr. Clayton, under‘Rhythm in the Weather,’
claims that ‘ there is good reason to believe
that through all this seeming irregularity
there runs a web of harmony and rhythm,’
and expects that meteorology will in time be-
come an exact science. It is certainly
gratifying to note how much attention is
being given to the weather and the progress
that is made from year to year in its study.
While the air is being investigated the
soils are not neglected. In addition to an-
alyses in relation to fertilizers the action of
organic acids is reported upon by H. Sny-
der, of the Minnesota Station. Soil tempera-
tures are taken at many Stations and facts
are rapidly accumulated upon soil meteor-
ology as well as the movements of liquids
and gases in the soil.
Naturally, a large part of the chemical
work of the Experiment Stations is with fer-
tilizers and the record before us gives a full
share of its space to this branch of the Sta-
tion service. The New Jersey Station is-
sues a large bulletin giving the results of
SCLENCE.
681
analyses, while the Maine Station reports
upon the foraging powers of some agricul-
tural plants for phosphoric acid, as tested by
box experiments. The Louisiana Station
issues a large bulletin upon the ‘ Results of
five years’ experiments with fertilizers.’
This is not the place to give conclusions, the
point here being for the readers of Screncr to
realize that experiment work in this country
is widespread in the broad sense, and that
we are entering an age that has for its
watchword, ‘Prove all things,’ while we may
hope that we hold fast to that which is good.
Mr. Crazier, of Michigan, takes up a single
somewhat obscure crop, the millet, and with
sixty-four pages of text and six figures gives
results obtained from seventy-three samples
grown under varying conditions. In like
manner Mr. Hilgard, of California, brings
out the facts concerning the new tannin-
producing plant carnaigre. From the same
Station is a bulletin upon the Australian salt
bush, which grown upon ‘some of the most
alkali spots yielded at the rate of five tons
of dry matter per acre,’ and is eaten with
relish by live stock. Experiments upon
wheat, tobacco, potatoes and several other
standard crops receive notice in the Record.
Under Horticulture Mr. Heideman, of
the Minnesota Station, gives a ‘ classifica-
tion of the sexual affinities of Prunus Ameri-
cana vars. Numerous crosses were made
between the various forms of flowers, most
of which were not hermaphroditic, and out
of forty-nine possible combinations of pol-
lination only 13 were legitimate. Mr.
Lodeman, of Cornell, has issued a bulletin
upon ‘ grafting of grapes,’ illustrating direc-
tions for the various methods and remarking
upon the physiology of the process. In his
annual report, Mr. Munson, of Maine, gives
notes upon various crops. Thus in a cross
between ignotum and peach tomatoes there
was ‘a marked falling off in the second gen-
eration over the advantage indicated by the
first.’ ?
682
Mr. Buckhout after ‘ five years’ experience
in planting forest trees’ concludes in the
Pennsylvania Station Report “ that consider-
ing the time, expense and work involved,
artificial forest planting cannot be recom-
mended, at least in the way pursued in the
experiment and that natural methods of re-
foresting supplemented by some seed sow-
ing, thinning and planting will suffice for
the present.” Mr. McCarthy, of the North
Carolina Station, has prepared a bulletin
upon seed testing and fully describes its
uses and methods. Weeds receive atten-
tion from Mr. Wooton, of the New Mexico
Station, who figures several of the worst in
his Territory.
Under diseases of plants some grape
troubles in New York are reported upon by
Mr. Lodeman of Cornell. Thus the so-called
‘shelling’ is ascribed to one or more of four
causes, namely, parasites, conditions of
vine, of soil, or of atmosphere. An English
experimenter shows that finely ground lime
700 pounds per acre will check the club
root in turnips. Resin is found by Mr.
Webber to be effective in preventing the
sooty mould of the orange.
Heonomic entomology receives considera-
tion under many heads as the damage
caused by American locusts, chinch bugs,
codling moth, ete. A new saw-fly and pear
insect are mentioned and many species are
named under beneficial insects. Gas treat-
ment for destroying scale insects is reported
upon from California and ‘ Entomology and
Quarantine’ is considered.
Much space is given to the consideration
of foodstuffs, their analyses, digestibility,
etc., the Maine Station perhaps taking the
lead in these matters in the copy of the
Record in hand, while Utah and Minnesota
come in for a share in ‘ dairy herd records’
and ‘relative value of corn and oats for
horses.’ Several papers are mentioned by
title or at length under dairying.
Surely enough has been here given to
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Von. I. No. 25.
show that the Experiment Stations of the
United States are pushing on along many
lines, and that through the facts accumu- _
lated principles cannot but be laid bare.
THE HORTICULTURALISTS’ RULE-BOOK.
Tue first edition of this ‘compendium of
useful information for fruit-growers, truck-
growers, florists and others’ by Professor
L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University, was
published in 1889 and a second in 1892.
The great advances made in methods of
combating insect and fungous enemies dur-
ing the past few years led the author to re-
vise and extend his work. A chapter upon
greenhouse heating has been added and
another upon the current literature of hor-
ticulture.
The following are some of the leading
subjects considered: insecticides and in-
jurious insects, plant diseases with preven-
tives and remedies; injuries from mice,
rabbits and other animals; weeds, seed-
tables, ete. There is a chapter upon Rules
in which are given rules for naming fruit,
codes of various societies, ete. Within the
flexible covers of this little book the pub-
lishers (Macmillan & Co.) have neatly
packed together a surprising amount of
valuable information. Here the horticul-
turist may learn how much seed to sow per
acre, how many plants to set in his orchard,
how to keep off the enemies to his crop,
and when to harvest and market it. Not
the least is a list of the leading books that
have been published upon horticultural sub-
jects and within easy reach of crop grow-
ers. Byron D. Hatstep.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE STANDARD NAT-
URAL HISTORY.
To THE Epiror or Scrence—Si7: Refer-
ring to the statement in Scrmncor of April
5, 1895, page 387, top of second column, that
certain illustrations of Brehm’s Thierleben
JUNE 21, 1895.]
‘were pirated by the Standard Natural. His-
tory,’ I beg to say that it is incorrect and
libelous. The matter concerns me, as one
of the authors of the Standard Natural History,
and also as the author of the Key to North
American Birds, in several later editions of
which many of the same illustrations were
used by my publishers, Messrs. Estes &
Lauriat, of Boston. As ‘piracy,’ like pla-
giarism, implies dishonesty, the allegation
thus made by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, who
signs the article, is too serious to be over-
looked.
Nevertheless, being ready to believe that
Dr. Merriam erred through inadvertence,
Iam prepared to accept an apology, in so
far as I am personally concerned; but I am
not authorized to state that this will be con-
sidered satisfactory by the other parties
who have been thus libeled.
Very truly yours,
Exxiorr Coves.
WASHINGTON, D. C., June 5, 1895.
[The word piracy may be used in two
senses—moral and commercial. When I
wrote the article in which it was stated in-
cidentally that the Brehm plates in the
Standard Natural History were pirated, I be-
lieved that they were in both senses. Among
the reasons for this belief may be mentioned
the following :
1. The book itself contains no statement
of the fact that the illustrations are taken
from Brehm.
2. The anatomist Fiirbringer states that
he searched in vain for a copy of the Stand-
ard Natural History in Germany (Journal
fiir Ornithologie, Apr., 1892, 138).
3. It is stated in the Nature Novitates,
Berlin (Vol XV., No. 1, Jan., 1893, p. 18,
nr. 326), that the work ‘may not be im-
ported into Europe on account of the re-
production of the Brehm woodcuts.’ [* Darf
in Europa wegen Nachdruck der Brehmschen
Holzschnitte nicht eingefiihrt werden.’]
4. The name of the artist, Miitzel, was
SCIENCE.
683
erased from many of the copied plates.
When the attention of the editor was called
to this injustice, he replied: “The cutting
out of Mitzel’s name was a business ne-
cessity.’’!
If, in spite of the above facts, the cuts in
question were sold to the publishers of the
Standard Natural History by the publishers
of Brehm’s Thierleben, I withdraw so much
of my original charge as may be inferred to
imply commercial piracy; but I by no
meams retract the charge of moral piracy—
the greater offense of the two, because it
has no legal redress.
Is the deliberate reproduction of another’s
pictures without credit less censurable than
the reproduction of another's words or ideas?
And what shall one say when the sin of
plagiarism is darkened by the erasure of
the artist’s name, so that neither artist nor
author may be known?
Just why Dr. Coues mentioned his Key
to North American Birds, and his publishers,
Estes & Lauriat, who by the way were not
the publishers of the Standard Natural His-
tory, is hard to understand, inasmuch as
neither were mentioned in the review to
which he takes exception.
Since the above note was sent to ScreNcE
I have received a letter from the publishers
of Brehm’s Thierleben in Leipsic. They
state that they sold to Estes & Lauriat cer-
tain electrotypes from Brehm, to be used by
Estes & Lauriat only, ‘ under an agreement
according to which it was forbidden to
Messrs. Estes & Lauriat to resell these elec-
trotypes.’ They state further: “ As we had
been informed that notwithstanding this
settlement our electrotypes had been resold,
we called Messrs. Estes & Lauriat to ac-
count, and they were forced to confess that
they had resold the electrotypes”’ to three
different firms!
In reply to my question: ‘‘ Were the
electrotypes sold by you to S. E. Cassino &
Co., and published in the Standard Natural
684
History with your knowledge and consent,’
they state: “We answer No! These electro-
types had not been sold by us to Messrs. S. E.
Cassino & Co., and were used without our
permission in the said works. Besides, we
are still at issue with Messrs. Estes & Laur-
iat, Boston, on account of this affair.”’
C. Harr Merriam. |
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Report on Water Supply; Geological Survey of
New Jersey. By Cornenivus CLarKson
VERMEULE, Consulting Engineer. Vol.
III. of the Final Report of the State
Geologist. 1894.
The Geological Survey of New Jersey has
just issued a report bearing the above title,
the interest and value of which are not lim-
ited by State lines. Its author, under whose
direction the topographic map of the State
was made, has had the best of opportuni-
ties for studying the questions involved, and
has not failed to avail himself of them. The
results of his study have been put in as
simple and available form as possible, con-
sidering the complex nature of the problems.
The range of interests touched by the re-
port is great. It will be of imestimable
value to cities and communities which draw
or may draw their supply of water from the
streams of the State, and to manufacturers
who use or may use the power afforded by
them. Less directly, but not less certainly,
the report will be of great value in the same
lines outside the State, since many of the
principles developed are of general and some
of them of universal application. The report
also contains discussions and suggestions
which have a bearing on agriculture and for-
estry, the latter of which is just now attract-
ing wide attention in this and other States.
The educational value of the report is great,
not only to those whose financial and sani-
tary interest are touched by it, but also to
students of hydrography and geology, and
to intelligent citizens in general. From this
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 25.
standpoint, its value lies not only in what
it proves and affirms, but also in what it
disproves and denies. It is scarcely too
much to say that there is not a community
or a class in the State which may not be
benefited by the intelligent study of the
volume before us.
The study of the water resources of the
State was begun by Professor Cook long
ago. As early as 1868 the subject was dis-
cussed by him, and the annual reports of
the State Geologist have since made fre-
quent reference to the subject, and have
reported the progress of the work, the re-
sults of which are now embodied in this
volume. Interest in the questions of which
it treats has been stimulated by the rapid
growth in population, especially in the
vicinity of New York and Philadelphia.
In 1882, 587,760 people in New Jersey were
dependent for water upon systems of public
supply. In 1894 this number had nearly
doubled, while the amount of daily con-
sumption had increased from about 49,000,-
000 gallons to about 108,000,000. Of this
amount, 100,000,000 gallons were drawn
from streams. If the population of the
State continues to increase at the present
rate for another half century, and if the
demand for water keeps pace with the in-
crease in population, as is sure to be the
case, it is evident that another half century
will make heavy demands upon the available
supply of water which the State affords.
On the basis of the recent rate of increase
in population, it is estimated that by 1950
that part of New Jersey adjacent to New
York City will need 547,000,000 gallons of
water daily; and the author remarks that
“since fifty years cannot be considered a
long time in the future for which to’ make
provision, it is evident that the time has
come for us to know what our resources are
and to provide for their preservation and
wise development”’ (p. 6).
The investigation of the water resources
ee
JUNE 21, 1895.]
of the State has involved a careful study of
the relation between precipitation and
stream flow. This study has led to some
very important conclusions, the data for
which are drawn not merely from within the
State of New Jersey, but from all available
sources. The analysis of the facts has led
Mr. Vermeule to the conclusion that a for-
mula may be adopted which shall express
with approximate accuracy the relation be-
tween rainfall and evaporation, within the
basins of the streams studied. This formula
is E=15.50+.16 R, in which E= total an-
nual evaporation, R= annual precipitation,
and 15.50 stand for inches of water. R
minus E will equal the annual flow of the
river in question. A modification of the
formula for mean annual temperature is
suggested, and in this modified form it
becomes universal. In this connection it
is stated that a careful study of the annual
precipitation and flow of variously widely
separated streams “has practically demon-
strated that the difference in amount dis-
charged (by streams) for given rainfalls is
due almost entirely to increase or decrease
of evaporation owing to increased or de- _
creased annual temperature” (p. 75); and
that temperature is ‘a much more potent
factor than forests, topography, or the other
causes usually assigned’ (p. 77) to account
for the variations in the discharges of
streams. So thoroughly is evaporation be-
lieved to be dependent on temperature that
“the (river) gaugings (representing the
rainfall which does not evaporate) actually
indicate the mean temperature of the water
sheds more closely than we can obtain it
from available temperature observations ”’
(p. 334). It will be readily seen that the
formule noted above, and the principles
which go along with them, greatly simplify
the whole question of the relation of rain-
fall and stream flow, and are of the
greatest importance to all interests depend-
ent on streams, or effected by them. For-
SCIENCE.
685
mul are deduced for calculating the propor-
tion of rainfall which disappears by eva-
poration for each month, and for determin-
ing the flow of a stream for any given
month, the rainfall and temperature of its
basin being known.
Of immediate practical value to the citi-
zens of the State are the detailed data con-
cerning the streams of New Jersey. These
data include the total, the average and the
minimum flow of each stream of the state,
the available and the utilized power, ete.,
ete. The data are combined in various
ways with a view to making them useful
in various directions.
Popular ideas to the contrary notwith-
standing, statistics show that there has
been a slow but steady increase in the use
of water power within the State. While
many small powers have been abandoned,
this loss has been made more than good by
the establishment of larger ones. The total
amount now in use is about 31,000 horse
power. Pertinent suggestions are offered
as to the further utilization of the power
afforded by the streams.
Forests are thought not to influence the
annual evaporation or stream flow to any
marked extent, nor to influence particu-
larly extreme floods. With deforesting, how-
ever, comes increased irregularity of stream
flow, including more frequent moderate
floods, lower flow of streams during periods
of drought, and more protracted periods of
low flow (page 344). Care is taken to em-
phasize the beneficial effects of forests in
preserving soil on slopes, in creating absorb-
ent matter (humus, ete.), which holds the
water and helps to equalize its flow.
Cultivation is thonght not to greatly af-
fect the total stream flow, though it affects
its regularity. It increases the absorbent
capacity of the soil, and so the total flow
from underground water, while under drain-
age tends to produce irregularity of flow.
“As between cultivated and barren water-
686
sheds, * * the cultivated will show the
steadiest conditions and the best-sustained
dry-season flows, but as between cultivated
and forested water sheds the forested will
produce the best results. * * It follows
also that floods will be most severe upon
barren areas.’ Hence there exists * *
‘the urgent necessity of preserving forests
upon slopes, and all areas which are not
adapted to agriculture’ (p. 348).
Enough has been said to indicate the
scope of the volume; which can hardly fail
to become a hand-book on the question of
water supply. It is probably not too much
to say that this report alone is worth more
to the State of New Jersey than its geolog-
ical survey has ever cost. Other States of
dense population would do well to follow
the example of New Jersey, not only in
studying their water resources, but in put-
ting the work under the direction of their
geological surveys; for the relation between
the geology of a region and the availability
of its water supply is so intimate that no
other organization is better qualified to di-
rect the work. The U.S. Geological Sur-
vey has work of this sort in progress in some
parts of the semi-arid regions of the West,
from which good results are sure to come.
Roi D. SaLispury.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry.
By Sir Henry HE. Roscozr. New York
and London, Macmillan & Co. §8vo.
Pp. 216. Price, $1.25.
