= Seo Lain tt ae Hate wee yy yy Heya : SICK EK ITE) LE a fa auety Per y SSSA) iN) i a wy heal Chet i 9 = ee et - Thre Tone ete = = oi > Debate re ee ae : SeteTs are BEES: tat at iiite Ahn i Se eres eee See Ts f ne t = oe Pest aa nt eee ~s Sincteeer a Be oe ies eS eae = Besser as ee x Se Sess rasa Sewers Sas 2s Sater eresee ees ae ae 2 SS ne eter wiéi=oee ae Da i AH ’ nf ' es gar et Bul IAM Hy A: AY ii! iN ug f 4 een i SS i a Mee ORAL 4 H Ro RMN AI HAE it ae EL ate ar ag Oita at ny de 14 wate dd inte nd aa J Ve Wh i 4 hie a seal = Ts ye eT NEW SERIES. VOLUME XLIII JANUARY-JUNE, 1916 NEW YORK THE’ SCIENCE PRESS 1916 \ 237754 ) THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY, 41 NoRTH QUEEN STREET, LANCASTER, Pa, CONTENTS AND INDEX. NEW SERIES. VOL. XLIJIJANUARY TO JUNE, 1916. THE NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS ARE PRINTED IN SMALL CAPITALS Assot, C. G., Atmospheric Transmission, 240 ABRAMS, LER., Flora of the Northwest Coast, C. V. Piper and R. K. Beattie, 932 Academie Freedom and Academic Tenure, 92 Acassiz, G. R., Coral Reefs, 894 Agricultural Work, L. H. Batmry, 77 Agriculture, First Secretary of, G. P. CuinTon, 171 Alcohol, Psychological Effect, F. G. BENEDICT, 907 Algebraic Equations, H. G. DrmINe, 576 ALLEMAN, A., Gould’s Medical Dictionary, 897 ALLEN, E. W., Section M, Amer. Assoc. Adv. of Sci., 356 ALLEN, J. A., Daniel Giraud Elliott, 159 Ambystoma not Amblystoma, M. W. Lyon, JR., 929 American, Association for the Advancement of Science, Address of v. president Section G, 1; Section B, 185; Section I, 221; Columbus Meet- ing, L. O. Howarp, 36; Section F, Meeting with Amer. Soe. Naturalists, 39; Address of Presi- dent, Section K, 53; Section A, 149; Harly Meetings, W. H. Hatz, 100; Section C, J. JOHNSTON, 112; Washington Meeting, L. O. Howarp, 247; Section M, HE. W. ALLEN, 356; Section HE, G. F. Kay, 394; Committee of One Hundred, Pacifie Coast Subcommittee, 457; Pa- eifie Division, 489, San Diego Meeting, 812; Section F, with Soe. Zool., 511; Committee on Poliey, 637; New York Meeting, H. HE. Cramp- TON, 681; Treasurer’s Report, 737; Philos. Soc., 510, 581, A. W. GoopsPEED, 719; Soc. of Ich- thyologists and Herpetologists, R. C. Murpuy, 617 Antagonistic Electrolyte Effects, G. H. A. CLowss, 750 Anthropological Soe. of Wash., D. FouxKmar, 220, 942 Anthropology at the Pan-Amer. Congress, G. G. MacCurpy, 790, 825, 861, 900 Arrhenius, 8., Chemistry, H. S. Tayior, 172 Astronomical Soe. of the Pacific, 285 Atmospheric Transmission, C. G. Axsgot, 240 Atwoop, W. W., Chicago Acad. of Sci., 284 AuvER, J., Federation of Amer. Societies for Exper. Biol., 251; Amer. Soc. for Pharmacol. and Exper. Therapeutics, 252 Austin, F. E., Centigrade versus Fahrenheit, 930 Autenrieth, A., Poisons, E. M. CHamor, 745 B., A. C., Sir Clements R. Markham, 559 B., E. W., Charles René Zeiller, 201 Bascocr, A. H., The Bruce Medal, 465 Bacon, R. F., Industrial Fellowships, 453 Batuey, H. D., Alvin Davison, 307 Bainey, L. H., Agricultural Work, 77 Baillie, T. C., Engineering, J. H. M., 575 Bainbridge, W. S., Cancer, L. Lorn, 70 Baxer, F. C., A Mollusk Injurious to Vegetables, 136 BarDEEN, C. R., Medical Education, 367; Public Health Work and Medical Practise, 850 Barker, F. D., Polyradiate Cestodes, 170; Para- sites of the Muskrat, 208 Barker, L. F., Teaching of Clinical Medicine, 799 Barrows, Charles Clifford and Rudolph August Witthaus, 527 Barrows, W. L., German Geologists and the War, 427 BartTLeTT, H. H., Bot. Soe. of Amer., 285, 322, 360 Barus, C., Lateral Reaction and Light Waves, 282; Parallel and Crossed Rays, 435 BASKERVILLE, C., University and Industry, 919 Bates, J. M., Rose Chafers, 209 Bather, F. A., Edrioasteroidea, R. RUEDEMANN, 244 Bauer, L. A. and J. A. Fleming, Magnetie Obser- vations, W. G. Capy, 29 Beattie, R. K. and C. V. Piper, Flora of the Northwest Coast, LrR. Aprams, 932 Brecker, G. F., Conservatio Virium Vivarum, 743 Belgian Hare, M. W. Lyon, Jr., 686 BrEnepicT, F. G., Psychological Effect of Alcohol, 907 Benedict, F. G., and H. Murschhauser, Energy Transformation, Y. HENDERSON, 430; and F. B. Talbot, Y. HENDERSON, 431 Bessey H. A., and T. Milburn, Fungoid Diseases, G. P. Curvton, 391 Bienry, A. J., Ind. Acad. of Sci., 617 Biological, Soc. of Wash., M. W. Lyon, Jr., 75, 329, 400, 438, 474, 581, 761, 834, 942, A. Wetmore, 941; Station, U. 8. Fisheries, S. F. HILDEBRAND, 303; Thought, C. C. Nurtine, 403 Biology, Experimental Federation of Societies, J. AUER, 251 Bog Water, Toxicity of, G. B. Rice, 602 Bone, Growth otf, in Cretaceous Times, R. L. Mooptg, 35 Bostwick, A. E., Serpent Dread, 745 Botanical, Soc. of Amer., H. H. Barturetr, 285, 322, 360; Address of President, A. S. HitcH- cock, 331; Soc. of Wash., P. SPAULDING, 219; W. H. SarrorD, 402, 436, 582 Botany, and Agriculture, G. P. CLinton, 1; Taxo- nomic, A. S. Hitcucock, 331 Boveri, Theodor, R. GoLDSCHMIDT, 263 Bowiz, W., U. S. Coast and Geod. Surv., 655; Geodesy, W. C. Popplewell, 856 Bowman, H. H. M., Adaptability of a Sea-grass, 244 BraNnNER, J. C., Orville A. Derby, 596 Branner, J. C., Geology, J. B. WoopwortH, 467 British, Antaretie Expedition, W. H. Daun, 210; Museums, Closing of, 344 Brooks, C. F., Notes on Meteorology and Climat- ology, 212, 933 Browning, P. E., The Rare Harths, 8S. I. Levy, 687 Bruce Medal, A. H. Bascocxk, 465 Bryan, W. A., Hawaii, L. O. Howarp, 571 Bulkley, L. D., Cancer, L. Loxs, 69 Bure, J. C., University Registration, 87, 349 Burgess, P. S., Nitrates in Soils, 67 Buruine, L. D., Efficient Summer Vacations, 426; Polishing Machine, 466 BusHNELL, L. D. and O. W. Hunter, Bacterium Bulgaricus, 318 Capy, W. G., Magnetic Observations, L. A. Bauer and J. A. Fleming, 29 Cagori, F., Mathematical Literature, G. A. Miller, 713 CameEron, F. K., Robert James Davidson, 418 CaMPBELL, D. H., Fern-flora of Cinchona, 917 Canadian Stratigraphy and Paleontology, K. F. MatueEr, 607 Cancer, and Heredity, M. Suyz, 135; Research, L. Lors, 293 Carnegie Foundation, J. McK. Carrenn, 603 Carpenter, T. M., Respiratory Exchange, Y. HEn- DERSON, 429 Case, E. C., Permocarboniferous Beds, F. B. Loomis, 354 CaTTELL, J. McK., Carnegie Foundation, 603 CaupELL, A. N., Nomenclature, 852 CAULLERY, M., Evolution, 547 Celestial Elements, B. K. Emerson, 895 Centigrade versus Fahrenheit, F. E. Austin, 930 Cestodes, Polyradiate, F. D. Barker, 170 CHamort, E. M., Poisons, A. Autenrieth, 745 CHAPMAN, G. H., Disease of Tobacco, 537 Chemical Soe., Amer., and Convocation-week Meet- ings of Amer. Assoc. Adv. of Sci., 487; Report on University and Industry, 919 Chemist, American, and the War, J. R. WitHRow, 835 Chemistry, Pure and Applied, F. W. CnarKe, 257; College, H. N. Houmes, 817 Chemists, Training of, A. SmivH, 619 Chestnut Bark Disease, F. C. CraiGHEAD, 133; C. L. SHER and N. E. STEvENs, 173 Chicago Acad. of Sci., W. W. AtTwoon, 284 Cup, C. M., Individuality in Organisms, 511 Child, C. M., Senescence and Rejuvenescence, C. ZELENY, 28 Chromatophores and Hormones, A. C. REDFIELD, 580 Cinchona, as a Tropical Station, D. S. JoHNnson, 917; D. H. CampseLt, 917; A. W. Evans, 918; C. H. Farr, 918; F. Sureve, 919 CnarK, G. A., Fur Seal Bones, 600 CuarK, H. L., American Civilization and the Negro, C. V. Roman, 855 CLARKE, F. W., Pure and Applied Chemistry, 257 Clinical Medicine, Teaching of, L. F. BARKER, 799 Cuinton, G. P., Botany and Agriculture, 1; First Secretary of Agriculture, 171; Fungoid Dis- eases, T. Milburn and E. A. Bessey, 391 CuoKE, P., Units of Force, 854 CLtoweEs, G. H. A., Antagonistic Electrolyte Ef- fects in Physical and Biological Systems, 750 Coast and Geodetic Survey, Centennial, 420 CocKERELL, T. D. A., Gonorhynchid Fishes, 899 Cour, A. D., Amer. Physical Soc., 320 Cour, F. N., Amer. Math. Soe., 73, 473, 760 Committee of One Hundred, Grants for Scientific Research, C.*R. Cross, 680 Comstock, C. G., Solar Research, 642 ConkKLIN, E. G., Individuality in Organisms, 523 Conn, H. W., Microbiology, W. Giltner, 823 Conservatio Virium Vivarum, G. F. BecKkEr, 743 1V SCIENCE ConTENTS AND INDEX. Contest with Physical Nature, F. K. Lanz, 158 Cooke, C. W., Age of Limestone, G. D. Harris, 72 Cooperation in Biology, J. P. GivuEr, 279 Coordination of Chromatophores by Hormones, A. C. REDFIELD, 580 Coral Reefs, G. R. AGassiz, 894 Courter, J. M., Our Universities, 810 CRAIGHEAD, F. C., Chestnut Bark Disease, 133 CRAMPTON, H. E., N. Y. Meeting of Amer. Assoc. Ady. of Sci., 681 Cross, C. R., History of Science, 316; Grants for Scientific Research, 680 Cross-pollination, D. F. Jonus, 509 Crown Gall and Cancer, E. F. Surry, 348, 871 Cunningham, E., Relativity, E. B. Wiuson, 688 Dasney, T. G., Serpent Instinet in Man, 25 DapouriaAn, H. M., Energy, 853 Dat, W. H., British Antarctic Expedition, 210 Darwin and Spencer, I. W. Howxrrtn, 462 Davenport, C. B., The Feebly Inhibited, E. L. THORNDIKE, 427 Davidson, Robert James, F. K. Cameron, 418 Davis, B. M., Amer. Soc. Naturalists, 358 Davison, Alvin, H. D. Batury, 307 Davisson, C., Gravitation and Electrical Action, 929 Day, A. L., Nat. Acad. of Sci., 648 Death, Causes of, in U. S., 562; Rates and Expec- tation of Life, 843 DELLENBAUGH, F. S., Fear of Snakes, 389 Demine, H. G., Algebraic Equations, 576 Derby, Orville A., J. C. BRANNER, 596 Diuurr, J. 8., Lassen Peak, 727 Discussion and Correspondence, 20, 67, 98, 133, 169, 208, 240, 277, 312, 348, 385, 425, 458, 495, 528, 564, 600, 638, 686, 712, 743, 780, 817, 850, 894, 925 Diseases of Wheat, P. J. O’Gara, 110 Donisthorpe, H. St. J. K., Ants, W. M. WHEELER, 316 Drayer, C. E., and F. H. Newell, Engineering, W. EF. M. Goss, 687 Dunst, E. T., Age of the Tuxpam Beds, 712 Eastman, C. R., W. K. Grecory, and W. D. Marruew, Vertebrate Paleontology, 103 Heological Soc. of Amer., 382 HICHELBERGER, W. S., Heavenly Bodies, 475 Electrical Discharge, C. T. Knipp, 787 Elliott, Daniel Giraud, J. A. ALLEN, 159 Euuis, F. W., Free-swinging Pendulum, 354 Emerson, B. K., Polarization of Globigerina, 316; Celestial Elements, 895 Emulsions, M. H. Fiscurr, and M. O. Hooxsr, 468 Engineering, Teaching, D. C. Jackson, 483; Ex- periment Stations, 890, 895 Enzyme Reaction, R. GOLDSCHMIDT, 98 Hoanthropus dawsoni, G. G. MacCurpy, 228 Eyans, A. W., Lichens and Bryophytes at Cin- chona, 918 Evolution, M. CauLLERy, 547 Farr, C. H., Cytology at Cinchona, 918 Fertilization Problem, F. R. Linuin, 39 Fever, Blackwater, C. J. Maury, 349 Fireflies flashing in Unison, E. 8. Morss, 169 Fiscuer, M. H., and M. O. Hooxrr, Emulsions, 468 Fisher, A., Probabilities, H. L. Rimtz, 896 New SERIEs- Vou. XLIII. Fleming, J. A., and L. A. Bauer, Magnetic Obser- vations, W. G. Capy, 29 Fouxmar, D., Anthrop. Soe. of Wash., 220, 942 Forest Service, 380 Foster, N. B., Diabetes, G. LusK, 857 Fowze, F. H., Sven Magnus Gronberger, 775 Franeaise, La Science, W. H. Hopss, 136 Franklin and Darwin, L. Hussakor, 773 Fraternitas Medicorum, 8S. J. Mrnrzmr, 675 Free-martin, F. k. Linuiz, 611 Frogs catching Butterflies, A. M. MALLONEE, 385 Fur Seal Bones, G. A. CLARK, 600 Furness, C. H., Stars, F. A. ParkHurst, 501 GarrRE?T, A. O., Utah Acad. of Sci., 789 Garrison, F. H., John Shaw Billings, W. W. KEEN, 536 Garver, M. M., Definition of ‘‘Energy,’’ 567 Gates, R. R., and T. H. GoopsprEep, Pollen Ster- ility, 859 Geologists, German, and the War, W. L. Barrows, 427 Giltner, W., Microbiology, H. W. Conn, 823 GivLER, J. P., Cooperation in Biology, 279 Goats, Peculiar Breed, J. J. Hooprr, 571 GoLDScHMIDT, R., Enzyme Reaction, 98; Theodor Boveri, 263 Gonorhynchid Fishes, T. D. A. CockrRELL, 899 Gooch, F. A., Chemistry, H. P. Tausot, 643 GoopsprED, A. W., Amer. Philos. Soc., 719 GooDSPEED, T. H., and R. R. Gatus, Pollen Steril- ity, 859 Goss, W. F. M., Engineering, F. H. Newell and C. E. Drayer, 687 Gould’s Medical Dictionary, A. ALLEMAN, 897 Grave, C., Amer. Soc. of Zoologists, 139, 176 Gravitation and Electrical Action, F. E. NIPHER, 472; E. H. Kennarp, 928; C. Davisson, 929 Grav, H. F., Public Health Work, 641 GREENE, C. W., Amer. Physiol. Soc., 254 GREGORY, W. Ke Cc. R. EASTMAN, and W. D. MatrHew, Vertebrate Paleontology, 103 Gronberger, Sven Magnus, F. E. Fowun, 775 Guyer, M. F., Being Well-born, W. E. Krtuicort, 606 H., C. 8., Arthur Williams Wright, 270 Haz, W. H., Meetings of Amer. Assoc. Adv. of Sci., 100 HAust"p, G. B., Sylvester and Cayley, 781 Harris, G. D., ‘Age of Limestone, C. W. Cooke, 72; Shark River Eocene Beds, 532 Harvey, E. N., Temperatur, A. Kanitz, 466 Heavenly Bodies, W. S. EICHELBERGER, 475 HENDERSON, J., Fear of Snakes, 388 HENDERSON, Y., Universities and Unpreparedness, 241; Respiratory Exchange, T. M. Carpenter, 429; Energy Transformations, F. G. Benedict and. H. Murschhauser, 430; Physiology, F. G. Benedict and F. B. Talbot, "431 Herms, W. B., Entomology, iby O. HowarbD, 27 Herrick, C. J., Neurology, P. G. Srmuzs, 431 Hewitt, C. G., The House Fly, W. D. Hunter, 747 HILDEBRAND, 8. F., U. S. Fisheries Biological Sta- tion, 303 Hilgard, Hugene Waldemar, E. J. Wickson, 447; R. H. Loucurwer, 450 HitcHcock, A. S., Taxonomie Botany, 331 SCIENCE Vv Hoses, W. H., La Science Francaise, 136; History of Science, 495 Houmes, H. N., College Chemistry, 817 Holmes, Joseph Austin, Memorial, 164, 487 Hooker, M. O., and M. H. Fiscurr, Emulsions, 468 Hooprr, J. J., Goats, Peculiar Breed, 571 Hosxins, L. M., Dynamies, 925 House Fly, C. H. RicHarpson, 613 Houston, R. A., Light, P. G. Nurtine, 535 Howarp, L. O., Entomology, W. B. Herms, 27; Columbus Meeting of Amer. Assoc. Adv. of Sci., 36; with Second Pan-Amer. Sci. Cong., 247; Hawaii, W. A. Bryan, 571 Howarp, W. L., Horticultural Research, 733 HowertH, I. W., Spencer and Darwin, 462 Howes, H. L., and E. L. Nicuous, Phosphoros- cope, 937 Hunter, O. W., and L. D. BusHNELL, Bacterium Bulgaricus, 318 Hunter, W. D., The House Fly, C. G. Hewitt, 747 HUNTINGTON, E. Y., Fundamental Equation of Mechanics, 312 Hussakor, L., Franklin and Darwin, 773 Indiana Acad. of Sci., A. J. Bignuy, 617 Individuality in Organisms, Cc. M. ‘Cum, 511; Cytology and Embryology, E. G. ConKuiIn, 523 Industrial Fellowships, R. F. Bacon, 453 Injection Process in Zoology, R. IsAacs, 208 Ions, Positive, Negative, C. T. Knipp, 303 Iroquois Indian Groups, 844 Isaacs, R., Injection Process in Zoology, 208 JAcKSON, D. C., Teaching Engineering, 483 Japan, Mineralogy of, G. F. Kunz, 748 Jefferson Physical Laboratory, T. Lyman, 706 JOHNSON, D. S., Cinchona as a Tropical Station, 917 JOHNSON, J., Heated Soils, 434 JOHNSTON, J., Section C., Amer. Assoc. Adv. of Sei., 112 JONES, A. T., Vapor Pressure, 73 Jonss, D. F., Cross Pollination, 509 Jonss, H. N., Protozoa and Bacteria, 68 Kanitz, A., Temperatur, E. N. Harvey, 466 Kansas Acad. of Sei., 690 Karpinski, L. C., Algebra, D. E. Smiru, 389 Kaupp, B. F., Trombidium holosericeum, 33 Kay, G. F., Section E, Amer. Assoc. Adv. of Sci., 394 Kaye, G. R., Mathematics, D. EH. SmirH, 781 Keren, W. W., John Shaw Billings, F. H. Garrison, 536 Kruey, W. P., Nitrification, 30 Kewuicort, W. E., Being Well-born, M. F. Guyer, 606 Kelp, G. B., Riae, 602 Kennard, EH. H., Electrical Action and Gravita- tion, 928 KEnnewLy, A. E., Telephones, J. EH. Kingsbury, 603 Kent, W., Teaching of Dynamies, 27; Definition of Energy, 820 Kingsbury, J. E., Telephones, A. H. K&NNELLY, 603 Kniep, C. T., Deflection of Positive and of Nega- tive Ions, 303; Hlectrical Discharge, 787 vl SCIENCE Knobel, HE. B., and ©. H. F. Peters, Ptolemy’s Catalogue of Stars, R. H. Tucker, 930 Kraus, C. A., Chemistry, E. W. Washburn, 604 KremMeErs, E., Pharmacognosy, 385 Kunz, G. F., Mineralogy of Japan, 748 Lauer, F. H., and H. W. Suimer, Geology, L. V. Pirsson and C. Schuchert, 497 Lamson, G. H., Jz., Rose Chafer and Chickens, 138 Lang, F. K., Contest with Physical Nature, 158 LaRue, G. R., Cestode Family, E. Linton, 280 Lassen Peak, J. S. DmurEr, 727 Lesley, J. Peter, Portrait of, 308 Levy, S. I., The Rare Harths, P. E. Brownine, 687 Lewis, E. P., Pressure of Sound Waves, 646 Light Waves and Lateral Reaction, C. Barus, 282 Lignum Nephriticum, W. E. SarrorD, 432 Litt, F. R., The Fertilization Problem, 39; The Free-martin, 611 Limestones and Dolomite, F. M. Van Tuyu, 24 Linp, S. C., Atomie Weight of Radium, 464 Linton, E., Cestode Famliy, G. R. LaRue, 280 Livineston, B. E., Desert Vegetation, F. Shreve, 821 Logs, J., Osmotic Pressure and Imbibition in the Living Muscle, 688 Logs, L., Cancer, L. D., Bulkley, 69; W. S. Bain- bridge, 70; Research, 293 Loomis, F. B., Permocarboniferous Beds, E. C. Case, 354 Louecuriner, R. H., Eugene Woldemar Hilgard, 450 Loutreuil Foundation, 272 Luptow, C. S., Mosquitoes and Man, 784 Lusk, G., Amino Acids, F. P. Underhill, 173; Dia- betes, N. B. Foster, 857 Lyman, T., Jefferson Physical Laboratory, 706 Lyon, M. W., JR., Biol. Soc. of Wash., 75, 329, 400, 438, 474, 581, 761, 834, 942; Belgian Hare, 686; Ambystoma not Amblystoma, 929 M., J. H., Electrical, Engineering, C. P. Stein- metz, 574; T. C. Baillie, 575; Instruments, W. H. F. Murdoch and W. A. Ochswald, 575 McAoprm, A., Use of C. O. 8. Units, 171; Thermom- eter Seales, 854 Macauuum, A. B., Scientific Truth and the Scien- tifie Spirit, 439 McCueLuan, W. H., Fear of Snakes, 387 MacCurpy, G. G., Hoanthropus dawsoni, 228; Anthropology at the Pan-American Congress, 790, 825, 861, 900 McKenzie, R. T., Exercise, G. L. Mrynan, 573 McMourpxy, J., Phytophthora on Oats, 534 McPuerson, W., Dr. Ugo Schiff, 921 Mattoner, A. M., Frogs catching Butterflies, 386 Markham, Sir Clements R., A. C. B., 559 Martin, G., Editor, Dyestuffs, L. A. OLNEY, 714 Mathematical, Soe., Amer., F. N. Coun, 738, 473, 760; Assoc. of Amer., 112 Mathematics, H. 8S. Wuitr, 583 Matuer, K. F., Canadian Stratigraphy and Paleon- tology, 607 MarrHew, W. D., C. R. Eastman, and W. K. Grecory, Vertebrate Paleontology, 103; Pacific Island Faunas, 686 Maovry, C. J., Blackwater Fever, 349 CoNTENTS AND INDEX. Mechanics, W. Kent, 27, 820; A. McAniz, 171; E. V. Huntineron, 312; M. M. Garver, 567; H. M. Dapourtan, 853; P. Cuoxs, 854; L. M. HOSKINS, 925 Medical Education, C. R. BARDEEN, 367 Mess, C. EH. K., Royal Photographic Soe., 602; In- dustrial Research, 763 MEINECKE, EH. P., Peridermium harknessii, 73 Me.trzer, 8. J., Fraternitas Medicorum, 675 Mesozoic Pathology and Bacteriology, R. L. Moopts, 425 Metals, Natural Charges of, F. Sanrorp, 409 Meteorology and Climatology, Notes on, C. F. Brooks, 212, 933 Meyian, G. L., Exercise, R. T. McKenzie, 573 Milburn, T., and EH. A. Bessey, Fungoid Diseases, G. P. Cuinton, 391 Miner, A. M., Serpent Dread, 744 a G. A., Mathematical Literature, F. Cagzort, Mineral Production of the United States, 13 Minor, R. 8., Pacific Physical Soc., 757 Mollusk Injurious to Vegetables, F. C. Baxsr, 136 Monkeys and Apes, Study of, R. M. Yerxus, 231 Moopiz, R. L., Growth of Bone in Cretaceous Times,.35; Mesozoic Pathology and Bacteriol- ogy, 425 Morsz, H. 8., Fireflies flashing in Unison, 169 Mosquitoes and Man, C. 8. LupLow, 784 Murdoch, W. H. F., and W. A. Ochswald, Elee- trical Instruments, J. H. M., 575 Mourpuy, R. C., Amer. Soe. of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, 617 Murschhauser, H., and F. G. Benedict, Energy Transformations, Y. HENDERSON, 430 Muskrat, Parasites of, F. D. Barker, 208 Mutation, Origin by, H. DE Vriss, 785 National, Acad. of Sei., E. B. Wiuson, 101, 211, 392, 714, 898; Annual Meeting, 538; A. L. Day, 648; Vitality, EH. E. RirrenHoussE, 221 Naturalists, Amer. Soe. of, 39; B. M. Davis, 358 Nelson, J. A., Honey Bee, A. PETRUNKEVITCH, 644 New Jersey Mosquito Assoc., 456 Newell, F. H., and C. E. Drayer, Engineering, W. F. M. Goss, 687 NicHo.s, E. L., and H. L. Howxs, Phosphorosecope, 937 Nieuer, F. E., Gravitation and Electrical Action, 472 Niter Spots, R. Stewart and W. Prrerson, 20; W. StaupEr, 712 Nitrates in Soils, P. S. BurcEss, 67 Nitrification, W. P. Keniry, 30 Nomenclature, A. N. CAUDELL, 852 Norton, J. B. S., Poisonous Claviceps, 894 Norway Rat, P. W. Wuitine, 781 Nunn, R., Tenn. Acad. of Sci., 218 Nurtine, C. C., Biological Thought, 403 Nurtine, P. G., Applied Opties, 124; Light, R. A. Houston, 535 Ochswald, W. A., and W. H. F. Murdoch, Elec- trical Instruments, J. H. M., 575 O’Gara, P. J., Diseases of Wheat, 110 Ogprn, R. M., Amer. Psychol. Assoc., 359 Ohio Acad. of Sci., E. L. Ricz, 217 Ouney, L. A., Dyestuffs, 714 Oolite, Organic, F. M. Van Tuvyn, 171 Naw Sarrss. VS. XLII. Optics, Applied, P. G. Nurrine, 124; Equation in, C. W. WoopwortH, 824 Organization in College, F. L. WASHBURN, 496 Osmotie Pressure and Imbibition in the Living Muscle, J. Lors, 688 OsrerHour, W. J. V., Permeability and Viscosity, 857 Ostwald, W., Colloids, W. A. Patrick, 747 Ottawa Museum and Fire, H. I. Suir, 415 Pacific, Island Faunas, W. D. Martrurw, 686; Physical Soc., R. S. Minor, 757 Panama and Animal Life of North and South America, W. B. Scorr, 113 Pan-American Scientific Congress, 202 Paris-Washington Longitude, 596 Parxkuurst, I. A., Stars, C. HE. Furness, 501 Patrick, W. A., Colloids, W. W. Taylor, 746; W. Ostwald, 747 Pearce, R. M., Research Medicine, 53 Pearl, R., Genetics, H. EH. WautTeEr, 501 Pricer, G. J., Hand Sectioning, 930 Pendulum, Free-swinging, F. W. Huuis, 354 Peridermium harknessii, E. P. MEINECKE, 73 Permeability and Viscosity, W. J. V. OSTERHOUT, 857 Peters, C. H. F., and EH. B. Knobel, Ptolemy’s Catalogue of Stars, R. H. Tucker, 930 Peterson, W., and R. Stewart, ‘‘Niter Spots,’’ 20 PETRUNEEVITCH, A., Honey Bee, J. A. Nelson, 644 Pharmacognosy, H. KREMeERS, 385 Pharmacology and Exper. Therapeut., Amer. Soe. for, J. AuER, 252 Phosphorosecope, E. L. NicHous and H. L. Howes, 937 Phylloxera Vasatrix Leaf Gall, H. R. RosEn, 216 Physical, Soc., Amer., A. D. CoLE, 320; Tables, C. D. WALcoTT, 466 Physiol. Soc., Amer., C. W. GREENE, 254 Phytophthora on Oats, J. McMurpuy, 534 Piper, C. V., and R. K. Beattie, Flora of the Northwest Coast, LuR. Abrams, 932 Pirsson, L. V., and C. Schuchert, Geology, H. W. SHimer and F. H. Lanes, 497 Plant Drier, P. L. Rickrr, 780 Poisonous Claviceps, J. B. 8. Norron, 894 Polarization of Globigerina, B. K. Emerson, 316 Polishing Machine, L. D. Buruine, 466 Pollen Sterility, R. R. Gates and T. H. GooDSPEED, 859 Poncelet Polygons, H. 8. Waits, 149 Popplewell, W. C., Geodesy, W. Bown, 856 Porpoise, C. H. TowNSEND, 534 Powell, John Wesley, Memorial to, 16 Protozoa and Bacteria, H. N. JonEs, 68 Psychological, and Historical Interpretations for Culture, C. Wisstmr, 193; Assoc., Amer., R. M. OepEN, 359 Public Health Work, H. F. Gray, 641; and Med- ieal Practise, C. R. BARDEEN, 850 Quinn, C. W., Scientific Queen Rearing, 939 Quotations, 243, 350, 895 Radium, Atomic Weight, S. C. Linn, 464 Ransom, J. H., Vapor Pressure, 686 Rays, Parallel and Crossed, C. Barus, 435 SCIENCE Vii RepFIeLD, A. C., Chromatophores and Hormones, 580 Reese, A. M., Alligator, A. G. RutHven, 100 Research, Medicine, R. M. Prarcr, 53; as a Na- tional Duty, W. R. Watney, 629; Horticul- tural, W. L. Howarp, 733; Industrial, C. H. K. MEEs, 763 Rice, E. L., Ohio Acad. of Sci., 217 RicHarpson, C. H., House Fly, 613 Ricker, P. L., Plant Drier, 780 Riesman, D., School and the Long Vacation, 277 Rietz, H. L., Probabilities, A. Fisher, 896 Rice, G. B., Kelp, 602; Bog Water, 602 RirrennHouse, HE. E., National Vitality, 221 Rockefeller Foundation, and General Education Board, 419; and School of Hygiene, 889 Roman, ©. V., American Civilization and the Ne- gro, H. L. CLarK, 855 Rose Chafer and Chickens, G. H. Lamson, JR., 138; J. M. Batss, 209 Rosen, H. R., Phylloxera Vasatrix Leaf Gall, 216 Royal, Soc., Medalists of, 15; Photographic Soc., C. E. K. Muss, 602 RUEDEMANN, R., Edrioasteroidea, F. A. Bather, 244 Rutuven, A. G., The Alligator, A. M. Reese, 100 Sasin, A. H., Centigrade Thermometer, 642 SarrorD, W. E., Bot. Soc. of Wash., 402, 436, 582; Lignum Nephriticum, 432 SANForRD, F., Natural Charges of Metals, 409 SANForD, S., Sea Level and Coastal Dunes, 348 Schiff, Dr. Ugo, W. McPuErson, 921 School and the Long Vacation, D. RirsMAN, 277 Schuchert, C., and L. V. Pirsson, Geology, H. W. Suimer and F. H. Lauer, 497 Science, and the Development of Instruments, A. ZELENY, 185; Organization of, 243; History of, C. R. Cross, 316; on the War Path, 350; His- tory of, W. H. Hopss, 495 Scientific, Notes and News, 16, 63, 93, 128, 165, 204, 234, 273, 308, 345, 383, 422, 458, 490, 528, 564, 598, 638, 708, 739, 776, 813, 846, 892, 922; Books, 27, 69, 100, 137, 172, 210, 244, 280, 316, 352, 389, 427, 466, 497, 535, 571, 603, 642, 686, 713, 745, 781, 821, 855, 896, 930; Journals and Articles, 138, 281, 645; Research, Grants for, C. R. Cross, 680; Truth and Spirit, A. B. Macat- LuM, 439; Queen Rearing, C. W. Quinn, 939 Scort, W. B., Panama and Animal Life of North and South America, 113 Scripps Institute, Summer ‘‘Assembly’’ in Sci- ence, 343 Sea-grass, Adaptability of, H. H. M. Bowman, 244 Sea Level and Coastal Dunes, S. SANrorD, 348 SrasHore, C. E., Seeing Yourself Sing, 592 Sectioning, Hand, G. J. PrircE, 930 Sex-limited Character, E. N. WrentwortH, 648 Shark River Hocene Beds, G. D. Harris, 532 SHR, C. L., and N. E. Stevens, Chestnut-blight Fungi, 173 Sumer, H. W., and F. H. Lauer, Geology, L. V. Pirsson and C. Schuchert, 497 Sunn, O. L., Assaying, E. A. Wraight, 783 SureEvE, F., Experimental Work at Cinchona, 919 Shreve, F., Desert Vegetation, B. E. Livineston, 821 Styz, M., Cancer and Heredity, 135 SmirH, A., Training of Chemists, 619 vill SmirH, D. E., Algebra, L. C. Karpinski, 389; Mathematics, G. R. Kaye, 781 Smiru, E. F., Crown Gall and Cancer, 348, 871 SmirH, G. O., U. S. Geol. Survey and U. S. Coast and Geod. Survey, 659 Smity, H. I., Fire and the Museum at Ottawa, 415 Snakes, Fear of, T. G. Dasnry, 25; W. H. Mc- CLELLAN, 387; J. HrenpERSON, 388; F. S. DzL- LENBAUGH, 389; A. M. Miuurr, 744; A. E. Bostwick, 745 Societies and Academies, 75, 219, 329, 400, 436, 473, 510, 580, 617, 690, 760, 834, 941 Soil Science, 382 Soils, Heated, J. JoHnson, 434 Solar Research, G. C. Comstock, 642 Sound Waves, E. P. Lewis, 646 SpareTuH, R. A., The Vital Equilibrium, 502 SPAULDING, P., Bot. Soe. of Wash., 219 Special Articles, 30, 73, 110, 138, 173, 216, 244, 282, 318, 354, 393, 432, 468, 507, 537, 576, 611, 645, 688, 716, 750, 785, 824, 857, 899, 933 Stauprer, W., Niter Spots, 712 Steinmetz, C. P., Engineering, J. H. M., 574 Stevens, N. E., and C. L. SHear, Chestnut-blight Fungi, 173 Stewart, R., and W. PEerEerson, ‘‘Niter Spots,’’ 20 Srinzs, P. G., Neurology, C. J. Herrick, 431 Styolites in Quartzite, W. A. Tarr, 819 Sylvester and Cayley, G. B. Haustep, 781 Talbot, F. B., and F. G. Benedict, Physiology, Y. HENDERSON, 431 Tausot, H. P., Chemistry, F. A. Gooch, 643 Tarr, W. A., Styolites in Quartzite, 819 Tayior, H. 8., Chemistry, S. Arrhenius, 172 Taylor, W. W., Colloids, W. A. Patrick, 746 Teaching and Practise, W. S. THAayrr, 691 Teele, R. P., Irrigation, J. A. Wiptsor, 467 Tennessee Acad. of Sci., R. Nunn, 218 Tuayer, W. S., Teaching and Practise, 691 Thermometer, Centigrade, 342; A. H. Sabin, 642; versus Fahrenheit, F. E. Austin, 930; Kata, C.-E. A. WINSLow, 716; Seales, A. McAprim, 854 THORNDIKE, EH. L., The Feebly Inhibited, C. B. Davenport, 427 Tobacco, Disease of, G. H. CHAPMAN, 537 TOWNSEND, C. H., Porpoise, 534 Trombidium holosericeum, B. F. Kaupp, 33 Tucker, R. H., Ptolemy’s Catalogue of Stars, C. H. F. Peters and E. B. Knobel, 930 Tuxpam Beds, Age of, E. T. Dumper, 712 Underhill, F. P., Amino Acids, G. Lusx, 173 United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, W. Bowisr, 655; Address of the President of the U. S., 656; and U. S. Geol. Sury., G. O. Suir, 659; Abstracts of Addresses at Centennial Ex- ercises, 665 SCIENCE ConTENTS AND INDEX. Universities, and Unpreparedness, Y. HENDERSON, 241; Our, J. M. Countsr, 810 University, and Educational News, 20, 67, 97, 133, 168, 207, 239, 277, 311, 347, 384, 425, 458, 494, 528, 564, 599, 638, 685, 711, 742, 776, 817, 850, 893, 925; Registration, J. C. Bure, 87, 349; and Industry, C. BASKERVILLE, 919 Utah Acad. of Sci., A. O. Garrett, 789 Vacations, Summer, Efficient, L. D. Buruine, 426 VAN Tuyu, F. M., Limestones and Dolomite, 24; Organic Oolite, 171 Vapor Pressure, A. T. JoNES, 73; J. H. Ransom, 686 Vital Equilibrium, R. A. SpanTu, 502 Vries, H. DE, Origin by Mutation, 785 Waucort, C. D., Physical Tables, 466 WALTER, H. E., Genetics, R. Pearl, 501 Watton, W. R., Francis Marion Webster, 162 Warren, H. C., Die Grundlagen der Psychologie, T. Ziehen, 352 Washburn, E. W., Chemistry, C. A. Kraus, 604 WASHBURN, F. L., Organization in College, 496 Webster, Francis Marion, W. R. WALTON, 162 WeENTWoRTH, H. N., Sex-limited Character, 648 Wetmore, A., Biol. Soc. of Wash., 941 WHEELER, W. M., Ants, H. St. J. K. Donisthorpe, 316 Waitt, H. S., Poncelet Polygons, 149; Mathemat- ics, 583 Wuitine, P. W., Norway Rat, 781 Wuitney, W. R., Research as a National Duty, 629 Wicxkson, HE. J., Eugene Woldemar Hilgard, 447 Wotsoz, J. A., Irrigation, R. P. Teele, 467 Wison, E. B., Nat. Acad. of Sci., 101, 211, 392, 714, 898 Witson, EH. B., Relativity, E. Cunningham, 688 WINSLOw, C.-E. A., Kata Thermometer, 716 WISSLER, C., Psychological and Historical Inter- pretations for Culture, 193 WirHrow, J. R., American Chemist and the War, 835 Witthaus, Rudolph August and Charles Clifford Barrows, 527 WoopwortH, C. W., Equation in Optics, 824 WoopwortH, J. B., Geology, J. C. Branner, 467 Wraight, E. A., Assaying, O. L. SHrnn, 783 Wright, Arthur Williams, C. 8. H., 270 YERKES, R. M., Study of Monkeys and Apes, 231 Ziehen, T., Die Grundlagen der Psychologie, H. C. WARREN, 352 Zeiller, Charles René, E. W. B., 201 ZELENY, A., Science and the Development of In- struments, 185 ZELENY, C., Senescence and Rejuvenescence, C. M. Child, 28 Zoologists, Amer. Soc. of, C. GRAVE, 139, 176; with Section F of Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Sci., 511 mee apy Bam NrEw SERIES VoL, XLII. SINGLE CopIEs, 15 Crs, ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 No, 1097 Fripay, JANUARY 7, 1916 al Dimn)) We issue a neat 24-page booklet—Saunders’ Scientific Books is-its *title— prepared especially for teachers in High Schools, Preparatory Schools, Gen- eral Colleges and Academies. It describes fully our text-books on Biology, Zoblogy, Bacteriology, Physiology, Histology, Embryology, Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Dairying, Hygiene, Sanitation, First Aid, Exercise, Nu- trition, and Dictionaries. your classes using these text-books: Introduction to Neurology. By C. Jupson Herrick. $1.75 net. New. Embryology. By CaarLtes W. PRENTISS) Ph.D. $3.75 net. Embryology. By J. C. Hetster, M.D. Third edition. $3.00 net. Biology. By JoseEpH McFaruanp, M.D. Second edition. $1.75 net. Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene. By B. F. Kaupp, M.S., D.V.M. $2.00 net. Diseases of Swine (particularly Hog Cholera). By CuHartes F. Lyncu, M.D., D.V.S. $5.00 net. Horse in Health and Disease. By F. B. Hapiny, D.V.M. $1.50 net. New. Veterinary Bacteriology. By Rosrrt EH. BucHanan, Ph.D. $3.00 net. Anatomy of Domestic Animals. By Srp- TIMUS Sisson, §.B., V.S. New (2d) edition. $7.00 net. Ophthalmology for Veterinarians. By Watter N.SHarp, M.D. $2.00 net. General Bacteriology. By Epwin O. Jor- DAN, Ph.D. New (4th) edition. $3.00 net. Bacteriologic Technic. By J. W. H. Eynr, M.D. New (2) edition. $3.00 net. Personal Hygiene. Edited by Wauter L. Pytz, M.D. Sixth edition. $1.50 net. Personal Hygiene and Physical Training for Women. By Anna M. Garpraira, M.D. $2.00 net. W.B. SAUNDERS COMPANY All these books were written by teachers who know their subjects—and how to impart their knowledge to others. Are Exercise in Education and Medicine. By R. Tart McKenziz, M.D. New (2d) edition. $4.00 net. Nutritional Physiology. By Prrcy G. Srizes, Ph.D. $1.25 net. New (2d) edition. Nervous System and its Conservation. By Percy G. Stings, Ph.D. $1.25 net. Economic Zoology. By L. S. and M. C. Daucuerty. Part I: Field and Laboratory Guide. $1.25 net. Part Il: Principles. $2.00 net. Invertebrate Zoology. By Guinman A. Drew, Ph.D. New (2d) edition. $1.25 net. Physiology. By Wituram H. Howet1, M.D., Ph.D. New (6th) edition. $4.00 net. Elements of Nutrition. By Granam Lusx, Ph.D. Second edition. $3.00 net. Normal Histology and Organography. By CHartes Hitt, M.D. New (8d) edition. $2.25 net. Histology. By A. A. Boum, M.D., M. von Davivorr, M.D., and G. Cart Huser, M.D. Second edition. $3.50 net. American Pocket Medical Dictionary. Edited by W. A. Newman Doruanp, M.D. New (9th) edition. $1.00 net. Immediate Care of the Injured. By AtBrrt S. Morrow, M.D. Second edition. $2.50. net. Massage. By Dr. Max Boum, of Berlin; and CHaruss F. Parnter, M.D. $1.75 net. Hygiene. By D. H. Bercry, M.D. Fifth edition. $3.00 net. Philadelphia and London il SCIENCE—ADVERTISEMENTS Laboratory Exercises in General Chemistry By Rotanp H. Witirams, A.M., Head of De- partment of Science, Horace Mann School, and Instructor in Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, and WALTER G. WHIT- MAN, A.M., formerly Instructor in Science State Normal School, Salem, Mass. Price $0.36; with loose-leaf binder, $0.72. In this manual “ve seventy-six exercises adapted for classes n elementary chemistry. The loose-leaf plan makes it possible to adapt the man _al to the order of topics in any text- book. Included are general laboratory directions, lists of chemicals and apparatus, emergency measures in case of accident, useful tables, drawings, etc. Each exercise sheet has a list of the chemicals required and directions for per- forming that exercise, while a blank space is provided for the student’s notes, which are suggested by pertinent questions. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cincinnati Chicago Just Published Natural History of HAWAITI By WILLIAM ALANSON BRYAN, B.S., Professor of Zoology and Geology in the College of Hawaii. A reliable and readable reference book on things Hawaiian. Suited to the needs of the general reader, student, library or scientific worker. ILLUSTRATED with 117 full page plates from 441 Photo graphs elucidating the ethnology of the native people, the geology and topomzenby) of the islands and figuring more than 1000 of the common or interesting species of plants and animals to be found in the native and introduced fauna and flora of Hawaii. CONTENTS IN 37 CHAPTERS :—Section 1, The Hawaiian People; Section 2, The Geology, Geography and Topogra- phy of the Hawaiian Islands; Section 3, The Flora of the Group; Section 4, Agriculture and Horticulture in Hawaii; Section 5, The Animal Life of the Group; Complete Index, Glossary and Compendium. Over 500 pages of text 7x10} inches, Cloth bound, Price postpaid $5.50 (net). ADDRESS ORDERS DIRECT TO THE AUTHOR P. O. BOX 38 HONOLULU, HAWAII Or to the following authorized distributors: Thrum’s Limited, Fort St., Honolulu, Hawaii. H. 8. Crocker Co., 565-571 Market St., San Francisco. G. E. Stechert & Co., 151-155 W. 25th St., New York. G. E. Stechert & Co., 2 Star Yard, Carey Street W. C., London. Barker and Young’s Manual of Soil Physics 44 exercises, with blank pages for notes In Biflex Binder, 65 cents Just those practical exercises necessary for a thorough elementary course in soils. It is not confined strictly to soil physics, but deals with other helpful aspects of soil study:—the origin of soil; its texture and structure ; soil heat ; the movements, use, and conservation of soil water ; the effect of organic matter on soil pro- ductivity ; and simple methods of soil examination. Ginn and Company Boston Atlanta London San Francisco New York Chicago Dallas Columbus Send for descripiwe circulars and sample pages PRINCIREES#@OR STRATIGRAPHY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU, S.M., S.D. PROFESSOR OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Large Octavo, 1150 pages, with 254 illustrations in the text. Cloth bound, price, $7.50. Send for descriptive circular A. G. SEILER & CO. PUBLISHFRS 1224 Amsterdam Avenue NEW YORK, N. Y. SCIENCE “= Frmay, January 7, 1916 CONTENTS The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— Botany in Relation to Agriculture: Dr. G. P,. CLINTON in 1915 Medalists of the Royal Society ............. 15 Memorial to John Wesley Powell ........... 16 Scientific Notes and News Unwersity and Educational News Discussion and Correspondence :— The Origin of the ‘‘Niter Spots’’ in Cer- tain Western Soils: PROFESSOR ROBERT_ STEWART and PROFESSOR WILLIAM PETER- son. Mottled Limestones and their Bearing on the Origin of Dolomite: Francis M. VAN Tuyvt. Serpent Instinct in Man: T. G. Das- NEY. The Teaching of Elementary Dynam- MOIS | \WNitig ISIN 65 o0acclccboodcuGauEDacO 20 Scientific Books :— Herms’s Medical and Veterinary Entomol- ogy: Dr. L. O. Howarp. Child’s Senes- cence and Rejuvenescence: PROFESSOR CHARLES ZELENY. Bauer and Fleming on Land Magnetic Observations: PROFESSOR WV ie Gs MGA Alera: sta tetcvopstainvsteveversysliavtalsnal cists erste 27 Special Articles :-— Some Suggestions on Methods for the Study of Nitrification: PRoFESsoR W. P. KELLEy. Experiments with Agents Calculated to Kill the Trombidium holosericeum: B. F. Kaupp. The Growth of Bone in Cretaceous Times: IDR, IOse I, IMIOCWID gooscenoouoscues0uGde 30 The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— The Columbus Meeting: Dr. L. O. Howarp. 36 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent to Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison- on-Hudson. N. Y. $$ THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE BOTANY IN RELATION TO AGRICUL- TURE? Ir is the aim of this discussion not merely to show the relation of botany to agricul- ture, but also to point out on the one hand what botanical investigation has actually done for American agriculture, and on the other, how recent agricultural development has stimulated the science of botany along both educational and investigational] lines. Though much of its practical application passes under such titles as agronomy, horti- culture, animal and dairy industry, and soil technology, scientific agriculture de- pends primarily upon the three fundamen- tal sciences of chemistry, zoology and bot- any. Of these, botany should and does have the closest relationship with it. This is indicated by the fact that out of 5,500 persons concerned with agricultural teach- ing and investigation in the U. 8. Depart- ment of Agriculture and the various agri- cultural colleges and stations, about 700, or 12 per cent., may be classified as bot- anists. There are botanists, however, who are so engrossed in the pure science of their sub- ject that they have little interest in its economie, or, what to-day is almost the same thing, its agricultural relation; on the other hand, there are those working on the practical side who do not appreciate how much the pure science of botany has aided them in their work. We have no quarrel 1 Address of the vice-president and chairman of Section G, Botany, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Columbus, December, 1915. 2 SCIENCE with the former, for whether they realize it or not, all scientific discovery has its ulti- mate practical bearing. Neither have we any apologies to offer for the so-called prac- tical botanists, for they are the botanists of to-day in the United States, as shown by number of positions occupied and of articles published. What, then, of this agricultural botany and the factors concerned in its develop- ment? let us first take a brief glance at the closely related subject of the develop- ment of agriculture. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Early History—Agriculture is unques- tionably a fundamental factor in the growth of a nation, therefore as a practise it goes back to the time when men first banded together into societies. But real scientific agriculture, especially as an edu- cational movement in our colleges, is of comparatively recent origin, even more re- cent than that of botany. Its first educa- tional agencies in this country were a few agricultural periodicals and the various agricultural, horticultural and allied socie- ties that were organized to meet the de- mands of their time and locality. Schools of agriculture were lacking, and even in- struction in existing educational institutions was not provided. Apparently the first or one of the first agricultural schools was that established by the Golds, father and son, at Cream Hill, Connecticut, in 1845, and continued until 1869. About the time of the founding of this school, Norton was appointed professor of agricultural chem- istry at Yale, and among his early students were Brewer, the agriculturist, and John- son, the chemist, both of whom later played such a prominent part in the development of our scientific agriculture. The Bussey Ins itution of Harvard, although provided for wany years previously, did not begin its agricultural work until 1870; but in its [N..S. Vou. XLIIL. No. 1097 earlier publications appeared the investiga- tions of Storer in agricultural chemistry, the work of Farlow with plant diseases and that of Sargent in the Arnold Arboretum. In 1875 Hilgard began his work in Califor- nia, and in 1880, Henry, in Wisconsin. All of these men were either directly or in- directly interested in botany. Agricultural Colleges——The first impor- tant factor in this agricultural develop- ment, however, was the Morrill Land Grant Act, signed by President Lincoln in 1862, which during the next few years resulted in the founding of our various state univer- sities and agricultural colleges. To-day each state has its university or its agricul- tural college well established, and many states have both, either as separate or united institutions. Several of the Southern States also have somewhat similar schools of agri- culture for their colored population. The various states have backed these institutions with financial aid which now in many cases exceeds that given by the government. For example, one state in its recent biennial ap- propriations gave to its state university, which ineludes the agricultural college, five million dollars. Our agricultural colleges now compare very favorably with those of engineering and arts and science in number of students, professors and courses given. Yet twenty- five years ago they had few students, and a professor of agriculture, another of horti- culture, and one of veterinary science, to- gether with the professors of botany, zool- ogy and chemistry as associates, often con- stituted the entire agricultural faculty. What a contrast to the agricultural staff of to-day, which often exceeds a hundred mem- bers, as at the University of California, with 145, Iowa State College with 213, Mich- igan Agricultural College with 109, Cornell with 189, Massachusetts Agricultural Col- lege with 82, and other agricultural col- leges with numbers in proportion to the JANUARY 7, 1916] agricultural development of their respective states. And what a variety of titles these educators bear! The old professors of agri- culture, horticulture and botany have been largely replaced by professors of agronomy, dairy industry, animal husbandry, genct- ics, enology, citriculture, landscape garden- ing, pomology, olericulture, forestry, bac- teriology, plant pathology and a score or so more. Department of Agriculture.—The second great influence in the development of scien- tifie agriculture in this country was the establishment by Act of Congress, in Febru- ary, 1889, of a department of agriculture at Washington, and the appointment of J. M. Rusk as its first secretary in the Presi- dent’s cabinet. Since 1862, however, there had been a commissioner of agriculture, and there were already several bureaus or di- visions. Even before this for years there had been issued from the Patent Office re- ports dealing with agricultural information. To-day the department of agriculture com- prises, besides various minor groups, bu- reaus of weather, animal industry, plant industry, chemistry, soils, entomology, bio- logical survey, crop estimates, services of forest and of states relations, and offices of markets and rural organizations and of public roads and rural engineering. To carry on the work of the department, there were in 1913 nearly 15,000 employees, and the annual appropriation was $18,000,000. Agricultural Experiment Stations.—The third factor in our agricultural develop- ment was the establishment of the agricul- tural experiment stations through the pas- sage of the Hatch Act by Congress in 1886. Even previous to this, there had existed several state stations, that at New Haven, Conn., established in July, 1877, being the first. Each state originally received $15,000 a year from the government, but some years ago this was increased by the Adams Act SCIENCE 3 an additional $15,000, which goes to sup- port the more strictly scientific work. At present most of the stations also receive state aid, which in some cases greatly ex- ceeds that given by the government. For instance, in 1913 the total revenue of the fifty-seven stations in this country was over $4,650,000, and in the case of two of these it reached nearly half a million. Some idea of the number of investigators employed in stations having no college affil- iation is shown by the Ohio station roll, with 64, the Geneva station with 37, and the Connecticut station with 25. Of the sta- tions connected with colleges, California has a staff of 67 employed all or a part of the time in station work, Illinois 88, Wis- consin 84, Kansas 66, and Pennsylvania 49. The literature already issued by the various stations requires one hundred feet of li- brary shelves to hold it, making by itself a very respectable working library in agri- culture. One of the important results of the es- tablishment of experiment stations was the stimulating effect on both the agricultural colleges and the Department of Agricul- ture. Up to that time the colleges, as a rule, had not taught much agriculture be- cause they had few students; and the de- partment had not yet begun to do much in- vestigational work. By furnishing posi- tions for the agricultural colleges to fill, and by bringing them into closer touch with the farmers, the number of students has been greatly increased and the standing of the colleges much improved; while the rivalry in investigational work between the stations and the department has been of mutual ad- vantage. Agricultural Extension.—A fourth factor that may greatly influence agriculture in the future is the establishment of the agri- cultural extension movement, through the Smith-Lever bill, passed by Congress in 4 SCIENCE May, 1914. One of its chief features, be- sides the state organization, affiliated with its agricultural college, to direct the work, is the organization of societies in the va- rious counties, with a paid Farm Bureau agent, who shall carry direct to the farmers for practical application the teachings of the agricultural colleges and the results of the investigations of the Department of Agriculture and the experiment stations. Whether or not this extension service will prove as valuable as have the colleges and stations remains yet to be demonstrated, but it is based in part on results already ac- complished in the south. The government has backed the movement with an appro- priation of $10,000 a year to each state, this to be gradually increased in proportion to the agricultural population, provided equal sums are appropriated by the state. This means that by the year 1923 there may be spent in this work in the United States over $9,000,000. In most states this will be more money than is spent by the exper- iment station, and in a few possibly more than is spent by the agricultural college. BOTANICAL DEVELOPMENT Early History.—l have gone thus fully into the history of American agriculture be- cause I believe that botany, at least during recent years, has been fundamentally influ- enced by it. What has been the history of our botanical development? It began with the explorers, usually foreigners, who col- lected plants and sent them to Europe for identification and description. Then came our native collectors, who finally began to describe the plants they collected. These early workers were interested chiefly in flowering plants, but occasionally there was an individual who worked with fungi or other groups. Local natural history socie- ties in time offered congenial atmosphere for the study of local floras. Eventually LN. 8. Von. XLIII. No. 1097 governmental aid was given to exploring ex- peditions. Usually those engaged in hot- anical work were men who gained their livelihood from some other profession,— doctors, ministers and even lawyers. First College Instruction—There were a few institutions, however, that quite early had professors who gave limited botanical instruction and carried on investigations. Some idea of this early botanical work is given by the following notes from five of our oldest educational institutions, furnished the writer by their present botanical heads. At Harvard, our oldest educational insti- tution, William Dandridge Peck was ap- pointed Massachusetts Professor of Natural History in 1805, and was the founder of the present Gray Botanical Garden. He was both a zoologist and a botanist, and gave lectures in the university. Peck was suc- ceeded in 1825 by Thomas Nuttall, who was director of the botanical garden and lec- turer in natural history. Nuttall lived at the Garden, but evidently did not greatly relish his work, as he resigned in 1834. In 1842 the Fischer Professorship of Natural History was founded, and Asa Gray was appointed. This professorship has been since its foundation a botanical position, a fact worthy of mention to our zoological friends, who in these days seem to dominate all the professorships in biology. At Yale, botany was apparently first taught to a greater or less extent by Dr. Eli Ives, who held a position in materia medica and botany from 1813 to 1829, and a professorship in theory and practise of physic until 1852. He established a small botanical garden, which has since gone out of existence. After Ives’s time botanical instruction was lacking until Daniel C. Eaton was appointed professor of botany in 1864, a position he occupied until his death in 1895. At Princeton, the first instruction in bot- JANUARY 7, 1916] any was probably given in the closing years of the eighteenth century, by John Maclean, who was professor of chemistry and natural history. From 1824 to 1829 Luther Halsey was professor of natural philosophy, chem- istry and natural history, and from 1830 to 1854 a similar position was held by John Torrey. In 1874 George Macloskie was ap- pointed professor of natural history, and still occupies the chair of biology as pro- fessor emeritus. It was not until a few years ago, however, that one man, Professor Rankin, gave all his time to botany, and only very recently that Shull was appointed as the first professor of botany and genet- ics. So far as shown by the actual dates given me, Columbia was the first institution where botany was taught, since Daniel Treadwell was professor of natural history at Kings College from 1757 to 1760. The first pro- fessor of botany was Richard Sharpe Kis- sam, 1792, who was succeeded by Samuel L. Mitchill, 1793 to 1795. After that botany was apparently included under natural his- tory until the time of Dr. Torrey, who was professor of chemistry and botany, and ap- parently the real founder of the science at that institution. According to both Farlow and Harshber- ger, the University of Pennsylvania can claim the first real botanical professorship in this country, as Dr. Adam Kuhn was made professor of botany and materia med- ica in 1768. Later William Bartram was appointed to the same chair, but did not ac- cept. Recent Development in Colleges.—Prac- tically all this early instruction was limited to a systematic and a morphological study of the phanerogams. Apparently it had little or no relation to agriculture, its aim being purely scientific and educational, not practical. Modern botanical instruction, so far as a single institution can illustrate it, SCIENCE 5 began at Harvard in the early 70’s, when, under Gray, opportunity was provided for Goodale’s work in vegetable physiology and Farlow’s in eryptogamic botany. About this time, however, the establish- ment of state universities and agricultural colleges formed a potent agency in the development of modern botanical educa- tion; for just as surely as these have been prime factors in the progress of modern agriculture, so have they been in the growth of modern botany, at least in its economic aspects. Among the names associated with this pioneer period are those of Farlow, whose early work at the Bussey Institution was of an agricultural nature, Beal, at the Michigan Agricultural College, Burrill, at the University of Illinois, Bessey, at the Iowa Agricultural College, and later at Nebraska University, Tracy, at the Uni- versity of Missouri, Havey, at Maine, and a few others. To-day there are approximately three hundred teachers and investigators carry- ing on this work in our agricultural col- leges and stations; while there are perhaps an equal number engaged in botanical work in the universities outside of agricultural colleges, and in other non-agricultural in- stitutions. These, with the four hundred in the Bureau of Plant Industry at Wash- ington, make about one thousand persons in this country engaged in advanced bot- anical work as a profession. In order to gain some idea of the number of general and special students in botany, and the courses offered in the agricultural colleges as compared with those in non- agricultural institutions (including those where botanical instruction in the univer- sity is separate from that in the agricul- tural college), the writer recently sent out a short questionnaire to an equal number of agricultural and non-agricultural institu- tions, and received replies from 41 of the 6 SCIENCE former and 38 of the latter. No doubt these questions were not always answered from the same point of view, but including such possible discrepancies, they show the following results: Total attendance at reporting agricul- tural institutions, 62,049; non-agricultural, 70,000; an average number per institution of 1,513 and 1,842, respectively. Number of students taking some work in botany the past year, in the former 12,594, in the lat- ter 6,354, or average numbers per institu- tion of 307 and 167. This means that about 20 per cent. of the students in agricul- tural institutions took some form of botany as compared with 9 per cent. in the non- agricultural. Number of major students in botany, for the former 391, as compared with 386 for the latter, making an average per institution of 10 in each case. Number of postgraduate students doing botanical work in the agricultural colleges, 180, in the non-agricultural, 228, or an average per institution of 4 and 6, respectively. Total number of botanical courses offered, in the former 537, in the latter 336, or an average per institution of 13 and 9, respectively. Of the 41 agricultural colleges, 32 had one hundred or more students taking some work in botany, while of the 38 non-agricultural there were but 16 with this number. There were 26 of these agricultural colleges that offered 10 or more courses in botany, as compared with 14 non-agricultural; and there were 13 of the former that reported 5 or more postgraduate students as com- pared with 9 of the latter. In total num- ber of postgraduate students in botany, however, the non-agricultural colleges led, due to the large number at the University of Chicago, which was responsible for 103 of the 228 reported. Admitting that these figures, like figures in general, probably lie, still we believe that from them and the data that accompanied [N.\S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1097 them certain general conclusions can be drawn, as follows: (1) That, per institution and as a whole, the number of undergrad- uates taking botany in our American uni- versities and colleges is greatly in favor of the agricultural institutions. (2) That the number of students in the latter pursuing advanced and postgraduate work, however, is not any greater. (3) That the variety and number of courses offered considerably exceed that of the non-agricultural. (4) That there are a number of our non-agri- cultural universities that in equipment, in- structional force, and courses given in the pure science of botany offer advantages equal to or better than those in the best of the agricultural institutions. The reasons for the conditions indicated by these conclusions are: (1) That, be- cause of its affiliation with agriculture, bot- any in some form is favored or required in many of the agricultural colleges; while in the non-agricultural it is generally optional, and in a number of the smaller eastern col- leges is not even offered as a distinct course, being given only under ‘‘biology.’’ The inclusion under botany of bacteriology, plant breeding and forestry, or the very close connection where these subjects have been split off from this science, and the more distant, but still distinct connection with agronomy, horticulture in all its lines and entomology, are secondary factors in fur- nishing in the agricultural colleges numerous students who must have some instruction in botany, and from widely different points of view, thus developing numerous courses. Finally, the chances of landing a botanical position, aside from those in high schools and the limited number in non-agricultural institutions, are greatly in favor of the man who has had at least undergraduate train- ing in the agricultural college, since he has open to him the numerous places in these institutions, their experiment stations and JANUARY 7, 1916] the Department of Agriculture; or if he merely takes minor work in botany, and specializes in some other line of agriculture, there are open the countless positions in these allied branches, including those of the newly established Farm Bureau work. Department of Agriculture Botany.— Turning now from the botany in our agri- eultural colleges to that in the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, what can we say of its development and influence? It ap- parently had its beginnings in the Patent Office Reports and the plant collections that were deposited with the Smithsonian Insti- tution from time to time, chiefly by the va- rious governmental exploring expeditions in the far west. As a distinct division, it was established soon after the completion of the department building in 1868, when it was found necessary to have a botanist to complete the working force, which at that time included among others a chemist and an entomologist. C. C. Parry was apparently the first bot- anist, and he wrote in his report for 1869 as follows: In entering upon the duties of botanist to the Department of Agriculture in March, 1869, my first care was directed to the arrangement of the large and valuable collections of dried plants received from the Smithsonian Institute. In April, 1872, George Vasey became the botanist, and, like Parry, his time at first was largely taken up with herbarium duties. Vasey, however, soon began to publish ar- ticles dealing with flowering plants, partly from a systematic point of view, though economic studies of the grasses, of weeds, and of medicinal and poisonous plants were also made. Although as early as 1871 Thomas Tay- lor, the microscopist of the department, had written articles concerning various diseases of plants caused by fungi, and even such obscure troubles as peach yellows, it was SCIENCE 7 not until 1886 that the Division of Botany established a distinct mycological section, with F, Lamson-Scribner in charge. The character of his report for this year fore- casted the important place that this sub- ject was to occupy in the future develop- ment of the department. That this new work met with the hearty approval of the country was shown by resolutions adopted by various societies and sent to the com- missioner of agriculture, among which was one by the Botanical Club of America. In 1888 B. T. Galloway was appointed chief of the Section of Vegetable Pathology and Physiology, and, with A. F. Woods as assistant, was intimately connected with its subsequent development. One of the most important of the results of the Galloway regime was the reorganizing in 1901 of all the divisions of the department dealing with plant life, save forestry alone, under the new Bureau of Plant Industry. These united divisions were those of botany, pa- thology and physiology, agronomy, pomology and the experiment gardens and grounds, and with these were later included the Ar- lington Experiment Farm and some other lines of work. So far as the writer knows, the Department of Agriculture is the only institution in the United States that has recognized botany in its broadest meaning, and kept under its wing all the practical branches that elsewhere assume entire in- dependence, or even include botany as a part of their development. To-day the Bureau of Plant Industry has on its staff over 400 investigators doing work in the 32 groups which are under its control. These groups include such varied investigations as fruit diseases, forest pa- thology, cotton and truck diseases, crop phys- lology, soil bacteriology, soil fertility, drugs and poisonous plants, grain standardiza- tion, cereals, corn, tobacco, agricultural technology, fiber plants, seed testing, forage 8 SCLENCE crops, economic and systematic botany, sugar beets, irrigation, horticulture and pomology, seed and plant introduction, ete. One of the more recent duties of this Bu- reau in connection with that of entomology has been inspection work under the Federal Horticultural Law passed in 1912. This has to do with regulations, including quar- antine, and inspections, to prevent the im- portation of injurious insects and diseases of foreign plants, and in certain cases, to limit the further spreading of those already here. Previous to this law such work had been largely restricted to local state inspec- tion, having had its origin in the effort of certain states to limit the spread of the San José scale. This work has been, and still is, largely in the hands of the entomol- ogists. While botanists got a late start here, they seem to have been the chief factor in similar work in Hurope, so that when a world’s conference was recently called at Rome to consider the subject, it was termed a Phy- topathological Congress. This nomencla- ture seems to have aroused certain Amer- ican entomologists with fear that plant pathologists were running away with what they considered their special work. Howard voiced this sentiment a year ago in a paper before the entomologists, as follows: There is a tendency now to break into the soli- darity of our branch of science and to unite us with the plant disease people under the term phyto- pathology in so far as insects affect plant life. . . . To combine them into one service would be impracticable except as work of a large agricul- tural institution. To combine them under one name in a branch of agricultural science is absurd! Personally the writer believes this work is more botanical than entomological, since the hosts are plants and the pests also in part. However, the work is largely routine and semi-political, involving the passage of inspection laws and the asking for appro- priations, and so is somewhat on a par with [N. 8. Vou. XLITII. No. 1097 the fertilizer work of our chemical friends. Why not then allow the entomologists still to dominate in this work in America, as they seem eminently fitted for it, and thus allay their fears of being absorbed by the plant pathologists? Experiment Station Botany.—Let us now consider briefiy the third factor in our re- cent botanical development, namely, exper- iment station botany. In a sense this is Department of Agriculture botany locally applied. However, the station botanist is usually working on various botanical prob- lems, while the government botanist is put- ting his whole time on a few allied prob- lems. This becomes increasingly so as time goes on; therefore one may expect the station worker to be a somewhat broader botanist, and the government investigator more of a specialist. On the other hand, the latter often has a wide but limited knowledge of his problem over the whole country, while the former has a detailed and continuous experience in a limited re- gion. Together these two types of investi- gators are able to furnish admirable solu- tions to most botanical problems. To Arthur, apparently, belongs the honor of being the first station botanist, as he was botanist at the Geneva station in 1884, when he published, among other studies, his paper on pear blight; however, in 1883 Maynard, professor of botany and horti- culture at the Massachusetts College, was head of the horticultural department of the Massachusetts station, and published some notes on plant diseases that year. Most of the states, upon the establish- ment of their stations, merely employed the professor of botany already at work in the college, and we have mentioned the names of several. Others established botanical departments for the first time, or placed them on a more substantial footing, and to these there came sooner or later such men JANUARY 7, 1916] as Halsted from Iowa to New Jersey, Thax- ter to Connecticut, Atkinson to Alabama from South Carolina, Humphrey and later Stone, to Massachusetts, Chester to Dela- ware, Pammel to Iowa, Nelson to Wyoming, Bolley to North Dakota, Earl to Mississippi, Jones to Vermont, Selby to Ohio, Stewart to Geneva, N. Y., and Rolfs to Florida. To-day the botanist is a fixture at prac- tically all the stations. Naturally some stations have been more active than others along botanical lines, and these have, be- sides a chief botanist, several assistants, or the work is divided into botany, plant pa- thology and plant breeding. For example, there are listed a dozen such investigators at the California station, and Cornell has eleven who give all or part of their time to station work; while at the Ohio station there are seven who give all their time. Naturally one expects the station bot- anist to be primarily an investigator. In practise, however, he is handicapped by va- rious other duties that limit hig time for investigation. Usually he has more or less teaching to do. Then such routine work as extensive local correspondence, field, or- chard and nursery inspection, demonstra- tion tests, institute talks, and aid to state agricultural societies of various kinds, adds to his duties. Despite these limitations, the writer has in his possession some 1,700 bulletins and reports containing articles of more or less botanical interest published by station workers during the twenty-five years he has been interested in this work. From a purely scientific point of view most of these could have been omitted, but from an edu- cational one they doubtless all have a rea- son for their existence. These articles, and an equally large number published by the botanists of the Department of Agricul- ture, lead me in conclusion to a considera- SCIENCE 9 tion of the investigations in agricultural botany. Investigations: (1) Flowering Plants — These may be discussed under the three general headings of Flowering Plants, Bac- teria and Fungi. Naturally enough, cul- tivated crops have attracted most attention, but much of this investigation, though semi- botanical in nature, has been made by the agronomists and horticulturists rather than by botanists. Considerable attention has been paid, especially in the past, to variety testing and to methods and time of seeding or propagating, cultivating and fertilizing, different crops, as affecting their growth in various localities. Among the botanists who have worked along these agricultural and horticultural lines may be mentioned Bailey, with his numerous studies of a great variety of hor- ticultural and ornamental plants; Earle, with his work with southern varieties of fruits and vegetables; Cook and Hume, with tropical plants; and others with spe- cial plants, as Mell with cotton, Carleton with wheat, Toumey with the date palm, Bolley with flax, Ball with sorghum, Stuart with potatoes, Selby with tobacco, R. S. Smith with English walnut. In this con- nection must be mentioned the plant. intro- duction work carried on by the government under the direction of Fairchild and his assistants. Greenhouse problems have re- ceived attention from Bailey, Galloway and Stone. Another line of work more purely bot- anical in nature was the floristic surveys made in several of the states, especially where the flora was not well known. Nel- son’s work on the flora of Wyoming has been perhaps as extensive and continuous as any of these. Others who have pub- lished station bulletins on the plants of their states are Earle and Mell of Alabama, Bol- ley and Waldron of North Dakota, Blank- 10 enship of Montana, Hillman of Nevada, Wooton of New Mexico and Bogue of Ok- lahoma. Those who have made studies or tests of the trees and shrubs, both native and in- troduced, include Roberts of Kansas, Gar- man of Kentucky, Beal of Michigan, Green of Minnesota, Bessey of Nebraska, Halsted of New Jersey, Kennedy of Nevada, Wooton of New Mexico, Thornber of Washington, Murrill of New York, Burns and Jones (with his assistants), of Vermont, and Blakeslee of Connecticut. Of course the government has done much work along these systematic lines, especially with the western flora, beginning with the publications of Vasey and continued by those of Coulter, Coville, Rose, Britton, Piper, and others. This work has now largely returned to its original home in the Smithsonian Institution, leaving only the more practical studies to the Department of Agriculture. Starting with Vasey’s economic work with the grasses, there have been many in- vestigations to determine the most valuable hay, meadow and range grasses, and espe- cially the conditions affecting the last. These have involved detailed studies of classification, distribution, habits of growth, environment, and chemical composition. Somewhat similar studies have been made with legumes and certain forage cacti. Among the investigators concerned with this work may be mentioned F. Liampson- Seribner, Hitchcock, Nelson, Pammel, Wil- liams, Kennedy, Griffiths, Piper, Wooton, and Thornber. Weeds, especially their identification, na- ture and methods of eradication, have been another means of keeping botanists busy, more especially in the earlier days. Par- ticularly bad pests, such as the Canada and Russian thistles, tumbleweeds, mustards, couch grass and orange hawkweed, have SCIENCE [N.'S. Von. XLIII. No. 1097 received especial study. General and spe- cial consideration of the weed problem early received attention from Dewey of the de- partment, Millspaugh of West Virginia, Halsted of New Jersey, and Harvey of Maine. Special articles on particular weeds or lists of weeds in their respective states, have been published by botanists too nu- merous to mention. At first attempts were made to have laws passed regulating weed pests, but there has been little activity along this line in recent years, and such laws as exist are rarely enforced. Seed testing has also had its share of at- tention from the station and government botanists. This work has included methods of identification, kinds of impurities and adulteration, and tests for germination. Laws have been enacted in several of the states relating to the sale and testing of seeds. The work, while important, has never received quite the detailed attention here that has been given to it in some of the European countries. Besides the publica- tions of the Department of Agriculture, nu- merous others have been issued by the sta- tions at Maine, Connecticut, North Caro- lina, New York, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, and some other states. Poisonous plants have claimed especial care from Chestnut, Wilcox and Pammel, with contributions from such others as Blankenship, Bessey and Halsted. Drug plants have been dealt with by True and his associates. Physiological and chemical studies of plants have not had so much attention from botanists as some other lines of investiga- tion, yet good work has been accomplished by Loew, Swingle, True, Alsberg, Kearney, Briggs, Schantz, and others of the depart- ment. Much of this work relates to soil moisture and soil solutions both favorable and detrimental to plant growth. Various JANUARY 7, 1916] station workers, as Stone, Duggar and Reed, have made investigations dealing with special problems involving physiological and chemical study. Through the coopera- tion of the botanists with the chemists, the general chemical composition of many plants, especially grasses, has been deter- mined. Plant breeding is one of the most recent lines of work that has been taken up by several of the stations. This in reality is not so new as it may seem, for various hor- ticulturists and agriculturists, as Sturte- vant with corn, Munson with fruits, Me- Clure with sweet corn, and Hayes with wheat, and such botanists as Halsted with vegetables, Webber with citrous fruits, and Carleton with cereals, had long been inter- ested, as shown by their publications. Re- cent work, however, has aroused new in- terest, and we may merely mention in pas- sing that of Smith, Hast, Shull and Hartley with corn, Selby, Shamel, Hast and Hayes with tobacco, Roberts with wheat, McLen- don with cotton, Groth with vegetables, Emerson and Belling with beans, Webber and Clark with timothy, Hansen with fruits, and Love with oats. Some of these inves- tigations have aimed to solve the laws that underlie plant breeding, and others chiefly to produce more valuable strains or in- creased yields of the plants investigated. (2) Bacteria —Coming to bacteriological investigations, we find that, on the whole, our botanists have not taken so prominent a part in the work. This is because bac- teriology as now constituted, though it deals with plants, is considered a distinct science. So, with the exception of teaching, in part, and investigations of plant diseases, bac- teriology has passed mostly outside the realm of botany. In fact, as regards gen- eral sanitation and the bacterial diseases of man and animals, our botanists have never done much work. Burrill has always been SCIENCE 11 interested in these lines, and one of his stu- dents, Briscoe, published bulletins on the tubercle bacillus. Chester, like Burrill, did a little work with animal diseases, and sev- eral botanists have published popular ar- ticles. ; Dairy bacteriology also has remained largely a subject for specialists outside of the botanical realm, though such biologists as Conn, Russell and Marshal have done good work. Soil bacteriology, however, has come a little closer home, and has occupied the at- tention of Chester, Kellerman, and a few others, while Burrill, Schneider, Moore, Kellerman, Duggar, Harding and Garman have been interested in the question of the bacteria of root tubercles on legumes. Coming to the work with plant diseases, however, we find the botanists of this coun- try have accomplished more in this line than all the rest of the world. To start with, Burrill was the first to prove that bacteria cause disease in plants; and, in the development of this line of work, Smith of the Department of Agriculture has ac- complished results that place his name high among American botanists. Among the many who have published articles dealing with special bacterial dis- eases of plants may be mentioned those of Burrill, Arthur, Waite, and Whetzel on pear blight, of Thaxter, Bolley and Lut- man, on potato scab, of Smith, Townsend, Hedgecock, and C. O. Smith on crown gall, of Pammel and Smith on black rot of eru- ciferous plants, of C. O. Smith on walnut blight, of Jones on bacillus of carrots, of Stewart on the corn disease, of Stevens on tobacco wilt, of Manns on the oat disease, of Giddings on the rot of melons, and of Johnson on the coconut bud rot. (3) Fungi, etc—Taking up the last line of investigations, those with the fungi, one finds himself overwhelmed with the amount 12 SCIENCE of good work that has been done. If the American botanist leads in any kind of in- vestigation, it certainly is in the study and treatment of plant diseases. One of the earliest lines of work was listing the species of fungi that were found in the different states, such lists, often descriptive, being published by Burrill for Illinois, Atkinson and Harle for Alabama, Tracy and Harle for Mississippi, Williams for South Da- kota, Jennings for Texas, and Jones and Orton for Vermont. Many botanists have made similar sur- veys for the destructive fungi of their eco- nomic plants, as Halsted for New Jersey, Pammel for Iowa, Selby for Ohio and Stew- art for New York. Sturgis, and Stevens with his students, have been concerned with the literature of plant diseases; and Atkinson, Duggar, Freeman and Stevens have published books dealing with fungi. Farlow, Atkinson, Duggar, and some others have contributed data concerning edible and poisonous mushrooms. Von Schrenk, Hedgecock, Spaulding, Metcalf, Heald, Graves and Long have made studies of the diseases of trees and the decay of timber. Thaxter, Rolfs, Fawcett and Speare have been interested in the fungous diseases of injurious insects. Determination of the alternate stages of fungi has been an entrancing study for those engaged in it, and special mention should be made of such work with the rusts by Arthur, Kern, Olive and others of Arthur’s students. Artificial culture of fungi com- menced with the early work of Thaxter and Atkinson, and now plays an important part in all mycological investigations, those of Shear, Heald and Edgerton well illus- trating this type of work. Disease resistance to specific fungi has received attention from Orton, with cotton and watermelons, Carleton and Freeman with cereals, Bolley with wheat and flax, [N.'S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1097 Stuart with potatoes, Norton with aspara- gus, and Blinn with muskmelons. In addition to the preceding, many studies have been made of physical injuries and so-called physiological diseases of plants. Prominent among such studies are those of Smith with peach yellows and ro- sette, Atkinson with edema troubles, and Woods, Allard and Chapman with calico of tobacco. Stone has contributed to our knowledge of injury by electricity; Stur- gis, Bain and many others, of spray injury. Winter injury has received especial atten- tion from Waite, Selby, Grossenbacher, Morse and others. One of the most practical lines of work has been the so-called ‘‘squirt-gun botany,’’ which deals with the treatment of plant diseases by spraying. Among the early investigators working along this line should be mentioned Goff with apple scale, Lam- son-Scribner with grape rots, Thaxter with quince leaf-blight, Jones with potato blight, Chester with brown rot of peach, Lodeman with fruit diseases, and Galloway, Halsted, Stewart and Selby with a great variety of diseases. As Bordeaux mixture is one of the oldest and most frequently used of the fungicides, it has received especial attention as to its composition, action, ete., in articles by Chester, Fairchild, Crandall and Lutman. In recent years lime-sulphur, borrowed from the entomologists, and first used as a fungicide in the west by Pierce and others, has been brought into prominence in the east by the work of Scott of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, and by various sta- tion botanists. The development of the self-boiled lime-sulphur by Scott is a still more recent factor in spraying. Hot water treatment for smuts of grain first received attention in this country from Kellerman and Swingle, while Bolley and later Arthur brought forth formalin for JANuARY 7, 1916] a similar purpose; and Thaxter, the use of sulphur for onion smut. To Bolley we are chiefly indebted for the use of corrosive sublimate and formalin solution as reme- dies for potato scab, while Morse has used the fumes of formalin as a substitute. Our pathologists seem to have been in their prime, however, when making detailed life history studies of economic fungi. The particular foes of each cultivated plant have received attention, though naturally those that are most common and destructive have had special consideration. If time permitted we should like to mention these more specifically. Hach of our numerous mycologists has contributed his part to the work. Some few of these investigators have already passed to the great beyond, and others are gradually laying aside the work; many, however, are yet in their prime, while there are still more just coming into prominence. Of the last I would say that their standard of work is as high, if not higher, and their training better, than that of the older investigators, though the op- portunities for original work grow less or more difficult with each year. Perhaps, however, I am mistaken, and it is only the nature of the work that changes, as indi- cated in letters to the writer from the late M. C. Cooke of England, who, with Ellis and Peck of this country, though not di- rectly connected with agricultural botany, has greatly helped it by systematic work with the fungi. In conclusion permit me to quote these friendly sentiments of Cooke: For the past forty years and more I have had kindly correspondence and good feeling with bot- anists in the states, some of whom I claim as my pupils in mycology. From the time of Asa Gray, one of my first friends, I have had many. Half a century has passed me in the study of fungi, and I find as much still to learn, but I am too old now to do more than float over the surface, and con- fine myself to plant diseases. I note with great gratification the immense development of this branch of study on your side, which puts us to SCIENCE 13 shame. Your experiment stations are fine insti- tutions. . . . I care not who does the work, only I am delighted to see it is being done, and, between ourselves, to realize that it is being done by an English-speaking race and not by Germans or Frenchmen. To my American brethren, the my- ecologists, I am wishing God speed, and I care not how they beat us so long as they keep it up on a high level, clear of empiricism and worthy of the race. . G. P. Cuinton CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL HXPERIMENT STATION THE MINERAL PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES IN tors THE midyear review of mining conditions reported to the Secretary of the Interior on July 1 by the Director of the United States Geological Survey is well supported by the preliminary reports for the year. The Geolog- ical Survey is making public its usual estimate of mineral production for 1915 in the form of a separate statement for each of the more important mineral products. A review of these statements confirms Secre- tary Lane’s comment of last July to the effect that the mining revival is in full swing. In the western states alone the metal production shows an increase in value of more than $180,- 000,000 over the corresponding figures for 1914; and the year’s increase in output for the principal metals measured in value is more than $250,000,000. Moreover it is not unrea- sonable to expect that when the full returns for all mineral products are compiled they will show that 1915 was the country’s most pro- ductive year in the mining industry. The total may even reach two and one half billion dollars. In the response to bettered conditions the production figures for copper, iron and zine show the largest increase. The copper mines passed all records for pre- vious years, the 1915 output having a value of $236,000,000, or $83,000,000 more than the value of the production for 1914. The statistics and estimates received place the output of blister and Lake copper at 1,865,500,000 pounds or more than 120,000,000 pounds in excess of 14 SCIENCE the largest previous production and eighteen per cent. above last year’s figures. Only twice in the history of copper mining has there been a larger increase in quantity of metal produced. The total shipments of iron ore from the mines in the United States in 1915 are esti- mated to have exceeded 55,000,000 gross tons, an increase over 1914 of more than 88 per cent. Based on the same price as received in 1914 this represents an increase in total value of about $27,645,000. The increase in pig iron is estimated at 6,500,000 tons, with a total in- crease in value of pig iron production of more than $120,000,000. The output of zine (spelter) made from domestic ores was larger than ever before, being about 425,000 tons, worth $120,000,000 as compared with 343,418 tons in 1914, an in- crease of about 82,000 tons or nearly 25 per cent. in quantity and of $85,000,000 in value. Production was increased during the latter half of the year, as the production during the first half was at the rate of 415,000 tons an- nually and at the rate of 436,000 tons during the last half. The output of refined pig lead from domestic ores was about 515,000 tons, worth about $48,- 500,000 as compared with 512,794 tons in 1914, an increase of only 2,500 tons in quantity but of $8,500,000 or 20 per cent. in value. The production of antimonial lead was 20,550 tons as compared with 16,668 tons in 1914, an in- crease of 3,882 tons or 23 per cent. in quantity and an increase in value of nearly $2,000,000. The annual preliminary estimates on the production of gold and silver in the United States, made jointly by the United States Geo- logical Survey and the Bureau of the Mint, are not yet complete, but early figures based on reports from the mines indicate an increase in mine production over that of 1914 of over $7,000,000 in gold, principally from Colorado, California, Alaska, Montana and Idaho, and an increase in mine production of silver of fully 4,000,000 ounces, chiefly from Montana, Utah and Arizona. This increase in gold pro- duction may bring 1915 up to the record year of 1909, when the gold output of this country was nearly $100,000,000. [N.'S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1097 Quicksilver also has had its best year in 1915. The quantity increased 25 per cent. over 1914, but the value of the output more than doubled owing to the much higher prices. The estimated production was 20,681 flasks of ‘75 pounds each, valued, at the average price for the year—the highest in the last forty years— at $1,768,225. In value, this domestic produc- tion was the highest since 1881 and in quan- tity the largest since 1912. The production of bituminous coal and anthracite in 1915 is estimated to have in- creased between four and five million short tons, or less than 1 per cent. The quantity of bituminous coal mined increased about 64 million tons and that of anthracite decreased over two million short tons. Owing mainly to steady demands for export coal and for coke for steel making, the output in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky and Alabama in- creased over last year, but little change is re- corded in other eastern states. The region west of Ohio, including the Mississippi Valley, shows a general decrease, Colorado being the only western state to show betterment. Connected with the coke industry was the completion during the last summer of a num- ber of large plants for the recovery of benzol from by-product coke-oven gas. This gives the United States its first output of this mate- rial, so important as a raw material in the manufacture of high explosives and chemical dyes, and the amount of this product will be reported later. Preliminary estimates of the total output of petroleum in the United States in 1915 indi- cate a slight increase over the corresponding output in 1914. It is believed that the total petroleum yield of the United States in 1915 amounted to 291,400,000 barrels, of which quantity it is also estimated that 267,400,000 barrels was marketed and 24,000,000 barrels placed in producers’ field tankage during the year. The sulphuric acid industry in 1915 pre- sented interesting development. In spite of the abnormal demand and higher prices in the latter half of the year, much of the sulphuric acid had been contracted for or was con- JANUARY 7, 1916] sumed in the factories where made. The esti- mated production indicates an increase of 64 per cent. in the three common grades, but more than 100 per cent. in the strongest grades. The estimate of Portland cement output in 1915 indicates shipments from the mills of 86,524,500 barrels, an increase of one tenth of one per cent. over 1914. There was a slight decrease in production and this, with the ap- preciable decrease in stock, indicates a more conservative trend in the industry, which in the preceding few years showed a tendency to overproduction. Prices generally averaged a few cents lower per barrel in 1915 than in 1914, although toward the end of the year prices were substantially increased, and the outlook for 1916 is brighter than for several seasons. Perhaps the most notable item in the year’s record is the stimulation of metal mining in the western states. Almost without exception the increases in production were large and in several states 1915 was the best year on record. In Arizona, which leads in copper, the output of that metal exceeded the previous record production of 1913. California continues to lead in gold and had the largest yield in thirty- two years, and with one exception in half a century. In Montana and Arizona record out- puts of silver are reported and in Alaska the increased production of gold and especially copper made 1915 a much more prosperous year than even 1906 when Fairbanks and Nome were yielding their greatest returns of gold from bonanza placers. MEDALISTS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Av the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society on November 30, the president, Sir William Crookes, characterized the work of those on whom the medals of the society had been conferred as follows: The Copley medal has been conferred upon Pro- fessor Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov, one of our most distinguished foreign members, whose researches in physiology have led to the acquisition of valu- able knowledge. By a most ingeniously worked- out and original method of making fistule or openings to the exterior, Professor Pavlov has successfully studied the interrelation of the func- SCIENCE 15 tions of the alimentary canal. His experiments have shown how the presence of food in one cav- ity controls the secretion of digestive juices into the next, and he has made many discoveries con- cerning the conditions which influence the secre- tory process, while his method has facilitated the study of the chemical changes which occur in the food as it passes through the canal. Moreover, by the method which he calls that of conditioned re- flexes, Professor Pavlov has studied, from a physi- ological point of view, the influence of the higher brain centers upon the secretion of saliva. He has also investigated the mechanism of the muscle by which bivalves open and close their shells, and the nervous control of the heart, especially through the sympathetic nerves. His resourcefulness and skill have enabled him to make important contribu- tions to physiological science, and his work, the true worth of which has, perhaps, not yet been rightly prized, deserves the fullest recognition. The Royal medal given annually for physical in- vestigations has been awarded to Sir Joseph Lar- mor, whose work in mathematics and physics in- cludes a very wide range of subjects—geometry, dynamics, optics, electricity, the kinetic theory of gases, the theory of radiation and dynamical as- tronomy—upon all of which he has published il- luminating memoirs. Possibly his chief claim to distinction is the establishment of the theory that radiant energy and intramolecular forces are due to the movements of minute electric charges. This theory is fully worked out in his treatise, ‘‘ Aither and Matter.’’? For a long time Sir Joseph Larmor acted as secretary to the Royal Society, perform- ing the duties of the office with great success, at the same time continuing with unabated vigor orig- inal research. The offer of the Royal medal is a mark of the society’s appreciation and admira- tion of his invaluable services to science. The other Royal medal, for work in the biolog- ical sciences, is this year conferred upon Dr. Wil- liam Halse Rivers Rivers, whose work in ethnology has contributed largely to the establishment of the subject upon a scientific basis. He was the first to use the genealogical method in ethnological in- vestigations. His remarkable originality, com- bined with sound judgment, have enabled him to produce work which will rank with the best that has been done in ethnology. All chemists will agree that the award of the Davy medal to Professor Paul Sabatier is fully justified. His lengthy researches on the use of finely divided metals as catalysts are universally known. The hydrogenation of unsaturated or- 16 SCIENCE ganie compounds, especially by means of nickel, has been thoroughly elucidated by Professor Saba- tier and his coworker, the Abbé Senderens. The industrial application of the process to the unsatu- tated acids of the oleic series has already acquired considerable industrial importance. It gives me great pleasure to announce the award, so well earned by Professor Sabatier. The Hughes medal is awarded to Professor Paul Lanvegin, who has made valuable contributions to electrical science, both on the theoretical and ex- perimental sides. He has found by experiment the rate of recombination and the mobility of ions pro- duced by different processes in gases at various pressures, and he has made an exhaustive study of the theoretical aspects of the interdiffusion of gases and the mobility of ions. MEMORIAL TO JOHN WESLEY POWELL Tur Department of the Interior has com- pleted, on the rim of the Grand Canyon, in Arizona, a memorial to Major John Wesley Powell, the pioneer and distinguished man of science who first explored the Grand Canyon. The memorial is an altar decorated in Indian imagery and supporting a bronze tablet, rest- ing upon a pyramidal base of rough-hewn stone. Fifteen steps lead from the west up to the altar floor, from which one may gaze into the very heart of the glowing mile-deep can- yon. It is a structure worthy alike of the rugged, forceful personality of the man and of the titanic chasm which it overlooks. The spot chosen for the memorial is Sentinel Point, a promontory south of the railway sta- tion, which commands a particularly fine view of the Granite Gorge and of the river, whose unknown terrors of whirlpool and cataract the Powell party braved in small open boats. The structure, which is built of weathered lime- stone from the neighborhood, has a rectangular base 21 by 28 feet. The altar carries on its east side a medallion portrait of Major Powell in bronze bas-relief by Leila Usher and the following inscription : Erected by the congress of the United States 10 Maj. John Wesley Powell, first explorer of the Grand Canyon, who descended the river with his party in rowboats, traversing the gorge beneath this point August 17, 1869, and again September 1, 1872. [N. iS. Vou. XLIII. No. 1097 The general effect is unobtrusive, natural and appropriate. A few small, gnarled trees grow close by, but do not obstruct the view. The structure stands back from the edge suffi- ciently to permit visitors in considerable num- bers to group themselves in front. The memorial was planned at the Interna- tional Geological Congress of 1904 in recogni- tion of Major Powell’s distinguished services as director of the United States Geological Survey. In March, 1909, Congress appropri-= ated $5,000 for the purpose, “in recognition of his distinguished public service as a soldier, explorer and administrator of government scientific work.” Dr. H. W. Holmes chose the site. The original plan was to make the memorial a Roman chair facing the canyon. Last spring Secretary Lane substituted an altar for the chair, and Mark Daniels, then general superin- tendent and landscape engineer of National Parks, designed the structure as it stands to-day. It was then late in July, and Mr. Walter Ward, engineer of the Reclamation Service, had a difficult task before him to find and hew the rock and build the structure within the slender appropriation. This memorial, so expressive of the spirit and character of the man whose life work it celebrates, and so admirably located, will be formally dedicated early next summer. If, as is expected, Congress meantime makes the Grand Canyon a national park (it is a national monument now), the two dedications will take place together, making a celebration altogether notable in the history of national parks. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. CuarLtes R. VAN Hise, president of the University of Wisconsin and previously pro- fessor of geology, has been elected president of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, in succession to Dr. W. W. Campbell. The other officers elected at the Columbus meeting of the association and an account of the proceedings will be found else- where in the present issue of SCIENCE. JANUARY 7, 1916] Dr. Joun M. Crarxe, New York state geol- ogist and director of the State Museum, was elected president of the Geological Society of America at the recent Washington meeting. Dr. RaymMonp Dopez, professor of psychology at Wesleyan University, has been elected presi- dent of the American Psychological Associa- tion. OFFICERS were elected at the New Haven meeting of the American Association of Anat- omists as follows: President, Dr. Henry H. Donaldson, Wistar Institute; Vice-president, Professor Clarence M. Jackson, University of Minnesota; Members of the Executive Com- mittee, Professor Eliot R. Clark, University of Missouri, and Professor Reuben M. Strong, University of Mississippi. Professor C. R. Stockard, Cornell Medical School, New York City, remains secretary of the Association. Orricers of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Chapel Hill, N. C., for the year 1916 are as follows: President, Dr. J. B. Bullitt; Vice-president, Professor T. F. Hickerson; Permanent Secretary, Dr. F. P. Venable; Recording Secretary and Treasurer, John E. Smith; Hditorial Board of the Journal: Dr. W. C. Coker, Professor Collier Cobb and Dean M. H. Stacy. At the annual dinner of the Geographic Society of Chicago, the gold medal of the society was presented to Major-General William C. Gorgas. The presentation address was made by Dr. Frank Billings. General Gorgas gave an address, entitled “ Sanitation in Its Relation to Geography.” Wer learn from the Journal of the American Medical Association that the Royal College of Physicians of London has awarded the Moxon gold medal to Dr. Dejerine, professor of dis- eases of the nervous system at the Faculté de médecine de Paris. This medal is awarded every three years to the scientist whose ob- servations and researches in clinical medicine are deemed to render him most worthy of this distinction. The award of the medal is not reserved for scientists of British nationality, but up to the present it has been given only to English clinicians; Sir Alfred Garrod (1891), SCIENCE 17 Sir William Jenner (1894), Sir Samuel Wilkes (1897), William Tennant Gairdner (1900), John Hughlings Jackson (1903), Jonathan Hutchinson (1906), Sir William Richard Garvers (1909), Sir William David Ferrier (1912). Tue British Medical Journal states that the Leeuwenhoek gold medal of the Royal Acad- emy-of Sciences, Amsterdam, has been awarded to Surgeon-General Sir David Bruce. It is awarded every ten years in recognition of the most important work done during the decade on the microscopical organisms first discovered by Leeuwenhoek in 1675. The award sets out that it was the discovery of the Micrococcus melitensis, the cause of Malta or Mediter- ranean fever, which first made Bruce’s name generally known. This was followed by the discovery of the cause of African cattle, or tsetse fly disease, known as Nagana. After- wards he made extensive researches, with the help of a staff of assistants, into other tropical African diseases caused by trypanosomes, espe- cially into sleeping or Congo sickness caused by the Trypanosoma gambiense and trans- ported chiefly by the fly Glossina palpalis. The medal was presented at the meeting of the Academy of Sciences in Amsterdam on De- cember 18. Sm W. H. Sonomon and Professor G. H. Bryan have been elected to honorary fellow- ships at Peterhouse, Cambridge. Mr. George L. Fawcett, from 1908 until last February the plant pathologist at the Porto Rico Experiment Station at Mayaguez, and since that time occupying a similar posi- tion at the Experiment Station in Tucuman, Argentina, has been appointed professor of mycology and bacteriology at the University of Tucuman. Dr. Witu1AmM H. WELCH, professor of pathol- ogy in the Johns Hopkins Medical School, who has been in China devising plans to introduce modern medical methods in the empire, and Dr. Simon Flexner, director of the labora- tories of the Rockefeller Institute, reached San Francisco on December 27. 18 SCIENCE Dr. Frank ANGELL, professor of psychology in Stanford University, has sailed for England to take part in Belgian relief work. Proressor JosEPH M. Fuint, of the Yale Medical School, has returned to New Haven after five months of work among wounded soldiers in the hospital at Chateau de Passy in France. Dr. JoHn F. Anprrson, formerly director of the Hygienic Laboratory, United States Public Health Service, and now director of the re- search and biological laboratories of E. R. Squibb & Sons, New Brunswick, New Jersey, has sailed for England and France to study the methods in use in the armies of those countries for the prevention and treatment of wound infections. Proressor Jacques Lor, of the Rockefeller Institution for Medical Research, delivered an address on “ Adaptation” at the meeting of the Philadelphia County Medical Society on December 8, which was followed by a reception and supper. The meeting was arranged by the committee of the medical society on coopera- tion among allied agencies and institutions. Dr. ALEXANDER C. ApBorr, professor of hy- giene and bacteriology, the University of Penn- sylvania, delivered an illustrated lecture on “The Transmissibility of Diseases and the Public Health” at Franklin Institute on the evening of December 15. Dr. Henry E. Crampron, of Columbia Uni- versity and the American Museum, delivered the oration before the Phi Beta Kappa Asso- ciation of the University of Pennsylvania on December 4. Dr. Crampton took for his sub- ject “Science, Culture and Human Duty.” Proressor Epwarp Kasner, of Columbia University, spoke on “ Some Unsolved Mathe- matical Problems” at the College of the City of New York on December 16. Tue Herbert Spencer Lecture at Oxford University for 1916 will be delivered by Pro- fessor J. Mark Baldwin. The subject of the lecture is not yet announced. Tue Croonian Lecture of the Royal Society was delivered on December 9, by Dr. W. M. [N..S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1097 Fletcher and Professor F. G. Hopkins, on “The Respiratory Process in Muscle, and the Nature of Muscular Motion.” A BRONZE portrait plaque has been placed in the Evans Dental Institute, to the memory of W. D. Miller, a graduate of the Dental School of the University of Pennsylvania, class of 1879. The plaque is the gift of the Interna- tional Dental Federation. At the annual con- vention held in Berlin in 1909, a resolution was passed to present a bronze memorial plaque to the Dental School of the University of Pennsylvania, dedicated to one of its most distinguished graduates, W. D. Miller, who was a distinguished scientific man and one of the most eminent men in his profession. Dantet Girarp Eiior, distinguished for his contributions to mammalogy and ornithol- ogy, died at his home in New York City, on December 24, aged eighty-one years. Davi WILLIAMS CHEEVER, emeritus professor of surgery in the Harvard Medical School, died at his home in Boston, on December 27, in the eighty-fifth year of his age. Dr. James Honms Poniox, for many years on the staff of the Royal College of Science for Ireland, in the chemical department of which he was lecturer on physical and metal- lurgical chemistry, died on November 26. Mr. C. J. Wouaston, known for his pioneer work in submarine telegraphy, has died at ninety-five years of age. Tue death is announced of Charles René Zeiller, a member of the French Institute, chief engineer of mines and professor of paleobotany in the Paris School of Mines. ADOLPHE GREINER, director-general of the foremost steelworks in Belgium, this year president of the Iron and Steel Institute, died at his residence near Liége on November 20, aged seventy-three years. THE United States Civil Service Commis- sion announces an open competitive examina- tion for fish pathologist in the Bureau of Fisheries on January 19, 1916. The duties of the fish pathologist are primarily to investi- gate the causes, the nature and the effects of JANUARY 7, 1916] disease of fish or shellfish, physiological or environmental conditions associated with the development of pathological phenomena, and the means of prevention or cure. The investi- gation of stream pollution is involved, as well as the study of the physical, chemical and bio- logical conditions that may be salutary or deleterious to fish. Competitors will be exam- ined in general biology, physiologic chemis- try and parasitology, with particular reference to aquatic animals. Credit will be given for thesis and manuscript or published reports. Graduation with a bachelor’s degree from a course in a college or university of recognized standing and, in addition at least two years of postgraduate work, or the equivalent, in chem- istry or biology are prerequisites for consid- eration for this position. The salary is $2,500 per annum. THe Weather Bureau asks for an appropri- ation of $30,000 for extending the Carribean weather observations with a view to a system of communication of “ considerable value in connection with the military and naval opera- tions in the canal zone.” Instead of observa- tions once a day during a seven months’ period at an inadequate number of stations, a continuous all-year-round service would be es- tablished at additional stations in South and Central America and along the southern gulf coast. A $25,000 structure on the canal zone to serve as the official headquarters for the weather service in that section also is planned. THE equipment of the department of ento- mology at the University of Illinois, and of the natural history survey of that state, re- ceives a notable addition in the new vivarium building in Champaign, which will contain a large insectary for student use, with three laboratory rooms in connection, an apparatus, furnished conjointly by the university and the State Laboratory of Natural History, for tem- perature and humidity control in the study of insect life histories, and a set of experimental aquaria fitted up for exact studies on the ecol- ogy of fresh-water animals. The insectary and entomological laboratories will be under the charge of Dr. R. D. Glasgow, and the state SCIENCE 19 laboratory equipment under that of Dr. Y. E. Shelford, of the laboratory staff. THE Journal of the American Medical Asso- ciation says: “On last Monday, December 20, the Supreme Court of Illinois rendered a rul- ing—it was not a decision, as the newspapers stated, but simply a ruling—in the case of Lydston vs. the State’s Attorney. The news- papers, in sweeping statements—inspired ?— have carried the impression that the ruling is against the American Medical Association; that the officers, including trustees, are hold- ing their offices illegally; that a new election must be held immediately, ete. Nothing could be farther from the truth. It is the old story; it is merely another step in the case started about the time of the meeting of the Ameri- can Medical Association in St. Louis in 1919, at which time Lydston tried to compel the state’s attorney to bring quo warranto pro- ceedings against the association. The Ameri- can Medical Association has not yet techni- cally been brought into the case; thus far the issue has been between Lydston and the state’s attorney. The technical announcement of the ruling just made is “ Hoyne, State’s Attorney vs. People ex rel; Lydston; petition certiorari denied.” The state’s attorney tried to get a decision from the Supreme Court, but the Su- preme Court declined to hear the case at this time and therefore denied the writ of certio- rari. AccorpiInG to a press dispatch proposed leg- islation to create a government bureau of vol- cano observation is under consideration. The project, as outlined to congressional leaders by T. A. Jagger, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a delegate to the Pan-Ameri- can Scientific Congress, contemplates the se- curing of information on which ultimately predictions of volcanic disturbances may be based as well as studies of gases and liquids in the earth which may prove of value in connec- tion with weather observations. There are said to be between four hundred and five hun- dred living volcanoes in the world, about one fourth of which are within United States terri- tory, in Alaska, Hawaii and the Philippines. 20 Tue fifth annual meeting of the Oklahoma Academy of Science was held at Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, November 26 and 27, 1915. Thirty-five papers, dealing with various phases of biology, physics, chemistry and geol- ogy were presented. The address by the re- tiring president, Mr. Chas. W. Shannon, di- rector of the Oklahoma Geological Survey, dealt with the work of the Oklahoma Academy of Science and its connection with the scien- tifie work of the state. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, Chas. N. Gould, Oklahoma City. First Vice-president, L. Chas. Raiford, Still- water. Second Vice-president, L. B. Nice, Norman. Secretary, G. K. Stanton, Enid. Assistant Secretary, Ethel L. McCafferty, Enid. Treasurer, H. H. Lane, Norman. Curator, Fritz Aurin, Norman. The next meeting of the academy will be held in November, 1916, at the time and place of the meeting of the Oklahoma State Teachers’ Association. Tue Stanford University Medical School announces the thirty-fourth course of Popular Medical Lectures to be given in Lane Hall on alternate Friday evenings as follows: January 14. ‘‘Medical Research and Its Rela- tion to General Medicine,’’ by Dr. George H. Whipple, director of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research. January 28. ‘‘The Heonomie Aspect of Dis- ease,’’ by Murray S. Wildman, Ph.D., professor of economics. February 11. ‘‘Disease Carriers,’’ by Dr. W A. Sawyer, secretary, California State Board of Health. February 25. ‘‘The Relation of Hospitals to the Community,’’ by Dr. George B. Somers. March 10. ‘‘QLocomotion in Health and Dis- ease,’? by Dr. Walter F. Schaller. March 24. ‘‘Mental Hygiene,’’ by Lilien J. Martin, Ph.D., professor of psychology. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS By the will of Miss Rose Hollingsworth, of Boston, the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- SCIENCE [N..S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1097 nology, Radcliffe College, Mount Holyoke Col- lege and the Tuskegee Industrial Institute each receive $5,000. Five hundred dollars are be- queathed to the Gray Herbarium, the National Association of Audubon Societies, the Society for the Protection of Native Plants, the Amer- ican Forestry Association and to the Massa- chusetts Forestry Association. A cirt of $75,000 has been announced to the Harvard Medical School. This is the balance of the bequest of Morrill Wyman, who estab- lished the Morrill Wyman Medical Research Fund, the income of which is to be applied in promoting investigation concerning the origin, results, prevention and treatment of disease. THE executors of the estate of the late Lord Strathcona have notified Queen’s University, Kingston, that the $100,000 left to that uni- versity is now available and ready to be paid. A VALUABLE collection of periodicals, mono- graphs and other medical books, consisting of more than 4,000 volumes, has been presented to the Johns Hopkins Hospital by Dr. Howard A. Kelly. Proressor Henry A. Perkins, of the depart- ment of physics, is acting president of Trinity College during the absence of President Luther. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE THE ORIGIN OF THE “NITER SPOTS” IN CER- TAIN WESTERN SOILS! In a recent issue of SCIENCE, under the above title, Sackett and Isham? discussed this im- portant question but conveyed no actual in- formation regarding either the meaning of the term “niter spot” or its origin. They merely select for discussion a single point out of the great mass of available material so that the general scientific reader to whom an ap- peal is thus made through the columns of Science is left in doubt as to what it is all about. In order to clarify the matter for the average reader, it seems advisable to submit some definite information on the subject in 1Sackett and Isham, ScrENoE, Vol. XLII., p. 452, October 1, 1915. JANUARY 7, 1916] order that those who are not familiar with the data in the technical publications may form an intelligent opinion regarding the merits of the several theories proposed regarding the origin of these spots. The term “niter spots” has recently been applied by Headden? to alkali accumulations in certain western soils which develop spots of a dark brown color. Formerly alkali soils were classified as white and black alkali, depending upon the presence or absence of color. The black color of the black alkali spots is due, as shown by Hilgard, to the presence of sodium carbonate, which has a solyent and decompos- ing action upon the organic matter in the soil. The white alkali consisting largely of the sul- phate and chloride of sodium, having no solvent and decomposing action on the organic matter, does not produce any color. There is also an intermediate condition where the color of the alkali spot is a dark or light brown. In these so-called “niter spots” there are two main points which differentiate them from either the white or black alkali soils: (1) the accumulation of large quantities of nitrates; (2) the presence of a brown instead of a black color. The soil of these spots always contains large quantities of the sulphates and chlorides of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. A discussion has arisen regarding the source of the nitrates and color of these special alkali spots. Three theories have been presented regard- ing the origin of the nitrates in these spots. (1) Hilgard,? who first observed the accumu- lations of nitrates in certain alkali spots in arid soils, attributed them to the more rapid nitrification of the organic matter in the warm arid soils when the moisture factor was re- moved by the application of irrigation water. (2) Headden* believes them to be due to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by the non- symbiotie bacteria, notwithstanding the fact that these bacteria have no power to produce nitrates. Sackett,5 apparently, adopts both the 2 Headden, Colorado Exp. Sta. Bul. 155. 8 Hilgard, ‘‘Soils,’’ p. 448. 4 Headden, Colorado Exp. Sta. Bul. 155. 5 Sackett, Colorado Exp. Station Bul. 179. SCIENCE 21 above views. He evidently assumes that the nitrogen is fixed by azotobacter or other non- symbiotic organisms and later nitrified by the nitrifying organisms. (3) Stewart and Greaves, and later Stewart and Peterson,? believe the nitrates are due to the leaching and concentrating action of the irrigating water upon the nitrates occurring in the shales and sandstones (or country rock) adjacent to and underneath the affected areas from which the soil has been derived. It is imperative to obtain a clear conception regarding the origin of these accumulations for two important reasons: (1) Considerable valuable land is being rendered non-productive, due to these enormous accumulations, and methods of reclamation must await proper con- ception regarding their origin. If the nitrate accumulations are the result of the concentra- tion of the salts preexisting in the country rock proper methods of drainage, adapted to the peculiar soil formation will be effective in reclamation of the soil of the affected area. On the other hand, if the accumulations are due to the abnormal activity of the non-sym- biotic bacteria, drainage is not only not effec- tive in the reclamation of these lands but actu- ally detrimental, since it makes more favor- able the conditions for such bacterial activity. If the later conception is true, investigations must be undertaken to devise methods for checking the abnormal activity of the non- symbiotic bacteria. (2) Dr. Hopkins says: To increase or maintain the nitrogen and or- ganic matter of the soil is the most important practical problem of American agriculture. If conditions in certain irrigated soils of the arid west are such as to bring about such an abnormal fixation of atmospheric nitrogen as to render the soil non-productive, due to the production of enormous amounts of nitrates, it is important that the conditions governing such fixation may be clearly understood in order that advantage may be taken of this 6 Stewart and Greaves, Utah Exp. Sta. Bul. 114, 1911. 7Stewart and Peterson, Utah Exp. Sta. Bul. 134, 1914; Jr. Am. Soc. Agron., Vol. 6, 241. 