It is one of the greatest achievements of
modern chemistry to have shown that for
each chemical element there is a measurable
quantity which, throughout all the trans-
formations that the element undergoes, re-
mains unchanged, and is, therefore, to be
regarded as a constant. The laws of defi-
nite, multiple and reciprocal proportions
of gas volumes and of specific heats, of mass
action and of the periodicity of properties,
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 25.
all give converging evidence that for each
element there is a definite constant quantity
which, in all the changes that the element _
undergoes, acts like a unit. This constant
is the one unchanging, and, therefore, the
most characteristic property of the element.
The chemical and physical properties of an
element, its behavior under different con-
ditions, its possibility of undergoing change
under given circumstances, in short its
whole character, is dependent upon the
magnitude of this constant. A large part
of theoretical chemistry is taken up with
a consideration of the general methods that
are available for the determination of this
important quantity, and it is customary to
express it by means of a number which in-
dicates its magnitude in terms of the
characteristic quantity of some one element,
usually hydrogen, taken as a unit. To
this number the name Atomic Weight has
been given, and to John Dalton, indispu-
tably, belongs the great credit of having
first introduced into chemistry the idea of
atomic weights. He transformed the New-
tonian corpuscular theory of the constitu-
tion of bodies into a workable chemical
hypothesis, and the subsequent develop-
ment of his idea, that the atoms of different
elements have different constant masses,
has given us our present system of atomic
weights. But, whether we associate with
this term the conception of an atomic con-
stitution of matter or not, the fact remains
that these constants stand to-day independ-
ent of any hypothesis, and are to be regard-
ed as mathematical quantities that can be
deduced from the general laws and princi-
ples of the science.
In this book Sir Henry Roscoe has given
us a most interesting account of the life and
work of the great Manchester chemist.
Dalton’s life, like that of many scientific
workers, was not an eventful one, but he
was a man of marked personality, of posi-
tive traits of character, and our author has
JUNE 21, 1895.]
interwoven a description of the personal
characteristics of the man with an account
of his scientific work and the incidents of
his life in such a way as to make a most
attractive and entertaining biography.
From his early years Dalton was accus-
tomed to looking at things from the stand-
point of the atomic theory, and throughout
his life he remained a firm supporter of this
doctrine. Like Newton, he conceived of
atoms as ‘hard impenetrable, movable par-
ticles,’ ‘incomparably harder than any po-
rous bodies compounded of them, even so
very hard as never to wear or break in
pieces.’ These atoms were supposed to be
surrounded with an atmosphere of heat.
He has left some drawings which show
how he pictured to his mind the structure
of the smallest particles of compounds, and
in these he foreshadowed the modern con-
stitutional and stereo-chemical formulas.
In gases and elastic fluids he considered
matter to be in an extreme state of division,
and nearly all of his important discoveries
resulted from experiments upon gases. It
was by considering the constitution of gases
that he came to the idea of atomic weights.
Dalton was not as skillful an experi-
menter as some of his contemporaries; most
of his apparatus was made by himself and
was often of a very primitive kind. It is
remarkable that he should have been able
to get the results with it that he did; re-
sults that were in most cases confirmed by
other workers who used more accurate in-
struments and more exact methods. Some
of the important facts that he discovered
were the equal expansibility of different
gases under the influence of heat; the prac-
tical constancy of the composition of the
air, a fact which he established by means of
a large number of analyses of air collected
at different places and at different alti-
tudes; the law of partial pressures, or that
the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal
to the sum of the partial pressures of the
SCIENCE.
687
components, and that in a mixture of gases
each component acts like a vacuum to the
other components and behaves as though it
alone were present. He also investigated
the solubility of gases in liquids; but his
greatest discovery was the law of multiple
proportions. Upon this discovery and upon
the fact that he introduced the atomic theory
with the idea of atoms of different weights
his great fame as a scientific man rests.
Of especial interest in this book is the
account here published for the first time of
how Dalton arrived at his important con-
clusion. Among the Dalton papers belong-
ing to the Manchester Literary and Philo-
sophicial Society, Sir Henry Roscoe has
found some manuscript notes prepared by
Dalton for a course of lectures that he de-
livered at the Royal Institution in the win-
ter of 1809-10. These notes are printed
in full and give an account by Dalton him-
self how his ideas regarding the atomic
theory came to him.
Mentally he was vigorous, independent
and self-reliant; he gave little attention to
the results obtained by others. Like New-
ton he reached his conclusions by quiet,
steady, continuous thinking. His long life
was spent in experimenting and reflecting.
It is pleasant to know that in his later years
many honors and tokens of esteem came to
him from his countrymen and from abroad.
After Dalton the atomic theory was de-
veloped and put upon a much broader
foundation by Berzelius, and through his
work and that of a long line of illustrious
successors it has become the central domi-
nant feature of theoretical chemistry.
It is noteworthy that Joule, who did so
much to establish the law of the conserva-
tion of energy, was a pupil of Dalton, and
that the names of both master and pupil
are so intimately associated with our two
great intellectual instruments of investi-
gating nature, the atomie hypothesis and
the theory of energy. The deductions of the
688
former have the advantage of being readily
apprehended, those of the latter of being
mathematically exact.
Sir Henry Roscoe deserves the thanks of
all workers in chemistry for having provided
them with an unusually interesting biogra-
phy of one of the founders of the science.
Epwarp H. K&IsEr.
BRYN MAWR COLLEGE.
Elasticitat und Festigheit. By C. Bacu, Pro-
fessor in the Technical High School at
Stuttgart. Second Edition. Berlin, Ju-
lius Springer. 1894. Octavo, 432 pages
and xiv plates.
In this work the author lays down the
guiding principle that the student of me-
chanics of materials should first of all be-
come acquainted with the actual phenom-
ena of stress. To this end photographic
illustrations are given exhibiting the de-
formations of bars under tension, of blocks
under compression, of beams and plates
under flexure and of shafts under torsion.
These illustrations are most useful and
show the typical changes of form in a beau-
tiful manner. Nevertheless their value is
probably not so great as the author as-
sumes, for nearly all the theories and com-
putations of the mechanics of materials are
confined to the case where the elastic
strength is not exceeded and where changes
of form are not perceptible to the eye.
The modulus or coefficient of elasticity,
usually represented by the letter H, is not
employed in this book. Instead its recip-
rocal is used and called the extension co-
efficent, which may be defined as the
‘stretch of a bar per unit of length due to a
stress of unity on each square unit of cross
section. There can be no doubt but that
the term coefficient of elasticity is a most
unfortunate one, as it has no relation to
elasticity in the ordinary sense of the word,
but is a measure of stiffness or rigidity.
The improvement desired would be a
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. I. No. 25.
change of name rather than the intro-
duction of a new term and symbol. Even
the author, who uses the new constant con
sistently in all his formulas, rarely gives
numerical values for it, but expresses these
in terms of its reciprocal, which is, of
course, the coefficient of elasticity as uni-
versally employed.
The scope of the work is that of a text-
book on the mechanics of materials and of
beams, columns and shafts, suitable for
technical schools which desire to avoid ex-
tended mathematical discussions. The
usual theoretic formulas are demonstrated
in a neat manner, and many results of
tests are presented; those on circular, el-
liptical and rectangular plates may in par-
ticular be noted as novel and valuable.
The subject of internal work or resilience is
discussed more fully than in British or
American books. True internal stresses
resulting from the change of shape are
properly used in the treatment of cylinders,
spheres and plates; owing to the neglect of
this precaution, formulas based upon ap-
parent stresses, like those of Rankine, are
liable to give values often deviating twenty-
five per cent. from the truth.
The formula for the design of columns,
long used in the United States under the
name of Gordon’s formula or Rankine’s
formula, has not been employed in Germany
to the extent that its value demands. The
author, however, emphasizes it as an im-
portant rule, and gives empirical constants
for itsuse. He also states that the formula
was first deduced by Navier; on referring
to Navier’s works this statement is not
found to be justified, it being only men-
tioned that the stress on the concave side
of the column is the sum of the stresses due
to direct compression and to lateral flexure,
while no formula similar to Gordon’s is
established.
On the whole, the perusal of the book
leaves the impression that the author has
{
4
JUNE 21, 1895.]
done his work with much painstaking care,
and that both the theoretical and the prac-
tical part are set forth in a manner which
cannot fail to give students an excellent
foundation in the science of the elasticity
and strength of materials.
MANSFIELD MERRIMAN.
LEHIGH UNIVERSITY.
The Pocket Gophers of the United States. Bul-
letin No. 5, U. 8. Department of Agricul-
ture, Division of Ornithology and Mam-
malogy. Prepared under the direction of
Dr. C. Harr Merriam, Chief of division,
by Vernon Batzey, Chief Field Agent,
Central Park, New York. Published by
authority of the Secretary of Agriculture.
Washington, Government Printing Office.
1895. 8vo., pp. 47. Frontispiece, 6 cuts
in the text, and colored map.
In a former number of Scrence (N. §S.
Vol. I., No. 9, March 1, 1895) attention
was called to a monograph by Dr. Merriam
on the Pocket Gophers (family Geomyidz),
in which was presented the scientific re-
sults of his extended aud detailed studies
of the group. The present ‘ Bulletin’ is a
fitting sequel to the technical monograph
already noticed, dealing, as it does, with the
economic relations to agriculture of these
destructive rodents. This paper was pre-
pared by Mr. Vernon Bailey, under the
direction of Dr. Merriam, Chief of the Di-
vision of Ornithology and Mammalogy of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Mr.
Bailey is one of the most experienced and
expert of the many expert field naturalists
now connected with this branch of govern-
ment service, and is therefore eminently fit-
ted by personal experience in the field for
the preparation of a report like the one
under notice.
The first ten pages relate to the general
habits of these animals, which live almost
wholly under ground, and make known their
presence chiefly by the mounds of earth
SCIENCE.
689
thrown out from their burrows, or by their
troublesome depredations upon farm and
garden products. Even where so numerous
as to be exceedingly troublesome they are
rarely seen, and little is known of their life
habits by even the people who suffer from
their depredations. Hence the detailed
aceount of their habits and methods of
working here given is a welcome contribu-
tion toward a fuller knowledge of their life
histories. Although deficient in vision,
their senses of taste, touch and smell seem
to be compensatingly acute, and their ample
external cheek-pouches serve an important
function in the transportation of food, for
which they seem exclusively used. The
Gophers, says Mr. Bailey, ‘‘ are industrious
workers, and whatever food is found and
not needed at once is carried to chambers
in some part of the tunnel and stored. * * *
Sometimes a peck of small potatoes, roots
of coco grass, wild parsnip, wild sunflower
and other fleshy or bulbous roots are found
in a single chamber.’’ They are especially
fond of potatoes, turnips, carrots, beets,
onions, parsnips, corn, barley, rye and
alfalfa, and even squashes and melons do not
escape their ravages. They are also very
destructive to fruit and ornamental trees by
eating off their roots, which are sometimes
so thoroughly cut away that the trees fall
from lack of support. Their burrows are
also often a source of injury over compara-
tively large areas, through the large amount
of earth thrown up as mounds, thus burying
crops, and sometimes they cause breaks in
irrigating ditches and induce serious wash-
ing of hillside lands.
The Gophers have few natural enemies,
and seem to flourish and increase through
the fruits of man’s industry. Hence the
question of artificial means of destruction
becomes a matter for careful consideration.
They can be trapped readily by those who
know how to do it, but generally the art is
unknown, and it is a widespread belief
690
among farmers subject to their inroads that
they cannot be caught in traps. Mr. Bailey
especially commends the use of bisulphide
of carbon for their destruction, which is
readily accomplished by placing an ounce
or two of this volatile fluid on cotton or
rags in their burrows. Instructions are
also given for the use of poison and traps. In
consequence of the harm done by Gophers,
bounties have been offered in many parts of
the West, but the system is condemned as
a means of depleting the county treasuries
without effecting the extirpation of the
Gophers. Thus it is stated that Benton
county, Iowa, paid out $18,000 in three
years in Gopher bounties, ‘‘ but the Gophers,
though greatly reduced in numbers, were not
exterminated.”
Gophers of one species or another occupy
practically the whole of the United States
west of the Mississippi River, and also the
greater parts of the States of Illinois, Geor-
gia, Alabama and Florida. Detailed ac-
counts are given of the habits of the various
species found east of the Rocky Mountains.
Aside from its important economic bearings,
the Gopher Bulletin is a most interesting
contribution to the life history of a group
of animals hitherto little known. Four of
the six illustrations in the text are from Dr.
Merriam’s monograph, as are the frontis-
piece (Georgia Gopher), and the colored
map of the distribution of the species of the
genera Geomys and Craterogeomys. The two
colored plates (of the Prairie Gopher and
Gray Gopher), called for in the list of illus-
trations, and prepared especially for this
Bulletin, are lacking, in consequence, as we
are privately informed, of their having been
‘mislaid’ at the Government Printing Office
after their production and delivery by the
Department of Agriculture.
J. A. ALLEN.
[The Norway Lemming] Myodes lemmus, its
Habits and Migrations in Norway, by R.
Collett. Christiania. 1895. 8°. pp. 62.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 25,
The distinguished naturalist of Christi-
ania, Dr. R. Collett, has just published a
treatise on the Norwegian Lemming that at
once becomes a classic on the subject. He
tells us that, in a manuscript believed to
have been written in the latter half of the
13th century, the Lemmings are supposed
to have been the same as the ‘ locusts’ men-
tioned in the Bible in connection with the
plagues in Egypt. In a book published by
Jacob Ziegler in 1532 the theory of their
descent from the clouds is proposed, based
on statements of two bishops from Trond-
hjem. In 1555 Olaus Magnus, Archbishop
of Upsala, published a figure showing the
Lemmings (with tails like house mice) fall-
ing from the clouds and being preyed upon
by Ermines.
Dr. Collet states that normally the Lem-
ming inhabits all of the mountain plateaus
of Norway above the zone of coniferous
trees, descending in Finmark to sea level,
thus occupying about one-third of the total
land area. Besides the mainland they in-
habit the large rocky islands off the coast,
especially to the northward.
In normal years they are rarely seen,
even by explorers. In prolific years they
suddenly increase and overflow vast areas.
In such years according to Dr. Collet, ‘‘ The
litters produced during the course of the
summer follow so closely one upon the other
that the one set is barely allowed time to
leave the nest ere the next lot arrives.
Futhermore, the litters are unusually large,
as they constantly contain up to 10 young-
lings in each set (although possibly 6 or 7
on the whole is the rule); and all these
young ones appear to be possessed of greater
powers of attaining maturity than those
produced during a normal year.”
This excessive reproduction results in
overcrowding the breeding grounds, from
which vast numbers move away in different
directions. Descending the mountains and
following the valleys they continue blindly
_ JUNE 21, 1895.]
on, proceeding hopelessly to certain death.
The direction of the march is dependent
on the valleys, and the exodus may “ radiate
in quite opposite directions from one and
the same mountain plateau, * * * * Thus
during migratory years the southern rami-
fications of the Lang Fjeld will emit
swarms which may advance eastward as
far as the Christiania Fjord; southward,
down to the coastal regions of Christiania
Stiff; and westward, to the fjords in the
counties of Stavanger and Sondre Bergen-
hus. * * * During the entire course of the
summer and autumn, they continue to pour
forth from the mountains. * * * * In the
valleys they invariably meet with lakes or
rivers, and large numbers constantly en-
deavor to cross them. If the mountains
are high on both sides, the valley will, as a
rule, receive contributions from each slope,
and individuals may be observed crossing
the river in both directions.”
“ During the migrations they do not allow
themselves to be stopped by rivers, or even
by the arms of a fjord, but trust themselves,
without hesitation, to the mercy of the
waves, in order to reach the opposite shore.
It would almost seem as if no stretch of
water were too wide for them to cross if
they but see land on the other side. During
the great migration in the district of
Trondhjem in 1868, which has previously
been mentioned, a steamer on the Trondhjem
Fjord steamed into a crowd of swimming
Lemmings of such vast extent that she took
over a quarter of an hour to pass through
it, and as far as one could see from the
vessel down the fjord its waters were covered
everywhere with these animals. During the
great migratory years similar accounts are
received from all the great lakes (Mjosen,
Randsrjord, Kroderen, etc., ete.).”
Great havoe is wrought in meadows and
grain fields by the hungry hordes, particu-
larly in mountain pastures and farms situ-
ated on the higher slopes.
SCIENCE.
G91
It is stated that no rule can be laid down
concerning the frequency of the migratory
years. The greatest migrations, which ex-
tend down to the most distant lowlands,
take place but seldom and rarely occur in
the southern districts oftener than once in
ten years. The number Dr. Collett has col-
lected data for is surprising. He gives the
dates and areas invaded for seven great
migrations from 1739 to 1790, and for no
less than 24 in the present century.
As to the extent of the areas invaded, Dr.
Collett says: ‘On the whole it may be as-
sumed that scarcely any accessible point of
Norway (except the outermost islets) has
not been invaded by their hordes during
one or other prolific year.”’
“Tt has hardly ever happened that a pro-
lifie year (and the consequent migration)
has simultaneously embraced the entire
land. The rule is that the increase takes
place in great or small districts independent
of each other, but the area which may be
involved thereby may be of very consider-
able extent. Occasionally the increase will
take place simultaneously in two separate
districts, divided from each other by an
area of greater or lesser extent, in which
the production isnormal. In Norway there
may be recognized, on the whole, at least five
great groups of mountains within which
most of the migrations have their radiating
centre. One migration may embrace either
the entire group or small portions of it.”
The regular enemies of the Lemming are
numerous and many of them increase with
the Lemmings; as the birds of prey, the
large gulls and skuas, and weasels and
foxes. In prolific years certain birds which
follow the Lemmings change their breeding
grounds and nest in localities where they
are never seen at other times. To these
may be added certain irregular enemies ;
for Dr. Collett tells us that reindeer (both
wild and domesticated), cows, goats and
pigs kill and eat them in great numbers.
692
But the destruction of the Lemmings
after reaching the lowlands is only in small
part due to these enemies. “The most
active factor in their extermination,” says
Dr. Collett, “appears to be infectious dis-
eases, which invariably occur whenever a
species of animal has multiplied in excess
of its natural numbers.”
Not only do the Lemmings themselves
die of disease; but they are believed to
cause serious disease among the human
population. This belief has been current
in Norway from time immemorial and was
published by Ziegler more than 350 years
ago. Dr. Collett states that during Lem-
ming years all running water is contam-
inated by the decaying excrement. “To
this may be added the dead animals, which
will be found lying scattered about in great
numbers, and which, during hot summers,
become quickly decomposed. The rain
carries the putrid matter on to the nearest
watercourse, whence it makes its way to
wells, and becomes mixed with the drinking
water of the inhabitants.
“ During some great prolific years, definite
forms of sickness have appeared in certain
of the overrun districts, and the people have
given these the name of ‘ Lemming Fever,’
as they presumed that they were connected
with the appearance of these animals.”
After citing medical testimony and de-
seribing the disease, Dr. Collett concludes:
“Lemming fever is thus a disease which,
in its phenomena, is related to scarlet fever.
Tts origin is regarded, both by medical men
and the populace, as haying a certain con-
nection with the appearance of the swarms
of Lemmings and the pollution of water by
their putrifying carcasses and dung during
dry summers.”
Dr. Collett’s treatise on the Habits and
Migrations of the Lemming in Norway is re-
plete with interest from beginning to end
and must long remain the standard authority
on the subject. C. H. M.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. I. No. 25.
NOTES AND NEWS.
ASTRONOMY.
THE London Times gives the following
accounts of recent lectures before the Royal
Institution and of the last meeting of the
British Astronomical Association :
Dr. W. Huggins, F. R. S., gave the sec-
ond of his course of lectures on the instru-
ments and methods of spectroscopic astron-
omy, at the Royal Institution, on May 30th.
He dealt with the more complex instrument
which is placed at the eye-end of the tele-
scope so that the images of the stars fall
upon its slit. The important question of
its efficiency was connected, the lecturer
said, with its power to break up the spec-
trum into as many parts as possible. This
power of separation was fixed by certain
conditions—the linear length of the spec-
trum, its dispersion, and the resolving
power of the prism. The latter, which was
independent of dispensive power, was goy-
erned by the size of the prism, hence larger
prisms have greater resolving power. But
the use of larger prisms in astronomical
work entailed certain disadvantages, such
as increased weight and cost, and difficulty
of obtaining glass of uniform quality. It
was therefore fortunately possible to get the
results of large prisms by passing the beam
through several smaller ones, though the
loss of light by absorption and reflection
from the faces of the prisms was very serious.
An alternative way of obtaining a spectrum
was to use a diffraction grating, which we
owed to the experiments Fraunhofer made
to discover whether the lines of the spec-
trum were due to interference of light.
His original gratings were made by winding
wire in a screw-thread round a piece of
glass; ultimately he adopted the plan of
ruling the lines on glass with a diamond
point. Great advances were made by
Rutherfurd, whose machine cut lines to the
number of 17,000 to an inch, and by Row-
land. There is, however, but little to choose
JUNE 21, 1895.]
between a prism and a grating with 14,000
lines to the inch.
Tue Friday evening discourse at the
Royal Institution on May 31st was given
by the Earl of Rosse, who took as his sub-
ject the ‘Radiant Heat from the Moon dur-
ing the progress of an Eclipse.’ Sir Fred-
erick Abel was in the chair, and among
those present were Lord Kelvin, Sir James
Crichton-Browne, Sir Frederick Bramwell,
Professor Dewar, Mr. C. V. Boys, Dr. Frank-
land, Mr. Ludwig Mond and Mr. Crookes.
Lord Rosse began by showing the results of
his observations on the variations in the
amount of heat radiation from the moon
during the lunar month. Speaking of the
heat given off during an eclipse, he said
that in the total eclipse of January, 1888,
he had found there was a great decrease in
its amount some time before the first con-
tact. During the total phase the heat ra-
diated was a mere trifle, and it had not re-
gained more than 80 per cent. at full moon
—an hour and a half after the last contact.
Lord Rosse then described the apparatus
he had used, and also the apparatus and
some of the results of other investigators.
THE usual monthly meeting of the British
Astronomical Association was held at Uni-
versity College on May 28th, Mr. E. W.
Maunder, the president, being in the chair.
A paper was read from Professor H. H.
Turner, Savilian Professor of Astronomy at
Oxford, on ‘Simple Apparatus for Measur-
ing Stellar Photographs.’ Mr. Holmes
read a paper on on ‘ The Reproductions of
Astronomical Drawings,’ ete., in which the
value of photographic processes was com-
mented on as being more accurate. He
also read a paper on the apparent roundness
of small spot markings on planets. A paper
from Mr. Monck on the ‘Spectra and Colours
of Stars’ was read. The report of the
Lunar Section, by Mr. T. Gwyn Elger, F.
R. A. S., the director, was read, and at-
SCIENCE.
693.
tention was called to the progress made
recently in lunar photography.
vENERAL.
Proressor C, Liuoyp MorGan, author of
Animal Life and Intelligence and other works
upon comparative psychology, is coming to
this country next winter to deliver one of
the Lowell Institute courses in Boston.
He will also deliver four lectures upon In-
stinct in the Columbia Biological Course.
Fre_p exploration in vertebrate palzeon-
tology is increasing very rapidly, and this
summer a large number of parties will be
in the field. The American Museum ex-
pedition to the Uinta Basin entered the
field in March, accompanied by Mr. J. B.
Hatcher, representing the Princeton Mus-
eum. OnJune Ist Dr. J. L. Wortman takes
charge of the American Museum party,
which will include four collectors. The Uni-
versity of Kansas will send three parties
into the fossil beds of Kansas, Dakota and
Wyoming. The University of Nebraska
will also send a party under the direction of
Prof. Barbour. Prof. Baur, of the Univer-
sity of Chicago, announces a field expedition
as a regular part of the University curric-
ulum.
Tue Royal Academy of Sciences of the
Institute of Bologna offers a gold medal of
the value of 1,000 franes for a memoir which
either from the chemical, physical or me-
chanical point of view will indicate a prac-
tical system or new apparatus for the pre-
vention or extinction of fire. The essays
may be written in Italian, French or Latin.
Those in other languages must be accom-
panied by an Italian translation. The
essays are to be signed with a nom de plume
and to be accompanied by an envelope con-
taining the author’s real name. All essays
must be in before May 29, 1896, and should
be addressed: ‘Al Segretario della R.
delle del’ Instituto di
Academia Scienze
Bologna.”
694
Tue Trustees of the British Museum have
issued a Catalogue of Additions to the
Manuscripts in the years 1888-1893. The
eatalogue is provided with a serviceable
index. They have also published a transla-
tion of the Papyrus of Ani which contains
the most complete text of the famous Egyp-
tian Book of the Dead. The translation,
which is accompanied by a valuable intro-
duction, is from the pen of Mr. EK. A. Wallis
Budge.
ANnoTHER Hgyptian publication of im-
portance is from the press of Brill, at
Leiden, and contains fac similes and de-
scriptions of a papyrus (F. T. 71 So-am-tra)
devoted to mortuary customs.
Mr. M. A. Mackernzrm, of Trinity Uni-
versity, Toronto, has been appointed pro-
fessor of mathematics in place of the Rey.
Dr. Jones, who has accepted the position of
bursar in the same institution.
PROFESSOR FRANKLAND has been elected
a foreign associate of the Académie des Sci-
ences. The vacancy was caused by the death
of M. van Beneden.
Apprications for the position of lecturer
in Chemistry in the university of Toronto
should be sent to the Canadian Minister of
Education before August 15th. The initial
salary will be $1,000, increasing by annual
increments of $100 until it reaches $1,800.
The duties of the lecturer will be to assist
the demonstrator in the superintendence of
the laboratories under the direction of the
professor of chemistry, and also to deliver
such lectures on physiological, organic and
inorganic chemistry as may be assigned to
him by the professor.
The Lancet announces the following for-
eign medical appointments : At Erlangen—
Dr. G. Hauser has been promoted to the
chair of general and anatomical pathol-
ogy, vacant by the retirement of Dr. von
Zenker. At Gratz—Drs. Drasch and Ja-
risch have been promoted to professorships
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 25.
of histology and dermatology, respectively.
At Oporto—Dr. I. do Valle, Professor of
General Pathology, has been appointed to_
succeed Dr. Carlos Lopez in the chair of
materia medica, Dr. Maximiano de Lemos
taking the chair of general pathology.
Av Berlin, Dr. Ferdinand Karsch and Dr.
Anton Reichenow have been made profes-
sors in the Zodlogical Museum, Dr. Victor
Kremser in the Meteorological Institute,
and Dr. A. Borsch in the Geodetic Insti-
tute.
Ar the anniversary meeting of the Royal
Geographical Society of London, Mr. Clem-
ents R. Markham was elected President for
1895-6. Mr. W. T. Blanford, the Hon. G.
C. Brodrick, the Hon. George Curzon, Sir
George Taubman Goldie, General R. Stra-
chy and Rear-Admiral W. J. L. Wharton
were elected Vice-Presidents.
DaniEL Kirxwoop, professor of mathe-
matics in Indiana State University, died at
Riverside, Cal., on June 11th, at the age of
eighty-one. He retired from the active
duties of the professorship in 1856.
Tue chair of physics in the University of
California, recently filled by the late Pro-
fessor Harold Whiting, has been offered to
Mr. Exum Percival Lewis, Ph. D., of Johns
Hopkins University.
At a meeting of the Royal Botanical
Society on May 31st Professor George
Henslow delivered a lecture on ‘ A Century
of Progress in Floriculture.’ He exibited
specimens of the original wild plants from
which some of our most admired garden
flowers have been developed, illustrating
with numerous diagrams the various stages
in the way of cultivation and hybridization
through which they passed before reaching
the perfection of to-day.
Froop & Vincent (Chautauqua Press) ,
of Meadville, Penna., announce the appear-
ance of ‘ Thinking, Feeling, Doing,’ a popu-
lar exposition of experimental psychology
ae
JUNE 21, 1895.]
by E. W. Scripture, of Yale University.
The book contains one colored plate and
over 200 illustrations; it has a voluminous
index.
AccorDING to the Evening Post Professor
Fabian Franklin has resigned his Professor-
ship of Mathematics in Johns Hopkins
University in order to become editor of the
Baltimore Evening News.
Tue American Medical College Associa-
tion in Baltimore has decided by a vote of
of 29 to 5 that a four years’ course of study
shall be demanded of all students henceforth
matriculating in institutions belonging to
this organization.
Ar the graduating exercises of Johns
Hopkins University on June 13th the degree
of Ph. D. was conferred on 46 candidates,
distributed among the different depart-
ments as follows: History and economics
12, chemistry 12, geology 3, German 2,
English 3, physics 4, Romance 3, Latin and
Greek 5, biology, mathematics and as-
tronomy, each 1.
Barnarp CoLLteGE has purchased for
$160,000 a site on Cathedral Heights, ad-
jacent to that of Columbia College. The
sum of $200,000 has been subscribed to-
wards the new buildings.
On January 18th the great seismometro-
graph at the Osservatorio del Collegio
Romano at Rome registered five complete
pulsations of slow period characteristic of
earthquakes originating at a great distance.
They commenced at 4h. 37m. 30s. p. m.
(Greenwich mean time), and lasted In.
22s., giving an average duration of 16.4
seconds for each pulsation. On the same
day a severe earthquake was felt along the
east coast of Japan, and was recorded at
Tokio at 3h. 48m. 24s. The distance be-
tween this place and Rome being about
9,500 km., the pulsations must have traveled
with an average velocity of 3.2 km. per
second (see Nature, vol. 1, pp. 450-51; vol.
SCIENCE.
695
li., p. 462). At Nicolaiew and Charkow,
in the south of Russia, the horizontal pendu-
lums were disturbed for nearly an hour,
the epoch of maximum amplitude occurring
a few minutes earlier than at Rome.—
Nature.
Messrs. Macur~ran & Co. will shortly
publish an Introduction to the Study of Sea-
weeds, with illustrations, by Mr. George
Murray, the newly appointed Keeper of
Botany in the Natural History Department
of the British Museum.
Ir is announced that Professor Albert 8.
Bickmore, of the Museum of Natural His-
tory, New York, will deliver the address at
the laying of the corner-stone of Butterfield
Museum, Dartmouth College. It is hoped
that the museum, which will cost about
$60,000, will be ready for occupancy in the
latter part of 1896.
ARRANGEMENTs for an accurate map of
Africa will be made at the International
Geographical Congress which is about to
meet in London. It is expected that Great
Britian, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy
and Portugal, being the powers chiefly inter-
ested, will divide the expenses of the map.
Tue Naturalists’ Directory published by
S. E. Cassino, Boston, for 1895, contains
the names of 5,747 naturalists of the United
States and Canada arranged in alphabet-
ical order, giving under each name the speci-
alty studied and the address. The names
are also arranged by subjects and geograph-
ically by States. The directory contains
382 pages, and is neatly boundin cloth. The
price is $2.50.
Tue following appointments have been
made in Cornell University: Virgil Snyder
Ph. D. (Géttingen) has been appointed in-
structer in mathematics ; Darwin A. Mort-
ant, assistant in chemistry; W. K. Hatt
(assistant professor at Purdue University)
and John Hayfold, instructors in civil
engineering ; Elias J. Durand, assistant in
696
eryptogamic botany, and H. H. Denham,
instructor in chemistry.
Tue Cambridge Scientific Instrument
Company (Limited) has been formed with
a capital of £10,000, in £5 shares. Its ob-
jects are to acquire the business carried on
at Cambridge by Mr. Horace Darwin as
“The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Com-
pany,’ and to adopt an agreement for the
purpose, and to carry on the business of
mechanical and electrical engineers, and
scientific instrument and apparatus manu-
facturers. The first directors are Mr. Horace
Darwin (chairman and managing director),
Major Leonard Darwin, Mr. Hugh F. Newall
and Mr. William N.Shaw. The remunera-
tion of the directors will be fixed by the
company.
Dr. AtBert Mann has been appointed
professor of biology in Ohio Wesleyan Uni-
versity.
In Syracuse University Dr. HE. C. Quereau
has been appointed professor of geology
and mineralogy, and Dr. W. H. Metzler
associate professor of mathematics.
Dr. W. L. Aszorr has sent to the U.S.
National Museum the collections made
during his travels in Pamir, Central Asia.
Among these are the skins of 228 birds and
more than 100 mammals, many of which
are said to be new to science.
Aw editorial article in Garden and Forest
for May 29th contains on appeal for a fit-
ting memorial to Andrew Jackson Downing.
From it we may quote the following facts :
“Mr. Downing was an authoritative writer
on the art of landscape-gardening. His
treatise on the Theory and Practice of Land-
scape-Gardewing, published in 1841, became
at once the accepted text-book of the sub-
ject. In 1849 he wrote a series of articles
in The Horticulturalist on public parks which
had a marked influence in creating and
molding public sentiment in this direction.
The actual work of constructing Central
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 25.
Park was not begun until six years after
Downing’s untimely death, but it was his
stirring appeals that aroused the city to feel
its need, and provision to meet it quickly
followed. It is not too much .to say that
Downing takes rank among the greatest
benefactors to his country which this cen-
tury has produced. It is now more than
forty years since his death, and it is surely
time that some memorial of him should be
erected in the park which his genius secured
for the city of New York.”