22 process in other soils and thus solve the most important problem in American agriculture. These niter spots are characterized by the following conditions: (1) The presence of large quantities of nitrates; (2) the inevitable presence (usually larger quantities) of other soluble salts such as the chlorides and sulphates of sodium, potassium, calcium and magne- sium; (3) the absence of appreciable quantities of soluble carbonates; (4) the presence of a dark brown color or stain; (5) the formation of a hard crust on the surface of the soil; (6) underneath the crust there is a layer of dry dust with fine alkali salt crystals which gives an ash-like or mealy condition of the soil; (7) beneath the ash the soil is moist, sticky and glistening. These niter spots usually occur in cultivated soil after it has been irrigated for a few years. But they likewise occur in the non-irrigated and non-arable soils of the moun- tains wherever moisture conditions are favor- able to the concentration of the salts. Over four hundred samples of the country rock were collected from the original rock ad- jacent to the soils in the affected areas and these were analyzed for nitrates and other soluble salts. These data form a basis for the theory developed by us. The soils most af- fected are those derived from the Mancos shales of the ecretaceous as well as from the shales and sandstones of the tertiary de- posits. Sufficient evidence has been presented by us to show conclusively that these nitrate accu- mulations are the direct result of the concen- trating and leaching action of the irrigating water upon the nitrates already existing in the original country rock adjacent to and under- neath the affected soils. Briefly summarized, our case rests upon the following evidence: (1) Highly productive, irrigated soils rich in organic matter, free from alkali, are also free from uniter spots, or nitrate accumulations. (2) Alkali and nitrate-free soils, under similar climatic conditions, irrigated with water from the same river, geographically adjacent, but derived from different geological series, have been cultivated and irrigated for ten times as long as the niter soils, yet are free from SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1097 nitrate accumulations. (3) The total alkali salts of any given spot fluctuate from year to year; the nitric nitrogen and total salts, as measured by the chlorine content, increase and decrease in quantity in the same general ratio. The same influences must be at work on both. (4) The amount of chlorides and sulphates present are enormous in quantity and are suffi- cient in themselves to render the soil non- productive. Thus in a characteristic spot a noted increase of nitric nitrogen in four years of 621 pounds was accompanied by an in- crease of 128 tons of chlorine and 315 tons of total alkali salts. (5) There is no record of “niter spots” free from these other salts; the nitrates and other alkali salts must there- fore be associated in some manner. (6) Lip- man’ has shown conclusively that alkali salts not only do not have a stimulating effect on the production of nitrates in alkali soils, but, on the contrary, nitrification is inhibited. (7) The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the non-irrigated soils? of Utah is much greater than in the niter soils, yet the nitric nitrogen content of the latter is only normal, being less than six parts per million. (8) Niter spots, possessing all the characteristics, occur in the virgin state in the uncultivated and non- arable areas of the near-by hills wherever the water conditions are such as to cause a leach- ing and concentrating action on the soluble salts, including the nitrates preexisting in the rock itself. (9) There are large quantities of nitrates in a widely disseminated form, oc- curring in the country rock adjacent to and underneath the affected soils. (10) These nitrate accumulations although not of any commercial economic importance, so far as known, because of their wide distribution, are more than sufficient, being greater in quantity than those of Chili, to account in full for the nitrate accumulations observed in the alkali soils. This evidence leads us to the inevitable con- clusion that the non-symbiotic bacteria are not 8 Lipman, Central f. Bkt., Abt. II., Bd. 33, s. 305. 9Greaves, Central f. Bkt., Abt. II., Bd. 41, p. 444, JANUARY 7, 1916] responsible for the production of the nitrates noted in the niter spots of the affected soils of the arid west and their presence there is only incidental and of no more economic impor- tance than their more abundant occurrence in other normal “niter’-free soils of the arid regions. ‘The nitrates present in the “niter spots” are the direct result of the leaching and concentrating action of the ground water upon the nitrates preexisting in the country rock adjacent to or underneath the soil of the affected area. The nature and source of the color present in these spots is of no economic importance whatever except as evidence in support of one or the other of the theories regarding the origin of the nitrates themselves. The azoto- bacter are in no way concerned in the produc- tion of this color. In the normal dry farm soils of Utah the maximum fixation of nitro- gen by the non-symbiotic organisms is greater than in the niter soils, yet these soils are free from nitrate accumulation and the color and other characteristics likewise are absent. SCIENCE 23 and decomposing action (double decomposi- tion) of the nitrates of sodium and potassium upon the old organic matter or humus already occurring in the shale and sandstone is sufii- cient to account for the production of the color in these “niter spots.” The nitrates of sodium and potassium do have a solvent action on organic matter as already demonstrated.1° A rich greenhouse soil already abundantly supplied with nitrate was extracted with water for 24 hours as in the official humus determination. A highly colored solution resulted. An aliquot portion on evaporation to dryness and ignition gaye a loss of 0.57 per cent. The soil was then ex- tracted with the various soluble salts of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. The variation in intensity of the color was very pronounced with the extract of the differ- ent salts. How can this fact be best con- veyed to the reader is an important question which arose? The following data were obtained on evaporation and subsequent ignition of an aliquot portion of the extract: Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calelum SRL eC co, ! so, | ci | No,| co, | so, | ce [Xo so,| ci | No,| ci | No, Per cent. dissolved............... 5.7 |1.19|0.72| 0.8 | 4.2 | 0.78 | 0.57| 1.4 | 0.57 | 0.48 | 0.49 | 0.19 | 0.20 The color is due to the solvent and decom- Notwithstanding the confessedly crude posing action of the nitrates upon the old or- ganic matter or humus in the soil. The source of the old organic matter, like the nitrates, may be found in the adjacent shales which as already pointed out are coal- and oil-bearing. Some of the most important coal deposits of Utah and Colorado are found in these shales and sandstones. As a result the ordinary shale contains more or less organic matter. As an illustration, the analysis of twelve samples of shales from near Grand Junction, Colorado, gave an organic nitrogen content of 1,840 pounds per two million pounds of shale. The assumption of the hydrolyzing action of sodium nitrate and the subsequent humifica- tion of the organic matter of the soil to form the brownish colored organic compounds 7s as unnecessary as tw is untenable. The solvent method of conveying a conception of the va- riation in color extracted by the several salts, considering the results as a whole two im- portant facts are evident: (1) the solvent action upon the organic matter of the salts of sodium and potassium and (2) the repressive action of the salts of magnesium and calcium. The solvent action is very pronounced in the cases of sodium and potassium carbonate and the repressive action is very pronounced in the case of the salts of calcium. How may we interpret these data? The aqueous extract alone dissolved some colored organic matter due undoubtedly to the fact that the soil itself contained several hun- dred parts per million of nitrate. Likewise, 10 Stewart and Peterson, Jr. Am. Soc. Agron., Vol. 6, p. 247, 1914. 24 SCIENCE owing to the presence of this nitrate in the soil, the chlorides, sulphates of sodium and potassium exert a solvent action on the or- ganic matter. The potassium nitrate has a decomposition, while the solvent action of the more pronounced solvent action on the organic matter, which is intensified by double carbonates of sodium and potassium are un- doubtedly intensified by the hydrolyzation and consequent production of caustic alkali. The salts of calcium exert a repressive action be- cause of the double decomposition and the union of the calcium to formed insoluble eal- cium salts of the colored organic acids present as already explained. In the presence of old organic material such as occurs in the coal- bearing shale the humifying action of either the carbonates or other salts is entirely neg- ligible but it undoubtedly is true that the humifying action upon fresh organic matter of the caustic soda produced by the hydroly- zation of the sodium carbonate is an impor- tant factor in the production of the black color of the black alkali spots of alkali soils. Furthermore, the solvent action of potas- sium nitrate on old organic matter may be observed in the extraction of peaty soils in the determination of acidity of the soil by the Hopkins method. The potassium nitrate ex- tract of peaty soils in this determination is always colored, due to dissolved organic ma- terial. The intensity of the color frequently is so great as to give considerable trouble in the subsequent titration of the extract with an alkali, because the change in color of the indicator can not be observed. The solubility of the old organic matter of peaty soils in potassium nitrate is certainly entirely anal- ogous to the solubility of the old organic mat- ter in the coal-bearing shales and sandstones which constitute the parent material out of which the soils of the “niter” areas are formed. The color thus can be readily accounted for without the instrumentality of the bacteria, while, moreover, artificial niter spots may be produced in the laboratory on a small scale under conditions which preclude the presence of any bacterial life whatever. Three hun- [N. 8. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1097 dred grams of a greenhouse soil, rich in humus, was placed in small evaporating dishes and the dish filled with a 10-per-cent. solution of sodium nitrate. The solution was then allowed to slowly evaporate by the sun’s rays. When all the moisture had evaporated there was produced characteristic niter spots including the color, hard crust and the mealy crystalline condition underneath the crust due to the accumulation of the soluble salts. These spots were likewise produced when the nitrate was added in the solid form and the moisture added with a saturated solution of mercuric chloride or a 5 per cent. solution of carbolic acid. Control samples of the same soul, in the absence of the nitrate, with or without the antiseptic, failed to produce either the color or other indications of the niter spots. It is evident, therefore, that the bac- teria play no important role in either the pro- duction of the nitrates or color of the “ niter spots ” of certain western soils. In addition to the evidence already pub- lished, a detailed paper dealing with the problem as it affects other soils than those already discussed is being prepared and will be published later elsewhere. Ropert STEWART UNIVERSITY OF JLLINOIS WILLIAM PETERSON UTAH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE MOTTLED LIMESTONES AND THEIR BEARING ON THE ORIGIN OF DOLOMITE?! SEVERAL examples of limestone mottled with dolomite have been described during the past few years, but R. C. Wallace was the first to at- tempt seriously to interpret their meaning. In a very suggestive paper entitled “ Pseudobrec- ciation in Ordovician Limestones in Mani- toba ”2 he points out that the dolomite patches in these limestones follow fucoid-like mark- ings suggesting algw, and concludes that the relationship has resulted from a process of local replacement produced by the magnesia contained in alge which were imbedded in the 1 With the permission of the director of the Towa Geological Survey. 2 Jour. Geol., Vol. XXI., 1913, pp. 402-421. JANUARY 7, 1916] limestone at the time it was deposited. He therefore regards the magnesia as indigenous. It has appeared to the writer that the agents which produced the mottling might be closely bound up with dolomite formation on an ex- tensive scale, and he has accordingly given the phenomenon careful attention in connec- tion with his studies on the origin of dolomite. In the occurrences of mottled limestones ob- served by him. the dolomite patches follow fucoid markings similar to those described by Wallace in some instances, but in others they are very irregular and show no guiding influ- ence. For the origin of both types it seems necessary to adopt an alternative hypothesis; namely, that the magnesia was subsequently introduced into the limestone from without, and that the mottling has resulted from the selective replacement of fucoid markings in the one case, and from the spreading out of the alteration from certain favorable centers in the other. Consistent with this view are the fol- lowing facts: 1. The existence of unaltered fucoid mark- ings containing less than two per cent. of magnesium carbonate in association with dolomitic ones. 2. The association of both types of mottling with dolomite seams and other evidences of imperfect dolomitization. 3. The graduation of mottled beds into beds which are uniformly dolomitic, both laterally and vertically. 4. The existence of every gradation between limestone showing incipient mottling and true dolomite. Thus it appears to the writer that all ex- amples of mottling examined by him repre- sent an incipient stage in the process of dolo- mitization, and it is believed that many dolo- mites have passed through such a stage in the progress of their formation. Here, then, we have a clue to the origin of all those masses of dolomite with which such mottling is as- sociated. With regard to the time of the alteration which produced the mottling, there is con- vincing evidence that it took place in the ma- jority of cases prior to or contemporaneously SCIENCE 25 with the recrystallization of the limestone. Several features lend support to this conclu- sion; namely, the development of perfect rhombs of dolomite showing no growth inter- ference effects in the limestone about the bor- ders of the dolomite patches; the occasional presence of zonal growths of dolomite and cal- cite; the tendency of the dolomite areas to spread out uniformly in all directions as the dolomitization proceeded rather than to de- velop veinlets; and the association of the mot- tling with imperfect dolomitization effects along original lines of weakness such as bed- ding planes rather than along secondary struc- tures such as joints or fractures. It seems probable, therefore, that the mottling was pro- duced while the limestones were still beneath the sea, and that the sea water contributed the magnesia. Francis M. Van Tuy UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS SERPENT INSTINCT IN MAN To tHE Eprror or Scrmence: In the very entertaining and instructive work by Col. Wm. C. Gorgas, “Sanitation in Panama,” the author in the concluding pages of the book gives expression to certain philosophizing ideas relating to the earliest period of the existence of the human race, and makes the point that before the discovery by primitive man of fire and clothing his habitat must have been confined to that part of the earth that lies “between the tropics of Cancer and Capri- corn,” or within narrow limits outside of that region. There has been much speculation concern- ing the focus from which the world’s popula- tion became diffused over the earth’s surface, and, at least as far as regards the white peo- ples of Europe and Asia, the consensus of scientific opinion has fixed upon some locality in central Asia as the probable focus of origin, though the exact or approximate locality seems not to have been defined. In the writer’s reflections along this line there has presented itself to his contemplation one very pronounced and mysterious mental attribute still pertinaciously clinging to the white race at least, which seems to carry evi- 26 dence corroborative of the above conclusion, pointing, however, more specifically to India as the location of man’s early development. Reference is made to the general prevalence of a deep-seated abhorrence of the serpent and all serpent forms among the white race. This abhorrence of serpents is really a deep-seated animal instinct, which has survived long after the conditions that gave it origin. Rational persons who are informed on the subject know that the great majority of the snakes to be encountered in this country are entirely harmless, being without venom or fangs; and indeed the writer has determined, to his own satisfaction at least, that in this particular region the only one of the snake family that is a menace to human life is the now rarely encountered Crotalus horridus, using the term in a generic sense. And yet, any intelligent person when un- expectedly brought into close proximity to any kind of a snake, large or small, venomous or non-venomous, or even a semblance of a snake, is suddenly seized by a panic of horror and fear, with an impulse to spring away out of the serpent’s reach as quickly as possible in a sort of blind terror. The probable origin of this instinctive hor- ror of serpents that still dominates the mind of civilized man was during the countless gen- erations when early man was slowly climbing up from his animal ancestry to his present eminence as Homo sapiens. Being without fire and without clothing or shelter, he was peculiarly defenseless in an environment beset by deadly serpents, against this, probably the greatest danger and greatest menace to racial survival that he had to encounter. Hence his instinctive horror of the serpent form. The idea that India was the “ cradle” of the white race at least, with its serpent environ- ment threatening racial existence for a very long period of its primitive development, ap- pears to receive some degree of confirmation from the fact that among the inhabitants of India at the present time the annual mortality from attacks of serpents exceeds twenty thou- sand, notwithstanding the efforts of the British authorities to suppress the evil. SCIENCE [N.'S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1097 The serpent instinct in man has a close anal- ogy in a similar instinct that characterizes the domestic horse of the present time, to which allusion has been made by writers on the subject. It is a familiar fact to every one who has to do with horses, the proneness of the horse to exhibit an insane and uncontrollable fear of any unfamiliar wayside object. Indeed the phenomenon is such a commonplace that probably very few persons have given a thought in explanation of what appears to be a wholly unaccountable mystery. The suggestion that has been offered with compelling force to account for this curious horse instinct is on parallel lines with that offered above to account for man’s serpent in- stinet, both of which in the nature of animal instincts are intense and deep seated, and have long survived the conditions that gave rise to them. In the ease of the horse, for a very long pe- riod of his racial development he was sub- jected to one danger exceeding all others in magnitude by which racial survival was con- stantly threatened. This danger was embodied in the predacious beasts that infested the horse’s early environment, mainly of the feline family, that lay in wait concealed by bushes or other cover for the opportunity to spring upon him and devour him. The horse had no means of defense against this danger except alertness in eluding the spring of his enemy and fleet- ness of foot to escape pursuit. The individual horses that developed these qualities most highly survived, while those that failed to reach an efficient standard fell victims to their enemies. And we now see, thousands of years after the domestication of the horse, that he sud- denly falls into a senseless panic and flees at breakneck speed from an imaginary danger behind him, heedless of real dangers ahead which not infrequently cause him a broken neck. The instinctive fear of imaginary dangers in the horse, and the same kind of fear of ser- pents in man, appear to have had a similar genesis in the early experiences of both races. T. G. DaBney JANUARY 7, 1916] THE TEACHING OF ELEMENTARY DYNAMICS To tHE Epiror or Science: Will yon please note that the following typographical errors should be corrected in my article in SCIENCE of December 24, page 901: First column, after (4) “ Impulse = Mo- mentum” should be raised two lines, and “From (3)” should be brought down to the line containing T=2S/V. After (5) “ Work done= Kinetic energy ” should likewise be raised and “In (4) let” lowered. Sixth line from bottom, for A=M/F read A=F/M. Second column, third line, for Wg/32.1740 read Wqg,/32.1740. Wm. Kent Monrciar, N. J. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Medical and Veterinary Entomology: A Text- book for use in Schools and Colleges, as well as a Handbook for the use of Physicians, Veterinarians and Public Health Officials. By Witu1aMm B. Heros, Associate Professor of Parasitology in the University of Cali- fornia. The Macmillan Company, 1915. Price $4.00. This is a time in the history of the world when “long-felt wants” are rapidly being filled. A year ago an up-to-date handbook of medical entomology did not exist in printed form, and now we have two excellent works on this subject. The first to appear, “ A Hand- book of Medical Entomology,” by Dr. W. A. Riley and Dr. O. A. Johannsen, of Cornell University, was reviewed in Scmncer, October 15, 1915. The second, which has just ap- peared, is a large, well-illustrated and com- petent book of about four hundred pages, and has been written by a man who has been in- vestigating and teaching the general subject for six years or more at Berkeley. Much of the matter contained in the book was pre- pared for the press some six years ago, but owing to the very many advances which are constantly being made in the field covered by the book it was withheld until this time, much revised and added to, and now appears at a SCIENCE 27 moment when it is very welcome. Although the author states that his book is not intended to be a comprehensive treatise, but is rather an attempt to systematize the subject and to assist In securing for it a place among the applied biological sciences, it has greatly the appearance of comprehensiveness. The whole field is included in the treatment, and of course for the purposes of the volume the ticks and mites are among the subjects treated. There is also a chapter on venomous insects and Arachnids. A thoroughly good compilation arranged in a natural and systematic manner would have been a most useful book for the teacher and student as well as the practitioner, but in addi- tion to being such a compilation this book in- cludes a large amount of new material based upon the researches of Professor Herms and his assistants. For example, he details specific experiments in the transmission of bacteria by cockroaches and gives counts of the bacteria of the different parts of the body of the croton bug. His chapters on organization and cost of mosquito control work and on organization and control work against the house fly are espe- cially strong from the very fact that they are based upon extended experience and upon very many experiments. Professor Herms himself has been the adviser in nearly all of the organi- zation and control work of this kind which has been carried out on the Pacific coast, and what he says in this direction is in the highest de- gree authoritative. His chapter on the stable fly (Stomozys calcitrans) is also strong, and his conclusion to the effect that it is doubtful that this species is the usual agent in spread- ing polyomyelitis in nature is based upon a careful series of experimental laboratory work with this species and monkeys. The treat- ment of the important group of fleas and ticks is noticeably full, and his consideration of bee stings, and especially of the morphology and operation of the sting, is very welcome. In his generalizations concerning mosquito life history, on page 91 and the following, he does not sufficiently point out, it seems to the writer, the enormous differences that exist in the life histories of different species, which 28 are in fact so great that it is difficult to gen- eralize except in the broadest way. There are very few slips in the book, but it is misleading to read on page 113 that Surgeon-General Sternberg established in 1899 a commission “to study the yellow-fever mosquito theory in Cuba.” As a matter of fact the commission was established “for the purpose of pursuing scientific investigations with reference to the infectious diseases prevalent on the Island of Cuba,” and it was, as is shown in Agramonte’s important article in the last number of The Scientific Monthly, the commission’s idea ex- perimentally to test Finlay’s theory. In this error Professor Herms probably followed the writer’s early book “ Mosquitoes” (New York, 1901), but it has been several times corrected. There is much to be said in favor of the rapidly growing substitution of half-tones from good clear photographs for photo-engravings of line and stipple drawings, but it is possible to carry this to an extreme. For example, the illustration of the two-spotted corsair (Rasahus biguttatus), page 78, can by no means be con- sidered as a competent illustration of this species, unless it were stated to be a specimen erushed by a violent slap when engaged in sucking the blood of the author! This, how- ever, is an exception, and the great majority of the figures are very good. Very many students in the universities and colleges and in the medical colleges as well are turning their attention to medical entomology, and perhaps the most rapid advances in the whole field of economic entomology in the immediate future will be in this direction. The timeliness and usefulness of Professor Herm’s book under these circumstances can not be doubted, and both he and his depart- ment at Berkeley are to be congratulated. L. O. Howarp Senescence and Rejuvenescence. By C. M. Cup. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press. Pp. xi-+ 481. 201 figures. A number of biologists have attempted to solve the problem of rejuvenescence by deny- ing its existence. Living substance, they say, erows old, but can never grow young. In each SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLII. No. 1097 individual some part remains young and it is this that supplies the substance for the process of senescence. Professor Child is not of this belief. To him “growing young” is as real a phase of development as “growing old.” This is natural to one who has seen and de- seribed the formation of sex-cells from tissue cells and to whom structure is merely a product of function. For some time he has been ma- king a study of rate of metabolism as a crite- rion of senescence and rejuvenescence and the present volume is largely an exposition of the results of these experiments with a discussion of their significance for the problem of devel- opment. A considerable mass of evidence, according to the author, proves that susceptibility to the eyanides, ethyl alcohol, ethyl ether and similar substances is directly proportional to the rate of metabolism when the strength of the solu- tion is sufficient to kill within a few hours. On the other hand, if the solution is so weak that there is an acclimation effect the animals with the higher rate live longer than those with the lower rate. Starving animals form an excep- tion to the latter rule. These methods show that increase in age is in general accompanied by decrease in rate of metabolism, but that there are one or more periods in each life cycle that are accompanied by an increase in rate. According to Child these are the periods of rejuvenescence and are found not only in the early cleavage stages fol- lowing the union of the egg and spermatozoon, but also in the early period of regeneration, in starving animals and under other conditions. He concludes from these considerations that rejuvenescence is a fundamental phenomenon in development and is by no means confined to sexual reproduction. As a matter of fact the changes in metabolism due to amount and character of food and to other environmental factors are according to him in no essential respect different from the others. This at- tempt to prove fundamental similarity between minor metabolic changes and the major proc- cesses of the life cycle may be criticized, but Child considers it to be one of the principal virtues of his discussion. When put in physio- JANUARY 7, 1916] logical terms senescence does not follow an un- broken course. Non-energistic formule do not appeal to the author. In fact he seems to delight in show- ing his antagonism toward them. For in- stance, he says that “ attempts to connect par- ticular facts with particular chromosomes or parts of chromosomes are not at the present, properly speaking, scientific hypotheses.” This and similar statements leave no doubt as to the direction of Professor Child’s interest. They may, unfortunately, keep some readers from a fair consideration of the very valuable results of his work. The extent of the ground covered in the book is well indicated by the titles of the five parts. I. The Problem of Organic Constitution. II. An Experimental Study of Physiological Senescence and Rejuvenescence in the Lower Animals. IIT. Individualism and Reproduc- tion in Relation to the Age Cycle. IV. Ga- metic Reproduction in Relation to the Age Cycle. V. Theoretical and Critical. About half of the space is devoted to the experiments of the author and the greater part of the ob- servations appear here for the first time. The importance of the facts and their gen- eral interest make it a matter for congratula- tion that they have appeared in this connected form rather than in separate papers. The book will be welcomed by all those interested in the problem of development. CHARLES ZELENY Land Magnetic Observations, 1911-1918 and Reports on Special Researches. By L. A. Bauer anp J. A. Fruemine. Washington, D. C., 1915. Publication No. 175, Vol. 2, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 4to. Pp. v-+ 278. 13 plates, 9 text-figures. This is the second volume of the “ Re- searches of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism,” the first volume having dealt with the magnetic observations on land from 1905 to 1910. Some idea of the magnitude of the work carried out under Dr. Bauer’s energetic leadership can be gained from the statement that during the eight years following the founding of the department the various expe- SCIENCE 29 ditions by land and sea covered in all nearly a million miles. Observations were made in 103 different countries and island groups. The results of these expeditions and of special investigations have been embodied in about 125 articles and publications. It is now ex- pected that one of the chief objects for which the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism was founded, the general magnetic survey of the globe. between latitudes 70° N. and 65° S., will be completed in 1916. Up to the present time this remarkable achievement has been accomplished without loss of life. In view of the ever-changing values of the magnetic elements and of our imperfect knowledge of the secular variation in many parts of the earth, it is of immense importance in the analysis of the earth’s magnetic field, and thereby ultimately to the navigator and surveyor, that magnetic data be secured for the whole globe at as nearly the same epoch as possible. As has often. been remarked, we ean never hope to know much about the magnetic field in a vertical direction above or below the earth’s surface. Hence a minute and accurate knowledge of the magnetic field over the surface to which we are confined is of all the more importance. It will be greatly to the credit of the Carnegie Institution to have accomplished the task in less than a decade. No cooperation of civilized governments could be expected to do this. It is precisely in work of this sort that a richly endowed private in- stitution can render its greatest service. The first part of the volume is devoted to a description of instruments, with their cor- rections, and the magnetic standards finally adopted. Two new universal types of mag- netometer have been developed by the depart- ment, and seven complete instruments have been constructed in the department’s shop. Many persons not directly interested in mag- netism would find it to their advantage to ex- amine the ingenuity and elegance of some of the instrumental details. The old-fashioned dip circle, with its eccen- tricities both literal and figurative, has largely given place to the earth inductor. Nothing is said about trouble from thermo-electric cur- 30 rents in the use of the latter instrument, though due precautions must have been taken to avoid any possible error from this source. It is unfortunate that the Kelvin type of gal- vanometer still has to be retained, in most eases at least, on account of the stray field produced by the permanent magnet of the moving coil galvanometers. Dip values ob- tained with the earth inductor are now con- sistent to within about one minute of are. The corrections for individual dip needles usually amount to very much more than this. The tabulated results of observations are comprised in about forty pages. The data in- elude geographical position, date, hour, and values of declination, dip, and horizontal in- tensity, for a very large number of stations in all of the continents, the antarctic regions, and chief island groups. No reduction of values to a common epoch is attempted. In- tensities are given in C.G.S. units. Physicists may well question the necessity of introdu- cing, at the headings of columns of horizontal intensity, the special symbol T, which, we are told, represents one ©.G.S. unit. In the al- ready highly be-symboled state of science would we not better rest content with that “yerfectly good” name for the O.G.S. unit, which is also a reminder of the father of the science of terrestrial magnetism, the gauss? In connection with the land observations, instrumental and other assistance has been furnished in cooperation with various organi- zations and expeditions. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition and the Crocker Land Expedition may be especially named. The ob- servers’ field reports are replete with notes of interest to the geologist, botanist, biologist and explorer. If one seeks information con- cerning selection of firearms, feeding of eamels, defense against Bedawins, or canoe- ing in the Canadian wilderness, he will find it here. A valuable feature of the book is the detailed description of the research buildings recently erected near Rock Creek Park. The main building is of fireproof construction, and so stable that no perceptible vibration is trans- mitted to the most sensitive galvanometers, SCIENCE [N.'S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1097 even when the machinery in the basement is running. For work demanding freedom from magnetic disturbances, a separate non-mag- netic building has been erected. Those inter- ested in the building and equipment of labora- tories of any kind will profit by a study of these carefully planned structures. The only special researches recorded in this volume are some miscellaneous observations made in Samoa at the time of the solar eclipse of April 28, 1911, and a very detailed descrip- tion of the comparisons of magnetic standards made at various observatories. The present attainable precision in magnetic observations may be learned from the statement that “the corrections, on absolute standards, for the declination and inclination may be in error by 0’.1 or 0’.2 and for the horizontal intensity by about 0.00014.” W. G. Capy WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY SPECIAL ARTICLES SOME SUGGESTIONS ON METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF NITRIFICATION1 Durie recent years the use of one gram of dried blood, tankage, cotton-seed meal, bone meal, ete., mixed with 100 em. of soil, has com- monly been employed in laboratory studies on nitrification. In some eases as much as 2 per cent. of these materials has been used. On the other hand, a much smaller amount of ammonium sulfate is usually added because of its greater solubility and recognized toxicity to the nitrifying organisms when present in ex- cessive concentrations. The results are fre- quently stated in terms of the absolute amounts of nitric nitrogen formed rather than in per- centages of nitrogen nitrified. Comparisons and conclusions on the relative nitrifiability of nitrogenous fertilizers are commonly made on the basis of evidence obtained in this way. In the course of studies on nitrification at the University of California Citrus Experi- ment Station, the writer recently observed a wide range of variation in the nitrification of 1 Paper No. 20, Citrus Experiment Station, Col- lege of Agriculture, University of California, River- side, Calif. JANUARY 7, 1916] dried blood in soil from fertilizer plats of an experiment that has been in progress for eight years. In some cases the use of one per cent. dried blood resulted in no nitrification at all in four weeks’ incubation, but rather a partial loss of the nitrates originally present. In soil from other plats, however, vigorous nitrifica- tion took place. The soil throughout these plats has been derived from disintegrated granite and is quite sandy and very low in organic matter and nitrogen. In view of the extensive use now being made of dried blood, and the scientific interest attached to the sub- ject, an extended study of nitrification in Southern California soils has been undertaken. Such questions as the relative rates of nitrifi- cation of dried blood, bone meal, ammonium sulfate, ete., the effects of lime, the influence of organic matter and other factors are being studied. The investigations are still in prog- ress. Certain of the results already obtained, however, seem of sufficient interest to war- rant preliminary discussion at the present time. Later, a more complete presentation of the investigation will be submitted. At the outset it was found that vigorous ammonification of different organic fertilizers took place in all plats studied and that the addition of lime did not greatly affect either ammonification or nitrification. When the conventional amount of nitrogenous materials was added, however, dried blood was not nitri- fied in soil from certain plats, while bone meal and ammonium sulfate underwent vigorous nitrification. In soil from other plats no such difference was observed. The following re- sults illustrate the difference in nitrification in two plats. 100 gm. of soil in duplicate was employed in each case. Increase in Nitric. N. p. p.m. Plot B, Plot U, Manure, Rock Phos, Materials Added Unfertilized and Legume 1 gm. dried blood ........ — 2.8 170 1 gm. bone meal ......... 92.8 154 0.15 gm. ammonium sulfate. 67.8 136 Similar observations have been reported from other soils of California.” 2 Lipman and Burgess, Calif. Sta. Bull. 251 and 260, 1915. SCIENCE ol It is of interest in this connection that cer- tain plats in the field experiments, from which the above soils were drawn, have been fertil- ized annually for eight years with dried blood only, and that marked stimulation has resulted in the growth and vigor of the citrus trees, on the one hand, and in the yield of fruit, on the other. For example, the yield during the past two years has been increased more than 100 per cent. by the use of dried blood. Further- more, a material increase in the nitrate con- tent of the soil is found at the present time wherever dried blood has been applied, indi- eating that this material undergoes nitrifica- tion in the field. Two questions, therefore, present them- selves. First, why should dried blood fail to undergo nitrification in soil from certain plats but be nitrified vigorously in others, while at the same time bone meal and ammonium sul- fate are capable of being vigorously nitrified in each? This question seems especially per- tinent since ammonification, generally con- sidered to be essential as preliminary to the nitrification of organic substances, takes place actively. Second, why does dried blood undergo nitrification in the field but not in the laboratory ? Entirely satisfactory answers to these ques- tions can not now be given. Some light has been thrown on them, however, as will appear from the discussion below. While the proportion of dried blood to soil employed in the above experiments was the same as is commonly used in laboratory ex- periments on nitrification, nevertheless, the possibility that excessive concentrations of dried blood had been employed was at once suggested. In the field experiments an annual application of 1,080 lbs. of dried blood per acre is now being made to certain plats, ap- plied in approximately equal applications in February, April and July. The addition of 1 gm. per 100 gm. of soil, on the other hand, corresponds to an application of 15,000 lbs. per acre, estimating an acre foot at 3,000,000 Ibs. and reckoning that the field application be- comes incorporated with the soil to a depth of six inches. Accordingly, a series of laboratory OZ experiments was undertaken, using soil from a number of plats that had been fertilized differently. The samples were drawn on August 14. Varying amounts of dried blood, bone meal and ammonium sulfate were added and the series arranged so as to make possible a fair comparison of the rates of nitrification when approximately equal amounts of nitro- gen had been acted upon simultaneously.® The following table sets forth a part of the results obtained: Nitrification4 with the Use of Varying Amounts of Materials : Plot O, Fer- Plot M, ilized NirginiSoit Unfertilized Manuierand Rock Phos. Nitrogenous Materials i Added Aya ae Az. “3 Ard) Fins leg] ge jeg 8] es |e 8| as Ep ey zm Wale a i/BESa me Joe SS lesz] Cs lesz] OS Ze) oe ARP Be ee Ay Ay Ay 1 gm. dried blood...|—12| 0 |—16}] 0 | 277 | 20.9 0.25 gm. dried blood| 24) 7 | 100) 33.3) 101 | 30.6 0.0625 gm. dried loool sasoadsoacheo00 39/ 47.3) 55/66.6| 43 |52.1 4 em. bone meal.....;—10} 0 |— 1] 0 | 149) 88 1 gm. bone meal..... 75|17.6| 76)17.9}| 181 | 42.6 0.25 gm. bone meal.| 46/43.3) 49) 46.1) 52 | 48.9 0.6 gm. am. sul...... —19) 0 11} 0.8) 55) 4.3 0.15 gm. am. sul....) 31] 9.8) 62) 19.5} 119 | 37.5 0.0375 gm. am. sul..| 35/441) 54/68.2| 73 | 92.0 Briefly, it was found that 1 per cent. dried blood failed to undergo nitrification in those soils which had not been consistently fertilized with organic manures and that in some cases 0.5 per cent. was not nitrified. On the other 3 When the experiments were begun the dried blood was thought to contain 13 per cent. nitrogen and the bone meal approximately 3 per cent. Analyses later showed them to contain 13.2 per cent. and 4.25 per cent., respectively. Consequently the amounts of nitrogen added as bone meal were higher than had been intended, but this does not materially modify the conclusions to be drawn, since a wide range of concentrations was provided. The ammonium sulfate was Baker’s C.P. 4The data represent the increase in nitric N over that found in separate portions of soil incu- bated for the same time under similar conditions, but without the addition of nitrogenous material. The minus sign (—) indicates loss of nitrate. SCIENCE [N. 8S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1097 hand, when the concentration was reduced to 0.25 per cent. or less, vigorous nitrification took place in every case. It was found, how- ever, that in most cases increasing percentages of the nitrogen added were nitrified as the amounts of dried blood were decreased down to 0.0625 per cent. Hence it would seem that even 0.25 per cent. dried blood, which is only one fourth the concentration commonly used in laboratory experiments, may inhibit nitri- fication to some extent in some soils. Similar statements may be made regarding the results obtained from the use of bone meal. The addi- tion of large amounts of this material corre- sponding approximately to the larger amounts of nitrogen added as dried blood, failed to be nitrified in the same soils that showed inability to nitrify 1 per cent. dried blood. The smaller amounts, however, were actively converted into nitrate, but in no case more actively than similar amounts of nitrogen as dried blood. In the case of ammonium sulfate, the re- sults show that increasing percentages of the nitrogen were nitrified as the concentration decreased and that this material was most com- pletely nitrified when added in the lowest concentration. Comparing the percentage of nitrification when the materials were added in low concentrations, similar to that employed in field practises, it is interesting to note that with only one exception out of the ten series of studies now made on the subject, ammonium sulfate was nitrified no more vigorously than dried blood, and in every case dried blood was nitrified more actively than such a low-grade nitrogenous material as bone meal. This fea- ture of the results, therefore, is in harmony with common knowledge and experimental data obtained in humid regions. It should be added that other series of studies conducted at a different time, fully verify the above state- ments. The conclusions seem warranted, therefore, that dried blood will undergo nitri- fication in these soils fully as actively as the other materials studied, provided an excessive concentration is not employed. The above data also indicate that before field comparisons on the nitrifiability of differ- ent materials can safely be drawn, it is neces- JANUARY 7, 1916] sary to study the rates of decomposition in equal and varying concentrations of actual nitrogen. It seems also that if practical con- clusions are to be drawn, it is necessary to approximate field conditions, as nearly as pos- sible, in laboratory tests. This point, it seems to the writer, has not been sufficiently recog- nized in many soil bacteriological studies. The conditions ensuing when relatively large amounts of nitrogenous substances such as dried blood, tankage, etce., undergo decomposi- tion, may conceivably become extremely ab- normal and greatly dissimilar to those ensuing under field practise. The products arising from the decomposition of 1 per cent. dried blood, under some conditions of bacterial activ- ity may exert, either directly or indirectly, im- portant influences on the further action of the micro-organisms present. Such, for example, is known to be the ease in the bacterial decom- position of milk. In fact the course and ex- tent of many chemical and biochemical re- actions is known to be greatly modified by the products of the action. As stated above, dried blood undergoes vig- orous ammonification in the several plats studied. It has been suggested that the con- ditions produced by the high concentrations of ammonia or ammonium carbonate, formed from the larger amounts of dried blood and bone meal, may have been unfavorable to the activity of the nitrifiers. With the hope of securing light on this point, preliminary studies have been made by adding varying amounts of ammonium hydrate and ammonium carbonate in addition to 0.25 per cent. dried blood, using a soil in which no nitrification of 1 per cent. dried blood takes place. The re- sults showed that in every case the addition of either ammonium hydrate or ammonium car- bonate partially inhibited nitrification even in the low concentration of 5 mg. per 100 gm. soil. Whether the ammonia was actually toxic to the nitrifying organisms, or reacted un- favorably through physical effects produced or otherwise, can not be definitely stated at the present time. Eyidence has been obtained that there is considerable seasonal variation in regard to SCIENCE 30 the inhibiting effect of 1 per cent. dried blood. With samples drawn from one plat in Aopril and June, respectively, 1 per cent. dried blood underwent active nitrification, while no nitri- fication took place in samples taken August 14. In each case 0.5 per cent. and less were actively nitrified. Whatever may be the cause of this phenomenon, the fact still remains to be ex- plained that 1 per cent. dried blood brought about toxic conditions in certain plats, but not pronouncedly so in others. W. P. KeLiry UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, CITRUS EXPERIMENT STATION SOME EXPERIMENTS WITH AGENTS CALCU- LATED TO KILL THE TROMBIDIUM HOLOSERICEUM Tue Trombidium holosericeum or common chicken mite is present in most hen houses throughout the country. It is very trouble- some in the hotter months, especially July and August, when it finds climatic conditions favorable for its more rapid multiplication. The mites hide in clusters, in the cracks and crevices of the roost. pole and in the crack where the roost pole rests on its support. Here they lay their eggs and the young and old emerge to attack the chickens at night. The mite finds its way to the hen at night and with its conical piercing apparatus attacks the skin and draws blood. After its feast it leaves the hen and returns to its hiding place. In searching the literature at hand in the library of the office of poultry investigations and pathology of this station no trace could be found where scientific tests and records had been made to determine just what effect the various parasiticides have upon mites. There is common belief that tobacco clip- pings, sulphur, paris green, and a host of liquids are great destroyers of these formidable foes of the poultry house, but no one so far as we could find has actually made the tests. It was thought best to try a score of the more common agents used and to run duplicate tests. Mode of Tests—The tests were run either in open tumblers or sauce dishes so as to have an abundance of air present and to have the 34 tests as nearly under normal conditions as possible. Agents Used.—The agents used fall into three classes, namely: Powders not giving off gas, powders that give off gases, and liquids. Tests were run with sulphur, air-slaked lime, paris green, naphthalene, gasoline, carbolic acid, insect powder, tobacco stems and dust, erude carbolic acid, 5 per cent. carbolic acid, 1 per cent. kreso dip, 2 per cent. kreso dip, 5 per cent. naphthalene in kerosene and 10 per cent. formaldehyde. Sulphur—aAir-slaked lime was placed in the bottom of a tumbler. At the end of 24 hours, the mites had accumulated in a cluster in the center of the dry lime. Upon being poured out upon a paper they were still found to remain vigorous. Dry air-slaked lime has apparently no injurious effect upon them. Paris Green—Dry paris green (powder) was placed in the bottom of a tumbler and sey- eral hundred mites placed in the powder and stirred up. At the end of 48 hours the mites had formed in a cluster in one edge of the powder. Upon being removed they were found to be as vigorous as before being placed in the paris green. Dry paris green has apparently. no ill effect upon mites. Naphthalene (Powdered Moth Balls) —A quantity of pulverized moth balls was placed in the bottom of a tumbler and several hun- dred vigorous mites placed on the surface. At the end of 30 minutes motion was not so active and at the end of 45 minutes all motion ceased. Upon being removed and placed upon paper all mites were found to be dead. Tobacco Bits——Bits of tobacco leaves, the sweepings from the floor of a tobacco factory, were placed in the bottom of a tumbler and several hundred very active mites placed among the tobacco. Frequent observations were made and at the end of 72 hours the mites were as active as when they were placed in the tumbler. Insect Powder.—A. powder prepared in this laboratory consists of gasoline three parts, erude earbolic acid 1 part, and plaster of paris sufficient to make a rather dry mixture. This was passed through a sieve on to paper and SCIENCE (N.S. Vou. XLIITI. No. 1097 after one hour was placed in tight jars till needed. A quantity of this powder was placed in the bottom of a tumbler and several hundred active mites placed in the material and mixed with it. At the end of one minute all mites were dead. Five Per Cent. Oarbolic Acid Solution in Water—A quantity of a five-per-cent. aqueous solution of carbolic acid was poured out into a saucer and several hundred mites placed on one side, and the dish then tilted till all the mites were wet, then the liquid drained from them, the mites remaining on the wet surface for observation. In 30 seconds all mites were dead. One Per Cent. Naphthalene in Kerosene.— One per cent. powdered moth balls dissolved in kerosene was tested. A quantity of this fluid was poured into a saucer and several hundred mites placed on the opposite side of the saucer then immersed as in the preceding test. In 30 seconds all mites in test were dead. Crude Carbolic Acid—Crude ecarbolic acid was poured into a saucer and several hundred mites placed on one side were immersed as in the preceding test. In 20 seconds all mites in the test were dead. One Per Cent. Kreso Dip.—This liquid was poured into a saucer and several hundred mites subjected as in the preceding tests. At the end of four minutes motions slowed and at the end of ten minutes all mites in the test were dead. Two Per Cent. Kreso Dip.—Test conducted as the preceding. At the end of two minutes motion was retarded and all mites in the test were dead at the end of four minutes. Ten Per Cent. Formaldehyde—tThe test was conducted as in the preceding. At the end of ten minutes all the mites in the test were dead. Summary Duplicate tests were run to determine the action, if any, of powdered sulphur, air-slaked lime, paris green and naphthalene upon the Trombidium holosericeum (the chicken mite). It was found that though sulphur in solu- tion as in lime and sulphur dip is an efficient parasiticide, that although paris green in solu- JANUARY 7, 1916] tion is a violent poison because of its arsenic content and although tobacco leaves contain nicotine which when in solution is an effective parasiticide, yet these agents in their dry state do not destroy mites. _Duplicate tests were run with naphthalene or powdered moth balls which on account of its volatile substances emitted, killed all mites in the tests in 45 minutes. Insect powder containing gasoline and crude carbolic acid, on account of the volatile sub- stances given off, killed all mites in one minute. In duplicate tests, solutions sufficiently con- centrated killed in the following lengths of time: Crude carbolic acid, 20 seconds. Five per cent. carbolic acid, one minute. One per cent. naphthalene in kerosene, 30 seconds. One per cent. kreso dip ten minutes and two per cent. four minutes. Ten per cent. formal- dehyde ten minutes. Conclusions In order that parasiticides be effective in the destruction of the mites they must either be in solution or be capable of giving off vola- tile substances which in themselves are de- structive. B. F. Kaupp NortH CAROLINA EXPERIMENT STATION, WEST RALEIGH THE GROWTH OF BONE IN CRETACEOUS TIMES PALEONTOLOGISTS have, for many years, been acquainted with the curious conical portions of young plesiosaurian propodials and, also, they have observed definite openings on the edges of many of the flattened limb bones. One of these openings has, in some eases, been observed to lead into a canal, which, in turn, passes into a cavity, remarkably like the medul- lary canal of mammalian long bones. There has never been an adequate explanation for these curious conditions. It has been generally assumed that the un- usual characters mentioned above have been confined to the propodium (humerus or femur) but, recently, in studying the osteology of an immature plesiosaur from the Cretace- ous, the writer noted all of these characters in a phalangeal bone. Further study of this prob- SCIENCE 35 lem will doubtless result in the discovery of these characteristics in all the long bones of the skeleton, especially in young and immature animals. Andrews, Williston, Lydekker, Kiprijanoft and the writer have remarked on the unusual characters of this ancient group of aquatic reptiles and an attempted explanation! has been given of the curious conical ends of young propodials which formerly were regarded as epiphyses. In regard to the openings, canal and cavity, the writer believes an adequate explanation of this condition is to be found in the develop- mental history of the mammalian long bones. Szymonowicz? has figured in a developing long bone of a mammal an opening which he terms “eriosteal bud,” similar in all respects to the opening in the edge of plesiosaurian limb bones. In both cases a canal leads from the foramen into the medullary cavity. Jackson? has given a careful description and figure of a similar condition in the tibia of a three-day cat. Through this opening the blood vessels supplying the medullary cavity, the osteoblasts and marrow-forming elements migrate from the periphery into the medullary cavity. Bidder* has further studied the conditions of bone formation and his contribution has suggested an explanation for certain curious features in the propodials of the plesiosaurs. The question arises as to whether it is legiti- mate to interpret developmental factors in the ancient reptiles from what occurs in modern mammals. That question is not yet settled, but assuming that an analogy may be safely drawn between developmental features in the 1Moodie, Roy L., ‘‘Reptilian Epiphyses,’’ Amer. Jour. Anat., Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 443-467, Figs. 1-24, 1908. 2 Szymonowicz, L., ‘‘A Text-book of Histology and Microscopie Anatomy of the Human Body,’’ trans. by MacCallum, 1902, p. 270, Plate XXIX. 3 Jackson, C. M., Archiv fiir Anat. u. Physiol., Anat. Abth., Jahrg., 1904, p. 33, Taf. VIL., Fig. 1. 4 Bidder, Alfred, 1906, ‘‘Osteobiologie,’’ Archiv f. mikros. Anat., Bd. 68, pp. 137-210, Taf. XXIV. 36 two groups we may use the facts, in the works above referred to, to explain conditions in the Cretaceous plesiosaurs which are inexplicable on any other grounds. The limb bones of adult plesiosaurs are solid. Young bones nearly always exhibit the canal, cavity and one or more of the foramina above referred to. The fact that the bones are first hollow and later become solid would seem to indicate that the osteolytic elements present in the limb bones of mammals and most reptiles were almost absent, or present in small numbers, in the plesiosaurs and many of the larger dinosaurs. If the comparison between the developing limb bones of mammals and reptiles is a safe one, then we have here in the young aquatic plesiosaurs of the Cretaceous a condition which persisted until late in life and which recurs in the young of all mammals at the present day. One species of plesiosaur, based on an immature skeleton of an animal some fifteen feet in length, exhibits these conditions in a well-marked manner. Through the openings in the edges of the limb bones of the plesi- osaurs, as in the mammals, migrated the osteoblasts or bone-forming cells, the blood vessels and other elements. The peripheral or perichondral bone was formed first in the plesiosaurs as in the mod- ern mammals, and, through the migration of the bone-forming cells inward, the so-called endochondral bone was a secondary formation. The formation of bone within the endochon- drium of the plesiosaurs was, apparently, re- tarded by some osteolytic agent, possibly the osteoclasts, until the bone-forming elements for some unknown reason attained the suprem- acy and completely filled the medullary cavity, canal and foramen with solid bone. During this process of filling there resulted, in young bones, a sharp line of separation of the peri- chondral from endochondral bone, resulting in the formation of curious conical end pieces, formerly called epiphyses, but now known to be the result of bone growth and not epiphyses at all. Bidder‘ has offered an interesting explana- tion of the formation of epiphyses in mam- SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIITI. No. 1097 mals, by the migration of the osteoblasts through special vascular canals (Canalis vas- culosis perforans) which traverse the space be- tween the medullary cavity and the cartila- ginous caps at the ends of the limb bones. It is interesting to observe in broken and sectioned plesiosaurian propodials an exactly similar condition for this ancient group of aquatic reptiles. The canals are found ex- tending from the medullary cavity to the ends where the bone has been formed in the shape of small conical mounds around the vascular openings, so that in the plesiosaurs the process resulted not in the production of new growths at the ends of the limb bones (epiphyses) but in the elongation of the bone. It is hoped in another place to give a fuller explanation and figures of these interesting relics of Mesozoic osteogenesis. Roy L. Mooprm THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY, CxHIcAGo, ILL. THE COLUMBUS MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE THE regular meeting just held at Columbus (De- ecember 27 to January 1) was one of the most successful of the recent meetings of the associa- tion. All of the sessions were held in the build- ings on the campus of the Ohio State University and members of the association who attended the Columbus meeting of 1899, and who had not vis- ited the university since were surprised and de- lighted at the enormous growth of the institution and at the character of the many new buildings which had been built since that day. The local committee in charge of the arrangements was ex- tremely efficient and the compactness of the group of buildings and the exceptional meeting room facilities made everything easy for members in at- tendance. The opening night for addresses of welcome and for the annual address of the retiring presi- dent was in many respects the most impressive func- tion of the kind held under the auspices of the association in the recollection of the writer. In spite of a stormy night the college chapel, seat- ing about 1,200 persons, was completely filled. The address of weleome by President W. O. JANUARY 7, 1916] Thompson, of the university, and Dr. T. C. Men- denhall, past-president of the association, were extremely happy. Dr. Thompson welcomed the association on the part of the university, city and the commonwealth, and Dr. Mendenhall, finding that his predecessor had included practically all Ohio of to-day in his address, welcomed the asso- ciation on the part of the shades of deceased Ohio men of science, sketching briefly the career of a number of Ohio’s great men of science of the past century. President Eliot’s address entitled ‘‘The Fruits, Prospects and Lessons of Recent Biolog- ical Science’’ was published in the last number of SCIENCE. Following the opening meeting a crowded re- ception was held in the beautiful new library building. Owing to the death of Retiring Vice-president F, W. Taylor, of Section D, and the absence of Retiring Vice-presidents U. S. Grant, of Section BE, and Edgar F. Smith, of Section C, there were no vice-presidential addresses delivered before these sections. The address of Retiring Vice-president Clark Wissler, of Section H, on ‘‘Psychological and Historical Interpretations of Culture’’ and that of R. M. Pearce, of Section K, on ‘‘The Work and Opportunities of a University Department for Research in Medicine’’ were read by title and will be published in ScIENCE. Addresses by retiring vice-presidents were de- livered as follows: Section A: H. S$. White, ‘‘Poncelet Polygons.’’ Section B: Anthony Zeleny, ‘‘The Dependence of Progress in Science upon the Development of Instruments. ’’ Section F: F. R. Lillie, ‘‘The History of the Fertilization Problem.’’ Section G: G. P. Clinton, ‘‘Botany in Relation to American Agriculture.’’ Section I: Elmer E. Rittenhouse, ‘‘ Upbuild- ing American Vitality, the Need for a Scientific Investigation. ’? Section L: Paul H. Hanus, ‘‘City School Su- perintendents’ Reports.’’ Section M: L. H. Bailey, ‘‘The Forthcoming Situation in Agricultural Work.’’ ‘There were three public lectures complimentary to the citizens of Columbus. On Tuesday night, Dr. Douglas W. Johnson, ‘‘Surface Features of Europe as a Factor in the War.’’ Wednesday night, by Dr. Raymond F. Bacon, Mellon Insti- tute of Pittsburgh, ‘‘The Industrial Fellowshijs of the Mellon Institute: Five Years’ Progress in a System of Industrial Service.’’ Friday night, by SCIENCE 37 Dr. Frank K. Cameron, of the Bureau of Soils, Washington, ‘‘The Fertilizer Resources of the United States. ’’ The council after an extended discussion adopted the recommendation of the committee on policy to the effect that members of the affiliated societies including the component societies of the old Pacifie Association of Scientifie Societies, not now members of the Amerian Association, be in- vited to join the American Association during the year 1916, without payment of the usual entrance fee of $5.00. Two amendments to the constitution were in- troduced and will be acted upon at the next an- nual meeting. 1. Amend Article 22 of the constitution by omitting after the word ‘‘Chemistry’’ in the second line, the words ‘‘including its application to Agri- culture and Arts.’’ 2. Amend Article 9 of the constitution by add- ing in line 8 after the words ‘‘ Permanent Secre- tary,’’ the words ‘‘and the Secretaries of See- tions.’? This amendment, if adopted, will permit the reelection of secretaries of sections, after the expiration of the five-year term and seems espe- cially desirable in case of secretaries who are will- ing to continue the work. Dr. Chas. Henry Hitchcock, Dr. Eugene W. Hil- gard and Rev. Louis C. Wiirtele were made life members under the Jane M. Smith fund. Dr. J. MeK. Cattell, Dr. W. J. Humphreys and Professor H. L. Fairchild were reelected members of the committee on policy. There was, unfortunately, only a small attend- ance at the meeting of the committee of one hun- dred on research, and but one report was pre- sented, namely, that by Professor C. R. Cross, chairman of the subcommittee on research funds. The societies which meet at Columbus in affilia- tion with the American Association were: Ameri- can Association of Economic Entomologists: American Mathematical Society; American Micro- scopical ‘Society; American Nature Study Society; American Physical Society; American Phyto- pathological Society; American Society of Nat- uralists; Association of Official Seed Analysts of North America; Botamical Society of America; Entomological Society of America; Society for Horticultural Science; Southern Society for Phi- losophy and Psychology; Students and Collectors of Ohio Archeology; Wilson Ornithological Club. The total registration at the association office was seven hundred and fifty, making the meeting one of the largest of the second group. The geo- 38 SCIENCE graphie distribution of members and attendants was interesting, Ohio naturally leading with one hundred and eighty-one. The other figures are as follows: New York, 59, Michigan 27, Massachu- setts 24, Minnesota 18, Missouri 14, District of Columbia 32, Illinois 63, Indiana 34, Iowa 22, Kansas 17, Pennsylvania 31, Wisconsin 25, West Virginia 10, and other states represented by less than 10. Owing to the impossibility of securing perfect registration, the accurate number of scientific men and women in Columbus can not be stated, but it is safe to say that it approximated nine hundred. Much interest was shown at the meeting by the citizens of Columbus, and the meetings of all the sections and affiliated societies were extremely well attended. The smokers and dinners were all successful. The symposia of the meeting were as follows: Before Section F and the American Society of Zoologists on the topic ‘‘The Basis of Individual- ity in Organisms,’’ the speakers being C. M. Child, E. G. Conklin, O. C. Glaser, C. E. McClung and H. V. Neal. Before the American Society of Naturalists on the topic ‘‘Recent Advances in the Fundamental Problems of Geneties,’’ the speakers being H. H. Bartlett, W. L. Tower, E. M. Hast, H. S. Jennings and C. B. Davenport. Before Section I, topic ‘‘ National Defense and Development,’’ there being twelve speakers. Before Section K, topie ‘‘The Energy Content of the Diet,’’? the speakers being H. P. Armsby, Ruth Wheeler, E. B. Forbes, Carl Voegtlin and C. F. Langworthy. Before Section M, topie ‘‘The Relation of Sci- ence to Meat Production,’’ the speakers being W. O. Thompson, H. J. Waters, L. D. Hall, H. W. Mumford and A. R. Ward. In spite of the fact that the Geological Society of America was meeting in Washington with the Pan-American Congress at the same time, See- tion EK held a very important meeting at which twenty-nine papers were presented, topics relating to the geology of Ohio and adjoining states pre- dominating. The council passed a resolution to hold a spe- cial meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington on Jan- uary 4, 1916. Two grants were made by the council, one of one hundred dollars to R. C. Benedict, of Brooklyn, to assist in his investigation of the plants of the fern genus Nephrolepis, and one of two hundred [N. 8. Vou. XLIII. No. 1097 and fifty dollars to the Concilium Bibliographicum Zoologicum of Zurich. A list of the fellows elected will appear in a near number of SCIENCE. The arrangements for the entertainment of the visiting ladies were exceptionally pleasant and in the resolutions of thanks, which were passed by the council, especial attention was drawn to the admirable work of the ladies’ committee, of which Mrs. W. O. Thompson, wife of the president of Ohio State University, was chairman. A very in- teresting feature was a twilight musical recital with a MacDowell program, which was given on Wednesday afternoon. Election of officers by the General Committee re- sulted as follows: President: C. R. Van Hise, University of Wis- consin. Vice-presidents as follows: Mathematics, L. P. Eisenhart, Princeton University; physics, H. A. Bumstead, Yale University; engineering, E. h. Corthell, Brown University, Providence, R. I.; geology and geography, R. D. Salisbury, Univer- sity of Chicago; zoology, G. H. Parker, Harvard University; botany, T. J. Burrill, University of Illinois; anthropology and psychology, F. W. Hodge, chief of the Bureau of Ethnology, Wash- ington, D. C.; social and economic science, Louis I. Dublin, New York; education, L. P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation, New York; agricul- ture, W. H. Jordan, director of the New York State Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. The vice-presidents of Sections C and K were not elected, but power was given to the sectional committees to elect. (Professor W. EH. Henderson, of Ohio State University, was elected general sec- retary and Dr. C. Stuart Gager was made secre- tary of the council. Dr. A. F, Blakeslee was elected secretary of Section G@ and Mr. 8. C. Loomis, secretary of Section I. New York was selected as the place for the Convocation Week meeting of 1916-17, the open- ing meeting to be held on the night of December 26, and the first council meeting on the morning of December 27, 1916. The general committee recommended to the gen- eral committee of next year the selection of Pitts- burgh as the meeting place for 1917-18. In the absence of the general secretary, Dr. Henry Skinner, of Philadelphia, Dr. Henry B. Ward, of Urbana, acted as general secretary, but the present brief report of the meeting has been drawn up by the permanent secretary. L. O. Howarp gp gate NEW SERIES SINGLE CopPiEs, 15 Crs. Vou. XLIII. No. 1098 Fray, JANUARY 14, 1916 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 Every Teacher and School Official, and every Parent with the welfare of his Children at heart should read STARR THE ADOLESCENT PERIOD (Published Dec. 14th, 1915) AA straightforward, practical and well developed treatment of an ever important (but much neglected) problem. It is the work of an author who understands the physical changes of the youth period, and their psychical interrelations from the standpoint of both scientific investigator and intimate friend of boys and girls. In clear, untechnical style the dangers and difficulties of this period of life are sketched, and practical, reasonable and conservative suggestions are given. Price $1.00, Postpaid. TWO OTHER NOTEWORTHY NEW BOOKS OSTWALD’S COLLOID-CHEMISTRY Recognition of Colloids, Theory of Colloids, and Their General Physico- Chemical Properties. By Dr. Wolfgang Ostwald, Privatdozent in the University of Leipzig; First English Edition Translated from Third German Edition by Dr. Martin H. Fischer, Professor of Physiology, University of Cincinnati; Assisted by Dr. Ralph E. Oesper, Dept. of Chemistry, New York University, and Dr. Louis Berman, Staff Physician, Mount Sinai Hospital, New York. With Frontispiece and 60 Text Figures. Octavo. Cloth $3.00, Postpaid. SCHNEIDER’S Bacteriological Methods in Food and Drugs Laboratories With Introduction to Micro-analytical Methods. By Albert Schneider, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Pharmacognosy and Bacteriology, College of Pharmacy, University of California. With 87 Illustrations and 6 Full Page Plates. Octavo. Cloth $2.50, Postpaid. P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO., PUBLISHERS 1012 WALNUT STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA. il SCIENCE—ADVERTISEMENTS Laboratory Exercises in General Chemistry By RouAND H. WiLLiAmMs, A.M., Head of De- partment of Science, Horace Mann School, and Instructor in Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, and WALTER G. WHIT- MAN,A.M., formerly Instructor in Science, State Normal School, Salem, Mass. Price $0.36; with loose-leaf binder, $0.72. In this manual are seventy-six exercises adapted for classes in elementary chemistry. The loose-leaf plan makes it possible to adapt the manual to the order of topics in any text- book. Included are general laboratory directions, lists of chemicals and apparatus, emergency Measures in case of accident, useful tables, drawings, etc. Each exercise sheet has a list of the chemicals required and directions for per- forming that exercise, while a blank space is provided for the student’s notes, which are suggested by pertinent questions. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cincinnati Chicago UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS The University of California issues publications in the following series among others : Agricultural Science Mathematics American Archaeology Pathology and Ethnology Philosophy Botany Physiology Economics Psychology Geology Zoology Memoirs of the University of California Bulletin and Publications of the Lick Observatory RECENT TITLES New and Noteworthy Californian Plants, II, by Harvey INI eS) 18 EA cece ccoaconc codon bos ce COLON COOSA Er oIecoRSeoRCCeRCECN $0.15 The Epigene Profiles of the Desert, by Andrew C. TER (0) lao saccca sco n sooo 00 Eo oS HOCcO Cocco ECCOL CORCOD LCE TO cRCoL EEE CONCERER 25 New Horses from the Miocene and Pliocene of Califor- nia, by John C. Merriam...... ..........cscesereeeeeeeensecceneerers 10 Notes on the Tintinnoina: 1. On the Probable Origin of Dictyocysta tiara Haeckel. 2. On Petalotricha entzi, sp. Dov., by C. A. Kofoid........2.:::csccccssscecseennseceeee ceeeees 05 Binary and Multiple Fission in Hezamitus, and On a New Trichomonad Flagellate, Trichomitus parvus, from the Intestine of Amphibians, by Olive Swezy...... 25 On Blepharocorys equi, 2 New Ciliate from the Caecum of the Horse, by Irwin C. Schumachet.........:...cccceceeesseeee 10 Camplete list of titles and prices will beseuton application THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Berkeley, California The verdict given Norton’s Elements of Geology is one of unqualified endorsement “Neither too long nor too short for the student to read while attending an average course of lectures.’ “The illustrations are of a high order and very suggestive,” “One of the best elementary expositions of geologic processes.’’ “A very clear presentation of the most important facts of geology.’ 461 pages, illustrated, $1.40 Ginn and Company New York Chicago Dallas Columbus London San Francisco Boston Atlanta Send for descriptwe circulars and sample pages PRINCIPLES OF Cod STRATIGRAPHY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU, 5.M., S.D. PROFESSOR OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Large Octavo, 1150 pages, with 254 illustrations in the text. Cloth bound, price, $7.50. Send for descriptive circular A. G. SEILER & CO. PUBLISHFRS 1224 Amsterdam Avenue NEW YORK, N. Y. SCIENCE... Fray, JANUARY 14, 1916 CONTENTS The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— The History of the Fertilization Problem: PROFESSOR FRANK R. LILLIE ............. 39 The Work and Opportunites of a Depart- ment of Research Medicine in the Univer- sity: PROFESSOR RICHARD M. PEARCE ...... 53 Scientific Notes and News ..............-. 63 University and Educational News ......... 67 Discussion and Correspondence :— The Determination of Nitrates in Soils: P. S. Burcess. A Simple Method for the Elimination of Protozoa from Mixed Cul- tures of Bacteria: HENRY N. JONES ..... 67 Scientific Books :— Bulkley on Cancer, tts Cause and Treatment, Bainbridge on the Cancer Problem: Dr. Lro LorB. Cooke on The Age of the Ocala Limestone: PROFESSOR G. D. HaRRIS ..... 69 Special Articles :— Peridermium Harknessii and Cronartiuwm quercuum: BE. P. MEINECKE. A Simple Demonstration of the Reduced Vapor Pres- sure over a Solution: Dr. ARTuUR TABER VOWS Sgopoponosnoocosbbaotd saad ocees ce 73 The American Mathematical Society: Pro- MASTOR, 19, IN, Ww} 55540050 c00aa0b0DbD00 73 Societies and Academies :— The Biological Society of Washington: M. IW RLIVON GDR peretsltersierse ok eee cca sees seis 15 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent to Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison- on-Hudson, N. Y. Eee THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE THE HISTORY OF THE FERTILIZA- TION PROBLEM1 WE come together at this season of the year to discuss the latest advances in our science and to listen to the announcement of new discoveries. This implies a philos- ophy of life, an optimistic philosophy; we would not work as individuals nor assemble as societies if we did not believe that sci- ence is worth while, and that human prog- ress is both possible, and, for some inscrut- able reason, worth working for. This was the philosophy of science in the time of the Greeks, and it is the philosophy of our sci- ence of scarce four hundred years’ growth. Modern science, I need hardly say, was en- tirely Huropean in its origin, as is our American scientific population; and all sci- ence is ours to promote and advance by right of inheritance no less than of intel- lectual sympathy. Now that the great war is so largely arresting the progress of sci- ence in Europe it is our bounden duty to see that there is no halting in America; we should hold fast to our faith and strengthen our efforts for the advancement of science. As we all labor for progress in science, I thought it would not be entirely out of place if, instead of dealing with some new subject, I attempted to lay before you a picture of the total progress in some cen- tral problem of biology; it can be nothing more than a sketch, but it may perhaps 1 Address delivered before the American Society of Naturalists, and the Zoological Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, December 30, 1915. 40 help to justify our faith, and also to tem- per our conceit, if we have any. Tertiliza- tion is such a central problem which has interested mankind from the dawn of reasoning on account of its fundamental character, and is more or less interwoven with the thought of all ages. Aristotle and Harvey.—lIt must be re- membered in beginning our topic that the problem of fertilization was not clearly separated from the general problem of re- production until well into the nineteenth century. In early human culture repro- duction received its only interpretation at the hands of priests and mystery men; its first philosophical and scientific treatment was one of the great distinctions of the Greeks, especially of that great philosopher and father of science, Aristotle, who com- bined observation and reflection in the in- terpretation of nature. Aristotle devoted a separate treatise, which has come down to us, to animal reproduction. Among other things he studied the development of the chick day by day with so much detail that Harvey felt impelled to say, 1,900 years later: Aristotle among the ancients, and Hieronymus Fabricius of Aquapendente, among the moderns, have written with so much accuracy on the gen- eration and formation of the chick from the egg that little seems left for us to do. From the time of the Greeks to that of Harvey (1651) there was but little prog- ress in the knowledge of reproduction, and none in the theory, as will appear from the views of Aristotle, the current views of medical men of Harvey’s time, and of Harvey himself. Aristotle says :? The male is the efficient agent, and by the mo- tion of his generative virtue (genitura), creates what is intended from the matter contained in the female; for the female always supplies the mat- 2‘‘De Gen. Anim.,’’ lib. II., cap. 4, quoted from Harvey ‘‘On the Generation of Animals,’’ Ex. 29. SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIITI. No. 1098 ter, the male the power of creation, and this it is which constitutes one male, another female. The body and the bulk, therefore, are necessarily sup- plied by the female; nothing of the kind is re- quired from the male; for it is not even requisite that the instrument, nor the efficient agent itself, be present in the thing that is produced. The body then proceeds from the female, the vital principle (anima) from the male; for the essence of every body is its vital principle (anima). With more common sense, if with less metaphysical subtlety, the physicians of the Middle Ages held, according to Harvey, that conception is due to a mingling of male and female seminal fluids, the mixture having from both equally the faculty of action and the force of matter; and according to the predominance of this or that geniture does the progeny turn out male or female (quoted from Harvey, Ex. 32). Harvey’s observations contained much that was new and significant, but the facts that he knew were inconsistent both with Aristotle’s ideas and. those of the physi- cians. They were, however, inadequate for sound generalization. Wandering between two worlds, one dead The other powerless to be born, he descended deeper into the slough of metaphysics than Aristotle, and committed himself to the fantastic idea that concep- tion in the uterus is identical with, or at least analogous to, conception in the brain; and that the ovum is the product of such unconscious uterine desire or conception, and receives no material substratum from the male!® The theory of reproduction 3‘‘Since there are no manifest signs of concep- tion before the uterus begins to relax, and the white fluid or slender threads (like the spider’s web) constituting the ‘primordium’ of the future ‘conception’ or ovum, shows itself; and since the substance of the uterus, when ready to conceive, is very like the structure of the brain, why should we not suppose that the function of both is similar, and that there is excited by coitus within the uterus a something identical with, or at least analogous to, an ‘imagination’ (phantasma) or a ‘desire’ (appetitus) in the brain, whence comes JANUARY 14, 1916] was no whit more advanced in the middle of the seventeenth century than in the time of Aristotle. The Period of Leewwenhoek.—The use of the microscope in biological research began in the seventeenth century; it was the improvement of this new instru- ment of investigation and its application to the study of the reproductive substances that furnished the first fundamental ad- vance in the theory of reproduction at the hands of Leeuwenhoek, viz., the discovery of the spermatozoa‘ in 1677. the generation or procreation of the ovum. For the functions of both are termed ‘conceptions,’ and both, although the primary sources of every action throughout the body, are immaterial, the one of natural or organic, the other of animal ac- tions; the one (viz., the uterus) the first cause and beginning of every action which conduces to the generation of the animal, the other (viz., the brain) of every action done for its preservation. And just as a ‘desire’ arises from a conception of the brain, and this conception springs from some ex- ternal object of desire, so also from the male, as being the more perfect animal, and, as it were, the most natural object of desire, does the natural (organic) conception arise in the uterus, even as the animal conception does in the brain. “¢From this desire or conception, it results that the female produces an offspring like the father. For just as we, from the conception of the ‘form’ or ‘idea’ in the brain, fashion in our works a form resembling it, so, in like manner, the ‘idea’ or ‘form’ of the father existing in the uterus gen- erates an offspring like himself with the aid of the formative faculty, impressing, however, on its work its own immaterial ‘form’ ’’ (from William Harvey, ‘‘On Conception,’’ 1651). 4This discovery is sometimes credited to Hamm, described as a student of Leeuwenhoek’s. The latter himself describes the occurrence as follows (Phil. Trans., 1678, containing a letter from L. dated November, 1677): A certain Professor Cranen, who had frequently visited Leeuwenhoek for microscopical demonstration, requested by let- ter that he should give Dominus Hamm, a relative of his, some demonstrations of his observations. On his second visit D. Hamm brought in a glass vial some seminal fluid and stated that he had ob- served living animals in it; Leeuwenhoek confirmed SCIENCE ; 41 This discovery aroused the greatest in- terest in scientific circles; a number of in- vestigators repeated the observations and a spirit of speculation which led to wild flights of the imagination was aroused. Leeuwenhoek had soon to defend his pri- ority in the matter and to protest against certain very imaginative views. Thus in a letter dated June 9, 1699,° he defends his priority and combats the notion that the human form can be observed in the sper- matozoa. He inveighs especially against a certain Dr. Dalen Patius, who claimed to have seen the human form, the two naked thighs, the legs, the breast, both arms, ete., the skin being pulled up somewhat higher did cover the head like a cap. Leeuwenhoek states that he can find nothing of the sort, but he adds: I put this down as a certain truth, that the shape of the human body is included in an animal of the masculine seed; but that a man’s reason shall dive or penetrate into this mystery so far, that in anatomizing one of these animals of the masculine seed we should be able to discover the entire shape of the human body, I can not com- prehend. In a letter dated two weeks later he dis- tinguishes two sorts of these animalcules, and concludes that the one sort is male and the other female. this observation and repeated it many times. In this letter he gives a fair description of the sper- matozoa, their form, size and movements and stated that he had observed them three or four years previously and mistaken them for globules. - He did not at this time speculate as to the meaning of the spermatozoa, but in true scientifie spirit be- gan to make comparative observations, and in 1678 he described and figured spermatozoa of the tabbit and frog among others. The credit of this discovery seems to me to be- long rightly to the investigator whose wide experi- ence in the field of microscopical anatomy and whose scientific acumen enabled him to grasp the possible significance of the discovery; not to the chance observer who called Leeuwenhoek’s atten- tion anew to the subject. 5 Phil. Trans., Vol. 21. 42 In France in the year of 1694, Nicholas Hartsoeker claimed to have been the first to have discovered the spermatozoa more than twenty years previously, although he did not publish until 1678, a year later than Leeuwenhoek’s publication. Hartsoeker’s ideas are characterized by a high degree of precision. He believes that each sperma- tozoon conceals beneath its ‘‘tender and delicate skin’’ a complete male or female animal, ‘‘which would perhaps appear if it could be seen like the following figure.’’é The egg is merely a source of nourishment for the real germ contained in the sperma- tozoon. In birds the spermatozoon enters an egg to be nourished; there is but a single opening in the egg, situated over the so-called germ, and this opening closes after a single spermatozoon is admitted; but if two spermatozoa enter they unite and form a double monster. In mammals the tail of the spermatozoon is the umbil- ical cord; this unites with the ovum, 2. e., the placenta, and the latter with the uterus. Each one of male animals (spermatozoa) encloses an infinity of other animals both male and female, which are correspond- ingly small, and those male animals en- close yet other males and females of the same species, and so forth in a series which includes all the members of the species which are to be produced up to the end of time. No difficulty was found im this con- ception, for the atomic theory of matter was not yet placed on a scientific basis. Thus was founded and flourished for its brief day the school of the spermatists. Unhampered by any scientific conception of matter, living or non-living, there was no obstacle to the eye of faith and no im- pediment to the age-old longing to make an intelligible universe out of the scraps of experience. 6 The figure in question is reproduced in Kelli- cott’s General Embryology, p. 22. SCIENCE [N. 8S. Vou. XLIIE. No. 1098 The Period of Spallanzani.—In the en- tire eighteenth century, although specula- tion continued rife, there was only one notable contribution to our subject. This was the work of the Abbé Spallanzani, ““Expériences pour servir 4 l’histoire de la génération des Animaux et des Plantes,’’ published in Geneva in 1785. His working hypotheses were naturally in the spirit of the times. Theories of repro- duction, he says, may be reduced to two. The one explains the development of organisms mechanically, the other supposes them to preexist, and waiting only for fertilization to develop them. The second system has given birth to two different parties, one believing that the organism is pre- formed in the ovum, the other that it is preformed in the spermatozoon. Spallanzani believed that his observations destroyed the epigenetic theory as pro- pounded by Buffon and others, because they demonstrated the existence of the fetuses (ova) in the females of toads, frogs and salamanders, prior to the act of fertili- zation, which according to the epigenesists animates or creates the germ. For the same reason the spermatists must also be wrong. Spallanzani thus combated epigen- esis as understood in the eighteenth cen- tury, and also the ideas of the spermatists, and he was led to deny that spermatozoa are necessary for fertilization, and to hold that the fertilizing power of the seminal fluid resides not in the spermatozoa, but in the fluid medium that accompanies them; and this in spite of the fact that his final experiments really proved the reverse. His work contains a great wealth of ob- servation and experiment, so that it will be possible merely to indicate some of his chief results. In the first place he demonstrated that in frogs and toads fertilization takes place outside of the body, and for the first time he successfully carried out artificial insemination, thus laying the foundation for the artificial propagation of many ani- JANUARY 14, 1916] mals. In making these experiments he thought he found cases in which seminal fiuid devoid of spermatozoa would fertilize and thus fell into the error, which he was so ready to accept from his opposition to the spermatists, that the fluid medium of the seminal fluid was the fertilizing sub- stance. He also investigated the condi- tions of successful insemination, with ref- erence to the duration of fertilizing power, exposure to various chemicals, to heat, ete. The amount of dilution of which the semi- nal fluid was capable was also carefully in- vestigated. By experiment he excluded the idea that fertilization might be an effect of an emanation, or vapor arising from the sperm. He concluded that the seminal fiuid acted by accelerating the vital processes; it en- ters the body through pores, and stimu- lates the action of the heart. This idea offered no difficulty to one who believed that the organism was preformed in the ovum, and it was supported by the observa- tion that the beating of the heart was the first observable movement of the embryo. Bonnet suggested to him the problem, if the spermatic fluid might stimulate the heart of the embryo in the process of fer- tilization, why might not other fluids pro- duce the same effect? He was thus led to attempt the first experiments on artificial parthenogenesis; he tried to start the devel- opment of eges by electricity, by the action of extracts of all the various organs, by vinegar, dilute alcohol, lemon juice, and other substances, all without effect. It is interesting to see how his experi- ments led to hypotheses and these, even though wrong, to further experiments, some of which, like his experiments on artificial parthenogenesis, were not taken up again in a fruitful way for over a century. His final experiments are those so often quoted as furnishing the proof that fertiliz- SCIENCE 43 ing power resides in the spermatozoon. He showed that, if diluted sperm be filtered through a sufficient number of layers of filter paper, the filtrate has no fertilizing power, whereas the residue washed off the filter paper will fertilize. But he did not himself draw the correct conclusion; he says the experiment proves ‘‘that filtration removes from spermatized water its fertil- izing power, inasmuch as the seminal fluid which was contained in it remains on the filter papers, from which one can extract it by pressing them.’’ It is perfectly clear that Spallanzani himself never held that the spermatozoa themselves were the fertil- izing agents, but, on the contrary, he con- tests this idea strongly as leading to sper- matist delusions. 1800-1870.—After Spallanzani there was no real advance in the theory of fertiliza- tion until the publication of Prevost et Dumas’ ‘‘New Theory of Reproduction’’ in 1824, They observed that young animals incapable of breeding, old animals beyond the breeding stage, the infertile mule, and birds outside of the breeding season possess no spermatozoa, and they conclude that these facts ‘‘sufficiently prove the impor- tance of the animaleules, and show that there exists an intimate relationship be- tween their presence in the reproductive organs and the fertilizing power of the animal.’’ In a long series of experiments they investigated the conditions of ferti- lization in frogs: all conditions that destroy the animalcules destroy also the fertilizing power of sperm suspensions; the filtrate of a Sperm suspension devoid of spermatozoa will not fertilize; the redissolved residue of a Suspension evaporated to dryness will not fertilize, etc.; the number of eggs fertilized is always less than the number of animal- cules employed. So that they came to the conclusion that ‘‘the prolific principle resides in the spermatic animalcules.’’ 44 In their subsequent publications they concluded that it is infinitely probable that the number of animalcules employed in fertilization corresponds to that of the embryos developed . . . so that the action of these animalcules which we regard as the male Teproductive elements is individual, not collective. They concluded that a spermatozoon pen- etrates each ege and becomes ‘‘the rudi- ment of the nervous system, and that the membrane (germ dise of the egg) in which it is implanted, furnishes, by the diverse modifications which it undergoes, all the other organs of the embryo.’’ These studies gave a new impetus to the study of fertilization ; some were convinced that Prevost et Dumas were essentially cor- rect, while others still adhered to the idea that the fluid part of the seminal fiuid was the fertilizing medium. Thus the cele- brated embryologist Bischoff in 1842 does not hesitate to declare outright for the lat- ter view ‘‘that only the dissolved part of the semen penetrates into the egg and thus completes fertilization.’’ He considered that Valentin’s hypothesis united all the facts; the seminal fluid is so unstable chemically as to break down as soon as the particles come to rest; it is similar to the blood in this respect, but it is not in regular circulation and the function of maintain- ing its chemical composition is relegated to the movements of the spermatozoa. However, Bischoff subsequently became convineed that the spermatozoa were them- selves the essential agents, though he still refused to believe in the penetration of the egg. Kolliker had put forward a contact theory of fertilization, which Bischoff re- garded merely as a statement of facts re- quiring further development. He there- fore adopted the idea of catalyzers, at that time a new idea in chemistry, and held that the spermatozoon was essentially a catalytic agent, 7. e., as he defined it, ‘‘a form of mat- ter characterized by definite transformation SCIENCE [N. 'S. Von. XLIII. No. 1098 and internal movement”’ which it transmits by contact to the egg, which is in a condi- tion of maximum tension or inclination to assume the same form of transformation and movement. Fertilization is thus not a process of union and fusion as in ordinary chemical combination, but a catalytic proc- ess, as defined above. This point of view deserves to be empha- sized as one of the first attempts at a phys- ico-chemical explanation of fertilization. For some time naturalists were divided between the two points of view, viz., that of Prevost et Dumas, that the sperm pene- trated into the egg, and that of Kolliker and Bischoff that it acted by contact. Lalle- mand (1841) well expresses the view of those who believed in the union of the ovum and spermatozoon : Each of the sexes furnishes material already organized and living... . A fiuid obviously can not transmit form and life which it does not pos- sess. . . . Fertilization is the union of two liy- ing parts which mutually complete each other and develop in common. ... When one embraces in a single point of view the reproduction of all living beings, one arrives at the following more general formula: Reproduction is the separation of a liy- ing part which may either develop separately or acquire from another living part the supplemen- tary elements necessary for the ulterior develop- ment of a being similar to the type. . .. The preservation of the type is due to the extension of the same act which has produced the development of each individual being. This is the most complete statement of the principle of genetic continuity that I have found in the literature of this period. These observations and conclusions were found on the eve and early morrow of the ereatest biological generalization, the cell- theory. Though Schwann interpreted the ovum as a cell (1838), this view did not at once become dominant, and was generally accepted only after over twenty years of discussion. The view that spermatozoa were parasitic organisms was more or less JANUARY 14, 1916] current until Kélliker in 1841 showed by their development that they were modified cells. Nevertheless, there was, strictly speak- ing, no immediate application of these re- sults to the problems of fertilization. The half century from 1824 to 1874 yielded relatively little advance in fertiliza- tion theory; the opinion that the spermato- zoon actually penetrated into the ovum gradually gained ground largely from the very logic of the situation, but partly from various observations. Bischoff’s contact theory, which was the only alternative, was eriticized because if the sperm does not penetrate, but remains outside of the mem- brane, there is absence of that direct con- tact between sperm and egg substance pos- tulated by the theory. Wagner’s criticism was also very effective; a ferment does not determine the character of a reaction, but the spermatozoon does, for it transmits pa- ternal characteristics. In the way of ob- servations Barry in 1840, Newport,’ 1854— 1855, Meissner, 1855, and others maintained observations of penetration of the ovum by the spermatozoon; Keber (1854) laid espe- cial emphasis on the micropyle as adapted for entrance of a spermatozoon. These ob- servations were on the whole inconclusive, for actual penetration was not observed, but inferred from the presence of spermato- zoa inside the egg membrane. Moreover, the spermatozoon could not be discovered within the egg. The Modern Period.—The preceding pe- riod (1824-1874) was coincident, as we have seen, with the early history of the cell theory, but the demonstration of the uni- cellular character of the ovum and sperma- 7 Newport’s observations rose to a higher plane than those of the others, for he actually observed in the frog’s egg (1) that the first plane of cleay- age is in line with the point on the egg artificially impregnated, (2) that it marks the plane of sym- metry of the embryo, (3) that the head of the young frog is turned towards the same point. SCIENCE 45 tozoon had little effect upon the problems of fertilization. The cell theory was still in- complete; the free formation of the nuclei was still held by competent naturalists, and nothing was known of the phenomena of karyokinesis. The cytological investiga- tions of the next ten years (1874-1884) were destined to lay the foundations of the modern nuclear theory in its broad outlines. The fertilization studies of this period were mainly morphological, and while it is cor- rect to say that they were largely dominated by the growing nuclear theory, it is also strictly true that they contributed in no small measure to its upbuilding. Though the penetration of the spermatozoon into the egg had long been suspected, it was first clearly demonstrated in this time; the or- igin of the egg nucleus by two successive divisions of the germinal vesicle was dis- covered; the origin of the sperm nucleus from the head of the spermatozoon, the sperm aster, the union of the egg nucleus and the sperm nucleus, the relation of these to the first cleavage spindle, the or- igin of the fertilization membrane, the ill effects of polyspermy and the theory of its prevention; and finally the doctrine of the equivalence of the egg and sperm nuclei, and the biparental character of the nuclei of sexually produced organisms, as first laid down by Van Beneden, were products of the period also. No period of cytological research seems to me of greater significance than this. There was almost a complete cessation of investigation from 1855-1873, when the dawn of the modern period broke suddenly. In 1873 Biitschli observed in the egg of a nematode the approach and contact of the two structures, which we now know to be the germ-nuclei, immediately preceding the first cleavage of the ovum. But no inter- pretation was presented. In 1874 Auer- 46 bach® described the appearance of two nu- clei at opposite ends of the elongated egg of Rhabdites; these increase in size, mi- grate towards the center of the egg, meet, rotate through 90° and fuse together. A dicentric figure appears and cleavage fol- lows. What is the origin of these two nu- clei and the significance of their union? The fusion of two nuclei was at the time entirely without analogy. Auerbach states: It is natural to assume that, as for the reproduc- tion of organisms the copulation of two individ- uals, or at least of two cells in some form or other is so frequently necessary, so here a similar condi- tion is found for nuclear reproduction. Auerbach supposes the two nuclei which appear at opposite ends of the elongated ege to have arisen freely ; one of these comes from the end where the spermatozoa had penetrated, the other from the opposite end where the germinal vesicle had disappeared. The difference of the origin influences the quality of the nuclear materials arising de novo; fusion of the nuclei counteracts the differences thus arising; but all this would be undone if the division of the fusion nu- cleus followed along the plane of the union; hence the rotation through 90°. In the next year Biitschli again observed fusion of nuclei in nematode eggs before the first cleavage. However, he did not ac- cept Auerbach’s interpretation, but he tended to regard it as a general law of nu- clear formation, that first two or several small nuclei arise and subsequently fuse; this he finds to occur even in the blast- omeres of the four- and eight-cell stages. About the same time (1875) Van Bene- den also observed similar phenomena in the rabbit’s egg. He did not see spermatozoa enter the egg, but he found them with their heads closely applied to the surface in every unsegmented egg, and came to the conclu- sion that fertilization consisted essentially 8‘“Organologische Studien.’’ SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1098 in fusion of the spermatic substance with the superficial layer of the vitellus. Ata little later stage he found a small nucleus in the cortical layer of the egg; this he called the peripheral pronucleus; a central pronucleus appeared simultaneously. They grow, approach one another and meet in the center. Later there is only one nucleus, probably formed by the union of the two. As I have shown that the spermatozoa attach to the surface of the vitellus and mix with its super- ficial layer, it appears probable to me that the superficial pronucleus is formed, partially at least, at the expense of the spermatic substance. If, as I think, the central pronucleus is constituted of elements furnished by the egg, the first nucleus of the embryo would be the result of union of male and female elements. I put forth this latter idea simply as a hypothesis, an interpretation which may or may not be accepted. The way was now clear for the definitive solution of the old riddle of the relation of the egg and spermatozoon, which was quickly furnished by O. Hertwig and Her- mann Fol. The observations of these au- thors appear to have been made independ- ently and nearly simultaneously. In 1875 Hertwig observed and described correctly the principal phenomena of fertilization in the sea-urchin egg. He did not actually see the penetration of the spermatozoon, but he observed the sperm nucleus and its aster so soon after that he had no doubt of the correct interpretation; he also observed the approach of the sperm-nucleus and the egg-nucleus to the center of the egg and their apparent fusion. Fertilization has ‘been previously interpreted as a fusion of two cells, but we have now seen that the most important process involved is the fusion of the two nuclei. The union of the egg-nucleus with the sperm-nucleus is necessary to produce a nucleus endowed with living forces adequate effec- tively to stimulate the later developmental proc- esses in the yolk, and to control them in many re- spects. Fol’s observations, made partly independ- ently of Hertwig’s and partly after the JANUARY 14, 1916] publication of Hertwig’s first paper, sup- plemented Hertwig’s in several important respects: (1) He observed the details of penetration of the spermatozoon with a clearness that has never been surpassed for these forms. (2) He gave the first correct account of the maturation divisions and origin of the egg-nucleus (Hertwig re- garded the latter as being the persistent nu- cleus of the germinal vesicle). (3) He paid special attention to the origin of the fertili- zation membrane and founded the classic theory that it was an adaptation to prevent polyspermy. (4) He was the first one ade- quately to present the harmful effects of polyspermy. The period initiated by these two men was characterized mainly by the repeated demonstration of penetration of the sperma- tozoon, the formation of a nucleus from the sperm head, and the fusion of this nucleus with the egg-nucleus. It was also grad- ually demonstrated that the egg-nucleus is genetically derived from the germinal ves- icle by karyokinetic divisions. Thus the genetic continuity of the germ nuclei with nuclei of preceding cell generations was established. As yet the character of the fusion of egg and sperm nuclei had hardly been raised, for the chromosome problems and hypotheses were in a very nascent state. Flemming’s discoveries concerning chromo- somes and their reproduction in karyoki- nesis by splitting date only from 1876- 1878. All the problems of cell morphology were in a fine state of fermentation during this time, the really classic period of cell-mor- phology; the foundations of our present knowledge of cell-division were being laid; before the decade 1870-1880 it had been firmly established that cells arise only by division from preexisting cells; but two views of the origin of nuclei were still held, one that of free formation, according to SCIENCE AT which the nuclei of daughter cells had no genetic connection with the nucleus of the mother cell, and the other that nuclei arise by division from a preceding nucleus. Little by little as a result of numerous in- vestigations by many investigators, both zoologists and botanists, the matter cleared up. In 1878 Flemming was able to outline the whole scheme of karyokinesis substan- tially as we now understand it. The fundamental biological principle of genetic continuity was foreshadowed by the founders of the cell doctrine, and was more or less distinctly foreseen by some of their contemporaries, as in the case of Lal- lemand. It was yet more clearly expressed in Virchow’s famous aphorism, ommis cell- ula e cellula (1856) ; but it could not be- come an established guiding principle in genetic research until the entire cell-cycle of the individual life history was worked out in broad outline, until the process of cell division was accurately ascertained and applied to the genealogy of the germ- cells, until the respective parts of ovum and spermatozoon in the origin of the new gen- eration were understood, nor until the hoary doctrine of spontaneous generation was banished bodily from the field of biology. These were all accomplishments of that great decade in biological research, 1870- 1880, for which the studies of the preceding thirty years had furnished ample prepara- tion. The entire superstructure of modern genetic research rests upon the foundations then laid. Professor Mark’s paper on Limaaz (1881) is a point of departure between the fertili- zation studies of the seventies and those that were to follow. Professor Mark ob- served that the pronuclei come together, but do not fuse to form a first cleavage nucleus, as had been described for other animals. The first cleavage nucleus does not have a mor- phological existence. 48 The pronuclei persist after the appear- ance of the cleavage centers, their mem- branes then gradually disappear. In 1883 van Beneden published his now classic paper on Ascaris: The pronuclei do not unite, both are included in a single amphiaster; each produces two chromo- somes; these divide and their halves form the daughter nuclei. In the nuclei of the first two cells there are thus equal num- bers of male and female elements, and there are reasons to believe that even in these two nuclei they do not fuse; it is probable that they remain distinct in all derivative cells, including the immature eggs and sperma- togonia. In the egg the chromatin is com- posed of two distinct parts, and it is legitimate to suppose that each is the equiva- lent of a male and a female chromosome, and that in the formation of the polar globules each throws out the male chromatin which it contains. Van Beneden by a veritable stroke of genius thus anticipates the entire chromo- some doctrine of the present time, even though certain aspects of his interpretation were not entirely fortunate: his conception of the diploid cells as hermaphrodite, for instance, and freeing of egg and sperm from the male or female elements in maturation. With the establishment of the nuclear theory, destined soon to be elevated into the doctrine of chromosome individuality, a certain duality of cell-life was recognized in which nucleus and cytoplasm, however interdependent, were regarded as playing specific rdles. But there was no logical reason for stopping at duality, and the centrosome soon came to be recognized under van Beneden and Boveri’s leadership as a third organ of cell-life reproducing it- self by division. The development of this idea was due not only to studies of kary- okinesis, but also to the series of fertiliza- tion studies which began with Boveri’s classic papers on Ascaris (1887-1888). In SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1098 these papers Boveri is convinced of the necessity of making ‘‘the sharpest distine- tion between fertilization and heredity, 7. e., between the question how egg and sperma- tozoon produce a cell capable of division, and the question how these cells come to be capable of reproducing the qualities of the parents in the offspring’’; this distinc- tion has since been generally recognized. Boveri’s solution of the fertilization prob- lem was in terms of the centrosome hypoth- esis: the egg is devoid of the organ of cell-division, the centrosome; capacity for division, hence the initiation of the develop- mental processes, is restored through the introduction of a centrosome into the egg by the spermatozoon. This conception exerted a dominating influence on the series of fertilization stud- ies which followed; the questions as to the origin of the sperm aster with its contained centrosome in the egg, and as to the genetic continuity of the sperm centrosome with the centrosomes of the cleavage amphiaster were energetically investigated by a series of students for the next fifteen years or more, and similar studies have continued with less energy down to the present time. Collectively these publications constitute a fairly exhaustive record of the morphcl- ogy of the fertilization process in animals, a large part of which was furnished by American students. The morphological analysis of fertiliza- tion seems now to be fairly complete; there may still be disturbances such as recent at- tempts to trace mitochondria back to the sperm, which seems destined to share the adverse fate of the similar attempt to trace the centrosomes to the sperm; but there is not likely to be any great modification of the existing data, which seem to me to dem- onstrate, effectively if not absolutely, that the sperm head contains all the substances necessary for fertilization. We have thus JANUARY 14, 1916] attained a more or less definitive solution of the morphological relations of egg and spermatozoon in the fertilization process. The cytologist working with chromosomes and the geneticist with Mendelian factors have traced maternal and paternal elements through the life history in a manner very satisfactory to certain classes of biologists, however repugnant to others, so that we are beginning to see how certain strands of the web of life cross the gap of successive generations. It remains for the biology of the future to elucidate the chemical foun- dations of chromosome behavior and to identify the Mendelian factors in these chemical foundations. The problems of the immediate reaction of the reproductive elements and the phys- lology of fertilization are not touched by this morphological analysis, though they had been present in the minds of investiga- tors from the beginning. The experimen- tal investigation of these problems dates from Spallanzani, as we have seen, but they did not become dominant until the morpho- logical problems of fertilization were in an advanced stage of solution. They consti- tute, however, the more immediate prob- lems of fertilization, considered in a re- stricted sense. We have had two lines of attack since the studies of O. and R. Hertwig pub- lished in 1887 really initiated the modern period in the physiology of fertiliza- tion. The one is a direct experimental analysis of the fertilization process itself’; the other is the attempt to imitate the action of the spermatozoon by chemical and physical agencies, in short the studies on artificial parthenogenesis. I shall not at- tempt to deal with the latter, which con- stitute one of the most interesting and sug- gestive chapters in modern biology, beyond attempting to define their relation to the problems of fertilization proper. SCIENCE 49 It was soon found in the course of studies on artificial parthenogenesis that no single physical or chemical agency suffices to ini- tiate development in all eggs, and that when the various agencies effective in all the successful experiments are assembled they constitute a fairly complete list of agencies to which protoplasm in general is irritable. The idea then arose that the common factor must be the effective one, but no common factor has been found, or can be found, in the agents themselves; the only common factors are in the reproduc- tive cells. This leaves the method of par- thenogenesis in the same position as the method of analysis, that is in the position of determining what are the changes in the egg itself that initiate development, and what is the nature of their dependency upon the external agent or spermatozoon? The answer to these questions can not pro- ceed exclusively from parthenogenetic stud- ies, though to the extent that the same ques- tions are involved parthenogenesis and fer- tilization studies must furnish the same answer. But there are obviously funda- mental problems of fertilization that can not be touched by methods of artificial parthenogenesis. The conditions to be fulfilled in fertiliza- tion involve not only penetration of the spermatozoon, or some part of it, into the egg, but also reaction between the two, which is evidenced by the behavior of both partners; for it is possible for a spermato- zoon to penetrate an egg and no reaction to be evidenced in the behavior of either the ege or sperm; as when immature eggs are penetrated by mature spermatozoa. We may therefore speak of a fertilization re- action when the behavior of both partners indicates that the process is proceeding nor- mally. Fertilization has its quantitative aspect, and the reaction may be complete or exhibit varying degrees of incomplete- 50 ness. For a normal fertilization reaction certain internal conditions of the partners and certain external conditions of the me- dium must be realized. The study of the external conditions throws light upon the reaction, because the nature of the internal conditions may be inferred from the neces- sary, from the inhibiting, and from the fa- voring conditions of the medium. External Factors—The fertilization re- action like all biological reactions requires certain conditions of the environment, such as definite range of temperature and chem- ical composition of the medium. In the first place, if these are exceeded in either direction so far as to injure the cells the fertilization reaction either does not take place, or it is rendered abnormal. The cause of the failure, or the abnormality, in such cases lies in some change of the inter- nal composition of one or the other of the germ-cells. The classic experiments of this kind are those of Oskar and Richard Hert- wig published in 1887. These investigators studied the effects of high temperature, various injurious chemical reagents and of mechanical shock on the germ-cells sepa- rately before fertilization, and on the process of fertilization itself at various stages. Many exceedingly interesting ob- servations were made, and problems were raised that were not then ripe for solution. Other experiments of a similar kind have since been made, but their consideration properly belongs to the problems of the internal factors, for the phenomena ob- served depend upon internal changes of the germ-cells. In the second place there may be mod- ifications of the medium which do not di- rectly injure the germ-cells, but which in- hibit or favor the fertilization reaction. Examples of inhibiting phenomena are found in Professor Loeb’s studies of the relations of ions to the fertilization re- SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1098 action, or my own on the inhibiting action of blood or tissue secretions of the same species on fertilization. The most striking example of conditions favoring fertilization is the action of alkalis in enabling inter- class hybridization, discovered by Jacques Loeb. Such experiments furnish important data for the analysis of the reaction, but it is obvious that their interpretation must depend upon internal conditions of the fertilization reaction. In the third place the membranes of the ege and of the spermatozoon must influence the occurrence, rate and extent of the fer- tilization reaction according to the degree of their permeability to the substances con- cerned ; the egg-membrane is of course more especially concerned; its rdle in the occur- rence of parthenogenesis has been studied especially by R. S. Lillie; and I have found in the ease of the starfish egg that a resist- ant egg-membrane may entirely block the fertilization reaction, though the block may be removed by agents that render the membrane more permeable. The internal conditions of the fertiliza- tion reaction may be grouped under two heads: (1) Maturity of the germ-cells; (2) specificity of the reaction. 1. Maturity —Concerning conditions of maturity of the spermatozoon but little def- inite is known, except that it will not ferti- lize before its differentiation is complete. Whether the cause of this lies entirely in deficient motility, or partly also in incom- plete chemical differentiation, we do not know; though there are some reasons for thinking that the latter factor may be in- volved. In the case of the ovum our knowl- edge is in a much more advanced stage. We know that the fertilizable condition, which represents the final maturity of the ovum, arises rather suddenly, usually lasts but a short time, and is lost as an immediate con- sequence of the fertilization reaction. (@) JANUARY 14, 1916] That the fertilizable condition arises sud- denly has been shown especially by the work of Délage on the starfish egg and of Wilson on the egg of Cerebratulus. Their experiments on merogony showed that parts of the full-grown ovum taken prior to the rupture of the germinal vesicle are incapa- ble of fertilization ; but, soon after the rup- ture of the germinal vesicle, parts, whether nucleated or not, readily fertilize. Hert- wig’s observations (1877) also showed a complete failure of the fertilization reac- tion in primary ovocytes of the sea-urchin before rupture of the germinal vesicle, even when spermatozoa penetrated. I have ob- served the same thing in Chetopterus. (b) Eggs of Platynerets lose their capac- ity for fertilization almost immediately after coming into sea water, even though spermatozoa may penetrate (Just) ; eggs of the frog become unfertilizable after half an hour in water (Spallanzani) ; eggs of the wall-eyed pike completely lose their fer- tilizability after ten minutes in water (Reighard). Usually fertilization capacity begins to fall off in one or two hours after eggs are laid in most marine animals, though in some, as in the sea-urchin, it may persist much longer. (c) Once fertilized eggs do not fertilize again, nor do parts of such eggs freed of the fertilization membrane. It should there- fore be impossible to superimpose parthe- nogenesis and fertilization; and the stud- ies of Mr, C. R. Moore, one of my students (not yet published), show this to be the case. Apparent superposition appears in all cases to be due to incomplete reactions, which cease and may be subsequently re- sumed. The fertilization reaction appears to be irreversible; and the appearance of reversal in parthenogenesis may be re- ferred, like superposition of fertilization on parthenogenesis, to incompleteness of the initial reaction. SCIENCE 51 Specificity is an outstanding feature of the fertilization reaction, the significance of which is not weakened by any hybridiza- tion experiments. We need not stop to de- fine the limits nor the consequences of hy- bridization in order to justify the assertion that no theory of fertilization which fails to include the factor of specificity as one of the prime elements can be true. The fundamental character of specificity is illuminated by the phenomena of self- sterility; in species where this occurs the eggs and sperm of the same individual are sterile inter se, though fertile with those of all other individuals. This has led some botanists to the conception of individual stuffs; but Correns’s experimental analysis led him to the conclusion that the specific factor is not an individual stuff, but a def- inite combination of stuffs for each indi- vidual. The combination arises always with the individual, and disappears with it. An extension of the principle of self-steril- ity is found in that mutant of fruit flies dis- covered by Morgan in which the males and females are fertile with other mutants, but sterile inter se. The only biological par- allel of such phenomena is found in the in- dividual blood composition revealed by ser- ological studies. That there is a common factor in species and individual specificity studies no one who has studied both sets of phenomena can doubt. A consistent theory of fertilization must take account of all these phenomena, not only the internal factors of maturity of germ-cells and the specificity of their reac- tions, but also the external factors that favor or inhibit the reaction. I have at- tempted to show in a series of papers that the fertilizable condition of the egg de- pends upon the presence of a specific sub- stance which is produced at the time of rupture of the germinal vesicle and which disappears completely after fertilization. 52 If this substance be present in the egg in adequate amount, the egg can be fertilized, otherwise not. It may be obtained in solu- tion in the sea-water and recognized by its capacity for agglutinating sperm suspen- sions of the same species, in some cases at least. If it is thus possible to associate the fertilizable condition of the ovum with a definite substance, we have a base from which an analysis of fertilization can be made. If the existence of such a substance be admitted, it must operate either by activa- ting some substance in the spermatozoon, which is to be regarded as the effective agent in subsequent changes, or we must regard it as the effective agent which is transformed from an inactive to an active state by some substance in the spermato- zoon. If we take the first alternative, we have no explanation of parthenogenesis, whereas if we regard the egg substance as the active agent, the explanation of parthen- ogenesis proceeds along the same lines as that of fertilization. Moreover, I have been able to show by an analysis of the phenom- enon of blood inhibition of fertilization, that the first point of view is untenable. This substance may therefore be called the fertilizing substance, or fertilizin. By its reaction it is shown to be a colloidal sub- stance, not giving the usual protein tests, and exhibiting some of the properties of a ferment as shown by Richards and Wood- ward. Fertilization would thus be a three- body reaction between the sperm-receptors, fertilizin and egg-receptors linked in line; and it is possible to show that inhibiting agencies may operate at the various link- ages of such a reaction. In its reaction with the sperm the fertilizin of different species exhibits a certain degree of speci- ficity, which should be more fully studied, but which has been partly explored by Jacques Loeb and myself. SCIENCE [N. 8S. Von. XLIII. No. 1098 This form of hypothesis takes into ac- count the internal factors both of maturity of the germ-cells and their specificity; it is also adapted to explain the environmen- tal conditions of fertilization extremely well; and it is consistent with the results of parthenogenesis, and the known relations of parthenogenesis and fertilization to the permeable or impermeable conditions of the egg-membrane. I believe that I speak for all naturalists when I express my admiration for the ad- vances in the conception of the cell due to the labors of many physiologists. But those of us who deal with the more complex phenomena of cell-life as shown in fertiliza- tion, in the behavior of chromosomes, and in the phenomena of heredity, feel that no advance in our comprehension of the cell- membrane, of the relation of cell-activity to electrolytes, nor of the chemical analysis of triturated cells, will lead to a fundamen- tal comprehension of these phenomena. There is a great gap in our knowledge of cellular physiology, the significance of which is not generally appreciated. We know nothing except what our microscopes show us, of the reactions of the colloidal substances of the living cells; and all hope of a physico-chemical analysis of cell ac- tivities is premature until the gap is filled in. The main physiological problems of fer- tilization are still before us; all the work up to the present has merely prepared the way for their solution. Fertilization is the knot in the webs of successive generations which must be untied before we can trace the strands from generation to generation. The task bespeaks all that we know, or may hope to know, of cellular physiology. As in all times of the history of the subject our vision is limited by our general biolo- gical conceptions, and the problem will move forward as our general knowledge of JANUARY 14, 1916] cell-life progresses; and it will aid in its turn in the general advance. We have followed the history of the prob- lem of fertilization from the metaphysical stage through the morphological stage into the physiological stage, and within sight of the physico-chemical stage. Possibly the results seem slight as a record of 265 years of continuous study of a single biological problem. But we read the history of science very superficially indeed if we fail to realize the constant interdependence of all scientific thought. There has probably been no time in the history of our partic- ular subject when a greater amount of work on its problems would have caused a much more rapid advanee. Scientific dis- covery is a truly epigenetic process in which the germs of thought develop in the total environment of knowledge. Investigation of particular problems can not be accele- rated beyond well-defined limits; progress in each depends on the movement of the whole of science. Frank R, Linus UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE WORK AND OPPORTUNITIES OF A DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH MEDICINE IN THE UNIVERSITY 1 Ir we analyze the discussions of present- day problems of medical education we find that an important if not the ultimate object of any particular plan is greater oppor- tunity for research. This we find in the argument of those who support the plan of the full-time teacher, the plan that the uni- versity should own its hospital or control one by close affiliation, and also it is evi- dent in all plans for greater endowment. 1 Address of the vice-president and chairman of Section of Physiology and Experimental Medicine of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Columbus, January 1, 1916. SCIENCE 53 Increased facilities for research and an augmentation of the number of men en- gaged in research, or combining research with teaching, would ensure, it is con- tended, not only important progress in the science of medicine, but also a higher development of both medical teaching and medical practise. To what extent this in- creased interest in research is due to the popularization of medicine through the practical application of discoveries in the fields of bacteriology and protozoology and to what extent to a dissatisfaction wiih time-honored methods in medical education, it is difficult to say. Both undoubtedly have had some influence but they alone can not explain the rapidly increasing number of experiments in medical education which have for their avowed object the stimulation of medical research in school and hospital. As the most important of such experiments I need only remind you of the so-called ‘‘full time’’ scheme at Johns Hopkins Medical School fostered by the General Education Board, the affiliation between Columbia University and the Presbyterian Hospital of New York City, the development in Chicago of the Otho S. A. Sprague Institute which, without build- ings of its own, utilizes for purposes of re- search in medicine the already existing laboratories and hospitals of that city, and more recently in San Francisco in connec- tion with the University of California, the establishment of a well-endowed depart- ment for general research in medicine. On a smaller scale we find the establishment, definitely within the university, of separate departments for the investigation of trop- ical diseases, of cancer, of tuberculosis, of chronie diseases, or of departments devoted less specifically to experimental medicine, comparative pathology, comparative phys- iology and the like. As all such founda- tions must be considered for a time at 54 least, as experiments in medical education and research, and as the increase of en- dowment for the better type of medical effort will naturally depend to some extent upon the efforts, successful or otherwise, of the foundations already in existence, it seems advisable that those responsible for the expenditure of research funds should from time to time report upon their efforts —hboth useful and futile—in order to guide those giving or receiving funds for investi- gation in medicine. It is for this reason that I present to you, to-day, the expe- rience of a small university research depart- ment for the management of which I have been responsible during the past five years. It is not always comfortable to talk about one’s own work and efforts and I realize that I may be criticized for bringing myself and my department into the limelight in this way and particularly on this occa- sion, but I am satisfied from the number of inquiries I receive about the plan and scope of our work that there is a general desire on the part not only of medical faculties and university trustees, but also of individuals who wish to aid and foster research in medicine, to know more about the experience of foundations already established. For this reason, despite pos- sible criticism, I present the general facts concerning some of the phases of the work of the John Herr Musser Department of Research Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania during the past five years.” This department was endowed in 1909 ander a deed of gift which provided for the establishment of a chair of research medicine in a department of similar name.? 2 September 1, 1910, to August 31, 1915. 3In 1912 after the death of John Herr Musser, professor of clinical medicine in the university, and at the request of the original donor, the name of the department was changed to The John Herr Musser Department of Research Medicine. SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1098 Some of the important conditions contained in this deed of gift which have necessarily determined the work of the department are as follows: 1. That the department concern itself especially with the study of chronic dis- eases* by laboratory methods and with the aid when necessary of the wards of the uni- versity hospital. 2. That the professor of research medi- cine devote his entire time to the conduct of the department, his duties as a teacher being limited to not less than fifteen lec- tures or demonstrations on the work of the department to be given to students of medi- cine of the University of Pennsylvania. 3. That the facilities of the department be open to members of other departments of the university and to such students and practitioners as might be considered capa- ble of conducting research work. 4, That the income of the endowment be applicable to the purposes of the department of research medicine and in and about no other department of the University of Pennsylvania or otherwise. In brief the conditions of the endowment established a department for the study of chronic diseases, reduced the teaching duties of the staff to a minimum and pro- vided that opportunities for research should be given to those desiring such work and that the income could not be used to eke out the expenses of existing departments. The qualifying statements, however, in re- gard to each of these conditions allowed considerable latitude of interpretation, both as to scope of work and relations to other departments. The work of the de- partment, as determined by the various conditions stated, may be considered under the following heads: 4Some diseases were specifically mentioned, as, for example, gout, rheumatism and nephritis. January 14, 1916] 1. Investigation of the problems of cer- tain chronic diseases. 2. Cooperative efforts with other depart- ments, particularly the department of med- icine. i 3. Special elective courses of instruction for medical students, and 4. Opportunities for research offered to physicians and others. These four lines of effort have been the chief object of the department and upon the success of these must rest opinion con- cerning the value of such a department to the medical school or the community. 1, INVESTIGATION From the point of view of the investi- gator the field of the chronic diseases is the most difficult of approach in the entire ter- ritory of medicine and it is for this reason that our exact knowledge of these diseases progresses so slowly. The very slight knowledge we have concerning their etiol- ogy, the insidious nature of their onset, their slow progress, the frequent involve- ment of several organs in a general degen- erative process, and the difficulty of repro- ducing pure types of chronic lesions ex- perimentally, render impossible the bril- liant achievements which have characterized the attack on the acute infectious diseases by the methods of bacteriology and im- munology. Progress must depend on the slower methods of physiology and chem- istry as used in experimental and clinical studies. The immediate problem in a given disease is to understand the gradual and progressive changes in physiology which a particular type of organic lesion produces rather than to discover its ex- act etiology. Naturally etiology and of course therapeusis, looking to amelioration of a chronic diseased condition, are the ultimate objects of researches in this field, but at present the best form of attack seems SCIENCE 50 to be that designed to explain pathological physiology and especially the physiology or chemistry of the characteristic crises and complications, as, for example, the edema, uremia and hypertension of nephritis, the acidosis and coma of diabetes, the exacerba- tions of gout and so forth. The investiga- tion of individuals, the subjects of chronic disease, by means of metabolism studies, functional tests and instruments of pre- cision, as those applied to the cardio-vas- cular system, must constitute an important phase of work in this field. This must, necessarily, be supplemented by exper- iments on animals which have for their object the reproduction of lesions chronic in nature which may then be studied by the methods of physiology and chemistry, or, if this is not always possible, by the reproduction of isolated phenomena, or analogous symptoms or complications. Chronic disease and its phenomena can not always be imitated perfectly by exper- iment, but the imperfect experiment may nevertheless throw some light on the phenomena of a particular disease. Fi- nally, a department devoted to this field of disease must be prepared to test out new functional and other tests and to apply im- mediately the discoveries of physics, phys- iology and chemistry to both the exper- imental and clinical study of chronic dis- ease. Whether or not this plan of approaching the study of the chronic diseases is the best that could be conceived, it remains the plan adopted by the department under con- sideration. The principal lines of investi- gation which have been followed during the past five years have been those concerning (1) diseases of the kidney and (2) the spleen in relation to anemia and hemolytic jaundice. The first of these studies was undertaken largely on account of the great importance of nephritis as the common dis- 56 ease of advancing life and so frequently re- sponsible for the final exitus and partly because it was one of the diseases for the study of which the department was founded.® The studies of the spleen were inaugurated on account of the almost total lack of knowledge concerning the function of this organ, the apparent relation it has to certain hemolytic anemias, and the im- provement in the latter which follows the removal of the spleen. An analysis of the publications of the department during the five years of its existence shows that nine- teen are more or less directly concerned with the study of diseases of the kidney and twenty-four equally so with problems concerning the spleen. Of these about one eighth are comprehensive metabolic or other studies of patients—while the larger number were based on experimental obser- vations on animals. Other investigations concerned themselves with anaphylactic shock, the depressor substance of various tissues and fluids, the coagulation of the blood, the cerebrospinal fluid, the utiliza- tion of parenterally introduced serum, dis- eases of the heart, and the toxemias of pregnancy. As to the ultimate value of this work, we naturally offer no opinion. This brief summary is presented merely to indicate the general character of the’ re- search work of the department. Another group of fourteen publications presented the results of the study of various new functional tests and methods of diagnosis. These include such subjects as the phthalein test for kidney function, Abderhalden’s test for pregnancy, Folin’s methods for non-protein nitrogen in the blood, the tetrachlorphthalein test for liver function, a critical study of Crehore’s micrograph for recording heart sounds, and the technique of the Hck fistula opera- 5 The deed of gift referred specifically to dis- eases of the kidney. SCIENCE LN. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1098 tion with regard to its possible application to human surgery. This testing of new methods, while not to be dignified as original investigation, we have considered nevertheless to be an im- portant part of our work. It is well known that the busy hospital laboratory can not take up at once every new diagnostic aid that is announced. If the new method involves a simple technique and is easy of application it may gain wide use at once; but if further observation and experiment is necessary and especially if it demands animal experimentation, or new laboratory equipment, the average hospital waits until further trial in the laboratories of the medical sciences demonstrates its value and thus finally forces its practical application. We have felt that we are justified in giving a part of our time and resources to work of this character in order to reduce the waiting period which usually follows an announcement of a new procedure, appli- cable to the study of chronic disease. In- cidentally the educational value to the de- partment staff is a matter of no small im- portance, for its members at once become familiar with the technique of the new pro- cedure, and such as engage also in hospital work or clinical teaching can at once put the method into practical use or instruct medical students and others concerning its value. 2. COOPERATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS It is not the usual cooperation between departments that I wish to describe at this time. Every department desires from time to time the assistance, in connection with the solution of its problems, of the skill or equipment of other departments and this has naturally been our experience in con- nection with the widely varying methods of studying chronic diseases. We have found it necessary to call on the department of JANUARY 14, 1916] surgical research for the aid of its special skill in peculiarly difficult operative pro- cedures, on the department of pathology for cooperation in problems demanding the methods of immunology and frequently on the department of physiological chemistry for cooperative assistance in technical pro- cedure. On the other hand, we have given assistance in the solution of their problems to the departments of medicine, neurology, surgery and obstetrics. In the case of each of the departments named the cooperation has been successful inasmuch as the combined efforts at investigation have resulted in the publication of material of benefit to the departments interested. It has been our experience, moreover, that the presence of departments for research® stimulates among the workers in various other branches much discussion of border- line problems, with the result that the presence of one or more groups of men, giving their time entirely to research, en- courages doubtful or difficult ventures in investigation that the teacher with his many duties and limited time for research would not attempt without the assistance of a department interested in research only. This is particularly true of the average busy clinical teacher whose hazy views on some theory or problem occasionally sug- gest a workable basis for orientative ex- perimentation. With such views, in that they do not always concretely set the problem, the workers in the fundamental sciences of medicine are usually somewhat impatient. When, however, a department for the general investigation of disease exists, it can afford, in the hope of securing better cooperation with the clinical side of medicine, to sift and analyze such sugges- tions, and if a possibility of profitable in- 6 This refers not only to the department under discussion, but as well to the department of surgical research under the direction of Dr. J. E. Sweet. SCIENCE 57 vestigation, or of definitely settling a moot point, is seen, it is justified in utilizing a certain amount of its time and funds in thus assisting the clinical department. And if in so doing it can persuade members of these departments to actively cooperate in the solution of the problems under con- sideration, and thus stimulate the spirit of exact investigation it 1s doing as much, if not more, for research and the development of clinical medicine than it would by re- stricting its efforts to the hard and fast lines of fundamental problems. This cooperative work with other depart- ments, valuable as it is, is, however, as a rule more or less incidental and without definite responsibility on the part of either party concerned. It does not represent sustained cooperative effort, but rather the coming together of two departments when mutual need arises. We have, how- ever, with one department, that of the theory and practice of medicine, developed a community of interest and definitely co- operative effort which we regard as a most important experiment in medical education. Three years ago an agreement was en- tered into with the professor of medicine (Dr. Alfred Stengel), and largely at his suggestion, by which it was provided that the two associates most intimately con- cerned with him in the teaching of students and the care of patients in the university hospital, should give half their time to in- vestigation in the department of research medicine. In other words, two men in- timately connected with the fundamental instruction in clinical medicine were to devote their mornings to the teaching of students and the care of patients and their afternoons to fundamental research in a laboratory independent of the hospital. In the absence of the ‘‘full time’’ plan in the clinical departments of the school this seemed an experiment with ‘‘full time’’ 58 assistants well worth trying. It should be stated that this arrangement was not due to a lack of opportunity for research laboratory work in the hospital. The uni- versity hospital has two spacious and well- equipped laboratories, one in the hospital proper for the usual routine examinations and the other, The William Pepper Lab- oratory of Clinical Medicine, in a separate building, with an independent endowment and a large staff, engaged in the various research problems arising in connection with clinical observation in the wards. The cooperation with the department of re- search medicine, which has its laboratory in the medical school building, was for the purpose of enlarging the opportunities of the department of medicine and the de- partment of research medicine by bringing the latter into closer contact with the prob- lems of the wards, and allowing workers in the former department the utilization of the methods of the fundamental sciences in the solution of their problems and the broadening of their trainmg. During the three years this arrangement has been in operation the results have been most grati- fying and the arrangement has been of advantage to both departments. The re- search work of the two men concerned has been in part the study of patients under their care by the detailed methods of met- abolie investigation and the use of func- tional tests, in part experimental work on animals in connection with fundamental problems, and in part the careful testing out of new methods of possible clinical ap- plication. Fully a third of the researches of the department completed during the past three years have been published under their names, either as independent authors or in collaboration with other members of the staff. On the side of productive re- search this is for them a most creditable showing; on the other side, that of their SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITT. No. 1098 development as clinical teachers, there is abundant evidence that they have found this experience of great value. But for the university there is also something gained. Men desiring to devote themselves to a career as teachers of medicine can by this cooperation gain the proper balance be- tween teaching, research and routine ward work without one phase suffering at the ex- pense of the other. They can keep at all times in touch with each field of activity, and when the time comes that a man is overwhelmed by the lure of the clinic and finds that he must curtail the time given to fundamental research, and feels obliged to limit his investigations to the hospital laboratory, the university has the assurance that his fundamental laboratory training has been satisfactory. On the other hand, it is to be hoped that such a system will occasionally stimulate and hold the rarer type of clinical mind which finds its great- est satisfaction in the solution of the more difficult fundamental problems of medicine rather than in the practical applications of the clinical laboratory. Clinical medicine needs most men who would rather blaze a new path than clear the trail of those who have gone before. It is only through con- scientious effort in the fundamental inves- tigation of disease that such can be devel- oped. ‘To assist in developing men of this type is a function of the research labora- tory in the university but, falling short of this, it can do what is perhaps only second in importance—cultivate proper ideals in its younger clinical teachers. 3, ELECTIVE COURSES The requirement, in the deed of gift, that the department should engage in teaching to the extent of not less than fifteen lectures or demonstrations in each year has been met by offering special elective courses, dealing with the experimental side of medi- JANUARY 14, 1916] cine, and largely demonstrative in nature. It was the intent of the founder of the de- partment, apparently, that the lectures or demonstrations offered should be given to an entire class. This plan was not carried out, partly because it would duplicate work already given in a systematic way by other departments and partly because it seemed unwise to add another set of didactic lec- tures to an already overcrowded curricu- lum. An alternate plan was therefore adopted of a series of elective demonstra- tions so arranged as to supplement the di- dactic and clinical teaching in other depart- ments and to illustrate by experimental procedures, in a more or less mtensive way, the physiology, chemistry and pathology of various organs or groups of organs. With a desire to determine the best system for such teaching, and also to find out what type of work and instruction appealed most to the student of medicine, the subject mat- ter and method of this instruction has been changed from year to year. As our efforts in this regard are of some interest they will be briefly summarized. During the first year a comprehensive series of demonstra- tions in experimental pathology was given for the benefit of the class (second year) in pathology. This was offered twice a week during a period of fourteen weeks, half the class attending, if they desired, one demonstration each week. The subjects cov- ered were degeneration and necrosis, in- flammation and repair, blood destruction and jaundice, thrombosis embolism and in- farction, experimental lesions of the heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, and kidney, the problems of infection and immunity, of shock and hemorrhage and the physiology of the ductless glands.7. As far as possible the gross and microscopic 7 Pearce, R. M., ‘‘The Teaching of Experimental Pathology and Pathological Physiology to Large Classes,’’ J. H. H. Bull., 1911, XXII, 1. SCIENCE 59 lesions of disease in man were correlated with experimental lesions and the relations to clinical medicine emphasized. Physio- logical methods of graphic registration were employed whenever possible; changes in the urine and other secretions demonstrated ; and the methods of chemical examination shown. Furthermore, in the exercises on the heart and lungs the work was done in cooperation with the instructor in physical diagnosis. In the following three years this course was not offered in its entirety. Thus one year a group of ten students (fourth-year class) studied with great thoroughness the normal and pathological physiology of the cardio-vascular system, and in the following year the same course was given as a demon- stration course and in less detail to the en- tire third-year class, divided into sections for this purpose. In still another year the problems of hepatic and renal and pancrea- tic disease were taken up by small groups of men from the fourth-year class. At the end of four years of such con- centrated experimental work we were im- pressed by the fact that although the stu- dent had gained a better insight into the problems of pathological physiology and therefore of disease processes, the time given to the various experimental procedures left little or no time, in our short two-hour periods, for the discussion of theories and the relation of new facts to old conceptions. And even with the constant presence at all these exercises of the two clinical associates, to whom I have previously referred, whose interest led them to emphasize matters of clinical importance, we felt that a thorough correlation of experimental procedure and clinical observation was not always at- tained. In the fifth year, therefore, we tried the experiment of a seminar for the discussion of the various problems peculiar to certain groups of disease. In this sem- 60 inar were united the chairs of medicine (Dr. Alfred Stengel), pharmacology (Dr. A. N. Richards), physiological chemistry (Dr. A. E. Taylor) and research medicine with their respective stafis and the seminar was thrown open to students of the fourth- year class as an elective. The medical clinic room of the hospital was used for these exercises in order that lantern demon- strations and the exhibition of patients might be possible. All other demonstra- tions were barred in order to have plenty of time for discussion. The first trimester started auspiciously with the discussion of diabetes and a sufficient number of stu- dents in attendance to guarantee, appar- ently, the success of the venture. But no student elected the course for the second and third trimesters devoted respectively to renal disease and diseases of the ductless glands. In brief, from the point of view of interesting the medical student, the sem- inar was a dismal failure. For the teach- ing and research staffs represented, the ex- change of views was very profitable and despite the absence of students the seminar was continued through the year. It is per- haps needless to say that the students lost interest because of the many detailed dis- cussions of opposing and oftentimes irrec- oncilable views which led the disputants away from the fundamental basis of ac- cepted facts. Perhaps also the fact that the students could take no part in the ex- ercises, except to ask questions, had some- thing to do with their lack of interest. We have, therefore, abandoned the sem- inar as an aid to discussion—perhaps it smacks too much of the didactic lecture, anyway—and have this year returned to the plan of offering to small groups of men three short, elective experimental courses dealing respectively with the cardio-vas- cular system, the liver and bile passages and the chronic degenerative diseases. SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1098 I have gone into these experiments in elective teaching in some detail because not only do I feel it is a very important part of our work, but also because I am con- vinced that in every school the men of the fourth year should have some means of re- viewing in a practical way the knowledge they have obtained of one or more of the systems of the body. No better method ex- ists, I believe, than the experimental course with its demonstrations of pathological physiology and chemistry, the necessary re- view of physiology, pathology and phar- macology and the obvious applications to clinical medicine. In short, such courses help to bring physiology into relation with - morphology and to fill the gap which exists between pathological anatomy, on the one hand, and the clinic on the other. It is per- haps peculiarly the function of a university research laboratory® to develop such courses, and I consider our efforts in this direction to be a very important part of our work during the past five years. 4. RESEARCH BY STUDENTS AND PRACTITION- ERS The fourth of the important objects of the department has been to furnish oppor- tunity for investigation, as stated in the original deed of gift, ‘‘to properly trained students and practitioners’’ of medicine. In this, in so far as the student is concerned, we have not been successful. This is, how- ever, not the fault of the department, which has always been ready to encourage re- search by the medical student; nor, on the other hand, is it the fault of the students, many of whom have attempted to find time for a moderate amount of research work. 8In connection with our practical working out of these courses no claim for originality is implied. The general plan here outlined is largely that used several years ago in the department of pathology of the Johns Hopkins School by Professor W. G. MacCallum. JANUARY 14, 1916] The failure is due to the demands of an overcrowded inflexible curriculum and an inadequate elective system. During only one trimester, a period of a little more than ten weeks, in the fourth year, has the undergraduate any freedom in the choice of work and in this period the total of hours that may be given to purely elective work is so small that sustained investiga- tive work is impossible. A few enthusiastic students have occasionally attempted to utilize Saturday afternoons and odd hours during the week, but with, as was to be ex- pected, no very definite results. As a mat- ter of fact, during the five years the de- partment has been in existence only one piece of work by students, deserving of pub- lication, has been completed, and this rep- resented student labors during a summer vacation period. The summer climate of Philadelphia, however, is not conducive to close laboratory work and students desir- ing medical work in the summer are in- clined to seek fields demanding less ardu- ous efforts than those of the research lab- oratory. Our experience, then, has demonstrated the futility, in the absence of a liberal elec- tive system, of attempting to interest stu- dents in independent investigation. Our present attitude is to recommend to those seeking such that they take the special elective courses which we have already de- scribed. These at least give a first-hand knowledge of experimental methods and some idea of the problems of medicine, and this is about all that can be accomplished in the small amount of time our students have for elective work. The situation in regard to the practi- tioner of medicine is quite different. Dur- ing the five-year period under analysis, about fifteen practitioners have entered the department for the purpose of carry- ing on definite investigative work, and of SCIENCE 61 these, nine, either working alone or in col- laboration with members of the regular staff, carried to completion a total of fif- teen researches. In part these researches had a close relation to clinical methods and problems, but in a number of instances they were fundamental investigations in experi- mental pathology. All these workers have expressed the liveliest satisfaction at the opportunity afforded them and in many in- stances have continued an interest in the research side of medicine. These were, for the most part, younger men, with their hospital interneship back of them, who were starting the practise of medicine and wished to divide their spare time between dispensary and research work, or, as in some instances, to devote it entirely to in- vestigative work. We have felt that a de- partment for research in medicine could use its resources in no better way than to encourage such aspirations and for this reason every effort has been made to guar- antee to these men accomplishment with- out undue loss of time or effort in petty routine work. Naturally such men do not remain for any great length of time? be- cause of the demands of practise, hospital, dispensary and other clinical work, but if they carry into the latter the spirit of the investigator and utilize the hospital labora- tory in the study of clinical problems, the time and effort given in their behalf by the research laboratory is not entirely lost. If the progress of medicine depends, as we like to think it does, upon the spirit of in- vestigation, young men entering upon the practise of medicine should devote a part of the post-hospital period to methods ot exact observation and experiment, and if a university possesses a department of re- search in medicine, one of its first duties ®One man remained with us four years and another two years: the others averaged about six months each. 62 is to offer to recent graduates who have enough time at their disposal, facilities for such work. For its ultimate success, how- ever, such a policy must have the sympathy of the clinical teachers. If the latter dis- courage the spirit of research, and do not themselves engage in investigation, and especially if they urge that the younger men enter immediately, and to the full ex- tent of their time, into distinctly clinical work, the research department need not expect many voluntary workers, and might as well plan its activities on the basis of its permanent full-time staff. If, on the other hand, the clinical atmosphere is stimulating and progressive, the research laboratory is perhaps doing its greatest good in provid- ing for the men who wish to combine clin- ical observation with experimentation in the laboratory. Tn this brief discussion of the main phases of the development of the department under discussion I have thus far omitted all refer- ence to the questions which are frequently asked concerning such a department. Is not a department in the university for re- search only an anomaly? Should not the teacher be an investigator and the investi- gator a teacher? Would it not be better instead of a department for research only, to divide an endowment for research among existing teaching departments? These and many similar questions have often been put to me during the past five years and I have always answered that teaching and in- vestigation, in my opinion, should go hand in hand, and that if adequate endowment could be procured to place teaching and research in every department of the medi- cal school on a basis which would ensure adequate results, there would be no need for a separate department of research. Un- fortunately no school possesses such en- dowment and probably will not for some time to come. In the meantime, it is ev- SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLITI. No. 1098 ident that there is a tendency on the part of those wishing to advance the knowledge of certain diseases, or groups of disease, to offer to universities funds for the study of such. For the most part these funds do not represent large endowments, but sums which average two or three hundred thou- sand dollars and are for this reason given to institutions, as universities, which already have the buildings in which such conerete department may be housed, thus obviating the necessity of spending the income or a part of the principal for a new building. Likewise it is usually stipulated that the money is to be used for research and not for teaching. The object of this provision naturally is to prevent the diversion of funds to purposes other than those for which the gift was intended. Such gifts obviously intended for the more or less con- centrated study of one disease or a group of disease can do little more than support a chair with one or two assistants or fellows, if much is to be left for diener services and expenses of equipment and mainte- nance. Its work at the most must be modest in comparison with our larger well-endowed non-university research institutions. But despite these restrictions as to scope, pur- pose and field no university can refuse a gift which means an added effort for the advancement of medicine. Gifts similar in character, and, it is to be hoped, larger in amount, may come to any medical school prepared to take up such work, and their trustees can not refuse them on the ground that they do not believe in departments for research only and prefer to wait for en- dowment which may be used to combine re- search with teaching. They will in the future, as in the past, accept them, in the hope that a research department will find not only a field for independent work, but as well many opportunities to cooperate with and to aid and complement other de- JANuARY 14, 1916] partments interested primarily in teaching. To emphasize some of these possibilities and opportunities, as exemplified in our de- partment at Pennsylvania during the last five years, in the hope that our experience may be of benefit to other universities, is the principal object of this exposition. RicHarp M. PEARCE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. EuGENE WoLpEeMAR Hincarp, professor of agriculture in the University of California from 1875 until his retirement in 1904, dis- tinguished for his contributions to agricul- tural chemistry and geology, died on January 8, in his eighty-fourth year. THE American Association for the Advance- ment of Science held a special meeting in Washington on January 8 and 4, in honor of the Pan-American Congress. On the evening of January 3 Dr. R. 8S. Woodward, president of the Carnegie Institution, presided, and Dr. W. W. Campbell, president of the American As- sociation, delivered an illustrated address on the “ Evolution of the Stars.” On January 4 two sessions were held at the new National Museum when programs were presented re- lating mainly to the natural history of South America. Tue Italian government has placed the zoological station at Naples under the control of a royal commission, of which F. Sav. Monticelli, professor of zoology in the Uni- versity of Naples, is president. The commis- sion announces that it will furnish means to continue the work of the station, and engage- ments entered into in regard to tables for re- search. Dr. Rem Hunt, of the Harvard Medical School, has been elected president of the Amer- ican Society for Pharmacology and Experi- mental Therapeutics. Dr. Samuet G. Drxon has been elected presi- dent of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, for the twenty-first time and executive curator for the twenty-fifth time. SCIENCE 63 Rosert Braprorp Marsuaun, chief geog- rapher of the United States Geological Sur- vey, has been appointed superintendent of na- tional parks. Dr. JouHn S. Buuines, Jr., has been ap- pointed deputy health commissioner of New York. Mr. Burtan, the Austrian premier, is re- ported to have suggested through a neutral ambassador that Dr. Robert Baradny, the Viennese aurist and winner of the Nobel prize in medicine, now a prisoner in Russia, be ex- changed for a Russian prisoner held in Aus- tria. Dr. AurreD Irvine LupLow, professor of surgery and surgical pathology, Seoul Medical College, Korea, will sail for the Orient to re- sume his duties on January 8, 1916. Proressor GEorGE Nem Stewart, director of the H. K. Cushing Laboratory of Experi- mental Medicine, Western Reserve University, has returned from abroad. THE magnetic survey vessel, the Carnegie, at present under the command of J. P. Ault, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, arrived at Port Lyttelton, New Zealand, on November 3, after a successful continuous trip of ninety days from Dutch Harbor, Alaska. Leaving Port Lyttelton on Decem- ber 5, the Carnegie is now engaged on the ac- complishment of the cireumnayvigation of the region between the parallels 50° and 60° south, where almost no magnetic data have been se- cured during the past 75 years. A BIOLOGIOAL expedition to the island of Santo Domingo will be undertaken next fall by Professor J. G. Needham, of the depart- ment of entomology in the college of agricul- ture, Cornell University. He will be accom- panied by his son, J. T. Needham, ’18, and by Ludlow Griscom and K. P. Schmidt, both as- sistants in his department. Proressor C. P. Berxey, of the department of geology of Columbia University, has just completed a series of investigations of the geology of New York City. He has mapped out a scheme to save borings or explorations for any project in the city, such as aqueducts, 64 tunnels or building foundations. Professor Berkey has constructed a map of the city on which will be plotted the findings of such borings to be used for future reference. In this way the substrata of the entire city will in time be plotted on the map and engineers working on any project will be spared the trouble and expense of new determinations. Berore the Geographical Society of Chicago on January 14 there was an illustrated lecture by Mr. Anthony Fiala entitled “ Through the Brazilian Jungles with Colonel Roosevelt”; on January 28, Professor William I. Thomas, of the University of Chicago, will lecture on “The Comparative Mental and Moral Worth of Races.” Dr. Frank G. Speck, assistant professor of anthropology in the University of Pennsyl- vania, lectured before the Geographical Soci- ety of Philadelphia on January 14 on “ Hunt- ing Territories and Game Rights of the Tribes of the Lower St. Lawrence.” Av the 221st meeting of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, held in the Chemistry Hall of the University of North Carolina on Decem- ber 14, the program consisted of an address on “Some Phenomena of Fluid Motion and the Curved Flight of a Baseball,” by Dr. W. S. Franklin, formerly professor of physics, Lehigh University. On December 20 Professor Franklin delivered a lecture at the laboratory of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at Washington, entitled, “ On the Limitations of One-to-one Correspondences in Physics.” Dr. L. A. Bauer gave an illustrated address at the Carnegie Institution of Washington on December 9 on “ Our Earth a Great Magnet.” Dr. J. J. TauBerHaus, associate plant pa- thologist of the Delaware Experiment Station, will deliver the John Lewis Russell lecture be- fore the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on March 27, on “ Diseases of Sweet Peas.” Ar the annual meeting of the trustees of the Adirondack Cottage Sanatorium, Decem- ber 21, Dr. Walter B. James, New York City, was elected president; Dr. Edward R. Baldwin, Saranac Lake, vice-president; Mr. George S. Brewster, secretary-treasurer, and Dr. Fred- SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLIITI. No. 1098 erick H. CO. Heise, Trudeau, resident physician. The trustees adopted a resolution paying trib- ute to the memory of Dr. Edward L. Trudeau and directing that this tribute be spread on the records of the meeting. THE Journal of the American Medical Asso- ciation states that the Presse Médicale gives an illustration of the large tablet to be erected under the areade of the great staircase of the medical department of the University of Paris. In October the design, already in place, con- tained the names of six members of the faculty, victims of the war (Galland, Legrand, Moog, Pelissier, Schrameck and Reymond— the latter the aviator). There are also in- scribed the names of forty-seven students, and of twenty-six former graduates of the institu- tion. Landouzy comments on this total of seventy-nine medical victims that the new methods of warfare have incredibly increased the dangers and privations of the medical men with the army. They keep right with the men in the trenches and toil on while others sleep. Francis Marion WEeEpstTer, of the Bureau of Entomology, died on January 3 in Colum- bus, O., at the age of sixty-six years. Dr. JAMES CLaRKE WHITE, adjunct professor of chemistry in the Harvard Medical School from 1866 to 1871, and professor of dermatol- ogy from 1871 until his retirement as pro- fessor emeritus in 1902, died on January 6, in his eighty-third year. Proressor Rosert JAMES DAvmpsoNn, since 1891 professor of chemistry at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and dean of the scien- tific department, died suddenly on December 19, in his fifty-third year. Dr. Water L. CapsHaw, for seven years professor of anatomy at the University of Oklahoma, died suddenly of pneumonia at his home in Norman on Christmas morning. He was a graduate of St. Louis University and intended studying in one of the eastern schools while on sabbatic leave this year, but was pre- vented on account of ill health. Dr. Cartes Cuirrorp Barrows, professor of gynecology at the Cornell University Med- JANUARY 14, 1916] ical College, died on January 3, aged fifty-nine years. Dr. Josrrn J. O’Connet, health officer of the port of New York, lecturer on hygiene in the New York University and lecturer on public health in the Long Island College Hos- pital, died on January 1, at the age of forty- nine years. Dr. W. A. Borcer, assistant director of the Pasteur Institute and vaccination service in Java, has died, aged forty years. He suc- cumbed to laboratory infection from research on bubonic plague. Tue death of Dr. Jules Ville, professor of medical chemistry at the Faculté de Mont- pellier, is announced. THE annual general meeting of The Amer- ican Philosophical Society will be held on April 13, 14 and 15, 1916, beginning at 2 P.M. on Thursday, April 18. THE sessions of the fourth annual meeting of the New York State Forestry Association will be held at Syracuse on January 21. The program has been considerably broadened and in addition to discussing forests as producers of timber there will be considered the neces- sity of the forests in controlling the run-off of water, the forests as a recreation place and as a home for fish and game. The Honorable Gifford Pinchot and Chief Forester Graves, of the U. S. Forest Service, have been invited to speak. The list of speakers will include also John B. Burnham, president of the New York State Fish, Game and Forest League, who will give an illustrated address on game protection and propagation, and Dean Baker, of the State College of Forestry at Syracuse, who will speak on forests and the conservation of water in the state. Tue directors of the Fenger Memorial Fund announce that $550 have been set aside for medical investigation in 1916. The money will be used to pay all or part of the salary of a worker, the work to be done under direction in an established institution, which will fur- nish the necessary facilities and supplies free of cost. It is desirable that the work under- taken should have a direct clinical bearing. SCIENCE 65 Applications should be addressed to Dr. Lud- vig Hektoen, 687 S. Wood St., Chicago. Tue Journal of the American Medical As- sociation reports that President Wilson will submit to congress a plan for a system of pub- lic health hospitals to take the place of the present condition of contract care of patients and government hospital service. The first step will be to take over the meteorological research station at the summit of the Blue Ridge, Mount Weather, Va., and convert it into a hospital for sailors and other patients from the Atlantic seaboard. Within another year locations will be selected for hospitals in southern California and the southeastern part of the United States. Unper date of December 8, from Rome, the trustees of the Permanent Wild Life Protec- tive Fund are informed by Frederic C. Wol- cott that “the Italian Government has at last passed a law, which goes into effect on Jan- uary 1, prohibiting the shooting of all song and insectivorous birds throughout Italy.” If this prohibition also includes, as it is only fair to assume that it does, the netting of all such birds, then Italy has indeed carried into effect a great reform. The importance of this action to the birds and the crops of Europe is beyond computation. Hitherto the netting of song birds while on their migrations has been a widespread industry, and the deadly roccollo has each year slaughtered hundreds of thousands of the choicest song-birds of Eu- rope for food. Both in America and in Eng- land this abuse has been severely denounced, and an American bird protector has declared that it was “a reproach to the throne of Italy.” The causes which brought about this reform in Italy, in spite of the excitement of war, are as yet unknown. Tue American Museum Journal states that the large collection of prehistoric pottery col- lected by Mr. Algot Lange on the island of Marajo has been acquired by the American Museum. Marajo Island in the mouth of the Amazon River is 165 miles long by 120 wide, and belongs to Brazil. A collection of some two thousand pieces comes from Pacoval Is- land in Lake Aray, the source of the Aray 66 River. Mr. Lange described the little island of Pacoval as an archeological mine. Frag- ments of pottery cover the ground and every- where the earth is mixed with pottery ranging in size from minute pieces to vessels weighing as much as twenty-five pounds. Nothing is known of the makers of this ware. Who they were or where they came from is at present a mystery, but it is hoped that a study of the unique and beautiful decorations on the pot- tery will afford some information on the point. Tue Bureau of City Tests of the University of Cincinnati has submitted its annual report through Director E. K. Files. The report states that 1,024 samples have been examined, including coal, cement, gas, soot fall, oil, asphalt and soap. Less than one per cent. of the samples received have been rejected be- cause of inferior material, so that the city in its purchases is enforcing a high standard of quality. New developments in the bureau are as follows: (1) Two cooperative chemical engi- neering students are employed in the labora- tory to give supplementary tests and more complete analyses; (2) since last May, atmo- spheric pollution in Cincinnati has been studied. The deposits collected in various districts of the city are analyzed each month and the difference in composition of carbon, tar, acids, ete., between the street level and upper stories of buildings in the downtown districts is being worked out. This study will continue and is valuable for showing the ef- fectiveness of smoke-prevention work. Other interesting investigations now being made are on the influence of the composition of coal on the fusibility of the ash and the causes of variation in the density of natural gas during the different seasons. The bureau is now doing work for the following departments of the city: Engineering, Sewerage, Purchasing, Street Lighting, Board of Education, Univer- sity of Cincinnati, Park, Fire and Smoke In- spection Bureau. THE recognition by citizens generally that the Geological Survey is a bureau of infor- mation as well as a field service has gradually placed upon it a large burden of work as well as of responsibility. The amount of corres- pondence involved in performing this public SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITT. No. 1098 duty may be indicated by the fact that ap- proximately 50,000 letters of inquiry were handled in the different scientific branches of the survey last year. The scope of these in- quiries is not less noteworthy, for they range from requests for information concerning the geology of every part of the United States or the water supply, both underground and sur- face, of as widely separated regions as Alaska and Florida, or for engineering data on areas in every state in the union, to inquiries re- garding the natural resources of foreign coun- tries, especially those of Central and South America. The changes in the world’s trade in metals and other mineral products during the last year brought to the Geological Survey a new opportunity for special service. The in- quiries concerning possible sources of this or that mineral product began early in August, and the Secretary of the Interior gave to the publie an interview outlining the expected de- velopments in the mineral industry. His state- ment was followed by special press bulletins is- sued by the survey on the more important sub- jects. In September, 1914, however, the demand for authoritative information had become so lively that a bulletin—“ Our Mineral Reserves” was issued. In this publication the subject of the country’s ability to meet the emergency demands for minerals was summarized and the survey offered to serve as an agent in bringing consumer and producer into touch with each other. This new function of acting as “central” to the mineral industry proved popular, a large volume of special correspond- ence developed, and a gratifying use was made of the Geological Survey’s list of mineral producers and of the specific information in the possession of the federal geologists regard- ing practically every type of mineral deposit in the country. It is believed that this corre- spondence has been of material advantage +o consumers and producers alike—the users of mineral products who were formerly depend- ent upon foreign sources of supply and the mine operators who have learned of new mar- kets for their output. Tue Department of Agriculture is taking action, through the Biological Survey and the Forest Service, to combat a serious wave of JANUARY 14, 1916] rabies infection of wild and domestic ani- mals that is in danger of becoming wide-spread in the far west. The fact that the extensive dissemination of the disease is taking place through the agency of coyotes makes the situ- ation a difficult one to meet. Outbreaks of rabies among coyotes have been noted from time to time for several years in parts of Washington, Oregon and northern Idaho, and the Forest Service undertook last year to aid in bringing the disease under control by em- ploying hunters to make war on coyotes in the National Forests of some infected localities. Since, however, the coyotes breed in the foot- hills and around the outskirts of the forests, a more comprehensive campaign is called for. The eradication of coyotes in sparsely settled or rough country is said to be an exceedingly difficult task. Inasmuch as these animals are always a source of considerable losses to the livestock industry of the west, congress last year provided a special fund of $125,000 to be spent by the Biological Survey for the eradi- cation of predatory animals both in the na- tional forests and on the public domain, and from this fund a special allotment has now been made to provide for fighting the rabies. The disease first appeared in parts of eastern Oregon and Washington and northern Idaho, in a region surrounded by natural barriers which tended to confine the outbreak. Do- mestic animals and human beings were bitten, and a good deal of alarm was manifested by residents of the infected districts, many of whom feared for the safety of their children on the roads to and from school. The disease is now reported as having extended into north- ern Nevada and northern California, whence it may easily be carried far. The Forest Service, the Biological Survey and the State Board of Health are working together to meet the situation in California. Modoe and Las- sen counties have been put under quarantine by the state board, which has appointed for- est rangers inspectors in Modoe County. Funds have been provided by the Biological Survey for the employment of additional men and the purchase of traps and poison. The public will be enlisted in the campaign, which will be led by the Biological Survey officials and the forest rangers. SCIENCE 67 UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS WESTERN Reserve University has purchased twelve acres of land adjoining its present site and increasing it from 23 to 35 acres. The amount paid for the land is not made public, but the tax valuation is $230,000. Four business men of Portland have con- tributed $25,000 toward the new buildings for the Medical Department of the University of Oregon, Portland. This makes available the $50,000 appropriated by the state. The officers of the college now propose to raise an addi- tional $100,000. Over $3,500 worth of chemicals, scientific glassware and other laboratory supplies ordered by the University of Washington from Germany a year ago, but held up at Rotter- dam, will shortly reach this country. The British embassy has advised government offi- cials that importation will not be prevented any longer. A RECENT fire is said to have caused $50,000 damage to the Havemeyer chemical labora- tory of New York University. Dr. Owen L. Sunn, professor of chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, has been appointed director of the university summer school. Tuer following new appointments have been made in the Western Reserve Medical School: Dr. J. Rogoff, formerly of the department of physiology and pharmacology, Vanderbilt Medical School, Nashville, to be instructor in experimental medicine; Dr. C. H. Fiske, formerly assistant in biological chemistry, Harvard Medical School, to be associate in biochemistry; Dr. R. W. Scott, formerly dem- onstrator of medicine, Western Reserve Uni- versity, to be instructor in physiology. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE THE DETERMINATION OF NITRATES IN SOILS In the June number of the Journal of In- dustrial and Engineering Chemistry appeared an interesting article by E. R. Allen, of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, en- 68 SCIENCE titled, “ The Determination of Nitric Nitrogen in Soils,” in which several of the older meth- ods for determining this elusive radical re- ceived extended and probably deserved criti- cism. Among those receiving its full share was the aluminum reduction method proposed by the writer a little over two years ago. The title of the article proclaiming this method was, “The Aluminum Reduction Method as applied to the Determination of Nitrates in ‘Alkali’ Soils.” It was at that time put for- ward by the writer, not as the best possible method that the future might develop for this purpose, but as one which, in the presence of the soluble chlorides, sulfates and carbonates abounding in the “alkali” soils of the arid west, would give far more reliable results than the phenol disulfonie acid method of Gill then commonly used in soil work. Comparisons with this latter method are given. Another reason for developing the method in question was to accurately determine nitrates in nitri- fication cultures in soils containing one or more of the “alkali” salts. Occasionally large amounts of nitrates are here encoun- tered, and, as was shown, when more than twenty or twenty-five milligrams of nitrogen as nitrate are present, the colorimetric method previously mentioned is of questionable value even in the absence of “ alkali.” Briefly, the criticism of the method as made by Allen is that very high amounts of soluble humus and organic matter cause incomplete reduction, the results running low. As all soil scientists know, the “ alkali” soils of California and other arid sections are very low in soluble organic matter commonly termed humus. They vary from almost noth- ing to, in some few cases, 8 per cent. The average for the surface soils of California is 1.28 per cent. It was for these soils, and not for those high-humus soils of the middle west, that the aluminum reduction method was orig- inally intended. It was satisfactorily tried 1See ‘‘Humus and Humus-nitrogen in Cali- fornia Soil Columns,’’ University of California Publication in Agricultural Science, Vol. 1, pp. 173-274, by R. H. Loughridge. [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1098 out with varying amounts of the “alkali” salts singly and combined, also with soluble organic matter in the forms of glucose and soluble humus, in amounts far in excess of that ever leached from “alkali” soils with distilled water. The writer admits that some of the state- ments made for the accuracy of his method were possibly too broad and far-reaching, but they were made more especially with reference to its application to “alkali” soils, as the title should suggest. The method, as proposed, has been successfully used by others in arid sec- tions, and the author still recommends it for use under such conditions. In conclusion the writer wishes to state that he will be the first to weleome any method for determining nitrates in soils which combines accurate and reliable results with a minimum of time expended. Note.——Since the above was written (July last) an article entitled “ The Determination of Nitrates in Soil,” by R. S. Potter and R. S. Snyder? has appeared in which the aluminum reduction method, proposed by the writer and criticized by Allen, is shown to be far superior to the colorimetric methods even where the high humus soils of Iowa were used. P. S. Burcess THE EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE Sucar PLANTERS ASSOCIATION, Honouuty, H. I. A SIMPLE METHOD FOR THE ELIMINATION OF PROTOZOA FROM MIXED CULTURES OF BACTERIA Protozoa, particularly various flagellates and ciliates, often hamper the study of the higher bacteria in mixed cultures. Such cultures may be readily and effectively freed from these undesired animals by centrif- ugalization. By this means protozoa are quickly thrown to the bottom of the tube, while the bacteria for the most part remain in sus- pension. If subcultures are then inoculated from the supernatant fluid they will be found entirely freed from protozoa. Doubtless this “fractional” centrifugali- 2 Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., Vol. 7, No. 10, p. 863. JANUARY 14, 1916] zation has been previously practised by other workers, but as I have never seen mention made of it, I bring it to the attention of bac- teriologists. Henry N. Jones SyRACUSE UNIVERSITY SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Cancer, Its Cause and Treatment. By L. Dun- can Butkiry, M.D. New York, Paul B. Hoeber, 1915. Various writers, especially Williams in his book on the natural history of cancer, have attributed great significance to the mode of life, especially to the diet as a factor in the origin of cancer. He pointed out that cancer is much less frequent among races which are vegetarian. Dr. Bulkley defends in his lectures a similar thesis: cancer (both car- cinoma and sarcoma) is due to errors in the mode of living, not only to an overindulgence in a meat diet, leading to the production of nitrogenous poisons which are not properly eliminated, but also to the consumption of tea, coffee and alcohol. In consequence the saliva becomes acid, increased putrefaction takes place in the large intestines, the glands with internal secretion do not functionate well, the kidneys cease to secrete sufficiently, and the body fluids which bathe the cells be- come abnormal (especially too acid), thus stimulating certain embryologically aberrant cells to cancerous growth. Other factors, like traumatism play only a secondary part. In support of his views the author cites statis- tical data which show that frequency of can- cer is greatest where so-called civilization has farthest advanced, that the increase in cancer which is observed everywhere is real and caused by a corresponding increase in false living; that experimentally it has been shown that the growth of (transplanted) cancer in animals can be influenced through certain diets; that clinically, cancer has been cured by the author in a considerable number of eases by instituting an appropriate mode of living aided by the use of drugs stimulating elimination of waste products and certain other procedures. SCIENCE 69 It is impossible to enter into a detailed critical analysis of this position. We must, however, point out that throughout the author’s argumentation no sharp distinction is made between fact and hypothesis. Facts opposed to his thesis are ignored or minimized in their importance. We may mention a few objections which might be raised: We do not know at the present time how much the mode of living, external conditions and hereditary factors influence the distribution of cancer among different people. We know that con- stant irritation of certain kinds may produce cancer in a large percentage of persons, pro- vided the irritation is active over a suffi- ciently long period of time. We have shown that on the same mouse farm in Granby, under the same vegetarian diet, certain strains of mice are almost exempt from can- cer, while in other strains, as a result of hereditary peculiarities, the large majority of all females become affected by cancer of the breast. It is now known that the presence of embryologically displaced cell nests is not necessary for the development of cancer. There occur in addition to the main argu- ments not infrequently statements which are open to criticism. To cite a few: “The cells themselves must be influenced ultimately by that mysterious force which we will call life, which ends with its extinction from the body as a whole and which is ultimately related to nerve action.” The thyroid is said to be of great importance in governing the calcium metabolism. The same principles are said to hold good for the treatment of skin diseases and for cancer in general, because both con- cern aberrations in the behavior of epithelial cells; but internal organs like pancreas and liver, although they are of epithelial char- acter, nevertheless do differ in their behavior from the skin. Postoperative recurrences of cancer are, according to the author, due to a transformation of formerly healthy cells into cancer cells as a result of faulty metabolism and not, as is almost generally assumed, to the incomplete removal of the original can- cer. Leo Lors 70 The Cancer Problem. By Wi.iamM SEAMAN Bainpripck. The Macmillan Company, 1914. Within the last decade several books have appeared dealing with the cancer problem; those of Carl Lewin, P. Menétrier, W. Roger Williams, W. H. Woglom, and the encyclopedic work of Jacob Wolff may be especially men- tioned. Of those written in the English language, the book by Williams appeared seven years ago and Woglom’s work treats mainly of experimental cancer research. Dr. Bainbridge considers the cancer prob- lem from many aspects; being a surgeon, however, the author devotes the greater part of his book to the clinical aspect of cancer (274 pages), while to the scientific side proper 142 pages are given. In the clinical part the author gives much first-hand experience, while in the scientific part he leans more or less on the judgment of others, especially on the writings of Bashford, and this part repre- sents in part a summary of the reports of the English Cancer Research Fund. The book on the whole is well written and contains much interesting information. Jf in the following we mention a few of the errors which we find here and there, and take issue with some of the views expressed and with the author’s treatment of certain aspects of scientific in- vestigation, our purpose is not to detract from the value of the book as a whole. In Section I. a survey of the various insti- tutions and associations for the study of can- cer is given. The American Association for Cancer Research did not come into existence in 1912 (p. 28), but was founded a number of years previously. On page 7 the “famous Althoff” who promised the aid of the govern- ment to the German Society for Cancer Re- search, is erroneously designated as “ Kultus minister.” The German society as such was not committed to the parasitic theory of the origin of cancer, for although some members supported this hypothesis, other important members, notably Orth and Von Hansemann, opposed it. In Section II. we find a discussion of the SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLIII. No. 1098 botanical distribution of cancer. The analogy between crown gall and animal cancer is not accepted “since it presupposes the parasitic origin of cancer,” and since “notably the presence of the parasites in Smith’s secondary growths is in contradiction to the way in which secondary growths arise in man.” In reality we can not be certain that even in man in certain tumors included among cancers, parasites are not within the tumor cells which give rise to the metastases. In the chapter on the zoological distribution, it is stated that the evidence is conclusive that benign as well as malignant tumors may occur in any mul- ticellular organism. Whether typical cancer occurs at all in invertebrates is doubtful; cer- tainly in the large majority of classes of in- vertebrates no cancer has been found. Car- cinoma of the caruncula seems to be the most common site of cancer in cattle in various parts of America, not only in Wyoming, as might be inferred from the author’s state- ment. As to the ethnological distribution and can- cer statistics the probabilities are very great indeed that the cancer rate among the African negro, the natives of Guinea and the American Indian is considerably lower than among the whites in Europe and America. The especially interesting data of Levin concerning cancer among the American Indian are not men- tioned by the author. The value of possible objections to the conclusion that the cancer incidence is very different in different races seems to be overestimated. The author ac- cepts as correct Murray’s work on heredity of cancer in mice, which leads to the conclusion that heredity is responsible for a difference of only 10 to 15 per cent. in the cancer in- cidence in mice; in common with Bashford he attributes therefore only slight importance to the factor of heredity. As a matter of fact Murray’s work is based on false premises and it proves neither the presence nor the absence of hereditary factors. Bainbridge makes no mention of more recent investigations carried on in Granby, Mass., and in Chicago, which indeed prove the great significance of heredity in cancer of mice, accounting for as great a JANUARY 14, 1916] difference as 90 per cent. between some strains. In Section IV. the various hypotheses con- cerning the origin of cancer and in a second chapter the predisposing causes are discussed. Ehrlich’s “atreptic theory” ought to have been included in the first chapter; it is, as far as the etiology of cancer is concerned, a mere hypothesis and not one of the “ predisposing causes.” Long-continued action of Roentgen rays might almost be considered as “ essen- tial” and not merely a “ predisposing ” cause, if we bear in mind the great number of early Roentgen-ray operators who developed cancer of the exposed skin. The argumentation of C. P. White, apparently refuting as unthink- able a parasitic origin of cancer, is given in detail. Notwithstanding this argumentation, certain sarcomata of fowl which in their be- . havior seem to be distinguishable from human sarcomata, may perhaps be caused by micro- organisms. The section in histopathology contains a series of clear drawings. The description is of necessity brief. The purely local origin of cancer is emphasized. The origin of rodent ulcer is declared to be still uncertain, despite the fact that recent investigations have un- doubtedly shown that in certain cases at least it originates in the epidermis. Section VI. deals with “ Cancer Research — a Résumé of the World’s Work.” The author has in view especially experimental research. Thirty-six pages are devoted to this chapter. Here we have to deal mainly with a résumé of the work of the English Cancer Research Fund. American work is to a great extent ignored. Not rarely when a fact established by an American author is mentioned, the author’s name is not mentioned, so that a reader un- familiar with the history of cancer research would be inclined to attribute the work to the English cancer research and to conclude that American research played a very sub- ordinate part in this field. Such an assump- tion, however, would be incorrect, and it is to be deplored that much of the important work of Tyzzer, Gaylord, Flexner and Jobling, Weil, Levin, Sweet, Corson-White and Saxon, SCIENCE 71 Fleisher and others is not mentioned. Peyton Rous’s name is omitted in the brief reference to his work in this chapter. The early work on Chicago rat sarcoma is entirely omitted, although the survival of the tumor cells after transplantation had been demonstrated at an early period of this investigation. It is not possible to go into a detailed criticism of some of the views expressed in this chapter; we may mention, however, a few statements with which issue might be taken. Bashford’s and Murray’s views as to the rhythm of tumor cells is accepted as proven; the work of other investigators (especially M. S. Fleisher) who arrived at different conclusions, is ignored. It is taken for granted that tumor cells differ from or- dinary tissue cells in their potential power of unlimited growth, while on the contrary this characteristic is common to both kinds of cells and the difference consists essentially in the increase in cell multiplication in the case of tumor cells, as the reviewer pointed out many years ago. The fact that animals can, through immunization, be protected against successful inoculation with foreign, but not with their own tumors, is erroneously as- sumed to prove that no external element can be concerned in the origin of cancer, while this fact merely proves that an organism usually can be immunized much more readily against foreign cells than against its own, and also that in the first origin of tumors other factors are concerned than in the continued growth of established tumors. No conclusion can be drawn from this fact as to the presence or absence of parasites within the tumor cell. The work of Uhlenhuth which to a great extent disposes definitely of the hypothesis of athrepsia, is not mentioned. In the second part, dealing with the clinical aspect of cancer, the clinical course of the disease, diagnosis, prophylaxis, treatment by surgical and non-surgical means, are dis- cussed. Various quack treatments are also described. Especial attention is given to Handley’s work dealing with the extension of mammary cancer, to the fulguration treat- ment and thermoradiotherapy of de Keating 72 Hart, to electro-coagulation and to the author’s negative results with Beard’s methods of treating cancer with injections of pancreatic ferments, as well as to the author’s method of starvation ligature of blood vessels and lymphatic block in advanced cancer of pelvic organs. The wide experience of the author in this field, his insistence on applying the results of theoretical research in clinical surgery, give especial value to this, the larger part of the book. This work ought therefore to have a wide circulation especially among physicians. Here it can do much good. To the scientist who will keep in mind some of the limitations of this book, it will give a con- ception of the great variety of problems and methods in cancer research. Leo Lors WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY The Age of the Ocala Limestone. By CHARLES Wvrrne Cooxr. U. S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Paper 95-1, 1915. Pp. 107-117. Tn the first half of the last century it was assumed by American geologists of the Atlan- tie seaboard that certain extensive calcareous formations in the Carolinas represented ter- ranes intermediate between the Cretaceous and lowest Tertiaries of Europe, or, perhaps were “newest Cretaceous.” This assumption seems to have been made on account of the prev- alence of light-colored, calcareous matter, chalk, in the upper Cretaceous of the Old World; the lithological resemblance of cer- tain Cretaceous beds in New Jersey to calcare- ous beds of the south; the supposed identity of certain molluscan species from both areas; and the admixture of fossils from different horizons (really brought about mechanically, or from careless collecting). Lyell took a keen interest in this strange formation in America, and with his skill in observation “ on the spot,” was able to place these “ white lime- stones” in the Eocene, to the satisfaction of all. Again in our Eocene stratigraphy we see how a few accurate observations in the field have upset our notions regarding sequence of formations; this time, however, it is the “Ocala limestone” so-called (yet strangely SCIENCE [N. 8S. Vou. XLITTI. No. 1098 enough largely equal to Lyell’s “ white lime- stone”), that has been the misplaced member. Here, too lithological resemblance, precon- ceived notions in faunal resemblances and un- happy identifications have been at the base of the trouble. Mr. Cooke’s observations on the fauna of the beds beneath the St. Stephen’s limestone in Alabama, has led to the identi- fication of the same with the Ocala beds of Florida. The preliminary paleontological proot he brings to bear in favor of his conten- tion seems very satisfactory. The Ocala lime- stone, therefore, is upper EKocene (Jacksonian) and below the Marianna limestone, and not upper Oligocene and above the Marianna as heretofore held. The importance of this reve- lation on the geological mapping of Florida is patent to all. We take great pleasure in seeing the distinctness of Pecten poulsont and P. perplanus biologically and stratigraphically emphasized. The “ Ocala limestone fauna” as modified by Cooke (p. 111) has a most de- cidedly Jacksonian aspect. The “ Mitra like millingtoni” is quite probably that species for I have found it above the Claiborne “sand” at Claiborne, Alabama, thus well on towards Florida from Jackson, Miss. Scaphander grandis is a most remarkably characteristic Jacksonian form. Judging by trans-Missis- sippian faunas, we should expect soon to find in the Ocala such dominant forms as the Fulguroid Levifusus branneri, varieties of Mazzalina inaurata; and we already have traces of the high-spired “ Amauropsis” in Dall’s A. ocalana. Incidentally, with the Jackson age of the Wilmington beds estab- lished, it will be interesting to watch the final disposition of the following references: Paludina (cast), Wilmington, Jr. Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 1, 1845, p. 431, text fig. c. Viviparia lyelli Con., Am. Jr. Conch., Vol. 1, 1865, p. 32. Polynices (Amauropsis) ocalana, Dall, Tr. Waener, Ins. Sci., Vol. IIT., 1892, p. 377. Amauropsis Jacksonensis Harris, Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1896, p. 474, pl. XTX., fig. 3. G. D. Harris PALEONTOLOGICAL LABORATORY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY JANUARY 14, 1916] SPECIAL ARTICLES PERIDERMIUM HARKNESSII AND CRONARTIUM QUERCUUM Inocunations of Pinus radiata with sxcio- spores of Peridermium harknessii on Pinus radiata made in the spring of 1913 resulted in typical galls during the same year. In the spring of 1915 some of these galls bore ecia of Peridermium harknessw. The check plants remained sound. The mycelium of Cronartium quercuum on the evergreen Quercus agrifolia overwinters in the old green leaves and in early spring pro- duces sori of uredospores in a circle around the old Cronartium spots; the uredinial sori on the young leaves are the results of infection from the sori on the old leaves. If Peri- dermium harknessw connects with Cronartium quercuum, we have here a case of facultative heteroecism in both generations. EK. P. Memnecke OFFICE OF INVESTIGATIONS IN FOREST PATHOLOGY, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, San FRANCISCO, CALIF. A SIMPLE DEMONSTRATION OF THE REDUCED VAPOR PRESSURE OVER A SOLUTION W anv S are two small glass erystallizing dishes. W is half filled with water and S with a strong solution of some salt. P is a piece of plate glass and B is a bell jar. For equilibrium the pressure of the vapor above S would have to be less than that above W. For this reason the water gradually distills from W into S. SCIENCE 73 This result is so obvious that the experiment has no doubt been carried out before. How- ever in a recent brief examination of the litera- ture of the reduction of vapor pressure by solution I have found no reference to it, al- though Moser? clearly indicates the possibility of such an experiment. In his work he used two U tubes, one for the water and one for the solution. One end of each tube was closed, and the open ends were joined—so that with a connection to an air pump these open ends formed a fork. Moser says: Das Lumen dieses Gabelrohrs ist eng, ein bis zwei Millimeter, um eine Ueberdestilliren des Dampfes vom Wasser zur Lésung zu erschweren. In my experiment, which I carried out three years ago, the dishes W and S were about 5 em. in diameter and S contained a solution of about 1 g. of sodium chloride to each 5 g. of water. Vacuum wax was run around B where it rested on P, but no attempt was made to reduce the air pressure in B. The apparatus stood in a room at ordinary laboratory tem- perature from January 26 to March 21. At first I set out to examine the rate at which the liquid surfaces changed their levels, but the sides of B were not smooth enough to admit of making through them any readings that were worth while. At the start the levels were about the same, and after somewhat less than two months the surface of the solu- tion was 9.0 mm. higher than that of the water. Artur TaBER JONES SMITH COLLEGE, January 23, 1915 THE AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SO- CIETY THE twenty-second annual meeting of the society was held at Columbia University on Monday and Tuesday, December 27—28, 1915. Seventy-two mem- bers attended the four sessions. President EH. W. Brown occupied the chair, being relieved by Profes- sor Edward Kasner. The following new members were elected: Professor W. E. Edington, University of New Mexico; Professor J. L. Gibson, University of Utah; Dr. W. E. Milne, Bowdoin College; Pro- fessor L. J. Reed, University of Maine. Nine ap- 1 Wied. An., 14, p. 73, 1881. 74 SCIENCE plications for membership were received for action at the next meeting. The total membership of the society is now 736, including 72 life members. The total attendance of members at all meetings during the past year was 418; the number of papers read was 197. The number of members attending at least one meeting during the year was 253. At the annual election 204 votes were cast. ‘The treasurer’s report shows a balance of $10,470.58, including the life member- ship fund of $5,560.30. Sales of the Society’s publications during the year amounted to $1,832.93. The library now contains about 5,250 volumes. Sixty members and friends attended the annual dinner of the society on Monday evening. At the annual election on Tuesday morning the following officers and members of the council were chosen: Vice-Presidents: EH. R. Hedrick and Virgil Sny- der. Secretary: F. N. Cole. Treasurer: J. H. Tanner. Librarian: David Eugene Smith. Committee of Publication: F. N. Cole, Virgil Snyder, and J. W. Young. Members of the Council to serve until Decem- ber, 1918: G. A. Bliss, R. D. Carmichael, W. B. Fite, and F. 8. Woods. The following papers were read at this meet- ing: J. F. Ritt: ‘On the derivatives of a function at a point.’’ J. F. Ritt: ‘‘ The finite groups of a class of fune- tions of a real variable.’’ J. E. Rowe: ‘‘A new method of deriving the equation of a rational plane curve from its para- metric equations. ’’ H. B. Phillips: ‘‘ Elastic nets.’ Arthur Ranum: ‘‘The singular points of an- alytic space curves. ’’ H. M. Sheffer: ‘‘The reduction of non-monadic relations to monadic.’’ H. M. Sheffer: ‘‘The elimination of modular ex- istence postulates.’’ Bessie I, Miller: ‘‘A new canonical form of the elliptic integral.’’ A. R. Schweitzer: ‘‘On the use of supernumerary indefinables in the construction of axioms.’’ Dunham Jackson: ‘‘ Algebraic properties of self- adjoint systems.’’ G. D. Birkhoff: ‘‘On dynamical systems with two degrees of freedom.’’ G. D. Birkhoff: ‘‘Infinite products of analytic matrices. ’? [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1098 Tomlinson Fort: ferential equations. ’’ E. B. Wilson: ‘‘Rieci’s absolute calculus and its application to the theory of surfaces.’’ C. L. E. Moore: ‘“Some theorems regarding two- dimensional surfaces in euclidean n-space.’? Olive C. Hazlett: ‘‘On the fundamental inva- riants of nilpotent algebras in a small number of units.’? Edward Kircher: ‘‘Some properties of finite al- gebras.’’ M. Fréchet: ‘‘On Pierpont’s definition of inte- grals.’? Edward Kasner: ‘‘Infinite groups of conformal representations. ’”’ Joseph Lipka: ‘‘Tsogonal, natural, and isother- mal families of curves on a surface.’’ L. L. Silverman: ‘‘On the consistency and equivalence of certain generalized definitions of a limit of a function of a continuous variable.’ L P. Hisenhart: ‘‘Ruled surfaces generated by the motion of an invariable curve.’’ L. P. Hisenhart: ‘‘ Transformations of surfaces Q (second paper).’’ G. M. Green: ‘‘On rectilinear congruences and nets of curves on a surface.’’ W. F. Osgood: ‘‘The infinite region.’’ John Hiesland: ‘‘On sphere-flat geometry.’’ J. L. Coolidge: ‘‘The meaning of Plticker’s numbers for a real curve.’’” W. M. Smith: ‘‘Characterization of the trajec- tories described by a particle moving under central force varying inversely as the nth power of its distance from the center of force.’’ H. H. Mitchell: ‘‘On the generalized Jacobi- Kummer cyclotomie function.’’ H. H. Mitchell: ‘‘On the congruence cx + 1= dy 90 R. D. Beetle: ‘‘Sets of properties characteristic of the arithmetic and geometric means.’’ R. L. Moore: ‘On the foundations of geom- etry.’’ W. C. Graustein: ‘‘The correspondence of space eurves by the transformation of Combescure and by a transformation thereby suggested.’’ R. E. Gleason: ‘‘On Dirichlet’s principle. ’? W. E. Milne: ‘‘On the degree of convergence of Birkhoff’s series.’ G. C. Evans: ‘‘A generalization of Bocher’s an- alysis of harmonic functions.’’ J. W. Alexander, II.: ‘‘On the factoring of plane Cremona transformations.’’ L. B. Robinson: ‘‘On elimination between sey- eral polynomials in several variables.’ ‘‘Tjinear difference and dif- JANUARY 14, 1916] The Chicago Section of the society held its win- ter meeting at Columbus, Ohio, in affiliation with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The next meeting of the society will be held at Columbia University on February 26. F. N. CoLz, Secretary SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON THE 545th meeting of the society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, November 20, 1915, called to order by President Bartsch, with 50 persons present. On recommendation of the council Leo D. Miner, E. O. Wooten, A. M. Groves, all of Wash- ington, D. C., were elected to active membership. Under the heading Brief Notes, Mr. Radcliffe called attention to recent efforts of the Bureau of Fisheries in rearing shad in ponds. Young fish thus raised attained twice the size of those of the same age in their natural environment. Specimens of both kinds were exhibited. The first paper of the regular program was by Frederick Knab, ‘‘The Dispersal of Some Species of Flies.’’? Mr. Knab said: ‘‘The species of Dip- tera that have been spread beyond their natural habitats through the agency of man are for the most part such as thrive under conditions created by man, many of them having even become his inseparable associates. They are mostly scavengers whose larve thrive in spoiled foodstuffs, sewage and excrement of man or domestic animals. The majority of the flies of such habits occurring in North America are unintentional introductions from Europe. It is certain that many other spe- cies of flies must have been carried across the ocean repeatedly and yet failed to establish them- selves. It is only those species which upon their arrival find conditions suitable for propagation immediately at hand that can be expected to gain a foothold, and most of these will be scavengers. A few striking examples of the wide dissemina- tion of such species by man were given. ‘“A notable case is the very wide distribution of Hristalis tenaz, the drone fly, within very re- cent times. Its natural habitat was Europe, north- ern Africa and the temperate portions of Asia. It appears to have been first noted in the United States about 1870 and in the course of a decade had spread over the whole country and become abundant everywhere. Osten Sacken already SCIENCE 75 pointed out that its sudden spread was only pos- sible ‘when the necessary conditions for its exist- ence (drains, cesspools, sewers, etc.) had been gradually introduced by civilization across the im- mense plains which separate the Pacific from the Atlantic Ocean.’ Most remarkable is that this fly made its appearance in New Zealand in 1888, where the following year it was abundant in both islands. In America and elsewhere Hristalis tenax has not invaded the tropics. In North America it ranges southward on the Mexican tableland to Mexico City and even to Orizaba at the edge of the tropical belt. But in the temperate southern portion of South America it has become estab- lished with the recent more general settling up of that region. It was first noted at Buenos Aires about 1895 and is now abundant and generally distributed to the Chilean coast. It has become introduced in Cape Colony and the Hawaiian Is- lands, the records for the latter going back to 1892. It is also established in southern Australia and appears to have been common about Sydney as early as 1892. ‘A second species, Hristalis arbustorum, has re- cently become introduced into the United States from Europe. Like the other, it is a sewage breeder. It was first noticed about New York City in 1906 and has already spread westward through Ohio. ‘¢ Another recent importation from Europe is the ortalid fly, Chrysomyza demandata. This spe- cies breeds particularly in horse manure. It was first found in Philadelphia in 1897 and is now dis- tributed over the whole United States. ‘(Tess known are the species which have be- ‘come cosmopolitan within the tropics, but do not invade the colder portions of the temperate zone. Volucella obesa is a large green syrphid fly of scavenger habits. Its original habitat was trop- ical America, but now it is generally distributed through the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, occurring even on remote islands, like Hawaii and Guam. ‘‘A minute fly of the family Borboride, Lepto- cera punctipennis Wied. (Borborus venaticius O. 8.) is similarly distributed. Osten Sacken, who knew of its oceurrence in Africa and Cuba, suggested that it may have been brought to America by slave ships. This theory appears plausible, as it has since been determined that this fly breeds particu- larly in human feces deposited in the open. Dur- ing the Spanish-American war it appeared in num- bers at Miami, Florida, about the military camp, and where, no doubt, the conditions just indicated 76 SCIENCE existed. It has not been reported from there since, although the locality is often visited by entomol- ogists. ““Chrysomyza @nea, a fly common in the Orient and breeding especially in manure, is of particular interest on account of its very recent appearance within the United States. It was first found in August of this year and so far only in one local- ity in Louisiana. It appears to have been estab- lished in Brazil for some time and’ very likely oc- curs in intervening territory, although we have no information on this latter point. ‘“Another cosmopolite of tropical and semi- tropical distribution is Milichiella lacteipennis, a minute fly of the agromyzid series. This also, there is good reason to believe, is a manure breeder. ‘A limited number of species are disseminated through both temperate and tropical regions. The house fly, stable fly and certain species of Droso- phila will at once come to mind as faithful com- panions of man everywhere. Most remarkable, there is in this category a minute and very frail fly of the family Psychodide, Psychoda alternata. The flight of this mere mote is exceedingly weak and it clings to sheltered situations. It breeds particularly in sewage and often occurs in sewers in countless numbers. This fly has been received or reported from Europe, North Africa, the United States, Mexico, Guiana, Chile, Hawaii, India and Australia, and no doubt it occurs whenever a suffi- ciently dense population supplies the requisite con- ditions. ’? The second paper was by Alex. Wetmore, ““Notes on the Habits of the Duck Hawk.’’? Mr. Wetmore said: ‘‘In observations made on the Bear River marshes, Great Salt Lake, Utah, it was found that duck hawks do much of their hunting for food in early morning. Later in the day they pursue any flying bird merely for the pleasure of the chase, seldom killing.’’? Several incidents il- lustrating this were related. The last paper of the evening was by Elmer D. Merrill, ‘‘Geographie Relationships of the Philip- pine Flora.’’ Mr. Merrill based his conclusions after the examination of large numbers of living and herbarium specimens from the Philippine Is- lands, the Malayan Archipelago, the Asiatic main- land, Celebes, New Guinea, Australia, ete. The speaker discussed, in a general way, the geographic position of the Philippine Archipelago with refer- ence to surrounding land areas and the general character of the flora, calling attention to the fact that the vegetation is dominantly Malayan. The probable condition of the vegetation before the [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1098 advent of man in the Archipelago was a continu- ous primeval forest. Hence in discussing geo- graphie relationships of the flora, the vegetation of the settled areas and open country generally must be excluded from consideration as present- ing special alliances. Likewise the coastal vegeta- tion must be ignored, the species being practically all disseminated by ocean currents. Serially the speaker discussed the striking Asiatic elements in the flora of north central Luzon, largely conti- nental and especially Himalayan foothill types; the weak special alliances of the Sunda group of islands, especially Borneo; the remarkably strong evidences of relationship with the Molucca Is- lands, especially Celebes, to the south; New Guinea; the numerous Australian (Queensland) types; New Zealand, and Polynesia. The botan- ical evidence points to weak connections in past ages with Borneo and the Sunda Islands, but to strong or longer continued connections with the islands to the south and southeast. Without such conections to the south and southeast it is prac- tically impossible to explain the strong special alliances of the flora to that of the above re- gions. That the Philippines and the islands to the south and southeast may have at one time formed the eastern boundary of an ancient con- tinent seems to be probable from the present flor- istie elements found in the archipelago. It is clear, however, from the remarkably high percent- age of endemism as to species (over 50 per cent.) that the islands have been separated long enough to allow for the development of a characteristic flora as to species, but not long enough to de- velop many distinct genera, the percentage of endemism as to genera being but a fraction of one per cent. The speaker called attention to the fact that conclusions regarding special alliances of the Philippine flora may be invalidated as explora- tion progresses, as the floras of Sumatra, Borneo, the Moluceas, and New Guinea, are, comparatively speaking, very imperfectly known, in the case of each probably not more than one third of the species being known, and in some cases even less. In the discussion which followed Mr. Wm. Palmer, Dr. Stejneger, Dr. Lyon, and Dr. Bartsch discussed the geographic distribution of the Phil- ippine birds, reptiles, mammals and mollusks, which in many respects showed a lack of correlation with the flora, though agreeing in many essentials. The society adjourned at 10:30 P.M. M. W. Lyon, JR., Recording Secretary SIENCE NEw SERIES ‘ SINGLE CopliEs, 15 Crs, Vou, XLIII. No. 1099 Fripay, JANUARY 21, 1916 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 Thelco Botanical Incubator Botanical investigators have long felt the need of an ap- paratus that will allow plants to be grown in daylight ata constant temperature. The Thelco Botanical Incubator is designed expressly to meet these requirements; it can be used, however, for other constant low temperature purposes when light is not objectionable. The Incubator is provided with double walls of heavy glass, with an air space between. The frame and door frame are made of an ingenious casting of aluminum, so arranged that the inner and outer glass|sides ‘can easily be placed in posi- tion, or taken out. The Incubator is fitted! with the Thelco Bimetallic Thermostat, the contact points of which are moved by the screw which projects through the top of the In- cubator. The Thelco Thermostat is ex- tremely sensitive, and will maintain a temperature constant to within a fraction of a degree. Size of chamber 1814 inches wide, 19 inches deep, 24 inches high; outside di- mensions 21 inches wide, 21 inches deep, 32 inches total height. Thelco Botanical Incubator, with glass sides, Thelco Thermostat and metal shelves, mounted on short legs, as illustrated ...............--....---+- net $97.50 Descriptive pamphlet sent upon request EIMER 4282 AMEND Founded 1851 INDUSTRIAL AND EDUCATIONAL LABORATORY APPARATUS CHEMICALS AND DRUGS NEW YORK wie PITTSBURGH N. Y. ” PA il SCIENCE—ADVERTISEMENTS From the Wide Field of Biology those facts are selected—in HUN- TER’S CIVIC BIOLOGY—that re- late directly to the well-being of a community. The material is presented in a series of practical problems relating to vital, everyday topics which appeal to the interests of the average boy and girl. The book has a minimum use of tech- nical and scientific terms, and a liberal number of instructive illustrations, color pictures, and graphic diagrams. HUNTER’S CIVIC BIOLOGY PRESENTED IN PROBLEMS By George William Hunter, A.M., Head of the Department of Biology, DeWitt Clinton High School, New York, N. Y., author of Elements of Biology, Essentials of Biology, etc. Price, $1.25. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cincinnati Chicago iG kee We Just Issued | ie & =D) i in new form & a) : GrnenauD Gree The Wentworth-Smith Trigonometry Two new volumes recently added to this new Wentworth-Smith Series, make the trigonometries even more adaptable for school use: - Plane Trigonometry and Tables. 8vo, cloth, 188-+104 pp. $1.10. Plane Trigonometry (without tables). 8vo, cloth, 188+20 pages. 90 cents. Plane and Spherical Trigonometry and Tables. 8vo, cloth, 230+104 pp. $1.35. Plane and Spherical Trigonometry (without Tables). 8vo, cloth, 230-+26 pp. $1.15. New York Chicago Atlanta Dallas San Francisco Columbus Just Published Natural History of HAWAITI By WILLIAM ALANSON BRYAN, B.S., Professor of Zoology and Geology in the College of Hawaii. A reliable and readable reference book on things Hawaiian. Suited to the needs of the general reader, student, library or scientific worker. ILLUSTRATED with 117 full page plates from 441 photo- graphs elucidating the ethnology of the native people, the geology and topography of the islands and figuring more than 1000 of the common or interesting species of plants and animals to be found in the native and introduced fauna and flora of Hawaii. CONTENTS IN 37 CHAPTERS :—Section 1, The Hawaiian People; Section 2, The Geology, Geography and Topogra- phy of the Hawaiian Islands; Section 3, The Flora of the Group; Section 4, Agriculture and Horticulture in Hawaii; Section 5, The Animal Life of the Group; Complete Index, Glossary and Compendium. Over 500 pages of text 7x10} inches, Cloth bound, Price postpaid $5.50 (net). ADDRESS ORDERS DIRECT TO THE AUTHOR P. O. BOX 38 HONOLULU, HAWAII Or to the following authorized distributors: Thrum’s Limited, Fort St., Honolulu, Hawaii. H. 8. Crocker Co., 565-571 Market St., San Francisco. G. E. Stechert & Co., 151-155 W. 25th St., New York. G. E. Stechert & Co., 2 Star Yard, Carey Street W. C., London. Send for descriptive circulars and sample pages PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU, S.M.,S.D. PROFESSOR OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Large Octayo, 1150 pages, with 254 illustrations in the text. Cloth bound, price, $7.50. Send for descriptive circular A. G. SEILER & CO. PUBLISHFRS 1224 Amsterdam Avenue NEW YORK, N. Y. CIENCE FRIDAY, JANUARY 21, 1916 CONTENTS The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— The Forthcoming Situation in Agricultural Work: Dr. L. H. BAtLEy 77 University Registration Statistics: JOHN C. Bure 87 SO acc ne CC Academic Freedom and Academic Tenure ...- 92 Scientific Notes and News 93 University and Educational News = Ber Discussion and Correspondence :— Genetic Factors and Enzyme Reaction: Dr. RICHARD GOLDSCHMIDT. LHarly Meetings of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science: WM. H. HaLE.......... 98 Scientific Books :— } Reese on the Alligator and its Allies: PRo- FESOR ALEXANDER G, RUTHVEN .......... 100 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: PROFESSOR EDWIN BIDWELL WIL- SON Sond bonedoooshodnocooenoolndonocKos 101 Recent Progress in Vertebrate Paleontology: Drs. C. R. EAstTMAN, W. K. GREGorRy, W. D. MIARMEDI: GAponnodnancadducononMoutoaoD 103 Special Articles :— A Phoma Disease of Western Wheat Grass; A Fungus occurring on Wheat and Rye: Dr. PTS OMG AR AU vatevtacisicisiers eis sis ilsietevetersicualsrs 110 The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— Section C—Chemistry: JOHN JOHNSTON ... 112 The Mathematical Association of America ... 112 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should besent to Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison- on-Hudson. N. Y. Arua erat ea nero ae THE FORTHCOMING SITUATION IN AGRICULTURAL WORK—II* ONE year ago, at the first meeting of Section M, it was my privilege to speak on some of the tendencies in the great public agricultural movements in the United States, particularly on the educational side, and to express my conviction that the proc- esses set in motion by the Land-Grant Act and subsequent enactments are safeguard- ing the foundations of our democracy. I approached my subject mostly from the point of view of our present public-service or public-welfare institutions for agricul- ture; I said that I should discuss the other or non-public phases of the problem one year hence. And now, after twelve months of unrepentance, I come to resume my theme. In continuing the discussion I shall be obliged to reaffirm some of the posi- tions that I urged a year ago. It is now some seven years ago when I wrote in a book that there may be need of a kind of agricultural work that can best be done in an institution independent of direct state support and not at once respon- sible to popular will. That statement, or its equivalent, had been made many times theretofore in public ways. I have never taken the privilege, however, to enlarge upon it to any degree: this opportunity is reserved for to-day. Fortunate it is for us that our educa- tional and to a large extent our civic and welfare work for agriculture have been founded on public funds, thereby commit- ting the state to the necessity of furthering the interests of our basic industry and of 1 Retiring vice-presidential address, Section M. 2‘¢The Training of Farmers,’’ page 225. 