THE last number Vol. VII., No. 4, of the
Journal of the College of Science of the Im-
perial University of Japan bears witness, as
the preceding numbers have done, to the
aptitudes of the Japanese for exact research.
The number contains eight short contribu-
tions to chemistry and an account of the
earthquake of June 20th, 1894. This was
the most violent earthquake that has oe-
curred in Tokyo since 1855.
A work on electricity and magnetism by
Professor Francis E. Nipher, Washington
University, St. Louis, will be published dur-
ing the summer.
Tue State Agricultural College at Cor-
vallis, Ore., has begun the publication of a
series of laboratory studies in zoology
edited by Prof. F. L. Washburn.
THE paper on the Proto-historie Ethnog-
raphy of Western Asia, read by Dr. D. G.
Brinton before the American Philosophical
Society on April 19th, has been reprinted
from the Proceedings of the American Phil-
osophical Society and is published by Mac-
Calla & Co., Philadelphia.
Dr. J. Dorrier, I. Burgring 7, Vienna,
is compiling a Directory of Living Botanists,
together with botanical gardens, societies,
journals, etc. The codperation of botanists
throughout the world is requested.
Av the annual meeting of the Linnaean
Society, held on May 24th, the gold medal
founded in 1888 on the occasion of the cen-
JUNE 21, 1895.]
tenary of the Society, and awarded alter-
- nately to a biologist and zodlogist, was pre-
sented to Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, professor of
botany in Breslau. Last year the medal
was awarded to Professor Haeckel, of Jena,
in recognition of his researches in the science
of marine invertebrate zodlogy.
Tue third International Congress of
Physiology will meet in Berne from Sept.
9th to Sept. 13th, 1895.
AccorDING to the Revue Scientifique M.
Tocchini, the director of the Central Bureau
of Meteorology in Rome, has founded a
Seismological Society, having for its object
the study of earthquakes and volcanic phe-
nomena, and the publication of short ac-
counts of the results obtained and of the
apparatus used.
The Revue Scientifique also reports the
formation of an Astronomical Society in
Bruxelles, with the object of bringing into
closer communication all those interested in
astronomy and related sciences.
Two hundred unprinted letters of Pes-
talozzi have been found in Switzerland.
‘They will be published by Seyffarth, whose
biography of Pestalozzi has already reached
its sixth edition. —V. Y. Evening Post.
Henry Puittes, Jr., died in Philadelphia
on June 6th, at the age of 57. Mr. Philips
was well known as an archeologist, numis-
matist and philologist.
TuE University of Glasgow has received
an anonymous gift of £10,000 for the pur-
pose of founding a chair of political economy
to be named after Adam Smith, who was
once professor in the University.
Tur honorary degree of Doctor of Science
has been conferred by the University of
Cambridge on Dr. John Murray, editor of
the ‘ Challenger’ publications.
Tue following recent appointments to as-
sistant professorships are announced from
Johns Hopkins University: Dr. Charles
Lane Poor, astromony; Dr. Sidney Sher-
SCIENCE.
697
wood, political economy; Dr. Alexander S.
Chessin, mathematics and mechanics; Dr.
John M. Vincent, history; Dr. Simon Flex-
ner, Pathology. Dr. Edward B. Matthews
and Herbert G. Geer have been appointed
associates in mineralogy and mechanical
engineering respectively.
Aw International Horticultural Congress
was opened at Paris on May 24th.
Tue Institut of France has opened an
international subscription for a moument to
Lavoisier, to be erected in Paris.
Mr. RALPH SwiNBurne, said to have been
the oldest engineer in the country, died re-
cently, aged ninety years.
Mr. L. L. Price’s paper on ‘ The Col-
leges of Oxford and Agricultural Depres-
sion’ contains, according to the Academy, ‘a
detailed analysis of the expenditure of the
colleges in 1883 and 1893. During this
period the amount received by the heads
(excluding Christ Church) has fallen from
£22,811 to £20,905, or by more than 8 per
cent.; in some cases, of course, the decrease
is much more, while in a few there is an in-
crease. The amount received by fellows
(apparently including professor-fellows ) has
fallen from £70,980 to £59,715, or by more
than 15 per cent. Here, again, there are
wide variations, though only two examples
of actual increase. In the case of one col-
lege, which shall be nameless, eight fellows
in 1893 had only £400 to divide among
them. On the other hand, the amount ap-
propriated to scholarships and exhibitions
has risen during the same period from £44-
776 to £48,378, or by nearly 10 percent. In
hardly any case is there a decline; while
at the unnamed college referred to above
the scholars now receive nearly four times
as much as the fellows. The number of
scholars and exhibitors has risen from 570
to 658, while the number of fellows seems
to have remained stationary. In addition,
the colleges in 1893 paid over an assess-
698
ment of £4,334 to the common university
fund, a heading which practically did not
exist in 1883 ; while during these ten years
contributions to the salaries of the profes-
soriate have increased from £12,840 to
£15,034. It seems pretty clear that the re-
sults of agricultural depression have fallen
almost solely upon the fellows, and upon
some of them hardly.”
PROFESSOR BuNSEN celebrated his eighty-
fifth birthday on March 31st.
Ar the last meeting of the Geological
Society, Prof. Judd drew attention to an
interesting series of photographs sent for
_ exhibition by Prof. Liversidge, of Sydney,
who has found that sections of gold nug-
gets, when etched with chlorine-water, ex-
hibit lines like the Widman-Stetten figures
of meteorites, showing that the gold has a
crystalline structure, octahedral and cubic
forms being displayed.—The Acadeny.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
Art the meeting held May 18th Dr. Mer-
riam spoke of the Mammals of the Pribilof
Islands in Bering Sea. Excluding Ceta-
ceans, eight mammals are known from the
Islands. Four of these are land mammals
and four amphibious or marine, as follows:
One, Arctic fox; two, brown lemming; three,
shrew; four, house mouse; five, harbor seal;
six, fur seal; seven, sea-lion; eight, walrus.
To these the sea-otter might be added,
though it is not a resident and visits the
islands very rarely. The house mouse was
introduced by the Russians and has run
wild. The fox also is said to have been in-
troduced. The shrew has been found on
St. Paul only; the lemming on St. George
only.
A paper entitled ‘The Hares (genus
Lepus) of the Mexican Border’ was read by
Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, who stated that it
was written in the course of preparation of
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 25.
a report on the collections made by the
biological section of the recent re-survey of
the Mexican boundary line, of which expe-
dition Dr. Mearns was the surgeon and
naturalist from January, 1892, to Septem-
ber, 1894, with one intermission of a few
months. The doctor’s field experience in
that general region covers in all a period
of seven years. The specimens of Lepus ac-
cumulated during that time amount to 288,
representing 15 species and subspecies, to
which material were added the collections
of the United States National Museum and
a portion of those of the American Museum
of Natural History in New York, making a
total of about 400 specimens examined.
The species of the Mexican border were
shown to represent three sections of the
genus Lepus, which might with advantage
be recognized as subgenera. These were
Hyprotaeus Gray (Water Hares, repre-
sented by a single species, Lepus aquaticus
Bachman); Syzyitacus Gray (comprising
(1) the Cottontails, 3 species and 3 addi-
tional subspecies, and (2) the Cactus Hare,
Lepus cinerascens Allen); and MacroroLaGus
(a new subgenus created for the Mexican
group of Jackrabbits, of which 6 species and
3 additional subspecies were found on the
Mexican border). In all, 17 forms were
recognized as occurring on the strip of the
United States which borders on Mexico, of
which number seven were treated as sub-
species and the remainder as species, of
which latter there are eleven, Lepus sylvat-
icus being represented by (3) subspecies.
Two species and four subspecies were de-
seribed as new. Of these, Holzner’s Cot-
tontail inhabits wooded mountains from
New Mexico and Arizona southward, and
the Lesser Desert Cottontail the region from
the upper Rio Grande of Texas westward
to the continental divide. The black-naped
Jackrabbit of the Lower Rio Grande was
named in honor of Dr. C. Hart Merriam ;
and another species of Jackrabbit from the
—S
JUNE 21, 1895.]
plains east of the continental divide was
dedicated to Lieutenant D. D. Gaillard, U.
§. A.,a member of the International Boun-
dary Commission. The Gray Jackrabbit of
the Upper Rio Grande region, and the
Desert Jackrabbit of the Colorado Desert,
were described as superficially distinct from
the Lepus texianus Waterhouse. The Mexi-
ean Jackrabbit (Lepus callotis Wagler), with
which several species inhabiting the United
States have hitherto been confounded, was
shown, principally on the authority of Dr.
C. Hart Merriam, as the result of explora-
tions lately conducted in Mexico by his
Division of the U.S. Department of Agri-
eulture, to be wholly extralimital to the
United States, and not to occur near our
southern border.
Diagnoses of the new Hares discovered
by Dr. Mearns will soon appear in the pro-
ceedings of the U.S. National Museum, the
complete article to form a part of the bio-
logical report of the International Bound-
ary Commission.
Dr. Erwin F. Smith read a paper on The
Biology of Bacillus tracheiphilus n. sp., the
cause of wilt in various Cucurbits. The or-
ganism has been isolated and numerous in-
fections secured from pure cultures—more
than fifty—in the greenhouse under strict
control. The disease has also been induced
by spraying the bacillus on insects (Dia-
brotica vittata and Coreus tristis) and turn-
ing these loose on the plants, thus confirm-
ing a belief expressed in 1893, and due to
field observations, that the disease is ordi-
narily transmitted by leaf eating beetles
and squash bugs. During the nine months
in which experiments have been conducted
under glass, the only cases have been those
due to artificial infections, none of the nu-
merous control plants having developed the
disease. The paper described the mor-
phology of the organism, its behavior in
various media—agar, gelatine, potato and
sweet potato, beef broth, vegetable infu-
SCIENCE.
699
sions, milk and various saccharine fluids in
fermentation tubes; resistance to heat and
dry air; behavior with stains; growth in acid
and alkaline media, in hydrogen; parts of
plants attacked, lesions, symptoms, time of
appearance after inoculation, etc. Numer-
ous repeated inoculations into potato and
tomato vines failed to induce any disease,
and the positive and negative evidence are
both conclusive that this disease is en-
tirely different from the southern potato
and tomato blight. Inoculations into pears
and hyacinths also gave negative results.
The organism used for infections was iso-
lated from the cucumber, and most of the
inoculations were performed on the cucum-
ber and muskmelon by pricking the germs
into the blade of a leaf. Experiments on
pumpkins and squashes are still in progress.
The prompt destruction of leaf-eating and
leaf-puncturing insects appears to be the
only satisfactory way of combating this
disease. How this shall be done to best
advantage is a problem belonging to the
province of economic entomology.
An interesting paper on the Means of In-
tercommunication among Wolves, by Mr. Er-
nest Thompson, was read. Mr. Thompson
gave first place to the sense of smell as a
means of obtaining information.
M. B. WarreE,
Recording Secretary.
THE NEW JERSEY STATE MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY.
Tue Society held its 26th annual meet-
ing on Monday, May 27th, and elected the
following officers for 1895-96:
President, Byron D. Halsted, Se. D.
Vice-President, Julius Nelson, Ph. D.
Recording Secretary, Frederick H. Blodgett.
Corresponding Secretary, John Helm, M. D.
Treasurer, A. C. Hutton, M. D.
Curator, A. H. Chester, Ph. D.
Librarian, Frederick H. Blodgett.
Trustee (two years), Fred. B. Kilmer.
700
The Secretary’s report showed an increase
in general interest on the part of the mem-
bers and an increase also in the attendance
of visitors at the regular meetings.
The quarter-centennial was celebrated
by a well attended public meeting. The
program of this meeting included the pro-
jection of micro-slides of rock sections,
marine alge, living animaleulse and wood
sections, and table exhibits from the three
natural kingdoms under thirty-five instru-
ments.
About a year ago the Society was sec-
tionalized, and the following sections cre-
ated :
(1) Agriculture, (2) Bacteriology, (3)
Biology (Zodlogy), (4) Botany, (5) Chem-
istry, (6) Entomology, (7) Geology, (8)
Histology, (9) Mineralogy, (10) Pathology,
(11) Physies, (12) Technique, (13) Litera-
ture.
Of these the sections on Bacteriology,
Botany and Mineralogy have had charge of
one meeting each, and reports of less length
have been made by the sections on Tech-
nique and Literature.
The membership includes 40 active, 19
corresponding and 1 honorary member.
After the business session A. H. Chester,
Ph. D., read a paper on ‘ Crystals,’ describ-
ing the means used in the preparation of
erystals for micro-mounts; slow crystalliza-
tion from fusion, or solution, sublimation,
precipitation and electrolysis. The paper
described the systems of crystals to some
extent, mentioning more especially those of
gold, silver and copper. With the aid of
ten microscopes the minute beauties of the
erystals were shown with appreciation to a
goodly number of members and friends.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, JUNE, 1895.
THE June number of the American Jour-
nal of Science opens with an article by Prof.
Frank Waldo discussing the daily march
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 25.
of the wind velocities in the United States.
This is based upon the published data fur-
nished by the Chief Signal Officer’s Report _
for 1890, giving the average wind movement
for each hour of each day in this year, and
also the daily averages for the seven years
1883-89. These are discussed for the dif-
ferent portions of the country and the results
presented in a series of curves; they show
distinct maxima for many stations in Jan-
uary, which are still more developed in July.
D. A. Kreider describes the preparation of
perchloric acid and its application to the
determination of potassium; aiso W. H.
Hobbs, the crystal form of borneol and iso-
borneol. R. Ruedemann gives an abstract
of a paper (to appear in full in the Report
of the New York State Geologist) on the
mode of growth and development of the
graptolitic genus Diplograptus; a series of
figures illustrates the subject. N. H. Darton
gives an account of the recent discovery of
a dike penetrating the Salina formation at
DeWitt near Syracuse, N. Y.; this occur-
ence is of especial interest because doubt-
less connected with the Syracuse dike de-
scribed by Dr. G. H. Williams in 1887.
The petrography of the DeWitt dike is
fully given by J. F. Kemp. Another article
is by G. M. Dawson, giving a general
discussion of the amount of elevation that
has taken place along the Rocky Mountain
Range in British America since the close of
the Cretaceous ; the minimum estimate ob-
tained of greatest uplift for the region
(about latitude 50°) is 32,000 to 35,000 feet.
Three analyses of sodalite are given by L.
McI. Luquer and G. J. Volekening. The
number closes with a series of abstracts and
reviews, and finally the volume index.
Under the Geological Notes, R. T. Hill men-
tions the discovery of a dicotyledonous
flora in the Cheyenne sandstone at the base
of the beds belonging to the Comanche
series in Comanche and Barber counties, of
southern Kansas.
oJ ere ee
Se IN CRY
NEw SERIES.
Vou. I. No. 26.
Fripay, June 28, 1895.
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SCIENCE.
EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE : S. NEWcOMB, Mathematics ; R. S. Woopwarp, Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, As-
tronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THuRsToN, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
J. LE ConTE, Geology;
W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MArsu, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks,
Invertebrate Zodlogy ; C. HART MERRIAM, Vertebrate Zodlogy ; S. H. ScuppER, Entomology ;
N. L. Britron, Botany ; HENRY F. Osgorn, General Biology ; H. P. Bowpritcu,
Physiology ; J. S. Brnuinas, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ;
DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, JUNE 28, 1895.
CONTENTS :
POO ORD) TRAY LRIGH «pic's ese dates ccquceces 701
Lloyd Morgan Upon Instinct: H. F. O. ......---- 712
Some Meandering Rivers of Wisconsin: HENRY B.
RS PMIECE Ske ole ci alti) oyeicls rnin po erete Bro acre rae J CLS
CARR ESNONGENLG 3 — 5 cacehe seismic hs decteases wes 716
Missouri Botanical Garden: WM. TRELEASE.
PRNORIAC PALETOEE S— Slice cs ccesctsececdacss 717
The Geology of the Sierra Nevada: ANDREW C.
LAWSON. Allen on the Genus Reithrodontomys :
Os aa
IENISORTE TVENOH o— go. c' caw nc cicsiowae ae asisucinees 721
The Remedy for Pear Blight: M. B. WAITE. New
York Botanic Garden; The Helmholtz Memorial ;
General.
Societies and Academies :-— .....ccececsccersees 725
Biological Society of Washington ; Entomological
Society of Washington; The New York Academy
of Science; The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts and Letters ; The Texas Academy of Science.
MIBEIIMNE ade o.sasie ss .0xv,csisintsm eeedae oo. 728
MSS. intended for publication and books, ete., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J.
McKeen Cattell, Garrison on Hudson, N. Y.
Subscriptionsand advertisements should be sent to SCIENCE,
41 N. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa., or 41 East 49th St., New York.
: ARGON.*
Ir is some three or four years since I had
the honour of lecturing here one Friday
evening upon the densities of oxygen and
hydrogen gases, and upon the conclusions
that might be drawn from the results. It
is not necessary, therefore, that I should
*A Lecture given by Lord Rayleigh before the
Royal Institution of Great Britain, on Friday, April
5, 1895. Reprinted from the official report.
trouble you to-night with any detail as to
the method by which gases can be accur-
ately weighed. I must take that as known,
merely mentioning that it is substantially
the same as is used by all investigators
nowadays, and introduced more than fifty
years ago by Regnault. It was not until
after that lecture that I turned my atten-
tion to nitrogen ; and in the first instance
I employed a method of preparing the gas
which originated with Mr. Vernon Har-
court, of Oxford. In this method the oxy-
gen of ordinary atmospheric air is got rid
of with the aidof ammonia. Air is bubbled
through liquid ammonia, and then passed
through a red-hot tube. In its passage the
oxygen of the air combines with the hydro-
gen of the ammonia, all the oxygen being
in that way burnt up and converted into
water. The excess of ammonia is subse-
quently absorbed with acid, and the water
by ordinary desiccating agents. That method
is very convenient; and, when I had ob-
tained a few concordant results by means
of it, I thought that the work was complete,
and that the weight of nitrogen was satis-
factorily determined. But then I reflected
that it is always advisable to employ more
than one method, and that the method that
I had used—Mr. Vernon Harcourt’s method
—was not that which had been used by any
of those who had preceded me in weighing
nitrogen. The usual method consists in
absorbing the oxygen of air by means of
702
red-hot copper; and I thought that I ought
at least to give that method a trial, fully
expecting to obtain forthwith a value in
harmony with that already afforded by the
ammonia method. The result, however,
proved otherwise. The gas obtained by
the copper method, as I may call it, proved
to be one-thousandth part heavier than that
obtained by the ammonia method ; and, on
repetition, that difference was only brought
out more clearly. This was about three
years ago. Then, in order, if possible, to
get further light upon a discrepancy which
puzzled me very much, and which, at that
time, I regarded only with disgust and im-
patience, I published a letter in Natwre in-
viting criticisms from chemists who might
be interested in such questions. I obtained
various useful suggestions, but none going
to the root of the matter. Several persons
who wrote to me privately were inclined to
think that the explanation was to be sought
in a partial dissociation of the nitrogen
derived from ammonia. For, before going
further, I ought to explain that, in the nit-
rogen obtained by the ammonia method,
some—about a seventh part—is derived
from the ammonia, the larger part, however,
being derived as usual from the atmos-
phere. If the chemically derived nitrogen
were partly dissociated into its component
atoms, then the lightness of the gas so pre-
pared would be explained.
The next step in the enquiry was, if pos-
sible, to exaggerate the discrepancy. One’s
instinct at first is to try to get rid of a dis-
crepancy, but I believe that experience
shows such an endeavor to be a mistake.
What one ought to do is to magnify a small
discrepancy with a view to finding out the
explanation; and, as it appeared in the
present case that the root of the discrepancy
lay in the fact that part of the nitrogen pre-
pared by the ammonia method was nitrogen
out of ammonia, although the greater part
remained of common origin in both cases,
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 26.
the application of the principal suggested a
trial of the weight of nitrogen obtained
wholly from ammonia.
be done by substituting pure oxygen for at-
mospherie air in the ammonia method, so
that the whole, instead of only a part, of
the nitrogen collected should be derived
from the ammonia itself. The discrepancy
was at once magnified some five times. The
nitrogen so obtained from ammonia proved
to be about one-half per cent. lighter than
nitrogen obtained in the ordinary way from
the atmosphere, and which I may call for
brevity ‘atmospheric’ nitrogen.
That result stood out pretty sharply from
the first; but it was necessary to confirm
it by comparison with nitrogen chemically
derived in other ways. The table before
you gives a summary of such results, the
numbers being the weights in grams actually
contained under standard conditions in the
globe employed.
ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN.
By, hot copper (1892). 5 5 22. 2 5. oe 2.3103
Tbh MOH tem (ISEB) ag 5 5 5 oo ho 2.3100
By ferrous hydrate (1894) ......... 2.3102
Mean 2.3102
CHEMICAL NITROGEN.
WGA WINTOORC 294 655 5 8 oo oO 2.3001
IMGT CM 5 5 5 5 69 oo bo 2.2990
From ammonium nitrite purified at a red heat . 2.2987
Igooi CONE Ay GhigwelG eGo a6 bp 20 2.2985
From ammonium nitrite purified in the cold . 2.2987
Mean 2.2990
The difference is about 11 milligrams, or
about one-half per cent.; and it was suffi-
cient to prove conclusively that the two
kinds of nitrogen—the chemically derived
nitrogen and the atmospheric nitrogen—
differed in weight, and therefore, of course,
in quality, for some reason hitherto un-
known.
I need not spend time in explaining the
various precautions that were necessary in
order to establish surely that conclusion.
One had to be on one’s guard against im-
This could easily _
JUNE 28, 1895.]
purities, especially against the presence of
hydrogen, which might seriously lighten any
gas in which it was contained. I believe,
however, that the precautions taken were
sufficient to exclude all questions of that
sort, and the result, which I published
about this time last year, stood sharply out,
that the nitrogen obtained from chemical
sources was different from the nitrogen ob-
tained from the air.
Well, that difference, admitting it to be
established, was sufficient to show that
some hitherto unknown gas is involved in
the matter. It might be that the new gas
was dissociated nitrogen, contained in that
which was too light, the chemical nitrogen
—and at first that was the explanation to
which I leaned; but certain experiments
went a long way to discourage such a sup-
position. In the first place, chemical evi-
dence—and in this matter I am greatly de-
pendent upon the kindness of chemical
friends—tends to show that, even if ordi-
nary nitrogen could be dissociated at all
into its component atoms, such atoms would
not be likely to enjoy any very long contin-
ued existence. Even ozone goes slowly
back to the more normal state of oxygen;
and it was thought that dissociated nitrogen
would have even a greater tendency to re-
vert to the normal condition. The experi-
ment suggested by that remark was as fol-
lows—to keep chemical nitrogen—the too
light nitrogen which might be supposed to
contain dissociated molecules—for a good
while, and to examine whether it changed
in density. Of course it would be useless
to shut up gas in a globe and weigh it, and
then, after an interval, to weigh it again,
for there would be no opportunity for any
change of weight to occur, even although
the gas within the globe had undergone
some chemical alteration. It is necessary
to re-establish the standard conditions of
temperature and pressure which are always
understood when we speak of filling a globe
SCIENCE.
703
with gas, for I need hardly say that fill-
ing a globe with gas is but a figure of
speech. Everything depends upon the
temperature and pressure at which you
work. However, that obvious point being
borne in mind, it was proved by experiment
that the gas did not change in weight
by standing for eight months—a result
tending to show that the abnormal light-
ness was not the consequence of dissocia-
tion.
Further experiments were tried upon the
action of the silent electric discharge—both
upon the atmospheric nitrogen and upon
the chemically derived nitrogen—but neither
of them seemed to be sensibly affected by
such treatment; so that, altogether, the
balance of evidence seemed to incline
against the hypothesis of abnormal light-
ness in the chemically derived nitrogen be-
ing due to dissociation, and to suggest
strongly, as almost the only possible alter-
native, that there must be in atmospheric
nitrogen some constituent heavier than true
nitrogen.
At that point the question arose, What
was the evidence that all the so-called ni-
trogen of the atmosphere was of one qual-
ity? And I remember—I think it was
about this time last year, or a little earlier
—putting the question to my colleague,
Professor Dewar. His answer was that he
doubted whether anything material had
been done upon the matter since the time
of Cavendish, and that I had better refer
to Cavendish’s original paper. The advice
I quickly followed, and I was rather sur-
prised to find that Cavendish had himself
put this question quite as sharply as I could
put it. Translated from the old-fashioned
phraseology connected with the theory of
phlogiston, his question was whether the
inert ingredient of the air is really all
of one kind, whether all the nitrogen of
the air is really the same as the nitro-
gen of nitre. Cavendish not only asked
704
himself this question, but he endeav-
oured to answer it by an appeal to experi-
ment.
I should like to show you Cavendish’s ex-
periment in something like its original form.
He inverted a U tube filled with mercury,
the legs standing in two separate mercury
cups.
above the mercury, a mixture of nitrogen,
or of air, and oxygen; and he caused an
electric current from a frictional electrical
machine like the one I have before me to
pass from the mercury in the one leg to the
mercury in the other, giving sparks across
the intervening column of air. I do not
propose to use a frictional machine to-night,
but I will substitute for it one giving elec-
tricity of the same quality of the construc-
tion introduced by Mr. Wimshurst, of which
we have a fine specimen in the Institution.
It stands just outside the door of the theatre,
and will supply an electric current along in-
sulated wires, leading to the mercury cups;
and, if we are successful, we shall cause
sparks to pass through the small length of
air included above the columns of mercury.
There they are; and after a little time you
will notice that the mercury rises, indica-
ting that the gas is sensibly absorbed under
the influence of the sparks and of a piece of
potash floating on the mercury. It was by
that means that Cavendish established his
great discovery of the nature of the inert
ingredient in the atmosphere, which we now
call nitrogen; and, as I have said, Caven-
dish himself proposed the question, as dis-
tinctly as we can do, Is this inert ingredient
. all of one kind? and he proceeded to test
that question. He found, after days and
weeks of protracted experiment, that, for
the most part, the nitrogen of the atmos-
phere was absorbed in this manner, and con-
verted into nitrous acid; but that there was
a small residue remaining after prolonged
treatment with sparks, and a final absorp-
tion of the residual oxygen. That residue
SCIENCE.
He then passed up, so as to stand —
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 26.
amounted to about 73,5 part of the nitrogen
taken ; and Cavendish draws the conclusion
that, if there be more than one inert ingre-
dient in the atmosphere, at any rate the sec-
ond ingredient is not contained to a greater
extent than ;4, part.
I must not wait too long over the experi-
ment. Mr. Gordon tells me that a certain
amount of contraction has already occurred;
and if we project the U upon the screen, we
shall be able to verify the fact. It is only
a question of time for the greater part of the
gas to be taken up, as we have proved by
preliminary experiments.
In what I have to say from this point on-
wards, I must be understood as speaking
as much on behalf of Professor Ramsay as
for myself. At the first, the work which
we did was to a certain extent independent.
Afterwards we worked in concert, and all
that we have published in our joint names
must be regarded as being equally the work
of both of us. But, of course, Professor
Ramsay must not be held responsible for
any chemical blunder into which I may
stumble to-night.
By his work and by mine the heavier in-
gredient in atmospheric nitrogen which was —
the origin of the discrepancy in the densi-
ties has been isolated, and we have given it
the name of ‘argon.’ For this purpose we
may use the original method of Cavendish,
with the advantages of modern appliances.
We can procure more powerful electric
sparks than any which Cavendish could
command by the use of the ordinary Ruhm-
korff coil stimulated by a battery of Grove
cells; and it is possible so to obtain evidence
of the existence of argon. The oxidation of
nitrogen by that method goes on pretty
quickly. If you put some ordinary air, or,
better still, a mixture of air and oxygen, in
a tube in which electric sparks are made to
pass for a certain time, then, in looking
through the tube, you observe the well-
known reddish-orange fumes of the oxides
JUNE 28, 1895.]
of nitrogen. I will not take up time in go-
ing through the experiment, but will merely
exhibit a tube already prepared (image on
screen).
One can work more efficiently by employ-
ing the alternate currents from dynamo ma-
chines which are now atourcommand. In
this institution we have the advantage of a
public supply: and if I pass alternate cur-
rents originating in Deptford through this
Ruhmnkorff coil, which acts as what is now
called a ‘high potential transformer,’ and
allow sparks from the secondary to pass in
an inverted test tube between platinum
points, we shall be able to show in a com-
paratively short time a pretty rapid absorp-
tion of the gases. The electric currentis led
into the working chamber through bent glass
tubes containing mercury, and provided
at their inner extremities with platinum
points. In this arrangement we avoid the
risk, which would otherwise be serious, of
a fracture just when we least desired it. I
now start the sparks by switching on the
Ruhmkorff to the alternate current supply;
and, if you will take note of the level of the
liquid representing the quantity of mixed
gases included, I think you willsee after, per-
haps, a quarter of an hour that the liquid
has very appreciably risen, owing to the
union of the nitrogen and the oxygen gases
under the influence of the electrical dis-
charge, and subsequent absorption of the re-
sulting compound by the alkaline liquid
with which the gas space is enclosed.
_ By means of this little apparatus, which
is very convenient for operations upon a
moderate scale, such as for analysis of ‘ nit-
rogen’ for the amount of argon that it may
contain, we are able to get an absorption
of about 80 eubie centimetres per hour, or
about 4 inches along this test tube, when
all is going well. In order, however, to ob-
tain the isolation of argon on any consider-
able scale by means of the oxygen method,
we must employ an apparatus still more en-
SCIENCE.
705
larged. ‘The isolation of argon requires the
removal of nitrogen, and, indeed, of very
large quantities of nitrogen, for, as it ap-
pears, the proportion of argon contained in
atmospheric nitrogen is only about 1 per
cent., so that for every litre of argon that
you wish to get you must eat up some hun-
dred litres of nitrogen. That, however, can
be done upon an adequate seale by calling
to our aid the powerful electric discharge
now obtainable by means of the alternate
current supply and high potential trans-
formers.
In what I have done upon this subject I
have had the advantage of the advice of Mr.
Crookes, who some years ago drew special
attention to the electric discharge or flame,
and showed that many of its properties de-
pended upon the fact that it had the power of
causing, upon a considerable scale, a com-
bination of the nitrogen and the oxygen of
the air in which it was made.
I had first thought of showing in the lee-
ture room the actual apparatus which I
have employed for the concentration of
argon; but the difficulty is that, as the ap-
paratus has to be used, the working parts
are almost invisible, and I came to the con-
clusion that it would really be more instrue-
tive as well as more convenient to show the
parts isolated, a very little effort of imagin-
ation being then all that is required in order
to reconstruct in the mind the actual ar-
rangements employed.
First, as to the electric are or flame it-
self. We have here a transformer made by
Pike and Harris. It is not the one that I
have used in practice; but it is convenient
for certain purposes, and it can be connected
by means of a switch with the alternate
currents of 100 volts furnished by the Sup-
ply Company. The platinum terminals
that you see here are modelled exactly upon
the plan of those which have been employed
in practice. I may say a word or two on
the question of mounting. The terminals
706
require to be very massive on account of the
the heat evolved. In this case they consist
of platinum wire doubled upon itself six
times. The platinums are continued by
iron wires going through glass tubes, and
attached at the ends to the copper leads.
For better security, the tubes themselves
are stopped at the lower ends with corks
and charged with water, the advantage be-
ing that, when the whole arrangement is
fitted by means of an indiarubber stopper
into a closed vessel, you have a witness that,
as long as the water remains in position, no
leak can have occurred through the insul-
ating tubes conveying the electrodes.
Now, if we switch on the current and ap-
proximate the points sufficiently, we get
the electric flame. There you have it. It
is, at present, showing a certain amount of
soda. That in time would burn off. After
the are has once been struck, the platinums
can be separated; and then you have two
tongues of fire ascending almost independ-
ently of one another, but meeting above.
Under the influence of such a flame the oxy-
‘gen and the nitrogen of the air combine at
a reasonable rate, and in this way the ni-
trogen is got rid of. _ It is now only a ques-
tion of boxing up the gas in a closed space,
where the argon concentrated by the com-
bustion of the nitrogen can be collected.
But there are difficulties to be encountered
there. One cannot well use anything but a
glass vessel. There is hardly any metal
available that will withstand the action of
strong caustic alkali and of the nitrous
fumes resulting from the flame. One is
practically limited to glass. The glass ves-
sel employed is a large flask with a single
neck, about half full of caustic alkali. The
electrodes are carried through the neck by
means of an indiarubber bung provided al-
so with tubes for leading in the gas. The
electric flame is situated at a distance of
only about half an inch above the caustic
alkali. In that way an efficient circulation
SCIENCE.
thick wires in parallel.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 26.
is established; the hot gases as they rise
from the flame strike the top, and then as
they come around again in the course of
the circulation they pass sufficiently close
to the caustic alkali to imsure an adequate
removal of the nitrous fumes.