78 making it an active factor in the political establishment. Had all this chain of col- leges of agriculture and experiment sta- tions and the great range of extension work and the giving of expert advice been estab- lished on private gifts, they would have been philanthropies or at least concessions to a needy industry. The state has recog- nized the necessity to base itself on the earth, and the enterprise is generously supported. This, then, is my starting point—that these state-maintained institutions which aim to safeguard and to develop the re- sources of the earth are essential to per- maneney in society and also to self-govern- ment. Having accepted this basis, we may now ask whether there is need for another set or kind of institutions dealing with the rural situation, or whether such a set would benefit or hinder the public establishments that are now so well developed. Let me say at once that the field of such institutions, whether public, semi-public or private, is now well understood. The prophetic writings in this nature-field and this agriculture-field are of our own time and of the time just preceding us. The philosophy of the situation, in its great human bearings and in its governmental and social results, has been clearly pro- jected. The fundamental statements have been made. The main forecasts are mostly recent. We are emerging from the genera- tion of search for the underlying elements and of the prophecy for future action. We enter the generation of hopeful and con- structive application. At last we begin to see the actual reshaping of country life. THE PROBLEM OF OVER-ADMINISTRATION As our philosophy begins now to shape itself into definite action, so do our colleges and experiment stations begin to take on an institutional character. With the pas- SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 sage of the Extension Act, the institutions become real parts in a national system. Ad- ministration is now the dominant note in them, whereas formerly the work and at- tainments of individual men gave them their distinction. In the nature of the case, the administrative forces will increase: the elements must be organized ; it is easier and simpler to make plans of administra- tion than to do good research work or su- perlative teaching. Persons of little train- ing in productive work are now engaged in making plans of administration, a situa- tion that is always dangerous. It is of the first importance, both to the work itself and to the political democracy we represent, that we do not think of agri- cultural education and research primarily in terms of organization. In this country where we are all sovereigns and all poli- ticians, it is the easiest thing to slip into political methods, not to say political prac- tises, in education. We must be on our guard against the spiritless domination that is likely to arise in educational and inves- tigational endeavor when it becomes for- mal, and be aware of those tendencies that confuse red-tape and obstructive duties with administration. An enterprise is not commendable merely because it is “‘reg- ular’’ and smooth-running. It is a sad case if personality is ever subordinated to regularity. A man is always more impor- tant than a rule. The tendency toward outside centralized administrative control is well seen in move- ments now under way in this country to eliminate duplication and conflict between public institutions in a given state by means of one board of control placed over all of them, or by one chancellorship administer- ing all of them from a common office. If it is desirable to conserve the free action and the spirit of a teacher or an officer, as a JANuARY 21, 1916] means of maintaining the essential forces in a free people without peasantry, so is it necessary also to safeguard the independ- ence of the institution that holds the teach- ers. Every institution is entitled to its own life. It would be a vast misfortune if all our state educational institutions were made to be uniform in procedure, even when they are of the same grade or rank. Diversity is the order of nature. We are now run wild in this country in the application of so-called efficiency systems to institutions and agencies that in the nature of their purpose ought to be of the spirit rather than of the letter. Often these systems do not really represent efficiency, but the effort of officers and clerks without either vision or discretion, and perhaps supercilious, to make all things uniform; and more time and money may be lost in this effort than is saved in the purchase of supplies or in the stoppage of the leaks. It is a serious case to deprive the responsible officer of an in- stitution of the right to exercise his dis- eretion. It is a gross mistake to suppose that man- agement systems usually applicable to a fac- tory can be applied to a college or a univer- sity, or to an experiment station or a re- search laboratory, and for the very good reason that the products are wholly unlike, —manufactured goods in the one case, hu- man souls and scientific truth in the other. So also are the methods of procedure un- like—time-work and a measurable output in the one ease, study, reflection, mental recuperation, inspiration, soul-service in the other. The institutions must be al- lowed to become what they are intended to be. We are face to face with a struggle to keep educational institutions free not so much from political control as from the deadening domination of fiscal offices. A SCIENCE 79 well-known professor in a college of agri- culture writes me that his institution has now become so efficient that he loses one third of his time from all productive work; and another declares that frequently he spends an entire day in making reports that have no significance except to maintain a scheme of administration and which could be performed just as well by a ten-dollar clerk. All this means that we are in imme- diate danger of developing in our institu- tions a set of administrative officers, con- trolling affairs, who are separate in spirit from the real work of research and eduea- tion. To this tendency add the present peril of similar despotism from state officers, and you have a slowly developing method of strangulation that may well cause alarm. If you ask me how we are to avoid these duplications and conflicts between state in- stitutions, then I reply that the remedy lies in the constitution of the institutions them- selves and not in the method of governance. You can not bring together, by any means of overhead regulation, institutions that in themselves are inharmonious. You may al- lay the hostilities, by arbitrary regulation you may prevent duplication, but this is not a solution, but only an adjustment; and the arbitrary regulation of finances and ac- counts will inevitably in the end control the educational policies of the institutions, and will ultimately deprive them of inde- pendent free-spirited presidents and lead- ers. The danger lies in the future rather than in the present. The real remedy for such situations rests with the constitution or the legislature (or with bodies to which it delegates legislative authority) to define the purposes and the spheres of the insti- tutions; with their charts before them, the institutions then undertake each its own voyage. There is still another aspect to this un- fortunate hostility between state institu- tions. It is the championship of the insti- 80 SCIENCE tution by alumni, in their organizations and elsewhere, and which may practically en- force the necessity of exterior regulation. The alumni loyalty is a fine spirit, much to be desired; but the first loyalty in the case of public-maintained institutions is to the state rather than to the college. The alumni attitude of the older eastern en- dowed colleges has been transferred bodily to state colleges, without discrimination and without realization of the fact that state relationships are involved. Herein lies one danger of alumni trustees in state institu- tions, although the alumni ought to make the best of advisers. If we could get hold of the alumni bodies on the basis of good state policies rather than on the basis of blind partisanship, we should soon be able to solve most of our institutional conflicts, at the same time that we retain the needful support of the alumni of each one of them. We should then be free to make our institutions parts in a well-understood state program, and to allow each institution to work out most of its own problems. Undoubtedly some small dupl- cations or perhaps even infringements would remain, but they would be devoid of hostility and have little power for evil, whereas the gains to come from free action would far outweigh any lack of conformity to an office or paper plan. It ought not to be difficult to make adjustments by means of conference if the underlying situation is properly established. How to bring these alumni bodies to their senses is indeed a difficult problem. As these persons have been educated at state expense, so does the state have a right to ask service in return; and, if necessary, I should go so far as to give the alumni or- ganizations legal standing and more or less state control. I feel, however, that the bet- ter result can be secured by processes of suasion. If a governor of a state, or the [N. 8S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1099 presidents of the institutions, or a few leading spirits in the alumni associations were to make an appeal along these lines, the whole situation would probably right itself in the course of a few years. It is more important first to appeal to the alumni than to the legislature. We are in too great haste to eliminate these difficulties. We must remember that these situations are the results of long-continued conditions; the difficulties are chronic and ingrained; so will it require time to work them out. We are to undo the mischief by gradually re- versing or at least revising the process, not by a broadside of regulatory legislation. All these foregoing statements indicate the drift of the time in the direction of over-administration, coupled with more or less hasty legislative enactments to meet special troubles. The remedy does not lie wholly, and perhaps not even chiefly, within the establishments themselves; in fact, rou- tine tends to multiply, and to extol itself as desirable on its own account. Reforma- tion is peculiarly the work of outsiders. The course of our legislation in the field of education in agriculture shows a gradual federalizing of it, beginning with practi- cally entire freedom in the original Land- Grant Act. In the new Smith-Lever Act the remedy—if a remedy is needed—does not lie within itself. Cooperation is not a remedy: it is an adjustment, a method of procedure, and it works only when all the parties agree. If the Land-Grant Act had been written and applied on the same prin- ciple, we could not have had our existing colleges of agriculture. ANOTHER KIND OF AGRICULTURAL WORK Well, then, where is the external influence to be maintained? Where is it to arise? Primarily in the suggestions of a free peo- ple. But its continuous practise must come from institutions. JANUARY 21, 1916] There may be need, also, of a kind of agricul- tural work that can best be done in an institution that is independent of direct state support, and that is not at once responsible to popular will. The fuller statement, from which this sentence is a quotation, is this: The teaching of agriculture of college and unt- versity grade ought not to be confined to colleges of agriculture. All universities at least, on their own account and for their own best development, will in time have departments of agriculture, if they are real universities, as much as they have departments of language or of engineering. They can not neglect any fundamental branches of learn- ing.3 At an earlier date, I had written: It is strange that private benevolence has not discovered that the founding of schools of agri- culture is one of the very best means of serving mankind.# As these statements seem not always to have meant the same to others as I thought they meant to me, I shall now enlarge on them; and thereby shall I both explain my- self and make my application. My primary contention at the moment is that the agricultural and rural subjects may be made a means of education, used as so-called culture studies, and that a knowl- edge of them on the part of a large propor- tion of the people, in their general bearings, is essential to training for citizenship. They therefore become by right a part of the con- tent of a school and of a college course. If any institution essays to cover the field of higher education, and is free to do so under the terms of its charter or of its state rela- tions, then agriculture can not be omitted. Of course no institution should admit agri- culture into its curriculum until it is ready for the subject and can provide the neces- sary support, any more than it should admit Greek or economies until it is ready for the subject. To be ready for agriculture re- 3““The Training of Farmers,’’ p. 225, 1909. 4‘The State and the Farmer,’’ p. 166, 1908. SCLENCE 81 quires much more than equipment and ade- quate funds: the institution, in its govern- ing body and in its faculty, should come to the subject on the same educational basis as it comes to any other subject, prepared to give it opportunity and sympathetic con- sideration, and to make it in fact a worthy coordinate with other departments. The agricultural work of which I here speak is to be a contribution to other courses and departments in a university. It might very well be a department in an arts course. Unfortunately, we think of agriculture in higher institutions of learning only as a very highly developed series of technical courses, maintained mostly on a semi-pro- fessional basis. This is properly the devel- opment in the land-grant colleges of agri- culture; and in them, although the differen- tiation has gone very far, it will go still farther, for we must bring our rural situa- tion up to its proper level. But in general and liberal-arts endowed universities, agri- culture of another species may well be in- troduced, comparable with a department of a college rather than with a college entity itself. It need not provide ‘‘a course in agriculture,’’ in the sense of a complete cur- riculum by itself, and it would not give a degree in agriculture. We can not expect all students desiring agriculture as part of a liberal education to matriculate in a col- lege of agriculture. The content of such teaching of agricul- ture would probably run strongly along the lines of the so-called humanities—along economics without being the customary economics, along civics without being the usual civics, along ethics without being speculative ethics, and always be founded on good sources of technical information touching the nature and processes of pro- duction, the values in rural life, knowledge of agricultural conditions, with frequent visits in rural communities and excursions 82 for special studies. Such an organization for agriculture would not need the exten- sive equipment of a college of agriculture, and not even a farm. It will be observed that I speak of agri- culture for endowed universities and col- leges that are supposed to cover the field of liberal education. Whether agriculture of any kind should be taught in a state univer- sity in a commonwealth in which the land- grant college is separate, is a question of state policy. By the act of separating the institutions, the state practically sets boundaries to the university as well as to the land-grant college; it always remains, then, as I have already intimated, for the state itself, clearly to define the pur- poses and the funetions. It is likewise a question of policy, internal in this case, as to whether even in a university carrying the land-grant work there should also be an arts course in agriculture. I am convinced that we greatly need such departments of agriculture as are here sug- gested. The institutions need it on their own account, and we need it for the cause of education and to train our people for self-government. There is no such profes- sorship of agriculture as this, so far as I know, in this country. The institutions are missing an opportunity. My impression is that a first-class depart- ment of agriculture in a first-class univer- sity, with a living man at the head of it who has had naked-hand experience on the farm, would exercise a kind of influence in the subject and on the country that is now un- visioned, although much needed. I suspect that the judgment of such a department would have unusual weight with the public, being perhaps non-professional and free of propaganda and of governmental policies. T foresee students going from such teaching to the colleges of agriculture for more de- tailed and technical work; and I think I SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIITI. No. 1099 foresee certain students going to such a de- partment for reflective graduate study and for the privilege of acquaintance with a teacher who is not buried in organization. The old-time college professor, giving himself personally to his students, with few assistants, provided a type of leadership and of influence of the highest value; he lived the life; he was content in his work. To this man add something of the activity of the working world, but without admini- stration of great schemes and without a maze of paralyzing reports, returns and projects, and you have your perfect teacher. This teacher would be in position to maintain poise. He need not be afraid of deliberation. He would be greatly satisfied to watch the procession go by. We need a certain number of these men who are not only good students, but who are so detached from plans and managements that they can keep our philosophy straight. THE CHECK PLOTS We very well know that we need outside enterprises and influences to correct the tendencies of government. Education and research in agriculture are tied up with covernmental procedure. I would not have you think that I am op- posed to governmental supervision. I do not even raise the question of the advisa- bility or the merits of enactments or pol- icies, although ready to review the tenden- cies in certain practises; and I wish dis- tinetly to give my voice for the meeting of the laws to their full and in a whole-hearted way. Regard for law and authority is as much a safeguard of a free people as is the necessity for individual action. I am not implying that things are going bad with us, or that any of the agricultural enter- prise is suffering. On the contrary, I think that our governmental work in agriculture JANUARY 21, 1916] is on the whole particularly good. I know many of the men in this line of govern- mental oversight, and how capable they are. I know that we must have regularized pro- cedure and good organization. It is said that for the greater number of persons close supervision is necessary, to which we all agree; and yet it is surprising how quickly these persons respond to leader- ship. I know, on the other hand, that it is pos- sible for governments, or methods suggested by governmental necessities, to invade edu- cational work where they are not needed. I fear that the days of much freedom and spontaneity in the work are more behind us than ahead of us. We naturally extend a method or a way of procedure throughout a system, as if uniformity were in itself an asset. The very expansiveness of the enter- prises, the extent of funds involved, the vast size of the country, the numbers of students, the alertness of the people for solutions, all demand a complex method of administration and tend to immerse a man in the system. I do not see how it can be avoided. All the more is the necessity, therefore, for opportunities to those per- sons who wish to do a personal work and to express themselves—just themselves—in the doing it. All the more do we need the example of institutions which have policies wholly their own, to safeguard any future danger of too much regulation in the gov- ernmental side. One set would prove a powerful stimulus to the other as well as to exercise a natural control. I hope there will never be any need of outside suggestion to restrain persons in the public institu- tions who aspire to be governors, congress- men, and the lke, who may be tempted to use their opportunities to that end, and who are thereby out of place in college and science work. As the public work becomes more crys- SCIENCE 83 tallized and more official, as is of course inevitable, the colleges of agriculture will begin to lose their boldest men. We know that many men in government like to es- cape to institutions, as to universities: will they desire also, in time, to escape the in- stitutions ? You must not think that I am here sum- moning the bogy-man of ‘“‘politics,’’ as a discouragement to institutions supported by the state. Quite the contrary: I have seen something of institutions; I fear the entrance of ‘‘politics’’ as much into the governance of other institutions as of state institutions, and perhaps even more so, seeing that it is not answerable to public correction. We are moving rather rapidly in these days away from star-chamber deals and partizan control and upheavals. But there remains the more dangerous because the more insidious formalizing of the daily work, regulating of hours, deadly conform- ing of editorial offices, employing of too many clerks and intermediaries, the grad- ual tying of the hands without any inten- tion whatever that it shall be so, the piling up of paper duties. That is to say, the old- time fear of politics has now been super- seded by the actual danger of impersonal interference in details and of machine rou- tine. I am not so much afraid of ‘‘poli- ties’’ as I am of the dead-levels. The old separatism in agriculture is breaking up. The human forces are re- shaping. New erystallizations are taking place before our eyes, rapidly. Many plans of cooperation and co-action, small and large, are much recommended. Now is the time to be careful that our rural life shall not be machine-made and over-organized. THE FIELD FOR PRIVATE FOUNDATIONS The land-grant colleges of agriculture are not to expect to hold exclusively the en- tire field of agriculture-education of the 84 higher grade, nor is it desirable that they should do so. They do not necessarily rep- resent the last word in this field of public service. We must soon begin to think of another range. Private philanthropy will find this in- viting and useful field. Universities of many kinds will enter it as of their own domain. The land-grant institutions will not lose their influence and standing: on the contrary, they ought to begin to pro- duce the leaders for the other develop- ment, and specially must they be prepared to accept the other institutions, when those institutions are really ready and worthy, and give them encouragement; and in par- ticular must they not sit as censors. These new developments being foreseen and I think inevitable, then a modus vivendi must be found in advance. The first de- sirability, as I have suggested, is an atti- tude of encouragement for all good effort in teaching and research; the next essential is a willingness on the part of the land- grant institutions to divide the field, or at least to share it, so far as they can do so and not surrender their legal or necessary rights or curtail their usefulness. No one would want these institutions restricted; in fact, this must not be, since they have been set aside to do a great work in a democracy. The other institutions, those not teaching agriculture on the land-grant basis, should ‘recognize that the public-maintained col- leges are now established in their field, that this field belongs to them by law, that these collezes are doing their work nobly, and that the people will resent interference; and they must remember the fine disdain in which the colleges of agriculture have been held in times past. These other institu- tions should not attempt to duplicate the work and equipment of the land-grant col- leges; they should enter fields of their own. The effort to secure state support for such institutions is a perversion; it introduces SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 the very element of competition and con- flict that it is so necessary to avoid, and the institutions also thereby lose their special opportunity. Neither will these institu- tions, if they are wise, enter the field to se- cure advertisement for any university or any body, counting on the rising interest in agriculture; the land-grant colleges are fortunately too strong for such a purpose to gain much headway. What these fields are, for the non-land- grant endowed institutions, may not be easy to forecast in detail; but if the insti- tutions desire to find such a field, the dan- ger of duplication, conflict and hostility will thereby be avoided. In fact, these other institutions can never acquire the place they ought to find and which they have a right to enter, by any movement of attack or of imitation. The example of the untrammeled spirit, which they ought to contribute to governmental enterprises, must of course be born in freedom and in great good will. Already have we discussed the opportu- nity in a liberal-arts college or in a univer- sity for a department of agriculture. We may now consider what an endowed institu- tion, established separately in the agricul- tural field, including horticulture, forestry, and other rural work, may undertake. There is opportunity and need in abun- dance in the training-school field, but we are not now considering this range. In the college and university range, it is probably not worth the while to undertake a new effort ‘‘to make farmers,’’ although this particular fallacy seems to be very attrac- tive to many men. 1. If the hypothetical institution is to engage in research, it had better not at- tempt to cover the field of agriculture, as the colleges of agriculture are obliged to cover it in order to answer the needs of the commonwealth; it had better confine it- self to a problem or a set of closely related JANUARY 21, 1916] problems, organizing carefully for the effort, equipping to the highest, securing the best investigators regardless of the salary cost and allowing them to give them- selves unreservedly to the research, with- out extension work or propaganda. This kind of intensive investigation, long-con- tinued, patiently pursued, not depending for support on popular will, not interfered with by endless extraneous records and reports of progress, not obliged to demon- strate the necessity for its existence, would have a far-reaching influence for good. 2. If the institution is designed only to enter extension work in agriculture, it had better cease before it begins. The public forces are already at the command of the national cooperative extension enter- prises; these enterprises are founded on good investigational work and on the ac- cumulation of experience in the regularly established institutions. Extension work should never be projected in vacuo. 3. If it is in teaching of the higher grade that the new separate institution would ex- press itself, then it must find its place, if at all, by sheer commanding excellence. It will compete first of all with the land-grant college of its own state, if it is of compar- able grade, and with similar institutions in forty-seven other states, not to mention those in the provinces of Canada; this will present at once a difficult situation. If it is of inferior grade, then it must recognize its place and not attempt to give a degree in agriculture, or otherwise to bring the educational standards in this new field, now being attained with much hard effort, into disrepute. I can imagine a very worthy private foundation on college and even on university grade, making its way continuously and successfully, but I should expect it to make best headway if it spe- cialized rather than attempted to cover the whole field; the expense in staff and equip- SCIENCE 85 ment to occupy the entire field would be very heavy, and it is doubtful whether the extra expenditure, at this epoch, would be socially justifiable. This particular com- plete range or organization of college teach- ing seems to be peculiarly the province of the state to support; and the state is al- ready deeply engaged in the enterprise. By combining good agricultural work of a restricted kind with other nature-work, not eliminating other cultural studies, an en- dowed institution could make for itself a very useful place. 4, Long have I felt that a new kind of institution for agriculture, of very high grade, will some day arise on private en- dowment. This will be a coordinating and leadership institution, teaching advanced and special students in some subjects, en- gaging in research, but in the main making its contribution as a place for conference, for consideration of the large civic and social relations of rural life, and as a volun- tary meeting-place on common and neutral ground for all the forces that lie in the situation. The state colleges of agriculture are coordinate with each other, they draw support from the same classes of funds, they come to have a comity of equality, they are all restricted in their outlook or at least in their practise by their necessary connections. We may be sure that there are bounds beyond which they may not go in making opinion on certain lines of great public questions. Government can not lead them: it can only supervise and regu- late them. I think I see the necessity for better op- portunities than the land-grant or other state-maintained institutions are likely to give the freest men. Where shall we place our prophets? Separately they may ac- complish much, but backed by facilities and a broad institution they may accomplish much more. One institution founded with 86 SCIENCE sympathy and on statesmanship could oc- eupy a great place, if any board of gov- ernors were wise enough to avoid the eranks. It certainly would avoid all red- tape and all routine-men and all perplexing alliances. We may well look to govern- ment to coordinate the fiscal business and to some extent the projects of the public in- stitutions, but we can not expect it to bring together the spiritual elements that alone can make a movement or a people great. Spiritual forces are always spontaneous. I want to see at least one broad founda- tion, separately placed, certainly not in Washington, highly endowed, that will at- tract the best spirits somewhat independ- ently of the subjects that they teach, to enable these men and women to give of themselves in a composite faculty, and to represent the best leadership in statecraft and other subjects as related to agriculture and country life. We are so accustomed to the formally regular program of the exist- ing college of agriculture that an outline like this may seem to be indefinite and to lack cohesion, but it is not so very differ- ent from the old idea of a university; in fact, it might be known as a university founded on the earth, on rural life, with its students mostly graduates and not very numerous, with a good nature-background and not top-heavy with technical equip- ment. THE CONCLUSION OF THE WHOLE MATTER My presentation is of four motives: (1) To extend the rural teaching, founded on agriculture, into general and liberal arts in- stitutions, to the end that it may be made a means of culture, a force for training in citizenship, and a broadening influence in the institutions; (2) to indicate a way in which private endowments or enterprises of college and university grade may be hope- fully made in agriculture; (3) to suggest [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1099 the need of non-governmental movements which shall introduce into this field the same balance and counter-balance of forces that is essential in other fields for the main- tenance of government that arises from the people, for not even in a democracy should all education be state-maintained; (4) to conserve the independence and the oppor- tunities of the boldest prophets. Of these motives, the last one I consider to be much the most important, the neces- sity to provide a footing for at least a few men without official attachments, of supe- rior qualifications, and with an outlook cov- ering the entire field. The historian will discover this present segment of time to have been remarkable for its attainments with the products in agri- culture. It isan epoch of wonderful horses, record-breaking cows, magnificent bulls, im- peccable fowls; an epoch of marvellous fruits of the land, and of vast projects of reclamation. But the temper of the time begins to run out to the human factors, to the worth of the people in all the localities, to the little movements here and there that arise like springs in a fertile field. We just begin to glimpse something beyond us, as yet undefined; and presently our thought will begin to run backward to discover who were the men far in the generations behind us who saw something of this field and what they said about it, and what have been the rills of influence that have made the present current. We shall look forward for lead- ers, and shall discover that although we have had major prophets, not yet have we had a national figure. Such questions as these that we have raised, and many more of wide reach, must be discussed somewhere before representa- tive gatherings. Shall it be here or else- where? This company comprises members of the Association and adherents of Section JANUARY 21, 1916] M. What shall be the field and the func- tion of this body? Shall it be strictly pro- fessional and official? Or shall it represent our democratic spirit and our forecast, in- troducing the element of public policy and propheey even into technical discussion, bringing together the men and women from all sides and expressing all the work and movements? Our work is well under way. The morning hours are passed and the day is well toward noon. L. H. Bary UNIVERSITY REGISTRATION STATISTICS THE registration returns for November 1, 1915, of thirty of the universities of the country will be found tabulated on a following page. These statistics show only the registra- tion in the universities considered. There is no intention to convey the idea that these uni- versities are the thirty largest universities in the country, nor that they are necessarily the leading institutions. The largest gains in terms of student units, including the summer attendance, but making due allowance by deduction for the summer session students who returned for instruction in the fall, are registered by California (2,375), Pennsylvania (900), Minnesota (892), Chicago (837), Columbia (594), and Pittsburgh (594), New York University (514), Ohio State (508), Illinois (486), Missouri (483), Cornell (412), Iowa State (870), Michigan (865), Northwestern (336), Cincinnati (334), West- ern Reserve (302). The University of California shows a large gain of 2,375 students; no other institution shows a gain of more than 1,000 as against four last year. However, sixteen institu- tions (listed above) show gains of more than 300 as against fourteen last year and ten the year before. The fourteen institutions last year were Columbia, California, Pittsburgh, Ohio State, Wisconsin, Harvard, New York University, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Tlli- nois, Nebraska, Cornell, Cincinnati, and Michigan. Of these Wisconsin, Harvard and SCIENCE 87 Nebraska are not included this year in the group, and Chicago, Missouri, Iowa State, Northwestern, and Western Reserve are in- cluded this year but were not last year. Four institutions as against one last year show decreases in grand total attendance. They are Tulane, Washington University, Harvard and Princeton. Exclusive of sum- mer sessions Western Reserve and Wisconsin show decreases, Washington University and Princeton not having summer sessions. Omitting the enrollments in the summer session, the universities showing the largest gains for 1915 are Pennsylvania (916), Minne- sota (739), Pittsburgh (594), Ohio State (502), New York University (438), Chicago (487), Illinois (374), California (363), Mis- souri (361), Cincinnati (334), Cornell (314), Michigan (299), Columbia (290), Nebraska (288), Harvard (274), Iowa State (255), Northwestern (208), Indiana (201). Eighteen show gains of more than 200 as against four- teen last year and twelve the year before last. Of the eighteen thirteen are in the west and far west and five are in the east. A similar list last year consisted of eight western and six eastern institutions. According to the enrollment figures for 1915, the thirty imstitutions, inclusive of the summer sessions, rank as follows: Columbia (11,888), California (10,555), Chicago (7,968), Pennsylvania (7,404), Wisconsin (6,810), Michigan (6,684), New York University (6,656), Harvard (6,351), Cornell (6,351), Illinois (6,150), Ohio State (5,451), Minnesota (5,376), Northwestern (4,408), Syracuse (4,012), Missouri (3,868), Texas (3,572), Pitts- burgh (8,569), Nebraska (3,356), Yale (3,303), Iowa State (8,138), Kansas (2,806), Cin- cinnati (2,524), Indiana (2,347), Tulane (2,160), Stanford (2,061), Western Reserve (1,825), Princeton (1,615), Johns Hopkins (1,586), Washington University (1,264), Vir- ginia (1,008). A comparison shows that the following eighteen universities hold the same relative positions (indicated by the numerals following the name) as was held last year. Columbia (1), California (2), Chicago (3), Cornell (9), 88 SCIENCE Tilinois (10), Ohio State (11), Minnesota (12), Northwestern (183), Syracuse (14), Missouri (15), Texas (16), Nebraska (18), Iowa State (20), Kansas (21), Stanford (25), John Hop- kins (28), Washington University (29), and Virginia (80). The other twelve institutions shift about as follows: Pennsylvania advances to fourth position, forcing Wisconsin back to fifth. Harvard, holding sixth position last year, falls back to the eighth, and Michigan and New York move up a notch. Pitts- burgh formerly nineteenth, exchanges with Yale for the seventeenth position and Tulane drops back two places, thus advancing Cin- cinnati and Indiana. Western Reserve and Princeton change about. If the summer session enrollment be omitted the universities in the table rank in size as fol- lows: Columbia (7,042), Pennsylvania (6,655), California (5,977), New York University (5,853), Michigan (5,821), Illinois (5,511), Harvard (5,485), Cornell (5,392), Ohio State (4,897), Wisconsin (4,868), Minnesota (4,679), Chicago (4,324), Northwestern (4,153), Syra- euse (3,830), Pittsburgh (3,569), Yale (8,303), Nebraska (3,067), Missouri (3,043), Iowa State (2,704), Texas (2,611), Cincinnati (2,524), Kansas (2,470), Stanford (2,048), Indiana (1,771), Princeton (1,615), Western Reserve (1,469), Tulane (1,321), Washington Univer- sity (1,264), Johns Hopkins (1,173), Virginia (4,008). A comparison shows that the relative posi- tions of thirteen of the universities remain un- changed, and that the changes in the position of the remaining seventeen institutions in- volve only the shifting about of pairs—except in one instance. These shifts include the fol- lowing, the first in each case having the ad- vantage. New York and Michigan, Illinois and Harvard, Ohio State and Wisconsin, Pittsburgh and Yale, Cincinnati and Kansas, Indiana and Princeton, and Tulane and Wash- ington. Northwestern is now thirteenth, Min- nesota and Chicago advancing a step thereby. Including the summer sessions the largest gains in the decade from 1905 to 1915 were made by Columbia (7,133), California (6,924), Pennsylvania (3,873), New York University [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1099 (3,744) Wisconsin (8,727), Chicago (8,411), Ohio State (3,894), Illinois (2,515), Cornell (2,480), Texas (2,382), Michigan (2,163). The same group made the largest gains in the decade 1904 to 1914. Considering the gains in ‘the last ten years of the thirty institutions, it is of interest to note that although the state institutions have had wide public attention because of their phenomenal growth a study shows that the other institutions of the group have also made noteworthy advances, approxi- mately equalling in the aggregate the growth of the state universities. Considering now the individual schools of the various universities, in the number of col- lege undergraduates, California leads with 1,294 men and 2,023 women, followed by Har- vard with 2,516 men and 653 women (Rad- cliffe College) ; Michigan with 1,986 men and 890 women; Minnesota with 993 men and 1,074 women; Chicago with 1,161 men and 851 women; Wisconsin with 850 men and 970 women; Columbia with 1,118 men and 656 women; Nebraska with 780 men and 826 women; Texas with 885 men and 767 women; Kansas with 873 men and 678 women; Iowa with 741 men and 762 women; Yale with 1,489 men; Indiana with 837 men and 597 women; Syracuse with 1,480 men and women; Mis- souri with 792 men and 588 women; North- western with 645 men and 711 women; Prince- ton with 1,806 men; Ohio State with 853 and 430 women; Stanford with 820 men and 401 women. In engineering, Michigan now leads with 1,498 students followed by Cornell with 1,347, Illinois with 1,148, Yale with 1,039, Ohio State with 841, Wisconsin with 758, California with 712, Pennsylvania with 611, Minnesota with 578, Missouri with 564, Cincinnati with 474, and Stanford with 484. In law, Harvard holds the lead with 786 students, New York University with 726, Columbia with 471, Michigan with 431, Texas with 340, and Northwestern with 314 following in order. The largest medical school is at New York University, where 509 students are now en- rolled. Michigan has 378 students registered in medicine; California, 373; Johns Hopkins, January 21, 1916] 371; Tulane, 350; Harvard, 340; Pennsyl- vania, 340; Minnesota, 258; Northwestern, 238; Tllinois, 226; Ohio State, 222; Texas, 216; and Chicago, 200. The non-professional graduate school of Columbia with 2,065 students is by far the largest. Chicago follows with 617; then Harvard with. 587, California with 560, Pennsylvania with 548, Illinois with 403, Cor- nell with 395, New York University and Yale with 348 each, and Wisconsin with 322. Cor- nell continues to hold the lead in agriculture, with 1,608 students, followed by Illinois with 1,067, Wisconsin with 972, Ohio State with 970, Minnesota with 648, California with 581, Missouri with 560 and Nebraska with 512. The three universities reporting courses in architecture are Pennsylvania with 254 stu- dents, Illinois with 167, and Cornell with 166. The students in other institutions registered in architecture are listed in other schools of their respective universities. Washington Uni- yersity with 188 students leads in art, followed by Syracuse with 182, Nebraska with 65, Tul- ane with 61, Yale with 47, and Indiana with 43. The school of commerce of New York Uni- versity has 2,639 students. Pennsylvania’s school follows with 1889 students, Pittsburgh’s with 916, Northwestern’s with 741, Wisconsin’s with 542, Illinois’ with 527, and California’s with 308. Pennsylvania leads in dentistry with 744, followed by Northwestern with 666, Minnesota with 373, Michigan with 351, Iowa State with 303, Pittsburgh with 259, Harvard with 234. Of the four universities reporting schools of divinity, Northwestern has the largest with 196 students as against Chicago’s 137, Yale’s 105, and Harvard’s 72. The school of education at Columbia num- bers this year 1,972 students as compared with 897 at Pittsburgh, 514 at Ohio State, 451 at Texas, 445 at New York University, 432 at Indiana, 413 at Cincinnati, 390 at Syracuse, and 352 at Chicago. In forestry Syracuse leads with 292; then comes Ohio State with 44, Minnesota with 41, Yale 32 and Harvard with 4. New York University has the largest school of journalism with 151 students. Columbia fol- SCIENCE 89 lows with 148, Wisconsin with 116, Missouri with 94, Indiana with 75, and Texas with 46. With 86 students, Syracuse leads in library economy, followed by Illinois with 39, Wis- consin with 34, Western Reserve with 27, Iowa State with 20, and Indiana with 7. Syracuse also leads in music with 836 students enrolled. Northwestern reports 326, Kansas 110 and Texas 109. The pharmacy school of Columbia numbers 462. The next largest school is at Pittsburgh, where 240 are enrolled; then comes Illinois with 195, Western Reserve with 120, and Michigan with 114. The course in veterinary medicine at Ohio State numbers 160, at Cornell 145, and at Pennsylvania 144. All of the above figures are for individual schools and colleges and are exclusive of the summer-session attendance. The largest sum- mer-session in 1915 was at Columbia, where 5,961 students were enrolled. At California a phenomenal increase of 2,012 brought the en- rollment of their summer-session to 5,364. Attendance at the summer-session of the Uni- versity of Chicago was 4,369, at Wisconsin 9,780, at Michigan 1,677, at Cornell 1,509, at Texas 1,265, at Minnesota 1,141, at Missouri 1,135, at Pennsylvania 1,065, at New York 1,063, at Tulane 1,037, at Ohio State 1,029, and at Illinois 1,028. The following paragraphs are explanatory of statistics appearing herewith with some ad- ditional information. A study of the student enrollment in the scientific schools of mines, engineering and agriculture at Columbia University shows a steady decrease in enrollment corresponding to a steady increase of admission requirements now based upon a collegiate course of at least three years. It is interesting to note that of the 1,608 students of agriculture at Cornell, 290 are women. There are seven women enrolled in the law school of that University, twenty-one in medicine, three in architecture, and one in mechanical engineering. At the University of Cincinnati two years of college work has been added as a prere- quisite for entrance to the school of household arts. This has resulted in a decrease of 42 90 SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 = g 3 g & 3 3 3 2 5 qa UE Te apes pee ee ap Boy ea fs Seal 2olos lag ah el eb 2 Eo 2 S/o) ao) €]/ Sle] a) fl Ss] Si ei] s CollegetyMentar en eccinc cose sec 1294/1161} 315] 1118} 1007/2516) 599} 833] 741] 321) 863) 1986 College, Women...........-..---- 2023] 851} 543] 656] 341] 653| 520| 597| 762)..... 678| 890 Scientific Schools!...............-. (APA eas 474| 341) 1347 10| 1148] 389] 245)..... 386 | 1498 IDEA ois he eR BOR ORE eee 153 e235) eee 471| 234] 786 86 OS NFB, cose 166| 431 IMedicinewc cme nace saeensieste ee 116) 200 92) 373) 170| 340] 226); 151| 164] 371) 128] 378 Non-professional graduate Schools ..| 560} 617} 139] 2065) 395) 587/| 403 92] 158| 239] 108] 267 Nori cultures s-ietactolisteh vee eee ‘afsill aero lac loc des 1608 |..... 1067}..... Arh 2°. lle a ccaye | ene PAT CHILCCLULG se ie cis ere clare See eee VA eet cerca 87| 166 54| 167 Bey renal lerers 20) 3 BAL Ue ep ayrenstarecintevass) orakenaeorcTa amet ae are rere Se i aichouons i bonin|lariocollaoaos 3 43 I) esac VO erates Wommercerey-e. cree cree eee S08 eee 96) ayers al Grane WA) |) B27) IG) WOW) oaeasllocacn 3 ID SNCISEL Ve .ers cick clue O OS OIA I aerate catalan nanylatoteenal io erorare PBYE| WA Vo sosc SUB Wececclleance 351 ID abovuniceperepescnctenn Banta cherie. colons Sera a'G NST ele cae lla ool eiow o a I altel gi Si ei sie i 22] 0] & Bee a) BS 8 bBo Ba Bll Bal eal Bel hoei St ie Ea Enis SP So eee ee oe es Re Nee ae Pe es See Css 993 | 792) 780] 597| 645) 853 {528 439 | 1306 | 820 1430 835 | 239] 522) 201] 418] 850] 1489 1074| 588) 826] 242) 711) 430 165) see. 401 Tl || PRO os 500 271| 440) 970)..... 578 | 564] 317) 270 98| 841] 611] 314] 134] 434] 285] 283] 136) 114] 171]..... 758 | 1039 165} 118] 153} 726; 314] 163] 254] 180]..... 173 260} 340 77| 236| 134] 109] 175) 117 258 94] 118) 509) 238) 222] 340) 129]..... 85 114) 216) 350} 112) 105] 180 98 59 220| 154| 234] 348] 114) 192] 548) 121] 175] 148 140} 71 11 45 69 30| 322] 348 648) 560) 512)... - 212... - GVA ls aice 6||s Oo olblib uo cial mois Waa 3 OMe a vail tueesecll mace lia ciate ON shoo ZAG | ahah Si lei pect | GRRE Tevemeaee DOP RZD 4 tierce ltoeeke ited cycen es 54 51 Pak Ns a c'os til Erected ohptg.c co cee éioaolldomas (G]N orcicies| lecebteeel aes craio ere bieusy (etesea a crotoed cl hckeanicne 82 | eer CoE Sa) des iocey| int Godot eaten | ATS dei AT Tireseiisks HE) DBYS | PASI) 72MM No 5 8 5 oll ats) ONG ese ocllonacclloccoe Cy Ue Spe balled stallece nhl) seed ae e SE Ilomocd US \oooac GS |) WO) 744) BR osesllescoclloossolloccos ieioses TAO} US Tal ee eerell Macs oe Bs Kos ts FS ocr Av) cetera | Peace NO Gi eaemeee es betetrey sere beret ea oll ati eae [Pea ctv cived| vette ice’ leery vam [Leena sylte Teak owe me UR os TD Ye aa a oeeseee Tat eT 88| 285) 255) 445)..... 514 | 225) 897)... .|....- 390} 451 SOS eee Were) 5 | eae es GU) Ilo.3 o.0.0 41 lt omnare la gomollanode A eee [tv Sue pted texerenstetl levorehere PAS PALE Heats al Pais Acts erat leg aba alee [es 32 setae An eases alway es] ceemrepey | terenstened | Pi steycrea lapels: tonal] ekereee tell iaoe petal] saat 46 Billispereel | etehertellSevseventte cle Gil ieee te S bbb alld oucedl 6 Bete rol foe ctarcl ciake 6.6! | occn ore |holckataic| peaen-eer erator ene (Geo cae thc] NS intended hn lencasal apanrerel ke pene 27 34)..... hou eel aie Pa Relsnel desis CPA 15 oda PAG peakeealel ceeenicia | iat oc 836} 109 PAS) Meio ceekelll acres |eecen eae 82 98. OO ee arte 2H lerees 71 94)..... DAO ci eaesi| leveneysailhetev sexe 52 PSH aoe uate oes 120 BO loc oe Soars || stemtercl ores AGT Fs aie en al tL OKO) || 17 Ue Bi] US yl Feel Hes ey Sees et [pts el Dead | aul Lede |b ala dae PAP a Aol Nears ae enc ERE AiG) 2S || LON sovelsescolloce an OS Hi TAOS area Serer s tele rue te ae aI 29) 22%:| 556 | 100| 2438 99) eee Col ts 13 | 476 882] 178 21 48 42| 127 31 4679 | 3043 | 3067 | 5853 | 4153 | 4897 | 6655 | 3569 | 1615 | 2048 | 3830) 2611 | 1321 | 1008 | 1264 | 1469 | 4868 | 3303 1141 | 1185] 610/1063) 359) 1029/1065|.....|..... Ue || Silay) Aas |) MOBY bb ocllanooe 361 | 2780|..... 444) 310} 321} 260) 104] 475) 316).....|..... 64 P29 S040 98) eee ene 6) 1) BIS | oo oo 5376 | 3868 | 3356 | 6656 | 4408 | 5451 | 7404 | 3569 | 1615 | 2061 | 4012) 3572 | 2160 | 1008 | 1264 | 1825 | 6810 | 3303 4484 | 3385 | 3199 | 6142 | 4072 | 4943 | 6504 | 2975 | 1641 | 1893 3913) 3371 | 2441 | 902 | 1345 | 1523 | 6696 | 3289 3737 | 2871} 2811 | 4543 | 3632 | 3608 | 5287 | 1883 | 1568 | 1670 | 3529) 3016 | 2249 | 799] 958] 1378 | 5141 | 3265 4972 | 2678] 2733 | 3947 | 3543 | 3181 | 5187)..... 1451 | 1648 | 3248) 2597 | 1985 | 688] 796 | 1274 | 4745 | 3287 3940 | 1887} 2635 | 2912 | 2791 | 2057 | 3480}..... 1361 | 1606 | 2776) 1190} 838) 696]..... 856 | 8083 | 3477 1044] 256) 907/1732).....|..... GS) || GOO) onc cllocccallscos0 1186) |) LOS) |). so . 607} 222)3798]|..... Senate 302} 506} 490) 480} 481] 600} 395| 232] 363 315) 237] 342] 112) 218] 261) 685] 616 2 Includes painting and sculpturing. first time, of graduate courses, for which credit may be secured towards the fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts; second, to the accrediting of the summer col- lege courses toward the Bachelor of Science in Education degree (referred to above); third, to the establishment of a state law requiring attendance by state teachers upon a junior school; and fourth, to the permissible substitu- tion of summer courses for attendance upon teachers’ institutes. The University of Michigan law school shows a loss of about fifty students due to a new requirement of two years of collegiate work for admission in place of the one year requirement which had been in force the pre- 3Included elsewhere. vious three years. In the college of literature, science and the arts the gain was unexpected; the gain in women students being probably due to the opening of two new residences for women. Part of the increase in the college of sci- ence, literature and the arts at the University of Minnesota is the result of an announcement of special courses arranged for the Twin City teachers which met with a gratifying response. The large increase in the college of dentistry is due to a dual freshmen enrollment, the last in the three-year course, and the first in a four- year course established this year. The maxi- mum number of students were admitted to the freshmen class in the three-year course and 92 ninety students were admitted to the first-year class in the four-year course. The large increase in registration in the sci- entific schools in the University of Missouri is due to the fact that beginning with the pres- ent year the school of engineering admits high- school graduates instead of requiring two years of college work for admission. No change has been made in the actual time required for securing the degree in engineering, but the first two years of the curriculum are now given in the school of engineering instead of in the college of liberal arts, resulting in a corre- sponding decrease, however, in the number of men in college. The professional schools show an increase, but the largest increase is in the school of education, due chiefly to the growing number of graduates of normal schools and eolleges who continue their work in the uni- versity. A part of the development of the uni- versity in recent years has been due to a sys- tem of accredited junior colleges throughout the state. The 645 men at the college of liberal arts of Northwestern University include 90 stu- dents in engineering who are registered for the bachelor’s degree, and a small group of pre- legal students who are taking their first year’s work in Evanston. Although the total num- ber of students in the school of music shows a decrease, the enrollment of full time stu- dents is larger than last year. The increase in entrance requirements to the professional colleges of law and medicine at Ohio State University naturally brought a loss in number, but this is also a part of the cause of a large increase in the college of liberal arts. The college of medicine now requires two years of academic work for admission, and has in- ereased its curriculum from three to four years. The summer school of the University of Virginia is conducted apart from the regular university session although credit is given by the university for certain work done. The summer school is one of several conducted in different parts of the state and had an enroll- ment in 1915 of 1,325. The new summer school at Western Reserve SCIENCE [N. 8S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1099 opened with an enrollment of 361 students. The courses for teachers almost doubled in registrations over last year. The visiting nurses’ class has five, and the course in adver- tising twenty-one. The increase in the school of fine arts and music at Yale is probably due to conditions abroad which prevent students going to Paris, Berlin and other art centers. Although the total registration in the graduate school is less than last year, the number of candidates for the degree of master of arts and of doctor of philosophy is slightly increased. JoHN C. Bure NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY ACADEMIC FREEDOM AND ACADEMIC TENURE THE committee on academic freedom and academic tenure of the American Association of University Professors, of which Professor E. R. A. Seligman, of Columbia University, is chairman, presented its report at the annual meeting on January 1. The first part of the report (printed in School and Society) is a general declaration of principles, some twenty pages in length; the second part consists of practical proposals which are as follows: As the foregoing declaration implies, the ends to be accomplished are chiefly three: First: To safeguard freedom of inquiry and of teaching against both covert and overt attacks, by providing suitable judicial bodies, composed of members of the academic profession, which may be called into action before university teachers are dismissed or disciplined, and may determine in what cases the question of academic freedom is actually involved. Second: By the same means, to protect college executives and governing boards against unjust charges of infringement of academic freedom, or of arbitrary and dictatorial conduct—charges which, when they gain wide currency and belief, are highly detrimental to the good repute and the influence of universities. Third: To render the profession more attractive to men of high ability and strong personality by insuring the dignity, the independence and the rea- sonable security of tenure, of the professorial office. JANUARY 21, 1916] The measures which it is believed to be neces- sary for our universities to adopt to realize these ends—measures which have already been adopted in part by some institutions—are four: A. Action by Faculty Committees on Reappoint- ments.—Official action relating to reappointments and refusals of reappointment should be taken only with the advice and consent of some board or com- mittee representative of the faculty. Your com- mittee does not desire to make at this time any suggestion as to the manner of selection of such boards. B. Definition of Tenure of Office—In every in- stitution there should be an unequivocal under- standing as to the term of each appointment; and the tenure of professorships and associate pro- fessorships, and of all positions above the grade of instructor after ten years of service, should be permanent (subject to the provisions hereinafter given for removal upon charges). In those state universities which are legally incapable of making contracts for more than a limited period, the gov- erning boards should announce their policy with respect to the presumption of reappointment in several classes of position, and such announce- ments, though not legally enforceable, should be regarded as morally binding. No university teacher of any rank should, exeept in cases of grave moral delinquency, receive notice of dismissal or of refusal of reappointment, later than three months before the close of any academic year, and in the case of teachers above the grade of in- structor, one year’s notice should be given. C. Formulation of Grounds for Dismissal.—In every institution the grounds which will be re- garded as justifying the dismissal of members of the faculty should be formulated with reasonable definiteness; and in the case of institutions which impose upon their faculties doctrinal standards of a sectarian or partisan character, these standards should be clearly defined and the body or individ- ual having authority to interpret them, in case of controversy, should be designated. Your com- mittee does not think it best at this time to at- tempt to enumerate the legitimate grounds for dis- missal, believing it to be preferable that individual institutions should take the initiative in this. D. Judicial Hearings Before Dismissal—Every university or college teacher should be entitled, be- fore dismissal1 or demotion, to have the charges 1This does not refer to refusals of reappoint- ment at the expiration of the terms of office of teachers below the rank of associate professor. All SCIENCE 93 against him stated in writing in specific terms and to have a fair trial on those charges before a spe- cial or permanent judicial committee chosen by the faculty senate or council, or by the faculty at large. At such trial the teacher accused should have full opportunity to present evidence, and, if the charge is one of professional incompetency, a formal report upon his work should be first made in writing by the teachers of his own department and of cognate departments in the university, and, if the teacher concerned so desire, by a com- mittee of his fellow specialists from other institu- tions, appointed by some competent authority. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS AT the meeting of the Society of American Bacteriologists held at the University of Illi- nois at the end of December, Dr. Thomas J. Burrill, formerly vice-president of the uni- versity, was elected president of the society for the coming year. Dr. A. O. Lovesoy, of the Johns Hopkins University, was elected president of the Amer- ican Philosophical Association at the meeting held recently in Philadelphia. Dean FREDERICK J. WULLING, of the college of pharmacy of the University of Minnesota, has been elected president of the American Pharmaceutical Association. At the annual meeting of the Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C., on January 10, Dr. Hugh M. Smith, U. S. commissioner of fisheries, was elected president for the year 1916. Sm ArcHIBALD GeErKiz, the distinguished geologist, celebrated his eightieth birthday on December 28. THE ministry of public instruction of the French government has selected Dr. Wallace Clement Sabine, Hollis professor of mathe- maties and natural philosophy at Harvard University, as exchange professor with France for 1916-17. His term of service will fall in the winter semester and will be spent at the University of Paris. Dr. O. Van ver StRIcHT, professor of his- tology and embryology, University of Ghent, Belgium, has arrived from Holland to accept such questions of reappointment should, as above provided, be acted upon by a faculty committee. 94 the post of fellow in cytology in the medical school, Western Reserve University. Pro- fessor Van der Stricht will devote his time to research. Tue Perkin medal of the Society of Chem- ical Industry will be presented to Dr. L. H. Baekeland on the evening of January 21 at a meeting held at Rumford Hall, the Chemists’ Club, New York City. The address of pres- entation will be made by Dr. Charles F. Chandler, senior American past-president of the Society of Chemical Industry. Av the fifteenth annual meeting of the American Philosophical Association held at the University of Pennsylvania on December 28, 29 and 30, in honor of Professor Josiah Royce, of Harvard University, and, in celebration of his sixtieth birthday, the afternoon session on Tuesday and morning session of Wednesday were devoted to the reading and discussion of papers on his philosophy. The speakers at these sessions were Drs. John Dewey, H. H. Horne, R. C. Cabot, J. W. Hudson, M. W. Cal- kins, E. G. Spaulding, W. H. Sheldon, E. E. Southard and C. M. Bakewell. At the annual banquet on Wednesday evening the guest of honor was Professor Royce, who made the only address. Av the two hundred and ninety-first regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington the constitution was amended so as to permit the election of an honorary presi- dent, such office to be tendered only to active members who have been especially prominent in the affairs of the society and to convey with it expressions of gratitude, respect and honor. After creating this office, the society elected unanimously Mr. E. A. Schwarz as first honor- ary president. Mr. Schwarz was one of the charter members of the society, has held the office of president for two terms, vice-president for a number of terms and secretary for a number of terms and has taken an active in- terest in the affairs of the society. He has attended every meeting of the society when he has been in Washington, has contributed greatly to its financial support and has enter- tained the society more than any other mem- SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 ber. He is an internationally recognized authority on Coleoptera and has contributed materially to the advancement of his favorite group and also to the general science of entomology. Art the seventh annual meeting of the Amer- ican Phytopathological Society, held at Colum- bus, Ohio, from December 28 to 31, the follow- ing officers were elected: President, Dr. Erwin F. Smith, Bureau of Plant Industry, Wash- ington, D. C.; Vice-president, Dr. Mel. T. Cook, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N. J.; Secretary- Treasurer, Dr. C. L. Shear, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.; Councilor, Dr. F. D. Kern, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. Dr. E. C. Stakman, Minnesota Agricultural College, Minneapolis, Minn., was elected a member of council vice Dr. Mel. T. Cook. Dr. W. A. Orton was elected one of the chief editors of Phytopathology, and Professor H. T. Gussow, Dr. C. W. Edgerton, Dr. E. C. Stakman and Dr. V. B. Stewart were elected associate editors. At the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association held in Wash- ington, D. C., December 27-31, the following officers were elected for the year 1916: Presi- dent, F. W. Hodge, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C.; Secretary, George Grant MacCurdy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Treasurer, Neil M. Judd, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.; Editor, Pliny E. Goddard, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Dran HASKELL, of the college of civil engi- neering of Cornell University, has been ap- pointed a member of a board of consulting engineers which is to advise State Engineer Williams about the work of completing the New York barge canal. Tue directors of the port of Boston have requested Professor C. M. Spofford, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to act with Mr. Guy C. Emerson and the engineer of the board, Mr. F. W. Hodgdon, as consulting engineers on the construction of the great new dry dock. Already the port directors had JANUARY 21, 1916] made arrangements with Professor E. F. Miller, head of the department of mechanical engineering, for the testing of materials to be used in construction. Dr. Lysanper P. Houmes, of the health de- partment of New York City, has been ap- pinted third assistant superintendent in the John Hopkins Hospital. Dr. Gatus E. Harmon, instructor in hygiene and preventive medicine in the medical school of Western Reserve University, has been ap- pointed assistant registrar of the Bureau of Vital Statistics to the Cleveland City Divi- sion of Health. On December 15, 1915, Dr. C. Stuart Gager addressed the Rhode Island Horticultural So- ciety, at Providence, on the effects of electri- city and radium-rays on the growth of plants. Tue Royal Institution, following an ex- ample set by many theaters in London, has ar- ranged that for the present the discourses usually given on Friday evening shall be de- livered at 5.30 p.m. The first was announced for January 21 by Sir James Dewar, on prob- lems in capillarity; the second, by Dr. Leonard Hill on January 28, on the science of clothing and the prevention of trench feet; and the third, by Professor William Bateson, on Feb- ruary 4, on fifteen years of Mendelism. A MEMORIAL service for the late Sir Henry Roscoe was held on December 22 at the Rosslyn Hill Unitarian Chapel. We learn from Nature that the Royal Society was repre- sented by the president—Sir J. J. Thomson— Professor Arthur Schuster, Sir Edward Thorpe and Professor Smithells; University College (University of London) by the vice- chancellor, Sir Alfred P. Gould, Sir Thomas Barlow, Professor M. J. M. Hill (chairman of the academic council) and Dr. Gregory Foster (the provost) ; the Victoria University of Man- chester by the vice-chancellor, Sir Henry Miers and Professor H. B. Dixon; the Chem- ical Society by Dr. Smiles and Professor J. C. Philip (secretaries), and Lieut.-Col. A. W. Crossley (foreign secretary); the Society of Chemical Industry by Sir Boverton Redwood and Mr. Watson Smith; the National Phys- SCIENCE 95 ical Laboratory by Dr. Glazebrook and Dr. Harker; the Lister Institute by Dr. Harden; the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851 by Mr. Evelyn Shaw. Dr. B. L. Mitirxin, M.D. (Pennsylvania, 79), former dean. of the medical school, West- ern Reserve University, and senior professor of ophthalmology and senior consulting sur- geon on eye diseases at Lakeside Hospital at the time of his death, died suddenly on Jan- uary 6. Dr. GEorce THomas Jackson, formerly pro- fessor of dermatology at the College of Physi- cians and Surgeons, Columbia University, has died of pneumonia, at the age of sixty-four years. Dr. H. Desus, F.R.S., formerly professor of chemistry at the Royal Naval College, Green- wich, and lecturer on chemistry at Guy’s Hos- pital, has-died in his ninety-second year. Mr. W. Rupert Jones, who was for forty years assistant librarian of the Geological Society of London, has died at the age of sixty years. Iv is reported that the commonwealth of Australia is prepared to expend whatever sum is necessary to establish and administer an in- stitution for the development of scientific and industrial research, even if the cost amounts to half a million pounds. Work is now under way for the completion of the laboratory building and first range of plant houses at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. The completion of these buildings at this time was made possible by the donation, by three friends of the garden, of $100,000 on the con- dition that a like sum be appropriated for the same purpose by the City of New York. By resolution of the board of directors it has been decided to name the new building of the University of Pennsylvania Museum the “ Charles Custis Harrison Hall.” This part of the museum consists of a dome which is unique in American architecture. The dome is 100 feet in diameter and 120 feet in height. In the lower part is an auditorium seating 1,000. Above this is an exhibition room, 100 96 SCIENCE feet in height. This Harrison dome cost $300,000, and will house some of the most im- portant exhibits of the museum. It was named in honor of Dr. Harrison because its construction was largely due to his efforts. THE collection of gem-stones formed by the late Sir Arthur H. Church has, in accordance with a wish expressed in his will, been pre- sented by his widow to the trustees of the British Museum, and is now on exhibition in the recent addition case in the Mineral Gal- lery of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. It comprises about two hundred selected and choice faceted stones, most of them mounted in gold rings. Mr. M. P. Sxiyner, a member of the Ameri- can Museum, has presented to the institution some valuable motion-picture films and photo- graphs of animals of the Yellowstone Park, obtained during his twenty years’ experience in that region. : Loanep temporarily to the Archeological Museum of the Ohio State University for use during the convention of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science-were three private archeological collections. The owners are Henry F. Buck and F. P. Hills, of Sandusky, and D. C. Matthews, of Cleveland. Many interesting and valuable specimens were included in these collections, and they were of especial importance from a collector’s stand- point. “The university museum attracted great interest during the convention,” said Curator W. C. Mills. “ Collectors from all over the country keenly enjoyed the displays set forth, and displayed interest in the lec- tures and talks.” The Hyde collection, which was donated to the museum some time ago, is now installed and on exhibition. THE annual report of the committee on li- brary of the New York Academy of Medicine, issued on January 1, shows a great decrease in the average of medical books published in Europe during 1915. During 1913 the acad- emy received 704 French and German publi- cations but during 1915 only 435. At the ninety-seventh convocation recently held at the University of Chicago twenty-five [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 students, nominated by the departments of science for evidence of ability in research work, were elected to the honorary scientific society of Sigma Xi. On January 7, twenty-nine members of the faculty of the University of Missouri, belong- ing to the departments of history, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, psychology, educa- tion, economics, political science, law, etc., met and organized a new professional frater- nity, Alpha Zeta Pi (Anthropos Zoon Poli- tikon), for the promotion of the social sci- ences. While the present organization is a purely local one, the organizers have had in mind the possibility of similar societies in various institutions of the country getting to- gether and forming a national organization with the same purpose. Alpha Zeta Pi will at- tempt to do for the social sciences what Sigma Xi is doing for the natural sciences. Stu- dents who have distinguished themselves in the university by giving special promise of future achievement in the social sciences, will be stimulated by being elected student mem- bers of the fraternity, and may later be elected permanent members. Both student members and permanent members will have equal rights in the fraternity. The fraternity will meet every month for the discussion of scientific problems. At the next meeting, in February, the first election of students (both graduate and undergraduate) to membership in the fraternity will take place. The officers for the present academic year are: President, M. F. Meyer; Vice-president, C. A. Ellwood; Secre- tary-Treasurer, J. E. Wrench. Dr. Joun G. Bowman, of Chicago, director of the American College of Surgeons, states that the college begins the new year with the announcement that it has obtained from its fellows an endowment fund of $500,000, to be held in perpetuity, the income of which only is to be used in advancing the purposes of the college. The college has been in the process of formation for the last three years. It has a temporary office in Chicago and it is prob- able that permanent headquarters will be de- cided upon within a few days. The president JANUARY 21, 1916] is Professor John Miller Turpin Finney, head of the surgical clinic of Johns Hopkins Hos- pital, Baltimore. It is modelled after the Royal College of Surgeons of England and has the support, it is said, of nearly all the leading surgeons in this country and Canada. “The college, which is not a teaching institu- tion, but rather a society or a college in the original sense,” Dr. Bowman says, “ now lists about 8,400 fellows in Canada and in the United States.” Dr. Cuartes P. STEINMETZ writes in the Electrical World that the Illuminating Engi- neering Society in 1916 celebrates the decen- nial of its existence. This will be an occasion to review and record what has been accom- plished in the art and to initiate plans for future advance, and the society therefore ex- pects a year of greater activity than ever be- fore in all the field covered by it. The illu- minating engineer has to deal not only with engineering, like other engineers—that is, with applied physics—but his work includes the problems and the knowledge of physiology and of psychology, is of importance to the ophthalmologist and to the sanitarian, and is closely related to that of the architect, the decorator and the constructor. It is one of the broadest fields of human activity, and it is hoped that the coming year will enable the society to produce a compendium of the entire field of the science and art of illumination and make it available to the practising engi- neer or architect as well as to the ophthalmol- ogist, the college professor and the student. In celebration of the decennial of the society, a mid-winter convention will be held in Feb- ruary, with numerous technical papers, and the feature of this convention will be the ac- ceptance of honorary membership in the soci- ety by the man who has made modern illu- minating engineering possible, Thomas A. Edison. In addition to the collection of 20,000 ver- tebrate and 140,000 invertebrate specimens brought from Africa by the Lang-Chapin ex- pedition, the evidence in the shape of photo- graphs by Mr. Lang and colored drawings by SCIENCE 97 Mr. Chapin is unusually varied and complete. Seven thousand photographs help to set forth the animal life of the Congo, as well as the in- dustries, customs, art, ceremonies, amusements and mode of life of the natives; while the eth- nological value of the work is supplemented by some seventy casts of heads which Mr. Lang was able to make through the consent of a tribe of Pygmies. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS Mr. Grorce T. Baker has made a further gift of $50,000 to Cornell University. BarnarD Coniece, Columbia University, has received $100,000 from Mr. James Talcott for religious instruction. A new chair at the University of Pennsyl- vania to be known as the Dr. Isaac Ott chair in physiology, has been endowed through the legacy received from the estate of Dr. Isaac Ott, M.D., ’69, of Easton, Pa. The legacy is subject to a life interest of Katherine K. Ott. Dr. Ott, who was a member of the American Physiological Society and a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, had made important contributions to our knowledge of the physiology and pathology of the nervous system. ANNOUNCEMENT has been made of a fund es- tablished by Samuel Mather, of Cleveland, to found a school for the graduate study of tuberculosis as a memorial to the late Dr. EKd- ward L. Trudeau. The school will probably be located at Saranac Lake, N. Y., and courses will be offered to physicians who wish to be- come proficient in the diagnosis of tubercu- losis. Cooperating agencies for special study will also be established in New York City. On the thirteen acres of land lying adjacent to the campus which Western Reserve Uni- versity has purchased, the erection of a com- plete new medical institution is contemplated. The present downtown school and hospital sites it is said will eventually be abandoned. Upon the same campus will be housed the den- tal and possibly the pharmacy schools, which 98 SCIENCE are at present affiliated with the university and located downtown. A new dental school building is about to be constructed. THE sum of a quarter of a million dollars has been given by Mrs. Russell Sage to the Emma Willard School in Troy to found a de- partment of domestic and industrial art to be known as the Russell Sage School of Practical Art. The new department will occupy the buildings recently vacated by the school on the completion of new buildings made possible by a gift of $1,000,000 from Mrs. Sage in 1907. WE learn from Nature that Mr. Patrick Alexander, known by his pioneer work in aero- nautics, has made over to the headmaster of the Imperial Service College, Windsor, the sum of £10,000 “for the furtherance of the education of boys of the Imperial Service Col- lege, 7. e., for the training of character and the development of knowledge.” Mr. Alexander had given to the college an aero-laboratory and equipment about five years ago. Dr. Irvine E. Metuus, formerly pathologist, office of cotton and truck diseases of the Bu- reau of Plant Industry, has assumed charge of the work in plant pathology in the Iowa State College. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE GENETIC FACTORS AND ENZYME REACTION In spite of the great progress in the knowl- edge of facts in genetics the nature of genetic factors may well be regarded as unknown. Various theories have been proposed but only a few steps have been made to attack the prob- lem experimentally. Those who approached it from the physiological-chemical side all seem to agree that the unit-factors are to be compared in some way to enzymes (Loeb, Robertson, Moore, Bateson, Riddle, ete.) or expressed more generally “ that the hereditary factor . . . is a determiner for a given mass of certain ferments ” (Loeb and Chamberlain, 1915).1 At first sight there are not many ways visible of an experimental attack on this problem. One is described by Loeb and Chamberlain in the following words: 1 Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. 19, 1915. [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 If we wish to carry this view (with which we sympathize) beyond the limit of a vague state- ment, we must either try to establish the nature of these compounds by the methods of the organic chemist, or we must use the methods of general or physical chemistry and try to find numerical relations by which we can identify the quantities of the reacting masses or the ratio in which they combine. Some steps in this direction have been made by Loeb, Robertson and Ostwald, who tried to prove that the phenomena of growth may be understood as autocatalytic reactions; by Moore, who compared the velocity of develop- ment of a dominant character in homozygotes and heterozygotes; by Loeb and Chamber- lain, who followed the more indirect way of proving the enzyme-reaction-like basis of a certain kind of fluctuating variability. It is further known that Miss Wheldale and Keeble are approaching the question by a direct study of the chemistry of plant pigments in hybrids of known constitution and quite recently a very interesting paper on hair-pigments in rodents has been published by Onslow.? For some time I have had similar ideas in regard to these questions in connection with genetical experiments, approaching the sub- ject from quite an unexpected side. It was not the intention to publish them before the entire work was finished. But as this will take some years longer and the subject is becoming meanwhile more popular, it might be advisable briefly to point out the ways in which I reached conclusions very similar to those of Loeb, ete. The genetical reaction which is concerned primarily in my experiments is the pigmenta- tion of the wings of moth. Its dependence upon genetic factors is well known and its chemical character—the amino-acid-oxydase reaction—is comparatively clear. In one set of experiments it could be shown how the quantity of pigment formation depends upon the quantitative combination of the hered- itary factors. ‘The experiments were started in 1909 with the purpose of working out the genetics of melanism in moths. The experi- 2 Proc. R. Soc. 8. B., Vol. 89, 1915. 3 Onslow’s results are in the same line. JANuARY 21, 1916] ments are so far finished, but details about them can not be published, because the records are not available just now. But one point can be stated in a general way. In my example, the nun (Lymantria monacha), all gradations are found between a white animal with the characteristic zig-zag bands and a completely black one. The breeding experiments show that these intermediates are to be explained by combinations of some, partly sex-linked, factors for pigmentation. The comparison of the wings shows that the pigmentation starts from certain points of outlet and spreads thence over the wing, gradually encroaching upon the white scales. Obviously there corre- sponds to every combination of factors, an enzyme reaction, definite in quantity. Of course, the same conclusion could already have been drawn from Nilsson-Ehle’s well-known studies on oats. But the meaning of the re- action is so much more evident in the insect case. The other way which led to similar conclu- sions in regard to the connection of hereditary factors with the quantity of enzyme reaction is quite an unexpected one. In some previous papers I have published the results of experi- ments in determination of sex in the gypsy moth and a report upon their further progress is now in press in the Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc. The point which concerns us here is the fol- lowing. We have found a series of races of that moth, which differ in regard to the quan- titative behavior of their sex-factors. We could prove that in a cross between these races the resulting sex with all the secondary sex-characters depends upon the quantitative relation of the male and female set of sex factors. In the hybrids all kinds of combina- tions of these two sets varying in their rela- tive quantity, can be brought together. And the result is that every single step between the two sexes, for which I proposed the term inter- sexes, may be produced. The external char- acters of these animals now are determined in the following way: the female factorial set would produce entirely female characters, and in the same way the male set male characters. The real effect is a function of the arithmetical SCIENCE 99 difference of these two. If this difference is in favor of one or both above a certain quan- tity, say f—m > =z or m—f >4z, the pure sex is produced. But if the difference is beyond the constant minimum z and 2, an in- tersex is produced. And the quantity of inter- sexuality increases proportionally to the de- crease of the values f—m or m—f. The effect of such a competition of two sets of factors, both influencing the same characters in different directions, is, of course, the same as if only one factor of a variable quantitative efficiency were present. And now we are able to draw a parallel between the quantities of the hereditary factor and the quantities of the observed enzymatic reaction causing the coloration of the wing. In the colors and markings of the wings of these moths at least four factors or sets of factors are involved, as is shown by loss-muta- tions. The normal females have white wings with transverse zig-zag bands, and, in addi- tion, a crescent-shaped spot and a point near it, resembling the Turkish emblem (crescent and star). In the males the same markings are present and also a diffuse color covering the entire wing and varying from light gray to almost black in different races. In a mutation, which appeared some years ago in my cultures, all ziz-zag bands, except the one near the edge of the wing, disappeared. The mutation is not sex-limited and independent of the general color of the wing as is shown by breeding tests. This general color is again subject to muta- tions in the male; and there appeared another mutation also in which the sex-linkage is broken and the female wings are colored. The following remarks apply only to the normal, general wing-pigmentation, linked with the male sex. : It is known through the work of Federley and others that this pigment flows out from the wing-veins spreading over the entire wing. And it might not be unsafe to say that it is the oxydase which diffuses from the hemo- lymph in the veins into the scales. If we now study the different grades of intersexuality produced in our experiments, we realize that every step leading from a normal female 100 through the different grades of intersexes to a male, or, vice versa, from a male to the female, is characterized by a definite intermediate step of wing-pigmentation. The color of the pig- ment is constant but its quantity is variable. And one sees at first sight that in the different intersexes a certain amount of pigment-pro- ducing oxydase, parallel to the quantitative behavior of the sex factors, is furnished by the veins, varying from 0 per cent. in the female to 100 per cent. in the male. If a male is be- coming intersexual, white cunei appear be- tween the veins on the brown wing. Their position and shape is irregular. The total un- pigmented area in different animals of the same constitution, is, however, approximately the same. With growing intersexuality—as measured by all organs of the animal—the white spots become larger. And an inspec- tion of the wings shows immediately that there must be present an amount of pigment or, more correctly, of oxydase, quantitatively fixed, and corresponding to the quantitative value of m—f; and that the given quantity (or concentration) flows out from the veins over the wing, producing brown scales, where- ever it happens to come. With increasing inter-sexuality the phenomenon becomes still clearer. A stage is reached, where a white wing shows brown, pigmented venation; in some places a short stream of pigment seems to flow out from a vein. In still more ad- vanced intersexual males, about two thirds transformed into females, only a few pigment spots and stripes are to be found on the wings along the veins. In the female intersexes the opposite process is observed, but the details are somewhat different, showing that these de- pend upon the genetically given wing struc- ture, different in both sexes. It seems that this case is an exceedingly clear one, demonstrating the principle’ ad oculos. But it may be of even greater sig- nificance. All organs different in the two sexes are affected in some way by the inter- sexuality. There is some hope that it might be possible to obtain by their analysis a similar insight in the process of growth, localization, symmetry, ete. involved in morphogenesis. SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 But I think that it is already clear from the foregoing remarks, that we are right, when we reached, independently, the conclusion that the hereditary factor is a determiner for a given mass of ferments; and we can demonstrate it by the fact that a quantitative difference in the potency of hereditary factors causes a parallel, quantitatively different, enzyme production. RicHarD GOLDSCHMIDT OSBORNE ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY, YALE UNIVERSITY, December, 1915 EARLY MEETINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSO- CIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE To THE Epitor or Science: I am greatly in- terested in statistics published in your issue of December 3, in regard to the oldest members of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. While my own membership dates only from 1870, my knowledge of and interest in the association far antedates that year. It seems almost certain that I have known the associa- tion by attending its meetings longer than any other person now living. In 1851, Professor James H. Coffin, of Lafayette College, was a guest at our home in Albany and took me to the meeting in the old capitol. Again in 1856 he was our guest. I was then a pupil at the Albany Academy, a building of historic interest as the place where Joseph Henry installed the first telegraph. One of the sessions of the association was held in the academy park, at which the Dudley Observatory was dedicated. I well remember the delight with which we watched Professor Agassiz draw figures with both hands while he talked; also the eloquent address of Edward Everett. Wn. H. Hate 40 First PLACE, BrRooKiyn, N. Y. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS The Alligator and Its Allies. By Auprrt M. | Regsz, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology in West Virginia University. New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1915. Pp. xi+ 342. 62 figures and 28 plates. JANUARY 21, 1916] The purpose of this volume, as stated in the preface, is “to bring together, in convenient form for the use of students of zoology, some of the more important details of the biology, anatomy and development of the Crocodilia.” There are chapters on the biology of the Croco- dilia, the skeleton, the muscles, the nervous system, the vascular system, the urogenital sys- tem, the respiratory system, the vascular sys- tem, and the development of the alligator, and a bibliography containing eighty-nine titles. The book is illustrated by sixty-two figures, about half of them original, and twenty-eight plates. all but six of which are original. In the chapter on the biology of the Croco- dilia, the classification and geographical dis- tribution are briefly summarized, evidently from general works, brief notes on the char- acteristics of several forms are given, and twenty-nine pages are devoted to a discus- sion of the habits and economic importance of Alligator mississippiensis, principally as re- vealed in the writer’s field work. The descrip- tion of the muscular system is a translation of Bronn’s account of the muscles of Croco- dilus, with illustrations of the musculature of Crocodilus and Alligator, and the description of the nervous system is taken from Bronn and others. The description of the digestive, uro- genital, respiratory, vascular and skeletal sys- tems are original, as is the account of the embryological development of Alligator mis- sissippiensis, the last being a reprint, with some alterations, of an earlier paper by the author published by the Smithsonian |. Insti- tution. The author has succeeded in his expressed purpose of making the book detailed, and it will at once find a place in the library of the comparative anatomist and herpetologist as a valuable reference work. In the opinion of the reviewer, the only serious adverse criticism which will probably be made by students is that the chapter upon the embryological devel- opment of the alligator is too detailed. A con- nected and more readable account of the em- bryology would be of more general value than will be the monotonous descriptions of sec- tions which make up this chapter. It is stated SCIENCE 101 in the publisher’s advertisement on the jacket that the book “has an assured appeal for the layman interested in natural history,” but this is doubtful, for, in addition to the de- tailed treatment, the terminology is technical . and about seven eighths of the text consists of descriptions of the anatomy and embryology. ALEXANDER G. RuTHVEN MUSEUM OF ZooLoGy, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (Numeper 12) Tue twelfth number of volume 1 of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- ences contains the following articles: 1. Salts, Soil-Colloids and Soils: L. T. SHarp, College of Agriculture, University of Cali- fornia. New light is thrown upon the subject of salts in relation with soil-colloids. The way is opened for extensive experiments in the phys- ical chemistry of soils, and the principles in- volved will be of particular significance for the subject of the applications of alkali and of fertilizer salts. 9. The Child and the Tribe: Attce C. Firetcurr, Peabody Museum, Harvard Uni- versity. The rites connected with the initiation of the child into the tribal life are described with emphasis upon their significance in Indian education and philosophy. 3. The Correlation of Potassium and Magne- sium, Sodiwm and Iron, in Igneous Rocks: Henry S. Wasuineton, Geophysical Labo- ratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The author’s earlier suggestion that soda not uncommonly tends to vary with the iron oxides while potash shows similar relations to magnesia is greatly strengthened by a compila- tion of analyses of igneous rocks, numbering nearly 10,000. 4, Theorem Concerning the Singular Points of Ordinary Linear Differential Equations : Grorce D. BirkHorr, Department of Mathe- matics, Harvard University. 102 It is shown that transformations of the inde- pendent variable have no significance over and above linear transformations of the dependent variables for the purposes of classification with respect to the notion of equivalence. 5. A Quantitative Study of Cutaneous Anal- gesta Produced by Various Opium Alkaloids: Davin I. Macut, N. B. Herman and CHARLEes S. Levy, Pharmacological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. By the use of exact experimental methods the order of analgesic power in the individual alkaloids from strongest to weakest is found to be: Morphin (10 mg.), papaverin (40 me.), codein (20 mg.), narcotin (380 mg.), narcein (10 mg.), thebain (10 mg.). The combina- tions of alkaloids are also studied. 6. The Surface-Tension at the Interface be- tween Two Liquids: Winuiam D. Harkins and E. C. Humpurey, Kent Chemical Labo- ratory, University of Chicago. The substitution of experiments on the liquid-liquid interface for the ordinary method in which a liquid-air interface is used, makes it possible to compare the drop-weight results with those obtained in a capillary tube of large bore. Various advantages appear from the use of this method. 7. Outlines of a Proposed System of Classi- fication of the Nebule by Means of Their Spectra: W. H. Wricut, Lick Observatory, University of California. The spectra are arranged according to the degree of concentration of 4686A and some of the neighboring lines. The successive nebulsz stand in very close relation to one another, yet at one end of the scale is a purely gaseous nebula, and at the other end a banded star. 8. Some Probable Identities in Wave-Length in Nebular and Stellar Spectra: W. H. Wricut, Lick Observatory, University of California. The evidence renders probable the presence in the nebule of carbon and nitrogen and fortifies the assumption of a close relationship between the nebulz and the early type stars. 9. Energy Transformations During Horizontal Walking: Francis G. BENEDICT and Hans SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1099 Murscuuauser, Nutrition Laboratory, Car- negie Institution of Washington. The metabolism found for the subject walk- ing at moderate speed without food has an average value of 4 gram-calorie. Slow, me- dium, and fast walking and running are inyes- tigated for comparison. 10. The Physiology of the New-Born Infant: Francis G. Benepict and Fritz B. Tausot, Nutrition Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The results of experiments on 105 new-born infants give opportunity for suggestions as to supplemental feeding and methods of con- serving energy. 11. A Comparison of Methods for Determin- ing the Respiratory Exchange of Man: THornE M. Carpenter, Nutrition Labora- tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The apparatus compared were the follow- ing: bed respiration calorimeter; two forms of the Benedict universal respiration apparatus; Zuntz-Geppert apparatus; Tissot apparatus; and so on. 12. Neuro-Muscular Effects of Moderate Doses of Alcohol: RaymMonD Dopcr and Francis G. Benepict, Nutrition Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Contrary to the theory of Kraepelin, the authors find no facilitation of the motor proc- esses, but the depression of their simplest forms in the finger and eye movements seem to be one of the most characteristic effects of alcohol. 13. Variation and Inheritance in Abnormal- ities Occurring after Conjugation in Para- mecium Caudatum: Rutn J. STocKine, Zoological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Uni- versity. In respect to the abnormalities, while some lines are constant in hereditary character, in others hereditable variations do occur within the line, so that, by selection, it is possible to break the single stock into a number of stocks differing hereditarily. 14. The Influence of the Marginal Sense Or- gans on Functional Activity in Cassiopea Xamachana: Lewis R. Cary, Department of JANUARY 21, 1916] Biology, Princeton University. There is no direct relationship between the extent of muscular activity and the rate of regeneration. In the absence of the influence of the sense-organs regeneration can take place normally but always at a decidedly lower rate. 15. Heritable Variations and the Results of Selection in the Fission Rate of Stylonychia Pustulata: Austry RatpH Mippieton, Zoo- logical Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Univer- sity. It is possible to give precise data as to the occurrence of heritable variations and their accumulation through selection: and this can hardly fail to have influence on the conception of the genotype as a fixed thing. 16. Hereditary Anchylosis of the Proximal Phalangeal Joints (Symphallangism) : Harvey Cusninc, Harvard Medical School and Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, Boston. The character behaves as a simple Mendelian dominant with equal chance among the off- spring of affected individuals that it will be or will not be inherited. 17. The Relative Stimulating Efficiency of Spectral Colors for the Lower Organisms: S. O. Mast, Zoological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. The stimulation in all of the organisms studied depends upon the wave-length of the light, and the stimulating efficiency is very much higher in certain regions of the spectrum than in others, but the regions differ in cer- tain organisms closely related in structure. 18. The Mission Range, Montana: W. M. Davis, Department of Geology, Harvard University. This range seems unique in its systematic tripartite arrangement of normally and gla- cially sculptured forms. 19. Definition of Limit in General Integral Analysis: Eviakim Hastines Moors, De- partment of Mathematics, University of Chicago. The definition is noteworthy in that it involves no metric features of the range $ underlying the range of definition of the func- tion F(c). SCIENCE 103 This number of the Proceedings contains also a notice of the memoir by Charles C. Adams on “The Variations and Ecological Distribution of the Snails of the Genus Io” ; the Report of the Autumn Meeting, and the Index and Table of Contents of the complete volume, including a list of the officers and members of the academy. We may summarize the articles in Volume 1 of the Proceedings as follows: Mathematics, 21; Astronomy, 31; Physics, 7; Chemistry, 21; Geology and Paleontology, including Mineral- ogy and Petrology, 10; Botany, 4 (see also Genetics); Zoology, 15 (see also Genetics) ; Genetics, 17; Physiology and Pathology, in- cluding Bacteriology, 24; Anthropology, 12; Psychology, 8; a total of 165 articles. The division of these articles between mem- bers of the academy and non-members is 55 and 110, respectively. The list of institutions which have contrib- uted three or more articles is as follows: Car- negie Institution 34, divided as follows: Solar Observatory 17, Nutrition Laboratory 9, Sta- tion for Experimental Evolution 5, Marine Biology 2, Geophysical Laboratory 1; Univer- sity of Chicago 20; University of California 17; Harvard University 16; Johns Hopkins University 11; Rockefeller Institute 11; Uni- versity of Illinois 8; Yale University 6; Princeton University 5; Smithsonian Institu- . tion 4; U. S. National Museum 4; Stanford University 4; American Museum of Natural History 4; U. S. Geological Survey 3. Epwin Biwett Witson RECENT PROGRESS IN VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY THREE years ago the Paleontological Society of America published a symposium, the pur- pose of which was to present a review of the progress made during the preceding decade in paleontology. Since 1911 there have been pub- lished in the American Year Book brief sum- maries of the more important results of in- vestigation in this field throughout successive years. The extreme brevity of these reviews has rendered them less useful to students than 104 might have been the case had they been accom- panied by critical notes, or had they been pre- pared with the same fulness as Dr. Lydekker’s valuable discussions in Science Progress for the last few years. It is hoped that the fol- lowing account of the year’s achievements in the field of vertebrate paleontology may, in a measure, supply the deficiency which has here- tofore existed. Fishes.—Owing to the stress of conditions abroad, it is natural that the chief advance in vertebrate paleontology since the war began should have been made in this country. Nevertheless, several very important contri- butions by foreign authors are to be recorded. Among the latter may be mentioned Dr. A. 8. Woodward’s generalizations on the evolution- ary history of the class of fishes, as contained in his anniversary address before the Geolog- ical Society of London (February 19, 1915). The net result of this author’s observations is thus formulated: Each successive great group of fishes began with free-swimming fusiform animals. . . . Some of them always passed quickly into slow-moving (deep-bodied or grovelling, depressed and large- headed) types, while others changed more slowly into elongated or eel-shaped types. There was also a constant tendency for the primitive symmetry of the parts of the skeleton in successive mem- bers of a group to become marred by various more or less irregular fusions, suppressions and subdivisions. Finally, some of the successive spe- cies of each group gradually increased in bodily size until the maximum was reached, just before the time for extinction had arrived. These and many other more special changes have now been traced in a general way in each group, and the various geological periods at which they occurred have been determined by observations on fossil fishes from many parts of the world. Professor F. Priem, of Paris, presents a val- uable account of the Cretaceous and Eocene fishes of Egypt,! and has continued his studies on Upper Tertiary fish remains from south- western France.2 Dr. Edward Hennig, of the Berlin Museum, reports the interesting dis- covery of otoliths in the type species of Pal@o- 1 Bull. Soc. Geol. France, Vol. 14, pp. 366-882, pl. X. 2Tbid., pp. 119-131; 249-278. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITII. No. 1099 niscus, from the Permian of Saxony. A note on the parasphenoid bone of the same genus, by Henry Day,? contains observations which lead the author to conclude “in favor of a primitive Teleostome, and against a Dipnoan, derivation of the Tetrapoda.” African fossil fishes form the subject of two contributions by Edward Hennig,‘ and a further one by Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach,® of Munich. In this country Dr. R. L. Moodie,® of the University of Illinois, has reinvestigated the fossilized brain-structure and auditory organs of a small Palxoniscid species, Rhadinichthys deant, first described by Eastman and Parker from specimens found in the Waverly of Ken- tucky. Similar remains are also reported from the Caney shale of Oklahoma, and the Pennsylvanian of Lawrence, Kansas. The same author also reviews the literature re- lating to fossil brain casts of dinosaurs and other extinct animals. Some additions to our knowledge of the Jurassic fish-fauna of Solen- hofen and Cerin, France, are made by C. R. Eastman in his studies of Carnegie Museum material.’ Dr. W. K. Gregory,’ of the American Mu- seum of Natural History, presents a concise review of the evolutionary history of the prin- cipal groups of fishes, with special reference to the skull and locomotor organs. He brings together considerable evidence for the view that certain of the Devonian Crossopterygii were related to the four-footed terrestrial ver- tebrates, and attempts to trace the gradations by which the pectoral and pelvic fins of these fishes were transformed into the fore and hind limbs of the earliest amphibians. 3 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. 16, pp. 421-434. 4 Archiv. f. Biontologie, Vol. 3, pp. 291-312. This is on fish remains obtained by the Tenda- guru expedition. The second paper, on Semio- notus from South Africa, is published in the Sitzber. Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1915, pp. 49-51. 5 Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ges., Vol. 66, pp. 420-425. 6 Jour. Compar. Neurology, Vol. 25, No. 2. 7 Mem. Car. Mus., Vol. 6, Nos. 6, 7. 8 Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 26, pp. 317- 383, pl. IV. JANUARY 21, 1916] Amphibians.—Professor S. W. Williston,® of the University of Chicago, in his discussion of the genus Trimerorachis, from the Permian of Texas and Oklahoma, argues that this in- teresting animal, which is in some respects more fish-like than any other known amphib- ian, represents a secondary adaptation to aquatic habits, and that its ancestors were more terrestrial, and therefore less pisciform in structure and habits. Dr. Carl Wiman,!? of Upsala, has published an important memoir on the abundant Stegocephalians of the Trias of Spitzbergen, which, as remarked by Broili, were probably marine animals. Dr. F. Broili,11 of Munich, contributes an interesting discussion of Tanystropheus con- spicuus von Meyer from the Muschelkalk of Bayreuth, an animal known from certain ex- eessively elongate caudal vertebre. The au- thor adopts as most probable Cope’s sagacious determination of these strange vertebre as rep- resenting a small Theropodous dinosaur, an opinion also adopted by Baron von Huene. Dr. R. L. Moodie!” describes a remarkable amphibian from the Pennsylvanian of Ohio which combines early amphibian and reptilian characters in the limbs. The same author, in describing the scales of certain Carboniferous amphibians!* comments on their resemblances to and differences from the scales of fishes. In the Kansas University Science Bulletin Dr. Moodie gives a list of the described spe- cies of fossil amphibians, comprising more than 300 entries. Again, in the September number of the American Naturalist, the same author contrasts the amphibians of the Coal Measures with their supposed relatives among fringe-finned ganoids, and shows that even at that remote period the Amphibia and Oros- sopterygil were structurally far removed from each other; so that their common ancestors, if any such existed, must be sought in some much earlier period. Jour. Geol., Vol. 23, pp. 246-255. 10 Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, Vol. 13, 9 plates and 10 figs. 11 Newes Jahrb. Mineral., Jahrg. 1915, Vol. 2. 12 Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 29. 13 SCIENCE, March 26, 1915. SCIENCE 105 Professor E. C. Case, of the University of Michigan, contributes an important memoir on the Permo-Carboniferous Red Beds of North America and their Vertebrate Fauna.14 He describes the geological structure and re- lations of these beds, the character of the en- vironment, and discusses the life habits and appearance of many of the fossil amphibians and reptiles found there, giving restorations of a score of these strange creatures. Reptiles—Dr. R. Broom, of London, has prepared an illustrated catalogue of the Per- mian Triassic and Jurassic reptiles of South Africa. This collection was made by Dr. Broom in South Africa and purchased from him by the American Museum of Natural His- tory; it includes a large series of skulls and partial skeletons, representing many genera and families of the mammal-like reptiles (Therapsida). The same author in his Croon- jan lecture on the Origin of Mammals?é dis- eusses the anatomical evidence for the deriva- tion of the mammals from one or another of the Therapsid group, especially the earlier Cynodontia, which are the most mammal-like of all the South African reptiles. D. M. S. Watson, of University College, London, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, December, 1914, describes and analyzes the skull structure of Bauria, Microgomphodon, Arctops and other impor- tant South African Permian types. These researches are all in harmony with the now widely held view that the mammals have arisen from some of these mammal-like reptiles, but the connecting links have not yet been dis- covered. In another paper!? Watson describes the anatomy of the Deinocephalia, one of the most curious of the South African groups. Some of these animals were of huge size, with massive limbs and an arched back, like a gi- gantie Hchidna, but with a swollen, short- beaked skull. 14 Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. No. 207. 15 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 25, Part 2. 16 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1914, Vol. 206 B. 17 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, September, 1914. 106 Mr. Watson has also described?® a peculiar Permian South African reptile named by Seeley Hunotosaurus africanus, which appears to give the long-sought clue to the origin of the Chelonia. The turtles and tortoises, it will be remembered, are the only vertebrates in which the pelvis and shoulder-girdle have been drawn inward under the expanded and pro- jecting ribs. In Hunotosaurus, the ribs are ex- panded and of the same number as in the Chelonia, while the back was armored with dermal scutes of similar number and _ posi- tion; but the shoulder-girdle and pelvis still retain their primitive positions and the skull also retained teeth, which are lost in the Chelonia. In this connection must be recorded a work by Professor Hugo Fuchs, of Strassburg, on the structure and development of the skull of Chelone imbricata, the first part of which, on the cartilage skull and visceral arches, is a quarto of 325 pages, 6 plates and 182 text fig- ures (Stuttgart, 1915). Here are discussed many far-reaching morphological questions such as the derivation of the lateral wings of the sphenoid bone and the origin of the mam- malian auditory ossicles. The latter subject, after nearly a century of discussion, has of late years received special illumination from the investigations of Pro- fessor Gaupp, of Freiburg, who has ably sup- ported Reichert’s view that the mammalian incus has been derived from the reptilian quad- rate, the malleus from the articular. Reichert’s theory has encountered certain objections based upon supposed differences in the posi- tion of the auditory ossicles with reference to the hyoidean gill slit and to the chorda tym- pani nerve in reptiles, birds and mammals. Mr. E. S. Goodrich, of Merton College, Ox- ford, has definitely cleared up this intricate matter in a superb series of figures showing the developmental relations of the chorda tympani in the different classes of vertebrates. His re- sults lend very strong support to Reichert’s theory.!® In a memoir entitled “ Triassic Life of the 1s Proc. Zool. Soc. London, December, 1914. 19 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 1915. SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLIII. No. 1099 Connecticut Valley ”2° Professor R. S. Lull, of Yale University, gives a highly readable biolog- ical and geological account of the Connecticut Valley during the Triassic Period and of its teeming inhabitants, especially the dinosaurs. The later dinosaurs have been the subject of important contributions by several American authors whose papers may be noted as follows: Mr. C. W. Gilmore,?! of the U. S. National Museum, has given a very thorough and well illustrated description of the osteology of Ste- gosaurus based upon the skeleton and other specimens in the U. S. National Museum. Briefer notices by the same author?? are upon the restoration of Stegosaurus and upon the fore-limb of Allosaurus, the latter settling a problem that had been a standing annoyance and cause of confusion in dinosaur paleontol- ogy of the last thirty years. Dr. W. J. Holland?? has published some preliminary results of his researches upon the magnificent series of Sauropodous dinosaurs secured in Utah by Mr. Earl Douglass for the Carnegie Museum. He finds that the skull re- ferred by Marsh to Brontosaurus is probably wrongly collated, the true skull of this genus being much nearer the Diplodocus type. The tail of Brontosaurus he finds, like that of Diplodocus, ends in a long slender whip-lash and is at least ten feet longer than the pub- lished reconstructions have indicated. Mr. Barnum Brown and Lawrence M. Lambe have published a number of highly important articles descriptive of the magnificent series of dinosaur skulls and skeletons obtained from the Cretaceous of Alberta by Mr. Brown for the American Museum of Natural History and by Mr. Sternberg for the Victoria Museum in Ottawa, Canada. Dr. Edward Hennig,?* of the Berlin Mu- 20 Bulletin No. 24, State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Connecticut. 21 Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 89, December 31, 1914, p. 147. 22 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1915, Vol. 49, pp. 355-356, pl. 52; ibid., pp. 501-513. 23 Annals Carnegie Mus., Vol. IX., pp. 273-278. 24 Sitzber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berlin, 1915, pp. 203-247. JANUARY 21, 1916] seum, has described and figured various skel- etal bones of the new armored dinosaur whose remains are found in great numbers in the Tendaguru dinosaur quarries of German East Africa. He points out its marked differences from Stegosaurus, compares it more slightly with the European genera Omosaurus, Pola- canthus, ete., and describes it as new under the (unfortunately preoccupied) name of Kentro- Saurus. A handbook on Dinosaurs by Dr. W. D. Mat- thew published by the American Museum of Natural History describes and illustrates the principal exhibits in this museum and dis- cusses their characteristics, and the place in nature occupied by this extinct order of rep- tiles. Mammals.—Progress in this branch of ver- tebrate paleontology during the past year has been mainly in continuance of researches, pre- senting few salient points of interest. The most important contributions of the year on fossil mammals deal with the order Primates, and there should be mentioned first of all those relating to primitive man. In our own lan- guage three books have appeared during the year which treat of prehistoric human remains; of these the foremost place must be accorded to Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn’s “ Men of the Old Stone Age,” which presents in accu- rate and very interesting style the latest re- sults of scientific research upon the environ- ment, habits and art on paleolithic man. “The Antiquity of Man,” by Mr. Arthur Keith, sets forth with admirable lucidity and literary style the somewhat extreme views of its distinguished author upon the great anti- quity of the modern types of man and his early divergence from the remaining primate stems. The third volume, “ Prehistoric Man and His Story,” by Dr. Scott Elliott, includes excellent photographs of the remarkable series of statu- ettes representing primitive and ancestral types of man executed under direction of Pro- fessor Rutot. It can not be said to rank with the two first-mentioned books in authority, the SCIENCE 107 Tertiary paleontology and American archeol- ogy being especially weak. A most important contribution has been added by Gerritt S. Miller®® to the controversy that has raged around the famous Piltdown skull. Dr. Miller analyzes with care the evi- dence for and against the association of the skull fragments with the lower jaw and com- pares the latter with a large series of chim- panzee jaws in the National Museum. He comes to the conclusion that the jaw is in every respect within the limits of individual variation of the chimpanzees, and displays no distinetively human characters, while the skull fragments display in every particular the char- acters of the genus Homo. Not only is there an entire lack of blending of these two dis- tinct types of skull, but in such parts as should show coordinated characters and ad- justment of one to the other, such conformity is wholly lacking. In the present reviewer’s opinion [W. D. M.] Dr. Miller’s argument is convincing and irrefutable; the jaw belonged to a chimpanzee and the skull to a species of man comparable with that represented by the Heidelberg jaw. Tt is hardly to be expected, however, that this conclusion will be readily accepted by the European writers, who have with but few ex- ceptions committed themselves more or less deeply to the opposite view. It is quite true, as Professor Boule has ob- served, that nature affords many instances of unexpected combinations of different types, and no one need be surprised to see an ape-like dentition combined with a man-like brain-case. Indeed, Elliott Smith has adduced excellent reasons why we may well expect to find such a combination. But it is necessary here to dis- tinguish between the concepts of resemblance and identity. The Piltdown jaw is not simply a jaw similar in adaptive specialization to that of an ape, it is a jaw identical with that of the chimpanzee in every particular. The skull is not merely similar in brain-case to that of man, it is the skull of Homo in every partic- ular. For such a combination as this, with its 25 Smithson. Misc. Coll., Vol. 65, No. 12. 108 utter lack of blending, correlation or coordina- tion of interrelated parts, one set of fragments identical with one, the other set identical with another animal of diverse type, not merely similar each to each—such a combination is without parallel and is not reasonably possible. To cite a familiar instance, the teeth of the chalicotheres have a general adaptive resem- blance to the titanotheres, the skull and neck to the horses, the claws to the edentates. This is a combination quite unexpected, but never- theless a quite possible one, and of course well proven. But if one should find a jaw identical in every particular with that of a titanothere associated with a cranium identical in every way with that of Hquus and claw-phalanges agreeing in all respects with Mylodon, it would not be reasonably possible that they could be- long to a single animal, no matter what argu- ments of association and distribution were adduced to support such a conclusion. Turning to mammals exclusive of man, we may note first a paper by Dr. Guy E. Pilgrim,?¢ of the Geological Survey of India, in which are described a number of new or little-known anthropoids from the Miocene and Pliocene of India. The author discusses the affinities of the higher primates and the ancestry of man in the light of the new evidence and regards the extinct genus Sivapithecus as very near to the direct ancestry of man. Pithecanthropus he considers to be approximately intermediate, while the Piltdown man (Hoanthropus) and Neanderthal man (Homo neanderthalensis) are relegated to a side branch derived from an earlier stage in the ancestral series than Siva- pithecus. Pilgrim’s conclusions in regard to other extinct and existing genera are no less unexpected. Among the living anthropoids the gibbon is considered nearest to the hominid stem. One species of the Miocene Dryo- pithecus is believed to be related to the gorilla, and the new genus Pal@osimia to the orang. Pilgrim’s views are criticized by W. K. Gregory.?7 The well-known anthropologist Professor 26 Records Geol. Surv. India, Vol. 45, pp. 1-74; 4 pls. and 2 figs. 27 SCIENCE, Vol. 43, pp. 341-342. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 Gustav Schwalbe? of Strassburg contributes an extended description of Oreopithecus and a conservative discussion of the affinities of this ape of the European Miocene. Dr. W. K. Gregory? summarizes his studies on the lemuroid Primates and discusses the evolution and relationships of the lemuroids of the Eocene of North America and Europe. A significant feature in this author’s classi- fication is the association of all the living and extinct lemurs of Madagascar, in spite of their diversity of form and size, in a single group, more primitive than the African and Oriental lemuroids, and nearly related to the Eocene Adapis and Notharctus of Europe and North America. The African bush-baby (Galago) and East Indian loris (Nycticebus) are more progressive types, the tarsier (Tarsius), al- though still grouped with the Lemuroidea, in many respects approaches the higher primates. The group of small Eocene primates known as Anaptomorphide are now included under the Tarsiide ; Necrolemur of the French Oligocene is related to Tarsius and Galago, but, with Microcherus, is held in a distinct family. The conclusions just enumerated, based upon anatomical grounds, have a most important bearing upon the evolutionary history and dispersal of the primates. That Madagascar has served as a refuge for primitive survivals of a group once widespread is not surprising. That the diversity of the Malagasy primates covers an underlying near aflinity points to their derivation from a single stock, not from the remnants of a diverse lemuroid fauna of the adjoining continents. Dr. W. D. Matthew and Mr. Walter Granger®® describe a series of new or little known primates and primate-like Insectivora from the North American Eocene and trace the history of these groups through the suc- cessive horizons of the Eocene. In the best known group of these Eocene lemuroids, the 28 Zeitsch. f. Morph. Anthr., Vol. 19, pp. 149-254. 29 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., December, 1915. 30 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 33, Part I., Carnivora, W. D. M.; Parts II. and III., Condy- larthra, W. D. M. and W. G.; Part IV., Primates, etc., W. D. M. JANUARY 21, 1916] Notharectide, the evolution of the teeth is traced through a series of minute gradations from the base of the true Eocene to its upper levels. A restudy.of the famous “ Anapto- morphus ” skull, with newly discovered referred material shows that it is a distinct genus from the lower jaw upon which this genus was orig- inally founded; the dentition of several other genera of this group is described chiefly on new material, and all are referred to the same family as the modern tarsier. Two other groups, imperfectly known and of doubtful affinities, the Microsyopide and Apatemyide, are retained in the Insectivora, but their pri- mate resemblances pointed out. The above-mentioned papers add largely to the data for reconstructing the evolutionary history of the order primates, including man, a line of investigation that is being actively fol- lowed. The latest results of researches upon the “ Piltdown Man” (Hoanthropus) are sum- marized in the British Museum Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man. An interesting announcement by Matthew and Granger in the paper above cited is of the discovery of a relative (Arctostylops) of the peculiar Notoungulates of South America in the North American Eocene. These extinct hoofed animals were abundant in the Tertiary of South America, but were supposed to be wholly limited to that continent. Although this announcement rests solely upon the evi- dence of a lower jaw, the pattern of the pre- molar and molar teeth is so characteristically like the Notoungulate type and so unlike any other that it is regarded as reasonably certain. Other sections of the same revision cover the Condylarthra (Phenacodus, Ectocion, Menis- cotherium, Hyopsodus, ete.) and the primi- tive Carnivora or Oreodonta. The true dis- tinctive characters of the genera and species of these groups, based upon far larger collections than had been previously known, are described, several new genera and many new species de- scribed, and the exact geologic horizon and range of each species is specified. The affini- ties of each species to those of earlier and later horizons are discussed, and the materials and evidence brought together for a faunal and SCIENCE 109 phylogenetic final chapter when the revision has been completed. The skeleton of Myotragus, a remarkable type of antelope discovered in the Pleistocene caves of the Balearic Islands by Miss Dorothea Bate is described by Dr. OC. W. Andrews? of the British Museum of Natural History. It is allied to the rupicarpine antelopes, but distin- guished by a single pair of much-enlarged rodent-like incisor teeth. From the later Ter- tiaries of California Professor J. C. Merriam,°2 of the University of California, describes vari- ous new three-toed horses and other mammals, and Dr. O. P. Hay,?? of the U. S. National Mu- seum, describes a skull of the rare and peculiar Sirenian Desmostylus. Dr. Hay has also published several valuable contributions on American Pleistocene mammals, especially of Towa. From the Pliocene of Nebraska, Pro- fessor E. H. Barbour,?> of the University of Nebraska, has secured a number of new probos- cidean skeletons and skulls, adding largely to our knowledge of this interesting group. Mr. H. J. Cook,?* of Agate, Nebraska, and Dr. W. J. Sinclair,37 of Princeton University, also describe a number of new Pliocene mammals from Nebraska, including a remarkable ante- lope with scimitar-shaped horns. From the basal Eocene of Montana Mr. J. W. Gidley,® of the U. S. National Museum, describes a lower jaw referred to the Myrmecobiid or banded anteaters of Australia. 31 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 206, B, pp. 281-305, 4 pls. 32‘ New Protohippine Horses’’ and other titles in Bulletins of Dept. Geology, Univ. California; Popular Science Monthly, March, 1915, pp. 245-264. 33 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 49, pp. 381-397, 3 pls. 34 Ann. Report Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol. 23, pp. 1-506, 75 pls. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. 48, pp. 515-575, 7 pls. 35 State Journal, Lincoln, Neb., 1915. 36 Four articles in Rep. Nebraska Geol. Survey, Volumes 4 and 7. 87 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. 54, pp. 73-95. 38 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 48, pp. 395-402, pl. XXIII. January 3, 110 [In the reviewer’s opinion this jaw agrees in most of its characteristic features with the Leptictide, a family of Insectivora, and the single feature of resemblance to Myrmecobius, the relative height of inner and outer trigonid cusps is by no means sufficient evidence for relationship to the marsupials. The tooth con- sidered by Mr. Gidley to be the first molar ap- pears to the reviewer to be clearly a fourth pre- molar, as it is set deeper in the jaw and less worn than the tooth behind it, belongs there- fore to the successional series or premolars, not to the first series of cheek teeth (milk and true molars), and is characteristically like the fourth premolar of all the Leptictid genera, especially that of an undescribed genus from the Paleocene (Torrejon formation). The skull and skeleton characters of Myrmecobius are, on the other hand, in near agreement throughout with the polyprotodont marsupials, and wholly at variance with Gidley’s con- clusion of an independent parallel evolution of the group from pre-Tertiary ancestors. W. D. M.] An important monograph by Professor H. Winge,?9 of Copenhagen, upon the Edentata of the Pleistocene of Brazil includes an authori- tative systematic revision of the order, and critical notes of great interest. Dr. O. Abel, of Vienna, has published a small but richly illustrated book entitled “ Die vorzeitlichen Siiugetiere.” American fossil mammals are exceptionally well represented. Under the title of “ Climate and Evolution ” Dr. W. D. Matthew,*° of the American Mu- seum of Natural History, presents a theory ac- counting for the observed geographical dis- tribution of animals in present and past ages. He begins by applying to the facts certain modern geological doctrines, such as the corre- lated alternations of elevation and of climate during geological time, the isostatic balance of continental and ocean masses, and the persist- ence of the great continental masses which never sank to abyssal depths, but often per- mitted the sea to make temporary incursions 39 ¢¢Aftryk af ‘EH Museo Lundii’ Kébenhaven,’’ 1915. 40 Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 24, 1915. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 upon their surfaces. Partly by means of a remarkable series of maps, showing the present and past distribution of many races of mam- mals, the author adduces very weighty evi- dence for the view that these races originated in the northern continents and then spread southward into South America, Africa, south- eastern Asia and Australia. Professor H. F. Osborn,*! of the American Museum of Natural History, contributes to the American Naturalist an extended study of certain features of the process of evolution. Basing his conclusions on a wide range of zoological, experimental and paleontological data, he develops the distinction between “rectigradations,” -or qualitatively and nu- merically new characters and “ allometrons,” or changes in proportion, degree or intensity. The same author42 summarizes the suc- cessive advances and retreats of the continental glaciers and the corresponding shiftings of the floras, faunas and human populations. The special feature of this paper is the demonstra- tion that in Europe, as in America, the so- called “warm fauna” survives until the ad- vance of the fourth glaciation. The last topic is more fully treated in Professor Osborn’s recently published work entitled “ Men of the Old Stone Age.” Here the author gives a de- tailed description and analysis of the long series of Paleolithic stages in Europe, with a series of new restorations of Pithecanthropus, of Eoanthropus and of the Races of Neander- thal and Cré-Magnon. CO. R. Eastman, W. K. Grecory, W. D. Marraew SPECIAL ARTICLES A PHOMA DISEASE OF WESTERN WHEAT- GRASS Western wheat-grass, Agropyron smithi Rydb. is a very important forage plant in many of the pastures in the Salt Lake Valley, 41 American Naturalist, Vol. 49, April, 1915, pp. 193-239. 42¢¢Revision of the Pleistocene of Europe, Asia and Northern Africa,’’? Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., July, 1915. JaNuaARyY 21, 1916] and any disease which would tend to limit its growth might be considered as being of econ- omic importance. During the past season the writer has collected at a number of points within the Salt Lake Valley specimens of this grass on which there was found a Phoma which seems not to have been heretofore re- corded as occurring on it. The species of Phoma under consideration does not seem to agree with any of the species described as occurring on various species of Graminee. A review of the literature indi- cates that a considerable number of species of Phoma have been found on the Graminex but many of them are imperfectly described, so that it is difficult to tell whether the species of Phoma occurring on Western wheat-grass is or is not new. In some respects it resembles Phoma lophio stomoides Sacc., although the spores are smaller, being as a rule less than 15 in length; rarely spores of 15” or over are found. Owing to the size of the spores and other prominent characters it is possible that the species is new. A more extended note will be published later. P. J. O’Gara Satt Lake City, UTAH, September 23, 1915 A FUNGUS OF UNCERTAIN SYSTEMATIC POSI- TION OCCURRING ON WHEAT AND RYE For some time the writer has been studying a very interesting organism which has been found occurring on wheat and rye. Speci- mens of wheat and rye infected with the or- ganism have been collected at various points in the Salt Lake Valley. The fungus seems to attack the heads of both wheat and rye some time before they emerge from the sheaths. Very often the heads are so severely attacked as not to emerge but remain permanently within the sheath. The fungus is usually found on the rachis, the glumes, the essential organs and the inner parts of the sheaths. At no time has it been found to occur on the in- ternodes below the upper node. The effect upon the inflorescence seems to be such as to prevent the normal development of the essen- tial organs. The organism was readily isolated and has SCIENCE 111 been grown in pure culture for several months. It grows readily in agar, potato, rice and other media producing normal mycelium and fruit- ing bodies. The mycelium is white or hyaline, multi-septate and much branched, varying from about 2.5 to 5.8 in thickness. Perithe- cia-like bodies are borne on either short or long stalks on the mycelium or they ‘may be borne terminally. Generally they are found singly but often are more or less grouped. These bodies are from 9 to 17.5 in diameter, being spherical or slightly oval, brown to dark brown in color and containing small refractive bodies 2.5 to 5.8 in diameter held in a more or less granular mass. The number of refrac- tive bodies may vary from 1 to 6, there being no seeming regularity in number. The walls of the perithecia-like bodies are 14 » or less in thickness and can be readily separated from the contents, leaving the contents virtually in- tact. In some respects this fungus bears a striking resemblance to Hndomyces mali Lewis.1 How- ever, no sporidia are produced and the perithe- cia-like bodies do not contain germinating ascospores. It is therefore only the general ap- pearance of the fungus in culture that bears a resemblance to the perithecia-bearing myce- lium of Hndomyces mali. The perithecia-like bodies of this apparently new organism are produced singly or on short branches of the mycelium or terminally without the fusion of cells or nuclei. When the perithecia-like bod- ies are placed in culture media germination follows within a very short time, producing a vigorous mycelium which in turn produces perithecia-like bodies in about 5 to 7 days, depending upon temperature conditions. It has not been determined as yet what may be the function of the refractive bodies gen- erally found in the perithecia-like structure. It is possible that these bodies may be storage material inasmuch as they have not been seen to germinate. Undoubtedly a considerable amount of cytological work must be done in order to determine the systematic position of the fungus. This work is in progress and at 1 Bulletin No. 178, Maine Agricultural Experi- ment Station, April, 1910. 112 a later date a more extended account of the fungus will be given. P. J. O'Gara SaLt LAKE Ciry, UTAH, September 23, 1915 THE MEETING OF SECTION C AT THE COLUMBUS MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION Tue first session was held on the afternoon of Friday, December 31, in Chemistry Hall, Ohio State University, Vice-president William McPherson in the chair, with an attendance of about 70, practically all from the immediate vicinity of Columbus. The following officers were elected: Vice-president and Chairman of the Section— Julius Stieglitz, Chicago. Member of Council—W. Lloyd Evans, Colum- bus. Member of General Committee—M. T. Bogert, New York. Member of Sectional Committee—A. A. Noyes, Boston. The following papers were read: “ Some Interesting Physical and Chemical Properties of Clays” (illustrated by experi- ments), by Arthur S. Watts. “The Contributions of Chemistry to the Production and Preparation of Human Food,” by John F. Lyman. “The American Chemist and the War’s Problems,” by James R. Withrow. At six o’clock the members present enjoyed a very pleasant dinner in the Ohio Union. This was followed at 8 o’clock by a session, attended by about 200, at which Dr. Frank K. Cameron gaye an address entitled “‘ The Ferti- lizer Resources of the United States.” JOHN JOHNSTON, Secretary of Section C THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA On December 30 and 31, 1915, there was held at Columbus, Ohio, the organization meeting of a new mathematical association, the call for which had been signed by 450 persons representing every state in the Union, the District of Columbia, and Canada. The SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1099 object of the new association is to assist in promoting the interests of mathematics in America, especially in the collegiate field. It is not intended to be a rival of any existing organization, but rather to supplement the secondary associations on the one hand, and the American Mathematical Society on the other; the former being well organized and effective in their field, and the latter having definitely limited itself to the field of scientific research. In the field of collegiate mathematics, how- ever, there has been, up to this time, no organi- zation and no medium of communication among the teachers, except the American Mathematical Monthly, which for the past three years has been devoted to this cause. The new organization, which has been named the Mathematical Association of America, has taken over the Monthly as its official journal. There were 104 persons present at the organ- zation meeting. The constitution and by- laws together with a full report of the pro- ceedings will be published in the January issue of the Monthly. The following officers were elected: President, Professor EH. R. Hedrick, University of Missouri. First Vice-president, Professor EH. V. Hunting- ton, Harvard University. Second Vice-president, Professor G. A. Miller, University of Illinois. Secretary-Treasurer, Professor W. D. Cairns, Oberlin College. Publication Committee, Professor H. E. Slaught, University of Chicago, managing editor, Professor W. H. Bussey, University of Minnesota, and Pro- fessor R. D. Carmichael, University of Ilinois. These officers, together with the following, constitute the executive council: Professor R. C. Archibald, Brown University; Professor Florian Cajori, Colorado College; Pro- fessor B. F. Finkel, Drury College; Professor D. N. Lehmer, University of California; Professor H. H. Moore, University of Chicago; Professor R. E. Moritz, University of Washington; Professor M. B. Porter, University of Texas; Professor K. D. Swartzel, Ohio State University; Professor J. N. Van der Vries, University of Kansas; Professor Os- wald Veblen, Princeton University; Professor J. W. Young, Dartmouth College; Professor Alex- ander Ziwet, University of Wisconsin. SCIENCE NEW SERIES FRIDAY, JANUARY 28, 1916 SINGLE CoPIEs, 15 Crs, Vou. XLIII. No. 1100 BH2—$31.50 F2—$31.50 Bausch & Lomb Microscopes in a New Finish BAUSCH & LOMB MICROSCOPES BH2 and F2 are the leading labora- tory models for school use. These instruments now have the black crystal finish which is reagent-proof and much more durable than lacquer. The BH is of the handle arm type, which is so widely used because of its sturdy construction and ease of handling. The F has the long curved arm which leaves the stage entirely free for manipulation of the specimen. The rounded edges make for freedom from dust. Both of these instruments are constructed to withstand the rough usage of the laboratory. The fine adjustment is of our lever type, which is simple and dur- able. It ceases to operate when the objective touches the slide, and the microm- eter head is locked to prevent removal. Illustrated circular on request Bausch £9 lomb Optical ©. 409 ST. PAUL STREET ROCHESTER, N.Y. New York Washington Chicago San Francisco London Frankfort Awarded Grand Prix for Microscopes at Panama-Pacific Exposition ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 ii SCIENCE—ADVERTISEMENTS WHAT TEACHERS SAY ABOUT Hoadley’s Essentials of Physics “The best text book of physics for high school use that I have ever seen.” Henry S. Curtis, Department of Physic- al Science, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, IN i% “TI decided to use in my classes Hoadley’s Essentials of Physics for several reasons. The presentation of the subject matter . . the large number of full-page illustrations and other careful drawings . . . good grade of paper and large print . . . the an- swers to all problems in an appendix ...” Edward D. Arnold, Teacher of Science, High School, Ithaca, N. Y. “We find that the students under- stand the work better than they did with our former text and that the teach- ers find the teaching easier.” Henry T. Weed, Teacher of Physics, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. 536 pages, $1.25 Teacher’s Manual 25 cents Physical Laboratory Handbook ....50 cents AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cincinnati Chicago UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS The University of California issues publications in the following series among others : Agricultural Science Mathematics American Archaeology Pathology and Ethnology Philosophy Botany Physiology Economics Psychology Geology Zoology Memoirs of the University of California Bulletin and Publications of the Lick Observatory RECENT TITLES Corals from the Cretaceous and Tertiary of California and Oregon, by Jorgen O. Nomland.........-..:::::-sessee $ .15 Relations of the Invertebrate to the Vertebrate Faunal Zones of the Jacalitos and Etchegoin Formations in the North Coalinga Region, California, by Jorgen O. TRIG) Es1(6 Ll oacaseccdcceceneeec eoasoceocccCRo coo CEES USS Dog CHER OH REISERSOOROEOCO -10 A Review of the Species Pavo californicus, by Loye Holmes Miller 10 The Owl Remains from Rancho La Brea, by Loye TS Lalbra (ais) IN EIN? a5 ssocnoocosacnocccec en como ELCDDO OIA HOOD AGS HOSHEROSogOEStO -10 Two Vulturid Raptors from the Pleistocene of Rancho La Brea, by Loye Holmes Miller............:e-::seeseeesseeees .05 Notes on Capromeryx Material from the Pleistocene of Rancho La Brea, by Asa C. Chandler.........--.:.:.cesceeee -10 Three New Helices from California, by S. Stillman Berry .05 Camplete list of titles and prices will besent on application THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Berkeley, California GENERAL ZOOLOGY A Strong Text The general verdict of zodlogy instruc- tors, scientists and journals is that this book meets high standards of usefulness and accuracy. Widely Used General Zoélogy occupies an important place in the textbook world. It adapts itself as readily for use in schools with limited equipment as in the schools and colleges providing fully-organized courses. Worthy of Your Attention If your plans for another year involve the adoption for a new Zodlogy text we shall be glad to have you consider: Linville and Kelly’s General Zoology 462 pages, illustrated, $1.50 and by the way of a supplemental text, Linville and Kelly’s A Guide for Labor- atory and Field Work, 104 pages, 35 cents Ginn and Company oO Boston New York Chicago London Atlanta Dallas , Columbus San Francisco Send for descriptive circulars and sample pages PRINCIPIEES O58 STRATIGRAPHY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU, S.M., S.D. PROFESSOR OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Large Octavo, 1150 pages, with 254 illustrations in the text. Cloth bound, price, $7.50. Send for descriptive circular ASG SEILERTE& TCO: PUBLISHF.RS 1224 Amsterdam Avenue NEW YORK, N. Y. SCIENCE Fray, JANUARY 28, 1916 CONTENTS The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— The Isthmus of Panama in its Relation to the Animal Life of North and South Amer- ica: PROFESSOR W. B. ScoTt ............ 113 The Needs of Applied Optics: Dz. P. G. INUEIOKEM SA Sago annoososon odaoG Cooma ams 124 Scientific Notes and News ..............5+ 128 University and Educational News ......... 133 Discussion and Correspondence :— Insects in their Relation to the Chestnut- bark Disease: F. C. CRAIGHEAD. Cancer and Heredity: Maup Styz. A Mollusk In- jurious to Garden Vegetables: FRANK COTTIN SPI ARG Sata is)clsieveher bese sheyetekerel stelecore 133 Scientific Books :— La Science Francaise: PROFESSOR Wm. H. HET OBBS Myateretetetetaus eic/cheraivenonsiers|e/e/ehal s\tafaperioieletaie 136 Scientific Journals and Articles ............ 138 Special Articles :— The Poisonous Effects of the Rose Chafer upon Chickens: GEoRGE H. LAMSON, JR. ... 138 The American Society of Zoologists: PROFESSOR CAS WEL (GRAVE edema etaeis 139 MBS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should besent to Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison- on-Hudson, N. Y. : THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA IN ITS RELATION TO THE ANIMAL LIFE OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA? It is a commonplace of geological teach- ing that the past can be understood only through a knowledge of the present and it is equally true that the present can be fully comprehended only through a knowl- edge of the past. Each must be employed to elucidate the other and we must pass from one to the other, as new discoveries are made in either realm. The problems which deal with the ex- isting geographical distribution of animals have received much light from the prog- ress of paleontological discovery and the present arrangement is clearly seen to be the necessary outcome of an illimitable series of past changes, climatic, geo- graphical and biological. Even in pre- Darwinian days the geographical distribu- tion of animals had been given much atten- tion, as a collection of interesting facts, though, under the belief in special creation then prevailing, no explanation of those facts was possible. The general adoption of Darwin’s views immediately placed the subject in a new light, for it was at once seen that, unless the theory of evolution could offer a rational and satisfactory solu- tion of these problems of distribution, the foundations of the theory would be greatly weakened. No result of paleontological studies has, of late years, been more striking than the clear recognition of the fact that migra- 1Lecture before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at its San Francisco meeting, August, 1915. 114 tions from continent to continent have played a highly significant part in bring- ing about the present geographical ar- rangement of animals and plants. This conception was first suggested by Cuvier, who, however, would seem not to have at- tached great importance to it, and it fell into neglect together with his theory of Catastrophism. Present geographical dis- tribution is, when well understood, in itself a partial record of those past changes, par- tial, because of the extinction of many forms which, in every region, once existed, but have completely vanished. Such mi- grations from continent to continent were, it should be distinctly understood, radically different in character from the annual migrations of birds, and it is unfortunate that the same term should be used to desig- nate such very distinct classes of facts. The so-called migrations with which we have to deal, such as those of mammals, are a purely unconscious and uninten- tional spread into new areas, as the in- creasing number of individuals of a given species begin to press upon the sources of food-supply. This spread will continue from generation to generation until in- superable barriers are encountered and there the spread must cease, unless some geographical or climatic change should re- move the barrier, when the spread will con- tinue. For nearly all land animals the most impassable of barriers is the sea, even in narrow arms, though the climatic fac- tors of temperature and, in somewhat less degree, moisture are of almost equal im- portance. In the long course of geological time and even in its later portion, with which we are here more particularly con- cerned, both the relations of the various continents to one another and climatic conditions have undergone great and re- peated changes, and it is those changes, with their consequently varying possibili- SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1100 ties of intermigration, which are registered in the geographically composite fauna of almost every great land area of the earth. Enough has been already learned regard- ing the history and development of the various mammalian groups to make it plain that the mammals of each different continent form a sort of mosaic, the parts of which are of the most diverse places of origin and dates of immigration. The geological date largely determines the amount and kind of modification which the creatures have undergone in their new homes. In attempting to estimate the signif- icance of these facts, one assumption must be made, an assumption for which there is a large and increasing body of evidence, namely, that, in the higher animals at least, the same group never originated indepen- dently, from ancestors either similar or different, in two disconnected regions. It is perfectly true that parallel and con- vergent modes of development have always been important factors in the evolutionary process, and no one is more firmly per- suaded of this than the paleontologist, but there is no reason to believe that these modes of development ever went so far as to produce substantially identical results in separate land areas. These principles are best illustrated by the mammals, simply beeause the past geological history of that group has been ascertained more fully and continuously than that of any other class of animals. The scheme for dividing the land sur- face of the globe into zoological regions, in accordance with the distribution of ani- mals and especially of mammals, has been the subject of much controversy, but now a general agreement has been reached. Thus, the very long isolation of Australia is recognized by setting off that continent and its adjoining islands, in contradistinc- JANUARY 28, 1916] tion to all the rest of the world; it is the empire of marsupials and monotremes, while the other continents together consti- tute the empire of the placental mammals. This placental empire is, in turn, very unequally divided into two realms; the first, called Arctogwa, comprises North America, Europe, Asia and Africa and has an unmistakable general similarity in its mammals, in contrast to the second realm, Notogwa, which includes South and Cen- tral America and the West Indies. After Australia, Notogexa is zoologically the most peculiar region of the earth, a peculiarity which is likewise due to its long separation from the continents of Arctogea. The frequently made and interrupted communication of North America with the eastern hemisphere, principally by way of a land which occupied the site of the present shallow Bering Sea, is reflected in the geographically composite character of its mammalian fauna. This connection allowed intermigrations of animals between the eastern and the western hemispheres, each furnishing to the other elements which still persist in their new homes, though often becoming extinct in their places of origin. For example, the horses and camels have disappeared from North America, although they passed through the greater part of their development in that continent. The last of these migra- tions, which took place in the Pleistocene epoch, brought in such a host of Old World types, that the northern half of North America, comprising the Arctic and Boreal Zones of Merriam, belongs zoologically to the great Holarctic Region, which includes Europe, northern Africa and all of Asia except its southern peninsulas and thus en- circles the earth. The characteristic part of North America is the Sonoran Region, roughly the United States and the Mexican plateau, and ever SCIENCE 115 this region contains many Old World forms, immigrants which arrived here at very different geological dates and, in ac- cordance with the length of their stay here, have become more or less extensively modi- fied. With these are associated many in- digenous types, derived from a long North American ancestry and a very few mi- grants from South America, the short- tailed porcupine, probably the opossums, and in southeastern Texas an armadillo. These southern animals are the insignif- icant remnant of a great immigration which entered North America from the south, but was not able to gain a lasting foothold here. South American mammals are ob- viously divisible into two radically differ- ent assemblages, one of which is related to the types characteristic of Arctogea and the other is entirely peculiar to Notogza. The first, or immigrant, assemblage com- prises all the beasts of prey, the wolves, eats, otters, skunks and one species of bear; all of the hoofed animals, the tapirs, pec- earies, deer, and that remarkable section of the camel family, the guanacos, llamas, ete.; among the rodents, the rabbits, squir- rels, rats and mice. The second, or indig- enous, series includes the opossums, the highly characteristic edentates, sloths, armadillos and anteaters, and a very large number of peculiar rodents, all of which belong to the porcupine group, tree-poreu- pines, chinchillas, cavies, water-hogs, etc., ete. The paleontological history of South American mammals amply justifies the dis- tinction of these two assemblages as immi- grant and autochthonous and shows that South America derived from the north a much larger proportion of its modern mam- mals than North America did from the south. It is altogether probable that in the Mesozoic Era all of the continents were 116 directly or indirectly connected with one another, though it is not necessary to sup- pose that these connections all existed at the same time. In the Cretaceous Period every continent, even Australia, had its Dinosaurs, huge, slow-moving, land rep- tiles, which could not have crossed wide arms of the sea, but were dependent for their spread upon continuity of land. It may likewise be assumed that the minute and primitive mammals of the Mesozoic had a similar, world-wide distribution, though the data are still too scanty to permit any positive statements with regard to them. Early in the Tertiary Period of the Cenozoic Era, South America was com- pletely cut off from any land communica- tion with North America, assuming that such communication had previously existed, as it probably had. Thenceforward and for a very long period of time, the faunas of the two American continents developed in entire independence of each other and with remarkably different results. To the student who is familiar with the Oligocene and Miocene mammals: of the northern hemisphere, it is like entering a new world, when he begins to examine the mammalian faunas of the Deseado and Santa Cruz formations of Patagonia. In any comparison between the homotaxial faunas of North America and Europe, the differences are in species and genera, less commonly of families, but between South America and the northern hemisphere it is mainly a difference of orders. These Patagonian faunas contain no Carnivora, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla or Probos- cidea, the groups which were most abundant in Arctogea. Beasts of prey were numer- ous and varied, but they were all pre- daceous marsupials; two other groups of marsupials, the opossums and ccenolestids, were also common, at a time when the whole order had vanished from the northern SCIENCE [N. 8S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1100 hemisphere, apparently even from North America. An extremely abundant, di- versified and conspicuous element of the fauna, especially in the Santa Cruz and subsequent formations, was the character- istic South American order of the Eden- tata, which included the ground sloths, ar- madillos and glyptodonts, none of which appeared in the northern hemisphere till a long subsequent period, with the doubtful exception of the armadillos. True sloths and anteaters have also been reported by Ameghino from the Santa Cruz, and al- though the evidence for this determination is insufficient, it is altogether probable that these groups were already in existence in the forested regions of the north, if not on the plains of Patagonia, which would seem to have had but few trees at that time. At all events, arboreal animals are rare or absent from the fauna. The very large assemblage of hoofed ani- mals all belonged to groups which are now altogether extinct and no member of which has ever been found outside of South and Central America, the toxodonts, typotheres, homalodotheres, ‘astrapotheres and litop- terns, a wonderful series, which took the place of the hoofed mammals of Arctogzea and would appear to have been strictly autochthonous. Aside from the Insectivora, which, as being of great geological antiquity and nearly cosmopolitan in their distribu- tion, have little bearing on the problems with which we are now concerned, only two mammalian orders occurred in the Santa Cruz fauna which at the same time existed in the northern hemisphere, the ro- dents and the monkeys. The remarkably di- versified and numerous rodents all belonged to the Hystricomorpha, or porcupine-group, of which North America never had a repre- sentative until the coming in of the great immigration from the south and to-day has only the short-tailed porcupine. South JANUARY 28, 1916] America then had no hares, rabbits, pikas, squirrels, marmots, beavers, rats or mice, but in place of them had a host of cavies, chinechillas, agoutis, and several other families, all of which still abound in the southern continent. The South American monkeys present a problem of much dif- ficulty ; all our present knowledge justifies us in saying that they could not have come from North America, for that continent never had any monkeys and even the lemurs became extinct here after the Eocene. The Miocene faunas of North America axe in the sharpest possible contrast to those of South America. They contained several families of true Carnivora, wolves of many diverse kinds, saber-toothed tigers and true cats, weasels, martens, otters, raccoons, and the like; a great abundance and variety of hoofed animals belonging to the artiodac- tyls and perissodactyls, horses, tapirs, rhi- noceroses, chalicotheres, peccaries, camels, llamas, deer, antelopes and certain fam- ilies, such as the highly characteristic oreodonts, which are now extinct, while the earliest of American mastodons had already made their way in from the Old World. The rodents, though including some very bizarre forms, now extinct, all belonged to the familiar northern families, rabbits, squirrels, marmots, beavers, pocket-gophers, jumping mice, kangaroo rats, vesper mice, ete., etc. There were no marsupials, eden- tates (with an exception to be noted subse- quently), monkeys, rodents of the southern families, nor any of the remarkable hoofed animals which then swarmed in such multi- tudes in South America. Nothing could be more obvious or more assured than the con- clusion that the two Americas had long been so completely separated that no migra- tion of land animals from one to the other was possible and, in this long interval, the operation of divergent evolution had SCIENCE Wat?! brought about this total disparity and un- likeness of faunas. The junction of the two Americas, by way of the Isthmus of Panama, would seem to have been effected early in the Miocene epoch, or possibly even at the close of the Oligocene, and then began the slow process of the intermigration of land animals in both directions. The earliest indication of the animal of Notogzean forms in North America is the claw of a ground-sloth, dis- covered by Sinclair in the middle Miocene of Oregon but it was not till the Pliocene and, more strikingly, in the Pleistocene, that the southern immigrants arrived in large numbers, and in South America no northern types have been found in beds older than the Parana formation, which I believe to be Pliocene, but which may prove to belong to the later Miocene. As thus recorded, the process of mam- malian diffusion might seem to be in- credibly slow, but there are several con- siderations which help to explain the ex- treme tardiness with which the exchange of animals between the two continents was carried on. (1) The Miocene mammalian faunas which have as yet been recovered are in the far north and the far south and we know nothing of the intermediate regions, Central America, northern and middle South America. (2) As previously pointed out, the so-called migration of mammals is merely a gradual spread, a wider and wider range, as increasing numbers de- mand fresh sources of food. (3) For acon- siderable period after the upheaval of a sea- bottom into land, it must remain impassable to most mammals, because devoid of vege- tation, and until plants have taken posses- sion of it, it can serve as only an imperfect and difficult means of communication. (4) Another and very important obstacle to migration between the Americas was that it took place along the lines of longitude 118 and thus encountered differences of climate, which are among the most effective barriers to the spread of mammals, while between North America and the Old World the mi- grations followed the lines of latitude and therefore, to all appearances, were accom- plished much more quickly. (5) Finally, it is not to be supposed that the fossils al- ready discovered make up anything like a complete list. Doubtless, many things still remain to be found, and others, because of rarity or some other unfavorable circum- stance, failed altogether of preservation, and the actual progress of diffusion may well have been more rapid and effective than the observed facts would lead us to suppose. In the middle and later Pliocene and still more in the Pleistocene the intermigration had proceeded so far that the two conti- nents possessed a very considerable num- ber of mammalian genera in common, as immediately appears from a comparison of the faunal lists. The movement culminated in the Pleistocene, where the number of southern forms in the northern continent and of northern forms in the southern lands reached. its maximum. In both con- tinents the Pleistocene mammalian fauna was a very much richer and more varied assemblage than the modern one, for the great and mysterious extinctions which came late in the epoch and at its close, de- vastating more than three fifths of the land surface of the earth, were especially severe in North America and left that con- tinent in a zoologically impoverished state. Beside almost all of the existing mam- mals which still continue to inhabit the re- gion, Pleistocene North America had mas- todons, three species of elephants, several tapirs and ten species of horses, ranging in size from small ponies to species which exceeded the largest modern draught horses. Peccaries spread as far north as Pennsyl- SCIENCE [N. 8S. Von. XLIII. No. 1100 vania and from ocean to ocean and were accompanied by great herds of camels and llamas. Seven species of bison, some of them far surpassing the existing buffalo, so-called, were distributed from Florida to Alaska, while musk-oxen and allied forms extended far to the south and along the Pacifie coast into California. Modern types of deer and antelopes were associ- ated with. several extinct types, some of which must have been very grotesque in appearance. Especially remarkable is the discovery by Gidley in western Maryland of an antelope which is hardly distinguish- able from the recent African Eland. AI- most all the existing North American beasts of prey have been found in the Pleis- tocene, but there were many more that are now extinct and were of extraordinary size and power ; giant wolves, lions, the terri- ble saber-toothed tigers and the huge short- faced bears aré éxamples of these vanished forms, the disappearance of which made life much easier for early American Man. All of the animals so far enumerated are typically Arctogean in character and were either immigrants from the Old World, of various geological dates of arrival, or were of indigenous North American ancestry and development, but mingled with those were many South American mammals, the history and evolution of which can be fol- lowed in satisfactory detail in the succes- sive Tertiary formations of that continent. The strangest and most conspicuous of those migrants from the south were the ereat edentates. The huge, elephantine ground-sloths, a grou» now entirely ex- tinet, but very abundant in the Pleisto- eene of both North and South America, ranged all across the continent from Penn- sylvania to California. The genus Mega- lonyx, which, it is interesting to note, was first named by Thomas Jefferson from some bones found in Virginia, would seem to JANUARY 28, 1916] have been a forest-living creature, and, so far as is now known, was confined to the region east of the Mississippi River. The almost equally massive Mylodon replaced it over the Great Plains and on the Pacifie coast, particularly fine specimens occur- ring in the wonderful asphalts of Rancho la Brea, which the work of Professor J. C. Merriam has rendered so celebrated. A third genus, Wegatherium, of even greater size and heavier proportions, extended into Georgia and South Carolina, but is not known farther north, as it was probably unable to endure a cold climate. Those most grotesque beasts, the Glyptodonts, which were like enormous armadillos in appearance, accompanied the ground-sloths in their migration to North America, but have been found only in the southern states, from Florida to Texas and Mexico, being doubtless limited in their northward range by the barrier of climate. The Pleistocene rodents tell a similar story. Practically all of the modern forms were already here and associated with these were certain strange and curious forms, like the giant beaver, of northern origin, but now extinct, and a few South American immigrants, like the short-tailed porcu- pines and the water-hogs, of which only the former have survived. The marsupial group of the opossums had in the Eocene epoch extended over Hurope and the Americas, but none have been found in North America in beds later than the Oligocene. Of course such small animals may have merely escaped the collector’s eye, but, taking all things into considera- tion, it is probable that the group van- ished completely from the northern hem- isphere and returned with the immigra- tion from South America, where they hail continued to flourish without interruption. The Pleistocene fauna of South America was likewise much richer and more varied, SCIENCE 119 especially in very large mammals, than is the existing one, and is far stranger than the corresponding one of North’ America, differing more radically from that of mod- ern times, for the extinctions swept away not only species and genera, but whole families and orders as well. The pampas of Argentina, the caverns of Brazil and, in lesser degree, areas in Bolivia and Ecua- dor, have yielded a marvelous series of Pleistocene mammals, which give a very striking picture of the life of the times. The same distinction between immigrant and autochthonous types which was noted in the existing fauna of South America was as strongly marked in the Pleistocene. Beside those northern immigrants which have maintained their foothold in the southern continent and are represented there to-day, there are many others which are now extinct, some of those groups which have become altogether extinct, others which have vanished from the western hemisphere, or from South America only. The Pleistocene fauna had substantially all of the mammals which still inhabit Notogza and it is therefore unnecessary to repeat the names of those which form part of the modern fauna. It may be noted, however, that some of the recent families had representatives much larger in size than any that now exist, such as the monkeys and the raccoons, above all, the armadillos. Some of these extinct immigrants were very abundant and conspicuous in the Pleistocene. The great saber-toothed tigers ranged all the way from Pennsylvania and California to the-Argentinian pampas and were accompanied by the short-faced bears. A strange feature was the presence of a wolf which is apparently referable to the same genus (Cyon) as the wild dog or Dhole, of recent India. Horses were very common wherever Pleistocene fossils have 120 been found and must have arrived in South America at a relatively early date, for sev- eral highly peculiar and aberrant types were developed. One of these (Hyper- hippidium) found in the Andes, was a small, mountain horse, with remarkably short feet which were well adapted to elimbing. Tapirs ranged down into Argen- tina, much farther south than at present, but were not otherwise noteworthy. The range of the llamas also was much greater than it is to-day; now, they are restricted to the colder parts of the continent, but in the Pleistocene they extended into the for- ests of Brazil. Two antelopes have been reported, a family of which Notogea has now no representatives. Mastodons of several species have been found in many parts of the continent, but, curiously enough, the true elephants did not accom- pany them in their southward migration. Why this was, it is difficult to say; per- haps because the North American ele- phants, which came in by way of Siberia, were cold-country species and therefore unable to eross the tropics. The Pleistocene extinctions worked even greater havoe among the autochthonous forms than among the immigrants, destroy- ing almost all of the very large mammals whose history and development may be traced back, step by step, through the suc- cessive divisions of the South American Tertiary. The visitor to the museums of La Plata and Buenos Aires can not but be deeply impressed by the number and va- riety of the ground-sloths and glyptodonts from the Pampean formation which are there displayed; it is immediately evident that the members of those groups which inhabited Pleistocene North America were but the outlying stragglers of the far more numerous and incomparably more diversi- fied assemblage found in South America. They were indeed a strange and grotesque SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1100 host of ponderous, slow-moving, but inof- fensive plant-feeders, which, together with the almost equally bizarre indigenous hoofed animals, gave a most outlandish character to the fauna. The ground-sloths ranged in size from a tapir to a short-legged elephant; Megatherium even surpassing the elephants in massiveness of trunk and limbs. The glyptodonts differed much among themselves in size, in the character of the head, in the form of the solid and heavy carapace, but especially in the arma- ture of the tail, which, in some cases at least, must have been a formidable weapon of defence. It is usual to call the glypto- donts ‘‘giant armadillos,’’ but that term is more properly applied to certain huge ani- | mals, as large as a rhinoceros, which were true armadillos. The largest existing spe- cies of the group is hardly more than a yard long. Among the hoofed animals, three of the native groups, the toxodonts, typotheres and litopterns, which were so remarkably abundant and varied in the Santa Cruz Miocene, persisted into the Pleistocene and then became extinct. Evidently they had begun to decline long before that epoch, possibly because of the competition of the more advanced and highly organized in- truders from the north, though certain series continued to progress in size and differen- tiation of structure until the end of their career. One of the most characteristic of these animals was Toxodon, of which two skeletons are mounted in the La Plata Mu- seum. The genus was found by Charles Darwin, who says of it: ‘‘Perhaps one of the strangest animals ever discovered; in size it equalled an elephant or megathe- rium, but the structure of its teeth, ag Mr. Owen states, proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers [t. e., Rodentia] ... in many details it is allied to the Pachydermata: judging from JANUARY 28, 1916] the position of its eyes, ears and nostrils, it was probably aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is also allied.’’ Darwin’s scanty materials led him to ex- aggerate the size of this extraordinary beast and his views as to its diverse rela- tionships are not tenable from the modern point of view, but his brief description brings out the strangeness of structure in a vivid way. Toxodon ranged as far north as Nicaragua, but, so far as is known, did not enter North America proper. Somewhat distantly related to Toxodon was the equally strange Typotheriwm, an animal of moderate size, which was the last of a very long series of native develop- ments. Its permanently growing, chisel- like incisors are so similar to those of the rodents that the genus was long referred to that order. Typotheres were extremely numerous in the Santa Cruz times, but de- clined rapidly in relative importance after that and disappeared completely at the end of the Pleistocene. Of all the many bizarre animals which swarmed in Pleistocene South America, none was more extraordinary than Mac- rauchema, which, like Torodon, was one of Darwin’s discoveries, when he was on the memorable voyage of the Beagle. Mac- rauchenia was somewhat like a large camel in proportions, but of much heavier build. The head was relatively small and must have had quite a long proboscis, which added much to the grotesque appearance of the creature. The neck was very long, suggesting that the animal browsed upon trees, which is also indicated by the char- acter of the teeth; the legs were long and heavy, the feet short and each provided with three toes. This was the last of the Litopterna, an exclusively South American group which had for a long period played a very conspicuous réle in that continent, but, like the typotheres, had begun to de- SCIENCE 121 cline in numbers after the Santa Cruz epoch. The rodents of the South American Pleistocene do not offer much that is of particular interest. The presence of North American types of meadow-mice, which no longer exist in the southern con- tinent, is a noteworthy fact, as is also the occurrence of Megamys, an extinct repre- sentative of one of the indigenous families. This was the largest of all known rodents, living or fossil, and rivalled the rhinoceros in size—for a rodent, a veritable monster. From this comparison of the North and South American faunas, as they are re- vealed in the geological succession, certain facts stand out saliently. (1) It is evident that North America contributed much more extensively to the southern fauna than South America did to the northern. Even in the Pleistocene, when the move- ment of intermigration had reached its maximum and there were more mammalian types common to the two continents thay at any other period, before or after, the number of Notogean types found in North America was really very small; opossums, a few rodents, ground-sloths and glypts-. donts complete the list. Of these only the opossums and the short-tailed porcupines have survived to modern times. On the other hand, the list of northern forms which, before or during the Pleistocene epoch, had invaded the southern continent; is very much longer; bears, cats, saber- toothed tigers, weasels, otters, skunks, rac- coons, dogs of many kinds, rabbits, squir- rels, rats, mice, horses, tapirs, peccaries, deer, antelopes, lamas and mastodons, all found their way into South America and most of them still inhabit that region. The short-faced bears, saber-toothed tigers and the mastodons became extinct every- where; the horses died out completely in the western hemisphere, while the ante- 122 lopes and meadow-mice vanished from South America, though persisting in North America. The permanent contribution of South America to the northern fauna is, on the contrary, quite insignificant. While it is impossible to say with any certainty just why the northern animals should have thus predominated over the southern, it is reasonable to conclude that it was due to the higher stage of intelli- gence and structural development which the former had attained. There can be no question as to this structural superiority, but such superiority, as we call it, does not always insure victory in the struggle for existence, victory largely depending upon the nature of the environment. It must be remembered that by no means all of the northern animals which invaded Notogzea were of North American origin; many were immigrants from the Old World, of different geological dates of arrival in the western hemisphere and correspondingly different degrees of modification. The re- peated junction of North America with A@ia made the former a part of Arctogea, incomparably the greatest land area of the globe, and such immensity of connected lands is favorable to the higher evolution of terrestrial life. The comparative isola- tion of South America kept that continent in a relatively backward state. (2) The very different degrees of like- ness and unlikeness between the faunas of the two continents in the successive geolog- ical epochs point unmistakably to extensive geographical changes. Beginning with a time of radical difference, when the two faunas had almost nothing in common, the story goes on to tell of a period when an exchange of mammals began, gradually ex- tending until a very considerable number of types common to both continents was found, and finally reducing the number of these common types to the present condi- SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1100 tion. The obvious interpretation of these facts is that the complete dissimilarity of animals was due to an equally complete separation of the continents and that a cer- tain degree of likeness was brought about when a land connection was established. Well-founded as this conclusion appears to be, confirmation from a quite independ- ent line of evidence would be welcome and such evidence is to be obtained from the geology of Central America and the Isthmus of Panama. (3) Intermigrations between the Ameri- cas have always had to contend with seri- ous obstacles and difficulties; otherwise, the interchanges of land animals would have been much more extensive than they ever became. Then, too, it would seem that there have been times in the past when migration was less difficult than it is at present, for now there is little or no indication of such movements. As was previously shown, the principal barrier to the spread of mammals over connected or continuous lands is climate, and it follows that the times of migration were those of more favorable climatic conditions. In the early Miocene, when the migrations prob- ably began, the climate was much milder than at present, with less difference be- tween the tropical and temperate regions. Through nearly the whole of the Tertiary period these conditions persisted, though with a slowly progressive refrigeration, and even in the Interglacial of the Pleisto- cene, the amelioration of climate was such that migration was rendered more prac- ticable than it is under existing cireum- stances. The geological structure and history of the lands around the Caribbean Sea are not nearly so well known as would be de- sirable, but certain very significant facts have already been ascertained. Especially is this true of the Isthmian Canal Zone, JANUARY 28, 1916] which has been studied by Macdonald. There is very little direct information, as yet, regarding the condition of Central America and the Isthmus of Panama dur- ing the Hocene, whatever rocks there may be in the region of Hocene or earlier date being buried under newer formations. It is clear, however, that in the succeeding Oligocene epoch the whole Caribbean re- gion was extensively submerged; the Greater Antilles were much reduced in size and nearly the whole of Central Amer- ica was under water, a broad sea sepa- rating North and South America, though doubtless with scattered islands. On the Caribbean side of the Isthmus is a very thick mass (estimated at 2,500 feet) of Oligocene strata, the Gatun formation, which is crowded with marine fossils. The Culebra Hills, through which the great cut has been made, are chiefly built up of voleanic materials, lava streams, mud-flows, tuffs, ete., in a very complicated arrange- ment, and running through the cut may be traced thin bands of a marine limestone, which carry Oligocene fossils. The evi- dence of submergence is thus complete, but the date of upheaval can not be very defi- nitely fixed. Except for a narrow strip of Pleistocene on the Caribbean coast, no ma- rine rocks later than the Oligocene have been found on the Isthmus and it would be natural to conclude that the elevation came at the close of that epoch. Some al- lowance must, however, be made for erosion and it is quite possible that early Miocene rocks were formed and have since been swept away. The ground-sloth in the mid- dle Miocene of Oregon is proof that the connection was established at least as early as that. In the Pliocene and perhaps early Pleistocene the isthmian region was con- siderably broader than it is now and it is probable that the flat lands lying along the SCIENCE invasion began. 123 then existing coast afforded a compara- tively easy highway of migration, the chief obstacles to which were climatic rather than topographical, but during some part of the Pleistocene the Isthmus was again depressed and narrowed even beyond its present limits, as is shown by the fringe of marine deposits along the Caribbean coast. Central America, like the West Indies, belongs zoologically to South America and forms a part of the Neotropical Region. This fact is not altogether easy of explana- tion. It may be that the Isthmus connected South and Central America at a time when the latter was still separated from the northern continent. Were this the case, the southern fauna would have had the ad- vantage of possession, when the northern On the other hand, the cause may be entirely climatic and that this is the rightful conclusion is indicated by the distribution of animals now obtain- ing in Mexico. The high table-land of that country contains an extension of the North American fauna, while the tropical Idgy- lands are South American. It is a truism to say that the Isthmus of Panama is the strategic key to the zoolog- ical relations of North and South America, and yet it was not necessarily so, as other lines of communication might conceivably have been established. So far as our knowledge extends, however, the geograph- ical events in the history of the Isthmus dominated the biological interrelations of the continents which it now unites. When the Isthmus was submerged, South Amer- ica was in a state of nearly or quite com- plete isolation and developed a highly pe- culiar fauna, few elements of which were shared with any other continent, and which was as unique in its way, though on a higher plane, as is the Australian. It was, so to speak, a highly interesting ex- periment in evolution; a great continent, 124 with varied climate and a great diversity of conditions, mountains and valleys, for- ests and open plains, left through long ages entirely to its own resources, was the closed arena of rapid development diver- gent from the rest of the world. The re- sult is plainly obvious now. Though the elevation of Central America and the Isthmus into land joined Notogexa with the northern continent and the way of migra- tion thus opened led to an extensive in- fusion of northern elements in the south- ern fauna, South America still remains, after Australia, the most peculiar region of the earth. North America had quite a different fate; its connection with the south was a mere episode which led to the transitory recep- tion of a considerable number of Notogean forms and the permanent establishment of a very few. Its oft-repeated connection with the Old World was far more signifi- cant from the zoological point of view, for that maintained the essential community of mammalian life all over the northern hemisphere. To this connection it is due that North America is a part of Arctogea and that its Arctic and Boreal zones are inseparable from the great Holarctic Re- gion of Europe and Asia. In the Pliocene and Pleistocene, North America was the meeting-ground of currents of migrating animals, from the west and from the south and for a time the fauna was of an excep- tionally composite character, Old World and Notogean elements mingling with the richly variegated indigenous stocks. But this condition was much modified by the Pleistocene extinctions which almost en- tirely exterminated the invaders from the south and greatly reduced the number of autochthonous forms. The destruction of immigrants from the Old World was less extensive and thus the zoological relations of North America in the Pliocene and SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1100 Pleistocene were quite different from what they are now. The problems which deal with the pos- sible connections of South America with continents other than North America and especially with Africa and Australia, are extraordinarily interesting from many different points of view, but there is no time to enter upon a discussion of them here, nor are they altogether germane to the subject before us, which is the zoolog- ical relations of the western hemisphere as conditioned by the Isthmus of Panama and its geographical history. W. B. Scorr PRINCETON UNIVERSITY THE NEEDS OF APPLIED OPTICS* WE have formed this Association for the Advancement of Applied Optics because we believe that the interests of all branches of applied optics may be materially furthered by such an organization. It seems fitting, therefore, to devote this first meeting to a discussion of the needs of applied optics and to the outlining of plans for securing the advancement desired. The interests of every one who uses light are affected by applied optics in its broader interpretation. In the formation of this society we have invited the cooperation of all who are directly interested in the study and use of light and of optical instruments of all kinds. We therefore include, among those whose interests we aim to serve, as- tronomers, designers of optical instruments, illuminating engineers, photographers, oph- thalmologists, photometrists, colorists, pe- trologists, microscopists and all investiga- tors of optical problems. The field to be covered is broad and the interests affected many and diverse. 1 An address inaugurating the formation of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Op- tics delivered at the first meeting held in Rochester, January 4, 1916. JANUARY 28, 1916] Beyond question, the greatest present need of applied optics is cooperation. Workers in one field are often lacking in knowledge of the data, methods and princi- ples developed by those in other fields. For example, the illuminating engineer de- sires more complete information relating to photometry, radiation laws, scattered light, and above all on the properties of the retina upon which depend the conditions for best illumination. Such information is difficult to obtain in any case and much of it is not available at all. Again, either the eye or a photographie plate is an essential part of every optical instrument, yet what designer of optical instruments posesses a full knowledge of the characteristic properties of either? The ophthalmologist desiring to know more of the nature and properties of light is confronted by a highly technical mass of information, largely in mathemat- ical language and almost useless to him. A great many persons, vitally interested in the color of materials, are almost entirely without information as to the precise an- alysis or synthesis of color. Nearly every one could make good use of a knowledge of the conditions of illumination conducive to the best seeing, yet evidences of profound ignorance of those conditions are on every hand. Similar instances of lack of coor- dination of interests in applied optics might be multiplied indefinitely. We believe that such a condition of affairs is best met by the formation of such a society as this. It is our aim to provide for the free interchange of ideas in the meetings of this society. A clearing house and a storehouse of data and information will best be provided by the establishment of a journal for the publication and dis- semination of new and useful material in the various fields of applied optics. As soon as such material shall have reached a permanent form, it should be erystallized SCIENCE 125 in convenient books of reference. The need for the organization, the journal, and for reference texts will hardly be questioned by any one. Aside from the need for cooperation and the dissemination of the knowledge already available in the various fields of applied optics, the great need is for more informa- tion along various lines. It is a fitting oc- casion to briefly review the several branches of applied opties, calling attention to fields of research in which investigation appears to be most urgently needed. The very ground work of all applied op- tics is of course pure optics. Little prog- ress can be made without a thorough knowledge of the laws of the refraction, re- flection, absorption and emission of light, nor of diffraction, interference, scatter or polarization. Most of these laws are well known and familiar but there are conspic- uous exceptions of vital importance in ap- plied optics. The laws of radiation appli- cable to a perfect radiator are fairly com- plete but very little is known of the cor- responding laws applicable to the practical case of heated bodies or to gases conducting an electric current. While the laws of re- flection and refraction are commonly con- sidered well known, as a matter of fact we know almost nothing of the laws applicable to a layer whose thickness is comparable with the length of a light wave. In this case practise has not waited for theory, for lens surfaces are said to have been pre- pared giving greatly decreased loss of light by reflection. Another and conspicuous gap in our knowledge of pure optics relates to heterogeneous media. Light is scattered by small particles and absorbed by still smaller ones but very little attention has been given to the laws governing the scat- ter and diffusion of light so important in illuminating engineering. In the field of lens calculation, though 126 great results have been achieved, our meth- ods and mathematical tools are those of fifty years ago. We still calculate lenses largely by the cut and try method of triangulating a bundle of rays through the lens and find- ing whether they meet in the image plane. It is possible that no other method of eal- culating lenses will ever prove of practical value, yet a number of our ablest math- ematical physicists have attempted to apply the best modern mathematical methods to lens design. Their results have been in- teresting, but of practical value only in limited fields. The consensus of opinion to-day appears to be that if the seven lens aberrations could but be expressed in a suitable mathematical language, they would assume comparatively simple forms readily soluble. It is quite certain, however, that such simplicity is impossible in any of the mathematical systems yet tried, and that the desired result will only be possible in some system not yet invented. Our next greatest needs in lens design are generalizations and publicity. In every complete set of calculations for a given lens, conclusions are arrived at relating changes in radii, thicknesses, separations and glass indices to variations in the degree of cor- rection, in other words, a set of differentials is obtained, by the laborious methods of ray triangulation. Yet these very valuable re- sults are regularly allowed to go either to the waste basket or to the locked notebook. The renowned Abbe set a worthy example of world-wide usefulness by having pre- pared and published tables for the selection of companion glasses for telescope objec- tives, thereby saving others hundreds of hours of labor. If we followed his worthy example, we should publish sets of differ- entials applicable to each of the important lens types as soon as obtained and thus ob- viate a tremendous waste of time in dupli- cating results. SCIENCE [N. 8S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1100 In particular, we need publication and public discussion of such material as gen- eral rules for the spectral correction of ob- jectives for photographie and visual pur- poses, general rules for reducing distortion, for locating and displacing Gauss points, limits of tolerance in definition and resolv- ing power, the best methods of testing ob- jectives and the like. In the design of optical instruments a similar lack of coordination and generali- zation is apparent. The instrument-using public has been too often ignorant and al- ways tolerant of defective design. The average user accepts without question, as he is without recourse, instruments hastily conceived and imperfectly worked out in design. Our largest makers employ spe- cialists in the design of each class of instru- ments. Lesser makers of the less used in- struments, such as spectroscopes, photome- ters and radiometers, seldom have the bene- fit of the crystallized general opinion of those users of his instruments who know what the performance of a first-class in- strument should be. We trust that every class of both user and designer of optical instruments will derive benefits from this organization. No optical instrument can be of any serv- ice without either an eye or a photographic surface as an adjunct. The properties of these should, therefore, be well known to the designer of lenses and instruments as well as to those more directly interested in them. The material of these three chief branches of applied optics (lens design, vision and photography) is, however, widely scattered and few who are well posted in one branch are even well informed in the other two. The fundamental problem of the photo- eraphic surface is the rendering of the light impressed upon it. The quantitative rela- tions between exposure, development and JANUARY 28, 1916] density of image were obtained by Hurter and Driffield twenty years ago. Since that time much has been found out concerning the nature of the latent image and of devel- opment and the conditions which govern speed and density gradient. The greater part of the preliminary work in photo- graphic research may be regarded as com- plete. Investigation in photography is now cen- tered upon the more recondite problems and a clearing up of the nature of the pho- tographie processes. We are not yet able to express photographie density as a func- tion of energy, wave-length and time. The relation between plate speed and wave- length is known for but few emulsions. Speed varies with both absolute intensity of radiation and the rate at which it is ap- plied according to laws not yet understood. The maximum density gradient obtainable varies with exposure, wave-length, emulsion and development in ways now being in- vestigated. A knowledge of the resolving powers of the photographic surface, of the eye and of the lens or optical instrument is of the utmost importance to workers in almost every line of applied optics. The photographie emulsion is optically a translucent medium of high scattering power. The penetration of light into such media varies a great deal with the wave- length of the light, with size of grain and with distance and direction in the medium. Hence, a knowledge of the optical laws governing scattered light is of the utmost importance in photographie research and of such laws but very little is known. The photographie reactions to light bear a close resemblance in many respects to the reaction of the retina and from the optical properties of the retina much information may be drawn that throws light on the pho- tographic effects and vice versa. Hence, the investigation of the retinal and photo- SCIENCE 127 graphic reactions may very properly be carried on side by side and results obtained in either field applied in the other. Intimately related to all branches of ap- plied optics are the visual properties of the human eye. Broadly stated, what is known of the eye as an optical instrument consti- tutes but a rough working knowledge of it. The curvatures, thicknesses and’ refractive indices of the various eye media in an aver- age normal eye are fairly well known as well as the location of the nodal points and center of rotation. Three of the third order aberrations are important in vision, namely, the spherical aberration, the chromatic va- riation of the spherical aberration and the axial chromatic aberration. Of these only the last has been studied and measured and that only recently. One remarkable result of these measurements is the discovery that many eyes possess a type of axial chromatic correction previously unknown in lens op- ties and which probably could not be dupli- cated in a glass lens. It is to be hoped that methods of measuring the two other aber- rations will shortly be devised and applied. The nature of the reactions of the retina to light have been extensively studied dur- ing the last twenty years. But the prob- lems requiring investigation are many and difficult and scarcely more than prelimi- nary results have yet been obtained. The visual impression requires time to originate and grows at a rate varying with both the intensity and wave-length of the light pro- ducing it as well as with the previous treat- ment of the retina. It is no simple matter to isolate and measure these various effects nor to correctly interpret the results ob- tained. Most studied and best known is the rela- tive brightness of the same amount of radiation of various wave-lengths, the so- ealled ‘‘Visibility’’ of radiation. This is a measure of the relative sensibility of the 128 retina to light of different wave-lengths but of equal energy. This relation is known for a great number of subjects to a quite satisfactory precision. It estab- lishes the ratio of the light unit to the energy unit, hence, is of fundamental im- portance in illuminating engineering. Strictly speaking, we can neither define nor measure light without it. When it comes to measuring the light sensation caused by a given light impres- sion, an apparently insurmountable diffi- eulty is encountered, for a sensation can not be directly measured. The sensation is, however, the integral of the sensibility and the sensibility is proportional to the recip- rocal of the just noticeable difference in intensity and this may readily be measured. The necessary data are being accumulated and before long we shall be able to formu- late the general laws of the visual reaction to light intensity in the case of white light. Similar data relating intensity sensibility to color, intensity and time must next be obtained. On entering a dark room we become able to distinguish objects after a shorter or longer interval of time depending upon various conditions not yet worked out. Rate of adaptation curves must be deter- mined for all initial conditions of adapta- tion, not only for white light but more par- ticularly for the reds, yellows and greens used in the safe lights of dark rooms. Very little is yet known of the relation between visual acuity and the brightness of the object viewed. The ability to distin- guish fine details is known to fall off rapidly with decreasing illumination, but we have not the data for the formulation of any laws. Illuminating engineers require a mass of such data on the properties of the retina, for the eye is the sole means of judging whether lighting is good or bad and the SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1100 conditions for best seeing have been only very roughly worked out thus far. We re- quire to know what illumination levels and what contrasts are best and what are the effects of excessive contrasts and oblique glare in depressing the sensibility of the retina. The precise measurement of color is an almost unworked but important field of applied optics. The preliminary part of the work only has been done. The under- lying theory has been roughed out, methods have been devised and precision colorim- eters designed. But our fundamental color scales have been but partly worked out and the various laws of color combination are practically unknown. The work urgently requiring attention in this field amounts to quite a number of man-years. Within the necessary limits of this dis- cussion only the more urgent problems in the more important fields of applied optics could be reviewed. The special problems of refractometry, photometry, radiometry, interferometry, spectrophotometry, polari- metric analysis and other fields can not even be enumerated here. It is hoped, however, that this brief outline may have impressed upon us all the necessity for concerted effort in solving the numerous problems which confront us. We trust that the for- mation of this society will, by promoting team work and well directed research, prove to be a powerful factor in the advancement of applied optics. This city has long been a leader in the production of optical mate- rials, may it become the great source of optical ideas and the recognized home of optical learning. P. G. Nurrine SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Winuiam W. Keen has been reelected president of the American Philosophical Soci- ety for 1916. The vice-presidents, Professors William B. Scott, Albert A. Michelson and JANUARY 28, 1916] Edward ©. Pickering have also been reelected. Proressor R. A. Minuikan, of the Univer- sity of Chicago, was elected president of the American Physical Association at the recent Columbus meeting. Tue officers of the American Society of Naturalists for 1916 are: President, Raymond Pearl; vice-president, Albert F. Blakeslee; secretary, Bradley M. Davis; treasurer, J. Arthur Harris; additional members of the executive committee, Edward M. East, Henry V. Wilson, Frank R. Lillie. The society has ordered an appropriation of $200 for the Con- cilium Bibliographicum, Zurich. News has been received from Sweden that the actual delivery of the Nobel prize in chemistry for 1914, awarded to Professor Theodore W. Richards, of Harvard University, together with the other Nobel prizes for 1914 and 1915, will be postponed until June 1 of this year. The prize-winners are invited to go then to Sweden in person to receive their prizes, and to give their Nobel lectures. Tuer Leeuwenhoek medal of the Netherlands Academy of Sciences, awarded to Surgeon- General Sir David Bruce, F.R.S., A.M.S., was presented to him on December 24 by the Netherlands Minister to Great Britain. The medal was founded in 1875, on the occasion of the Leeuwenhoek celebration in Delft, and is presented every ten years. It was awarded to Ehrenberg in 1875, to Ferdinand Cohn in 1885, to Louis Pasteur in 1895, and to Beye- rinck in 1905. Dr. Lazarus Fiercuer, F.R.S., director of the Natural History Departments of the Brit- ish Museum, has been knighted. Proressor Irvinc Porter CHurcH will re- tire from the faculty of the college of civil engineering of Cornell University at the close of the current academic year, when he will be sixty-five years old. The board of trustees has adopted a resolution expressing its sense of the university’s debt to Professor Church. Proressor C. Frank ALuen, who has held the chair of railroad engineering in the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology since 1887, will retire under the benefits of the Carnegie SCIENCE 129 Foundation at the close of the present aca- demic year. Proressor R. B. Cumron, who lately re- tired from the professorship of experimental philosophy at Oxford at the end of his fiftieth year of service, has been elected to an honor- ary fellowship at Wadham College. THE Draper Committee of the National Academy of Sciences has granted $300 to Pro- fessor Joel Stebbins, head of the department of astronomy of the University of Illinois, in support of his researches at the observatory. The special work which is now being carried on at the observatory is the improvement of his method of measuring the light of stars, which is being developed in collaboration with Professor Jacob Kunz of the department of physics. AT its meeting of January 12, the Rumford Committee of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences appropriated the sum of $200 to Professor H. M. Randall, of the Univer- sity of Michigan, in aid of his researches on the infra-red spectrum, the grant to be used to defray the salary of an assistant. Dr. Witt1amM DeB. MacNiper, professor of pharmacology at the University of North Car- olina, has been notified of an award of $250 by the trustees of the Rockefeller Institute to enable him to continue his research work in pharmacology. Dr. Frepertck BE. Dintry (’03, Western Re- serve), instructor in surgery, Union Medical College, Peking, China, has arrived for post- graduate work in Cleveland until next Au- gust. Dr. Kart H. Van Norman, formerly of the Johns Hopkins Hospital and now a captain in the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps, is in charge of a British hospital division at Ramsgate, England. Dr. Hues M. SmirH, commissioner of fish- eries, was elected honorary president of the Washington Aquarium Society at an organi- zation meeting held on January 21. Other officers elected were: President, Dr. R. W. Shufeldt; First Vice-president, L. W. Bauer; Second Vice-president, Mrs. L. Helen Fowler; 130 Corresponding Secretary, J. Henri Wagner, and Financial Secretary and Treasurer, E. 8. Schmidt. The following committee was elected to prepare a constitution and by-laws: Dr. Paul. Bartsch, chairman, Miss Mary C. Breen, Mrs. G. H. Burris, W. S. Adams and J. E. Benedict. AN intensive study of the question of pneu- monia will be made by a commission ap- pointed on January 11, by Director Wilmer Krusen, of the Department of Health and Charities of Philadelphia. The recent epi- demie of grip and pneumonia occasioned the appointment of a commission. Director Krusen appointed the members from those eminent either for clinical work or for their ability as laboratory research workers. The city laboratories will be placed at their dis- posal. Dr. David Riesman, professor of clin- ical medicine in the University of Pennsyl- vania and the Philadelphia Polyclinic, will be chairman. Other members are: Dr. Hobart A. Hare, professor of therapeutics at Jeffer- son Medical College; Dr. Judson Daland, professor of clinical medicine in the Medico- Chirurgical College; Dr. William Egbert Robertson, professor of the practise of medi- cine, Temple University; Dr. Randle C. Rosenberger, professor of hygiene and_bac- teriology in the Jefferson Medical College and the Women’s Medical College; Dr. Paul A. Lewis, director of the Ayer Clinical Labora- tory of the Pennsylvania Hospital and director of the pathological department of the Henry Phipps Institute, and Dr. John A. Kolmer, professor of pathology, Philadelphia Poly- clinic; instructor of experimental pathology at the University of Pennsylvania. THE mental hygiene committee of the New York State Charities Aid Association an- nounces that, in the interest of a state-wide campaign of education for the prevention of insanity, plans have been made for public lec- tures. Specialists in mental diseases have been appointed to deliver such lectures, in- cluding Drs. Stewart Paton, Smith Ely Jel- liffe, August Hoch, Thomas Henry Williams, Menas S. Gregory, Charles S. Little, Thiells, SCIENCE [N. 8S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1100 William Mabon, James V. May and Herman G. Matzinger. At the recent biennial convention of the honor society of Phi Kappa Phi, the follow- ing officers were elected: President General, Edwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa.; Secre- tary General, L. H. Pammel, Iowa State Col- lege, Ames; Treasurer General, C. H. Gordon, University of Tennessee, Knoxville; Registrar General, J. S. Stevens, University of Maine, Orono; Provincial Secretaries: EKastern Dis- trict, J. A. Foord, Massachusetts Agricul- tural College, Amherst; Southern District, G. H. Boggs, Georgia School of Technology, At- lanta; Northern District, E. N. Wentworth, Kansas Agricultural College, Manhattan; Western District, L. W. Hartman, University of Nevada, Reno. The constitution was re- vised and other important business was tran- sacted. Dr. Wiis T. Ler, of the U. S. Geological Survey, is giving a course of ten lectures at the Johns Hopkins University on successive Monday and Tuesday afternoons. His sub- ject is “ Mesozoic Physiography of the South- ern Rocky Mountains.” In the new Bowdoin Union, Bowdoin Col- lege, not yet dedicated formally, the first public lecture was given on January 17 by Pro- fessor George H. Parker, of Harvard Univer- sity, who gave an illustrated address on “ The Seals of the Pribiloff Islands,” under the aus- pices of the Biological Club. Dr. K. Grorce Fak, of the Harriman Re- search Laboratory of the Roosevelt Hospital, delivered a lecture on ‘‘ The Electron Concep- tion of Valence,” before the Chemical Society of the College of the City of New York on De- cember 22. Dr. Cuartes H. T. Townsenpd gave an il- lustrated lecture on verruga to the students of the medical school of Howard University, Washington, D. C., on January 15. A MEMORIAL of Eustachius was recently un- veiled in the great quadrangle of the Univer- sity of Rome in the presence of the prime minister, the minister of public instruction, the mayor of Rome, and the rector and mem- JANUARY 28, 1916] bers of the senate of the university. The me- morial, which is a bronze tablet attached to one of the pillars of the upper portico, near a marble memorial of Victor Emanuel II., rep- resents Eustachius in his professor’s robes in the act of lecturing; he holds in his left hand a human skull and the right arm rests on tables showing the structure of the ear. JOHN OREN REED, professor of physics in the University of Michigan, and until a year ago dean of the college of literature, science and arts, died on January 28, at the age of sixty years. Cuarues Victor Mapss, an industrial agri- cultural chemist of New York City, died on January 23, in his eightieth year. Dr. ALFRED J. Nose, superintendent of the Michigan State Hospital in Kalamazoo, an authority on insanity, died on January 20, aged fifty-eight years. Tue death is announced at the age of forty- nine years of Professor Donaldson Bodine, who held the chair of geology and zoology at Wabash College. Mr. A. D. Darpisuie, lecturer on genetics in the University of Edinburgh, known by his experiments bearing on the laws of heredity, and his book on “ Breeding and the Mendelian Discovery,” died on December 26, 1915. Mr. H. A. Taytor, a distinguished English electrical engineer, known especially for his work on submarine cables, has died at the age of seventy-four years. Dr. Fritz REGEL, professor of geography at Wiirzburg, died on December 2, aged sixty-two years. Dr. GrorcE Otiver, an English physician, known for his valuable researches on the circu- lation of the blood, has died at the age of seventy-four years. THE ninth annual meeting of the Illinois Academy of Science will be held at the Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana, Friday and Satur- day, February 18 and 19, 1916. The program will be as follows: Friday, 1 o’clock P.M.—Meetings of all committees. Friday, 2 o’clock P.M.—Business and symposium on astronomy. SCIENCE 131 Friday, 6 o’clock P.mM—Dinner. Ten minute ad- dress upon the work, policy and value of the academy. Friday, 8 o’clock P.M@.—President’s address and re- ception. Saturday, 9 o’clock A.M.—General papers and see- tional meetings. Saturday, 12 noon—Luncheon. Saturday, 1:30 o’clock P.M.—lInspection of the university buildings. Saturday, 2:30 o’clock P.mM.—General papers, elec- tion of officers and other business. Tf papers presented render it advantageous, the academy will be divided into the following sections: (1) astronomy, mathematics, physics; (2) bacteriology, botany; (3) zoology, physiol- ogy, medicine; (4) chemistry, agriculture; (5) geology, geography; (6) archeology. The fol- lowing are the Urbana committees: Hotels, Professor S. A. Forbes, chairman; Local Ar- rangements, Professor G. D. Beal, chairman; Entertainment, Professor OC. R. Richards, chairman; Publicity, W. H. Stoek, chairman; Papers, W. S. Bayley, chairman. On January 7 and 8, a number of profes- sional geologists of the southwest met at Norman, Oklahoma, for a two days’ conference. The conference was called for the purpose of presenting and discussing various topics of in- terest to those geologists engaged in the petroleum industry. The conference was at- tended by forty visiting geologists and fifty major students and members of the faculty of the department of geology of the University of Oklahoma. The meeting was presided over by Charles H. Taylor, head of the department of geology of the University of Oklahoma, who was responsible for calling the conference. A number of profitable papers were read. Dr. van Waterschoot van der Gracht, director of the Netherlands Geologic Service, presented a paper on the Salt Domes of Northern Europe. Mr. E. L. DeGolyer, chief geologist for the Pearson Syndicate, presented a paper on the geology of Northwest Texas. Mr. A. W. Mc- Coy, instructor of geology at the University of Oklahoma, read a paper on Capillarity Underground. Other geologists who appeared on the program were Dr. J. A. Udden, director of Texas Geological Bureau; C. W. Shannon, 132 director of the Oklahoma Geological Survey; R. A. Conkling, chief geologist, Roxana Petroleum Company; L. E. Trout, chief geol- ogist, Maryland Oil Company; C. N. Gould and Harper McKee, consulting geologists; and M. G. Mehl, W. OC. Kite and Charles H. Taylor, of the department of geology, Uni- versity of Oklahoma. Much interest was shown in the reading and discussion of these papers. No organization was formed, but Pro- fessor Charles H. Taylor and Director C. W. Shannon were elected a committee to arrange for another similar meeting to be held at Tulsa, Oklahoma, at some future date. Tue London correspondent of the Journal of the American Medical Association writes that the British authorities have decided that students in the fourth and fifth years of study should complete their course as rapidly as pos- sible but that students in the first, second and third year should join the army. The effect of recruiting is shown by the statistics of ten leading medical schools, in which, during the first year of the war, the number of students was 1,891, as compared with the normal num- ber of 2,562. The number of medical students who have entered Cambridge University this year is forty-one, as compared with 116 in the year 1913. The director general of the Army Medical Corps has asked for an addi- tional 2,000 physicians before Chrismas for war service. The casualty lists of one week show the names of fifteen physicians, and the obituary lists of physicians killed usually three or four. Sir D. Macalister, in his presi- dential address at the opening of the present session of the General Medical Council, said that within the next few months every quali- fied man of suitable age who was fit for the work of an officer in the medical corps would be needed. From the British dominions and from other countries over 240 physicians had been registered this year, and when certain reciprocity arrangements had been completed, the number from Canada would be considerably increased. Although the War Office author- ities recognized that the withdrawal from pro- fessional instruction of large numbers of med- ical students, of the first years, would have a SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITT. No. 1100 serious effect on the future, they had deemed it inadvisable to discourage junior students who offered themselves for combatant service. The result of medical students accepting com- missions and enlisting was that the prospec- tive shortage of 250 qualified practitioners per annum, which he had mentioned on a former occasion as probable during the coming years, would almost certainly be exceeded. There was one direction in which it appeared likely some economy of medical students might be effected. The minor vessels of the fleets car- ried a surgical “ probationer,” and for this work medical students who had completed their physiologic and anatomic studies and had been instructed in surgical dressing are preferred. He was authorized to make it known that any “ probationer,” who after, say, six months’ service, desired to present himself for a professional examination or to resume his studies, would be granted leave of absence or be demobilized, and a less senior student be appointed in his place. By such rotation of service, a succession of students might con- tinue to be employed in war work and yet the qualification of none would be unduly delayed. Nature says: “The accounts of the local committee of the Manchester meeting of the British Association, held in September, lately issued, show that the resolution to observe the strictest economy in view of the exceptional circumstances in which the meeting was held was faithfully kept, and the local officers are to be heartily congratulated on the success of their efforts in this as in other directions. The expenditure amounted to only £862 15s., and 22 per cent. was all that it was necessary to ask from the guarantors. On the occasion of the previous meeting, in 1887, the expenses reached £3,652, and 35 per cent. of the much larger guarantee fund was called up. The meeting was in every way a success; it was attended by many eminent scientific men, the papers and discussions were of high value, and the arrangements gaye such satisfaction that at the concluding meeting of the general com- mittee many influential members expressed the hope that future meetings might be “run ” on the same lines, excluding much of the lavish JANUARY 28, 1916] and costly expenditure on entertainments and excursions. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS ANNOUNCEMENT of a gift of $250,000 for a library for Amherst College was made at the annual banquet of the Amherst Alumni Asso- ciation of New York. The library is to be a memorial to a graduate of the class of 1867 from a brother whose name is withheld. A qirr of $150,000 from a graduate of Wellesley College toward the fund for a new administration building is announced. The donor does not wish her name made known at this time. PRELIMINARY plans for the chemistry build- ing at Throop College of Technology, in Pasa- dena, have been completed, and the architects, Mr. Elmer Grey, of Los Angeles, and Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue, of New York City, are at work on the complete detailed plans and specifications of the building. The building is to cost $60,000 and construction will be begun probably within thirty days. The building is to be ready for occupancy next September, and Dr. Arthur A. Noyes will in- augurate his research work in the new labo- ratory about December, 1916. He has just returned to Boston after a few weeks’ stay in Pasadena, which time was spent in working out plans for the building, and for the devel- opment of the department of chemistry, and the special research laboratories. Ir is announced that a group of prominent dentists of New York City some months ago submitted to Columbia University a detailed proposal to create a dental school. The pro- posal has the approval of the faculty of the college of physicians and surgeons. Candi- dates for admission would be required to pos- sess the same academic training as students entering the study of medicine at Columbia, namely, the completion of two years of work in an undergraduate college. Dr. J. T. Kinessury, president of the Uni- versity of Utah, has presented his resignation to take effect at the end of the present acad- SCIENCE 133 emic year. It will be remembered that the administration of the University of Utah, which led to the resignation of seventeen members of the faculty last spring, has been reviewed and criticized in a report of a com- mittee of enquiry of the American Associa- tion of University Professors. Dr. Kate Gorpon, head of the department of education, Bryn Mawr College, goes next September to the Carnegie Institute of Tech- nology, Pittsburgh, where she will have charge of the Bureau of Mental Tests and give in- struction in psychology in the woman’s de- partment of the School of Applied Design. At Yale University, Henry Laurens, Ph.D., has been promoted to an assistant professor- ship of biology in Yale College. Dr. V. E. Emmet, of the Washington Uni- versity Medical School, St. Louis, Mo., has been appointed assistant professor of anatomy in the University of Illinois college of medi- cine, Chicago, Ill. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE INSECTS IN THEIR RELATION TO THE CHEST- NUT BARK DISEASE A RECENT bulletin! of the Department of Forestry of the commonwealth of Pennsylva- nia discusses the relation of insects to the bark disease. This paper bears the title, “ Insects as Carriers of the Chestnut Blight Fungus,” and as such tabulates a number of insects col- lected and found carrying spores of this para- site. Tests were made on some seventy-five in- sects representing about twenty-five species. Of these, fifty-two were collected while on chestnut blight cankers. From these exper- iments it was found that thirty per cent. of these insects carried numbers of the pycno- spores of this fungus on their bodies and that the highest counts by far were obtained from the spore-feeding longicorn beetle Leptostylus macula Say. The citation of these results as proof merely that insects are carriers of the chestnut blight spores is entirely justifiable, but in drawing 1 Studhalter and Ruggles, Bull. 12, Dept. For- estry, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 1915. 134 their conclusions the authors make the state- ment (p. 28) that they (i. €., some insects) are important agents in the local dissemination of this disease. This is especially true of the beetle, Leptostylus macula. They also dispute the conclusion reached by the writer? that Leptostylus macula is a more important factor in destroying the spores of this disease, and state (p. 20) that the large number of spores carried by this beetle certainly indicate that it may be an important agent in the dissemination of the blight fungus. In the writer’s opinion these statements lack proof. From the fact that the insects have spores on their bodies the conclusion can not be drawn that they disseminate the disease. It is shown that the spores may be brushed off from the bodies of the insects even though with difficulty, but the question is, Where are they brushed off? If the life histories and activities of many of these insects had been more carefully observed an opposite conclusion to that reached by the authors would appear to have been a more natural one. To dis- seminate this disease it would be necessary for the insect to migrate from infested to healthy trees. With most of the Coleoptera discussed in this publication this is not the normal habit. In the case of Leptostylus macula it can be positively stated that under normal conditions this insect never frequents healthy trees. It must be admitted that in crawling from one canker to another for the purpose of eating pustules, this insect possibly would spread the spores to start a new infection on the same tree, but this would be insignificant in con- trast to the fact that the rain, as stated (p. 23), washes these spores down the tree in large numbers. The extent to which this, as well as certain other species, feeds on these fruiting bodies is illustrated by trees, examined by the writer, on which from 50 to 75 per cent. of the canker- ous area was eaten clean of pustules. From such habits it would be natural to expect a far greater percentage of spores on this species than on others. 2,ScrENCcE, N. S., XXXVI., p. 825, 1912. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1100 Of the three other species of beetles listed by the authors as carrying spores, all are known to feed on dead wood and therefore are not likely to frequent living trees. Of the thirteen ants collected under natural condi- tions and tested for spores, only three were found to carry those of Hndothia parasitica. Ants frequent living trees, especially those in- fested by aphides, and in ease they carry spores ~ conditions would be favorable for infection of the wounds made by the aphides. But it is shown that only a small number of ants in nature were found to carry spores. Most of the other insects discussed may be considered as occasional visitors, such as those which rest on the trees between flights; of these, few are recorded as carrying spores. The only other insects discussed that might possibly be re- sponsible for direct transmission of the disease are tree-hoppers, which might infect the wounds they make while ovipositing. In discussing the dissemination of other fungous and bacterial diseases by insects (pages 7-11) the authors cite cases in which a direct relation between host and insect can be established, as fire blight of pear, spread from blossom to blossom by pollen-bearing in- sects, and by aphides which puncture the liv- ing tissue; and ergot of rye, where the insects are attracted by a saccharin solution oozing from the conidia-bearing surface. In discuss- ing the chestnut insects the authors establish no such relation; in fact, the most important insects, in the writer’s estimation, in which some such relation might be proven are not mentioned in their experiments. The first of these insects in importance is the longhorned beetle Leptura nitens, which bores in the bark of 90 to 95 per cent. of the living trees over 10 inches in diameter throughout the chestnut range and in addition has adapted itself for breeding in great numbers in chestnut blight eankers. The interrelation thus established by the beetle between the living, healthy trees and the cankers on diseased and dead trees would provide favorable conditions for the transmis- sion of the disease. The adaptation of this beetle to life in chestnut blight cankers has become so marked in old infected tracts that it JANUARY 28, 1916] has often been difficult to find the larve in healthy trees, although they were present in greatly increased numbers in the cankers. Thus this insect, which is undoubtedly of im- portance as a carrier of spores to healthy trees, would, as the infections grew old, become less so owing to its increasing tendency to breed in and frequent diseased trees to the exclusion of healthy ones. Other insects which come in this category are several species of moths of the genus Sesia, although, in the case of these, observations indicate that adaptation to a life in cankerous tissue has not developed to so great an extent. Of more importance in providing for the spread of the chestnut bark disease are the fresh wounds made by certain insects through the outer bark of the tree to the cambium whereby spores disseminated in various ways ‘can gain entrance. Of first rank among in- sects which work in this way are Leptura nitens, which, as stated, is found in 90 to 95 per cent. of the trees over 10 inches in diam- eter throughout the chestnut range, and the chestnut bast-miner Hctoedemia phleophaga Buseck, which is found abundantly in 95 per cent. of the saplings and younger trees throughout the natural range of the chestnut. Less abundant, though also widely distributed, care three species of Sesia—S. castanea Busck, S. scitula Harris, and S. pictipes G.& R. All these insects attack perfectly healthy trees and make wounds at various situations over the entire bark surface of trees from those of sap- ling size to those which are matured. Further- more, most of them are abundant and widely distributed. These wounds are all holes made ‘by the larvee either for the extrusion of frass— in which case they are present and used throughout the entire larval life—or for exit when the larve are preparing to leave the open to the cambium and surrounded by the moist dead tissue necessary? for the growth of the spores. Thus practically all chestnut trees in their natural range have numerous open wounds whereby wind-blown and rain-washed Spores can gain entrance. Young cankers 3Rankin, W. H., ‘‘Phytopathology,’’ Vol. 4 p. 242, 1914. 3 SCIENCE 135 have been found starting in wounds of both types mentioned. Wound makers of another class are the cicadas, tree crickets, tree-hoppers and aphides. These puncture the bark in ovipositing or feed- ing. In numerous eases the blight has been found starting in cicada and _ tree-hopper wounds. A possibility exists that these insects both carry the spores and directly inoculate the wound; but such a chance is slight from the fact that insects of this kind normally fre- quent healthy trees. In conelusion it may be said that in view of the facts established, namely, that ascospores are carried about by the wind in great num- bers and that the pyenospores are washed down the trunks by the rain, the role played by in- sects in the transmission of this disease in merely transporting the spores is insignificant. On the other hand, owing to these same char- acteristics of the disease, the part played by insects in making wounds in the living cam- bium where such spores can gain entrance is far more important, and such wounds have been commonly found infected. Again, the fact that certain insects frequent diseased trees and eat the pustules, thereby preventing the dissemination of the spores, can certainly not be considered other than a benefit. F. C. CraigHEAD BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CANCER AND HEREDITY In final reply to Dr. Little, of Harvard, there are three things to be said: I My results in cancer transmission are these: 1. The establishment of strains of mice which both in inbreeding and in hybridization transmit spontaneous cancer through as many generations as I please to carry it, and in a percentage which can be predicted with a sur- prising nicety. For example, certain strains of mice have been producing a fairly steady percentage of spontaneous cancer in this labo- ratory for five years without a break. 136 2. I have taken strains riddled with cancer and by the type of breeding tests described in my published work have eliminated the dis- ease absolutely from the strain and its hybrids. 3. A mass of data still unpublished shows that these things can be done not only with cancer in general, but also with cancer of specific organs and of specific types. The persistent criticism of my “ unortho- dox” results in color transmission in this hal- lowed cross between an albino and a house- mouse only serves to confuse the issue with re- gard to the question of cancer inheritance; and if Dr. Little wishes to criticize my cancer work further, in the interests of logic I ask him to do so on the lines of my cancer work and not on the basis of color transmission. I It is impossible to agree with Dr. Little that any reference to “the great laws of heredity ” must necessarily refer only to Mendel’s laws, since every student of genetics knows that there is a vast array of facts of heredity which by no possible compression can be forced within the limits of these laws. Espe- cially does every worker with the coat colors of mice know this fact. Perhaps an amend- ment may in time be added to those theories now supposed by Dr. Little to be a closed issue like the Koran. mm The publication of my results in color trans- mission will be attended to in due time. These data belong with a mass of facts collected in the study of the inheritability of coat pattern. It would be impossible to get this material in form for immediate publication without seri- ously neglecting experiments now under way in the study of cancer. Maup Stys THE Orto S, A. SPRAGUE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE A MOLLUSK INJURIOUS TO GARDEN VEGETABLES Durine the past summer a small slug or Inimaz was noted to be injuring garden vege- tables of several kinds. It seemed rather large for the common Agriolimax agrestis (Linné) SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1100 and specimens were submitted to Dr. H. A. Pilsbry for an opinion. They were found to be this species. Both underground vegetables and the leaves of the plants were attacked. In Canandaigua they were observed to attack potatoes, the mollusk frequently eating a hole in the tuber as large as its own body. As many as a dozen potatoes were observed to be thus eaten. In the same garden this slug at- tacked the string beans, eating into the full pods and consuming the beans. In Rochester, a garden was examined in which the potatoes were affected in the same manner as those at Canandaigua. In Syracuse, this slug was ob- served in cauliflower, in company with the smaller black slug, Agriolimax campestris (Binney). Some lettuce was also eaten by these mollusks. It is probable that this slug (agrestis) may become a pest in some local- ities. Agriolimax agrestis is very abundant about Syracuse, in the east end, the hill portion, where one may see dozens of the slugs crawl- ing on the sidewalk after a rain in a manner similar to the earthworms. This is partic- ularly true on Euclid Avenue, where the mor- ainie hills border the sidewalk on the south side. This brown slug as well as its smaller black relative is abundant in the woods and fields in and around Syracuse. Frank Couins BAKER New YorK STaTE COLLEGE oF FORESTRY, SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY SCIENTIFIC BOOKS La Science Francaise. Librairie Larousse, Paris, 1915. 2 Vols. Pp. 396 and 403. Tllustrated with portraits. The dominance of German science during our generation seems to have been rather gen- erally accepted, a principal cause of which is clearly seen in efficiency of organization essen- tially military in its nature. With attention now focused upon German efficiency, it is pos- sible to discern certain elements of this suc- cess which before had been obscure. The sys- tematic German mind, with its pertinacity and indefatigability of purpose, has found one of its expressions in the preparation of exhaus- JANUARY 28, 1916] tive treatises for each branch of science, bigger and more comprehensive than any which had preceded them. Such treatises have been par- ticularly full in their discussion of the work of German investigators, and the wide famil- iarity with the field of a science which results directly from successful compilation has yielded a type of authority quite distinct from, though often joined to, that which has been responsible for a great advance through orig- inal investigation. Those who have attended international congresses in some field of sci- ence have not failed to note that German delegates have been much the most strongly represented, whether the place of meeting were near or far from their native land, and that their papers presented at the meeting have been so coordinated as to produce a telling effect. In many cases provision has been made by the government for the expenses of profess- ors who are in attendance upon such interna- tional meetings. It can hardly be doubted that German science has for these reasons been given a most favorable presentation before the representatives of other nations. It is not impossible that the advantage of the German scientists due to their propaganda has been fully realized by the French nation; but in any case the new history of French sci- ence prepared by the Ministry of Public In- struction with special reference to the Expo- sition at San Francisco, has served well the purpose of revealing the high position of French science before the world, with the in- evitable consequence of originality and initia- tive due to individualism as contrasted with organized group efforts. The two volumes serve to introduce the reader to a truly remarkable library covering the field of French science which was exhibited at the ex- position. The collection was made up, on the one hand, of books yellow with age and, on the other, of those on which the ink is hardly dry. In the language of the general introduction by Lucien Poincaré: “Tn these works of such varied date and such different aspects one finds concentrated, so to speak, the thought of an entire people; here is the essential part which France has SCIENCE 137 brought to scientific progress; here is the dis- play by the authors themselves of the great discoveries due to her creative genius. “For each science the attempt has been made to trace the origin to the moment when in France an order of studies important by reason of the intellectual or moral profit which they have brought to the human race, was ap- proached for the first time and became the ob- ject. of researches systematically conducted. The desire has been to mark the origin, the point from which so many hardy explorers have gone out on the eternal voyage toward re- search and truth. There has been indicated along the path traced by their glorious efforts, the summits from which the new horizons have been descried. Finally, with some insistence there have been set forth those stations actu- ally attained, to be surpassed by the labors of to-morrow through following directions which it was sought to make precise.” Each field of science has been treated by a master mind, and in no way can the high au- thority of the work be so well set forth as by a transcription of the tables of contents. The first volume, devoted to pure science, includes the following chapters: French Science at the San Francisco Exposition, by Lucien Poin- caré; Philosophy, by Henri Bergson; Sociol- ogy, by Emile Durkheim; Educational Sci- ence, by Paul Lapie; Mathematics, by Paul Appell; Astronomy, by B. Baillaud; Physics, by Edmond Bouty; Chemistry, by André Job; Mineralogy, by Alfred Lacroix; Geology, by Emm. de Margerie; Paleobotany, by R. Zeiller ; Paleontology, by Marcellin Boule; Biology, by Félix Le Dantec; Medical Science, by Henri Roger; Geographical Science, by Emm. de Martonne. The second volume is devoted to the human- ities, and includes the following chapters: Egyptology, by G. Maspero; Classical Arche- ology, by Max. Collignon; Historical Studies, by Ch.