There is another point to be mentioned.
It is necessary to keep the vessel cool;
otherwise the heat would soon rise to such a
point that there would be excessive genera-
tion of steam, and then the operation would
come to a standstill. In order to meet this
difficulty the upper part of the vessel is
provided with a water-jacket, in which a
circulation can be established. No doubt
the glass is severely treated, but it seems to
stand it it in a fairly amiable manner.
By means of an arrangement of this kind,
taking nearly three-horse power from the
electric supply, it is possible to consume
nitrogen at a reasonable rate. The trans-
formers actually used are the ‘ Hedgehog’
transformers of Mr. Swinburne, intended to
transform from 100 to 2400 volts. By Mr.
Swinburne’s advice I have used two such,
the fine wires being in series so as to accu-
mulate the electrical potential and the
The rate at which
the mixed gases are absorbed is about seven
litres per hour; and the apparatus, when
once fairly started, works very well as a
rule, going for many hours without atten-
tion. At times the arc has a trick of going
out, and it then requires to be restarted by
approximating the platinums. We have
already worked 14 hours on end, and by —
the aid of one or two automatic appliances
it would, I think, be possible, to continue
operations day and night.
The gases, air and oxygen in about equal
proportions, are mixed in a large gasholder,
and are fed in automatically as required.
The argon gradually accumulates; and
when it is desired to stop operations the
supply of nitrogen is cut off, and only pure
oxygen allowed admittance. In this way
JUNE 28, 1895.]
the remaining nitrogen is consumed, so
that, finally, the working vessel is charged
with a mixture of argon and oxygen only,
from which the oxygen is removed by ordi-
nary well-known chemical methods. I
may mention that at the close of the opera-
tion, when the nitrogen is all gone, the are
changes its appearance and becomes of a
brilliant blue colour.
Ihave said enough about this method,
and I must now pass on to the alternative
method which has been very successful in
Professor Ramsay’s hands—that of absorb-
ing nitrogen by means of red-hot magne-
sium. By the kindness of Professor Ram-
say and Mr. Matthews, his assistant, we
have here the full scale apparatus before us
almost exactly as they use it. On the left
there is a reservoir of nitrogen derived
from air by the simple removal of oxygen.
The gas is then dried. Here it is bubbled
through sulphuric acid. It then passes
through a long tube made of hard glass and
charged with magnesium in the form of
thin turnings. During the passage of the
gas over the magnesium at a bright red
heat, the nitrogen is absorbed in a great
degree, and the gas which finally passes
through is immensely richer in argon than
that which first enters the hot tube. At the
present time you see a tolerably rapid bub-
bling on the left, indicative of the flow of
atmospheric nitrogen into the combustion
furnace ; whereas, on the right, the outflow
is very much slower. Care must be taken
to prevent the heat rising to such a point
as to soften the glass. The concentrated
argon is collected in a second gasholder,
and afterwards submitted to further treat-
ment. The apparatus employed by Profes-
sor Ramsay in the subsequent treatment is
exhibited in the diagram, and is very effect-
ive for its purpose; but I am afraid that
the details of it would not readily be fol-
lowed from any explanation that I could
give in the time at my disposal. The prin-
SCIENCE.
707
ciple consists in the circulation of the mix-
ture of nitrogen and argon over hot mag-
nesium, the gas being made to pass round
and round until the nitrogen is effectively
removed from it. At the end that opera-
tion, as in the case of the oxygen method,
proceeds somewhat slowly. When the
greater part of the nitrogen is gone, the re-
mainder seems to be unwilling to follow,
and it requires somewhat protracted treat-
ment in order to be sure that the nitogen
has wholly disappeared. When I say
‘wholly disappeared,’ that, perhaps, would
be too much to say in any case. What we
can say is that the spectrum test is ade-
quate to show the presence, or at any rate
to show the addition, of about one-and-a-
half per cent. of nitrogen to argon as pure
as we can get it; so that it is fair to argue
that any nitrogen at that stage remaining
in the argon is only a small fraction of one-
and-a-half per cent.
Ishould have liked at this point to be
able to give advice as to which of the two
methods—the oxygen method or the mag-
nesium method—is the easier and the more
to be recommended; but I confess that I
am quite at a loss to doso. One difficulty
in the comparison arises from the fact that
they have been in different hands. As far
as I can estimate, the quantities of nitrogen
eaten up ina given time are not very dif-
ferent. In that respect, perhaps, the mag-
nesium method has some advantage; but,
on the other hand, it may be said that the
magnesium process requires a much closer
supervision, so that, perhaps, fourteen hours
of the oxygen method may not unfairly
compare with eight hours or so of the mag-
nesium method. In practice a great deal
would depend upon whether in any partic-
ular laboratory alternate currents are avail-
able from a public supply. If the alternate
currents are at hand, I think it may probably
be the case that the oxygen method is the
easier; but otherwise, the magnesium
708
method would, probably, be preferred, espe-
cially by chemists who are familiar with
operations conducted in red-hot tubes.
I have here another experiment illustra-
tive of the reaction between magnesium
and nitrogen. Two rods of that metal are
suitably mounted in an atmosphere of nitro-
gen, so arranged that we can bring them
into contact and cause an electric arc to
form between them. Under the action of
the heat of the electric are the nitrogen will
combine with the magnesium; and if we
had time to carry out the experiment we
could demonstrate a rapid absorption of
nitrogen by this method. When the ex-
periment was first tried, I had hoped that
it might be possible, by the aid of electricity,
to start the action so effectively that the
magnesium would continue to burn inde-
pendently under its own developed heat in
the atmosphere of nitrogen. Possibly, on
a larger scale, something of this sort might
succeed, but I bring it forward here only
as an illustration. We turn on the electric
current and bring the magnesiums together.
You see a brilliant green light, indicating
the vaporisation of the magnesium. Under
the influence of the heat the magnesium
burns, and there is collected in the glass
vessel a certain amount of brownish-looking
powder which consists mainly of the nitride
of magnesium. Of course, if there is any
oxygen present it has the preference, and
the ordinary white oxide of magnesium is
formed.
The gas thus isolated is proved to be inert
by the very fact of its isolation. It refuses
to combine under circumstances in which
nitrogen, itself always considered very inert,
does combine—both in the case of the
oxygen treatment and in the case of the
magnesium treatment; and these facts are,
perhaps, almost enough to justify the name
which we have suggested for it. But, in
addition to this, it has been proved to be
inert under a considerable variety of other
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 26.
conditions such as might have been expected.
to tempt it into combination. I will not
recapitulate all the experiments which have
been tried, almost entirely by Professor
Ramsay, to induce the gas to combine.
Hitherto, in our hands, it has not done so;
and I may mention that recently, since the
publication of the abstract of our paper read.
before the Royal Society, argon has been:
submitted to the action of titanium ata red.
heat, titanium being a metal having a great
affinity for nitrogen, and that argon has re-
sisted the temptation to which nitrogen
succumbs. We never have asserted, and we
do not now assert, that argon can under no
circumstances be got to combine. That
would, indeed, be a rash assertion for any
one to venture upon; and only within the
last few weeks there has been a most in-
teresting announcement by M. Berthelot,
of Paris, that, under the action of the silent
electric discharge, argon can be absorbed
when treated in contact with the vapor of
benzine. Such a statement, coming from
so great an authority, commands our atten-
tion; and if we accept the conclusion, as I
suppose we must do, it will follow that
argon has, under those circumstances, com-
bined.
Argon is rather freely soluble in water.
That is a thing that troubled us at first in
trying to isolate the gas; because, when one
was dealing with very small quantities, ib
seemed to be always disappearing. In try-
ing to accumulate it we made no progress.
After a sufficient quantity had been pre-
pared, special experiments were made on
solubility of argon in water. It has been
found that argon, prepared both by the
magnesium method and by the oxygen
method, has about the same solubility in
water as oxygen—some two-and-a-half times
the solubility of nitrogen. This suggests,
what has been verified by experiment, that
the dissolved gases of water should contain
a larger proportion of argon than does at-
———EoOOoO
JUNE 28, 1895. ]
mospherie nitrogen. I have here an appa-
ratus of a somewhat rough description,
which I have employed in experiments of
this kind. The boiler employed consists
of an old oil-can. The water is applied to
it and drawn from it by coaxial tubes of
metal. The incoming cold water flows
through the outer annulus between the two
tubes. The outgoing hot water passes
through the inner tube, which ends in the
interior of the vessel at a higher level. By
means of this arrangement the heat of the
water which has done its work is passed on
to the incoming water not yet in operation,
and in that way a limited amount of heat
is made to bring up to the boil a very much
larger quantity of water than would other-
wise be possible, the greater part of the
dissolved gases being liberated at the same
time. These are collected in the ordinary
way. What you see in this flask is dis-
solved air collected out of water in the
course of the last three or four hours. Such
' gas, when treated as if it were atmospheric
nitrogen, that is to say after removal of the
oxygen and minor impurities, is found to
be decidedly heavier than atmospheric nitro-
gen to such an extent as to indicate that
the proportion of argon contained is about
double. It is obvious, therefore, that the
dissolved gases of water form a convenient
source of argon, by which some of the labor
of separation from air is obviated. During
the last few weeks I have been supplied
from Manchester by Mr. Macdougall, who
has interested himself in this matter, with
a quantity of dissolved gases obtained from
the condensing water of his steam engine.
As to the spectrum, we have been in-
debted from the first to Mr. Crookes, and
he has been good enough to-night to bring
some tubes which he will operate, and
which will show you at all events the light
of the electric discharge inargon. I cannot
show you the spectrum of argon, for unfor-
tunately the amount of light from a vacuum
SCIENCE.
709
tube is not sufficient for the projection of its
spectrum. Under some circumstances the
light is red, and under other circumstances
itis blue. Of course when these lights are
examined with the spectroscope—and they
have been examined by Mr. Crookes with
great care—the differences in the color of
the light translate themselves into different
groups of spectrum lines. We have before
us Mr. Crookes’ map, showing the two
spectra upon a very large scale. The upper
is the spectrum of the blue light; the lower
is the spectrum of the red light ; and it will
be seen that they differ very greatly. Some
lines are common to both; but a great many
lines are seen only in the red, and others
are seen only in the blue. It is astonishing
to notice what trifling changes in the con-
ditions of the discharge bring about such
extensive alterations in the spectrum.
One question of great importance, upon
which the spectrum throws light is: Is the
argon derived by the oxygen method really
the same as the argon derived by the mag-
nesium method? By Mr. Crookes’ kind-
ness I have had an opportunity of examin-
ing the spectra of the two gases side by side,
and such examination as I could make re-
vealed no difference whatever in the two
spectra, from which, I suppose, we may
conclude either that the gases are absolutely
the same, or, if they are not the same, that
at any rate the ingredients by which they
differ cannot be present in more than a
small proportion in either of them.
My own observations upon the spectrum
have been made principally at atmospheric
pressure. In the ordinary process of spark-
ing, the pressure is atmospheric, and if we
wish to look at the spectrum we have nothe
ing more to do than to include a jar in the
circuit and to put a direct vision prism to
theeye. At my request, Professor Schuster
examined some tubes containing argon at
atmospheric pressure prepared by the oxy-
gen method, and I have here a diagram of
710
a characteristic group. He also placed
upon the sketch some of the lines of zinc,
which were very convenient as directing
one exactly where to look. (See Fig.)
Within the last few days Mr. Crookes
has charged a radiometer with argon.
When held in the light from the electric
lamp the vanes revolve rapidly. Argon is
anomalous in many respects, but not, you
see, in this.
Next, as to the density of argon. Pro-
fessor Ramsay has made numerous and care-
ful observations upon the density of the gas
prepared by the magnesium method, and he
finds a density of about 19.9 as compared
438 44 45 46 47
HY
with hydrogen. Equally satisfactory obser-
vations upon the gas derived by the oxygen
method have not yet been made, but there
is no reason to suppose that the density is
different, such numbers as 19.7 having been
obtained.
One of the most interesting matters in
connection with argon, however, is what is
known as the ratio of the specific heats. I
smust not stay to elaborate the questions in-
volved, but it will be known to many who
hear me that the velocity of sound in a gas
depends upon the ratio of two specific heats
—the specific heat of the gas measured at
constant pressure, and the specific heat
measured at constant volume. If we know
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 26.
the density of a gas, and also the velocity
of sound in it, we are in a position to infer
this ratio of specific heats; and by means
of this method, Professor Ramsay has de-
termined the ratio in the case of argon,
arriving at the very remarkable result that
the ratio of specific heats is represented by
the number 1.65, approaching very closely
to the theoretical limit, 1.67. The number
1.67 would indicate that the gas has no
energy except energy of translation of its
molecules. If there is any other energy
than that, it would show itself by this num-
ber dropping below 1.67. Ordinary gases,
oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, etce., do drop
48 49 5000
below, giving the number 1.4. Other gases
drop lower still. If the ratio of specific
heats is 1.65, practically 1.67, we may infer
then that the whole energy of motion is
translational ; and from that it would seem
to follow by arguments which, however, I
must not stop to elaborate, that the gas
must be of the kind called by chemists
monatomic.
I had intended to say something of the
operation of determining the ratio of specific
heats, but time will not allow. The result
is, no doubt, very awkward. Indeed, I
have seen some indications that the anoma-
lous properties of argon are brought as a
kind of accusation against us. But we had
————
ee eee lee
~~
JUNE 28, 1895.]
the very best intentions in the matter. The
facts were too much for us; and all we can
do now is to apologise for ourselves and for
the gas.
Several questions may be asked, upon
which I should like to say a word or two,
if you will allow me to detain you a little
longer. The first question (I do not know
whether I need ask it) is, have we got hold
of a new gas at all? I had thought that
that might be passed over, but only this
morning I read in a technical journal the
suggestion that argon was our old friend
nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide has roughly
the density of argon ; but that, as far as I
can see, is the only point of resemblance be-
tween them.
Well, supposing that there is a new gas,
which I will not stop to discuss, because I
think the spectrum alone would be enough to
prove it, the next question that may be asked
is, is it in the atmosphere? This matter
naturally engaged our earnest attention at
an early stage of the enquiry. I will only
indicate in a few words the arguments
which seem to us to show that the answer
must be in the affirmative.
In the first place, if argon be not in the
atmosphere, the original discrepancy of
densities which formed the starting point
of the investigation remains unexplained,
and the discovery of the new gas has been
made upon a false clue. Passing over that,
we have the evidence from the blank exper-
iments, in which nitrogen originally derived
from chemical sources is treated either with
oxygen or with magnesium, exactly as at-
mospherie, nitrogen is treated. If we use
atmospheric nitrogen we get a certain pro-
portion of argon, about 1 per cent. If we
treat chemical nitrogen in the same way
we get, I will not say absolutely nothing,
but a mere fraction of what we should get
had atmospheric nitrogen been the subject.
You may ask, why do we get any fraction
at all from chemical nitrogen? It is not
SCIENCE. 711
difficult to explain the small residue, be-
cause in the manipulation of the gases
large quantities of water are used; and, as
I have already explained, water dissolves
argon somewhat freely. In the processes
of manipulation some of the argon will
come out of solution, and it remains after
all the nitrogen has been consumed.
Another wholly distinct argument is
founded upon the method of diffusion in-
troduced by Graham. Graham showed
that if you pass gas along porous tubes you
alter the composition, if the gas is a mix-
ture. The lighter constituents go more
readily through the pores than do the
heavier ones. The experiment takes this
form. A number of tobacco pipes—eight
in the actual arrangement—are joined to-
gether in series with india rubber junctions,
and they are put in a space in which a
vacuum can be made, so that the space out-
side the porous pipes is vacuous or approxi-
mately so. Through the pipes ordinary
air is led. One end may be regarded as
open to the atmosphere. The other end is
connected with an aspirator so arranged
that the gas collected is only some 2 per
cent. of that which leaks through the poros-
ities. The case is like that of an Australian
river drying up almost to nothing in the
course of its flow. Well, if we treat air in
that way, collecting only the small residue
which is less willing than the remainder to
penetrate the porous walls, and then prepare
‘nitrogen’ from it by removal of oxygen
and moisture, we obtain a gas heavier than
atmospheric nitrogen, a result which proves
that the ordinary nitrogen of the atmosphere
is not a simple body, but is capable of being
divided into parts by so simple an agent as
the tobacco pipe.