-V. Langlois; History of Art, by Emile Male; Linguistics, by A. Meillet; Hindu, by Sylvain Lévi; Chinese, by Ed. Chavannes; Greek, by Alfred Croiset; Latin Philology, by René Durand; Celtic Philology, by Georges Dottin; The French Language, by Alfred 138 Jeanroy; French Literature of the Middle Ages, by Alfred Jeanroy; Modern French Literature, by Gustave Lanson; Italian, by Henri Hauvette; Spanish, by Ernest Martin- enche; English, by Emile Legouis; German, by Charles Andler; Juridical and Political Science, by F. Larnaude; Economics, by Charles Gide. Each chapter is followed by a well-chosen bibliography of the great French works within its field, and the work is embellished by por- trait illustrations, Pasteur having been selected for the frontispiece of Volume I., and Renan for Volume II. The press work, while without any luxurious quality, is dignified and in the best French taste. Wm. H. Hoses UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND ARTICLES Tur December number (Vol. 22, No. 3) of The Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society contains: “Concerning absolutely continuous functions,” by M. B. Porter; “ On the representation of numbers in the form x + y3 + 23 — 3xyz,” by R. D. Carmichael; “On the linear continuum,” by R. L. Moore; “A problem in the kinematics of a rigid body,” by Peter Field; “ Jules Henri Poincaré” (re- view of Enquéte de “1l’Enseignement Mathé- matique” sur la Méthode de Travail des Mathématiciens, second edition, and Lebon’s Notice sur Henri Poincaré and Savants du Jour: Henri Poincaré, second edition), by R. C. Archibald; “Shorter Notices”; Breslich’s First-Year Mathematics for Secondary Schools, by D. E. Smith; Braude’s Coordon- nées intrinséques, by R. C. Archibald; Chate- let’s Legons sur la Théorie des Nombres, by E. B. Skinner; Salmon’s Treatise on the Ana- lytic Geometry of Three Dimensions, fifth edi- tion, volume 2, by Virgil Snyder; Hermann Grassmann’s gesammelte mathematische und physikalische Werke, Band 3, by E. B. Wilson; “Notes; ” and “ New Publications.” Tue January number (Vol. 22, No. 4) of the Bulletin contains: Report of the October SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1100 meeting of the society, by F. N. Cole; Report of the twenty-seventh regular meeting of the San Francisco Section, by Thomas Buck; “Transformation theorems in the theory of the linear vector function,” by V. C. Poor; Review of Hobson’s John Napier and the In- vention of Logarithms, 1614, and Gibson’s Napier and the Invention of Logarithms, by R. C. Archibald; Review of Moritz’s Memora- bilia Mathematica, by R. ©. Archibald; “Shorter Notices”; Hill’s Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe, by D. E. Smith; Caunt’s Introduction to the Infinitesimal Cal- culus, by T. E. Mason; Lenz’s Die Rechen- maschinen und das Maschinenrechnen and Furtwingler and Ruhm’s Mathematische Ausbildung der deutschen Landmesser, by E. W. Ponzer; Dickson’s Algebraic Invariants, Borel’s Lecons sur la Théorie des Fonctions, second edition, Bateman’s Mathematical Anal- ysis of Electrical and Optical Wave-Motion on the Basis of Maxwell’s Equations, and Rutherford’s Radioactive Substances and their Radiations, by R. D. Carmichael; “Notes ”; and “ New Publications.” SPECIAL ARTICLES THE POISONOUS EFFECTS OF THE ROSE CHAFER UPON CHICKENS Serious losses have occurred each year dur- ing June and early July, from chickens hay- ing eaten the rose chafers (Macrodatylus sub- spinosus). These losses have often been ascribed to various causes, but close observa- tions have shown that the chickens are very fond of eating these insects in large numbers, and post-mortem examinations have revealed the presence of many undigested insects in their crops. The crops are usually so full as to give the impression that death had been due to a “crop bound” condition of the chickens. Some have also supposed that these deaths were due to a mechanical injury of the crop by the spines on the legs of the insects having punctured the lining of this part of the digestive system, while others have accounted for the death of these chickens by the rose chafers having bitten the crops. A number of cases, some of which resulted JANUARY 28, 1916] in the loss of several hundred chickens, were reported to the writer and experiments in feed- ing rose chafers to chickens were taken up at the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station in 1909. The deaths from this diet usually occurred in from nine to twenty-four hours after feed- ing. This led the writer to believe that un- doubtedly death resulted from a cause other than a mechanical injury to the crop or “ crop bound” condition. An extract was made from erushed rose chafers and distilled water, filtered, and fed to chickens in varying doses with a medicine dropper and this resulted in a great many deaths. Small chickens died in a few hours after feeding, older chickens of heavier weight when fed a small quantity of the extract lived but showed signs of poison- ing; large doses resulted in their deaths. Mature hens did not die from the extract. From 150 to 200 chickens have been fed either with the rose chafers or with varying strengths of the extract to determine the weight of the chicken killed by a certain amount of poison, also to determine the age limit of the chickens killed. The results may be summarized as follows: 15 to 20 rose chafers are sufficient to cause the death of a chicken one week old. From 25 to 45 rose chafers are usually necessary to kill a three-weeks-old chicken. While some nine- weeks-old chickens have been killed by eating rose chafers, only one ten-weeks-old chicken was killed in these experiments. In the crop of this chicken there were 96 undigested rose chafers counted in post-mortem examinations. The chickens feed upon the insects raven- ously, being attracted by their sprawly ap- pearance and usually within an hour after eating they assume a dozing attitude, later leg weakness shows and the chicken usually dies within twenty-four hours of having eaten these insects, or begins to improve after this time. Tn less than five per cent. of the deaths con- vulsions occurred. Post-mortem examinations showed no abnormal condition of the organs. In order to exclude the possibility of arsenical poisoning due to the rose chafers having fed SCIENCE 139 upon leaves that have been sprayed, tests were made by a chemist for arsenic, but no evidence of arsenic was found. Intravenous injections were made in these experiments, extracts for injection being made from forty grams of rose chafers and sixty c.c. of a salt solution having a specific gravity of .9 per cent. This extract was put in a centri- fuge for five minutes, the extract drawn off in a pipette and filtered in vacuo. Three e.c. of this extract were injected into a 690-gram rabbit intravenously and this died in six minutes. Another rabbit, weighing 1.435 grams, died in three and one quarter minutes after an injection of four e.c. A small 610- gram rabbit, when injected with two and one half e.e., died in fifty-five seconds after injec- tion, and a large 1,450-gram rabbit died in two hours and thirty-five minutes after being in- jected with two e.c. Other rabbits were in- jected and killed by this extract, but further work needs to be done to determine what is a lethal dose for rabbits and experiments in feeding rabbits per os will be taken up next summer. As nearly as the writer can determine, the rose chafers contain a neuro toxin that has an effect upon the heart action of both chickens and rabbits and is excessively dangerous as a food for chickens. Owing to the fact that the insect feeds upon such a large number of plants, particularly on daisies, it seems essential that chickens be kept in mowed fields and away from yards having grape vines and any flowering shrubs during the month when the rose chafers are about, especially during years when rose chafers are particularly abundant. Grorce H. Lamson, Jr. Conn. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, Srorrs, Conn. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ZOOLO- GISTS THE American Society of Zoologists held its thirteenth annual meeting jointly with Section F and in affiliation with the American Society of Naturalists, December 28, 29 and 30, 1915, in Townshend Hall, Ohio State University, Colum- bus, Ohio. 140 BUSINESS SESSION New Members At the session for the transaction of business, held on the afternoon of December 29, President Wm. A. Locy presiding, the persons who had been nominated for membership in the society and who were recommended for election by the executive committee, were duly elected. A list of the names of these newly elected members follows: Leslie Brainerd Arey, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Tl. George William Bartlemez, University of Chi- cago, Chicago, Ill. William John Crozier, Bermuda Biological Sta- tion, Agar’s Island, Bermuda. Rhoda Erdman, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. J. F. Gudernatsech, Cornell University Medical School, New York City. L. V. Heilbrunn, University of Chicago, Chicago, Til. Julian Huxley, Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. Roscoe R. Hyde, State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Sidney I. Kornhauser, Northwestern University, Evanston, Il. George N. Papnicolaou, Cornell University Med- ical School, New York City. Frank H. Pike, Columbia University, New York City. William Albert Ithaca, N. Y. Reynold Albrecht Spaeth, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Olive Swezy, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Morris Miller Wells, Chicago, Il. J. E. Wodsedalek, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. Sewall Green Wright, Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. Riley, Cornell University, University of Chicago, Officers The ticket agreed upon by the committee on nominations, appointed by President Locy and consisting of C. M. Child, George Lefevre and Raymond Pearl, was approved by the society and officers were elected as follows: For president during the year 1916, D. H. Ten- nent. For vice-president during the year 1916, Charles Zeleny. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1100 For member of the executive committee to serve five years, R. P. Bigelow. For member of the executive committee to take the place vacated by the president-elect, L. J. Cole. Report of Secretary-Treasurer Financial Statement: Balance and Receipts Balance on hand January 1, 1915 ...... $689.15 Dues received from members during the Veer IDM. cs doo nad bccnccsebes0ac0000 273.10 Interest on deposits in Title Guarantee and UMA CDs cadcscevescotcgagocos0d00c 30.56 Dividend on fund in Industrial Savings and Loan Co. from J. H. Gerould, PAM) coaacascoosavconboeoonODD CON 15.00 UO ocoacooonccouoDoanDdcDbO NN $1,007.81 Disbursements 2,028 stamped (2 ¢c.) special envelopes .. $43.32 G05) sens (BG) soonsoacscooupsc050¢ 12.10 Typewriting (circular letters, addresses, Ques) “Soomodusedacaodasooucsdovogsoc 19.15 Typewriter supplies .................-. 1.00 Express charges ...... pasoMb oo oDaCbion 5.69 750 Columbia clasp envelopes .......... 6.75 350 copies printed list new members ..... 19.33 700 copies blank due bills .............. 3.00 350 copies proceedings 1914 meeting .... 13.98 350 copies announcements 1915 meeting. 7.10 1,000 nomination blanks .............. 8.25 500 copies of program for 1915 meeting. 16.90 Expenses of Sec’y-Treas, at 1915 meeting. 41.56 Total disbursements .......... $198.13 Total amount received ........ 1,007.81 Balance on hand Dec. 29, 1915 ..... $809.68 Unpaid Dues Number of members with dues in arrears: For the years 1913, 1914, 1915... 1....( $3.00) For the years 1914 and 1915 ...12.... ($24.00) For the year 1915 ............ 41.... ($41.00) Total een eee i tai e oasene 54... . ($68.00) Section Established For the information of the Society it was re- ported that a permanent Pacific Section of the American Society of Zoologists was organized last summer which cooperated with the American As- sociation for the Advancement of Science in hold- ing a successful zoological meeting in connection with the Panama Exposition in San Francisco. JANUARY 28, 1916] Conflict between Zoologists and Naturalists in Time of Holding Meetings for Reading Zoological Papers The secretary also reported that the executive committee has been unsuccessful in its attempt to arrange with the executive committee of the Amer- ican Society of Naturalists a plan whereby the two societies will not schedule simultaneous sessions for the reading of papers of interest to members of both societies, and, after some discussion, the following motion by H. 8. Jennings was passed by this society. The society recommends to the executive com- mittee the desirability of consulting with officers of the American Society of Naturalists, Section F, and the Botanical Societies, as to the forma- tion of a union section for the presentation of papers in genetics and evolution, this section, if need be, to hold meetings parallel with those of other sections of the societies. Committee on Premedical Education A report from the committee on premedical edu- eation having been called for, H. B. Ward, chair- man of the committee, explained satisfactorily the delay in presenting a report. The society, after some discussion, expressed its hope that there will be a continuation of the dis- cussion of the subject of premedical education be- tween the committees appointed for this purpose by the American Societies of Zoologists and Anatomists, which will result in substantial agree- ment and a specific report. Committee on Memorials The committee appointed at the last annual meeting to prepare suitable memorials of Seth Eugene Meek and Charles Sedgwick Minot, de- ceased members, submitted the following, which were adopted and ordered to be placed with the minutes of this meeting and published with the proceedings. Seth Hugene Meek April 1, 1859—July 6, 1914 Dr. Seth Eugene Meek was born in Hicksville, Ohio, April 1, 1859, of Scotch parentage. He studied at Valparaiso University and obtained the degree of S.B. in 1881. Continuing his studies at the University of Indiana he received the degree of S.B. in 1884 and M.A. in 1886. He was a Fel- low at Cornell University from 1885 to 1886, and was granted the Ph.D. degree from the University of Indiana in 1891, He married Ella E. Turner, December 25, 1886. He held the following positions: Professor of nat- SCIENCE 141 ural sciences, Eureka College, 1886-1887; Coe Col- lege, 1887-92; assistant professor of biology and geology and curator of the museum, University of Arkansas, 1892-96; curator of ichthyology, Field Columbian Museum, 1897 until the time of his death. He studied at the Naples Laboratory in 1896-97, and was in the employ of the United States Bureau of Fisheries in the summers from 1887 to 1897. He carried out numerous explorations for ich- thyological data, especially concerning the geo- graphical distribution of fishes in Canada, the central and western United States, Mexico, Guate- mala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. He acted as ichthyologist for the Biological Survey of Panama in 1911-12. His scientific publications comprise over seventy papers, dealing largely with the taxonomy and geographical distribution of American fishes. His best work is probably that on the fresh-water fishes of Mexico and Central America; especially his memoir published in 1904 on the fresh-water fish of Mexico north of the Isthmus of Tehuante- pec; besides dealing with the taxonomy this memoir contains an important analysis of the geograph- ical distribution of fishes and includes descrip- tions of many new species. His previous work in Central America, especially in Guatemala and Nicaragua, had given a basis of experience which enabled him to speak with authority, and would, no doubt, if his life had been spared, have led to valuable generalizations upon geographic and faunistie problems. He was a careful and enthusiastic worker, a man of genial temperament and slow to anger, cautious and judicial in his attitude on doubtful questions. The American Society of Zoologists puts this minute on record, and expresses its deep regret at the too early loss of such an honored member. Charles Sedgwick Minot 1852-1914 In the death of Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot the American Society of Zoologists has lost a valued and honored member and science an able and trusted worker. The society, therefore, desires to place on its records the following minute in recognition of his services to science and to mankind. Born to leadership, with an unusual talent for organization, Dr. Minot took a leading part in the foundation of a number of societies for the ad- yancement of biological research. Amongst these 142 was the American Morphological Society, the fore- runner of the American Society of Zoologists, and in the year 1896-97 he was its president. Later, when his interests lay rather in the field of anat- omy and medical education, his scientifie work re- tained the character of its earlier days and still commanded the interests of the wider circle of biol- ogists. From the very beginning of his career, his mind showed a grasp of the larger problems of science, and while accurate and painstaking to an unusual degree, his incisiveness of thought and expression, and his broad outlook stood out as his predominant characteristics. Ever ready to help with sound advice or arduous labor any enterprise for the advancement of his chosen field, he was not one to shirk the disagreeable duties of life or to gloss over with fine words things that were not tight. He voiced his opinion courageously and effectively when occasion called, but his criticism, though keen, was constructive and his active co- operation was always welcome and often indispen- sable—a true and helpful comrade, a wise and fearless leader. Propositions from Wistar Institute After a general discussion of the following offer made by the director of the Wistar Institute, Dr. Milton J. Greenman, to the members of the society in order to secure more permanent sup- port and general distribution of zoological jour- nals published by the Wistar Institute—‘‘that we (the Wistar Institute) offer to members of the American Society of Zoologists, all issues of the Journal of Haperimental Zoology (two volumes per year, present price $10.00) or all issues of the Journal of Morphology (about one and one third volumes per year, price $12.00) for $4.50 in yearly dues per member to be paid by the society’’—the society instructed its executive committee to se- cure, if possible, an offer more nearly the equiva- lent of that made to the membership of the Amer- ican Society of Anatomists, subject, however, to modification such as to permit those members who are also members of the American Society of Anatomists, to secure for $4.50 the issues of the journal they do not receive by virtue of dues to the American Society of Anatomists, all other members to pay $6.50, through the American So- ciety of Zoologists and receive all issues of four journals. In ease such an offer is secured, the executive committee was given power to increase the annual dues to $5.00 or $7.00, as the case may be, and to enter immediately upon such an agreement. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITT. No. 1100 Fahrenheit Thermometer Bill The question of passing a resolution favoring favorable action by congress upon the bill for abolishing the use of the.Fahrenheit thermometer in government publications was presented and be- ing informed by H. B. Ward that the advisability of passing such a resolution is being debated by the Physicists, within whose field the subject more properly belongs, the society decided to take no action. Concilium Bibliographicum The urgent need of the Concilium Bibliographi- cum for funds at the present time, due to condi- tions in Europe caused by the war, to enable it to continue its work, was presented by HE. L. Mark, and upon his motion the secretary-treasurer was: instructed to forward to the Concilium Biblio- graphicum, Zurich, Switzerland, from funds in the treasury the sum of two hundred dollars. Invitation to Meet in Minneapolis A cordial invitation from men of the various: scientific departments of the University of Min- nesota to meet at some time in the near future in Minneapolis was transmitted to the society through: H. F. Nachtrieb. The secretary was instructed to bring this invitation to the attention of the execu- tive committee, and the hope was expressed that the next meeting in western territory may be held in: Minneapolis. List of Officers and New Members The secretary was authorized to print and dis- tribute lists of officers and new members and to make such corrections to the list of members as: may be necessary. Sessions for Reading Papers Sessions for reading papers listed on the pro- gram were held on the forenoon and afternoon of Tuesday, December 28, and on the forenoon of Wednesday, December 29. Vernon L. Kellogg, vice-president of Section F, presided at the ses- sion held on the afternoon of Tuesday; Wm. A. Loey, president of the Zoologists, presiding at all other sessions. A list of the papers read in full or by title, to- gether with abstracts of each paper, classified ac- cording to general subjects, follows: ECOLOGY The Effect of Certain Ions on Rheotaxis in Asellus (illustrated with lantern): W. C, ALLEE, Lake Forest College. Of the kations tested, potassium and rubidium JANUARY 28, 1916] alone cause a strong increase in the positiveness of the rheotactic reaction of the isopod, Asellus communis Say. Sodium has a similar but less pronounced effect. The efficiency of the chlorine salts in causing this change is: Cs < Li< Na< RbRb> Gs. The anions also affect the rheotactic reaction. In a series of potassium salts KCl gives the great- est increase in positiveness. The favorableness of the anions tested is: Br, I, No, < CH,Coo, < C10; < SCN < Cl, with chlorine much more favorable than its near- est competitor. The relative toxicity of neither the anions nor kations runs parallel with their relative effect on rheotaxis. Any ion in the concentrations (usually N/.5—WN/10) used in these experiments will eause a decrease in the positive rheotactic reac- tion if allowed to act for sufficient time. Calcium almost always causes this depression without a preliminary increase. Strontium and barium act similarly, but magnesium often stimulates before depressing. By alternating an isopod between N/10 solu- tions of KCl and CaCl, its rheotactie reaction has been alternately increased and decreased as many as seven times in the six hours before the animal succumbed to the treatment. Negative isopods treated with KCl until stron gly positive have their resistance to N/400 NaCN de- ereased, which indicates that their rate of meta- bolic activity has increased. CaCl, has exactly the opposite effect. These results support earlier work on the relation of rheotaxis and metabolism in Asellus. Glacier Oligocheta from Mt. Rainier (illustrated with lantern): Paut S. WELCH, Kansas State Agricultural College. Mesenchytreus solifugus (Emery, ’98; Moors, 799; Wisen, ’05) and Mesenchytreus niveus (Moore, 799), found on certain Alaskan glaciers, are apparently the only recorded Oligocheta which normally inhabit snow and ice. Six collections, January 7 to June 17, 1915, from the snowfields and glaciers of Mt. Rainier, Washington, contain an undescribed enchytreid (Mesenchytreus gelicus n. sp.) which occurs abundantly in that very un- usual habitat. Among the remarkable structural characters of this worm, the extent and complexity SCIENCE 143 of the reproductive organs are perhaps most note- worthy. A pair of very large spermathece extends from IV./V. to XI., almost completely filling the celom, and containing surprising quantities of spermatozoa. A pair of well-developed sperm sacs, extending from XI./XII. to XXXV. and containing large masses of developing spermatozoa, are surrounded by a large ovisac which extends from XII./XIIT. to XXXV. and contains in addi- tion large quantities of developing ova. The penial bulb is very complex in organization. The specimens are very dark in color, due to the large amount of pigment in the hypodermis. Certain internal organs, especially the spermathece, chloragog cells and lymphocytes also contain pig- ment granules. The collections also contain speci- mens of M. solifugus Emery, a form which occurs in abundance on the permanent snow and ice fields of Mt. Rainier. Evidence points to certain snow alge as one of the chief sources of food for both of these worms. The Reaction of Fishes to Stimuli not Encountered in their Normal Environments: V. EH. SHELFORD, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History. Wastes from the manufacture of illuminating gas are commonly thrown into streams and are probably more generally fatal to fishes than any other industrial wastes. In course of the investi- gation of the effects of products of the destruc- tive distillation of coal upon fishes about twenty- five compounds have been studied. Nearly all are rapidly fatal when present in minute quantities. The reactions of fishes to these ingredients have been tested and the fishes tested are positive to fifteen of the twenty-five compounds, indefinite or indifferent to seven and negative to only two or three. Thus the reactions of the fishes are of such a nature as to destroy rather than to preserve them. COMPARATIVE AND GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY The Relation Between Wave-length and Stimula- tion in the Lower Organisms: 8S. O. Mast, Johns Hopkins University. The relative stimulating effect of different re- gions of a spectrum having a known distribution of energy was ascertained for the following fif- teen species: Chlamydomonas, Trachelomonas and Phacus, each one species; Pandorina, Eudorina, Gonium and Spondylomorum, each one species; earthworms, Arenicola (larye) and blowfly (larve) each one species. The results obtained are briefly stated below 144 without corrections for the difference in the energy of these regions. They are, however, of such a nature that the corrections mentioned will not result in marked alterations. For all but one of the microscopic organisms the results fall into two groups. In the one group the region of stimulation begins in the blue near the violet, between 430 uu and 440 uy. From here toward the red end of the spectrum the stim- ulating efficiency rises, at first slowly and then rapidly, to a maximum in the green near the yel- low, between 530 up and 540 uu; then it falls, at first rapidly and later more and more slowly, end- ing in the red at about 640uy. In the other group the region of stimulation begins in the violet between 420 um and 430 uu, only a short distance from the place where it begins in the first group. From here the efficiency rises very rapidly, reach- ing a maximum in the blue between 480 uu and 490 up. It then falls rapidly and ends in the green in the neighborhood of 520uu. Three of the microscopic forms, Pandorina, Eudorina and Spondylomorum, belong to the first group, the rest to the second. To this group belong also Areni- cola larve and the earthworms. For the remain- ing microscopic form (Chlamydomonas) the maxi- mum is in the green very near 510 uu; and for the blowfly larve it is approximately at 520uu. The distribution in the spectrum, of stimulating effi- ciency is, for this creature, essentially the same as the distribution of brightness for color-blind per- sons. These results show that stimulation in all of the organisms studied depends upon the wave-length of the light; that the stimulating efficiency is very much higher in certain regions of the spectrum than in others; but that the distribution of this in the spectrum differs greatly in certain organisms that are closely related in structure, e. g., Pando- rina and Gonium, while it is essentially the same in others that are very different in structure, e. g., Euglena and earthworms. They also have a bear- ing on the nature of the chemical changes associ- ated with the reactions to light. Negative Orientation in Vanessa Antiopa: WM. L. DALEY, JR., Randolph-Macon College. (Intro- duced by S. O. Mast.) Certain photo-positive insects orient, on coming to rest in direct sunlight, so that they face di- tectly away from the sun. Is this phenomenon de- pendent upon previous violent exercises, as Pro- fessor Parker holds, and is it a reaction to light or to heat? Vanessa, which has been raised in a small cage SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1100 and had never flown in the open, repeatedly oriented negatively in sunlight, as did also speci- Mens with both eyes covered so that no light could enter. Moreover, normal animals exposed in darkness to heat-rays from an electric flatiron usually face away from the source of heat, and they respond in the same way even when the heat- rays are opposed by light-rays coming from the op- posite direction. Furthermore, when normal ani- mals are placed in a room the temperature of which is high (29° C. to 32° C.) they do not orient at all, no matter how they are illuminated. These results seem to show that when Vanessa faces away from the sun on coming to rest in sun- light, it is reacting to heat and not to light, and that this reaction is not necessarily dependent upon previous violent exercise. Electric Currents Generated in the Eye of the Fish by Light: Epwarp C. Day, Syracuse Uni- versity. The live fish, wrapped in a wet cloth, gills irri- gated by a hose led into the mouth, was placed in a dark box. Electrodes were applied to the eye, one to the cornea and one to back of eye-ball, and connected with string galvanometer. When light struck the eye the galvanometer recorded electrical disturbances. By projecting the shadow of the string into a photographic apparatus its deflec- tions could be recorded along with time and ex- posure curves. On-effect consists of a slight de- pression A, followed by a strong abrupt elevation B and another slower secondary rise C. Off-effect consists of an abrupt elevation D. For dark-adapted eye all four deflections are present; B is always greater than D. For light- adapted eye A and C are absent; B is smaller than D. Latent period from onset of light to begin- ning of A=—0.032”, B=0.075”, C=1-7”; and from extinction of light to beginning of D—=0.05”. Deflections may be resultant expression of in- terfering reactions of three substances in the retina, Intermittent stimulation gives oscillatory curve composed chiefly of A and D deflections; 25 flashes per second evoked 25 oscillations, and oscillations blended at 28 flashes per second. Changes in Thelia bimaculata (Fabricius) Induced by Insect Parasites (illustrated with lantern) : S. I. Kornuauser, Northwestern University. (Introduced by Wm. A. Locy.) In Thelia pronotum covers entire body, extend- ing far in front of head as a horn and back over thorax and abdomen. It is coarsely punctured JANUARY 28, 1916] over entire surface, being in the male dark brown with large lateral spot (vitta) of bright yellow on each side, and in the female gray with only faint indication of vitta. In parasitized males, color of pronotum corre- sponds to that of normal female. Not only is yel- low lost from vitta, but characteristic pigment of female develops. Vitta of normal male is yellow because chitin is transparent (shows no melanin even in punctures), allowing a yellow hypodermal pigment (non-melanic and easily destroyed by acids and other organic solvents) to shine through. Punectures have no yellow pigment below them. In female vitta is gray because punctures are brown (due to melanin in superficial layers of chitin), and hypodermal areas are partially filled with grayish residue in cells and greenish pigment unevenly scattered. These female characters are assumed by fully parasitized males and the degree of change depends upon how long before its final moult the nymph was parasitized. Thus all inter- mediate stages of disappearance of yellow pig- ment and assumption of melanin have been found. Normal female of thelia is larger than normal male; and abdomen and wings, less melanic. Measurements of pronota, wings and abdomens, show that parasitized males are larger than nor- mal males, but not as large as normal females. There is also a reduction of melanin in abdomen and wings of parasitized males. Abdomen as- sumes pointed form of female, and posterior chi- tinous rings increase in length. Internally, testes undergo fatty degeneration, and are finally entirely lost (either before or after final moult), although cell divisions (often abnor- mal) continue up to last vestige. Entire abdomen of male becomes crowded with fat, in which para- sites are imbedded. Normally only female ab- domen contains much fat, while that of male is almost entirely filled with testes, vas deferens and seminal vesicles. Assumption of female secondary characteristics by male must be due not only to loss of primary sexual organs, but also to changed metabolism (laying on of fat) caused by action of parasites themselves. Differentiation and Dedifferentiation in Bursaria and its Significance: E. J. LUND, University of Minnesota, During the process of regeneration of pieces of Bursaria a simplification of structure of the cut piece always takes place previous to differentia- tion. A similar process is evident during encyst- ment and excystment, during normal division and SCIENCE 145 sometimes periodically during the life of a normal individual. The only conceivable ways, looked at from the standpoint of physical science, that ‘‘regulation,’’ ‘‘regeneration,’’ ‘‘making over,’’ ete., of a com- plex structure can take place is: (1) (a) that it is first simplified physico-chemically to a greater or less extent; (6) that the products resulting from simplification are necessary and sufficient for the production of a different structure; (c) that these parts (resultant products, perhaps amino acids or simpler proteins, etc.) be capable of recombination in a different way, or (2) that a stereoisomeric change takes place in the system. But the latter is obviously insufficient to account for the changes actually taking place in regulating structures, and is not what would be expected from a knowledge of many chemical facts of metabolism. This state- ment of regeneration processes does not imply that antecedent properties which determine the specific path of differentiation (determiners of heredity) of the morphologically non-differentiated cell do not exist, nor that they are variable or invariable if they do exist. Light Reactions of Diemyctylus: A. M. REESE, West Virginia University. Diemyctylus is negatively phototropic to a marked degree at ordinary temperatures. At a temperature near 0° C. and at a temperature of about 36° C., it is more or less indifferent to light. The response is the same when the light comes from below. It is positively phototactie to lights of all in- tensities, though this seems to vary with the dif- ferent seasons. Experiments are now under way to determine this. At low temperatures the photo- taxis may be inhibited or reversed. It responds to red, green and blue lights as 10 white light, the response being less marked to green than to red, and still less to the blue. Diemyctylus responds promptly to a spot of sun- light thrown upon various parts of the body by a small mirror, as has been noted by the author for Necturus and Cryptobranchus. On Loss of Cell Pigment as an Index of Permea- bility Changes: W. J. Crozier, Bermuda Bio- logical Station. Experiments with tissues of the nudibranch Chromodoris zebra give evidence showing that, at least in this case, which has the advantage of be- ing uncomplicated by strong muscular contraction, the outward diffusion of cell pigment can not be used to estimate permeability increase quantita- tively. The speed with which the pigment appears 146 outside the cell varies with the degree to which the tissue is stretched. In studying a large number of acids, no parallelism could be discovered between their rates of entrance into the cell and the order of pigment loss in the different acid solutions. Using the penetration time of acids as a criterion of penetrability (their entrance being shown by the color change of the pigment, which is a ‘“sood’’ indicator for acids), instances have been found in which the speed of acid penetration is accelerated, while loss of pigment is delayed, and, reciprocally, permeability toward acids may be caused to decrease while the pigment diffuses out of the cell. The Doubtful Validity of the Hypothesis of Warning and Immunity Color: W. H. LONGLEY, Goucher College. This paper reports observations upon the color and color-changes of tropical reef-fishes of the West Indian region. The facts noted lead to the conclusions that the color of the fishes is very definitely correlated with their habits and that color-changes are adaptive. Of these ideas both seem incompatible with the conspicuousness hypoth- eses, but neither is at variance with the conception of concealing coloration. Rate of Regeneration from New Tissues Compared with that from Old Tissues: CHARLES ZELENY, University of Illinois. When a second removal of the tail of the frog tadpole is made at a level proximal to that of the first removal the tissue at the cut surface is ths original old tissue. When the second removal :s made distal to the first the cells at the cut surface are the newly regenerated ones. The levels of these cuts can be so regulated as to make possible a direct comparison of the rates of regeneration in the two cases. Such a comparison shows that there is no essential difference between the two rates, a slight advantage in favor of the regenera- tion from new tissues being probably not signifi- cant. In one of the experiments the specific amount of regeneration at the end of six days was .196 from old tissue and .204 from new tissue. At the end of eight days the corresponding figures were .303 and .310. The result indicates that the primary factors controlling rate of regeneration are not those in- herent in the condition of the cells which prolifer- ate to form the regenerated tail. They are rather to be sought in the influence exerted by other parts of the organism. The Function of the Efferent Fibers in the Optic Nerve of Fishes: LESLIE B. AREY, Northwestern SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLITI. No. 1100 University Medical School. H. PARKER.) When the optic nerve only of Ameiurus is sev- ered, the rods, cones and retinal pigment fail to execute their characteristic photomechanical re- sponses. After hemisection of the nerve, move- ments of the elements occur only in that region of the retina adjacent to its intact side. It can not only be shown (since essentially normal responses occur in excised eyes and in eyes attached to the body by the optic nerve only) that a second mechanism exists in association with the muscles innervated by the oculomotor nerve, which inhibits these movements when the optic nerve is cut, but also that electrical stimulation of the peripheral stump of the optic nerve can overcome this inhibi- tion. Hence demonstrably functional efferent fibers exist in the optic nerve. Only by the balanced ac- tion of these components with a second extrinsic set of fibers (ciliary nerves?), which independently exert an inhibitory influence upon the movements of the retinal elements, are normal photomechanical responses accomplished. It is probable that ef- ferent impulses in the optic nerve do not directly stimulate the retinal elements to motion, but rather act indirectly by blocking the tonic inhibi- tion exerted by the second system. These efferent optie nerve fibers may be designated as visceral efferent nerve components. Severance of the optic nerve of Abramis or Fundulus does not prohibit movements of the retinal elements, hence it is impossible to state whether the mechanism discovered in Ameturus is or is not peculiar to that species alone. (Introduced by G. The Relation of the Body Temperature of Certain Cold-blooded Animals to That of Their En- vironment: CHARLES G. ROGERS AND ELsizn M. Lewis, Oberlin College. A review of the literature upon the subject of the body temperatures of the so-called cold-blooded animals reveals a lack of uniformity of observa- tions in part, at least, due to faulty methods of de- termination. A knowledge of the temperature relations exist- ing between cold-blooded animals and their en- vironments is of importance in all experiments having to do with the determination of tempera- ture coefficients of the rates of reaction of physio- logical processes. If the relation can be shown to be a constant one it is necessary only to control carefully the temperature of the environment in order to have knowledge of the actual tempera- ture of the animal or tissue under observation. JANUARY 28, 1916] Tests made upon earthworms, clams, two genera of salamanders and upon the gold fish by means of carefully guarded thermoelectric measurements indicate that in general these animals adjust them- selves to the temperature of their environment with remarkable exactitude, within a very short time, the difference being usually measurable only in thousandths or hundredths of a degree Celsius. Observations on Regeneration and Division in Ciliates: Gary N, Caukins, Columbia Univer- sity. A definite division zone, not affected by loss of parts through cutting, has been demonstrated in Paramecium and Uronychia. In Paramecium re- generation of enucleated fragments never occurs, while regeneration of nucleated fragments varies with the race used. In Uronychia regeneration of nucleated fragments always occurs, and regenera- tion of enucleated fragments varies with age of the cell when cut. If cut within eight hours after division the latter never regenerates; if cut within two hours prior to division it invariably regenerates into a perfect, but enucleate, cell. Precocious formation of powerful cirri, before division, is characteristic of Uronychia. This, and regeneration, are phenomena of the same type, both functions of the fully differentiated proto- plasm. The experiments indicate differences in protoplasmic make-up in young and old cells; and the increasing power of regeneration with age in enucleated fragments indicates an increasing dif- ferentiation. When fully differentiated, enzymes are formed leading to precocious organ formation. Cell division occurs when differentiation has gone a step beyond that necessary for regenera- tion. Enzymes are then produced which bring about cytolysis of the specialized protoplasm in the division zone. Through tension of the cell the membrane turns in and the cell divides by con- striction. With chemical activities at division the proto- plasm is restored to the labile undifferentiated condition of young cells. If this restoration is in- complete a progressive differentiation of the racial protoplasm occurs, leading to depression and death, which are prevented by drastic reorganiza- tion phenomena of asexual, and sexual, endomixis. The Distribution of Water in the Embryonic Ner- vous System: O. C. GLASER, University of Michi- gan. Embryonic nervous systems of Rana pipiens contain more water anteriorly than posteriorly. Donaldson has found in the adult a difference in the same sense. The determinations in the em- SCIENCE 147 bryonie material were necessarily made with sys- tems incompletely isolated from other tissues. An indirect method, free from this objection, gives the same result. Nuclear volume varies with the water content of the cell. In the nervous sys- tem only relative nuclear volumes can be dealt with, but the evidence from thousands of nuclei shows that the anterior ones are larger than the posterior, not only during folding, but also in the fiat neural plate. In the theory of autonomous folding which T. have tried to develop, absorption of water is a symptom of surface changes in the neural cells, and these changes are held responsible for the folding. If correct, and if nuclear size is an index of water content, then nuclei in the curling edges of the neural plate should be larger than those in the flat portions of the plate at the same level, This, as the detailed evidence to be presented shows, is true. From the beginning, then, the anterior end of the vertebrate nervous system has a higher water content than the posterior, and the absorption of water accompanies folding. The Comparative Resistance of Marine Animals from Different Depths to Adverse Conditions: V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois. Benthic animals from different depths differ strikingly in their resistance to adverse conditions. Individuals of the same species taken from differ- ent depths show the same relations as do species living at the same or correspondingly different depths. In general animals from two fathoms are two to three times as resistant to fresh water and high temperature as animals from seventy-five fathoms. Animals from deeper water are usually more resistant to excesses of acid and alkali than those from shallower. The differences in physio- logical character within single species show the unreliability of conclusions regarding distribu- tion based on the assumption that physiological characters are uniform for entire populations. The Change of the Blowfly Larva’s Photosensitw- ity with Age (illustrated with charts): BRADLEY M. PaTTEN, Western Reserve Medical School. Larve of the blowfly were tested each day from hatching until pupation to determine what, if any, changes take place in the degree of their photo- sensitivity. The test employed consisted in sub- jecting maggots crawling under the influence of a horizontal beam of light to an instantaneous change of 90° in the direction of beam. The re- sulting change in the direction of the animal’s 148 locomotion was measured in degrees by means of a protractor. The more sensitive the individual was, the more closely did its deflection approach 90°. Using the same larve throughout the experi- ments, one hundred trails were run each day. The average deflection of each of these sets of 100 trails was used to locate a point on an ‘‘age- sensitiveness’? curve. The curve of photosensitivity thus obtained shows a rapid rise during the first days of larval life, reaching a maximum on the fourth day with a deflection of 81°, and gradually dropping off till the time of pupation, when the average deflection was 58°. The Physiology of Chemoreceptors: W. J. CROZIER, Bermuda Biological Station. A comparison of quantitative measurements of cell penetrability for acids with the relative stim- ulating powers of these acids and with the limit- ing dilutions beyond which they are ineffective in stimulating earthworms and four species of ma- rine animals indicates: (1) that an acid stimu- lates by union with a constituent of the ceptor surface, and (2) that this surface is not simple but complex and contains probably proteins and fatty substances, Encystment of Didinium nasutum: Gary N. CaAL- Kins, Columbia University. Eneystment of Didiniwm under culture, with adequate food and normal conditions, is preceded by a declining division rate in the race as a whole. Eneystment lasts for about six days, when the or- ganisms emerge with renewed vitality, as shown by an average division rate from five to ten times greater than that prior to encystment. During encystment the cell undergoes complete reorganization. The macronucleus degenerates into fragments which are ultimately absorbed in the protoplasm. The micronuclei swell and divide by mitosis, the products giving rise to new macro- and micro-nuclei. This reorganization occurred twice during the history of my Didiniwm culture with an interval of six weeks. After the second period the race did not eneyst again, but continued to live with a slowly decreasing division rate for about six months, when the last individuals died with char- acteristic symptoms of depression. The individual Didiniwm isolated was evidently well advanced in its racial cycle. This is indi- cated not only by loss of powers of encystment and reorganization, but also by the fact that after the two periods of encystment, and for ten days only SCIENCE [N. S. Vou, XLIII. No. 1100 in each case, epidemics of conjugation occurred in the stock material derived from organisms which had recently eneysted. Asexual reorganization, ap- parently, merely restored the protoplasm to a con- dition in which conjugation was possible; a con- dition which is, in itself, evidence of advanced differentiation, and a condition from which the protoplasm is restored through conjugation. On Cell Penetration by Acids: The Effects of Anesthetics and of Stimulation by Induction Shocks: W. J. CROZIER, Bermuda Biological Sta- tion. 1. Anesthetics produce a reversible decrease in the permeability of Chromodoris tissues toward a range of dilutions of strong acids. The magni- tude of the effect depends upon the concentration of the individual anesthetic and the time of its ac- tion, and may prolong penetration time by 100- 200 per cent. Following the decreased permea- bility there ensues an increased permeability, irre- versible in its later stages, which can be antagon- ized (delayed) by balanced salt solutions. Cyto- lytic agents increase permeability toward acids. 2. Stimulation by induction shocks decreases the penetration time of acids. The decrease in permeability toward acids produced by anesthetics may be inhibited by simultaneous strong stimula- tion. Behavior of Holothuria captiwwa Toward Balanced Illumination: W. J. Crozier, Bermuda Biolog- ical Station. The whole surface of Holothuria is reactive to light. These animals are negatively phototropic. In H. captiva the two sides of the animal are sensibly parallel, and when subjected to bilateral illumination there is accordingly no possibility of equalizing the amount of light on the two sides by assuming a position perpendicular to the axis of the opposed beams, or, in case these beams are of unequal strength, by pursuing a path at some definite angle with this perpendicular. This is in accord with the behavior of Holothuria and proves that photic stimulation in this animal depends upon the amount of light falling upon the sensi- tive surface, and is independent of the angle of incidence. The fact that isolated portions of the skin react to continuous light is further and con- elusive evidence that the direct action of light, not change of intensity, furnishes the stimulating agency. CASWELL GRAVE, Secretary-Treasurer (To be continued) ee NA NEw SERIES Q SINGLE CoPIEs, 15 Cts, VoL, XLII. No. 1101 Fray, FEBRUARY 4, 1916 ANNUAL SUBSORIPTION, $5.00 RECENTLY ISSUED—NEW (Sth) EDITION American Illustrated Dictionary This new (8th) edition has been subjected to a thorough revision, so thorough, in fact, that it was necessary to make entirely new plates. Some 1500 new terms have been added, all the new important tests, both clinical and lab- oratory, treatments, operations, reactions, signs, symptoms, staining methods, etc., etc. In dictionary service it is new words you want. Whether the new words relate to serology, physiology, pathologic chemistry, bacteriology, experimental medicine, clinical medicine, any of the therapies, surgery—you find them all here, and in hundreds of cases only here. Octavo of 1137 pages, with 331 illustrations, 119 in colors. Edited by W. A. Newman Dortanp, M.D. Flexible leather, $4.50 net; thumb indexed, $5.00 net. Kolmer’s Specific Therapy This is a work for general practitioner and laboratory worker alike. You get here the exact technio, step by step, of making serums and autogenous vaccines and their actual use in diag- nosis and treatment. You get definite directions for injecting vaccines, serums, salvarsan, neosalvyarsan; definite directions for the tuberculin, luetin, mallein, and similar tests. Octavo of 900 pages, with 143 illustrations, 43 in colors drawn by Edwin F. Faber. By Joun A. Koimer, M.D., Dr.P.H., Assistant Professor of Experimental Pathology, University of Pennsylvania. Cloth, $6.00 net; Half Morocco, $7.50 net. Herrick’s Neurology RECENTLY ISSUED Professor Herrick’s new work will aid the student to organize his knowledge and appreciate the significance of the nervous system as a mechanism right at the beginning of his study. It is sufficiently elementary to be used by students uf elementary psychology in colleges and normal schools, by students of general zoology and comparative anatomy, and by medical students as a key to the interpretation of the larger works on neurology. 12mo of 360 pages, illustrated. Ry C. Jupson Herrick, Professor of Neurology in the University of Chicago. Cloth, $1.75 net. McFarland’s Biology NEW (2d) EDITION This work is particularly adaptable to the requirements of scientifio courses. It takes up Living Substance generally, illustrating the text whenever a picture will help. There are chapters on the origin of life and its manifestations, the cell and cell division, reproduction, ontogenesis, conformity to type, divergence, structural and blood relationship, parasitism, mutilation and regeneration, grafting, senescence, etc. 12mo of 457 pages, illustrated. By JosspH McFaruanp, M.D., Professor of Pathology and Bacteriology, Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. Cloth, $1.75 net W.B.SAUNDERS COMPANY Philadelphia and London il SCIENCE _ ADVERTISEMENTS The Present Tendency in teaching the various sciences is to give the pupil a sensible idea of the manner in which fundamental principles of nature affect our everyday life. This is true of chemistry quite as much as of any other science, but the average person does not begin to realize how useful this study may be made. To any one familiar with Weed’s Chemistry in the Home—one of our new books —this is clearly apparent. To enlighten teachers who are not familiar with this book we have just issued a little pamphlet, No. 1552, containing 100 Practical Chemistry Questions About the Home, which can be answered by any boy or girl who has studied this chemistry. The author of the book is H. T. Weed, Head of Science Depart- ment, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, If you would like a copy of this illumina- ting pamphlet drop us a line and we will gladly send you one. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Chicago New York Cincinnati Revised Edition A Course in Invertebrate Zodlogy By Henry SHerrinc Pratt, Professor of Biology in Harvard College, and In- structor in Comparative Anatomy in the Marine Biological Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. \\/IDELY used in the earlier edition, this zodlogy will be even more popu- lar because of the inclusion of new dis- sections and an improved system of classi- fication. The large number of dissections enables the teacher to select those best adapted to his needs. New features are directions for the dissection and compara- tive study of the house fly, a spider, the oyster, a holothurian, a jellyfish, and a sea anemone.......... 228 pages, $1.25 A Course in Vertebrate Zodlogy, 229 pages, $1.50. By Henry Sherring Pratt. Ginn and Company New York Chicago ( Atlanta Dallas @ San Francisco Boston London Columbus New York Academy of Sciences (Founded in 1817 as the Lyceum of Natural History of New York) Publications Annals. Begun in 1824, Published in brochures at irregular intervals, one octavo volume of 300 to 500 pages per calendar year with illustrations. Price $3.00 pervolume. The prices of separate brochures may be learned on application. Recent Articles ELyira Woop: The Use of Crinoid Arms in Studies of IPHVIOSEMYse ecestctersssccecttens eee $0.35 HENRYK ARcTOWSEI: A Study of the Changes in the Distribution of Temperature in Europeand North America during the Years 1900 to 1909.................. 75 G. G. Scorr: A Physiological Study of the Changesin Mustelus canis produced by Modifications in the Molecular Concentration ofthe ExternalMedium .75 FERDINAND FRIIS HINTZE, Jr.: A Contribution to th Geology of the Wasatch Mountains, Utah............ .80 CHARLES REINHARD FETTKE: The Manhattan Schist of Southeastern New York State and its As ated Igmeous Rocks ...........cce.cceeseeeeeeeceeeeeeeceeenes 95 ADDRESS New York Academy of Sciences care of American Museum of Natural History New York, N. Y. Send for descripttve circulars and sample pages PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU, S.M., S.D. PROFESSOR OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Large Octavo, 1150 pages, with 254 illustrations in the text. Cloth bound, price, $7.50. Send for descriptive circular A. G. SEILER & CO. PUBLISHF.RS 1224 Amsterdam Avenue NEW YORK, N. Y. SCIENCE Fray, Fresruary 4, 1916 CONTENTS The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— Poncelet Polygons: PRorEssor H.S. WHITE. 149 The Contest with Physical Nature: Tur Hon- ORABUE) Ee OKC ANE) fy. 2). 1s clsisaticies e's 158 Daniel Giraud Elliot: Dr. J. A. ALLEN ...... 159 Francis Marion Webster: W. R. WALTON .... 162 The Joseph Austin Holmes Memorial ........ 164 Scientific Notes and News ...............-. 165 University and Educational News ......... 168 Discussion and Correspondence :— Fireflies Flashing in Unison: Dr. EDWARD ' §. Morse. Polyradiate Cestodes: PROFESSOR FRANKLIN D, Barker. An Organic Oolite from the Ordovician: Dr. Francis M. VAN Tuyt. Use of C€.G.8. Units: PROFESSOR _ ALEXANDER McApiz. The First Secretary of Agriculture: Dr. G. P. CLINTON ...... 169 Scientific Books :— Arrhenius on Quantitative Laws in Biolog- ical Chemistry: PRoFEsSoR Hueu S. Tay- Lor. Underhill on the Physiology of the Amino Acids: PROFESSOR GRAHAM Lusk. 172 Special Articles :-— The Discovery of the Chestnut-blight Para- site in Japan: Dr. C. L. SHear, Niet E. PSUUENOONISH fag 9's 6 domlale cca oma e Meme eran 173 The American Society of Zoologists: Pro- FESSOR CASWELL GRAVE ..............-.- 176 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should besent to Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison- on-Hudson. N. Y. also in part intrinsic. PONCELET POLYGONS} THERE is nothing which can not be known. Such at least is the postulate of science. Wide as is the universe of matter, numberless as are the objects and the events in the world of either dead matter or living organisms, yet the scientist must have faith that all can be observed, classified, named ; that a finite number of terms and a finite system of laws will suffice ultimately for the summing up of what we call the ex- ternal universe. A dream, if one regards it as a positive expectation! Yet how far it has gone in the direction of realization in certain obvious horizons! In our solar system it is not frequently that a major planet is discovered. In the chemist’s do- main, does any one concede that the un- known elements are more in number than the known? Does any physicist really ex- pect to come upon a new kind of activity at all comparable in importance with the Roéntgen rays? Though the ideal of com- plete knowledge and perfect explanation may be destined never to be reached, yet how prone are we to imagine that it must be not far away! In a certain contrast to the material world stands the world of intellect and rea- son, a contrast partly at least fictitious, but It is in this world that geometry exists. Whatever else be true about geometry, it is plain from ex- perience and from history that its objects are ideas or notions; that they are comple- 1Address of the retiring vice-president and chairman of Section A of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, Columbus, December 30, 1915. 150 mentary to, not extracted from, the mate- rial world. Knowable they are, therefore, by their very constitution. But who can ever conceive of them as limited in number? Who can imagine that ever in the future it could come to pass that there should be no more geometric concepts to be investigated ; that a point might be attained where the mind of the mathematician should rest satisfied, all its curiosity appeased ? Connected with this contrast in the source of its objects is the slowness with which new objects in geometry emerge and diffuse into general knowledge. Called into being by shifting stimuli, multitudes of new systems of relations are invented and named and investigated; but most of them are speedily forgotten (or perhaps only dimly apprehended even by the discoverer), and very few in a century are those which sur- vive to become the valued heritage of later generations. There are many occasions when we meet to discuss only what is new. The present, however, is a fitting occasion for reviewing together some of the treasures handed on to us by geometricians of the past, and for stimulating our own ardor by the rehearsal of the fortunes and successes of earlier workers in our part of the field of science. The polygons of Poncelet were new a hun- dred years ago, and are not yet forgotten, but seem rather to attract increasingly the interest and attention of geometricians. I invite you to enjoy with me, since though not unknown they are not yet in the class of familiar objects, a rapid survey of their character and development. For many centuries before Euler stu- dents of geometry had found interest in circles inscribed in a triangle and circum- seribed to it. Usually their centers do not coincide. One circle may be kept station- ary, while the triangle varies, and with it vary also the center of the other circle and SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLIIT. No. 1101 its radius. Euler may have been the first to write out the relation that connects these three quantities, the two radii and the dis- tance of the centers: Rk? =2Kr + d?, or it may have been discussed a hundred times before. Publication of this relation led to the study of analogous relations for poly- gons of more sides, Fuss in St. Petersburg, and some years later Steiner in Berlin, carrying the problem farthest, finding re- sults for polygons of 4, 5, 6, 7 and of 8 sides. The case of regular polygons, for which the inscribed and circumscribed circles are concentric (d=0) is elemen- tary, and will always stimulate interest in the more general problem. While attention was directed to finding an algebraic relation corresponding to a given geometric diagram, for a long time no one seems to have inquired whether this relation was merely a necessary condition, or whether it might also be a sufficient con- dition for the construction of the diagram. If two circles are drawn, satisfying the condition for a triangle: R?=2Rr-+d?, can one always determine the triangle in- scribed in the circle radius R and having its sides all tangent to the circle of radius r? And is there only one such triangle in each case, or some finite number greater than one? What of the case where the tri- angle (or polygon of 4, 5 or more sides) is regular—is it exceptional that for that case there are an infinite number of polygons which satisfy the requirements, provided there is one such? It is not easy to apprehend the state of geometric knowledge in 1796, when Fuss wrote on this subject. He certainly sup- posed that a triangle could occur singly, and was unaware that others can always be inscribed and circumscribed to the same pair of circles. It would seem as though the roughest kind of experimentation would have shown the truth, or at least would FEpruAry 4, 1916] have given grounds for a hypothesis. But Fuss limited his investigation, so Jacobi states, to the case where the polygon is symmetrical with respect to the common diameter of the two circles. Symmetrical- irregular polygons, he calls them; and this Fuss supposed to be essentially a restric- tion upon the generality of the problem, and hence he believed that he had solved only under limitations the problem pro- posed. This misapprehension apparently persisted for 26 years, until the appear- ance in 1822 of Poncelet’s memorable work: “Traité des Propriétés Projectives des Figures.’’ Indeed there is indirect evi- dence to this effect in an essay by Poncelet himself, of the date 1817, in which he chal- lenges his correspondent to solve the prob- lem of inseribing in a given conic a polygon of n sides, the sides to be tangent to a sec- ond given conic. This problem as stated is, as we now know, misleading, implying that there is a solution, and that the number of solutions is finite. Poncelet would hardly have ventured to publish such a problem had he not been sure that the mathematical public of that day would accept it in good faith. It would be quite certain also, even if we had no direct knowledge of the fact other- wise, that the relations of collinearity and correlativity or reciprocity with respect to a conic were not at all commonly under- stood prior to 1822. The employment of transformations to derive one solution of a problem from another was not yet a recog- nized preliminary to all discussion. The student of conics to-day will reflect at once that two conics not specialized in situation have one self-polar triangle in common, and are transformed into themselves by three collineations or projectivities besides the identity, and are transformed simultane- ously into each other by four reciprocities or polarities with respect to a third fixed SCIENCE 151 conic. Thus to-day we should see in advance that any one triangle, or one pentagon, in- seribed in one conic and circumscribed to another, implies seven others of the same sort. Solutions of Poncelet’s problem must occur at least in sets of eight; but this fact, apparent from Poncelet’s own discoveries, appears to have escaped his attention, and still less was it present to the minds of his contemporaries. Knowledge of the investigations of Fuss and of Huler would have been almost use- less to Ponecelet. For the far superior gen- erality of his problem, that of two conics in place of two circles, his method of projec- tion is responsible. This allowed him to use metric properties of circles and draw conclusions concerning any two curves of the second order. But the discovery of his famous theorem on polygons was nothing less than a stroke of genius. Many have been quoted as authors of the saying that invention or discovery is the principal thing in geometry, while the proof is a relatively easy matter. In this case, however, the proof also is ingenious, carried on by the exclusively synthetic method. But the per- ception of the theorem, preceding its proof, escapes explanation from anything that had gone before. Were that his only contribu- tion to our knowledge of geometry, it would ensure him grateful recognition from later students—as the compeer of Apollonius who gave us the foci of a conic, Desargues who first perceived poles and polars, New- ton who described the organic construction of conics, and the immortal Pascal with his hexagon. Let us rehearse the theorem which gives a generic name to Poncelet polygons. Of two given conics, call one the first and consider its points; call the other the sec- ond and consider its tangents. Form a broken line by taking a point of the first curve, a line of the second that passes 152 through it, then another point of the first on this line, and so forth. It may be that this process will close, the last line passing through the first point. If it does close, forming a polygon of n sides with vertices on the first conic and sides tangent to the second, then every point of the first is a vertex of one such closed polygon, and every tangent of the second is a side of one such polygon of n sides. That is the first part of the theorem. The second is this. Diagonals of all these closed polygons, which omit the same num- ber of consecutive vertices of the polygon, are tangent to a fixed third conic; and the dual statement is true concerning points of intersection of non-consecutive sides. This latter part of the theorem is true even if the polygon is not closed. From some points of view this scholium exceeds in im- portance the principal theorem. These statements give us a specific atti- tude toward the conics. We look upon the first as a groove prepared to guide a set of sliding points, and the second as a direc- trix for lines joining the points. If the lines are indefinitely extended, there will be outlying systems of crossings; a first extra set whose motion will describe a first extra conic; a second extra set with its conic locus, and so forth. The case where the polygon is closed is that in which one of these extra loci coincides with the first conic. We may digress to notice a curious fact. The sides of an inscribed hexagon meet in 15 points, namely, six on the conic, three on the Pascal line and six which we may term for the moment extra points. These six extra points are vertices of a hexagon circumscribed to a second conic. If now the first hexagon, already inscribed to one conic, becomes circumscriptible, then the hexagon of the extra points, already cir- cumscribed to a conic, becomes inscriptible SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1101 to another. This separation of two prop- erties which occur together in all polygons of the Poncelet type is a situation deserving further attention. To return to Poncelet: His discovery of the mobility, or the infinite multitude, of these polygons upon two fixed conics, pub- lished in 1822, must have seemed to mathe- maticians of that day as startling as the announcement of a new genus of vertebrates by a traveler returning from distant lands. Its exact character had to be ascertained and settled. The possibilities of variation must be examined ; as, for example, whether all the sides of the polygon need be required to touch the same conic. Here it was seen by Poncelet himself that if all conics con- cerned pass through the same four basis points, then it is sufficient for the purpose if each side in its order touches its own assigned conic—all the vertices will still be movable on their common track. After this, it seems like a new proposition to assert that the order in which the fixed conics are touched by successive sides may be varied, and still the polygon will close in the same number of sides. And it is a new proposition, as announced within the last few years by Rohn, provided not merely their order, but also their cyclic order, is altered. Whether in this general- ized figure the extra points still describe loci of the same family, that I do not re- member seeing demonstrated. The fertile mind of Jacobi seized the germ idea of periodicity in this closed fig- ure, so closely resembling sets of arguments of the elliptic functions differing by aliquot parts of a period. This suggestion was the more natural because of the geometrical diagrams current in the definition of ellip- tic arguments. Only six years after the date of Poncelet’s book, we find (1828) in Crelle’s Journal, Vol. III., Jacobi’s brief and elegant essay on these polygons for the Fesruary 4, 1916] case of two circles. Steiner had but re- cently written on the same topic, appar- ently unaware that it had been approached before. Jacobi was able now in the light of Poncelet’s theorem to vindicate the claims of Fuss to priority, since his irregular- symmetric polygons were particular cases in every infinite set of Poncelet polygons on the same pair of circles. Jacobi further applies the recursion formule arising in the iterated addition of a constant to the elliptic integral of the first kind. Note his compact and expressive formule. If the radii are & and r, the distance of their centers a, and the n-gon encircles the cen- ters 7 times before closing, all this is duly contained in the three formule AUD AMO ie ae 0 fQ—kksin?y) nv° V(1—kksin® ¢)’ eee SE co: OS ra 4aR Menara By this apparatus he verified the condi- tions already calculated for the closure in 38, 4, 5, 6, 7 sides, and confirmed for 8 sides the result of Fuss in opposition to Steiner’s formula. Certainly there is something satisfactory in seeing similar steps in geometric con- struction replaced by successive additions of one fixed quantity to an elliptic argu- ment. But the problem was originally one of algebraic geometry, in so far as the eonie represents a quadric form and the conditions of incidence and contact are algebraic; hence it was to be expected that there would be investigators who would not be satisfied with this transcendental eluci- dation of Jacobi, but would insist upon algebraic treatment throughout. More- over, when once the projective treatment of figures had acquired prestige in pure geom- etry, it made inroads rapidly in the analytic territory. It was then desirable to solve SCIENCE 153 the problem in its generality, for two conics whose equations are given arbitrarily, not restricting them to be circles; and to use processes and nomenclature that would not be affected by linear substitutions upon the coordinates or collineation. These last two desiderata appealed to Cayley not long after 1850, and from time to time he worked out parts of the problem: to express in invariants of two quadrics the condition that a broken line inscribed in the one and circumscribed to the other shall close in n sides. The results are not stated in terms of rational invariants, but they have the very great merit of being quickly and easily perceived, and of requiring only invari- ant terminology. The discriminant of a quadrie is perhaps the best known of all invariants. For a quadrie with one linear parameter he requires the discriminant to be calculated—namely for + Kd, where F=0 and 6=—0 are the equations of the two conies, respectively. This is of degree 3 in the parameter. D=4+40K4+ cK? + dk. Next, the square root of this discriminant is developed formally in ascending powers of K; VD=vVA+B,K + BK? + 6,3 C.K + D,K* + D,K* + ete. The conditions of closure are now, in form at least, simplicity itself, namely, the vanishing of a determinant whose consti- tuents are coefficients in this development. For an odd number of sides in the polygon, the leading constituent is C,; for an even number, C,, thus: For 3 sides, C, = 0, For 5 sides, CA mein NGse palma: For 7 sides, 154 C, C2 Di C2 D, Dz = 0; |D: D, Ey For 4 sides, Cz = 0, For 6 sides, Gh Bi i Di D2 ae For 8 sides, C, dD, Dz D, De Ey = (0), ete. D. FE, Es When one of these conditions is satisfied, the corresponding polygons are inscribed in the conic 6—0, and circumscribed to the other. To test two given conics by this method would evidently involve consider- able labor, but it would have the merit of being straightforward work, all of one kind—the calculation of determinants. Only one such would enter, the square root of the discriminant of the conic that carries the tangents, hence rationalization would be easy. It is hardly likely that results more elegant will be reached by any method; yet there are later researches, that I have not yet been able to examine, highly praised by reviewers. It does not appear that Cayley has given any account of the modifications necessary in these conditions when the sides touch different curves of the pencil. Two other questions, however, were started by Cayley. The first is that of the relations in terms of the two invariant eross-ratios of the two conics—those be- longing to the four common points or the four common tangents in the one conic and in the other. Conditions that exhibit a re- cursive law of formation in one domain of rationality are quite certain to do the same in a different domain, and Halphen has carried out the solution of this problem to completion (if that is a possibility) in his Elliptic Functions, Part 2. His interest SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1101 in the geometry of the figure led him to propose the question, How many conics in a linear system can serve as loci for the vertices of a polygon of m sides, the sides to be tangent to a fixed conic? The answer is, for a polygon of 3 sides, 2 conics; for 5 sides, 6 conics; for 6 sides, 6 conics; in general $(-B)(-B)0-8) where all the prime factors of m are p, qd, 7, ete. Cayley’s second new problem in this con- nection was one concerning curves other than conics. If m; denotes the order; pi the class of any curve, and it is required to describe a closed polygon beginning from a vertex A upon a curve of order m,, draw- ing a side that shall touch a curve of class p, and meet in a second vertex a curve of order m,, and so on, then the number of solutions is twice the continued product of the m’s and the p’s. This implies that the curves are all different, and calls for modi- fication when coincidences are required. Cayley initiated, but Hurwitz carried to completion, an algebraic explanation of the mobility of the Poncelet polygon whenever it actually exists. This, which is much the simplest method of attack, is by means of a correspondence upon a rational curve or line. The conic is a rational curve, and its points or its tangents can be given by quadric functions of a single parameter. In the presence of a second conie to carry the tangents, any point of the first corre- sponds primarily to two others, namely those two points in which the first conic is cut again by tangents to the second conic drawn from the first point. Such a corre- spondence is symmetrical two-to-two or (2, 2). Points further removed from any given first point are related to it second- arily, or more remotely, by a derivative Frpsruary 4, 1916] (2, 2) correspondence between the para- meters. Hence there should be 2+ 2 closures, whatever the degree of remoteness demanded between first and last points. But exactly four, improper indeed, are supplied by the participation of the four common points or the four common tan- gents. The relevant algebraical equation for the parameters will always have four roots relating to improper or degenerate polygons. If it has any more than these four, it admits all parameter-values as roots. Hence one actual proper polygon of m sides proves the existence of countless others. This brief but conclusive reason- ing gives the problem its true setting in advance, but leaves for other methods the question of the existence of the all-impor- tant first proper polygon. Gino Loria, in his memorable work, J passato id il presente delle principal teorie geometriche, makes mention of these papers of Hurwitz at the climax of his paragraphs on theorems of closure; and says of the earlier essay, that in it “‘we do not know whether to wonder more at the immensity of the view, or at the perfection of its beauty ; and so with this we bring to an end this digression, for which we should seek in vain a close more worthy.’’ I have pre- ferred however to summarize it earlier, in order to make clear with the greater brevity certain other applications that depend upon the same principle. It is hardly needful to remind you that the (2, 2) correspondence leads inevitably to elliptic functions, as Euler long ago pointed out. If we picture the situation by means of a Riemann surface, it must have two leaves and four branch-points; and is therefore of deficiency one, whence all functions belonging to the surface are doubly periodic. Of course in the fore- going survey we have been thinking mainly of real points and lines and loci, and so SCIENCE 155 have neglected the second period—the first being real. The use of elliptic functions enables us to understand the situation in- volving imaginary arguments, as when the point locus is completely enclosed by the line-locus, so that a real polygon is obvi- ously impossible, and yet the invariant con- ditions may be satisfied. The one essential premise is in every case, that the things under consideration are algebraically con- nected, two values of either to every one value of the other. First let me recall the chain of circles devised by Steiner, most recently so inter- estingly treated by Professor Emch by the aid of his mechanical linkages. Let two circles enclose a ring-shaped area in the plane, and draw any one circle in that ring tangent to the first two. Let a second be drawn touching both the directors and the last mentioned circle, then a third touch- ing in the same way the second, and so on. If a last circle ever appears in the series, say the nth in order, touching the first one, eall the chain closed. This chain is now like the Poncelet polygon in the essential fea- ture, in that every member (circle) is pre- ceded by one and followed by one definite member of the series: the correspondence is certainly algebraic and (2, 2). Therefore the chain will close with n circles, no matter what one be selected for the first. Both Hurwitz and Emch have stated weaker con- ditions that lead to the same conclusion; but it would seem, if the analogy of the polygon porism is valid, that many other variations of conditions ought yet to be attempted. There are Steiner’s polygons on a plane cubic, with alternate sides passing through one of two selected fixed points on the curve. This curve, with points represented in elliptic functions of a parameter, might seem out of place among conics and other rational curves, but the next example will 156 remind us of the natural connection. Let the base points be A and B. Choose at ran- dom a point 1 on the cubic curve, and draw in their order the lines A12, B23, A3é4, B45, ete., all the numbered points lying on the curve. If this series never closes, the same would be true if point 1 were chosen elsewhere; or if it does close after 2n sides, the same will be true for every position of point 1. Here of course the relation of the base points is decisive, and the fact that elliptic arguments of three points in a line sum up congruent to zero makes the proper choice of the point B a mere matter of arithmetic, 2. e., division of a period of the functions for that cubic curve. Projection from any point of a twisted quartic curve gives in the plane a cubic curve. But also from one of four spe- cial points, the quartic projects into a conic double. At the same time the gen- erators of any quadric surface containing the quartic curve are projected into tan- gents of a second conic. Any Poncelet polygon of 2n sides on those two conics is then the projection, if we please, of a sys- tem of generators from the two families on the quadric, alternating, n from each family. On the plane cubic the same set of lines would be projected from a point P as the alternating sides of a Steiner poly- gon, where points A and B are projected by the two generators through the point P. As all generators of one family meet every generator of the other family, this makes clear the intimate connection between Steiner’s and Poneelet’s polygons. To vary the object, look at Hurwitz’s plane quartic curve with two cusps and a node. It has two inflexions and a double tangent, and is therefore of class 4, dual to itself. On such a curve let a tangent be drawn, and through each intersection with the curve the second possible tangent from that point; we have clearly another (2, 2) SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 correspondence, and are prepared for the discovery that closure in a finite number of sides, starting from any one tangent or vertex, implies closure in the same number of sides, whatever the point of beginning. In place of two conics we have here the one quartic, but the essential (2, 2) corre- spondence is in evidence, and the same mobility of figure results from it. Not to be confounded with these exam- ples is the particular plane quartic curve in- vestigated by Liiroth, which admits the in- scription of a complete pentagon. There is a resemblance, it is true, in the fact that it too is a problem of closure, and in the variability of the pentagon. For if the sides of one such pentagon are given by equations, p—0, q=—0, ete., so that the quartic equation is pars + qrst.+ rstp + stpq + tpqr=0, then these five sides are tangents of a unique conic, and every tangent to that conic is one of a set of five constituting an inscribed pentagon of the same quartic. But the correspondence is (4, 4), and the circumscribed locus is not a rational curve. It is, however, in one direct line of descent from Poncelet’s triangles. Those triangles mark, on the conic-bearing tangents, sets of three points in involution; and any cubic involution of tangents has for locus of the vertices of its triangles a second conic. So when the number of tangents in each set is increased, we have the involu- tion-curves. It is an involution of the fifth order which generates for its locus this quartic curve of Liiroth, each tangent inter- secting the four in its own set. Such an involution is the equivalent of a (4, 4) correspondence, which might in special cases degenerate into two (2, 2) corre- spondences, and carry Liiroth’s quartic curve with it into two distinct conics, each containing a system of inscribed Poncelet triangles. FEBRUARY 4, 1916] A somewhat different kind of curve aris- ing from a (2, 2) correspondence was that investigated some years ago by Holgate. Starting with a pencil of conics, normalized to a system of coaxial circles, he gave to every point in their plane an index, usually co, but for certain points finite. From the point any line is drawn. It touches two circles of the system. One of these has a second tangent through that same point, and that tangent touches a third circle, etc. If after n steps of this kind the first line is reached again, the index of that point is n. Holgate determined the locus of points whose index is 3 as a parabola; that for index 4 as a nodal quartic, and laid out the general method for higher indices. One should react from this experiment to something more like the original Poncelet object; to one fixed conic as support of its tangents, and a double infinity or net of conics. A simple infinity of conics in this net would contain Poncelet triangles with respect to the fixed conic: their index would be 3, and their envelope would take the place of Holgate’s parabola. And for the dual problem, there is ready at hand the well-known system of confocal conics, in which the indices of all straight lines should be studied, and the envelopes of lines for each integral index. The number of different treatments of this same problem increases, not rapidly, but steadily ; its fascination is exerted upon the successive generations of mathemati- cians, and some of their works of art stand out from the mass, some for a little time, some longer. I shall pass over most of them, these images, in geometric shape, of the algebraic (2, 2) correspondence; and describe only one more related object, an image of a (3, 3) correspondence. Franz Meyer studied it and elaborated it in detail, years ago as a docent at Tiibingen, in his book on Apolaritdét. Studying the quartic SCIENCE 157 involution, he began with the (3, 3) corre- spondence among points upon a twisted cubic curve, the simplest rational curve in space of three dimensions. For compari- son, remember the cubic involution on a conic in two-space. There we had this theorem on Poncelet triangles: If a conic be circumscribed to one triangle which is circumscribed about a fixed conic, then there are co other triangles similarly re- lated to the two conics. Meyer found the theorem, surprising by contrast: If a tet- rahedron be formed of four planes which osculate one fixed cubic curve in three- space, and a second cubic curve be passed through its four vertices, then that pair of cubies may have, or may not have, a second tetrahedron similarly related to them. If, however, there is a second tetrahedron, then there is a simply infinite set of such. Many other remarkable facts in the geometry of twisted cubic curves he developed, most of which still wait for diffusion among the geometric public. Such a discrepancy between conic and cubic does not exist in regard to periodic sets of lines and planes, respectively, of period seven. Whether it is found for pe- riods five and six, no one has yet under- taken to determine. Yet a cleavage so marked, and so unexpected, is certainly a challenge to geometricians to explore fur- ther the so-called norm curves of hyper- space, and the involutions of point sets of low orders upon them. Also the half-forgotten fact deserves recognition and exploitation, that all those Poncelet systems are associated with linear involutions upon rational curves. In that feature, possibly, lies even more promise of generalizations and discoveries than in Jacobi’s brilliant and beautiful depiction by the aid of periodic functions. Not every creation of the geometric mind finds an environment ready in which it can 158 live and grow. Some remain, immortal but alone, like the ancient theorem of Pytha- goras or perhaps in recent years Morley’s Pentacle, that creation of tantalizing beauty and illusory simplicity. Most new ideas in geometry die early, or pass, by publica- tion, into the condition of mummies or fossils; let our grateful recognition and praise follow then those fortunate worthies like Poncelet, whose genius has given us the fruitful ideas, problems and theories with a significance stretching far beyond their accidental first form, reappearing through the years in new embodiments, and so achieving a life if not perpetual, at least as long enduring as the present era of in- tellectual culture. H. 8. WHITE VASSAR COLLEGE THE CONTEST WITH PHYSICAL NATURE? I rancy that if Christopher Columbus is able at this time to survey this world and see what is happening that he is well pleased at his venturesome voyage. While the nations of the world that he left have their knives at each other’s throats the peoples of this new world have sent their most learned men, their philosophers, their scientists, inventors and engineers to talk with one another as to how this new land may become wiser, richer and be made more useful. This is surely a contrast. Tt is a condition for which my knowledge of history offers no parallel. There are times I know when nations who believe in themselves must fight. But let us not delude ourselves with the notion that civilization is the product of arms. The only excuse for war is to secure peace, that men of thought, resourcefulness and skill may have opportunity to make themselves masters of the secrets of nature. For the real battle of the centuries is not between men or between nations or between 1 Address before the Mining and Geological Sec- tion of the Pan-American Scientific Congress. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 races. The one fight, the enduring contest, is between man and physical nature. There is no denying the fact that we live in a world that is hostile and secretive. It is organized to destroy us if it can. Our enemies have cunning and ferocity. We have but to fold our arms and the beasts, the flies, the rats, the mosquitoes and the vermin would make us their easy prey. And if they could not win by force, they would bring death by starvation. This world was made for a fighting man and for none other. Softness is not to be our por- tion, because nature knows no holiday. So man must battle with nature that he may se- cure that physical peace necessary to give his spirit a chance to show itself in things of beauty and deeds of goodness. And this is what we eall civilization—this triumph over the down-pull of nature. We make her yield. We master her secrets. With wooden club and stone axe, with bow and arrow and with fire man mastered his wild enemies and then with seed and water man mastered the surface of the earth. The sea challenged him and he discovered the floating log, the paddle and then the sail, until he made himself master also of the surface of the sea. These things it took ages to do. Nature re- vealed nothing. Man had to observe and re- flect that he might discover or invent. Was there ever such a discovery as that a planted seed would sprout and yield? Or that the wind would drive a hollowed log? But these things happened long ago. And now we have made not only the surface of the land and sea our own, but their depths as well. The wind not only fills our sails, but we master the air itself. We make our own lightning and harness it to work for us, to push and to pull, to lift and to turn. We have found the great secret that nature can be made to fight nature. But we must fight with her for our weapons. They are not handed to us; they are hidden from us. If man is to have dominion over this earth, he is committed to an unending search. He must bore and burrow, dig and blast, crush and refine, distill and mix, burn and compress until he forces nature to yield her locked and buried treasures. FEBRUARY 4, 1916] Nature would have man isolated, but he triumphs over her with billets of steel and threads of copper. He swings a hammer and an engine is made that makes him neighbor to the world. He whispers to a wire which shouts the spoken word into space. Nature would have a limit to the soil’s sup- porting strength, but man robs the air of its nitrogen and the rocks of their phosphorus and potash to revivify the unwilling earth. Nature would have man the victim of insidi- ous enemies that stop or clog the human ma- chine, but man distills from the buried carbons agents that stay destruction for a time, and now man has found a mineral which gives promise of opening the way into a new world of mysterious restoration. This is a glorious battle in which you are fighting—the geologist who reads the hiero- glyphs that nature has written, the miner who is the Columbus of the world underground, the engineer, the chemist, and the inventor who out of curiosity plus courage, plus imagination fashion the swords of a triumphing civiliza- tion. Indeed it is hardly too much to say that the extent of man’s domain and his tenure of the earth rest with you. F. K. Lane DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR DANIEL GIRAUD ELLIOT Ty the death of Daniel Giraud Elliot, which occurred on December 22 last, after a short illness from pneumonia, science has lost a dis- tinguished ornithologist and mammalogist. Dr. Elliot was born in New York City, March 7, 1835, and had therefore nearly completed his eighty-first year. He prepared to enter Columbia College in the class of 1852, but delicate health prevented his taking a college course and led him to seek for several years a mild winter climate, during which he visited southern Europe, Egypt, Palestine, Turkey, the West Indies and Brazil. In 1906 he was honored by Columbia University with the degree of Se.D. From an early age his interest in natural history was intense, and in its pursuit he traveled widely and spent many years in Europe, chiefly in Paris and London. For SCIENCE 159 some years before his death he was the dean of American zoologists, exceeding in age his lifelong friend, Dr. Theodore N. Gill, by two years. His primary interest for many years was ornithological, and he was the author of many folio monographs of birds, expensively illustrated with handcolored plates; during the last twenty years he devoted his time to the study of mammals, which became almost exclusively the subject of his researches. In his early days he formed a notable col- lection of North American birds—the best private collection then extant—which later was secured by the American Museum of Nat- ural History, forming its first collection of birds and the nucleus of its present magnifi- cent collection. At this time (in the later sixties) George N. Lawrence, a much older man than Elliot, was the only working ornitholo- gist in New York, while John Cassin, of Phil- adelphia, and Professor S. F. Baird, of Wash- ington, were the only other prominent orni- thologists in America. Dr. Elliot’s first publication of note was his “ A Monograph of the Tetraonide, or Family of the Grouse” (New York, 1864-1865), a work in imperial folio with 27 handcolored plates. This was followed two years later by “ A Monograph of the Pittidee, or Family of the Ant Thrushes” (New York, 1867), also in folio with 31 colored plates. Soon after ap- peared his “The New and Heretofore Unfig- ured Species of the Birds of North America ” (New York, 1866-1869), in two imperial folio volumes with 72 colored plates. These were soon succeeded by “A Monograph of the Phasianide, or Family of Pheasants” (New York, 1872), also in two folio volumes with 48 colored plates. These works, mainly illustrated from his own drawings, were all brought out in America and their preparation marks the period prior to his long sojourn abroad, begin- ning in 1869, where similar magnificent works were prepared and published in London. These are: “ A Monograph of the Paradiseide, or Birds of Paradise” (folio, London, 1873, with 37 colored plates) ; “ A Monograph of the Bucerotide, or Hornbills” (folio, London, 1876-1882, with 59 colored plates) ; “ A Mono- 160 graph of the Felide, or Family of the Cats” (folio, London, 1883, with 48 colored plates). These works were not only important contri- butions to science but as works of art were at the highest level of such publications and rendered their author famous throughout the world, winning for him many decorations from European governments. He was him- self an artist of no ordinary attainments, but he sought for his illustrations the best talent available abroad, including such eminent draughtsmen as Wolf and Keulemans. During this period of nearly ten years abroad he was a frequent sojourner in Paris, in order to avail himself of the rich treasures of the famous natural history museum of that city, and became thus intimately associated with many of the leading French zoologists. Through his long residence in London he par- ticipated in the scientific activities of the British Ornithologists’ Union and the Zoolog- ical Society, and for a time was a member of the Publication Committee of the latter. In his recent “In Memoriam” of the late Philip Lutley Sclater,t for so many years the efficient secretary of the Zoological Society and also editor of The Ibis, he has given a most en- chanting reminiscence of the great naturalists who were in that day at the height of their activities and renown, but who have now, with the single exception of F. Ducane Godman, preceded Elliot to the great beyond. Although the labor of getting up his great illustrated monographs must have been ab- sorbing, he found time to prepare many tech- nical papers on birds, which were published at frequent intervals in The Ibis or in the Pro- ceedings of the London Zoological Society. At this time he was especially interested in the Trochilide, or Hummingbirds, the outcome of which was his “ A Classification and Synop- sis of the Trochilide,” a quarto memoir of about 300 pages, with numerous text illustra- tions, published in the Smithsonian Contribu- tions (Washington, 1879). Elliot’s active temperament never permitted him to remain long idle. Soon after his re- turn from abroad he became one of the au- 1The Auk, XXXI., January, 1914, pp. 1-12. SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 thors of the “bird volume” of Kingsley’s “The Standard Natural History,” published in 1885, to which he contributed the parts on the Gallinz, the pigeons and the humming- birds, and also began work on a new edition of his “ Monograph of the Pittide.” Since the publication of the first edition in 1863, the number of species of the group known to science had nearly doubled, and in preparing the new edition the text of the first was wholly discarded, only a few of the plates be- ing retained in the second, which now included 51 colored plates with wholly new and greatly extended text. It was published in London by Quarich (1893-1895). Another outcome of his long interest in the Trochilidz was the formation while abroad of a collection of these “gems of ornithology,” which he brought with him on his return to New York early in 1883. This collection, then probably unsurpassed by any other, he later (in 1887) presented to the American Mu- seum of Natural History, where it has since remained as a standard reference collection for the group. At about this date Dr. Elliot’s extensive and well-selected ornithological l- brary passed to the museum by purchase. It contained many rare as well as expensive works, and for the first time the museum came into possession of a reasonably adequate li- brary of ornithology. In 1894 Elliot became curator of zoology at the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, from which office he resigned in 1906 and re- turned to New York. During his curatorship at this institution the zoological department at the Field Museum made rapid strides through his energetic efforts, and it was also a period of marked activity in his literary career. In 1896 he made an expedition to Africa in the interest of this museum, passing through Somaliland and Ogaden on his way to the Boran country, where his work was checked by serious illness. He succeeded, how- ever, in bringing back a large collection of birds and mammals, which became not only the basis of important exhibits in the museum but of important papers giving the results of his explorations. He later made a difficult FeEpruary 4, 1916] expedition to the Olympic Mountains in Washington, also fruitful in zoological results. During his curatorship at the Field Mu- seum he prepared and published under its aus- pices several important handbooks on North American mammals, an undertaking that might well have taxed the courage and ener- gies of a much younger man. These are: “Synopsis of the Mammals of North America and the Adjacent Seas” (1 volume, large 8vo, 1901) ; “ The Land and Sea Mammals of Mid- dle America and the West Indies” (2 vols., large 8vo, 1904); “ A Check List of the Mam- mals of the North American Continent, the West Indies and the Neighboring Seas” (1 vol., 8vo, 1905); “ A Catalogue of the Collec- tion of Mammals in the Field Columbian Mu- seum” (large 8vo, 1907). The first two of these works form a handbook to all the mam- mals of North America and adjacent islands, with the cranial characters of each genus well illustrated by excellent half-tone cuts of nat- ural size, while the text gives brief descrip- tions and full references to the original de- seriptions. While open to criticism, as such work must always be, they have proved of great utility not only to amateurs but to ex- perts. On leaving the Field Museum he set out upon a work of so much difficulty and magni- tude that it seemed an almost audacious undertaking, which some of his friends feared would prove beyond his strength. This is his “A Review of the Primates,” begun in 1906 and completed in 1912, and published in three volumes by the American Museum of Nat- ural History, with 11 colored plates of ani- mals and 32 half-tone plates of skulls, the latter all natural size, and with a perfection of detail not previously attained. Soon fully realizing the seriousness of the undertaking he sailed for Europe in April, 1907, to visit all of the principal museums abroad in order to study the actual types of the species and such other material as bore upon the subject. After visiting the museums and zoological gardens of Kurope he passed on to Egypt, India, China and Japan, returning to New York after an absence of eighteen months, SCIENCE 161 with an immense store of notes and manu- scripts for future elaboration. After the work had greatly progressed he found it nec- essary to revisit the museums of Europe to settle many still doubtful points. He labored at his great task incessantly for at least nine months of each year, year after year, with in- domitable industry and perseverance till at last it was completed for the press. In a work of this nature it would be rash to expect per- fection; it is essentially sound in principle and method, and if lacking somewhat in de- tails, it will long be of invaluable service to all who may follow in the same field. Besides the works already mentioned, Dr. Elliot has many lesser volumes and a long list of technical and occasional papers to his eredit. During the years 1895-1898, he pub- lished three casual volumes, of a somewhat popular character, on the game birds of North America, for Elliot. was an ardent sportsman as well as a naturalist. These books, which have met with much favor, are entitled: “North American Shorebirds: a History of the Snipes, Sandpipers, Plovers and their Allies” (8vo, New York, 1895); “The Gal- linaceous Game Birds of North America” (8vo, New York, 1897); “The Wild Fowl of the United States and British Possessions, or the Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers of North America” (8vo, New York, 1898). Dr. Elliot was one of the founders of the American Ornithologists’ Union (1883), its president for two years (1890-1891), and an active member of its council for twenty-eight years (1887-1915). He was also a member of the British Ornithologists’ Union, the Zoolog- ical Society of London, a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and an honorary or corresponding member of many scientific so- cieties in Europe as well as in America. In the early years of the founding and or- ganization of the American Museum of Nat- ural History Dr. Elliot greatly aided the trustees by his wise scientific advice—at that time the only resident naturalist in New York equipped with the requisite experience and technical knowledge—and acted as their agent for several years in Europe in the pur- 162 chase of the important collections which formed the foundation of its present strong departments of mammalogy and ornithology. He has in later days shown his keen interest in its welfare through valuable gifts and ap- preciated advice. On the occasion of his eightieth birthday, the American Museum made public recogni- tion of his services through the publication of a brief biographical sketch of Dr. Elliot with portraits of him at the age of thirty years, at sixty-four (when curator of zoology at the Field Museum), and at eighty, and pre- sented him with an engrossed memorial signed by the full scientifie staff of the museum, giv- ing him “greeting with grateful recognition and appreciation ” of his services “as an ex- pert adviser of the museum in its early days.” A few months later he was elected to the board of trustees, from which his sudden removal by death is regarded as a great loss to the insti- tution. Dr. Elliot was not without further special honor in his home city. On March 24, 1914, the Linnzan Society of New York held a din- ner in his honor in recognition of “ his unique attainments in mammalogy and ornithology,” at which the society presented him with its Linnzan medal of honor, the second occasion of the presentation of this medal. Dr. Elliot’s speech of acceptance was in his char- acteristically graceful and happy vein. It was soon after published by the society as a special brochure. Dr. Elliot was a man of striking personality, dignified and reserved in manner, conserva- tive yet broadminded, constant and sympa- thetic in his personal friendships. His career was one of ceaseless activity in his lines of special research, and he has left many monu- ments to lighten the way of those who may follow in his footsteps. He fell into no ruts of routine that materially hampered his prog- ress. On leaving England he was naturally deeply embued with the ways and methods of his British confréres, particularly in certain nomenclatorial matters, but these he was able to promptly abandon, accepting in their place the then radical innovations that had arisen in SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITT. No. 1101 his home land during his absence. In other words, he soon accepted the A. O. U. Code of Nomenclature, with the date of Linné at 1758 instead of 1766, its trinomialism, and the point of view regarding species and subspecies thus entailed, which many of his colleagues of the earlier days of his sojourn abroad could never bring themselves to adopt. Dr. Elliot was the fourth son of George T. and Rebecca Giraud Elliot. He was descended on his father’s side from old Connecticut stock which settled near New London early in the sixteenth century, and on his mother’s side from French ancestors who settled at New Rochelle and later moved to New York some two centuries ago. On the paternal side his forebears were prominent in public affairs, and in the colonial wars against the Indians. He was married in 1858 to Annie Eliza Hender- son, by whom he had two daughters, of whom one, Margaret Henderson Elliot, still survives. J. A. ALLEN AMERICAN MUSEUM or NATURAL HisTory, NEw YorkK FRANCIS MARION WEBSTER Science has suffered an irreparable loss and the entomological confraternity a severe shock in the death, by pneumonia, of Professor F. M. Webster, in charge of cereal and forage in- sect investigations in the U. S. Bureau of Entomology. The sad event occurred on Jan- uary third at Columbus, Ohio, where he had gone in order to attend the meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Francis Marion Webster was born at Leba- non, New Hampshire, August 8, 1849, and was therefore in his sixty-seventh year. His first entomological writing occurred in the Chicago Weekly Interocean, July 2, 1874, under the title of “ Notes on Some of the Common Injurious Insects.” He was ap- pointed assistant state entomologist of Illinois in 1882 and served in that capacity until 1884, publishing several short but interesting and important papers on insects affecting cereal and forage crops. Professor Webster served FEBRUARY 4, 1916] as special field agent to the U. S. Department of Agriculture from 1884 to 1892 and at other various times in his career. It was during the period mentioned above that he conducted the very important investigations on the buffalo gnats in Mississippi and Louisiana, resulting in the discovery of the conditions necessary for the maintenance of the larval existence of these pests, thereby paving the way for the institution of remedial measures eventually resulting in immense savings of money in the form of live stock, to say nothing of the as- suagement of human misery. In 1888 Professor Webster was detailed by the late Dr. C. V. Riley, then chief of the U. S. Division of Entomology, to visit Australia for the purpose of making a report on the agri- cultural features of the Melbourne Interna- tional Exposition, the U. S. Exposition Com- missioners making the preparation of this re- report conditional upon their agreement to assume the expense of the journey for both Professor Webster and another entomologist, Mr. Albert Koeble. The latter was charged with the work of collecting the natural insect enemies of the citrus fluted scale, which had accidentally become introduced into Cali- fornia, resulting in the discovery of the won- derfully efficient Coccinellid beetle, Vedalia cardinalis. Professor Webster visited portions of Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, ac- complishing his mission with eminent success and returning to this country in 1889. During the years 1891 to 1902 he was ento- mologist to the Ohio State Experiment Sta- tion. This portion of his life was productive of much important biological research work and many valuable observations, not the least of which were his discoveries of the relations of ants to the existence of the corn root aphis, and those which resulted in his memorable paper on the Hessian fly, setting forth the now well substantiated theory to the effect that wheat should be planted subsequent to the emergence and death of the great bulk of adult flies in the autumn, resulting undoubt- edly in the saving of vast sums of money to the progressive farmers of the entire wheat belt. During a portion of the years 1903-04 SCIENCE 163 Professor Webster was connected with the Biological Survey of Illinois but his more im- portant work was in the capacity of special field agent to the United States Department of Agriculture. The results of these investi- gations were made known in several bulletins of the old Division of Entomology. The most important of these is perhaps the paper en- titled “Some Insects Attacking the Stems of Growing Wheat, Rye, Barley and Oats,” re- garded as a standard publication of its class for many years. , At the end of 1904 Professor Webster came to Washington to join the entomological serv- ice of the Department of Agriculture which had just been given bureau rank. The section of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations was created in 1906 and Professor Webster placed in charge, which position he held at the time of his death. In this service the climax of his usefulness was attained. He started this work with a single assistant but under his masterly guidance its organization developed with giant strides until at the time of his death a staff of more than fifty trained ento- mologists were carrying out his plans and the section received from congress for the fiscal year 1915-16 an appropriation of $114,508. Professor Webster’s life was a most indus- trious one. His hundreds of valuable papers dealing almost exclusively witk the many phases of economic entomology will endure so long as the science of entomology itself. Although recognizing fully the importance of taxonomic work in the field of biological science Professor Webster apparently never described a single genus or species, althougi he discovered many during his decades of bio- logical research work. Several genera in hymenoptera and diptera have however been named in his honor by various authors. He evinced a tremendous interest in his work and was able through sheer force of character to transmit this quality to his entire staff of investigators, each one of whom was made to feel that his superior took a lively and in- tensely human interest not only in his work but also in him personally. The younger men will remember their lamented friend and chief 164 with especial gratitude for his kindly inter- est, generous viewpoint and sound advice. He evinced absolutely no trace of that petty jeal- ousy regarding credits in the publication of results which mars the character of some otherwise truly big men in science. On the contrary, he was ever ready to sacrifice both time and labor in assisting his men in their efforts. Professor Webster was a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Indiana Academy of Science, and ex-president of the Association of Kco- nomic Entomologists, Ohio Academy of Sci- ence and the Entomological Society of Wash- ington, a member of the Entomological So- ciety of America, Biological Society of Wash- ington, and the National Geographic Society. He was also an honorary member of the Ento- mological Society of Ontario and Correspond- ing member of the Cambridge Entomological Club and the New York Entomological So- ciety. The degree of master of science was conferred on him by the University of Ohio in 1893. Personally, Professor Webster was genial in manner, frugal and abstemious in habit and extremely simple in tastes; of exceeding hon- esty ; in speech most temperate and he had ac- quired a literary style that was at once direct, lucid and forceful. He was also a most prac- tical man, possessing a broad knowledge of agricultural methods and was therefore en- abled to see his scientific problems from the viewpoint of the farmer. This latter faculty contributed as much perhaps as any one of his many excellent attributes toward the achieve- ment of the magnificent success in economic entomology which was his. Although Professor Webster’s death oc- eurred with shocking suddenness, he enjoyed a privilege granted to comparatively few men, in being permitted to spend nearly a half cen- tury in a labor he loved and to die at the very zenith of his usefulness and popularity in a manner which would very probably have been his choice, namely, “in the harness.” W. R. Watton SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 THE JOSEPH AUSTIN HOLMES MEMORIAL A MEETING was held in the Bureau of Mines, Washington, on January 15, 1916, at which the following were in attendance: Mr. Hennen Jennings and Mr. Van H. Manning, repre- senting the American Institute of Mining Engineers; Dr. David T. Day and Dr. Joseph Hyde Pratt, the American Mining Congress; Mr. Samuel Gompers, the American Federation of Labor; Mr. William Green, the United Mine Workers of America; Dr. George Otis Smith, the Mining and Metallurgical Society; Gen. W. H. Bixby, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Mr. John H. Finney, the American Institute of Electrical Engi- neers; Dr. F. G. Cottrell, the American Electro-Chemical Society; Mr. George S. Rice, the National Safety Council; Dr. L. O. Howard, the American Association for the Advancement of Science; Dr. S. S. Voorhees, the American Chemical Society; Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Mr. Nelson H. Darton and Dr. Joseph Hyde Pratt, the Geological Society of America; Dr. David White, the National Academy of Sciences; Major Robert U. Pat- terson, the American Red Cross Society, and Mr. William L. Hall, the American Forestry Association. The object of the meeting was to consider a permanent memorial to the late Dr. Joseph A. Holmes, the founder of the United States Bureau of Mines. After an extended discus- sion, the following resolutions were adopted: WHEREAS, it is the sense of this meeting that a suitable memorial be established to honor the mem- ory of the distinguished humanitarian and scientist, Dr. Joseph A. Holmes, therefore be it Resolved, First, That each national body or so- ciety here represented and others that desire to be represented be requested to approve a permanent organization or incorporation to be known and named ‘‘The Joseph A. Holmes Safety First Asso- iation,’’? and that each such national body or so- ciety shall appoint one representative to act with other representatives in such permanent organi- zation. i Resolved, Second, That a meeting be held of the duly appointed representatives of the Bureau of Mines building, Washington, D. C., on March 4, FEsruary 4, 1916] 1916, at which a permanent organization is to be effected. Resolved, Third, That pending the formation of @ permanent organization the temporary officers continue together with two members to be ap- pointed by the chair as an executive committee with authority to incur necessary expenses, and that the temporary officers be authorized and em- powered to take all necessary action in furtherance of the purposes of the permanent organization. Resolved, Fourth, That the proposed organiza- tion when so effected shall through its various members and organizations endeavor to collect sufficient funds to carry out the purposes of this association. Resolved, Fifth, That each national body or so- ciety becoming a member of this organization shail select its representative and notify the temporary secretary of such membership and selection. Resolved, Siath, That the temporary organiza- tion commends to the permanent organization the annual award of one or more medals which, to- gether with honorariums, shall be termed The Holmes Award for the encouragement of those originating, developing and installing the most efficient ‘‘safety first’’ devices, appliances or methods in the mineral industry and also special medals for the recognition of personal heroism or distinguished service in the mineral industry. However, further suggestions are invited from the organizations to be represented in this association. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Proressor StepHEN ALFRED Forsss, of the University of Illinois, and Professor Samuel Wendell Williston, of the University of Chi- cago, were elected honorary fellows of the Entomological Society of America at its meet- ing at Columbus, Ohio. Dr. P. A. Levent, member of the Rocke- feller Institute for Medical Research and di- rector of the chemical laboratories, has been elected an ordinary member of the Rega Soci- etas Scientiarum Upsaliensis in recognition of his scientific activities. THE Geological Society of London has made the following awards of medals and funds: Wollaston medal, Dr. A. P. Karpinsky (Petro- grad); Murchison medal, Dr. R. Kidston, F.R.S. (Stirling); Lyell medal, Dr. OC. W. Andrews, F.R.S. (Natural History Museum, SCIENCE 165 London) ; Wollaston fund, Mr. W. B. Wright (Geological Survey of Ireland); Murchison fund, Mr. G. W. Tyrrell (Glasgow Univer- sity); Lyell fund, Messrs. M. A. C. Hinton and A. S. Kennard. TuE faculty of Presidency College, Calcutta, has appointed Dr. J. ©. Bose professor emeritus. Amone the members of the Assay Commis- sion for the coming year, appointed by Presi- dent Wilson, are Professor Jas. Lewis Howe, Washington and Lee University; Professor Andrew ©. Lawson, University of California, and Dr. F. W. Clarke, U. S. Geological Survey. The commission will meet at the Philadelphia Mint February 9 to test the weight and fine- ness of the coins reserved by the several mints of the country during the past year. A COMPLIMENTARY dinner was given to Pro- fessor Victor C. Vaughan, dean of the medical department of the University of Michigan, at the Harvard Club, New York City, by the faculty of the University and Bellevue Hos- pital Medical College, on January 12. As has been already announced, Dr. John H. Wigmore, professor of law in Northwestern University, was elected president of the Amer- ican Association of University Professors at the annual meeting. It is now announced that Professor H. W. Tylor, professor of mathe- matics at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, has been elected to the secretaryship. Dr. W. H. Perrin, F.R.S., professor of chemistry at the University of Oxford, has ac- cepted the post of head of the research depart- ment of British Dyes, Limited. He has also accepted the chairmanship of the Advisory Council of that company, in the place made vacant by the death of the late Professor Raphael Meldola, F.R.S. THE loss which the U. S. Geological Survey has suffered through the death of Mr. Sledge Tatum necessitates the following assignments in the topographic branch: William H. Her- ron to be acting chief geographer to serve for the balance of the fiseal year; Glenn S. Smith as topographic engineer in charge of the cen- tral division for the same period, and Claude 166 H. Birdseye as topographic engineer in charge of the Rocky Mountain Division. In case of the temporary absence of the branch chief the division chiefs will act for him with full au- thority, in the following order of seniority: Frank Sutton, T. G. Gerdine, G. R. Davis, C. H. Birdseye, G. S. Smith. C. Witu1Am BeEeEse, curator of birds of the New York Zoological Society, has sailed for British Guiana to establish a tropical zoolog- ical station. Mr. Beebe will build a bungalow on the edge of the jungle and there he will study the habits of birds in their own prov- ince. A complete laboratory outfit will be taken. With him will be Inness Hartley, who goes as research associate; Paul Holmes, whose interest is in photography and work with in- sects, and Mr. Carter, who goes as collector. Prorressor CHartes H. Tuck, of the college of agriculture, Cornell University, has left Ithaca on a sabbatie leave of absence which will extend to next September. He is on his way to Manchuria, where he is to make agri- cultural investigations. Proressor 8. Nawascury, for many years professor of botany in the University of Kiew, Russia, and also director of the botanical gar- den of that place, has gone to Tiflis. He wishes his botanical correspondents to note that his address is now Botanic Garden, Tiflis (Caucas), Russia. Tue Frederick Forchheimer chair of medi- cine in the University of Cincinnati was form- ally inaugurated on January 28. President Charles W. Dabney made an address on Fred- erick Forchheimer and scientific methods; Dr. Christian R. Holmes, dean of the college of medicine, spoke on the history of the found- ing of the chair, and Dr. Roger S. Morris, recently appointed to the chair, also made an address. Proressor LAFAYETTE B. Menpet, of Yale University, will give a course of three lectures at the University of Illinois on the subject of “ Some Features of Growth,” February 10, 11 and 12. He will also be a speaker at an as- sembly of the College of Agriculture, when he will speak on the topic, “ Changes in the Food Supply and Their Relation to Nutrition.” SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 Brrore the New York Electrical Society on January 27, Professor Michael I. Pupin, of Columbia University, gave an address on “Wireless Transmission Problems.” Tue Lettsomian lectures before the Medical Society of London will be delivered by Major F. W. Mott, F.R.S., on February 7 and 21 and March 6, the subject selected being the effects of high explosives on the central nervous sys- tem. Tue late Professor Meldola bequeathed his entomological collection and cabinets to the Hope Museum, Oxford. If there are no grand- children £500 each is to be paid to the Royal Society, the Chemical Society, the Entomolog- ical Society and the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. A qirt of $2,000 has been made to Cornell University by Professor Simon H. Gage and his son, Henry Phelps Gage, to provide for the construction of a room in a new dormi- tory for women students. The gift is made as a memorial to Susanna Phelps Gage (Mrs. Simon H. Gage), author of valuable contri- butions to embryology and comparative anat- omy. ; Tue Medical Society of the District of Co- lumbia and the Association for the Preven- tion of Tuberculosis of the District held a joint meeting on January 19, in memory of the late Surgeon-General George M. Stern- berg, U. S. Army. Addresses were delivered by Drs. George M. Kober, William C. Gwynn and Harvey W. Wiley. Mr. Strpce Tarum died on January 18 after a long service with the Geological Sur- vey. He was a topographer from 1899 to 1904. He then served on the Isthmian Canal Com- mission for four years, when he returned to the Geological Survey as topographic engineer and was appointed geographer of the Rocky Mountain Division in 1910. A short time prior to his death he was appointed acting chief geographer. Mr. Tatum’s services to the government have been of a high order. He had ability and enthusiasm for his work and a personality which enabled him to secure loyal and efficient service from his associates. FEBRUARY 4, 1916] Tue death is reported of Mr. T. L. Wilson, of Ottawa, Canada, known for his inventions concerned with acetylene gas and carbide. Sik CLEMENTS MarKHam, who took part in the Arctic expedition of 1850 in search of Sir John Franklin, and subsequently engaged in many geographical explorations, president of the Royal Geographical Society from 1893 to 1905, died on January 380, at the age of eighty- six years. Sir Francis Henry Lovett, dean of the London School of Tropical Medicine, died on January 28 in London. Sir Francis had been chief medical officer of Mauritius and a mem- ber of the legislative council and he had served as surgeon-general and as a member of the executive and legislative councils of the colonies of Trinidad and Tobago. Sm H. Evetyn Oaxeey, author of mathe- matical works and reports on educational sub- jects, has died, aged eighty-two years. GraF zu Sotms-Laupacn, who held the chair of botany first at Gottingen and afterwards at Strasburg, has died at the age of seventy-two years. Gumo Bacce.uti, professor of clinical medi- cine at the University of Rome and chief of the general hospital, the Policlinico, the erec- tion of which was mostly his work, has died, aged eighty-four years. Tur New York Academy of Sciences will celebrate in May, 1917, the centenary of its foundation. The president has been author- ized by the council of the academy to appoint five committees in charge of exhibition, meet- ings, funds, history and membership. At the close of the Nineteenth Interna- tional Congress of Americanists, held in Washington, December 27-31, 1915, a formal invitation was accepted from Brazil to hold the next American Congress at Rio de Janeiro in June of 1918. The invitation was extended through Dr. A. C. Simoens da Silva, by the National Museum, National Library, National Archive, the Brazilian Historical and Geo- graphical Institute and the Society of Geog- raphy, at Rio de Janeiro, and the Historical and Geographical Institute Fluminense. SCIENCE 167 At the tenth annual meeting of the Ento- mological Society of America, held at Colum- bus, Ohio, December 29 and 30, the following officers were elected: President, F. M. Webster, U. S. Bureau of Entomology; First Vice- president, E. P. Felt, New York State Ento- mologist; Second Vice-president, A. L. Me- lander, Washington State College; Secretary- Treasurer, J. M. Aldrich, U. S. Bureau of Entomology, West LaFayette, Indiana; Addi- tional Members of the Executive Committee, H. T. Fernald, Massachusetts Agricultural College; W. E. Britton, state entomologist of Connecticut; P. J. Parrott, entomologist, New York Agricultural Experiment Station; E. D. Ball, Oregon Agricultural College; C. Gordon Hewitt, Dominion entomologist. Tue Florida Entomological Society has re- cently been organized at Gainesville, Florida, with fifteen charter members. The first officers elected were Professor J. R. Watson, entomol- ogist of the Florida Experiment Station, Pres- ident; Mr. Wilmon Newell, plant commis- sioner of Florida Plant Board, Vice-president, and Mr. R. N. Wilson, U. S. Bureau of Ento- mology, Secretary-Treasurer. A paper was read on the Velvet Bean Caterpillar (Anti- carsia gemmatilis), by Professor Watson, and another by Dr. E. W. Berger, entomologist of the Florida Plant Board, on the fungus dis- eases of scales and white flies on citrus. At the annual meeting of the Brooklyn Entomological Society, held on the thirteenth inst., the following officers were elected for 1916: President, W. J. Davis; Vice-president, W. T. Bather; Treasurer, Chris. E. Olsen; Re- cording Secretary, J. R. de la Torre Bueno; Corresponding Secretary, KR. P. Dow; Inbrar- zan, A. OC. Weeks; Curator, Geo. Frank; Pub- lication Committee, C. Schaeffer, R. P. Dow and the recording secretary, ex-officio. Wuitr the aniline dye, potash and other chemical industries have attracted a great deal of attention since the beginning of the Euro- pean war, little has been heard about the great impetus the war has given our electrochemical industries. Many electrochemical products such as chlorine and hydrogen, which were a 168 drug on the market before the war, have be- come valuable. New electrochemical indus- tries, like that of metallic magnesium, have been started and the whole electrochemical development is of the utmost importance to the American nation. The New York Section of the American Electrochemical Society has therefore arranged a symposium on “ Electro- chemical War Supplies” which it will hold jointly with the New York sections of the American Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry at the Chemist’s Club, 52 East 41st St., New York, Friday evening, Feb- ruary 11. The program will include the fol- lowing papers: Lawrence Addicks: ‘‘ Electrochemical War Sup- plies. ’’ W.'S. Landis: ‘‘ Air Saltpeter.’’ E. D. Ardery (U. S. Army): ‘* Hydrogen for Military Purposes.’’ Albert H. Hooker: ‘‘New War Products.’’ William M. Grosvenor: ‘‘Magnesium.’’ G. Ornstein: ‘‘ Liquid Chlorine.’’ Geo. W. Sargent: ‘‘ Electric Steel.’’ On December 13, there was installed at the University of Pittsburgh, the Beta chapter of the Sigma Gamma Epsilon, the charter mem- bers of the new chapter consisting of Dean H. B. Meller, dean of the school of mines, Professor H. C. Ray, professor of metallurgy, and sixteen undergraduates. The Sigma Gamma Epsilon fraternity was founded at the University of Kansas during the past year, and its membership is confined to teachers of geology, mining, or metallurgy, and students who are specializing in those subjects. THE executive committee of the Associa- tion of American Universities held a meeting at the University of Pennsylvania on January 24. There were present the following repre- sentatives of five universities: Dr. Thomas Mc- Bride, president of the State University of Iowa, the president of the association; Presi- dent Frank J. Goodnow, of Johns Hopkins University, vice-president of the association; President William A. Bryan, of Indiana Uni- versity; President A. Ross Hill, of the Uni- versity of Missouri. The University of Penn- sylvania was represented by Provost Edgar F. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 Smith and Dean Herman V. Ames, the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, being secretary of the association. The chief business before the committee was to arrange the next annual meeting of the association, which it was voted should be held next fall at Clark University, Worcester, Mass. The following topics were selected for discussion at that time: “How Can Universities be Organized so as to Stimu- late work for the Advancement of Science”; “Military Training in Universities and Col- leges”; “ The Correlation of Work for Higher Degrees in the Graduate School and in Pro- fessional Schools.” For ten weeks during the summer of 1916 a party of students and professors from the de- partment of forestry of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University will be in camp on the forest tract belonging to Mr. T. C. Luther at the south end of Sara- toga Lake. Last year the Cornell forestry de- partment was in camp on a forest tract in the Northern Adirondacks, on which an estimate of the standing timber was made and a gen- eral plan for management was drawn up. A similar study will be made on Mr. Luther’s tract, except that in 1916, owing to the prox- imity of this tract to numerous wood-using mills, greater attention can be paid to the problems of forest utilization. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS A “Puan for the Development of the Uni- versity of California Medical School” has been formally adopted by the regents of the University of California, as a policy to be worked toward. The University of California has now increased to a total of $162,221 per annum its expenditures on medical instruction, over and above the hospital receipts, and within the next few months it will complete the erection, at a cost of $615,000, of a new 216-bed teaching hospital. The regents have now outlined as the immediate future needs of the medical school, a new laboratory build- for anatomy and pathology, to cost $150,000; an “out-patient” building in conjunction with the new teaching hospital, to cost $100,- FEBRUARY 4, 1916] 000; a nurses’ home for 100 nurses, to cost $100,000; and alterations of the existing build- ings on the Parnassus Avenue site in San Francisco to accommodate the departments of physiology and physiological chemistry, ad- ministrative offices and the medical library. Epwarp Puaut, of the class of 1912, has pre- sented $5,000 to Princeton University to establish the Albert Plaut Memorial Library of Chemistry, in memory of his father. Mr. CHRISTOPHER WELCH has left his real estate in the county of Somerset to the Uni- versity of Oxford for the endowment of scholarships for the study of biology, to be known as the “ Welch” scholarships. They are to be tenable for four years and their value is to be £400 a year, any surplus income to be paid into a reserve fund formed by the residue of his estate, to be used for the upkeep of the estate and for furthering the study of biology. If the university does not accept the condi- tions attached to the bequests then the amount goes to six London hospitals, one of which shall be St. George’s Hospital; but no hospital where vivisection is disallowed or discoun- tenanced is to benefit, “ antivisectionists being enemies of the human race.” Sirk ALEXANDER M’Rosert has given to Aber- deen University an endowment of about £750 per annum for a Georgina M’Robert lecture- ship on pathology, with special reference to malignant diseases. The donor recently gave an endowment of £373 per annum to the Aber- deen Royal Infirmary. He is director of the Cawnpore Woollen Mills Company, but be- fore going to India thirty years ago he was Neil Arnott lecturer in experimental physics at the Aberdeen Mechanics’ Institution and lecturer in chemistry at Robert Gordon’s Col- lege, Aberdeen. THE one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the medical school by John Morgan at the University of Pennsylvania will be celebrated by a dinner to be given by the Society of the Alumni of the Medical School at the Bellevue Stratford on the evening of February 4. The committee expects to make this event the largest gathering of its kind ever SCIENCE 169 held by the medical alumni, since it also marks the celebration of the beginning of medical teaching in the United States. Mr. R. M. RayMonn, managing director of the El Oro Company, has been appointed pro- fessor of mining in the School of Mines of Columbia University, succeeding Professor Henry S. Munroe, who retired last June after twenty-seven years of service. Dr. CLARENCE W. Farrar, of the State Hos- pital for the Insane, Trenton, has been ap- pointed lecturer on abnormal psychology in Princeton University. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE FIREFLIES FLASHING IN UNISON Firty years ago in Gorham, Maine, while walking along the road I passed an open field and noticed to my astonishment hundreds of fireflies flashing in perfect unison. I watched this curious sight for some time and the synchronism of the flashing was unbroken. Many times after I have watched these lumin- ous insects, hoping to see a repetition of this phenomenon, but the flashes in every instance were intermittent. Since that time I have read about these insects in various books with- out meeting any allusion to this peculiar be- havior. At last I have found a confirmation of my early observations. In Nature of De- cember 9, page 414, is the report of an inter- esting paper read before the South London Entomological and Natural History Society by K. G. Blair entitled “ Luminous Insects ” in which reference is made to the remarkable synchronism of the flashes in certain European species of fireflies. The explanation offered as to the cause of this behavior seemed to me in- adequate. One often notices in the stridula- tion of the Grillide the perfect time the in- sects keep in their concerts and it seems likely that the same impulse must animate these flashing beetles, and the light emitted could be more easily followed than the sound. The following is an extract from Mr. Blair’s paper: Apart from its principal function in securing the proper mating of the sexes, the light seems 170 also to be largely used, at any rate by the males, for purposes of display. Where the powers of luminosity are largely developed in this sex the emission of the light is usually of an intermittent flashing type. It has been noticed in various par‘s of the world that these flashing males tend to con- gregate in large companies, and that all the indi- viduals of one of these gatherings will flash in con- cert. All the fireflies around one tree or group of trees, for instance, will flash together, while those around a neighboring tree will be pulsating to a different time. This feature has been observed of a European species of Luciola (though Mr. Main and myself were unable to detect anything of the sort with Z. italica at Lugano), of an Indian lampyrid genus not stated, and of the genus Aspidosoma in South America. The Americaa species of Photinus and Photuris do not seem to possess the habit. The exact reason of this flashing in concert, or the method by which it is brought about, have not been ascertained. It has been suggested that the light is not really intermittent in character, but merely appears so owing to its being alternately masked and exhibited by movements of the crea- ture’s body, and that a slight puff of wind might perhaps affect all the members of a company and cause them all to conceal their lights at once. Though this explanation of the intermittent char- acter of the light applies well enough to Pyrophorus, an insect we shall shortly consider, it is certainly not applicable to these Lampyride. It is true the light is not absolutely extinguished between the flashes, but it is so diminished as to become prac- tically dark; moreover the flashing in unison is too regular to be caused by chance puffs of wind. A more probable explanation of the phenomenon is that each flash exhausts the battery, as it were, and a period of recuperation is required before another flash can be emitted. It is then conceiv- able that the flash of a leader might act as a stim- ulus to the discharge of their flashes by the other members of the group, and so bring about the flashing concert by the whole company. Epwarp S. Morsn POLYRADIATE CESTODES In the last number of the Journal of Para- sitology, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 7, W. D. Foster, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, gives an interesting sum- mary of the cases of polyradiate cestodes and deseribes an adult triradiate cestode of the SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1101 species Tenia pisiformis “found in a mass of tapeworms expelled by an imported collie dog.” He states that “no case of an adult triradiate cestode of this species has yet been published.” It is to be regretted that Foster did not inyes- tigate more thoroughly the literature on the polyradiate cestodes before publishing his article. In Science, 1910, N. S., Vol. 31, p. 837, in an article “Some New Cases of Trihedral Tenia,” we published a brief description of two new species of polyradiate cestodes based on the study of four perfect and entire speci- mens of Tenia serrata=Tenia pisiformis and three perfect specimens of Tenia serialis which were secured from four dogs picked up on the streets of Lincoln. Foster bases his description on a “ number of chains of triradiate proglottids, the longest piece being 23 em. representing the anterior half of the worm, except the head.” From the study of our specimens we question the valid- ity of a specific diagnosis of Tenia pisiformis from proglottids alone, without verification from the scolex. He states that “the identification of the species was verified by feeding experiments on a rabbit” and that “although shipped in a solution of formalin of unknown strength, and kept in a 2 per cent. solution of formalin for one week after it was received, it was deter- mined to use some of the material for feeding experiments.” Foster states that he recovered seven “ perfectly normal larve ” of Tenia pisi- formis from the omentum and body cavity of a rabbit reared and kept in captivity, thirteen months after feeding with two of the proglot- tids of the triradiate Tenia pisiformis which had been preserved and kept in formalin. It seems to us that the reliability of the results of these feeding experiments is open to serious question, first in the use of material preserved in formalin of uncertain strength and kept in a 2 per cent. solution for one week after it was received and second in the uncertainty as to the previous natural infection of the rabbit used, for we have repeatedly found our rabbits, born and reared in captivity, heavily infected with Cysticercus pisiformis. FeBruary 4, 1916] Foster failed to read and consequently does not cite along with the other theories advanced as to the origin of the polyradiate cestodes, the theory offered by us in the article previ- ously cited, namely that the polyradiate ces- todes do not represent distinct species or genera which necessarily originate from and in turn give rise to onchospheres with super- numerary hooks and eysticerci with an excess- ive number of suckers but may arise from double embryos produced by the partial sepa- ration of early blastomeres and not by the fusion of normal embryos. In the light of a large amount of data both in the case of natural and experimentally pro- duced twin embryos and adults of a large number of animals which shows that the indi- viduals may be joined in various ways and de- grees, our theory as to the origin of the poly- radiate cestodes seems the most logical of those offered. FRANKLIN D. Barker THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA AN ORGANIC OOLITE FROM THE ORDOVICIAN Microscopic examination of a siliceous oolite from the so-called transition bed be- tween the Prairie du Chien dolomite and St. Croix sandstone at McGregor, Iowa, shows the oolite grains to possess undoubted organic structures of the algal type. The matrix of the oolite grains is dolomitic, and many of the original grains themselves have been partly or wholly changed to dolomite with obliteration of structure, prior to silification. The grains range from .1 mm. to 1.13 mm. in diameter, and, when well preserved, show good concentric and radial structure in addi- tion to the minute sinuous fibers similar to those which characterize the Girvanella type of calcareous alew. These fibers have an aver- age diameter of about .015 mm. Typically the well-preserved grains consist of an inner struc- tureless nucleus, followed by an intermediate band showing radial structure, and this again by an outer band bearing the sinuous fibers. In some instances, however, the two outer bands grade gradually into each other without any distinct line of demarcation. SCIENCE 171 In view of the present controversy regard- ing the origin of oolite, it is believed that this occurrence merits more than passing notice. Francis M. Van Tuy UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS USE OF C.G.S. UNITS In Scrence of December 24, page 904, Pro- fessor Kent has been good enough to review the various points raised in the discussion con- cerning the fundamental equation of dynamics. As space is limited and the discussion has been prolonged, the pedagogic difficulty in the definition of the dyne may be passed over for the present. Whether there is real difficulty in expressing certain derived units because of the use of exponents is open to argument. The cent is a serviceable unit notwithstanding that some financial transactions run up to the millions. Of more importance however is Professor Kent’s statement: Of course it is not difficult for one who is en- gaged constantly in the use of the C.G.S. system and who during that year has had no occasion to use the old units, to break away from them, but it is not only difficult but impossible, for a hundred million people who are constantly using the old units to break away from them. Has he not here overlooked the fact that of the three fundamental units, centimeter, gram and second, one at least, the unit of time, zs constantly used by more than a hundred mill- ion people; and of the three concepts, it is perhaps the most difficult. Are not most scien- tific men to-day in all countries using C.G.S. units and their derivatives? Is not the kilo- meter more widely used than the mile; and has not the kilogram come into very general use? ALEXANDER McADIE THE FIRST SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE To tHe Epiror or Scrmence: I wish to cor- rect a misstatement which occurred in my article on “ Botany in Relation to American Agriculture,” published in Science, January 7. In this article I stated that J. M. Rusk was the 172 first secretary of agriculture in the President’s cabinet. I based this statement upon the fact that the yearbook of the Department of Agri- culture for 1888 contained the last report of N. J. Colman as commissioner of agriculture, and the yearbook of 1889, the first report of J. M. Rusk as secretary of agriculture. In his report Rusk states: I have the honor to respectfully submit my first annual report as secretary of agriculture, and the first report issued under the newly constituted Department of Agriculture. I assumed the duties of my office March 7, 1889, or twenty-six days after the approval of the law creating an execn- tive department of what had heretofore been a bureau, in executive sense, of the government. As no mention was made in either report of Colman having acted as secretary of agricul- ture during this short interval, I took it for granted that Rusk was the first secretary. I have received a letter from Dr. L. O. Howard, however, in which he states that Colman was really the first secretary of agriculture. He writes: Mr. Colman was commissioner of agriculture when the bill passed, and was appointed first sec- retary by President Cleveland on February 13, 1889, his services terminating with the outgoing of the administration on March 6, 1889. G. P. Ciinton SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Quantitative Laws in Biological Chemistry. By Svante ArrHentus. London, G. Bell and Sons, Ltd. 160 pp. 6s. net. The present volume is a restatement of the grounds upon which the illustrious author of the electrolytic dissociation theory arrived at the conviction that “ biological chemistry can not develop into a real science without the aid of the exact methods offered by physical chem- istry.” It comprises a short résumé, developed with a remarkable degree of clarity and sim- plicity, of the author’s work in the quantita- tive field of bio-chemistry, together with the investigations of others on neighboring ground. Originally, the material was compiled for the Tyndall lectures given in the Royal Institu- tion in 1914, and is now offered to the public SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 in the hope that it will evoke interest for the new discipline and stimulate new work. A perusal of the volume, which deals mainly with the velocity of biochemical reactions, the influence of the several factors which govern such velocities and the position of equilibrium can not fail to impress the reader with certain facts. The fundamental import of a knowl- edge of physical, or rather theoretical, chem- istry to the medical student of the future is readily grasped from these pages. The de- scriptive side of chemical science will more and more be found to be inadequate as a training for the complicated phenomena which the medical student will subsequently face. The volume shows that a real comprehension of the notions of experimental error, probable error and the like will open up to the student new and immense fields for research and for advance. What is the chief task in that advance? It is to see how far the physico-chemical laws re- garding the process of chemical reaction are applicable to biochemical processes and, what is much more important, to attempt to eluci- date such processes as have been considered ex- ceptions from known chemical laws. The yield which such an attempt will give is amply illustrated in the present work. It is hard to conceive an ungenerous attitude to a method which has elucidated so many organic proc- esses. The well-known rule of Schutz is a case in point. It is shown that the deviation from the common monomolecular law is read- ily explainable on the basis of the influence of one of the reaction products on the course of the reaction. Further, the general law for such phenomena is as readily obtained and can be experimentally verified. The more com- plex phenomena of digestion, secretion and resorption in an animal’s body may be shown, as the researches of Pawlow and his co-work- ers have established, to consist of a number of very simple regularities operating “in vivo” just as “in vitro” and extraordinarily inde- pendent of psychical effects and other factors which might lead to the belief that a quanti- tative study of such phenomena was impos- sible. As regards chemical equilibria mani- Fesruary 4, 1916] fested in biochemical processes one can not re- frain from contrasting, with Arrhenius, the explanation of the Ehrlich phenomenon on the basis of the law of mass action and that based on the assumption of multitudinous “partial poisons,” toxins and toxoids, forming a characteristic if somewhat unintelligible “oison spectrum.” The book should operate as a stimulus and a spur. From personal contact the writer has reaped no small benefit and much inspiration in other branches of the scientific field. Could this volume attract the attention of some young student in the field of biochemical labors and induce in him the determination to go to the source and obtain personally the fruits of ripened thought and mature judg- ment progress would surely result. In the present pages there is manifest the character- istic genius of the author with his clarity of presentation of the particular thesis in hand. A few infelicities of English occasionally mar the text and suggest that perhaps the assist- ance of the English editor might have been a little more generously given. Words such as “inanimated” and “stomachical” might readily have been replaced. Hueu 8S. Taytor PRINCETON, N. J. The Physiology of the Amino Acids. By Frank P. UnprERHILL, Ph.D. Yale Univer- sity Press. 1915. Pp. 169. Price $1.35. It is truly symptomatic of modern scientific development that books should be written which divide physiology into physical and chemical portions, and that following this classification still finer divisions are intro- duced. One of these latter subdivisions is treated for the first time as an entity in Underhill’s delightful little book, “The Physiology of the Amino Acids.” Each known amino acid is enumerated and its dis- coverer given. Then follow those details which have thus far been unravelled regard- ing the intimate life history within the or- ganism of the behavior of the structural units which compose the protein molecule. From the descriptions given in this book the reader SCIENCE 173 may readily grasp the processes of synthesis and analysis, of oxidation and of reduction through the interplay of which protein under given conditions may be resolved into carbonic acid and urea, and under other conditions, into the texture of the living cells. For emphasis of the latter destiny Osborne and Mendel’s experiments on the growth of rats form a fitting descriptive material. The book will be of interest and value to biologists in general and to physicians who have not for- gotten their chemistry. GraHaM Lusk SPECIAL ARTICLES THE DISCOVERY OF THE CHESTNUT-BLIGHT PARASITE (ENDOTHIA PARASITICA) AND OTHER CHESTNUT FUNGI IN JAPAN To Mr. Frank N. Meyer, agricultural ex- plorer of the office of foreign seed and plant introduction of the Department of Agricul- ture, belongs the distinction of having dis- covered the chestnut-blight fungus (Hndothia parasitica) in Japan as well as in China.} * Meyer’s discovery of the fungus in China has been accepted as proof of the oriental origin of this parasite which has proven so de- structive to the chestnut in the northeastern United States and is rapidly spreading south- ward. Its discovery in Japan furnishes addi- tional evidence as to the correctness of Met- ealf’s? hypothesis that the parasite was intro- duced into this country from Japan. Meyer’s discovery of Hndothia parasitica in China made the presence of the same fungus in Japan seem extremely probable. And later, during her visit to this country in the fall of 1914, Dr. Johanna Westerdijk informed the writers that while in Japan she had seen at 1 Fairchild, David, ‘‘The Discovery of the Chestnut-bark Disease in China,’’? ScrENcE, N. S., Vol. 38, No. 974, pp. 297-299, August 29, 1913. 2Shear, C. L., and Stevens, Neil H., ‘‘The Chestnut-blight Parasite (Hndothia parasitica) from China,’’ Scrmnce, N. S., Vol. 38, No. 974, pp. 295-297, August 29, 1913. 3 Metcalf, Haven, ‘‘The Immunity of the Japanese Chestnut to the Bark Disease,’’ Bur. Plant Ind., U. S. Dept. Agr. Buil. 121, Pt. 6, 1908. 174 Nikko and other places chestnut trees affected by a fungus which appeared identical with Endothia parasitica in this country. Miss Westerdijk also stated that she had collected specimens of the fungus but these specimens with many of her other collections were lost at sea. Following this the writers endeavored to ob- tain specimens of the chestnut-blight parasite by correspondence. Among those to whom the request was sent was Mr. H. Loomis, of Yoko- hama, who very kindly interested himself in the matter, and on February 18 wrote as follows: In compliance with your request of January 4 I have communicated with Professor Y. Kozai, of the Imperial Agricultural Station, Nishigahara, Tokyo, and he writes that ‘‘The chestnut blight is found to some extent in the Provinces of Tamba, Ise, Suruga and Shimotsuke (Nikko is in the lat- ter). This disease is limited to the seedlings in the nursery and the young trees (three or four years old) in the field and may be prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture.’’ I have requested him to procure specimens of the fungus and send the same to you directly. I hope this will meet your desire... . Soon after this a packet of three specimens of fungi on chestnut bark was received from Professor Y. Kozai with a letter stating that they were “specimens of the Japanese chest- None of these proved to be Endothia parasitica, but one specimen col- lected October 14, 1915, in the province of Totomi by S. Tsuruta, and labeled “ Cancer on chestnut,” was evidently an Hndothia, which after careful study of stromata, pyenospores and cultures on various media the writers are conyinced is identical with the oval-spored species of Hndothia found both in this coun- try and in Europe and referred to in their earlier paper? as Hndothia radicalis (Schw.) De Not. The other two specimens sent by Professor Kozai showed no Endothia but two other Pyrenomycetes. 4Shear, C. L., and Stevens, Neil E., ‘‘ Cultural Characters of the Chestnut-blight Fungus and Its Near Relatives,’’? Cire. No. 131, B. P. I., Dept. Agr., July 5, 1913. nut canker.” SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 Shortly before the specimens above referred to were received from Japan a number of speci- mens of Japanese chestnut from California were turned over to the writers for study. These were part of a shipment from the Yoko- hama Nursery Co., Yokohama, Japan, con- signed to the Sunset Nursery, Oakland, Cal., which were condemned in February, 1915, by Frederick Maskew, chief deputy quarantine officer, San Francisco, Cal., upon recommenda- tion of Dr. E. P. Meinecke, forest pathologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, stationed in that city. In his letter recommending the destruction of this nursery stock Dr. Meinecke called attention to the presence of a fungus ap- parently parasitic which “in the absence of other fruiting forms must be classed with the fungi imperfecti (Cytospora species.)” Of 100 plants examined Dr. Meinecke found 43 infected with this fungus. A number of the infected trees were turned over to the writers by the Federal Horticultural Board and bear their plant disease survey number 264. The writers have had the fungus referred to by Dr. Meinecke in culture since early in April, 1915, and have made inoculations on the native American chestnut (Castanea dentata) but thus far have been unable to ob- tain ascospores or any evidence of parasitism on Castanea dentata. In addition to this fungus two of the Japan- ese seedlings received from California showed a few tiny, yellow ochre pyenidial stromata, smaller than but closely resembling in form and color those of Hndothia radicalis. A care- ful study of the pyenidia, pyenospores and cul- tures of this fungus on various media has con- vinced the writers that this also is a species of Endothia having quite different cultural char- acters from any species yet known. Mr. Walter T. Swingle during his recent visit to Japan obtained a small portion of a specimen which was exhibited as chestnut- blight. This specimen which was given him by Dr. Nishida is not an Hndothia, but so far as can be determined from cultures appears to be identical with the imperfect fungus found on the Japanese chestnuts condemned at San Francisco in February, 1915. FeEsruary 4, 1916] From a study of these few specimens it is evident that there are in Japan several Pyre- nomycetes including species of Endothia more or less parasitic on chestnut. This fact may ‘help to explain the failure of Japanese pathol- ogists to distinguish the true chestnut blight caused by Endothia parasitica. Dr. Gentaro Yamada on his recent visit, July, 1915, to this country, informed the writers that the numer- ous publications concerning the chestnut- blight in the United States had naturally aroused the interests of Japanese pathologists but that so far they had been unable to find any parasitic Hndothia. This is further veri- fied by a paper in Japanese® by Kanesuke Hara, an abstract of which has been kindly furnished us by Dr. T. Tanaka. Tara considers that Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fuck. must be iden- tical with H. parasitica (Murr.) A. & A. He describes a species of Hndothia found on a dead twig of Quercus glandulifera Bl., which he regards as Hndothia gyrosa. This report indicates that species of Hndothia occur in Japan upon Quercus as well as on Castanea. We have just received pyenidia of an Hndothia on chestnut from Mt. Hara labelled H. gyroza? which in culture appears different from any species yet cultured by the writers. Having failed to obtain a specimen of Endothia parasitica by correspondence and learning that Mr. Meyer was to visit Japan on his return from China, the writers re- quested Mr. David Fairchild, agricultural ex- plorer in charge of foreign seed and plant introduction, to send a cablegram asking him to look for the chestnut blight in the vicinity of Nikko. Meyer’s observations in Japan are best given by quotations from his letters: Sept. 17. Frid. In Nikko .. . found plenty of evidences of the chestnut-blight, especially on the higher, more exposed parts of the mountains; collected a large bundle of material, took several FOTOS. 6 1 sno 5 Hara, Kanesuke, ‘‘Further Discussion Must be Needed on the Problem of the Chestnut-blight Disease, ‘Byocht-gai Zassi’’’ (Journal of Plant Protection), Vol. 2, No. 3, March, 1915, pp. 242— 245 (Japanese). 6Some of the pictures of blighted chestnuts taken by Meyer at Nikko will be published later. SCIENCE 175 Sund. Sept. 19. In Yokohama; . . . inspected grafted and budded nursery stock, especially chest- nuts and cherries, found them exceptionally clean. No signs of Diaporthe parasitica on chestnut seed- ling and grafted stock, although the wild trees of Castanea japonica on the hills surrounding the nurseries are infested with the blight. (Mond. Sept. 20. In Yokohama; ... The chest- nut-blight, Diaporthe parasitica, is quite common in Japan, that is at least around Nikko, Tokyo and Yokohama. Wild as well as cultivated trees are attacked, though the disease, as a whole, is not very destructive. Trees vary considerably as re- gards powers of resistancy and on the lower slopes of hills around the Kanaya Hotel at Nikko, trees were found that were large and vigorous and ap- parently immune, while on the higher mountains and more exposed parts trees were found that were badly attacked. This Japanese chestnut, Castanea japonica might be used as a factor in hybridiza- tion experiments, together with American, Euro- pean and Chinese species to create immune or nearly immune strains of chestnuts. Meyer further states to the writers that the Japanese chestnut, Castanea crenata Sieb. & Zuee., is even more resistant to Hndothia parasitica than is the Chinese chestnut, Cas- tanea mollissima. This further emphasizes the difficulty of locating H. parasitica on chest- nut in Japan where as already stated several other fungi are common. On the arrival of Meyer in Washington he gave the writers specimens of diseased chest- nut branches collected at Yokohama and at Nikko. On the material from Yokohama no Endothia was found. Specimens from Nikko which were more abundant showed cankers and mycelial fans typical of Hndothia para- sitica and numerous stromata of the fungus. Some of these stromata contained mature ascospores and many of them viable pycno- spores and ascospores. Cultures were at once made on cornmeal in flasks and on cornmeal and potato agar. These cultures proved iden- tical with cultures made at the same time from typical EH. parasitica collected in this country and also with the Chinese material which has been kept in pure culture. While the season of the year makes inoculations impossible the mycelial and spore characters of this fungus 176 as well as its cultural characters are so distinc- tive as to leave no doubt as to its identity. The fungus collected by Meyer at Nikko is un- questionably Hndothia parasitica. The above statement was completed and sub- mitted for publication December 23, 1915. During the interval following, several speci- mens of fungi from Japan have been received by the writers which are of such interest in connection with the observations recorded above that it seems desirable to add them. On December 27, 1915, there was received from the Federal Horticultural Board a speci- men of diseased chestnut nursery stock (their number 947), which had been sent by H. M. Williamson, secretary of the State Board of Horticulture at Portland, Oregon. In the letter transmitting the specimen Mr. Williamson states that it was from an importation of nursery stock . .. grown at Kanagawa-Ken, Yokohama, Japan. . . . Included in this shipment were some chestnut trees and five of the chestnut trees were diseased. . . . Four of the chestnut trees have been burned and I am mailing you the other diseased tree under separate cover. The fungus, which showed only pycnidia, has been cultured and is apparently the same as that found on the chestnut seedlings con- demned at San Francisco in February, 1915, and mentioned above, and which was also found on the specimen brought from Japan by Swingle. A small specimen of an Hndothza collected at Nikko, Japan, September 17, 1915, on bark of Pasania sp. (Quercus of some authors), has been recently transmitted to the writers by Mr. Frank N. Meyer. This specimen shows typical ascospores of EHndothia radicalis (Schw.) and in cultures proved identical with those of Endothia radicalis collected in this country. This collection seems to leave no doubt that H. radicalis is indigenous in Japan and that there as in Europe and America it is not confined to Castanea. January 8, 1916, the writers received from Dr. Gentaro Yamada, of the Morioka Imperial College of Agriculture and Forestry, two speci- SCIENCE [N. 'S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1101 mens, one labeled “on Quercus crispula. Mt. Moriva, near Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan. March 27, 1897. Coll. G. Yamada & T. Totsu,” the other labeled “Hndothia parasitica on Castanea vulgaris Lam. var. japonica DC. Morioka, northern Japan. Dec. 5, 1915. Coll. G. Yamada.” The fungus on Quercus crispula was of course no longer viable. It contained, however, abundant ascospores which agree in their measurements with those of Hndothia radicalis. The specimen on Castanea is typical Endo- thia parasitica, as shown by the mycelial fans, pyenospores and ascospores, and by cultures. This specimen shows hypertrophy of the tissues very similar to that produced by the fungus on American chestnuts. In the letter acecompany- ing this specimen, dated December 15, 1915, Dr. Yamada says he found the specimen of E. parasitica on his first collecting trip after his return to Japan. In this connection it may be stated that during his recent visit to this country Dr. Yamada spent some time with the writers in examining specimens of Hndo- thia parasitica and other species of Hndothia and took back with him typical specimens. This probably accounts for his finding the fungus so quickly. C. L. SHrar, New E. Stevens BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, WASHINGTON, D. C. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ZOOLO- GISTS. II GENETICS Sex Controlled in Rotifers by Food (illustrated by lantern): D. D. WHITNEY, Wesleyan University. Several species from two of the five orders of rotifers have yielded very positive results. All female offspring were produced under certain food conditions and from 30 per cent. to 95 per cent. male offspring were produced under certain other food conditions. In some of the species the off- spring were all females when the race was fed upon a diet of colorless flagellates, but when the race was suddenly put upon a diet of green flagel- lates a high percentage of male offspring ap- peared. In other species a scanty diet of green flagellates produced all female offspring while a Fesruary 4, 1916] copious diet of the same green flagellates produced as high as 95 per cent. of male offspring, thus showing that it is the quantity of the food that regulates the production of the sexes and not the stimulus of a change of food. Male-production in Hydatina Favored by Oxygen: A, FRANKLIN SHULL AND Sonta Laborr, Uni- versity of Michigan. Whitney’s experiments of a year ago, in which feeding these rotifers on the green flagellate Chlamydomonas resulted in greatly increased male- production, left room for doubt whether other agents than nutrition might not be producing part of the effects noted. The food cultures were dif- ferently constituted at the outset, and the organ- isms reared in them may have produced secondary differences. We have attempted to test some of the possible factors other than nutrition. So far our results may be interpreted largely in support of Whitney’s conclusion; for, while one of the suspected agents has been found to increase male- production, its effect is not so marked as that in Whitney’s experiments. The one effective factor discovered is oxygen. Under several different con- ditions, oxygen produced uniform effects of mod- erate degree. On the Inheritance of Size in Paramecium: JAMES HE. AcKERT, Kansas State Agricultural College. A series of experiments with Paramecium cau- datum and P. aurelia was carried on with a view to determining the effect of selection within the progeny of a single individual. In 1911, when these experiments were begun, the excellent work of Jennings had already been reported; but, to test this principle, independently, using large num- bers of individuals, seemed justifiable. In a typical experiment a single Parameciwm was iso- lated on a depression slide in a few drops of hay infusion. After several generations there were isolated from its descendants two Paramecia—one, the shortest of the progeny, the other, the longest. The descendants of each of these individuals were kept in separate receptacles under environmental conditions as nearly identical as possible. At a later time all but a few of the animals of each group were killed and measured. In all of the experiments, except one, the images of the Para- mecia were thrown upon a screen with a combina- tion microscope and lantern, giving a magnifica- tion of 3,200 diameters. The usual methods of dealing with statistical data were used in the preparation of the results. In all cases the effect of the selection within the progeny of a single in- SCIENCE 177 dividual was negative. In some instances the dif- ference in mean lengths of the groups under com- parison fell within the probable errors of the means; in others the mean lengths of the progeny of the smaller Paramecia were larger than those of the descendants of the larger Paramecia. The conclusion is based upon measurements of nearly 6,000 Paramecia. The Influence of Selection on the Number of Ex- tra Bristles in Drosophila: E. CARLETON Mac- DowELL, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Previously it has been shown that the extra bristles that characterize a certain race of Drosophila are conditioned by a Mendelian de- terminer; that the exact number of extra bristles is not inherited, but varies in relation to external conditions; that, in spite of this, the selection of high variates as parents, continuously raised the averages of the race for several generations, after which no further progress could be determined. The present report carries the selection for in- creased numbers of bristles to the forty-sixth gen- eration. In certain of the later generations the averages have been raised by more favorable con- ditions and by counting only the large flies that hatch at the first of a bottle, the flies at the end of a bottle being smaller and with fewer bristles. The upper limits of the distributions would not be influenced in the same way, and so offer a better test for the effect of selection. These upper limits show no tendency to advance after the first few generations. Two series of return selections have been made, from the sixteenth and twenty-seventh generations. These failed to show any lowering of the averages, although carried on for six and eight generations, whereas the initial rise of the averages was immediate. The distribution of extra bristles extracted from a cross with normals is lower than that of the corresponding inbred generation. A race of low grade has been estab- lished from extras extracted from a cross. This race averages about two bristles lower than the high-selected race. If, as formerly proposed, the initial rise in the averages was due to a sifting out of secondary determiners, all the above results would be expected. Twinning in Cattle, with Special Reference to the Free Martin (illustrated with lantern): Lron J. CouE, College of Agriculture of Wisconsin. A study of 303 multiple births in cattle, ob- tained directly from breeders. The records in- clude: 43 cases homosexual male, 165 cases re- corded heterosexual (male and female), 88 cases 178 homosexual female, 7 cases triplets, a ratio of twins of approximately 1: 4:2 imstead of the 1:2:1 expected if there were no disturbing element en- tering in. The expectation may be brought more nearly into harmony with the facts if it is assumed that in addition to ordinary fraternal (dizygotic) twins there are numbers of ‘‘identical’’? (mono- zygotic) twins of both sexes, and that while in the case of females these are both normal, in the case of a dividing male zygote, to form two indi- viduals, in one of them the sexual organs remain in the undifferentiated stage, so that the animal superficially resembles a female and is ordinarily recorded as such, although it is barren. The ree- ords for monozygotic twins accordingly go to in- crease the homosexual female and the heterosexual classes, while the homosexual male class, in which part of them really belong, does not receive any increment. This brings the expected ratio much nearer the ratio obtained. Any female calf twinned with a male is re- ferred to as a free martin. According to the in- terpretation given, some free martins should be fertile, while others are sterile. It was found that both classes exist. CYTOLOGY The Mitochondria in the Germ Cells of the Male of Gryllotalpa borealis: F. PAYNE, Indiana Uni- versity. The mitochondria are present in the spermato- gonial cells in the form of granules lying at one side of the nucleus and between the nucleus and cell wall. In the early growth-period the granular appearance is replaced by a thread-like arrange- ment. The threads are grouped into a mass and lie in contact or near the nucleus. They remain in this position and condition throughout the growth- period. In the prophase of the first maturation division the threads come out of the mass and as the spindle forms they take up a position outside the spindle, but extending about half-way round it. The threads are almost as long as the spindle. After the chromosomes have reached the ends of the spindle the elongated mitochondrial threads seem to break near the middle, part of them mov- ing along the spindle toward one pole and part toward the other. The threads seem to be ap- proximately halved. In the second division a simi- lar process takes place. Each spermatid, then, re- ceives a mass of mitochondria. In the transforma- tion of this spermatid into a spermatozoon the mitochondria take part in the formation of the tail, but nothing more. SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1101 Pairing of Chromosomes in the Diptera: CHas. W. Merz, Carnegie Institution of Washington. (Introduced by C. B. Davenport.) A study of the chromosomes in about 75 spe- cies of Diptera, ranging from among the lowest to the highest in the order, reveals the following facts: First, a paired association of chromosomes is found to exist as a normal condition in all species studied. Second, the two members of each pair of chro- mosomes are homologous elements, of respectively maternal and paternal derivation. Third, the association of homologous chromo- somes into pairs occurs at a very early stage in ontogeny (before cleavage is completed) and per- sists throughout the larval, pupal and adult life of the fly. Fourth, the paired association is found in all diploid cells, somatic as well as germinal. Fifth, it apparently persists throughout all stages in the growth and division of each cell, being evident from earliest prophase to latest anaphase. Sixth, to account for this side-by-side approxi- mation of homologous chromosomes exhibited by the flies something more than purely mechanical forces must be taken into consideration. The data indicates that pairing must depend upon the qualitative nature of the chromosomes. From this, and the fact that paired chromosomes are homologous chromosomes, the evidence is seen strongly to support the hypothesis that homologous chromosomes are qualitatively similar and that non-homologous chromosomes are qualitatively dif- ferent in their make-up, and that therein lies the secret of Mendelian heredity. Chromosome Individuality in Fish Eggs: A. RicH- ARDS, University of Texas. The observation of Miss Morris, that the chro- mosomes from the two parents can be recognized in Fundulus eggs fertilized with Ctenolobrus sperm is verified. Furthermore, even in the telophases of cleavage mitoses it is possible to recognize clearly the chromosomal vesicles as separate bodies, and in the resting nuclei the parts contributed by the individual chromosome can be distinguished with- out difficulty. Treatment of the eggs or sperm he- fore or after fertilization by X-rays serves to emphasize this distinctness. Studies on the Chromosomes of the Common Fowl (illustrated with lantern slides of photomicro- graphs): M. F. GuyER, University of Wisconsin. FEBRUARY 4, 1916] My later studies, extending over a period of more than ten years, afford abundant confirmatory evidence of my earlier findings that in the sperma- togenesis of the common fowl, a large curved chromosome, comparable to the sex-chromosome of other forms, typically passes undivided to one pole of the spindle during the division of the primary spermatocyte. To determine what form this ele- ment assumes in the somatic cells of male and fe- male fowls, a study of the cells of embryo chicks was undertaken. In the main chicks of 10, 13 and 20 days of incubation were used. The cells stud- ied were, for the most part, those of the develop- ing nephridial tubules, the nervous system and the gonads. Two fairly well marked curved rods —easily discernible from the other chromosomes— were found to occur with great frequency in the cells of the male. A reexamination of spermato- gonia of both the common and the guinea fowl re- vealed similar paired elements. In the female in a significant percentage of cases only a single ele- ment of like appearance could be found. Thus, for this element, the male appears to be homozy- gous, the female heterozygous. The large curved element of the primary spermatocyte would seem to be in reality, therefore, a double element formed by the fusion of the pair of curved chro- mosomes which exist independently in somatic and early germ-cells. However, the passing over of this element undivided in the first maturation di- vision brings about a condition of dimorphism in the later male germ cells. An important point to be substantiated yet is whether one class of these degenerate without forming spermatozoa, or, if forming them, whether they are not sterile. EMBRYOLOGY Fish Hybridization an Instrument in Morpho- genetic Research: H. H, NEwMan, University of Chicago. During the past ten years experiments in fish hybridization have engaged a considerable share of my attention and I have been strongly im- pressed with the possibilities offered by this field of experimentation. Practically any type of morphogenetic disturbance that has been obtained by physical or chemical means is duplicated in some common teleost hybrid. Certain crosses give all of the grades of optic anomaly described by Stockard and others as due to various anesthetics. Double-headed, double- and triple-tailed monsters, ete., are very numerous in some crosses and the genesis of these conditions could be readily stud- ied in living material. SCIENCE 179 Among the most interesting anomalous condi- tions seen in these hybrids are the various dis- turbances in the relations of parts of the vitelline and systemic circulation. The heart and its main vessels frequently appear disjoined from the body, and exhibit an independence in differentiation and an automaticity truly striking. Many problems might be cleared up by a study of these conditions. The various developmental blocks in hybrid crosses are of considerable general interest, espe- cially to the experimental embryologist. The fact that the end of the cleavage period is the com- monest block to hybrid development is significant in the interpretation of the physiology of cleavage and of gastrulation. Other blocks such as those occurring during gas- trulation, especially those involving disturbances of the mechanism of concrescence, are scarcely less significant. Apart from hybrid results per se the hybridiza- tion method itself is of much broader application for experimental biology. Structure and Function in the Development of the Special Senses in Mammals: H. H. Lane, Uni- versity of Oklahoma. By physiological experimentation upon the embryo and fetus of the rat and other mammals at different stages in their development, the time when each of the special senses—touch, equilib. rium, taste, smell, hearing and sight—first becomes functional has been determined within relatively small limits of probable error, and a study made of the corresponding structural development. Con- sidering a reflex are involving any special sense, it has been found that the association centers, the afferent and efferent nerve-trunks, and the effec- tive motor apparatus are all in working order be- fore the special sense organ concerned is capable of functioning, 7. e., the organ of special sense is in each ease the last link in the chain to be per- fected, and in each case the function is established when (and only so soon as) the proper peripheral sense organ has reached its functional state. The order of development of the organs of special sense and their correlated mechanisms is not that demanded by a Lamarckian hypothesis. It seems evident from these investigations (which are be- ing extended) that the development of the nerv- ous system in general and the differentiation of its constituent parts are due not to epigenesis, but to endogenesis, or predetermination in the oosperm; that these structures appear not as direct responses to the needs of the embryo, but in anticipation of those needs; not under the influence of their spe- 180 cific, definitive environmental stimuli, but because of the inherited organization and forces in the oosperm, which can only be secondarily modified or controlled by other factors. The Development of Recurrent Bronchi and of Air Sacs of the Avian Lung: Wm. A. Locy anp OLoF LASSELL, Northwestern University. The notable observations of Schulze (1911) and of Juillet (1912) have brought forward a newly recognized structural element—the recur- rent bronchi—known only in the lungs of birds, which imparts a renewed interest in the structural peculiarities of the avian lung and in the physiol- ogy of its air-sacs. The development of these re- current bronchi, beginning as buds on the air-sacs and growing into the lungs, as illustrated by the lantern slides, and the condition of the recurrent bronchi of the adult lung is shown by Wood’s metal casts. The formation of bronchial circuits within the lung by the union of recurrent bronchi with branches of other bronchi is indicated, and the probable physiology of the air-saes is briefly considered. y Regarding the development of the air-sacs, the interclavicular is shown to arise from four sep:- rate moieties, two from each lung, which later unite to form the single median sac of the adult. The lateral moieties of the interclavicular sac have long been recognized, but the existence of separate mesial moieties and the manner of the union of the four parts is believed to be presented for the first time. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY The Olfactory Organs of Lepidoptera: N. E. Mo- Indoo, Bureau of Entomology. The organs discussed in this paper are the olfactory pores, already described by the writer for the Honey Bee, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera in other papers. The present paper deals with only the morphology of these organs in Lepidop- tera. As usual, the olfactory pores are found on the legs, wings and mouth-parts. Two groups are al- ways present on each trochanter; one group usually on each femur; a few scattered pores gen- erally on each tibia, some of these sometimes be- ing in the tibial spines; one to four groups on the base of each wing, besides scattered pores usually extending the full length of the wing; and a few pores on the mouth-parts. The total number of olfactory pores varies from about 500 to 1,300. Moths usually have more pores than butterflies. Based on the total number of SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1102 pores, the individual, sexual and specific differences are slight, while the generic differences may or may not be slight, the latter differences depending on the sizes of the specimens compared. The olfactory pores are flask-shaped structures, and those on the wings have been called dome- shaped organs because the chitin surrounding each pore aperture is arched dome-like above the gen- eral surface of the wing. As usual, chitinous cones are present and the sense cells are spindle-shaped. In distribution and structure the olfactory pores of Lepidoptera are more similar to those of Hymenop- tera than to those of Coleoptera. The Structure of Agelacrinites, a Fossit Echino- derm (Cistoid) of the Richmond (illustrated with lantern): S. R. WinLIaMs, Miami Univer- sity. 1. Agelacrinites was probably somewhat mo- tile—at least able to adapt its peripheral rim to its surroundings. 2. The peripheral rim may have been extensible. 3. The animal probably breathed by muscular protraction, extension and retraction of the anal pyramid, getting oxygen by rectal respiration. 4. The probable path of the alimentary canal in the young animal. 5. Cover plates and floor plates of the brachial grooves and their patterns. Neuromeres and Metameres: H. V. NEAL, Tufts College. The paper summarizes observations upon the nidular relations of cranial nerves in Squalus em- bryos and raises the problem, Are neuromeres re- liable criteria of the primitive metamerism of the vertebrate head? The motor nidulus of the trigeminus lies in the second and third hind brain neuromere (rhom- bomere); that of the facialis extends through four rhombomeres, viz., the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh. The nidulus of the glossopharyngeus lies in the sixth and seventh rhombomeres, while that of the vagus extends from the posterior part of the seventh for a considerable distance in the unsegmented portion of the medulla. Of the somatic motor nerves, the nidulus of the oculomotorius lies in the midbrain; that of the trochlearis lies primarily in the first (cerebellar) rhombomere; that of the abducens extends through the sixth rhombomere and somewhat into the two adjacent ones. The nidulus of the hypoglossus lies in the unsegmented portion of the medulla posterior to the seventh rhombomere. Somatic motor niduli lie primarily dorso-lateral Fepruary 4, 1916] to splanchnic motor niduli. Secondarily by mi- gration (neurobiotaxis) these relations are re- versed as in mammals (Graeper, 713). The connection of four rhombomeres with a single visceral arch (the hyoid), and of three vis- ceral arches with a single rhombomere (the seventh) is a fact not easily reconciled with the assumption that a single rhombomere was orig- inally connected by a splanchnic motor nerve with a single visceral arch. The Spines of Catfishes (illustrated with lantern) : H. D. REED anp T. J. LioyD, Cornell University. The following observations upon the spines of catfishes were made chiefly upon the pectoral fins of Ameiurus nebulosus and various species of Schilbeodes, and are incidental to another study. In an attempt to determine the morphology of cer- tain soft parts of the fins of catfishes it became obvious that there existed a definite relation +0 the morphology of the spines. A search of the literature revealed only such statements as ‘‘the spines are believed to represent a fusion of soft rays’’ rather than the ankylosis of the lepido- trichia of a single soft ray as in the true spiny- rayed fishes. A study of the mature spines and developmental stages shows that the spines of the catfishes ex- amined represent a fusion of several soft rays. The rays contributing to the formation of spines arise in the typical fashion and the fusion of rays as well as the lepidotrichia is from the base toward the free end. ‘The cavity of the spine represents the distal (cephalic) half of the space found normally between the individuals of the fused pairs of lepidotrichia. The last ray, in young in- dividuals, at least, is free for its distal half where it is segmented and bifureates, as do the unmodi- fied soft rays. SCIENCE 181 MISCELLANEOUS A New Method of Observing the Bronchial Tree of the Embryonic Lung: Wm. A. Locy anD OLOF LASSELL, Northwestern University. The difficulties of observing early stages of the bronchial tree of the embryonic lung are consider- able. Wax reconstructions, celloidin injections and Wood’s metal casts have unfavorable limita- tions. A simple method is now ayailable by the modi- fication of a method of an injection originated by Hochstetter in 1898, for study of the semicircular canals of the ear. The lungs are dissected out of fixed and hardened specimens and cleared in thick cedar oil, after which they are immersed in a mixture of one part thick cedar oil and two parts chloroform. After thorough penetration, the specimen is removed from the mixture and placed on a filter paper until the chloroform evaporates. This serves to draw the cedar oil from the various branches of the bronchial tree and to fill the spaces with air. When the air-filled preparation is im- mersed in pure cedar oil the entire bronchial tree presents the appearance of being filled with a bright metallic cast and can be readily observed through the translucent walls of the lung. The minuter air passages are permeated, and, although the smallest ones disappear in a few minutes as the cedar oil percolates into them, the same specimen, if carefully manipulated, can be treated repeatedly without apparent injury. Results of this method are illustrated by lantern slides. The Parasitic Fauna of the Bermudas: FRANKLIN D. Barker, University of Nebraska. The preliminary study of the animal parasites collected in the Bermudas during the summer of 1912 has been completed. A brief summary of the parasites found is as follows: Parasite Number of Species Found Host il, ERO davocdodcoscouraosospoumeoonDoCoooUS ey RPA rerevstenaretateiis iecore al stenerets Toad 2. Trematoda Zly WinOVHGEl cocccanaccosqonob00doC0GoDNGAgHOO OB eau mci sos yeni wetakeneterae 2 species of fish B, Ectoparasites C. Endoparasites oe species of fish species of fish SOUS CATE OGRE RBA tn ere Q..........-.+--+-0---- 2 Species of sea-cucumber 8. Turbellarias endoparasites 4. Cestoda Zl, WERE Soscacosgocosnspooo oo SmUnooOObaded Oe Goaodnta ced a bei ooso 0 iio IbimMEyAIE) (GHYD) soacnscedsoocensacocgGa0e SIU ce EER Dla en aIeIOGD 6 species of fish Cyimmatures (encysted)) sem acti ielleeieierel leila = Bc bnisono So csmod cDoo0G do 14 species of fish 5. Nematoda Zaly INBMDIRY oagnnoDHoo.coc coo ODOM O Ob eOUS OOOO Bio meadne ode baboo hea sbO 7 species of fish Ji) Iheninennnd) (Ga) agosoasooddo0nsdou00n00000 Be picecivaere- ean weer 10 species of fish Cx immatures (encysted)) maser erect ele PAS SPIED BES Bo HOO aCa iG 5 species of fish GaeA\canthocephalaye-perce eee eecrireeiiciericisielelele UBdnogodcoodaodbeouodland 7 species of fish 7. Crustacea PAR CopepOd aan ste sinciner eect err tolerate Undetermined................. 10 species of fish 154 UNIVE, SHooodesaodonsdHoooooHOKO OS Undetermined................. 5 species of fish 182 This study has been intensive for a compara- tively small number of individuals rather than a superficial examination of a large number, with the result that the parasites found are all in first- class condition for detailed study. This has made it possible for us to add ten new species of trema- todes, two new species of nematodes and one new species of acanthocephala to the large list of hel- minthes found in the fishes of the Bermudas and the Dry Tortugas by Linton (1908; 1910). We have also been able to add considerably to the meager descriptions of some species as well as to identify a number of Linton’s undetermined spe- cies. This and future intensive study of the parasitic fauna of the Bermudas has been made possible through the assistance of the Museum of Compara- tive Zoology of Harvard University and the Bache Fund of the National Academy of Sciences. Increase in Opportunities for Work at the Ber- muda Biological Station (illustrated with lan- tern): E. L. Marx, Harvard University. By a recent agreement between the Bermuda Natural History Society and Harvard University, the Bermuda Biological Station for Research, which has hitherto been in operation for only six or eight weeks each summer, is now to be open throughout the year. Harvard has appointed Dr. William J. Crozier, resident naturalist and Mrs. Crozier, librarian and recorder. Dr, and Mrs. Crozier are living in one of the cottages on Agar’s Island, where the station and the Bermuda Public Aquarium are located. The new arrangement will permit the investigation of classes of problems which could not be undertaken during a sojourn of a few weeks in midsummer, and will give oppor- tunity to study seasonal variations as well as the times of fruiting and spawning. Not the least of the advantages resulting from this change is the opportunity it will give biologists to carry on work at a midocean station at any time of the year when they may choose to avail themselves of it. The laboratory has accommodations for about a dozen investigators. It is not proposed at pres- ent to charge any fee for the privileges of the sta- tion. The purpose is to provide facilities for per- sons who are competent to carry on original work, and for such only; no instruction is offered; and the station is not to be used for the purpose of making miscellaneous collections of commercial value. The staff of the station will endeavor to procure and prepare at moderate cost material needed for investigations or for use in teaching. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1101 Having completed the papers listed on the printed program, the following papers, received too late to be printed on the program, with the consent of the society were read: The Cranial Nerves of an Adult Cecelian: H. W. Norris, Grinnell College. Two types: (1) Eye covered by the maxilla, eyeball very rudimentary, no optic nerve, no eye- muscle nerves, except abducens, no eye-muscles; (2) Eye not covered by maxilla, shows character- istic structure with nerves and muscles. Abducens in both innervates the retractor tentaculi muscle. Lateral line components absent. Olfactory nerve apparently double, but actually merely exag- gerating the condition found in other Amphibia. Two ganglia on trigeminal-nerve, as noted by previous writers. General cutaneous component in facial nerve, blending anteriorly with the tri- geminal. Previous writers (Marcus excepted) have repre- sented posterior to the seventh and eighth nerves a complex with very puzzling characteristics. Re- solved into its components this complex consists of: a ramus jugularis VII. that extends far back in the body to innervate the sphincter colli muscle; a sympathetie trunk, with two large ganglia, that has its origin in the gasserian and facial ganglia and reaches far beyond the posterior limits of the head; the IX.-X. nerve trunk with two distinct ganglia; an occipital nerve that passes through the posterior part of the first IX.—X. ganglion; the first, second and third spinal nerves, the first of which gives origin to the hypoglossal nerve, the second of which sends a branch through the sec- ond sympathetic ganglion, and the third of which sends a branch into the posterior tip of the same ganglion. The Advancing Pendulum of Biological Thought: C. C. Nurrine, State University of Iowa. The figure of an advancing pendulum correctly represents the course of scientific progress. The alternate swings to right and left culminate in extreme positions, but the net result is a real ad- vance. The NeoDarwinian swing led by Weismann. Its extreme position and the net gain. The Neolamarckian swing led by the ‘‘ Ameri- can School.’? The extreme position of E. D. Cope and the net gain. The Mendelian swing led by Bateson, Castle and others. .The extreme position of Bateson. A bio- logical justification of the theological doctrines of foreordination and regeneration. The net gain. General principles deduced from this discussion. FEBRUARY 4, 1916] The pendulum of thought never retraces its course; but there is regularly a net gain. The extreme position, or furthest point of each swing, is almost invariably wrong. Hach leader contributes something real to prog- ress, and it is unwise to utterly discredit him. Witness Morgan and pangenesis. The return from the extreme of the Mendelian swing. Witness Castle and E. B. Wilson. The position of the systematist under present conditions. A Case of Seu-Linked Inheritance in Man: Hans- FORD MacOCurpDy, Alma College. In the history of a certain family in Michigan, there occurs a most interesting case of the trans- mission of a peculiar character, which manifests itself at the approach of maturity in a certain proportion of the males. It makes its appearance only after a long series of complex physiological processes and in a remote period of development. The factors are evidently not simple, and pos- sibly may manifest themselves in various ways; but the particular character here noted affects the feet of males in a definite proportion. An affected male does not transmit the factor or factors to his sons. He transmits them through his daughter married to a normal male through four out of five of his granddaughters, and through these to half of their sons. According to the chromosomal hypothesis of con- trol of development and heredity this is a case of sex-linked inheritance and is limited to one half of the sons of the daughters of affected males. 1t also indirectly points to the transmission of char- acters or factors detrimental to one sex. The Components of the Cerebral Ganglia and Nerves of a 23 mm. Embryo of Squalus Acan- thias: F. L. LaNnpacre, Ohio State University. The 23 mm. embryo of Squallus was selected be- cause it is sufficiently developed to enable one to recognize the principal nerves and determine their composition while the ganglia are still fairly well separated so that their boundaries can be deter- mined. The chief ganglia and nerves are found to be typical for Ichthyopsida in general. Some of the peculiarities noted are the very small size of oph. sup. V.; the separateness of the lateral lines organ primordia; the large size of the epibrachial placodes; the precocious character of the lateral line nerves as compared with other nerves. The analysis, which can be shown briefly only by means of a diagram, is offered tentatively in the absence of a published analysis of a more mature individual. SCIENCE 183 Silk Spinning in Its Relation to the Feeding Hab- its of Chironomus lobiferus Say: ADELBERT L, LEATHERS, Cornell University. The larve of Chironomus lobiferus were found inhabiting the air cavities of the living stems of Sparganium sp., which they penetrate by boring two small openings through the epidermis. Here they maintain suitable living conditions by a regu- lar undulating motion of the body which sets up a current of water through the burrow. An exami- nation of the stomach contents showed the food to be plankton and not the tissue of the plant. Jt was found that these larve will adapt themselves to living in glass tubes, and under such conditions careful observation revealed a conical net fastened at the base to the silken lining of the larval gal- lery and held extended by radiating threads at- tached to its apex. This net is made to bulge out by the pressure of the current forced into it. The smaller particles become tangled in its meshes and the protozoa, diatoms and other unicellular alge are largely removed, although some escape through gaps near the rim of the net. When this current has been maintained for about ten minutes, re- gardless of the amount of food in the net at any time, the larva turns about in its burrow and gTasps one edge of the net and forces it into its mouth, then rotates its body and grasps another part, and so on until the net is entirely swallowed. Then it spins another, spreading and attaching the silk by its anterior prolegs; turns about and be- gins the undulating motion again. The Resistance of Starved and Normal Fishes to Low Oxygen and the Effect upon this Resist- ance of Acids, Alkalies, Salts, Etc.: Morris M. WELLS, University of Chicago. The resistance of normal fishes to various con- centrations and combinations of oxygen and car- bon dioxide was determined in 1913 (Biol. Bull., Vol. 25) and since that time an improved appa- ratus has been devised and the resistance of starved fishes at different periods during the stary- ing process has been determined. The work is being pushed further in an attempt to determine the relation of the oxidations of the fishes to the presence of other substances in the water. The effects of acidity and alkalinity have been com- pared, the dying time in running and stagnant water has been determined and the work that is now under way contemplates the determining in the next three weeks of the effect upon the resist- ance of the fishes of the presence of various salts and sugars, and a comparison of the effects of KON as compared with low oxygen. Results already obtained: 184 1. An apparatus that will furnish a flow of about one liter of oxygen-free water per minute. 2. A’ determination of the seasonal resistance of fresh-water fishes to low oxygen. 3. The resistance curve of starving fishes which live without food for three to four months. This curve shows a rise in the resistance of the fishes, i. €., a decrease in their susceptibility, during the first part of the starving period; this increase in resistance lasts for from three weeks to two months and then the resistance usually falls off very rapidly and the fish soon dies of starvation. 4. The rate of actual loss of weight in starving fishes has been determined by consecutive weigh- ings, and a comparison of loss of weight and its effects upon resistance in young and old fishes has been made. 5. It has been determined that the reaction of the water, %. e., whether alkaline or acid, has a marked effect upon the resistance of the fishes and the alkaline water seems to be considerably more toxic than the acid in such small concentrations as N/3,000 or thereabouts. 6. When the water is alkaline fishes live longer if corked up in the low oxygen water than they do if the water flows constantly through the experi- mental bottle. It is expected that some further data will be ready for discussion by the time of the Christmas meeting, as the experiments are being run daily. Chromosomes in Relation to Taxonomy in the Tet- tigide: W. R. B. RoBerTson, University of Kansas. (Introduced by B. M. ALLEN.) Experimental Modification of the Development of the Germ Cells of Rana: B. M. ALLEN, Univer- sity of Kansas. Compound Chromosomes in Charthippus curtipen- nis: W. R. B. ROBERTSON, University of Kansas. (Introduced by B. M. ALLEN.) Exhibits The society adjourned, after its session for the transaction of business, on the afternoon of Wed- nesday, December 29, to examine and discuss the following exhibits which had been arranged in the bacteriological laboratory on the second floor of the Veterinary Building: Elementary Color Patterns and Their Hybrid Combinations in Grouse Locusts, Robert K. Na- bours, Kansas State Agricultural College. Photographs Illustrating (1) Experimental Alteration in the Direction of Growth of a Sili- cious Sponge (Stylotella heliophila Wils.), (II) SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1101 Pseudopodia in Sponge Plasmodia Formed from Dissociated Cells, (III) Canals and Pores that have Developed in a Sponge Plasmodium, H. V. Wilson, University of North Carolina. In the common type of this sponge there is a basal body produced upward into vertical lobes bearing oscula at the summit. If such a sponge be laid on its side, the original oscula gradually close and disappear, while new vertical lobes grow up toward the surface of the water, at right angles to the original lobes. The new lobes bear oscula at the summit. Wood’s Metal Casts of the Recurrent Bronchi of the Adult Lung of the Chick, Wm. A. Locy, North- western University. Sections Showing Pairing of Chromosomes in) the Diptera, Charles W. Metz, Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington. (1) A Portable Diagram Holder, (2) Labora- tory Dissecting Pan, E. L. Mark, Harvard Uni- versity. Model of the Pectoral Spine of Ameiurus, H. D. Reed, Cornell University. Charts and Specimens Demonstrating the Nature of the Intercellular Connective Tissue Substance, Raphael Isaacs, University of Cincinnati. (Intro- duced by H. McE. Knower.) Slides for Demonstrating Chromosomes of the Common Fowl: M. F. GUYER, University of Wis- consin. Symposium At the session held during the forenoon of Thursday, December 30, a symposium on the topic ‘¢The Basis of Individuality in Organisms,’’ was held, C. M. Child, O. C. Glaser and H. V. Neal reading papers, the first speaker approaching the problem from the point of view of the physiolo- gist, the second from that of the physical-chemist, the third from that of the vitalist. Illness in the families of E. G. Conklin and C. E. McClung pre- vented their attendance. The paper prepared by E. G. Conklin was in the hands of the secretary, but, for want of time, it was not read. It was evident that those who took part in the symposium had given much time and thought to the subject and in the preparation of their papers! and a vote of appreciation of their efforts to make the meet- ing a profitable and enjoyable occasion was voted by the society, and then adjourned sine die. CASWELL GRAVE, Secretary-Treasurer 1It is hoped that these papers will be published in SCIENCE during the year. “IENCE — NEW SERIES SINGLE CoPIEs, 15 Cts. VoL, XLIII. No. 1102 Fripay, FEBRUARY 11, 1916 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 The Adolescent Period Its Features And Management By LOUIS STARR, M.D., Ph.D. Fellow of the College of Physicians, Philadelphia; Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, London. Price $1.00 Postpaid Dr. Starr has devoted many years of his professional service to the special study and treatment of children; his book has been written out of a wide and long ex- perience, and the methods recommended are those which, as a deeply interested worker, the author has found most practical and efficacious. The work bears a message of great importance to parents, school officials, teachers, psychologists and others who are interested in the proper development of the child and who, in particular, should understand the physical and psychical changes that occur, and should have in mind some clearly defined measures with which to combat the dangers and insure the evolution of adolescence into healthy and useful maturity. It points out the early signs of certain tendencies in children and shows how to guide and train the child for the best results. ord Edition Plant Anatomy Ready soon By WM. C. STEVENS, M.S. Professor of Botany, University of Kansas. Price $2.50 Postpaid This work, which has become the standard textbook of Plant Anatomy, has been carefully revised that it shall have regard for the researches of the past five years and be perfected as a class text and comprehensive reference in brief form to the highest degree. There has been added one new section on the phylogeny of the vascular bundle and several new illustrations well in accord with the unusually high standard of those of the earlier editions. The publication day will be in early March. P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO., PUBLISHERS 1012 WALNUT STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA. li SCIENCE—ADVERTISEMENTS WHAT TEACHERS SAY ABOUT Hoadley’s Essentials of Physics “The best text book of physics for high school use that I have ever seen.’’ Henry S. Curtis, Department of Phys- tcal Science, Boy's High School, Brook- lyn, N.Y. “T decided to use in my classes Hoadley’s Essentials of Physics for several reasons. The presentation of the subject matter. . . the large num- ber of full-page illustrations and other careful drawings . . . good grade of paper and large print. . . the an- swers to all problems in an appendix ...? Edward D. Arnold, Teacher of Science, High School, Ithaca, N. Y. ‘We find that the students under- stand the work better than they did with our former text and that the teachers find the teaching easier.’’ Henry T. Weed, Teacher of Physics, Manual Training High School, Brook- lyn, N. Y. 536 pages, $1.25 Teacher’s Manual, 25 cents Physical Laboratory Handbook, 50 cents AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cineinnati Chicago Holding an Assured Place among Successful College Textbooks McPherson and Henderson’s General Chemistry e and utilitarian in modern science teaching. Why? Because it reflects the practical Because it correlates scientific fact with actual commercial processes. Because it humanizes abstractions through historical references. Are you familiar with McPherson and Headerson: General Chemistry, $2.25 Laborat r7 Manua to Accompany, 60 cen s lo, Ginn and Company | : ys Boston New York Chicago ‘*¥ WK London Atlanta Dallas . Columbus San Francisco UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS The University of California issues publications in the following series among others : Agricultural Science Mathematics American Archaeology Pathology and Ethnology Philosophy Botany Physiology Economics Psychology Geology Zoology Memoirs of the University of California Bulletin and Publications of the Lick Observatory RECENT TITLES Corals from the Cretaceous and Tertiary of California and Oregon, by Jorgen O. Nomland Relations of the Invertebrate to the Vertebrate Faunal Zones of the Jacalitos and Etchegoin Formations in the North Coalinga Region, California, by Jorgen O. TN Goren E816 liga qaocennsace sp ccaosoceeeo3 aco ERB ONO Case HecoUOSdonmoRScedncoacaceDN -10 A Review of the Species Pavo californicus, by Loye TI bra S) INDIE? ococa concoccooccecn) cononntensonosocaranouoocog ce -oNCRECeS -10 The Owl Remains from *Rancho La Brea, by Loye Ta Ko) braces) IN GUE cocecepeoceescedoceceeneeceenceooceee FOL CSE CCOCHEHeRoeNSSES -10 Two Vulturid Raptors from the Pleistocene of Rancho La Brea, by Loye Holmes Miller.............:::0scesceeseeeeeeee .05 Notes on Capromeryx Material from the Pleistocene of Rancho La Brea, by Asa C. Chandler............:cseseeeeee Three New Helices from California, by S. Stillman Berry -10 +05 Complete list of titles and prices will be sent on application THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Berkeley, Callfornia Send for descriptive circulars and sample pages PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU, 5.M., S.D. PROFESSOR OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Large Octavo, 1150 pages, with 254 illustrations in the text. Cloth bound, price, $7.50, Send for descriptive circular A. G. SEILER & CO. PUBLISHF-RS 1224 Amsterdam Avenue NEW YORK, N. Y. SCIENCE Fray, Fesruary 11, 1916 CONTENTS The American Association for the Advance- ment of Science :— The Dependence of Progress in Science on the Development of Instruments : PROFESSOR ARIMSIONNE YANTRDY josecocencocas0oqocdoe 185 Psychological and Historical Interpretations for Culture: Dr. CLARK WISSLER ......... 193 Charles René Zeiller: EB. W. B.............. 201 Recommendations of the Pan-American Scien- CUCM CONGTESS Ieee eee e 202 Scientific Notes and News ................ 204 University and Educational News ......... 207 Discussion and Correspondence :— Parasites of the Muskrat: Dr. FRANKLIN D. Barker. The Use of the Injection Process in Class Work in Zoology: RAPHAEL ISAACS. The Poisonous Character of Rose Chafers: Doli G NEMESIS A ein Donan dane HoCnis tapes 208 Scientific Books :— The British Antarctic Expedition: Dr. WM. EDDA Tin riapsns case) siuts = Sisatewalsvels, denatels «Sala 10 The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: EDWIN BIDWELL WILSON ....... 211 Notes cn Meteorology and Climatology: CHARTES PHVB ROOKS) “cence cee ein. 212 Special Articles :-— The Development of the Phylloxera vasatrix Leaf Gall: Harry R. ROSEN ............. 216 The Quarter-centennial Anniversary of the Ohio Academy of Sciences: PRorEssor Ep- WARD MIU MRICH Muararscrer tie arena ela eee 217 The Tennessee Academy of Science: Roscor INTONINA crane terran Creer tials reece 218 Societies and Academies :— The Botanical Society of Washington: Prr- LEY SPAULDING. The Anthropological So- ciety of Washington: DANIEL FouKMAR ... 219 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent te Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison- on-Hudson. N. Y. i —S=" THE DEPENDENCE OF PROGRESS IN SCIENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTS1?1 Our civilization is requiring for its physical welfare a more and more intimate knowledge of nature’s forces. It is de- manding this knowledge faster than it is being produced as a by-product in our edu- cational institutions. Scientific investiga- tion is becoming a large business. Govern- ments have established research laborato- ries; private individuals have endowed others; universities are making more strenuous efforts than ever to encourage research and to make it a real part of their function; and commercial enterprises are finding it profitable to establish research laboratories on a large scale, not being able to wait for the random discoveries from other sources. These facts, alone, show that science is rendering an indispensable Service. The factors which are involved in the so- lution of scientific problems are in part mental and in part physical. Long experi- ence has taught that however much we may owe to the great minds that evolve basic generalizations and hypotheses, real prog- ress in science ultimately rests on the es- tablishment of facts. Our reasoning fac- ulties, by themselves, are unable to cope with the complexity of the physical world, and are sure to stray from reality unless they are continually guided by observation and experiment. Galileo with his experi- mental methods contributed more to sci- 1 Address of the vice-president and chairman of Section B—Physics, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Columbus, December, 1915. 186 ence than did all the generations preceding him. Observations made with our unaided senses limit us to the most superficial as- pects of natural phenomena; but when we bring scientific instruments to our aid, we throw off these limitations. Not only are we enabled to observe more accurately and more systematically all that our senses ordinarily perceive, but we become endowed with new senses that open up fields of knowledge of which otherwise we could not even have dreamed. This broadened vi- sion constantly brings to light new prob- lems for solution, necessitating new meth- ods and greater refinement. The greater the advancement in any branch of science, the greater must be the development of the apparatus that is em- ployed. The two are necessarily interde- pendent. The instrument is to a great ex- tent an index of the state of the science. The greater the precision with which we can make our observations and measure- ments, the surer we are of keeping on the right path in our interpretation of the phenomena concerned. I desire to lay some emphasis on this close relationship that exists between the evolution of our ideas and the develop- ment of instruments used in science, and I wish to make some suggestions as to how greater efficiency in our work may be at- tained. My first purpose will be accomplished by some citations from the history of our science. Let us first recall some simple cases in optics. Converging lenses are said to have been found in the ruins of Nineveh and must have been made long before the manufac- ture of glass. They were certainly used at an early date by the Greeks. But the dis- eovery of the combination to form a tele- scope was not made until 1608; and Galileo SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLIII. No. 1102 soon after constructed telescopes magnify- ing 30 diameters, which at once led him to important discoveries. The compound microscope originated at about the same time. Without achromatic lenses, both of these instruments were very imperfect. The possibility of making an achromatie lens occurred to Newton, but reliance on a single unfortunate experiment led him to discard the idea. The construction of such lenses by Dollond, in 1757, marks the be- ginning of a great epoch in the develop- ment of optical instruments. It is only necessary to mention the gradual develop- ment of various combinations of lenses to bring to mind a great array of most im- portant discoveries which they have made possible, not only in physics, but also in astronomy, in biology, in medicine, and in every natural science. The pin-hole camera, which led to the idea of photography, was devised in the second half of the sixteenth century. After the image was rectified by means of a mirror and its sharpness and brightness increased by substituting a lens for the pin-hole, this was used quite generally by landscape painters. What flight of imagi- nation to believe that that observed image could ever paint itself! If the idea oc- curred to some it was brushed aside as a faney and a dream. Such an accomplish- ment must forever be beyond the reach of man! No manipulation of machinery could bring about such a marvel. No known forces of nature could be employed. But, as often happens, means were soon found, and what had been considered im- possible was realized. Even before the discovery of the camera obscura the alchemist Fabricius (1556). made silver chloride, and observed that light blackened it. He found that an image of an object imprinted itself upon it. This had no significance to him, how- FEBRUARY 11, 1916] ever, and the discovery, although pub- lished, was for the time forgotten. More than two hundred years later (1777), Scheele made images imprint themselves on paper that had been saturated with a solu- tion of silver chloride, but these images disappeared when exposed to light. F1i- nally, Niepee, in 1827, produced perma- nent photographic pictures on metal, and Daguerre improved the method in 1839. Beequerel and Draper in 1845 independ- ently photographed the Fraunhofer lines, this being the first application of photog- raphy to scientific research. Since that day photography has become one of our important new senses and an indispensable instrument of research. Hven the long- sought color photography is now a reality. Spectroscopy presents a good illustra- tion of our subject. That rainbow colors are produced by edges of glass plates was known from the beginning of the Christian era. Glass prisms were manufactured in the seventeenth century, and attempts made to explain the production of the col- ors resulted in the solution given by New- ton, in 1672. Wollaston, in 1802, observed seven dark lines in the solar spectrum, but Fraun- hofer by making larger and better prisms and by using a telescope was enabled to see “‘eountless’’ numbers of them. He also dis- covered the bright line spectrum of sodium, superposed, however, over the continuous spectrum of the heated carbon particles present in the flame. He was also the first to make and to use the diffraction grating and to measure the wave-length of sodium light. No explanation of the dark solar lines was given, however, for forty years. After the invention of the Bunsen burner in 1857 many substances could be easily vaporized, and spectral lines were obtained free from the continuous spectrum which confused previous experimenters. Thus SCIENCE 187 spectrum analysis was developed, and the true nature of the dark lines in the solar spectrum soon afterwards demonstrated. The possibility of detecting the motion of stars by the shifting of the spectral lines was considered. This, however, could not be done with the instruments then avail- able. Nothing more could be accomplished until diffraction gratings were much im- proved. The original gratings had been con- structed of wire, and later they were made with scratches on glass. These were soon perfected sufficiently so that in 1868 Hug- gins detected the shifting of the dark lines in stellar spectra, beginning a new era in the study of astronomy. The further per- fection of these gratings has been most re- markable and the results obtained with them of the highest importance. Even now we feel the need of a still higher resolving power. The problem was, and still is, to get the lines equally spaced with sufficient accuracy for a large number of successive lines. In about 1870, the Nobert gratings, previously used, were replaced by those of L. M. Rutherfurd (1816-1892), who finally made gratings on speculum metal, with a resolving power of 10,000. Rowland (1841- 1901) then succeeded in making gratings with a resolving power of 150,000, which advance revolutionized spectroscopy. The gratings now made with the Rowland en- gine have a resolving power of about 400,- 000, and the 10-inch Michelson grating, 600,000. These recent improvements in the ruling of the grating, with the added aid of photography, are extending far the limits of a fertile field of research and amassing valuable data for the ultimate demonstra- tion of atomic structure. The time taken through a long number of years to con- struct an accurate screw was most prof- itably spent. The same amount of time employed in the taking of observations, in 188 making hypotheses, or in formulating gen- eralizations, could not have produced re- sults of like significance. It is to be hoped that the probable limit attainable by the present method of construction may be reached, and that we may soon have a 20- inch grating with a resolving power of more than a million. A technique for making metallic replicas of gratings is highly desirable and should be attempted. The few good gratings that can be obtained only after years of pains- taking preparation should be indefinitely reproduced. Turning for a moment to the subject of temperature, we find that the first ther- mometer was devised by Galileo and con- sisted of a glass bulb with an attached tube whose end dipped into water. It meas- ured temperature changes with an accu- racy far greater than our heat sense could estimate it, and was truly a wonderful in- strument. It made the sense of sight serve the function of the heat sense, and did it better. The original instrument was af- fected by changes of atmospheric pressure and had an arbitrary scale. These defects were gradually overcome. The bulb was filled with water and the tube sealed. The present fixed points, after many others had been tried, were finally adopted. Mercury was selected as the most suitable liquid for general purposes. The material of the bulb has received due attention, and many modi- fications of the thermometer for various purposes have been devised. It is doubtless the most common scientific instrument in use. The development of the mercury thermometer has made itself felt in every line of research, Other means for measuring temperature have been devised. Resistance thermom- eters, thermocouples, bolometers, and a vari- ety of radiation pyrometers, have made SCIENCE [N. 8S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1102 possible investigations beyond the reach of the mereury thermometer. The development of the nitrogen ther- mometer and of the thermodynamic scale has placed temperature measurements on a still more scientific basis. The thermodynamic scale has quite recently been extended to 1,550° Centigrade; and all measurements beyond that are still extrapolations based on the law of the thermocouple up to the melting point of platinum (1,775° C.), and on the two laws of radiation for higher temperatures. The range of temperatures at our con- trol for the study of natural phenomena extends from about two degrees Centigrade above absolute zero to 4,000 degrees, the outer limits being attainable through the invention of the liquid air machine and the electric arc. The oxidation of all mate- rials at high temperatures has made the use of the electric are impossible for most purposes. A recently devised furnace has overcome this difficulty, enabling experi- ments to be made in any gaseous atmos- phere up to 1,600 degrees Centigrade; and also produces any temperature nearly up to that of the electric are. The bombard- ment by cathode rays gives promise of the development of extremely high tempera- tures for experimental work in a vacuum. The attainment of the lower limit of tem- peratures has made possible the most won- derful discovery of ‘‘superconductivity,’’ which, with the investigations on conduc- tivity at high temperatures, adds most sig- nificant data toward the development of the theory of electric conduction. The bellows, the siphon, the water pump, the fact that water is supported in a filled inverted bottle when its mouth is in water, and various other phenomena, were ex- plained on the principle that ‘‘nature ab- hors a vacuum.’’ The invention of the barometer by Torricelli (1643) almost FrEBRuAry 11, 1916] immediately enabled Pascal (1647) to prove the falsity of this principle and to establish the correct foundation for the theory of hydrostatics. The invention of the air pump made pos- sible a whole series of investigations. Re- cently we have been impressed with the invention of several forms of pumps which enable us to obtain very high vacua with great ease and rapidity. The importance of such appliances must not be overlooked. Time is a most important asset for the in- vestigator. I wonder whether we appreciate what we owe to the great accessibility and continual improvement in manufactured materials. What a luxury we have in insulated wire! How could we do without glass tubing! We recall with what difficulty Pascal pro- cured a tube for repeating Torricelli’s ex- periment. Now we have even quartz tubing and quartz vessels of all kinds. The recent discovery of producing tungsten in a duc- tile form has made that element indispen- sable for some purposes. Fibrox, a new material not yet purchasable, is an improve- ment on all heat insulators. Manganin wire, with its application to all kinds of electrical instruments, has made electrical measurements of high precision compara- tively simple. But it is not necessary to enumerate further. Turning now to electricity for our ex- amples, we find that the electroscope has developed from the pith balls and the simple gold leaves into a variety of very sensitive instruments, and the Thomson quadrant electrometer, into that of Dole- zalek. The string electrometer makes it possible, for the first time, to measure rapid changes of a charge. One of the great conveniences of a mod- ern laboratory arises from the high state of perfection of current-measuring instru- ments. Galvanometers which are already SCIENCE 189 highly developed are still continually being improved. In the moving coil galvanom- eter higher sensitivity is being attained, and efforts are being directed specially to obtaining a greater constancy in the zero reading and a greater uniformity of the radial field. The development of the gal- vanometer and of the methods of its stand- ardization are of extreme importance to research. The electric condenser, which was first made without regard to absorption, has gone through the stage where it was con- sidered an improvement to saturate the dielectric with moisture, then where, in the process of construction, the condenser was boiled in a vacuum; to the present method of boiling at the highest possible tempera- ture, and then subjecting to high pressure. Many problems in the development of the condenser still remain to be solved. The better elimination of the absorbed charge would add greatly to its use as a precision standard for the measurement of the elec- tric quantity, and would be of great im- portance wherever condensers are employed with alternating currents. The recent developments for excluding moisture from resistance coils, and for rendering them free from capacity and self inductance, show that advancement even in the construction of resistance standards is still in progress. The Crookes’ tube has resulted in the dis- covery of the X-rays, which are now proy- ing of such great service not only in medi- cine, but in the study of atomic structure and of atomic distributions in crystals. The human voice was first transmitted by electricity in 1876. The rapid conquest, since that time, of the almost insurmount- able obstacles of long-distance telephony has been due to progress in many lines of research and to the large number of workers striving for the same end. The present 190 transcontinental telephone line ig 3,400 miles in length and transmits speech with- out distortion. The chief factors that have contributed to this result are the Bell re- ceiver, the microphone, the coils for pre- venting voice distortion, and finally the in- vention of the thermionic amplifier. The twenty-fifth day of January of this year marks the beginning of transconti- nental telephony by wire and September 29 that of transcontinental telephony without wires, both great achievements having been accomplished in our own country and since our last annual meeting. The experimental proof that the con- denser discharge is oscillatory and Max- well’s (1831-1879) theory of electromag- metic waves led Hertz (1857-1894) to devise the apparatus which demonstrated the existence of such waves. The value of these purely scientific efforts is seen in the result. It was found that connecting one end of the vibrating system to the earth and the employment of long antenne improved the sending power of the transmitter; and the development of detectors improved the re- ceiving apparatus. We have then, as appli- cations, the wireless telegraph which is rendering such unusual service; and finally, with the development of the thermionic amplifier, already mentioned, the wireless telephone which has so recently enabled the human voice to travel across our conti- nent and beyond to Honolulu, a distance of 4,850 miles. A modest-looking little bulb containing a stream of almost inertialess particles known as the thermionic current would hardly have been suspected of being able to bring about, as it has, so important a step in the development of long-distance tel- ephony of both kinds. By means of this little instrument, or rather many of them, the energy of the original telephonic cur- rent can be increased many billion times, SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLIII. No. 1102 which is then transformed, in part, into ether tremors and sent in all directions across oceans and continents and there transformed again, reproducing the orig- inal speech without distortion. Our sense of appreciation seems to have been hard- ened by many and great successes. We seem to be stunned, unable to comprehend fully the significance and the greatness of such a marvelous achievement. Apparatus has been devised for the counting of both the alpha and the beta particles, and the existence of atoms has been demonstrated beyond question. The simplicity of the apparatus devised by C. T. R. Wilson for making visible the paths of the alpha and the beta particles, atoms and the minute pieces of atoms, makes us wonder whether anything is im- possible, providing we have the genius to devise the proper instruments. Radioactive substances would be explod- ing with stupendous violence, and their quivering atoms be sending ether pulses into space, a whole world of great activity about us, and we should be in complete ignorance of it, were it not for the electro- scope and the photographic plate. As was intimated at the beginning, this partial summary has been presented mainly for the purpose of illustrating the extent to which the development of instruments has been a contributing factor in scientific progress. It is to be noted that in many cases advancement can proceed to a cer- tain point and then must necessarily stop, no further significant progress being pos- sible until some required instrument of re- search is perfected or an entirely new one devised. It is often more profitable to de- vote time to developing instruments than to the continuing of investigations whose re- sults become obsolete as soon as the instru- ments employed are improved. The pains- taking observations of Angstrom, notwith- FEBRUARY 11, 1916] standing their great value, were discarded as soon as better gratings were produced. The simplest of instruments have often been the means of making great discoveries. Faraday and Henry worked with the most simple tools. Many discoveries as far reaching as any will again be made with the simplest apparatus; but advancement in other directions can only be effected after the highest possible development of instru- ments and processes. Some men by devising what appeared to be a little improvement in a machine have indirectly advanced science more than would many painstaking investigations. Instruments like the Crookes’ tube lead to the discovery of facts that were entirely unsuspected and unsought; and similarly many instruments have been developed for one purpose and then found to be of value in an entirely different field. We have seen many problems solved which at first appeared beyond the possibility of demon- stration or accomplishment. There seemed no possible method of approach. ‘There were no instruments with which the re- sults could be attained. Photography, wireless telephony, counting atoms, and see- ing the tracks of atoms and of fragments of atoms, are some of the accomplishments which not so many years ago would have been considered beyond the range of pos- sibility. Many instruments are used as tools to perform certain definite functions in a more complex system, and, as such, should be so constructed as to require the least possible attention. As far as it is practicable the instrument should read directly the quan- tity desired. We already have many such instruments, as, for example, the ammeter, voltmeter, fluxmeter, potentiometer, Wheat- stone bridge, direct reading spectrometer, and the recently devised instruments for giving directly the length of electromag- SCIENCE 191 netic waves and their logarithmic decre- ment. The ‘‘artificial eye,’’ also recently devised, gives in the photometry of colors results equivalent to that of an average eye, eliminating the necessity of several ob- servers. In the measurement of conductiv- ity an apparatus has been so assembled as to give directly the resistance in microhms per cubic centimeter. Self-recording in- struments of all kinds are a great conve- nience and in many operations practically indispensable. The intricacy and difficulty of many operations which often retard progress should be removed as far as possible. Every instrument improved to give greater convenience and greater simplicity in operation, makes it possible for all who use it to concentrate their whole energy on that part of their work which has real signif- icance. This adds much to efficiency and productivity in science. I wish to emphasize the importance of using the best and most convenient instru- ments obtainable for any given purpose. We may learn from manufacturing estab- lishments the advantage of discarding ap- paratus that has become obsolete or not suited for our particular purpose. In no other way can our output become what it should be. There are many problems pressing for solution, and every unexplained phenom- enon may hold in store still more problems or strange relationships and unknown entities. Most of the solutions can be made only with the aid of scientific instruments. We want to know something definite about the nature of gravitation and of the ether. We want to understand more com- pletely the structure of atoms and mol- ecules. We want to know the structure of corpuscles and nuclei. We want to under- stand the interatomic and intermolecular forces. We want to know what determines 192 the various properties of the different ele- ments. We want to understand the nature of positive and negative charges of electri- city. We want to know the nature of elec- tric and magnetic fields and the relation between the two. We want to know a great deal more about the mechanism of radiation. We must find a way of obtaining power from coal more economically. The direct energy of the sun should be employed and stored for use at night and in winter. The energy of the tides and of the wind must be economically utilized. These and a thousand other problems are waiting for solution. The ultimate aim of science, as I see it, is to solve the mysteries of nature not only for the purpose of broadening our vision of the external world and for making its forces serve our physical needs, but also in so doing to help guide us to a fuller under- standing of our relation to the universe and of the miracle of our existence. May we not ultimately learn something definite about the relation of mind and matter? We must place no limits to the possibil- ities of science. Speculation and the im- agery of what may lie beyond the present boundaries of knowledge are an incentive to greater effort, and are of real value when given their proper place. I have called attention to the importance _ of instruments in scientific progress. I have emphasized the importance of perfect- ing the instruments, not only with regard to greater precision but also with regard to convenience in operation, so as to enable new ideas to be subjected to experiment with the least possible effort. The vastness of our field and the inter- dependence of the different branches make it impossible for any one individual or a small group of individuals to be familiar with all the known processes and instruments for accomplishing definite ends. Our investi- gations often lead to the determination of SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1102 some quantity we are not accustomed to measure, and we wish to know at once what is the most practical apparatus to employ. Much time is often wasted in devising an instrument that has already been developed, and inefficient devices are often finally em- ployed unnecessarily. When we consider the large number of investigators concerned and the importance of the work, this is a serious matter. We may obtain help from the catalogs of manufacturers, we may write to some one who is more familiar with such measurements, we may search in various scientific books and magazines, technical handbooks, and reports of the bureaus of standards. Such procedure, however, is wasteful and uncertain, and as has already been stated, often leads to the employment of inferior and more cumbersome methods than is necessary. It is like searching for the meaning of a word from its use in literature, in place of using a dictionary, or like searching for physical constants in the original publications, in place of using compiled tables. It is like these, except that it is much worse. Most instruments and methods are described under the titles of the investigations in which they were first employed, which, in addition, are often published in inaccessible journals. We need what we may call an encyclo- pedia of instruments and methods of re- search. This should include materials, methods and processes, as well as individual instruments employed in research in all the sciences. Progress in the development of apparatus is so rapid that it would be nec- essary to issue a yearly supplement and probably to publish a revised edition every few years. This could be done by some bureau or organization with the cooperation of all scientific men. In the simplest form it could give the apparatus and the differ- ent methods for accomplishing each defi- nite purpose, a short statement concern- ing each instrument, with references to Frpruary 11, 1916] journals where it is fully described, and all improvements to date. If it was desired to produce a low vacuum, all the known meth- ods and the limitations of each would be at once found in such an encyclopedia. If one wished to measure low pressures, the en- eyclopedia would call his attention, with references, not only to the McLeod gauge but also to the recently devised molecular gauge which might give more accurate re- sults in those particular measurements. If one wished to maintain a constant tempera- ture at several successive points from the temperature of solid carbonic acid to that of liquid air, he might spend a long time in devising an apparatus, but the encyclopedia would at once refer him to the methods that have been successfully employed. Such a publication would add much to effi- ciency, and the cost would be small com- pared to the great service rendered to science. We also need a journal of scientific in- struments, in English, devoted entirely to the description of new methods and instru- ments. I have often felt the need of both such publications, and I am sure that much energy now wasted would be conserved, and on the whole more worthy contributions to science produced. When once accustomed to such necessities we should wonder how we managed to do without them. We are entrusted with the responsibility of solving some of the greatest and grand- est problems confronting the race. It is our plain duty to be improving conditions for individual and general efficiency. We must point out the needs of science in defi- nite and concrete terms, and must not hesi- tate to urge upon society that it supply all real physical needs for the proper prosecu- tion of its scientific work. ANTHONY ZELENY UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA SCIENCE 193 PSYCHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL INTERPRETATIONS FOR CULTURE? THE mere fact that we have in Section H a joint segregation of anthropology and psychology would seem to imply some close functional relation between these sciences. However, the most probable explanation of the phenomenon is to be found in the dis- tinetly. anthropological conception of his- torical association. If one may be par- doned the diversion, I would say that most likely this association is due to the shrewd- ness of some one in finding a chance to smuggle psychology into the scientific camp. Yet, if one recalls the various annual programs of the section, there comes to mind a considerable number of papers and addresses professing to authoritatively interpret cultural phenomena by the aid of psychological conceptions. So far as I know, the authors of these papers have all been psychologists, rarely has an anthro- pologist ventured to set the psychologists right. Many of these psychological dis- cussions of anthropological problems have struck the anthropologists as a bit naive and I have not the least doubt but that for once, the psychologists will in turn get a naive reaction, because I propose to pre- sent reasons for doubting the validity of such psychological explanations for cul- tural phenomena. We have a considerable bibliography under the heads of psychology of religion, psychology of art, psychology of sex, and psychology of society. Of these the pro- fessional psychologists have the first two almost entirely to themselves, but share the others with the sociologists. In the devel- opment of their subjects, the psychologists 1 Address of the vice-president and chairman of Section H, Anthropology and Psychology, Amer- ican Association for the Advancement of Science, Columbus meeting, December, 1915. 