If it be admitted that the gas is in the
atmosphere, the further question arises as
to its nature. :
At this point I would wish to say a word
of explanation. Neither in our original
712
announcement at Oxford, nor at any time
since, until the 31st of January, did we
utter a word suggesting that argon was
an element; and it was only after the ex-
periments upon the specific heats that we
thought that we had sufficient to go upon
in order to make any such suggestion in
public. I will not insist that that observa-
tion is absolutely conclusive. It is cer-
tainly strong evidence. But the subject is
difficult, and one that has given rise to some
difference of opinion among physicists.
At any rate, this property distinguishes
argon very sharply from all the ordinary
gases.
One question which occurred to us at the
earliest stage of the enquiry, as soon as we
knew that the density was not very differ-
ent from 21, was the question of whether,
possibly, argon could be a more condensed
form of nitrogen, denoted chemically by the
symbol N,. ‘There seem to be several diffi-
culties in the way of this supposition.
Would such a constitution be consistent
with the ratio of specific heats (1.65) ?
That seems extremely doubtful. Another
question is, Can the density be really as
high as 21, the number required on the sup-
position of N,? As to this matter, Professor
Ramsay has repeated his measurements of
density, and he finds that he cannot get
even so high as 20. To suppose that the
density of argon is really 21, and that it
appears to be 20 in consequence of nitrogen
still mixed with it, would be to suppose a
contamination with nitrogen out of all
proportion to what is probable. It would
mean some 14 per cent. of nitrogen, whereas
it seems that from one-and-a-half to two
per cent. is easily enough detected by the
spectroscope. Another question that may be
asked is, Would N, require so much cool-
ing to condense it as argon requires ?
There is one other matter on which I
would like to say a word—the question as
to what N, would be like if we had it.
SCIENCE.
Opinions.
-as not to prejudge this question.
[N. S. Vou. I. No. 26.
There seems to be a great discrepancy of
Some high authorities, among
whom must be included, I see, the cele-
brated Mendeleef, consider that N, would
be an exceptionally stable body; but most
of the chemists with whom I have consulted
are of opinion that N, would be explosive,
or, at any rate, absolutely unstable. That
is a question which may be left for the
future to decide. We must not attempt to
put these matters too positively. The
balance of evidence still seems to be against
the supposition that argon is N,, but for
my part I do not wish to dogmatise.
A few weeks ago we had an eloquent
lecture from Professor Rucker on the life
and work of the illustrious Helmholtz. It
will be known to many that during the last
few months of his life Helmholtz lay pros-
trate in a semi-paralyzed condition, forget-
ful of many things, but still retaining a
keen interest in science. Some little while
after his death we had a letter from his
widow, in which she described how inter-
ested he had been in our preliminary an-
nouncement at Oxford upon this subject,
and how he desired the account of it to be
read to him over again. He added the
remark: ‘JI always thought that there
must be something more in the atmosphere.”
LLOYD MORGAN UPON INSTINCT.
In the last number of Natural Science
Professor C. Lloyd Morgan gives a valuable
synopsis of the various definitions of in-
stinet which have been proposed by Dar-
win, Wallace, Romanes, James, Spencer
and other writers upon this subject. He
shows that surprisingly wide differences of
opinion prevail and concludes that, ‘Since
the question of origin is still sub judice, the
definition should be purely descriptive, so
And
since the phenomena of instinct can only
be rightly understood in their relation to
automatism connate and acquired, to im-
JUNE 28, 1895. ]
pulse, to imitation and to intelligence, our
definition of instinctive activities should
find a place in a scheme of terminology.”
He sets forth such a scheme sending us in
MSS. a number of additions and modifi-
cations which are embodied in the follow-
ing table and abstract :
“Tt may be premised :
1. That the terms congenital and acquired
are to be regarded as mutually exclusive.
What is congenital is, as prior to individ-
ual experience, not acquired. What is ac-
quired is, as the result of individual experi-
ence, not congenital.
2. That these terms apply to the indi-
vidual, whether what is acquired by one
individual may become congenital through
inheritance in another individual, is a ques-
tion of fact which is not to be settled by
implications of terminology.
8. That the term acquired does not ex-
elude an inherited potentiality of acquisi-
tion under the appropriate conditions,
such inherited potentiality may be termed
innate. What is acquired is a specialization
of a vague and general innate potentiality.
4. That what is congenital and innate is
inherent in the germ plasm of the fertilized
ovum.
Congenital Movements and Activities : Those
the performance of which is antecedent to
individual experience; they may be per-
formed either (a) at or very shortly after
birth (connate) or (b) when the organism
has undergone further development (de-
ferred).
Congenital Automatism: The congenital
physiological basis of those movements or
activities which are antecedent to individ-
ual experience.
Physiological Rhythms : Congenital (or con-
nate) rhythmic movements essential to the
continuance of organic life.
Reflex Movements: Congenital, adaptive
and codrdinated responses of limbs or parts
of the body ; evoked by stimuli.
SCIENCE.
713
Random Movements: Congenital, more or
less definite, but not specially adaptive
movements of limbs or parts of the body ;
either centrally initiated or evoked by
stimuli.
Instinctive Activities: Congenital, adaptive
and coérdinated activities of the organism
as a whole; specific in character, but sub-
ject to variation analogous to that found in
organic structures ; similarly performed by
all the members of the same more or less re-
stricted group, in adaptation to special cir-
cumstances frequently recurring or essen-
tial to the continuance of the race; often
periodic in development and serial in char-
acter.
Mimetic Movements and Activities: Due to
individual imitation or similar movements
or activities performed by others.
Impulse (Trieb): The affective or emotional
condition, connate or acquired, under the
influence of which a conscious organism is
prompted to movement or activity, without
reference to a conceived end or ideal.
Instinct : The congenital psychological im-
pulse concerned in instinctive activities.
Control: The conscious inhibition or aug-
mentation of movement or activity.
Intelligent Activities: Those due to indivi-
dual control or guidance in the light of ex-
perience through association.
Motive: The affective or emotional condi-
tion under the influence of which a rational
being is guided in the performance of de-
liberate acts.
Deliberate Acts: Those performed in dis-
tinct reference to a conceived end or ideal.
Habits: Organized groups of activities,
stereotyped by repetition, and characteristic
of a conscious organism at any particular
stage of its existence.
Acquired Movements, Activities or Acts: Those
the performance of which is the result of
individual experience. Any modifications
of congenital activities which result from
experience are so far acquired.
714
Acquired Automatism: The individually
modified physiological basis of the perfor-
mance of acquired movements or activities
which have been stereotyped by repetition.”
Professor Morgan points out that there is
some overlap in these definitions, but it is
difficult to see how such overlaps are to be
avoided. H. F. O.
SOME MEANDERING RIVERS OF WISCONSIN.
Two years ago Professor Davis* called
attention to the wide meanders of the Osage
river of Missouri. He said: ‘‘The me-
anders of the river are peculiar in not being
like those of the Mississippi, spread upon a
flat flood-plain. High spurs of the upland
occupy the neck of land between every turn
of the stream. Evidently the meanders are
not of the ordinary kind.” He explained
the peculiar tortuous course of the river as
an inheritance from an earlier cycle, during-
which the river had worn the land down to
a surface of faint relief. The stream at
that time swung to and fro in broad me-
anders developed on a wide flood-plain.
The whole region was then somewhat ele-
vated, and the stream again set to work to
cut down its channel to the new baselevel.
But the meandering course which it had
acquired late in the preceding cycle was
carried over into the new cycle of its life.
A recent visit to a part of the driftless
area of Wisconsin, Lafayette and Grant
counties, gave me an opportunity of ob-
serving a similar habit of some of the
rivers of that region. The general surface
of the country is that of a gently rolling
plain, at an elevation of from 850 to 1000
feet, A. T. The interstream surfaces are
broad and slightly undulating, but well
drained. The surface rock, except in the
immediate vicinity of the streams, is the
Galena limestone. Occasionally the gen-
eral level of the top of the country is
*SCIENCE, April 28, 1893, vol. xxi., p. 225 et seq.
SCIENCE, November 17, 1893, vol. xxii., p. 276 et seq.
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Vou. I. No. 26.
broken by hills, which rise 200 to 300 feet
above the general level. The highest of
these are capped by the hard Niagara lime-
stone; the lower by beds of the Cincin-
nati group. These hills form the so-called
‘mounds,’ of which, in the area visited, the
Platte Mounds—1250-1300 feet, A. T.—are
the highest. The hard Niagara limestone
caps of these mounds are the remnants of
beds which formerly stretched over all this
region, and which has since been removed
by denudation. To hills of this type Prof.
Davis has given the name, Monadnocks.
The rocks of this region are nearly hori-
zontal, and in general there is not a sharp
contrast between the slant of the beds and
the general slope of the upland surface. It
seems, therefore, as if the upland might be
a structural plain due to a resistant stratum,
the Galena limestone, at the level of the
upland—a stratum which had been revealed
by denudation of the overlying beds. If
this were the case, the upland level would
be independent of any former baseleyel.
But such a conclusion does not seem to be
admissible; although nearly horizontal, the
limestone has been bent into gentle flex-
ures, some of which are sufficient to bring
the underlying Trenton limestone and St.
Peter’s sandstone up to the level of the
upland surface. The plain is continuous
across these low arches and bevels the
edges of the gently inclined beds. More-
over, to the north of the outcrop of the
Galena limestone, the upland plain bevels
the gently inclined edges of the underlying
formation, which there come to the surface.
In that region, however, the plain is now
more completely dissected than further
south. Whatever correspondence exists
between the inclination of the beds and the
slope of the plain is fortuitous and not due
to structure primarily. It is believed that
this plain is a surface of denudation, the
result of long continued erosion on 4a
greater land mass when the land stood lower
|
Vol. I., p- 176) graded rivers.
JUNE 28, 1895. ]
than at present. The upland surface is be-
lieved to be an elevated peneplain.
It is now moderately dissected by valleys
which along the larger rivers are from 100
to 200 feet deep. In comparison with the
width of the gently undulating interstream
surfaces these valleys are not very wide.
The slopes are quite steep and locally form
bluffs, but towards the top they pass by a
graceful curve into the almost level upland.
The present flood-plains along the bottoms
of the valleys are generally from an eighth
to a quarter of a mile in width. In terms
of development the present valleys are well
on towards maturity. The sharp narrow.
valleys of extreme youth are entirely ab-
sent. The rivers have made considerable
progress in the present cycle in reducing the
land mass to the level dependent on the
grade of their channels, but the amount of
work still to be done is vastly in excess of
what has already been accomplished.
The three topographic features mentioned,
namely, the broad undulating upland, with
an elevation of from 850 to 1,000 feet;
the few monadnocks rising above it, and
the valleys cut into it, give a clne to the
stages of geographic development of this
region. The upland peneplain is a surface of
denudation produced by long continued
erosion, when the land mass stood lower
than at present. This cycle of erosion
lasted a long time and the baseleveling was
almost completed. Very few monadnocks
rose above the general plain. The cycle
was ended by an uplift, which quickened
the streams, restored to them their cutting
powers, and compelled them to erode new
valleys in the old peneplain. They have
now cut down their channels until their
ability to transport material is just about
equal to the material which they have to
carry. Rivers, the profiles of whose stream-
channels are in this condition of equilibrium,
have been called by Davis (Scrence, N.S.,
The differ-
SCIENCE.
715
ence in the slope of the valley sides and the
upland plain indieates a change of level
before the excavation of the valleys and
after the formation of the upland plain.
The process by which the valleys are being
formed is not a direct continuation of the
process by which the gentle upland slopes
were fashioned. The valleys were cut in
the upland surface after it was elevated
from the low position which it had during
its formation.
Confirmatory evidence for this hypoth-
esis is found in the winding courses of
the valleys which now dissect this upland.
Fever river was studied in the field, and
the topographical atlas of the Wisconsin
Geological Survey shows that the Platte,
Little Platte, Grant and Pecatonica rivers
have this same habit. If the geographical
development of this region was as outlined
above, the streams at the close of the
earlier cycle must have possessed wide, flat
valleys, with broad flood-plains, in which
they meandered freely. The elevation of
the land would have caused the streams to
degrade their channels rapidly. In many
cases the meanders on the flood-plain
would have been superimposed upon the
rock below, as the river bed was lowered.
The valleys cut in the elevated peneplain
would thus come to preserve, and, as
pointed out by Winslow, also increase the
meanders of the earlier cycle.
Such seems to have been the case with
the Fever river. Its meanders have an
average radius of a little less than half a
mile, but they are by no means constant.
Rock spurs of the upland project into each
curve. The slopes on these spurs are gen-
erally gentler than on the outside of the
curves, where the stream is often undercut-
ting the base of the slope and increasing
the meanders. Both open and close ox-
bows occur. The most marked of the close
type of meanders was noted near Benton,
where the river makes an almost closed sig-
716
moid curve, the halves of which are from
one-half to three-fourths of a mile in diam-
eter. The rock neck of land between the
two ends of the closer curve is less than a
hundred yards in width and rises about
seventy feet above the stream.
Along Platte, Little Platte, Grant and
Pecatonica rivers, larger streams than Fever
river, the meanders are slightly larger on
the average than along the smaller streams.
Both open and close curves occur. Rock
salients between 100 and 200 feet high pro-
ject into the bow of each meander. Almost
as complete a series of meander types can
be found among the curves of the rock val-
leys of these rivers as along the broad
flood-plains of other streams. Indeed, the
small meanders of these rivers in their pres-
ent flood-plains can readily be duplicated
by the wider curves of the rock valley.
There can be no reasonable doubt but that
the meanders of these valleys are an in-
heritance from meanders developed on broad
flood-plains in a previous cycle of erosion.
So far as could be made out, these mean-
ders are not due to difference in hardness
or structure of the rocks of the region.
The limestone does not present sufficiently
marked differences of structure to account
for these curves upon a theory of readjust-
ment of courses due to the contrasts be-
tween hard and soft beds. Whatever dif-
ferences exist are not distinctly such as to
modify the courses of rivers, particularly
in a manner such as to resemble so closely
flood-plain meanders. Nor does it seem to
be admissible to suppose that these curves
are the perpetuation of meandering courses
taken when the land first emerged from the
sea bottom. Such a supposition presup-
poses too constant and stable a relationship,
through an enormous lapse of time be-
tween all the forces which control erosion
and determine the position of streams.
The sinuosities of these meanders may
have been somewhat changed since the ele-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. I. No. 26.
vation of the peneplain. In places the in-
creased velocity may have straightened the
curves to some extent. In other instances _
the meanders have been somewhat in-
creased. Such seems to have been the case
near Benton, where the stream is now under-
cutting the narrow strip of land separating
two parts of the curve. If this process con-
tinues, a cut-off will result.
In comparison with the Osage river, these
streams are small and their meanders in-
significant. But apart from size, the analogy
between them is complete. They must be
added to the growing list of streams known
to be persisting in habits acquired under
conditions which have long since disap-
peared. Henry B. KumMet.
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
CORRESPONDENCE.
MISSOURI ROTANICAL GARDEN.
THE attention of botanists is called to the
facilities afforded for research at the Mis-
souri Botanical Garden. In establishing
and endowing the Garden, its founder,
Henry Shaw, desired not only to afford the
general public pleasure, and information
concerning decorative plants and their best
use, and to provide for beginners the means ~
of obtaining good training in botany and
horticulture, but also to provide facilities
for advanced research in botany and cog-
nate sciences. For this purpose, additions
are being made constantly to the number
of species cultivated in the grounds and
plant houses, and to the library and her-
barium, and, as rapidly as it can be utilized,
it is proposed to secure apparatus for work
in vegetable physiology, ete., the policy
being to secure a good general equipment in
all lines of pure and applied botany, and to
make this equipment as complete as pos-
sible for any special subject on which ori-
ginal work is undertaken by competent
students. :
A very large number of species, both
JUNE 28, 1895.]
native and exotic, and of horticulturists’
varieties, are cultivated in the Garden and
Arboretum and the adjoining park, and the
native flora easily accessible from St. Louis
is large and varied. The herbarium, which
includes nearly 250,000 specimens, is fairly
representative of the vegetable life of
Europe and the United States, and also
contains a great many specimens from less
accessible regions. It is especially rich in
_ material illustrative of Cuscuta, Quercus,
Coniferae, Vitis, Juncus, Agave, Yucca,
Sagittaria, Epilobium, Rumex, Rhamnacee
and other groups monographed by the late
Dr. Engelmann or by attachés of the
“Garden. The herbarium is supplemented
by a large collection of woods, including
veneer transparencies and slides for the
microscope. The library, containing about
8,000 velumes and 10,000 pamphlets, in-
eludes most of the standard periodicals and
proceedings of learned bodies, a good col-
lection of morphological and physiological
works, nearly 500 carefully selected botan-
ical volumes published before the period
of Linnzeus, an unusually large number of
monographs of groups of cryptogams and
flowering plants, and the entire manuscript
notes and sketches representing the pains-
taking work of Engelmann.
The great variety of living plants repre-
sented in the Garden, and the large her-
barium, including the collections of Bern-
hardi and Engelmann, render the Garden
facilities exceptionally good for research in
systematic botany, in which direction the
library also is especially strong. The living
collections and library likewise afford un-
usual opportunity for morphological, ana-
tomical and physiological studies, while the
plant house facilities for experimental work
are steadily increasing. The E. Lewis
Sturtevant Prelinnean library, in connection
with the opportunity afforded for the culti-
vation of vegetables and other useful plants,
is favorable also for the study of cultivated
SCIENCE.
717
plants and the modifications they have
undergone.
These facilities are freely placed at the
disposal of professors of botany and other
persons competent to carry on research
work of value in botany or horticulture,
subject only to such simple restrictions as
are necessary to protect the property of the
Garden from injury or loss. Persons who
wish to make use of them are invited to
correspond with the undersigned, outlining
with as much detail as possible the work
they desire to do at the Garden, and giving
timely notice so that provision may be
made for the study of special subjects.
Those who have not published the results
of original work are requested to state their
preparation for the investigation they pro-
pose to undertake.
Under the rules of Washington Univer-
sity, persons entitled to candidacy in that
institution for the Master’s or Doctor’s de-
gree may elect botanical research work as
a principal study for such degrees, if they
can devote the requisite time to resident
study. WILiiAM TRELEASE,
Sr. Louis, Mo. Director.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
THE GEOLOGY OF THE SIERRA NEVADA.
Geologic Atlas of the United States. U. S.
Geological Survey; J. W. Power, Di-
rector. Sacramento Folio, Geology by W.
LiyperEN. Placerville Folio, Geology by
W. Liypcren and H. W. Turner. Jackson
Folio, Geology by H. W. Turner. Wash-
ington, D.C. 1894.
These three sheets are the first installment
of aseries covering the gold belt of Cali-
fornia which has been in course of prepara-
tion for several years by the officers of the
Geological Survey. It is needless to say
that they form a very important and wel-
come contribution to our knowledge of the
geology of California. Since the collapse
of the old State Survey under Whitney,
718
but little effort has been made by California
to elucidate her economic geology, notwith-
standing the liberal appropriations which
the State Legislature makes regularly for
the maintenance of a so-called ‘ Mining
Bureau.’ In the knowledge of her geologic
resources, California is far behind many
minor States of the Union. It is therefore
fortunate that the Federal authorities have
so steadily prosecuted the inquiry into the
geology of the gold belt of the Sierra
Nevada and of other portions of northern
California. The sheets under review are
the results of this work. They form part
of the geologic atlas of the United States
and they are among the first dozen of the
entire series. ‘The mechanical execution of
the folios challenges the admiration of all
familiar with such work. In the opinion
of the writer they compare very advantage-
ously with the best European efforts of a
similar kind. Itis gratifying to American
pride to see the beginnings of so vast a
scientific project as a geologic atlas of the
United States realized in a manner so emi-
nently satisfactory. If there exists a doubt
in the minds of the geologists of the country,
and in this case the geologists speak for the
people, as to the ultimate success of the
project, it is based on the fear that there
may not be in the future, as there certainly
has not been in the past, a proper coordina-
tion of the topographic and the geologic
branches of the survey. A correct topo-
graphic base is the sine qua non of a good
geologic map; and unfortunately the topo-
grapher’s conception of a correct map, in
the present state of his professional educa-
tion, is not what it ought to be. Thorough
and conscientiously executed topographic
surveys are expected of the geological sur-
vey. The ambitious extension of the topo-
graphic surveys far in advance of geologic
investigation, ata rate which not only abso-
lutely precludes the possibility of thorough
work but demoralizes the topographer, can
f
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. I. No. 26.
only bring serious discomfiture to the Geo-
logical Survey as a government institution.
The Sacramento, Placerville and Jackson ~
folios bring out clearly the salient features
of a section which may be taken as typical
for the western slope of the Sierra Nevada.
The Sierra slope rises from the eastern edge
of the Great Valley of California to the
crest of the range, some 60 miles distant at
an inclination of less than 2°. It presents the
characters of a gently tilted plain which
has been incisively dissected by the streams
which traverse it. This slope is underlain
by two very different assemblages of rocks.
The first of these is composed of sediment-
ary and eruptive formations which have
been intensely disturbed, metamorphosed
and invaded by vast intrusions of granitic
magma, forming a complex whose eroded
surface serves as the basement upon which
the second assemblage reposes in little dis-
turbed attitudes. The older assemblage is
designated in the folios the ‘ Bed-rock’ se-
ries, and the newer, the ‘Superjacent’ se-
ries. Neither of these terms is felicitous,
although the first is based on popular usage
and will appeal to the mining community.
The Bed-rock series comprises the rocks
which are known popularly as the awrifer-
ous slates, together with their associated
eruptives and irruptives, and also the gran-
itic rocks which invaded the series as a
whole at the close of the Jurassic. It would
be better if these granitic intrusions were
not classed in the same category with the
auriferous slates as part of a ‘series.’ The
auriferous slates comprise the Calaveras for-
mation (Carboniferous, with possibly some
older Paleozoic) and the Mariposa forma-
tion. In the earlier Sacramento and Pla-
cerville folios, which are chiefly Lindgren’s.
work, the Mariposa formation is colored as
Cretaceous, while in the later Jackson folio-
by Turner the same formation is colored as.
Jurassic. The reference of this formation
to two different horizons can scarcely be
a Sa
JUNE 28, 1895.]
taken as indicative of decided difference of
opinion between these two geologists, but
rather of a rapid change of opinion on the
part of the officers of the survey in conse-
quence of the recent paleontological deter-
minations of Hyatt, whose results were
probably not available at the time the earlier
folios went to press. The Mariposa formation
is of economic importance as that in which
occurs the zone of auriferous veining which
constitutes the famous ‘ Mother Lode.’
In a field so overburdened with igneous
rocks, contemporaneous and _ intrusive,
geologists will readily understand that
many problems arise which are not easily
answered by the most earnest efforts of the
field geologist. The lack of definite state-
ments as to the structural relations of the
various sedimentary and igneous forma-
tions indicates that these relations are ob-
secure and difficult to determine. Still, a
brief statement from Messrs. Turner and
Lindgren as to the interpretation of their
structural sections would have been a de-
sirable addition to the letter press, which is
limited strictly to historical, petrographic
and economic geology. For example: Are
the two belts of the Mariposa slates on the
Jackson sheet essentially synclinal troughs
with an anticline bringing up a belt of the
lower Calaveras between them? If so, the
structure is comparatively simple, and the
great body of amphibolite schist, diabase
and porphyrite probably represents vol-
canic accumulations chiefly intermediate in
age between the Calaveras and the Mari-
posa, but perhaps passing up into the lat-
ter. Or is the region traversed by a great
system of longitudinal faults? A discus-
sion of these and other tectonic questions
we may doubtless expect in more detailed
reports upon the geology of the region.
But something of the tectonic should find a
place in the folios to help out the sections.
While alluding to the igneous rocks it may
be well to mention that the user of the geo-
SCIENCE. 719
logical map is handicapped by not having
the effusive rocks discriminated from the
intrusive on the color scale. From the text
it is apparent that many of the igneous
rocks are clearly intrusive, while others are
effusive. This discrimination should be
expressed graphically, as it is impossible to
understand the structure without keeping
itin mind. The doubtful rocks should be
grouped apart from those which are clearly
effusive or intrusive. An extra convention
or two to express doubt or ignorance on
particular points would greatly enhance the
scientific value of our geological maps.
One of the most important features of the
Sierra Nevada slope is the invasion of the
Calaveras and Mariposa formations by the
Sierra Nevada batholite. The relations of
the older rocks to this invading magma are
beautifully brought out by the careful map-
ping of Messrs. Turner and Lindgren.
Petrographically, the rocks of this batholite
are chiefly of a type intermediate between
granite and diorite, and are therefore desig-
nated as granodiorite. Other important
facies of the same magma are granite, gab-
bro and gabbro-diorite. These rocks ap-
pear as great intrusive areas in the midst of
the auriferous slates and establish pro-
nounced zones of contact metamorphism in
thelatter. Putting the three geologic sheets
together, and bearing in mind the distribu-
tion of these same granitic rocks to the
eastward and southeastward of the area
mapped, it is difficult to resist the sugges-
tion that these rocks underlie practically
the whole of the Sierra slope beneath the
rocks through which they project as isolated
masses. In other words, the mapping sug-
gests strongly that if the plane of truncation
effected by erosion had been lower a much
larger proportion of granite would have
been exposed, and if higher less. If this
suggestion be accepted it follows that the
Calaveras and Mariposa formations must
have reposed upon the granodiorite magma
720
as a crust, up into which the magma
advanced, not only by displacement, but
absorption. For we have no trace appar-
ently of the original basement upon which
the Calaveras formation was deposited. In
these relations of batholite to disturbed and
metamorphic crustal rocks we have a strik-
ing analogy with the relations which obtain
between the Laurentian granites and the
metamorphic rocks of the Ontarian system
in the Lake Superior region. The amphi-
bolites and other schists of ‘auriferous
slates’ are petrographically the same as
many of the schists of the Ontarian system.
The invasion of the Jurassic and earlier
rocks by the Sierra Nevada batholite seems
to have been accompanied, or perhaps pre-
ceded, by uplift and the development of
mountain structure. During early Cre-
taceous time these mountains were pro-
foundly eroded, for on the edge of the valley
of California we find the Chico Cretaceous,
the earliest of the ‘Superjacent’ series, re-
posing upon the worn surface of the grano-
diorite. The Chico is followed by the Ione
and later Tertiary formations. In part con-
temporaneously with the Ione, but chiefly
at a later period, there were spread over
portions of the region important sheets of
gravel. Associated with these are flows
of rhyolite and andesite. The rhyolite
flows serve as a means of separating the
‘older’ from the ‘later’ gravels. The an-
desitic flows were contemporaneous chiefly
with the first of the later gravels. These
gravels constitute the once famous placers
of California. Since they were spread over
the Sierra slope, the latter has been tilted so
as to accentuate the grade and intensify the
downward corrasion of the streams. Asa
consequence of this corrasion, we now find
only remnants of the gravels and volcanic
flows reposing on the tops of nearly flat
ridges between the river gorges.
Anprew C. Lawson.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. I. No. 26.
On the [Harvest Mice] Species of the Genus
Reithrodontomys. By J. A. Attun. 8°
May 21, 1895.
Museum of Natural History, New York
(pp. 107-143).
Dr. Allen has just published a much
needed revision of the Harvest Mice—a
group of small mammals differing from other
murine rodents in having the upper incisors
deeply grooved. Since Dr. Allen’s study is
based on upwards of 900 specimens (two-
thirds of which belong to the rich collection
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture) it
is probable that future researches will add
little to the results here published, so far
as the United States forms are concerned.
The name of the common species of the
Carolinas is changed from humilis to lecontet.
Fifteen species and subspecies are recog-
nized, 12 of which inhabit the southern and
western parts of the United States. Seven
of the United States forms are accorded full
specific rank. One of these, R. montanus of
Baird, is known from the type specimen
only, which was collected in Colorado more
than 40 years ago and is in very poor condi-
tion. When additional specimens are ob-
tained from the type locality it will probably
displace one of the other species. Another,
f. arizonensis from the Chiricahua Moun-
tains, is separated from R. longicauda of
California, chiefly on geographic grounds.
In the case of one of the subspecies ad-
mitted—R. longicaudus pallidus—it is not
likely that Dr. Allen will be followed by
other mammalogists. Respecting this form
hesays: ‘I find myself greatly embarrassed
as to which of three courses to pursue in
the matter, namely: (1) To refer R. pallidus
to R. longicauda as a pure synonym of the
latter; (2) to treat R. pallidus as one of sev-
eral local phases of R. longicauda; (3) to
let the name stand in a subspecific sense
for a generally dispersed paler southern
form of R. longicauda, as opposed to true
longicauda of the region from about Monterey
From Bull. American _
JUNE 28, 1895.]
and Merced counties northward. Through
lack of material for properly working out
the problem I have provisionally adopted
the latter course.”’
Since he has 175 specimens that he re-
garded as typical longicauda, and 157 that
he referred to subspecies pallidus, or 332 in
all, and since these 332 specimens came
from no less than 70 localities scattered
over the single State of California, it is a
little difficult to understand what he meant
by ‘lack of material for properly working
out the problem.’ Furthermore, an exam-
ination of the localities assigned to the two
alleged forms shows them to be hopelessly
mixed—both being recorded from the San
Joaquin Valley, and both from the coast
region north of Monterey !
One of the largest and most highly colored
members of the group is a new form from
Louisiana, collected by the field naturalists
of the Department of Agriculture. Itisa
northern representative of R. mexicanus and
is named, from its color, R. mexicanus wuran-
tius.
The paper as a whole is a critical and
painstaking study of an obseure group. It
is based in the main on ample material and
is particularly welcome as adding another
genus to those recently revised by American
mammalogists. Co ELM,
NOTES AND NEWS.
THE REMEDY FOR PEAR BLIGHT.
Tue writer desires to announce that a
satisfactory method of preventing pear blight
has been discovered. After prolonged in-
vestigation the complete life history of the
microbe (Bacillus Amylovorous) has been
worked out. Most of the cases of blight
either come to a definite termination in
summer or else kill the tree. When this is
the case the blight dies out completely, there
being no source of supply for the germs the
following spring. In certain cases where it
is a sort of even battle between the host and
SCIENCE.
721
parasite, or where late infections in the fall
have not run their course before cold weather
comes on, the blight keeps alive in the tree.
When root pressure inereases in the spring,
such cases start into activity and serve as
sources of infection for the new growth.
The removal of these sources of infection is
the preventive remedy for pear blight. The
work is best performed in autumn after all
late growth has ceased, but while the foliage
is still on the trees. At this season the dead
leaves which persist on the blighted branches
serve admirably to attract attention to the
points of danger. The work can be done at
any time during the winter up to the time
of the beginning of growth in spring. Cut-
ting out the blight in summer is unsatis-
factory on account of the continued appear-
ance of new infections. The matter will be
published in full in a bulletin from the
Division of Vegetable Pathology.
M. B. WaAITE,
DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.
THE NEW YORK BOTANIC GARDEN.
THE sum of $250,000 for the New York
Botanic Garden has now been subscribed
as follows :
BP. Morgan: ::.:hsiiut ies $25,000
Columbia College ...:..:..........- 25,000
Andrew Carnegie .............0.¢+ 25,000
er Vanderbilt -st2tee:2.26...0- nore 25,000
J. D. Rockefeller <2. 225 .2.53.2.2. 25,000
IPO): Miillg= 5700 fete senses ceceene ce 25,000
mudge: A. Brow. .i2-wARD KREMERS.
A Dredge for Collecting Crustacea at Different
Depths: C. DwigHT Marse.
Method of Determining the Coefficient of a
Plankton Net: E. A. Brrex.
The Pelagic Crustacea of Lake Mendota During
the Winter and Spring of 1894-1895: E.
A. BIRGE.
The Biological History of Daphnia Hyalina,
Leydig: E. A. Brree.
The Periodic System as a Didatic Basis: Ep-
WARD Kremers. Read by title.
Observed and Computed Precession: D. P.
BiAckstone. Read by title.
THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
The Law of Hypnotism: Pror. R. 8S. Hyer.
County Roads: CHARLES CoRNER, C. E.
On the Glycerine Method of Preserving Speci-
mens for the Anatomical Museum: Dr. Wu.
KerLier, F. R.C.8.
Texas Soils; a Preliminary Statement and Clas-
sification: HK. T. DUMBLE.
Simultaneous Quadratic Equations: I. H. Bry-
ANT.
NEW BOOKS.
Geological Survey of Michigan. Lucius L.
Hupsarp, State Geologist. Vol. vy. 181,
18938. pp. x+179. xxiv+100.
The Theory of Light. THomMas Preston. 2nd
Edition. London and New York, Mac-
millan &Co. 1895. Pp. xvii++-566. $5.00.
A Monograph of the Order of Oligocheta.
FraNK Evers Bepparp. Oxford. Clar-
endon Press, New York, Macmillan &
Co. 1895. Pp. xii+769. $12.50.
Report of the International Meteorological Con-
gress Held at Chicago, Ill. PartIl. Edit-
ed by Oxtver L. Fassig. Washington,
Weather Bureau. 1895. Pp. xvi+583.
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