194 have as their fundamental assumption the belief that religious phenomena are suscep- tible to statement in psychological terms and that their ultimate explanation is to be sought in conventional psychological prin- ciples. By analysis, they seem to seek for a psychological mechanism, or a fixed asso- ciation of activities, that is responsible for the appearance of religion on the earth and its subsequent development. One of their initial assumptions is that by this mechan- ism, or whatsoever they prefer to call it, man has gradually built up the religion of the world to-day. They take for granted that the religions of the less civilized peo- ples of our time are examples of the earlier forms of this development, and seek in them the fundamentals of religious evolution. The chief aim is to show how the religious activities of our people can be explained as normally evolved from the functioning of this assumed mechanism. It follows that one of these psychological authors would consider his task brought to a glorious end if he could formulate a statement of the gradual building up of religion that was en- tirely consistent with the data at hand; and would consider that he had revealed the cause of its appearance to lie in a defi- nite mode of action in man’s nervous system. Though we have so far spoken in terms of religion, the general assumptions in the treatment of art, sex, etc., appear to be the same. All these psychological investi- gators are striving to bring the phenomena of culture entirely within the conventional limits of psychology and to explain it by psychological principles. In order to bring out clearly the differ- ences between this attitude and that now assumed by our representative anthropol- ogists, we may try to apply the same mode of characterization to their works. I do not recall any serious recent attempt on the SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLIII. No. 1102 part of an anthropologist to discuss the anthropology of religion as a whole or to examine our own religion by authropolog- ical tools, but if the attempt were to be made, the preconceptions would be about as follows. In a treatise on our religion, the phenomenon would be considered ade- quately explained by identifying it with culture. Culture origins would be sought in a comparative analysis of our religion and in tracing out the sources from which the various elements in the complex came. The ideal would be to state where, among whom and under what conditions, these several elements arose and were associated in the present complex, the whole consti- tuting what may be considered as a his- torical explanation. It is not conceived that the carrying of this analysis to its ulti- mate extreme would give us a statement of religion as a world phenomenon, for the religions of other peoples have different his- tories, and though we see on every hand indisputable evidences of mutual borrowing and interaction, the fundamental elements of the world’s religions have decided indi- viduality. Hence, if we confined our efforts to tracing out the historical development of only such elements as are found in our own religion, we should ignore a consider- able part of the phenomenon at large. Therefore, a general treatise on the anthro- pology of religion would begin with the ex- haustive study of a number of religions and finally seek by a comparative view, a gen- eralized statement of the historical rela- tions between the religions of the world. Thus could be constructed a theoretical out- line of the development of religion as we now find it among the several peoples of the earth. On practically the same lines we should expect to develop the anthropology of art, literature, music, marriage, social organization, etc. Now if these are true characterizations FEBRUARY 11, 1916] of the two methods, it is clear they have im- portant differences. Both use the same data as to the kinds of religious activities in the world, but the psychologists seek their origin in universal psychic activities, while the anthropologist is content to find the approximate localities and relative times whence the various elements come into view. Though perhaps not at first ap- parent there is nevertheless a fundamental difference between the two, which it is my purpose to develop in this discussion. Like psychology, anthropology has been rapidly developing its problems and con- ceptions, and is just emerging from its formative period. Its position and scope is perhaps as clearly formulated now as is that of psychology. In the main, it deals with culture and the various problems directly related thereto. Anthropology is perhaps most correctly defined as dealing with the first appearance and subsequent career of man upon the earth. While com- parative morphology in all its human as- pects is an important method, it is based upon and dependent upon other sciences apd has for its ultimate goal the elucida- tion of historical cultural relationships. Culture is the distinctly human trait and must always be appealed to to determine the status of such fossils as the Prthe- canthropus erectus. Cultural phenomena are conceived of as including all the activities of man acquired by learning. Thus we eliminate, on the one hand, the permanent individualities of the separate men and, on the other, what- ever equipments they may have had by birth. Cultural phenomena may, therefore, be defined as the acquired activity com- plexes of human groups. It follows, then, that there is a problem of almost equal concern to psychologists and anthropologists—the differentiation between the innate and the acquired. Psy- SCIENCE 195 chologists give their attention to innate phenomena, especially man’s psycho-phys- ical equipment. If we extend the meaning of the term behavior so as to include con- sciousness, we may say that psychologists are concerned with the behavior of man as an individual. If one may trust to the re- marks heard, psychologists are quite given to the assumption that anthropologists are simply students of comparative human be- havior. At least psychological literature contains more than one example of the behavioristic interpretation of cultural data. Now, it may be that there is a problem in the comparative behavior of the individuals comprising ethnic groups, but, if so, it is a psychological one and must be solved by the use of psychological data. Anthropolo- gists give it little concern because they see in differences of individual behavior no significant cultural correlates. So far as they can see, all the known culture phe- nomena since the dawn of the paleolithic period necessitate no changes in man’s in- nate equipment nor in his innate behavior. So, on the whole, anthropology is quite in- different to the problems of comparative be- havior, because it is concerned with the ob- jective aspects of what is learned in life. There is, however, one problem that troubles the anthropologists, viz., to dis- tineuish between the innate and the ac- quired elements of the more fundamental activity complexes. One of the pressing anthropological problems of the hour is the effectiveness or non-effectiveness of in- stinctive factors in the differentiation of cultures. The problem is almost identical with the educational problem of inborn versus learned activities. The only syste- matic discussion of this problem is Thorn- dike’s ‘‘Original Nature of Man,’’ which, while projected from an educational hori- zon, is, nevertheless, a distinct contribution to the anthropological problem. One of 196 this author’s illustrations may be cited as an example of the anthropological problem: thus we are told ‘‘that a child instinctively conveys food to his mouth with the naked hand, but by habit comes to use a spoon’’ (p. 3). Here it is clear that the use of the spoon in eating is a cultural fact in con- trast to the use of the hand. As such, it falls into the same class with forks, saws, rifles, automobiles, etc., or into the gen- eral class of tools. A little reflection or a visit to an anthropological museum will show how completely tools dominate the objective phenomena of culture. Yet, our problem is far from simple. For example, what shall be said when the baby grasps the spoon and pounds upon the table with every manifestation of joy? Is pounding a phenomenon of culture or is it a part of original nature? The anthropologist very much needs to know where the distinction falls. He has at various times given it serious consideration, but finds no way to approach it save by logical analysis, re- sulting in the formation of an opinion. It seems that psychologists have done no better. Thorndike, for example, is delight- fully frank in stating that in most cases as yet he is able to do little more than formu- late an opinion. His general statement seems to be that while original nature often decides that an individual will respond to certain situations, it far less often imposes upon him a definite response or limits the time of such response. To this, as a gen- erality, anthropologists will agree: it is in fact another way of stating their own opin- ions. To them its formulation would be something like this: while all culture is ac- quired, there must still be a complex of in- stincts to acquire and participate in cul- tural activities; but only very rarely, if at all, specific instincts for the acquisition of a particular culture. While such general- ities are of great value, serving to clear the SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1102 air as it were, they unfortunately solve no problems nor relieve us of the necessity for real concrete investigation. Reverting again to the tool-using com- plex, the anthropologist is quite ready to assume that to seize any convenient object and use it to assist movement is instinctive; and more, that the tendency to observe the specific use of tools by others and self-learn the use of the same, is in its fundamental aspects instinctive. Finally, there is a pre- sumption that there is some instinctive factor in the invention complex, that leads to the production or modification of cul- ture traits. That there must underlie the development of cultures an instinctive com- plex tending to culture production seems a necessary assumption to those familiar with anthropological data. One general point about which psychol- ogists seem to agree is that the associations of ideas are not innate. This is expressed by Thorndike (24) as follows: It is unlikely that the original [innate] connee- tions are ever between an idea and either another idea or a movement. No one has, I think, found satisfactory evidence that, apart from training, an idea leads of inner necessity to any one response. And there is good evidence to show that original connections are exclusively with sensory situations. . . . We have, of course, by original nature the capacities to connect the idea of one thing to the idea of another thing when the two have been in certain relations, and to break up the idea of a total fact into ideas of its elements, when once ideas have been given that are capable of such association and analysis. But we do not appar- ently, by original nature, have preformed bonds leading from ideas to anything. If an idea apart from training provokes a response, it does so by virtue of its likeness to some sensory perception or emotion. Nor do we apparently by original nature respond to a situation by any one idea rather than another. That we think is due to original capae- ity to associate and analyze, but what we think is due to the environmental conditions under which these capacities work. The what we think is largely determined Frpruary 11, 1916] by our culture, for, so far as anthropologists can see, a culture is a definite association complex of ideas. When anthropologists assert that culture is not innate, they have this in mind and should, if it were true that definite associations between ideas were innate, find it difficult to harmonize these contradictions. The assumption, therefore, that it is chiefly between sensory factors that inborn connections exist, is complementary to the anthropological view. In content, culture is highly rationalistic, or fundamentally a matter of thought, or idea connection. There is, however, con- siderable confusion on this point, appar- ently due to lack of discrimination as to the thinking process and what is thought. As we have already noted, the individual’s atti- tude toward culture is apparently entirely an innate affair, or is truly a part of his innate behavior. The obscurity of the case arises in part from the fact that it is this innate behavior that produces cultures and perpetuates them. It is quite natural, therefore, that many should claim the non- rationalistic factors as cultural. We have various fairly satisfactory theories of cul- ture origin based upon the conception that man’s less material traits are rationalistic constructs from instinctive actions, the latter serving as the suggestive structural elements. Our contention here is, how- ever, not on the reality of an instinctive basis to culture, but that the investigation of man’s true behavior is a psychological problem and must be approached from the psychological horizon. The moment we, as anthropologists, attempt to apply cultural data and cultural methods to these under- lying instinctive phenomena, our psycho- logical friends will find our assertions just as naive as theirs to us when they reverse the application. Since we can not expect to be at home in the psychological field, we must leave those problems to them. SCIENCE 197 Perhaps in passing we should note the much-discussed question as to the power of ideas, for many psychologists vigorously insist that an idea can in some way lead to action irrespective of other conditions. Now it may be that every idea causes a re- action, as to that an anthropologist’s opin- ions are of no importance, but such acts seem to fall into the behavior class and be- long, therefore, to the innate equipment of man for cultural activity. We are familiar with the fact that all the known cultures of the world have cer- tain marked similarities; in fact, from one point of view, they are very much alike. It has been claimed that this likeness is due to many fundamental ideas in common. Bastian seems to have believed that these ideas were to be found wherever people lived, because the very constitution of their nervous system made them arise with cer- tainty. Now, if this is true, such ideas must be set down as part of man’s original nature. If they result as a universal re- sponse to situations, the situations must be uniform; but in any event, if all men, how- ever isolated from birth, will get these ideas, then they are essentially inborn and so constitute the basic elements of culture. We may also note the older belief that man’s original nature was so ordered that social groups everywhere tended to develop their culture on the same pattern, rising from the lowest state of savagery to the highest civilization. This again, if true, would necessitate a kind of mechanical view, for we make the whole merely a re- spouse on the part of man’s original nature. However, these views are quite anti- quated. We now have the rival theories of independent development and single origin of culture traits. In response to the inde- pendent versus common origin of traits, we have such compromise theories as con- vergent evolution, limited possibilities, ete. 198 The problem confronting these theories is to identify the causes underlying the ob- served similarities of culture traits. It is clear that the theory of a single origin for even the most widely distributed traits assumes no necessity for the inher- itance of particular ideas. The theory of independent origin when invoked to explain the occurrence of certain traits in large distinct areas as in both the Old and New World, is also consistent with the unorig- inal nature view; but when pushed farther and made to account for the separate ap- pearance of a trait in many places, leads its supporters into an embarrassing position. When we assume a single place of origin for a trait, we take the view that its ap- pearance is accidental. Thus, original na- ture offers no explanation for the event, only a historical account of what tran- spired in the place and time will suffice. For example, some anthropologists are of the opinion that the bow was invented but once and thence found its way gradually over the world by diffusion. (This seems likely in view of the known history of fire- arms.) In such eases, it appears that the invention and its development in one place is due to the chance combination of many causes. Underlying it is an idea whose occurrence in the mind of an individual was truly accidental. I have elsewhere referred to this view as the psychic accident theory for culture origin. Now the diffi- eulty in extending the independent origin theory to many small areas is that we have too many accidents, unless one can show that the possibilities are limited to a few alternatives and that all men will be made aware of the same kind of situation. How- ever, few anthropologists take the extreme view that all occurrences of the same trait are due to independent invention, the gen- eral tendency being, when a trait has a continuous distribution over an area. to SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIITI. No. 1102 consider it as having been diffused from one point or center included in, or contiguous to, the area in which it is found. Thus, that the bow may have been invented in two or three parts of the world is conceivable without doing violence to our experience with chance phenomena; but, if we go on and divide up the world into small units we soon reach a point where we must find other than accidental causes. The de- fenders of the independent theory recog- nize this, for practically all resort to the assumed unity of the human mind to ac- count for the frequency of widely distrib- uted traits; but when they do so they put themselves into a position where the denial of direct dependence upon original nature is next to the impossible. In general, if we take cognizance of psy- chological knowledge, it appears that so far all attempts to explain particular cul- ture traits as due to the unity of the human mind have been abortive. On the one hand, we have no psychological evidence that particular ideas are due to particular psycho-physical biases—in fact there is abundant evidence to the contrary—while on the other, we have the obvious fact that cultures do differ and that one of these common culture traits when displaced soon passes into oblivion or does not recur. For example, how many of us would ever have conceived a bow, if the thing were not taught us? Further, the unity of the mind theory ignores the great unity of the phys- ical world which certainly controls many traits of culture. Thus, the problem of cutting has but one ready solution, a mate- rial harder than that to be cut and a knife edge. This is due to the physical unity of the world. Hence, whenever men happen to solve this problem, their solutions tend to similarity in the essentials of cutting tools; but if the unity of man’s mind pre- determined the solution, why should we FEBRUARY 11, 1916] have such a variety of cutting tools as we find in our museums? The unity of mind seems to be an expression for uniform be- havior and applies to the original nature of man. To explain facts of culture by asserting the unity of the human species, is little more than the useless pleasantry that culture exists only because there are men in the world. But one may retort that a psychology of religion, or what not, seeks to discover precisely why these ideas arose or were so associated. Our contention is that this can be done only by knowing the history of the case and that this history can not be reconstructed from an ensemble of culture traits, however minutely they may be described in psychological terms. In the various aspects of the tool traits of culture we have one of the most impor- tant series of data bearing upon both the psychological and the anthropological prob- lems of culture origin. It is perhaps less fundamental than language, but is objec- tively superior because of the indestructible nature of many types of tools. For ex- ample, we find in the cave deposits of west- ern Europe, some of man’s first stone tools. We have previously noted the probably in- stinctive basis for tools. Thus, it may be granted that man is by original nature a tool-using and tool-wanting animal. Yet it is difficult to determine if he is a tool-maker by original nature, for the tool-making complex appears as only the mechanical adaptation of natural forms in which mate- rials are found. It has been shown by anthropologists that many forms of stone tools are but slight modifications of selected pebbles, whose natural shapes were adapted to the specific purpose for which tools were sought. The same general principle holds for all tools, for the maker hag to adapt his methods to the mechanical properties of the original materials from which the tools were to be made. This adaptation is surely SCIENCE 199 the rationalization of experiences arising from original responses to tool-using situa- tions. This invention, or the production of new traits of culture, may itself be rational- ized, as is the case when we deliberately set ourselves an inventive task, or even when Wwe recognize the inventive process as a method of culture production. All this must be granted, but there are innumerable times. when new conceptions come as the normal undirected activity of thought. So it seems that rationalization must as a proc- ess be original or a part of man’s original nature. We see that culture production, as the devising of tools, ete., is a product of the rationalizing capacity of man, which in turn is a part of his original nature. There- fore, there is good reason for assuming an underlying innate basis for tool-making im particular and culture production in gen- eral. This clears the way to a fundamental problem: viz., the origin of culture. If culture is a matter of ideas, or the func- tioning of the rationalizing mechanism, then the first prerequisite to the observed condition is the appearance of an anthro- poid with this element in his original na- ture. The forms and varieties of cultural remains seem to necessitate from the first the existence of this rationalizing power at its present level. Thus, it may be objected that the forms of stone tools found in the oldest cave deposits were produced by in- stinet alone, just as the spider spins a web or the bee fashions a comb. The answer to this lies in our museum collections where we find considerable variety in form in a given deposit, but particularly in the many sudden and abrupt changes as we pass from one stratum to another. Then again, Aus- tralian natives were but recently observed making forms identical with some of paleo- lithic origin and with them the instinctive explanation would be absurd. Their 200 method of learning the art and their me- chanical attitude toward it is as rational- istic as similar homely arts are with us. In brief, we fail to discover any essential differences in the tools of early man and fhose now made in a rationalistic manner ; hence we can do no more than assume that from the first they were mere inventions. There may be, however, very great differ- ences in the intensity of rationalization between our ancestors and ourselves, but it is difficult to see how even the earlier cul- tures we know could have taken form with- out the same qualitative rationalizing power. Further, one of the questions an- thropologists would like to hear discussed is as to whether the assumed greater inten- sity of modern rationalization is not merely apparent, only the accumulated momentum or the complex of short-cuts our culture has developed. Anthropologically, it seems that the phenomenon is entirely one of ac- eumulation and short-cuts; but this may be found incompatible with psychological and biological data. Returning now to the question of a tool- using instinct as previously stated, it may be objected that this also is but a rationali- gation or invention, and so not innate. Now at least grasping in the hand is innate and go is the picking up of objects. Then since there is certainly an innate striking re- sponse, we have at least the necessary ele- ments of instinctive activity. Though we are here dealing with a problem yet to be solved, my own observation seems to justify the assumption that to seize an object and pound with it rather than the hand, is an innate phenomenon even in very young children. As suggested above, anthropol- ogists favor the view that no mechanical movement complexes for tool-making are innate, but that there is in man’s original nature a mechanism that lays hold of things and thus supplies the basis for self- SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1102 rationalization and for the acquisition of the great store of accumulated rationaliza- tions of the race, or culture. The point we are coming to is that the anthropological conception of culture is en- tirely consistent with the psychological view, for it asserts that neither mental bias nor biological attributes are of the least avail in explaining the origin of specific culture traits and that it is only when we know the history of a case that we can give anything like an adequate account of its origin. It is thus clear that when we are dealing with phenomena that belong to orig- inal nature we are quite right in using psychological and biological methods; but the moment we step over into culture phe- nomena we must recognize its historical nature. This is why anthropologists object to much that passes for the psychology of religion, art, ete., in which many of the results obtained by use of the historical method are put on a level with those ob- tained by other methods, and then inter- preted as facts of evolutionary or other non-learned activities. To them such terms as psychology of religion, psychology of society, of law, of sexual restrictions, etc., are often so used as to be worse than mean- ingless for they at once assert what is con- tradictory to psychology itself. We are now ready to consider the value of psychological explanations for culture origins. We often read that if culture phe- nomena can be reduced to terms of asso- ciation of ideas, motor elements, ete., there remains but to apply psychological prin- ciples to it to reveal its causes. This is a vain hope. All the knowledge of the me- chanism of association in the world will not tell us why any particular association is made by a particular individual, will not explain the invention of the bow, the origin of exogamy, or of any other trait of culture except in terms that are equally applicable FEBRUARY 11, 1916] to all. What more can psychology tell us than that these inventions were thought out by somebody. So when a culture com- plex has been analyzed and found to rest upon the association of two or more ideas, we do not thereby raise a specific psycho- logical problem at all. The problem we do raise is as to where and at what relative points in man’s career did these ideas ap- pear, and the solution is to be sought in the historical relations of the people among whom they originated and not in innate psychological characters. Our purpose is not to deny the existence of a psychological problem in culture; far from it. We are only pointing out what aspects of the problem can consistently be subjected to psychological methods and calling formal attention to the very crude method of taking learned activities for in- nate ones and thereby explaining cultural phenomena. Psychology can be of the very greatest service to anthropology by discovering the relations between man’s innate and cultural equipments. CLARK WISSLER THE AMERICAN MUSEUM or NatTuRAL History CHARLES RENE ZEILLER Lorraine has produced many men who have adorned the annals of the sciences, arts and polities of France. None are more worthy of honor than Professor Zeiller, the dean of paleo- botanists, who passed away at his home in Paris on November 27. Born at Nancy on January 14, 1847, he was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and Ecole des Mines, so that naturally he was a member of the auxiliary corps of engineers during the Franco-Prussian war. His father was engi- neer-in-chief of bridges and highways of Lor- raine and on the maternal side he was de- scended from the sculptor Guibal. Although the illustrious mantle of Brongni- art and Saporta has long rested on Zeiller’s SCIENCE 201 shoulders his earliest contributions were not paleobotanical, but metallurgical and geolog- ical, and published in the Annales des Mines in 1870 and again in 1871, both devoted to the Hifel region. In 1873 he published a memoir on the eruptive rocks and metalliferous veins of the Schemnitz district. His first paleobo- tanical contribution was an analysis of Schimper’s great work, “Traité de Paléon- tologie végétale” and published in the Revue scientifique in the spring of 1874, thus indi- cating the trend of Zeiller’s mind at that time and foreshadowing the field of endeavor to which he was to so successfully devote the mature years of a reasonably long but never robust life. As an engineer of mines the fossil floras associated with the coal were the subject of his chief professional interest, although Zeil- ler was not a narrow specialist, but a contribu- tor to all phases of paleobotanical activity. With a rare facility he was equally effective in describing the histology of Sphenophyllum and Lepidostrobus or the impressions of plants of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic or Cenozoic. The last paper from his hand that I have received was an account of the Wealden flora of Peru, and in his last letter, written just before the end, he asked me to send him a copy of Wal- cott’s recent paper on Algonkian Algz. It was this world-wide interest combined with a philo- sophical temperament that made the many annual reviews of the progress of paleobotany published in the Annuaire universel de Géo- logie and the Revue bibliographique of such lasting value. Zeiller’s first original contribution to paleo- botany was an account of the flora of Ternera in Chili published in 1875, and the wide in- terest and facility of treatment are shown in a succession of works whose stratigraphic range is from the Devonian of Pas-de-Calais to the Tertiary of Tonkin-China, embracing discussions of floras of the Carboniferous, : Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary. Outside his native land he contrib- uted to the paleobotany of Spain, India, the , Vosges, the Balkans, New Caledonia, Indo- China, Madagascar, Central and South Africa, 202 Brazil, Peru, Chili, Persia, Russia, Asia Minor (Heraclée) and China. Professor Zeiller was one of the first +o demonstrate the precision with which fossil plants can be used in stratigraphic geology and in the numerous large memoirs on the Carboniferous and Permian floras of the coal basins of Grand-Combe (1884), Valenciennes (1888), Commentry (1888-1891), Epinac (1890), Brive (1892), Blanzey and Creusot (1906), as well as in his work on the fossil plants, which forms part 2 of Vol. 4 of “ Ex- plication de la carte géologique de la France” (1879), he displayed a philosophic interpreta- tion that had never been equalled. Since 1878 the mining engineers of France have had the benefit of his annual course in paleobotany at the Eeole nationale des Mines, the excel- lence of which is attested by his “ Eléments de Paleobotanique” published in 1900, which remains not only the best but the only well balanced text-book on this subject that has ever been written. Professor Zeiller was not only a voluminous contributor to his chosen science, but a life- long teacher and a conscientious and efficient administrator, having been for more than twenty years the secretary of the National Board of Mines, Inspector General since 1884 and Vice-president since 1902. He had charge of the Annales des Mines from 1874 to 1910. For a period of forty-five years he was an hon- ored member of the Société géologique de France and its president in 1893. Honors came to him freely both at home and abroad. He was a commander of the Legion of Honor and a member of the French Academy since 1901. Cambridge conferred its Se.D. on him at the time of the Darwin Centennial. Professor Zeiller was a sort of father-con- fessor to the younger paleobotanists of all races, and they found in him a wise and kindly critic, always painstaking and helpful, as well as a generous and inspiring friend. His rare ability was combined with an equally rare modesty that endeared him to a wide circle on this side of the Atlantic, and wher- ever fossil plants are studied his name will SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITII. No. 1192 ever be honored. This is neither the time nor the place for a critical analysis of his contri- butions to science—our grief is too recent. That he upheld the high traditions of French paleontology there can be no doubt. His epitaph might well read Nil nisi bonum. E. W. B. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE PAN- AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS Tue Second Pan-American Scientific Con- gress at its final session before adjourning to meet again at Lima in the year 1921, which will be the Peruvian centenary, adopted by unanimous vote thirty-six recommendations. Those relating to the sciences are as follows: I. That it is highly desirable that the various American republics arrange for the appointment of delegates for joint action in the matter of archeo- logical exploration, in order to formulate gener- ally acceptable and substantially uniform laws re- lating to the survey, exploration, and study of archeological remains to be found in the several republics, and that laws shall be enacted which will effectively safeguard these remains from wanton destruction or exploitation and which will serve to aid and stimulate properly organized and accredited research in archeology. II. That the government of the United States be requested to bring to the attention of the gov- ernments of the other republics participating in the congress and, through their respective govern- ments, to the institutions and the public thereof, the importance of promoting research in the field of archeology, organized surveys for the study of primitive tribes, and the building of national edu- cational museums for the preservation of the data and materials collected. III. The American republics undertake as soon as possible: (a) Accurate, geodetic measurements which may serve to determine limits, national and international, and to contribute to the discovery of the true shape of our planet. (b) Magnetic measurements of their respective surfaces, and the establishment of several permanent magnetic ob- seryatories in which it may be possible to carry on during long periods of time observations concern- ing the secular variation of the magnetic charac- ters of the earth. (c) To extend their gravimetric measures (obtained by means of the pendulum) FEBRUARY 11, 1916] to those regions where these measurements may have not been taken, in order to obtain more in- formation to determine the true shape of the sur- face and the distribution of the terrestrial mass. IV. That the nations of the American continent establish, by means of their offices of geodesy or by committees appointed for that purpose, an in- ternational triangulation. ‘That the governments of American nations reach an agreement for the purpose of creating an office or congress of cartog- raphy and geography. V. That proper steps and measures be taken to bring about in the American republics participa- ting in the congress a general use of the metric system of weights and measures, in the press, in educational and scientific work, in the industries, in commerce, in transportation, and in all the ac- tivities of the different governments. VI. Confirms the resolution recommended to the American republics by the First Pan-American Scientific Congress regarding the installation of meteorological organizations to serve as a basis for the establishment of the Pan-American meteoro- logical service, and expresses the desire that the re- publics not yet possessing organized meteorological service establish the same as soon as may be prac- ticable. VII. That there be appointed an international Pan-American committee to study and report upon the question of establishing such a uniform gauge as will best serve the countries’ interest, their in- ternational communication, and the communication between all the countries of America. VIII. The appointment of an American com- mittee on radio communication to assist in develop- ment of the science and art of radio communica- tion, to the end that it may serve to convey intelli- gence over long distances and between ships at sea more quickly and accurately, and to bring into closer contact all of the American republics. IX. That through the governmental agencies of the American republics a cooperative study of for- est conditions and forest utilization be undertaken and that the data thereon be published. X. That each of the American nations appoint a commission to investigate and study in their re- spective countries the existing laws and regulations affecting: (a) The administrative practise of reg- ulating the use of water; (b) The adjudicating of Tights pertaining to the use of surface and under- ground water for irrigation purposes; (¢c) The dis- tribution, application, and use of water upon arid SCIENCE 203 and irrigable land; (d) Methods of conservation of surface and underground waters for irrigation or industrial purposes; (¢) And to suggest laws or regulations in the interest of general industry, navigation and commerce. XI. That the question of the reclamation of arid lands is one that should receive the immediate and careful consideration of the several governments of the American states, so that there may be in- creased areas of productive land to meet the needs of their increased populations. XII. (a@) That each country should maintain a well-organized and competent live-stock sanitary service comprising executive officers, field inspect- ors and a laboratory force; (b) That each country should enforce live-stock sanitary laws and regula- tions, with the view of preventing the exportation, importation and spread within the country of any infectious, contagious or communicable diseases by means of animals, animal products, ships, cars, forage, etc.; (¢) That each country should main- tain a thorough live-stock sanitary survey to de- termine what communicable diseases of animals are present and the localities where they exist. This information should be furnished regularly to each of the other countries at stated periods as a routine feature; (d) That each country should re- frain from exporting animals, animal products, forage and similar materials which are capable of conveying infectious, contagious or communicable animal diseases to the receiving country; (e) That each country should enforce measures to prohibit the importation of animals, animal products, for- age and other materials which may convey diseases from countries where dangerous communicable dis- eases such as rinderpest, foot-and-mouth diseases, and contagious pleuropneumonia exist, and which have no competent live-stock sanitary service. Ani- mals, animal products, forage and similar mate- rials from countries maintaining a competent live- stock sanitary service may be admitted under proper restrictions, regulations and inspections, im- posed by the importing country; (f) That each country, through its live-stock sanitary service, should endeavor to establish a complete ex- change of information as to the methods followed which have proved most successful in combating animal diseases; (g) That members of the live- stock sanitary service of each of the American countries should meet at regular intervals to con- sult and inform each other regarding the meas- ures taken for furthering cooperation in protecting the live-stock industry of the American countries. 204 XIII. That an American plant-protection con- ference be convened, the delegates thereof to be one or more technical experts from each of the several American countries, and that, as soon as practicable, a meeting of this conference be held to discuss suitable legislation, the means of estab- lishing competent scientific bureaus, and to recom- mend such cooperative research work and control of plant introduction as may be advisable, and to use all reasonable efforts to secure appropriate ac- tion by the several countries. XIV. Recommends the distribution of informa- tion regarding the agricultural production of the different countries and of the publications relating thereto. XXVIII. (1) That a compilation according to a definite plan be made of the mining laws of the American countries, not only in their original languages, but also in English or Spanish or Portu- guese translations, as the case may be, with a view to the reciprocal improvement of the laws of each individual country. (2) That the several Ameri- can governments appoint a committee to consider the uniformity of mining statistics, and to make recommendations to their respective governments for the systematizing, simplifying and standardiz- ing of such statistics. XXIX. That all American countries inaugurate a well-considered plan of malaria eradication and control based upon the recognition of the prin- ciples that the disease is preventable to a much larger degree than has thus far been achieved, and that the education of the public in the elementary facts of malaria is of the first order of importance to the countries concerned. XXX. That the American republics in which yellow fever prevails, or is suspected of prevailing, are urged to enact such laws for the eradication of yellow fever as will best accomplish that result. That inasmuch as yellow fever exists in some of the European colonies in America, it is desirable to invite them to adopt measures for its elimination. XXXIV. That the American governments, de- riving important revenues from the consumption of alcohol, should organize their systems of taxa- tion so that the economic interests be subordinated to the higher interests of a social and moral order, which tend to the suppression of alcoholism. XXXV. That it is very advisable that the dif- ferent monetary systems of the American republics be studied from a scientific point of view and in connection with the experience of the various American countries, in such matters. XXXVI. That the American republics make SCIENCE [N.S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1102 uniform, as far as possible, the basis and adopt a common time for the taking of census, and adopt uniform principles in commercial and demographic statistics. In conelusion, the congress specially recommends, for execution by the present Pan-American Union or by means of any other institution in actual ex- istence or to be established, the following propo- sitions: The establishment of an intellectual Pan-Ameri- can union to unite the various associations of dif- ferent character—technical, medical, legal, ete.— divided into sections according to the groups that may be deemed convenient, such as a university section, a library section, etc. The details thereof are contained in the records of the congress in the form of four propositions dealing with the proposed union. The organiza- tion that may take charge of its establishment will lay broad and deep the true foundations of intel- leetual Pan-Americanism. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS THE permanent secretary of the American Association for the Advancement of Science requests us to state that in the report of the Columbus meeting reference should have been made in the account of the opening exercises to the admirable response to the address of welcome by the president of the association, Dr. W. W. Campbell, director of the Lick Observatory. Tue Bruce gold medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific has been awarded to Dr. George Ellery Hale, director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory. At the recent meeting of the American So- ciety for Experimental Pathology in Boston, Dr. Simon Flexner was elected president, Dr. Gideon Wells vice-president, and Dr. Peyton Rous secretary for the year 1916. The Soci- ety for Experimental Pathology will hold its next meeting in New York next December, to- gether with the other constituent organizations of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. Dr. Flexner is the chairman of the executive committee of this organization for 1916 and Dr. Rous is general secretary. Orricers of the Philosophical Society of Washington elected for 1916 are: President, FEBRUARY 11, 1916] L. J. Briges; Vice-presidents, E. Buckingham, G. K. Burgess, W. J. Humphreys, Wm. Bowie; Secretaries, J. A. Fleming, P. G. Agnew; Treasurer, R. B. Sosman; General Committee: The foregoing officers and the following mem- bers-at-large: H. L. Curtis, N. E. Dorsey, R. L. Faris, E. G. Fischer, D. L. Hazard, R. A. Harris, W. F. G. Swan, W. P. White, F. E. Wright and Past-presidents G. W. Littlehales and C. K. Weed. ReEcEnT grants from the Bache Fund of the National Academy of Sciences have been made by the Committee as follows: No. 187 to H. H. Lane, State University of Oklahoma, $500 for the purchase of apparatus to be used in a comparative study of the embryos and young of various mammals in order to deter- mine, by physiological experimentation and morphological observations, the correlation be- tween structure and function in the development of the special senses. No. 188 to H. W. Norris, Grinnell College, $100 for assistance in the analysis of the cranial nerves of Cecilians (Herpele and Dermophis). No. 189 to EH. J. Werber, Woods Hole, $230 for assistance in experimental studies aiming at the control of defective and monstrous development: (1) The effect of toxic products of metabolism on the developing teleost egg; (2) the effect of ex- perimentally produced diseases of parental meta- bolism on the offspring in mammals. No. 190 to H. 8. Jennings, Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, $200 for assistance in the study of evolu- tion in a unicellular animal multiplying by fission: heredity, variation, racial differentiation in Dif- flugia. No. 191 to P. W. Bridgman, Harvard Univer- sity, $500 for mechanical assistance in an investi- gation of various effects of high hydrostatic pres- sure, in particular the effect of pressure on elec- trical resistance of metals (continuation). No. 192 to J. P. Iddings, Washington, D. C., $1,000 for apparatus and assistance in the micro- scopical and chemical investigation of igneous rocks, for the purpose of extending knowledge re- garding petrographical provinces and their bear- ing on the problem of isostasy. No. 193 to C. A. Kofoid, University of Cali- fornia, $500 for assistance in securing animals in the Indian jungle and in their preparation for study in research on the intestinal protozoa. No. 194 to R. A. Daly, Harvard University, SCIENCE 205 $1,000 for the purchase of a thermograph of new design for determining temperature in the deep sea. No. 195 to R. W. Hegner, University of Michi- gan, $160 for assistance in the study of the his- tory of the germ cells, especially in hermaphrodite animals in order to determine the visible changes that take place in their differentiation and the causes of these changes (continuation). The Committee on the Bache Fund at present is constituted as follows: Ross G. Harrison, Yale University; Arthur G. Webster, Clark University, and Edwin B. Frost, chairman, University of Chicago (Williams Bay, Wis- consin). We learn from Nature that the committee appointed by the Paris Academy of Sciences to examine the requests for grants from the Bonaparte Fund make the following proposals, which have been confirmed by the academy: 3,000 franes to Auguste Lameere, professor at the University of Brussels, to enable him to con- tinue his researches at the Roscoff Zoological Sta- tion. 4,000 frances to Charles Le Morvan, assistant as- tronomer at the Paris Observatory, for the publi- cation of a systematic and photographic map of the moon. 2,000 franes to Paul Vayssiére, for the continu- ation of his researches on the various species of cochineal insects. 3,000 franes to Francois de Zeltner, to contribute to the cost of a proposed expedition to the Sudan- ese Sahara, more particularly in the Air massif. 2,500 franes to Léonard Bordas, to assist him in pursuing his investigations relating to insects at- tacking trees and forests, and more especially spe- cies which at the present time are devastating the woods of the central plateau and west of France. 3,000 franes to Joseph Bouget, botanist at the Pie du Midi Observatory, for realizing his cultural experiments on a larger scale, with special refer- ence to the improvement of the pastures of the Pyrenees. 3,000 franes to Henry Devaux, professor of plant physiology at Bordeaux, for the continuation of his researches on the cultivation of plants in arid or semi-desert regions. 2,000 franes to Victor Piraud, for the continua- tion of his studies on the fauna of Alpine lakes and torrents, particularly at high altitudes. 2,000 franes to Mare Tiffeneau, for the continu- 206 ation of his studies on the phenomena of molecular transposition in organie chemistry. In conformity with authorization by the minister of justice and public instruction a small expedition was despatched from the Argentine National Observatory at Cérdoba to Venezuela to observe the total eclipse of the sun on February 3. The expedition is in charge of Astronomer Chaudet and is equipped with two cameras for photographing the corona, two prismatic cameras for the flash and coronal spectrum, a small slit spectrograph and a photometer. It was expected to occupy a station in or near Tucacas. THE post of mining geologist in the ministry of agriculture and commerce of China has been offered to Dr. Warren D. Smith, pro- fessor of geology in the University of Oregon. Dr. Smith went to the university in Septem- ber, 1913, from the Philippines, where he was chief of the division of mines in the bureau of science. He had been in government service in the Philippines nine and a half years. Dr. Orro ScHoEBL has resigned as assistant director of the quarantine laboratory, port of New York, health officers’ department, to ac- cept a position in the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. Dr. WittraAm J. Means, one of the organ- izers of the Ohio State University and dean of the Starling-Ohio Medical University since the merger in 1907, has resigned, to take effect June 30, on account of impaired health and age. Proressor J. H. Fautt, of Toronto Univer- sity, recently spent nearly two weeks at the New York Botanical Garden in a study of herbarium material of the Polyporacer, with special reference to collections made in On- tario. Proressor H. V. Tartar, whose publications on the results of his research investigations with arsenical sprays have materially modified certain spraying practises, has been granted a two-year leave of absence as head of the Oregon Experiment Station Department of Chemistry, to pursue research work at some of the leading eastern universities. Proressor J. E. Kraus, research specialist SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITII. No. 1102 in horticulture at the Oregon Agricultural College, has been given a two-year leave of absence to continue studies in eastern uni- versities. He will first spend some time with the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry investi- gating certain pollination problems at Miami, Florida, after which he will begin his investi- gational studies at Chicago. Dr. Cuartes §. Pancoast, Philadelphia, who went to Vienna in December, 1914, is now in charge of a 4,000-bed hospital at Munkacz in the Carpathians. Dr. AyLMER May, principal medical officer of northern Rhodesia, has been selected by the British war office to undertake research work on the western front in connection with wound infection. Dr. H. M. Wooncocr, assistant to the late Professor E. A. Minchin, has been appointed acting head of the department of protozoology at the Lister Institute, London. Tuer Minnesota and Wisconsin Chapters of the Society of Sigma Xi have established an annual exchange lectureship. For the present year President Charles R. Van Hise will rep- resent Wisconsin in a lecture at the Univer- sity of Minnesota on March 17. Professor KE. M. Freeman will be the Minnesota repre- sentative in a lecture at the University of Wisconsin at some date during the second semester. Proressor WituiamM T. CouncinMan, of Har- vard University, will lecture before the Ex- perimental Medicine Section of the Cleveland Academy of Medicine on February 11. His subject is “ Glioma.” Tue sixth lecture of the Harvey Society series delivered at the New York Academy of Medicine, on February 5, was by Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, on “ Spirochetes.” Tuer Guthrie lecture of the Physical Society was delivered at the Imperial College of Sci- ence on January 28, by Mr. W. B. Hardy, on the subject “Some Problems of Living Matter.” Tur Prussian ministry of public instruction has ordered the erection of a bust of von WEBRUARY 11, 1916] Behring in the Marburg Institute for Hygiene in memory of the twenty-fifth anniversary of Behring’s publication of his work on serum therapy. On recommendation of the council of the Biological Society of Washington the follow- ing resolution drawn up by L. O. Howard, Frederick V. Coville and Paul Bartsch has been adopted: WHEREAS, Dr. George M. Sternberg, former Sur- geon General of the U. S. Army, a distinguished worker in the biological sciences as applied to medicine, long time an active member of the Bio- logical Society of Washington and its president during the years 1895 and 1896, has passed from this life, therefore be it Resolved, That the Biological Society of Wash- ington keenly regrets his death and offers its warmest sympathy to Mrs. Sternberg, and will al- ways be grateful to his memory for the important part which he took in the affairs and discussions of the Society and for the distinction which his eminent name adds to its list of past-presidents. Dr. Tuomas H. Russet, professor of clin- ical surgery in the Yale Medical School and surgeon at the New Haven General Hospital, died on February 3, at the age of sixty-three years. Dr. Oswatp Kurs, professor of philosophy and psychology at Munich, has died at the age of fifty-three years. Tue death is announced of Dr. Georg Griipler, who in his laboratories at Leipzig and Dresden carried on physiological and bac- teriological research in connection with the proteins, the enzymes and_ bacteriological stains. Tue Medizinische Klinik of December 26 as quoted in the Journal of the American Med- ical Association gives figures showing that the names of 1,084 physicians have appeared on the 400 casualty lists that had been published by that date in Germany. The list includes 37 civilian physicians, 377 active medical offi- cers, 373 of the reserve force and 287 assistant medical officers. Of this total, 361 have been killed, 142 severely and 3888 less severely wounded, 102 have been taken prisoners, and 90 are missing. SCIENCE 207 ' Tur University of Colorado Mountain Labo- ratory, which is now in its eighth year of operation, will hold a six-weeks’ session, begin- ning on June 26, 1916. Courses in zoology are in charge of Professor Frank Smith, of the University of Illinois; those in botany will be given by Professor Francis Ramaley, of the University of Colorado, at Boulder. The mountain laboratory does not duplicate work of the regular college year, but offers courses primarily concerned with ecology and distribu- tion. Most of those who attend are graduate students and high-school and college in- structors. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS Contracts have been let recently by the board of directors of the Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College for a new hospital for which the legislature recently appropriated $50,000, and a new dairy barn to be erected at a eost of $10,000. President Bizzell has an- nounced that plans and specifications are about completed for the new Animal Hus- bandry Building to cost $40,000 and a new hog cholera serum plant, for which $15,000 are now available. Professor R. Adelsperger, head of the department of architecture and architectural engineering at the college, will begin immediately on plans and specifications for the new college auditorium to be erected at a cost of $100,000 and a new Veterinary Medicine Building to cost $100,000. The funds for these two buildings will not be available until September 1, 1916. A new forestry building costing $40,000 has been authorized by the board of regents and will be erected on the Oregon Agricultural College campus during the coming spring and summer. It will be a brick structure, three stories high and 80 feet wide by 140 feet long. A large laboratory for logging-engineering will be located on the first floor, with smaller laboratories for the manufacture of wood prod- ucts. The second and third floors will be oc- cupied by offices, classrooms and smaller ex- perimental laboratories. The building will be ready for occupancy at the opening of the next college year, September, 1916. 208 THE committee of the board of trustees of Cornell University on faculty participation in university government has recommended that three representatives of the faculty selected by ballot shall sit at meetings of the board with full powers except that of voting, and that each faculty shall select committees to meet with the general administrative com- mittee of trustees. The board has approved in principle the second recommendation and has referred the whole question back to the com- mittee for further conference with the faculty committee. Dr. Wittarp OC. FisHer, whose enforced resignation from Wesleyan University will be remembered, has been appointed acting pro- fessor of economics at New York University. At Princeton University, E. Newton Harvey, Ph.D., has been promoted to an assistant pro- fessorship of physiology. ProFressor WinuiAM Stern, of Breslau, has received a call from Hamburg to fill the chair of philosophy and psychology vacant by the death of Professor Ernst Meumann. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE PARASITES OF THE MUSKRAT In the Journal of Parasitology, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 46, Linton describes cestode cysts found in the liver and omentum of a muskrat found near Washington, Pa., in 1884. On the basis of the size and shape of the hooks and the ap- pearance of the bladderworm Linton con- siders these to be Cysticercus fasciolaris, the larval stage of Tenia crassicollis, a tapeworm which is frequently found in the intestine of the cat. The finding of Cysticercus fasciolaris in the muskrat has been previously reported by Stiles & Hassall, 1894, in “ A Preliminary Catalogue of the Parasites Contained in the Collections of the United States Bureau of Animal In- dustry, United States Army Medical Museum, Biological Department of the University of Pennsylvania (Coll. Leidy) and in Coll. Stiles and Coll. Hassall.” Dr. Allen J. Smith, of the University of Pennsylvania, has written me that he has in SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1102 his possession “a specimen of liver of the muskrat which is tremendously enlarged and riddled with Oysticercus fasciolaris.” This muskrat was trapped in the winter of 1904-05 near Philadelphia. Among fifty muskrats examined from Ne- braska and Minnesota in no case have we found the liver infected with any kind of parasite. We have found in the intestine of one musk- rat, shot at Lake Chisago, Minnesota, in Au- gust, 1915, several hundred minute monostome trematodes which represent a new species. These two parasites should be added to the list given by us for the muskrat in Screncr, N.S., Vol. 42, p. 570, and the Journal of Para- sitology, 1915, Vol. 1, pp. 184-197. FRANKLIN D. BARKER THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA THE USE OF THE INJECTION PROCESS IN CLASS-WORK IN ZOOLOGY It is often difficult or impossible in a labo- ratory class in zoology to demonstrate path- ways of fluids or food in certain animals, in other than a purely structural way. Blood ves- sels are injected and studied as so many colored strings or tubes, and cavities and ducts are explored with a probe, leaving much to the imagination. During the summer course in zoology at the University of Cincinnati, we have made extensive use of the injection method for studying the mechanics of these structures, and their condition during opera- tion. A glass tube is drawn out into a point of any desired size, and attached to a rubber hand bulb, either directly or by a rubber tube. This apparatus, including a bunsen burner and cutting file, is simple and cheap enough to be included as a part of each student’s equipment. The injecting fluid used is usually India ink or Prussian blue. The following example will show how the method is used in studying the circulation of a freshly killed crayfish. The animal is killed by chloroform or ether, and the carapace dissected off. The student then exposes the heart, being careful not to cut any of the surrounding tissue. A fine-pointed glass cannula is now inserted through a hole made with the point of the glass injecting FEBRUARY 11, 1916] needle, or through a slit made with a scissors. Under favorable conditions, the point may be fitted into one of the ostia. The India ink is now slowly injected, and the progress of the ink watched through the transparent vessel walls. In this way, a student can realize what is meant by blood pressure, peripheral resistance of capillaries, physiological pathways open at the time of death, delicacy of capillary beds, as well as the course of the main blood vessels. There is an added advantage, in that one is able to “feel” the resistance of the vessels and capillaries, as well as to see the fluid as it passes through. The addition of a mercury manometer between the bulb and the glass tube may be of use in making quantitative or comparative studies. The advancing stream of black is carefully watched and the order in which the vessels are filled is noted. A very good idea of the relative strengths of the ves- sels is obtained by watching for extravasations. After these points have been observed, the in- jection still remains and can be studied, con- siderable dissection being possible without leakage. In case the ink runs on to the tissues, it can be washed off under the hydrant. The brilliant contrast of black and white is of course obvious. A particularly instructive study can be made by injecting the venous system of the crayfish. The carapace is removed from a freshly killed specimen, and the gills exposed. The ink is then slowly injected into the ventral sinus of the abdomen. The advancing stream can be followed from the different parts of the body (well seen in the transparent joints) to the gills, through them, back to the body wall, and to the pericardial sinus. The picture seen on clearing one of the gills in glycerine has a new interest to the student, he having watched and controlled the process of filling them. This method, besides presenting many an- atomical structures from a physiological point of view, has a wide range of application. A truer, safer and more graphic picture is ob- tained by injecting a duct or opening, than, could be secured by probing it. This is of value in some animals in tracing the bile and pancreatic ducts, as well as those of other SCIENCE 209 glands. It has been successfully applied in some cases to formalin material. Thus the stomach and radial canals of Gonionemus medusa can be demonstrated very well, as can also the pharynx of Amphioxus and its rela- tion to the atrial cavity. Formalin specimens of tapeworm show the longitudinal and con- necting excretory canals very clearly. The living earthworm is very resistant to injec- tions of the blood vessels, a point easily corre- lated with the fact that on cutting the worm, contraction of the vessels prevents bleeding to death. In the grasshopper, the connections between the alimentary canal and gastric ceca can be well shown by injection per os. In some cases water serves the purpose of the ink, as in studying the path of the water in the nasal aperture of the dogfish, or the change of the relations of the parts of the digestive tract when full and empty, or the resistance their inner folds presents to the passage of the food. In these injections it should be borne in mind that the process is the part desired, not necessarily the finished product. Further- more, the student should realize that the con- dition of the preserved specimen merely repre- sents one set of conditions in the life of the animal, and the injection should therefore be considered as showing graphically the physio- logical condition of the animal at the time of death only, with such subsequent changes as naturally follow. This is well shown by the different amounts of ink flowing into each vessel, and the ease with which they are filled. The details noted above, while probably in- eluding points now in use in many labora- tories, are given here, as we have found that the use of this technique has given the ele- mentary student a simple means of studying, in the animals dissected in the laboratory, some of the more fundamental problems of the dynamics of organs. RapuHaen Isaacs UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI THE POISONOUS CHARACTER OF ROSE (CHAFERS I was particularly interested in the article on this subject in Scrmencr, January 28, 1916, 210 because for many years past there has occurred a serious loss among the brook trout (and I think also the rainbow trout) of Pine Creek, at Long Pine, Nebraska. They have floated down stream dead, in large numbers, and stuffed with live rose chafers. The theory to account for this has been the same as stated by the above writer, namely, mechanical, though no real mechanical damage has been observed. I have no doubt of the poisonous character of the beetle, and add this note to extend the knowledge of its effects on a very different order of life. The chafers, it should be said, feed on the willows, chiefly Saliz fluviatilis, that overhang the stream, sometimes stripping them bare. J. M. Bates RED CLouD, NEBRASKA SCIENTIFIC BOOKS British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition, 1910. Zoology, Vol. I., No. 2, Natural His- tory of the Adelie Penguin, by G. Murray Levicr, M.D., R.N.; No. 3, Cetacea, by D. G. Luu, M.A.; Vol. II., No. 2, Oligocheta, by H. A. Bayus, B.A.; No. 8, Parasitic Worms, by R. T. Lererr, D.Sc. and E. L. Arrinson, M.D., R.N.; No. 4, Mollusca, Pt. 1, by Epoar A. Suiru, I.S.0.; No. 5, Nemertinea, by H. A. Bayuis, B.A.; British Museum Nat. History, 1915, 4° with many plates and text-figures. Notwithstanding financial stringency caused by the war, and the absence of many of the younger men of science in the hospital or the trenches, British scientific institutions have been able, as a rule, to continue publication though in restricted measure. The various papers based on material collected by the Terra Nova expedition have been coming out sepa- rately at intervals during 1915, without refer- ence to the order in which they are intended finally to be bound up. Dr. Levick’s account of the habits of the Adelie penguin, illustrated by twenty plates, is most interesting and some of their proceed- ings, especially their habit of unanimous “ drilling ” in large masses like a regiment of well-trained soldiers, are inexplicable on any hypothesis. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1102 Lillie’s account of the whales relates chiefly to subantarctic species mostly observed at whaling stations in New Zealand. He is dis- posed to regard several of the species, espe- cially the humpback (Megaptera nodosa Bon- naterre), as identical with boreal species. However the coloration and proportions as figured differ markedly from the north Pacific species (M. versabilis Cope) and the species of Cyamus infesting them are distinct. He in- dulges in some speculations in regard to what the whalers call the “high-finned killer,” indi- viduals with a higher dorsal fin than the others of the same school, but in the north Pacific there is always at least one of these with every school of killer whales and there is little doubt that these individuals are the old parents of the family group which forms the “ school.” Baylis describes a new species of Oligocheta found in the gill-chamber of a land crab (Geocarcinus lagostoma M. Edw.) collected at S. Trinidad Island in the South Atlantic. This is the second species known to inhabit such a situs, and does not appear to have been materially modified by its parasitic habit. Two new Nemerteans are described from the Antarctic Sea, a Baseodiscus and a Lineus, and two known species of Amphiporus were also obtained, while three other species were obtained in New Zealand waters. The parasitic worms described by Leiper were chiefly obtained from seals and fishes, the birds proving almost free from parasites. A free living Nematode was dredged in McMurdo Sound in 250 fathoms. The species are well illustrated and the paper concludes with a summary of the species collected by previous Antarctic expeditions. The Prosobranch, Scaphopod and Pelecypod mollusea are described with his usual care by Edgar A. Smith and illustrated by two excel- lent plates. Fifty-eight species are enu- merated from the Antarctic region of which twelve are new. The expeditions of the Discovery and South- ern Cross had previously obtained a large proportion of the fauna of the region visited by the Terra Nova. Nothing very striking ap- pears among the novelties except one or two FEBRUARY 11, 1916] odd forms referred to Trichotropis. A new species of Neoconcha has a strong resemblance to Torellia. Modiolaria lateralis Say, orig- inally described from the Florida coast, was obtained from South Trinidad Island, 700 miles off the coast of Brazil in the South Atlantic. Wm. H. Datu PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (VoLtuME 2, NumBeErR 1) Tue first number of volume 2 of the Pro- ceedings of the National Academy of Sci- ences contains the following articles: 1. A Possible Origin for Some Spiral Neb- ule: G. F. Becker, United States Geolog- ical Survey, Washington. It is suggested that nebule may be devel- oped from nebulous streamers or “ bacula.” Comparison of the theoretical shape of the nebul at certain stages of their development with the Whirlpool nebula is not unfavorable to the hypothesis. 2. A Peculiar Clay from near the City of Mexico: E. W. Hincarp, University of Cali- fornia. The analysis shows that the predominant base is magnesia. A peculiarity of the clay is its exceptionally high absorptive power for water. 3. Studies of Magnitude in Star Clusters, I. On the Absorption of Light in Space: Hartow SwHapiey, Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington. The examination of the Hercules cluster indicates the conclusion that the selective ex- tinction of light in space is entirely inap- preciable and that probably the non-selective absorption in space is also negligible. 4, Studies of Magnitudes in Star Clusters, II. On the Sequence of Spectral Types in Stellar Hvolution: Hartow SHapuey, Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington. The giant second-type stars are present in large numbers in the globular clusters. The SCIENCE 211 results offer difficulties for the conventional scheme of evolution of spectral types, but the difficulties are not so severe for Russell’s hypothesis. 5. Hxperimental Evidence for the Essential Identity of the Selective and Normal Photo- Electric Effects: R. A. MinuiKan and W. H. Souprer, Ryerson Physical Laboratory, Uni- versity of Chicago. Photo-electric phenomena are not in gen- eral conditioned by the presence of a gas. All distinctions between the normal and selective effects in lithium have disappeared. 6. Concomitant Changes in Terrestrial Mag- netism and Solar Radiation: L. A. Baurr, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car- negie Institution of Washington. Changes in the earth’s magnetism of appre- ciable amount are found associated with changes in solar radiation. Decreased solar constant is accompanied by increased magnetic constant. Various minor but important corre- lations are established. 7. Submarine Solution of Limestone in Rela- tion to the Murray-Agassiz Theory of Coral Atolls: A. G. Mayer, Department of Marine Biology, Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton. By exposing pieces of shell of the molluse Cassis to solution in sea-water for a year under various conditions, it is shown that the rate of solution is too slow to be favorable to the theory that the solvent action of sea-water for limestone is a primary factor in deepening and widening the lagoons of coral atolls. 8. The Archegonium and Sporophyte of Treu- bia Insignis Goebel: D. H. Camppetu, De- partment of Botany, Stanford University. Treubia is probably on the whole nearer the leafy liverworts than is any other anacrogyn- ous genus. 9. Brief Notes on Recent Anthropological Ex- plorations under the Auspices of the Smith- sonian Institution and the U. 8. National Museum: Aves HrpiicKa, Division of Phys- ical Anthropology, U. S. National Museum. The topics treated are: Search for Neolithic Human Remains in Southwestern Russia; 212 Explorations in the Birusa Caves and Rock Shelters on the Yenisei River, Siberia; Devel- opment of the Child among the Negrito, the African Negro, the Eskimo, and Native Siberians. 10. 4 Theory of Nerve-Oonduction: A. G. Mayer, Department of Marine Biology, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The theory of nerve-conduction is based upon the phenomena of adsorption. The re- sults lend no support to the theory that the velocity of propagation of nerve impulse is that of a shear in the substance of the nerve. 11. Zuni Culture Sequences: A. L. KRrorser, Museum of the Affiliated Colleges, San Francisco. The author gathered a large number of potsherds in and near Zuii, and is able to make a tentative chronological classification of the objects. 12. The Numerical Results of Diverse Systems of Breeding: H. 8. JENNINGS, Zoological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. The proportions of the population which are found after n generations arising from con- tinued breeding in various ways are tabulated for 24 different methods of mating. 13. On the Effects of Feeding Pituitary Body (Anterior Lobe) Substance, and Corpus Luteum Substance to Growing Chicks: Raymonp Peart, Biological Laboratory, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. The commencement of the laying period in pullets is neither retarded nor accelerated by feeding pituitary and corpus substance, but the body growth is retarded. 14. A Preliminary Report on Further Experi- ments in Inheritance and Determination of Sex: Ricuarp Goxipscumipt, Osborn Zoo- logical Laboratory, Yale University. The article states a number of new results found by the author in continuing his earlier work on the interbreeding of gypsy moths. Every gradation of intersexualism from a normal female to a normal male, and from a male three-fourths of the way toward the female has been obtained. SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1102 15. On the Degree of Inbreeding which exists in American Jersey Cattle: RAYMOND PEARL and S. W. Patterson, Biological Laboratory, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. American Jersey cattle are about one half as intensely inbred when eight generations are taken into account as would be the case if continued brother X sister breeding had been followed. In general, Register of Merit animals are Jess intensely inbred than the ordi- nary population. 16. Upper Limit of the Degree of Transitivity of a Substitution Group: G. A. Mitr, Department of Mathematics, University of Tilinois. The degree of transitivity of a substitution group of degree n which does not include the alternating group of this degree is always less than %V/ n—1. 17. The Extension of the Montana Phosphate Deposits Northward into Canada: F. D. ApaMs and iW. J. Dick, Commission of Con- servation of Canada. An account of the explorations carried out to ascertain whether phosphate-bearing rocks extend northward from Utah, Idaho, and Mon- tana into Canada. In some places such an ex- tension has been found. Epwin Bmwe.ti WILson Mass. INST. oF TECH. NOTES ON METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY SNOWFALL AND SNOW COVER Tue destructive snowstorm of December 13, 1915, in the vicinity of New York showed strikingly the ocean control on the depth of snowfall. While the precipitation (rain and melted snow) was heavy everywhere, the depth of snowfall, according to press reports, ranged from little or nothing in eastern Massachu- setts to one foot between New York and New Haven and two feet near Albany. The warmth of the ocean effectively prevented snowfall where the winds blew off the water and made it sticky and dense near the coast, even though the surface wind was from the north. Not until February or March does heavy snowfall usually occur with winds from the ocean. A FEBRUARY 11, 1916] discussion with maps of the snowfall of the eastern United States was published by C. F. Brooks in the Monthly Weather Review, June, 1914, and January, 1915. Snowstorms of the eastern United States are difficult to forecast, because a sleet or ice storm frequently occurs instead. Professor H. C. Frankenfield, of the Weather Bureau, has re- cently made a study of the temperatures pre- ceding sleet and snow storms. Steep tempera- ture gradients northward, and high tempera- tures over the Gulf and south Atlantic states are necessary for sleet formation and usually absent before and during heavy snows. The heavy snowfall problem in mountains of the west is discussed by A. H. Palmer in a well-illustrated paper, “The Region of Great- est Snowfall in the United States.” ? Tamarack, and Summit, California, have the greatest observed snowfall in the United States. SCIENCE 213 are steep to prevent similar crushing.? For thirty-two miles, from Blue Canyon to Truckee, expensive snow sheds are required to protect the Southern Pacifie tracks from the snowfall and avalanches. Mountain snowfall is of immense value for water power and for irrigation; and to some extent this value is controlled by the rate of melting. Messrs. A. J. Jaenicke and M. H. Foerster have written an article on “ The In- fluence of a Western Yellow Pine Forest on the Accumulation and Melting of Snow.” 4 Five years of records near Flagstaff, Arizona, indicate that the snowfall in the forest and ad- jacent grass and farm land park is same; but that the rate of melting is different. In the park the minimum temperatures are lower and the maxima are higher than those in the for- est. Thus the soil in the park is generally frozen before the winter snow cover is estab- lished, while in the forest the soil may freeze Length Annual Snowfall (Inches) Total Rain Station County Watershed Altitude | of Record and Melted (Feet) (Years) Aversce Max Min. Snow (Inches) Tamarack..... Alpine | San Joaquin 8,000 8 621 OTe valle acede | 57.5 Summit........ Placer | Sacramento 7,017 44 420 se | 164 | 48.1 During heavy snowfall the wind is usually relatively light, in marked contrast to the windy snowstorms of the east. The pressure of the snow on any raised objects becomes very DEPTH OF SNOW ON GROUND (9-YEAR AVERAGE) (INCHES) Dec. 1| Jan.1 | Feb. 1} Mar. 1 | Mar. 15 | Mar. 31 eo etoes 19 62 165 183 194 192 aie 9 | 44 | 122 | 127 | 140 | 118 great. A fence made of two-inch boiler flues has been bent; the snow sheds, even where built of twelve- by fourteen-inch timbers occa- sionally collapse, and the gables of the houses 1‘‘Sleet and Ice Storms in the United States,’’ Second Pan-American Scientifie Congress. 2Mo. Weather Rev., May, 1915. See map of the snowfall of the United States by C. F. Brooks, Quar. Jour. Roy. Meteorological Soc., April, 1913. only in a few spots. Any water from melting snow in winter forms an ice layer at the base of the snow cover in the park, but sinks into the ground in the forest. In winter on ac- count of the generally higher temperatures and the heating of the local bare spots and trees, the snow melts more rapidly in the forest than in the park. In spring, on the contrary, the formation of slush, the strong sunshine, and higher wind velocity in the park cause the snow to melt a week, or even more than two weeks, before the last drifts of snow in the forest. The frozen soil and the basal ice layer in the park allow the water to run off very rapidly, while only occasionally is there any surface run-off in the forest. The value of open forest for water conservation is evident. 38 Note the destructive effect of the heavy snow- fall at Flagstaff, Arizona, December 29-31, 1915. 4 Mo. Weather Rev., March, 1915. 214 Tn order to estimate the water from moun- tain snowfall which will become available in summer, snow surveys are made every spring in the mountains of the west. Type water- sheds are surveyed; and the snow is estimated on adjacent ones. The use of a snow sampler gives best results. Several sections of tubing of small diameter are used to cut vertical snow cylinders. This is done at a great many points; and the water content of the snow determined by weight.® WEST INDIA HURRICANES Two very intense tropical cyclones visited the gulf coast in August and September, 1915, the first taking its greatest toll of life in Texas and the second in Louisiana. The 1915 Gal- veston storm made its appearance the morn- ing of August 10 between Dominica and the Windward Islands of Barbados. The storm on passing Haiti, Jamaica and Cape San Antonio, Cuba, did immense damage to the banana and sugar crops; and sank one large steamer. In Texas the loss of life was 275; and in the severe floods occasioned as far as the Ohio Valley 30 were drowned. The cyclone passed out the St. Lawrence Valley August 23. The lowest pressure reading (reduced to sea level) was 28.20 inches (955.6 kb. or mb.) at Houston; the highest wind velocity for five minutes was 93 miles per hour, at Galveston. While the high tide at Galveston was about the same as in 1900, less damage resulted owing to the protection afforded by the sea wall and the elevation of part of the city. The land winds on the coast of southern Texas brought on the highest temperatures ever recorded at Brownsville (104° F.), and Corpus Christi (100° F.). In Texas the cen- tral calm of the cyclone was about 6 miles in diameter, and its forward movement was 15 miles per hour.® One of the most thorough studies ever made of a tropical cyclone was that conducted by Dr. I. M. Cline of the Weather Bureau at New 5 Professor J. E. Church, University of Nevada, Second Pan-American Scientifie Congress. 6 See Mo. Weather Review, August, 1915. 7See Mo. Weather Rev., September, 1915. SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLITI. No. 1102 Orleans, September 29, 1915.7 The storm originated near 64° W. longitude in the Carib- bean Sea September 23 and passed over New Orleans six day later. The sea level pressure minimum of 28.11 inches (952.5 kb. or mb.) at New Orleans established a new low record for the United States; and the winds attained tremendous velocities. At New Orleans the maximum for 5 minues was 86 miles per hour, and for half a minute, 180. At Burrwood, Louisiana, where the wind had an unobstructed sweep, the average velocity for 3 hours was 103 miles per hour, reaching 116 for 20 min- utes, 124 for 5 minutes, and for about half a minute the rate of 140 miles per hour. While there may be doubt as to the accuracy of the cup anemometer, these figures give some quantitative measurement of the tremendous violence of the wind. The wind is described as coming in a series of puffs of a few seconds’ duration. The wind did not veer gradually but changed suddenly from one point to the next; and just before each change the rainfall was intense. So violent was the wind that probably no house in New Orleans escaped damage. The total rainfall at New Orleans was 8.20 inches, but was as high as 14.43 in Washington County. Fifty miles west of the center the rainfall was negligible. The pres- sure gradient was 1 inch (33.9 kb. or mb.) in 50 miles. The central calm was about 8 miles and the whole storm (pressure below 29.50 (999.3 kb. or mb.)) 250-300 miles in diameter; and it progressed at about 12 miles an hour. The high tide overtopped the levees south of New Orleans and on the north overflowed from Lake Ponchartrain into the western part of the city. The loss of life was probably 275, and of property $13,000,000, of which a third was in New Orleans. The westerly course of both hurricanes was due apparently to the presence of high pressure areas in the east central United States. The relatively small loss of life in two such intense hurricanes is due largely to the ample warnings given by the United States Weather Bureau. The weather immediately preceding the for- mation of a West India hurricane is usually hot, damp and calm. The region of origin is Frpruary 11, 1916] generally in the west early and in the east in the middle of the season. According to Sr. J. C. Millas (Second Pan-American Scientific Congress) the original impulse which sets the air in rotation may come from winds at the level of the intermediate clouds. Thus the eyclones are probably largely convectional in origin but to some extent dynamical. CLIMATIC SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES® Proressor R. DeC. Warp, after treating earlier and present climate subdivisions of the United States, proposes a new scheme based on the following principles: . . . the subdivisions should be chosen because of their special relations to cyclonic and anticyclonic tracks and movement; to local and characteristic weather distribution around lows and highs; to cy- clonic and anticyclonic winds; and because of gen- eral similarity of weather types over each province. Finally, the districts should, as far as possible, be the same as those which have been officially adopted in the publication of the meteorological and cli- matie data of the region. He makes eight provinces. The Eastern Province includes all the eastern United States except for the Gulf Province, a strip along the southern coasts extending inland about 200 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The two Plains provinces have their eastern boundary roughly set at the 100th meridian—more ex- actly on the 2,000-foot contour. The two Plateau provinces begin at the main crest of the Rockies and the two Pacific provinces oc- cupy the region west of the crests of the Sierra Nevadas and Cascades. The line dividing the northern from the southern Pacific, Plateau and Plains provinces follows in general the southern boundaries of Oregon, Idaho, Wyo- ming and Nebraska. These serviceable sub- divisions not only follow Professor Ward’s specifications, but also can be easily remem- bered. NOTES Tue Monthly Weather Review under the acting editorship of Professor Cleveland Abbe, 8 Bulletin of the Am. Geog. Soc., September, 1915, pp. 672-680. Condensed in Mo. Weather Rev., September, 1915, pp. 467-468. SCIENCE 215 Jr., has become a comprehensive meteorolog- ical magazine international in scope. It con- tains in addition to direct meteorological con- tributions from Americans and foreigners many reprints and abstracts of important meteorological papers which have appeared elsewhere. The Weather Bureau library under the direction of Professor C. F. Talman con- tributes not only its monthly list of publica- tions received and of papers bearing on me- teorology, but also notes of general interest. “A List of Meteorological Isograms,” is the title of one such note by Professor Talman.® The term ‘‘Isogram’’ was suggested by Francis Galton in 1889 as a convenient generic designa- tion for lines, on a chart or diagram indicating equality of some physical condition or quantity. ... The largest number of those to which partic- ular narnes have been assigned belong to meteorol- ogy. The list of 90 such isograms includes the author of each term and the earliest instance of its use, so far as this information could be obtained by the compiler. Most of the terms are rarely used. Miss E. Buynitzxy, of the library, has con- tributed a “Tentative Classification for Me- teorological Literature.” 1° This is based on schedule F of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, but in general form is like the Dewey decimal system. The main divisions are as follows: 00 General Works. 10 Observatories. 20 Instruments. 30 Physics of the atmosphere. tions. Aerology. 40 Pressure. 50 Temperature. Radiation. 60 Atmospheric moisture. 70 Circulation of the atmosphere. 80 Atmospheric electricity. 90 Climate and weather. There are 81 main heads and 71 subheads; and it is easy to add more. A few minor rearrange- 9 Mo. Weather Rev., April, 1915, pp. 195-198. 10 Mo. Weather Rev., September, 1915, pp. 362- 364. Methods of observation. Cosmical rela- 216 ments might be made to advantage; for in- stance, ice storms should be associated with sleet instead of with dew and frost; and perco- lation perhaps belongs with the relations of precipitation and vegetation to water supply and stream flow, rather than to the section of atmospheric precipitation. This classification is less complete, but more easily remembered than the International; and, being more re- cent than either the International or the Dewey systems, it meets in a satisfactory way the general requirements of modern meteorolog- ical literature. Mr. Rosert SeysotH has compiled a valu- able list of the “Serial Numbers of Weather Bureau Publications.” 1! The numbers begin with 60 in 1895 and end with 560, the Monthly Weather Review for July, 1915. The list em- braces the vast majority of Weather Bureau publications, and, in addition, the important unnumbered publications are mentioned. Proressor A. J. Herpertson died July 30, 1915, at the age of 50 years. He is noted in meteorology particularly for his contribution, “The Distribution of Rainfall Over the Land,” compiled for the Royal Geographical Society in 1900, and for his editorship of the Oxford Wall Maps. Mr. Wauter G. Davis, director of the Oficina Meteorologica Argentina for more than 30 years, has retired on a pension. Mr. George Wiggin, a native of New Hampshire, for 21 years assistant director, is now acting director. CuaruEs F. Brooks YALE UNIVERSITY, January 3, 1915 SPECIAL ARTICLES THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYLLOXERA VASATRIX LEAF GALL In Bulletin 209, recently issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, en- titled “ Testing Grape Varieties in the Vini- fera Regions of the United States,” Husmann makes the following statements, p. 12: The number of swellings, nodosities and tuberos- ities from insect. punctures and the rotting of 11 Mo. Weather Rev., July, 1915, pp. 346-350. SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLIII. No. 1102 the root occasioned by them progress more or less rapidly and deeply in accordance with the texture and character of the root attacked. The weaken- ing and ultimate death of the vine are determined by the extent of the punctures and the progress of the rot upon the roots. Although Cook suggested that puncturing may be the stimulus for the gall production occasioned by the aphids, no evidence has ever been presented to confirm this theory. To the contrary, after intensive study of the grape- vine leaf gall produced by this insect, the writer has gathered evidence showing that so little puncturing is done by the insect that, as a gall-producing stimulus traumatic punctur- ing may be regarded as playing a very minor part. Histological sections of leaves attacked by Phylloxera readily reveal the actual punc- turing done by the insect. This manifests it- self in the broken-up condition of the epi- dermal and mesophyll cells through which the proboscis has passed. In a considerable num- ber of slides, microscopic examination shows the proboscis itself passing through the pune- tured and broken-up cells. The writer has never found more than two or three epidermal cells and as many mesophyll cells thus rup- tured. So slight a disturbance can not be looked upon as the main cause of such large hyperplastic growths as are produced on the leaves of the vine or on the roots of the vine. This view is substantiated by Cornuw’s excel- lent work upon the root swellings induced by the attacks of this insect. The one thing that is definitely certain about the work of Phyllozxera is the fact that it obtains its food by means of a sucking action. This action usually continues for about 12 to 15 days at one particular point on the leaf, and around this point, which may be called the sucking center, the gall develops. During this time the imsect has obtained enough food to enable it to sustain itself, to increase its bulk considerably, and to produce several hundred eggs. The withdrawal of so much food at one point from tender growing leaves, the subsequent changes in tension and pressure at this point, and certain structural peculiarities of the gall itself, all suggest the FEBRUARY 11, 1916] sucking action as the initial stimulus for gall production. Harry R. Rosen U. S. NationaL MusEUM THE QUARTER-CENTENNIAL ANNI- VERSARY OF THE OHIO ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE twenty-fifth annual meeting of the Ohio Academy of Science was held at the Ohio State University, Columbus, on Friday and Saturday, November 26 and 27, 1915, under the presidensy of Professor J. Warren Smith, of Columbus. Owing to the anniversary character of the meet- ing the usual program of volunteer papers was -e- placed by a series of invited addresses, as follows: Presidential Address, ‘‘ Agricultural Meteorol- ogy,’’ Professor J. Warren Smith, United States Weather Bureau, Columbus. ‘“Applied Meteorology and the Work of the Weather Bureau,’’ Dr. Charles F. Marvin, Chief United States Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C. ‘¢The Relation of the Academy to the State and to the People of the State,’’ Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, Ravenna. ‘« Historical Sketch of the Ohio Academy of Sci- ence,’’ Professor William R. Lazenby, Ohio State University, Columbus. Reviews of Scientific Progress in the Quarter Century : ““Geology,’’ Professor Frank Carney, Denison University, Granville. “‘Botany,’’ Professor Bruce Fink, Miami Uni- versity, Oxford. “¢Physies,’’ Professor Frank P. Whitman, West- ern Reserve University, Cleveland. ‘*Zoology,’’ Professor Edward L. Rice, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware. ““Chemistry,’’? Professor William McPherson, Ohio State University, Columbus. ““Archeology,’’ Professor G. Frederick Wright, Oberlin College, Oberlin. At the supper, held on Friday evening at the Ohio Union, short addresses were given by visiting dele- gates from other scientific societies. Governor Willis had expected to be present and to speak, but was unavoidably prevented at the last mo- ment. Notice was received of the appointment of the following delegates; those marked with the aster- isk were present at the meeting. American Association for the Advancement of Science, SCIENCE 217 *Professor L. O. Howard, Washington, D. C. Boston Society of Natural History, *Professor Frederick C. Waite, Cleveland, O. Chicago Academy of Science, Dr, Frank C. Baker, Chicago, Til. Indiana Academy of Science, *Dr. D. W. Dennis, Richmond, Ind. Mr. EH. B. Williamson, Bluffton, Ind. Iowa Academy of Science, *Professor Herbert Osborn, Columbus, O. Dr. Charles R. Keyes, Des Moines, Ia. New York Academy of Science, Mr. Emerson McMillin, New York City. Professor H. P. Cushing, Cleveland, O. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Dr. Howard Ayers, Cincinnati, O. Washington Academy of Sciences, *Professor Dayton C. Miller, Cleveland, O. *Dr. Charles F. Marvin, Washington, D. C. Cincinnati Section of the American Chemical So- ciety, Dr, Lauder W. Jones, Cincinnati, O. Dr. Alfred Springer, Cincinnati, O. Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Dr. Delisle Stewart, Cincinnati, O. Columbus Audubon Society, *Professor J. C. Hambleton, Columbus, O. Miss Lucy Stone, Columbus, 0. Denison Scientific Association, *Dr. George Fitch McKibben, Granville, O. *Mr. Charles W. Henderson, Granville, O. Wooster University Scientifie Club, *Mr. Frank H. McCombs, Wooster, O. The Cuvier Press Club, Mr. James W. Faulkner, Cincinnati, O. Association of Ohio Teachers of Mathematics and Science, *Professor S. E. Rasor, Columbus, O. Ohio State University Scientific Association, Professor Karl D. Swartzel, Columbus, O. *Professor James R. Withrow, Columbus, O. Oxford Science Club, *Professor J. A. Culler, Oxford, O. Otterbein Science Club, *Mr. Richard M. Bradfield, Westerville, O. Baldwin-Wallace Science Seminar, *Professor H. L. Fullmer, Berea, O. The following members of the old Tyndall As- sociation, so potent in the scientific life of Co- lumbus and Ohio in the seventies and eighties, were also present by special invitation: Mr. H. N. P. Dole, Columbus, O. Mr. Martin Hensel, Columbus, O. 218 Mr. Curtis C. Howard, Columbus, O. Professor William R. Lazenby, Columbus, O. Dr. C. L. Mees, Terre Haute, Ind. Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, Ravenna, O. Dr. Sidney A. Norton, Columbus, O. Mr. D. E. Williams, Columbus, O. In the business session the most notable action was the adoption of a constitutional amendment, suggested at the previous annual meeting, by which the date of the annual meeting is changed from Thanksgiving to March or April, the exact date to be fixed by the executive committee. By vote of the academy the next meeting will be held in the spring of 1916. The trustees of the research fund announced a further gift by Mr. Emerson McMillin, of New York, of $250 for the encouragement of the re- search work of the academy. As a result of the suggestions contained in the address by Dr. Mendenhall, on ‘‘The Relation of the Academy to the State and to the People of the State,’’? a committee on legislation was appointed, consisting of Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, chairman, Pro- fessor F. C. Waite and Professor Herbert Osborn. The previous affiliation of the academy with the Ohio Journal of Science was continued with minor modifications; but the incoming president was in- structed to appoint a committee to confer with the committee on legislation and to ‘‘ investigate carefully possible ways and means whereby the academy can successfully take over the Ohio Jour- nal of Science and how soon this can be done, the committee to report back to the academy at its next annual meeting.’’ President Hubbard ap- pointed Professor J. Warren Smith, chairman, Professor Frank Carney, Professor F. C. Waite, Professor J. S. Hine and Professor C. G. Shatzer. Forty-one new members were elected at the meeting. The officers and standing committees for 1915- 1916 will be as follows: President—Professor G. D. Hubbard, Oberlin College. Vice-president for Zoology—Professor F. L. Landacre, Ohio State University. Vice-president for Botany—Professor M. E. Stickney, Denison University. Vice-president for Geology—Professor T. M. Hills, Ohio State University. Vice-president for Physics—Professor L. ‘I. More, University of Cincinnati. Secretary—Professor E. L. Rice, Ohio Wesleyan University. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1102 Treasurer—Professor J. S. Hine, Ohio State University. Executive Committee, together with the pres:- dent, secretary and treasurer, members ex-officio— Professor L. B. Walton, Kenyon College, and Pro- fessor C. G. Shatzer, Wittenberg College. Trustees of Research Fund—Professor W. R. Lazenby, Ohio State University; Professor M. M. Metcalf, Oberlin College; Professor N. M. Fenne- man, University of Cincinnati. Publication Committee—Professor J. H. Schafi- ner, Ohio State University; Professor C. H. Lake, Hamilton; Professor L. B. Walton, Kenyon Coi- lege. Library Committee—Professor W. C. Mills, Ohio State University; Professor F. O. Grover, Oberlin College; Professor J. A. Culler, Miami University. Epwarp L. RICE, Secretary DELAWARE, OHIO THE TENNESSEE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE sixth meeting (fourth annual meeting) of the Tennessee Academy of Science was held on No- vember 26, 1915, at George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. President W. E. Myer presided. The following papers were read and discussed: ‘Why Potteries should be Established in West Tennessee,’’ by Wilbur A. Nelson. ‘¢Preservation of Our Forests,’’ by R. S. Mad- dox. “‘Cause of the Stylolitie Structure in the Ten- nessee Marble,’’ by C. H. Gordon. ‘ > and it only remains to be shown that H and H’ are conjugate foci. If the triangle HQE’ is rotated upon HE’ as an axis, at all points on the circle described by the point Q on the sur- face of the lens the light radiating from one JUNE 9, 1916] focus will be refracted towards the other and the two points H and EH’ are therefore conju- gate foci, and f and f’ may be substituted for OF and OF’. A very similar solution which need not be given here can be obtained for the cases where one focus lies between Q and F or F” and the other on QF or QE’ produced and which result in virtual instead of real images. This equation applies to the refraction at one lens surface. For simple lenses or for lens systems two or more equations, according to the number of refractions, must be com- bined. When the cone of light is narrow and does not diverge far from the optical axis the last factor cos a/cos b becomes practically 1. This produces the simplest form of the equation. Tt can be used in calculating the foci of thick lenses in case the aberrations are neglected. For the study of aberration the angles a and 6 can be calculated by solving the two triangles EDO and QDO in which HO and QO remain constant and the other sides vary according to the refractive index of the color of the ray of light investigated in the study of the chromatic aberration, or according to the posi- tion of Q when studying spherical aberration. The usual equation found in the books can not be employed for either of the foregoing ealeulations when more than approximate re- sults are required. C. W. WoopwortH ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE WASHING- TON MEETING Ir A New Type of Ruin Recently Excavated in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado: J, WALTER FEWEES. An account of the excavation and repair of a new type of ruin on the point of a mesa opposite Cliff Palace, conducted under the auspices of the Interior Department and the Bureau of American Ethnology. Before the work was begun, the exist- ence of a large building was indicated by a large mound, the surface of which was strewn with artificially fashioned stones, partly covered with soil, with a few feet of wall showing at one point. On top of the mound, at a place found later to indicate the highest wall, grew a large cedar tree, SCIENCE 825 a cross-section of which revealed 360 annual rings. The building excavated is D-shaped, measuring 122 feet on the straight side and 64 feet broad. The standing walls now contain 120,000 cubic feet. The facing of the walls is artificially pecked with stone implements, and in many instances rubbed smooth. Many stones set in the walls or found in the débris bear incised ornamentation, the begin- ning of mural embellishment. The masonry is not only among the best in any prehistoric building north of Mexico, but the building itself is the most mysterious yet brought to light in our south- west. \ There are evidences that it was neither com- pleted nor inhabited, and evidently it was not in- tended for habitation. Its ground-plan exhibits a unity in design and a strict adherence to that plan throughout the construction of the building. It is believed to have been constructed by the neigh- boring cliff-dwellers; it is prehistoric and regarded as more modern than Cliff Palace. A fossil leaf of a palm in relief on the upper surface of the cornerstone at the western end of the building is believed to be a sun symbol, and the walls about it a solar shrine. The building is regarded as a sun temple of the neighboring cliff-dwellers, and is the first of its type yet excavated in the Mesa Verde National Park. The Passing of the Indian: JAMES MOONEY. The subject of the aboriginal population of America, and more particularly of the United States, at the first coming of the white man, has been a matter of much speculation, but of very little detailed investigation. There has been about as much error and loose statement on one side as on the other, some theorists claiming for the pre- Columbian period a dense population for which there is no evidence in fact; while others, largely those interested in various civilizing schemes, maintain that the Indian has held his own or is even actually inereasing. The claim for a dense earlier population is based chiefly on ignorance of Indian living habit and the error of assuming as contemporaneous in occupancy settlement remains belonging to widely separated periods. The argu- ment for stability or increase of the Indian popu- lation rests in part on the error of beginning the calculation with the beginning of federal relations with the tribes, ignoring the centuries of coloniza- tion and disturbance which preceded that period, and is also colored to some extent by a desire to draw good results from philanthropie and civilizing efforts. 826 Another source of confusion in this direction is in the improper designation as ‘‘Indian’’ for ad- ministrative purposes, of any individual who can establish even the most remote and diluted Indian ancestry. ‘Thus we have upon the official rolls, and thereby legally entitled to full Indian rights, thousands of persons whose pedigrees show one- thirty-second, one-sixty-fourth, or even less of In- dian blood. We need an official, or at least an ethnologic, definition of an Indian, based on the actual proportion of Indian blood. In a detailed study of past and present Indian population of the United States and northern territories, under- taken for the Bureau of American Ethnology, Mr. Mooney arrives at the conclusion that the entire Indian population north of Mexico at the period of earliest white occupancy was approximately 1,140,000, of whom about 860,000 were within the present limits of the United States. The total number has been reduced by about two thirds through disease, famine and war, consequent on the advent of the white man. Indian Missions in North America: J. F. X. O’Conor. Indian missions were established in various states of North America during two hundred and fifty years, from 1613 to 1776, and from that date to 1893. The Indian tribes evangelized during that period were the Abnakis and the Iroquois, the Ottawas, Illinois, Mohawks, the Hurons, Onon- dagas, the Oneidas, Cayugas, Senecas, Seminoles, the Neuter Nation and the Algonquins, the Kas- kaskias, the Natchez tribe, the Yazoos, the Sioux, the Chickasaws and the Nezperces, the Coeur d’Alenes and the Miamis, the Alabamas and the Susquehannas. The Jesuit missionaries visited all these tribes, and among many built churches, mis- sion houses and schools. They lived with the In- dians, traveled with them, taught them and strove in every way to bring to them the advantages of Christianity and civilization. They traversed every section of that territory now the United States, from Maine to California, and from the Great Lakes to Florida. These Indian missions were connected with the discovery of the falls and Tiver of Niagara, the discovery of the Mississippi by Marquette, and of Lake George and the salt mines of Syracuse. ‘The records of these earlier missionaries are the most authentie and reliable accounts of the early days of America, and of the lives, customs, occupations, character, in peace and war, of the Indian tribes of North America. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLII. No. 1119 Volumes have been written by the missionaries on the lives and habits of the North American In- dian, and the earlier valuable editions have been republished in the monumental series of the “‘Jesuit Relations’’ or ‘‘ Histories of the Indian Missions,’’ by R. Goldthwaites, secretary of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Recent Developments in the Study of Indian Music: FRANCES DENSMORE. The study of many sciences is dependent, to some extent, on mechanical aid, and the progress of such sciences is measured by the invention or adaptation of such aids. The invention of the phonograph and its recording apparatus marked an epoch in the study of Indian music. It seems probable that the next epoch-marking invention bearing on this study will be that of a device for accurately measuring small intervals of tone. The musical system in use among civilized peo- ples contains certain fundamental principles, among them being (a) the importance of the key- note, octave, and dominant of the scale, and (bd) the use of a unit of rhythm. A melodie and rhythmic analysis of six hundred Indian songs (Chippewa and Sioux) shows that the same funda- mental principles underlie the structure of a ma- jority of these songs. The interval of the minor third characterizes the folk-songs of certain European peoples, some of the ancient music of the white race, and the songs of many uncivilized tribes. Analysis of the above- mentioned Indian songs shows that (a) the minor third is the interval of most frequent occurrence, and (b) the average interval in these songs com- prises 3.1 semitones, which is approximately the number of semitones contained in a minor third. Besides the studies mentioned, tests of tone per- ception were made among Chippewa and Sioux Indians, with interesting results. The Beaver Indians: P. E. GODDARD. The Beaver have hitherto received little or no attention from ethnologists. They live in the Peace River district in northern Alberta, with bands of Oree separating them from the Plains area. Life seems to have been simple in that re- gion, consisting mainly in a severe struggle for food. They depended largely on hunting and trapping, resorting to fishing only in the lack of other food. By means of caches, transportation was avoided as much as possible. Religious life, while simple and devoid of elaborate ceremonies, was emotionally strong. The Beaver fall in with the Slavey and Chipewyan in other particulars JUNE 9, 1916] besides language. Their only connections with their linguistic relatives to the south, the Sarsi, seems to have been only recent. The Growth of the Tsimshian Phratries: C. M. BARBEAU. In nine unfederated tribes of the Tsimshian proper the phratries were unevenly represented. Evidence shows that the structure and distribu- tion of the four phratries have undergone consid- erable change in recent times. ‘The phratries, as they now stand, consist of clans either grown out of each other, or introduced from outside and in- eorporated mostly on account of political cireum- Stances, The Huron-Wyandot Clans: C. M. BARBEAU. The exogamic and totemic clans of the Huron- Wyandots are at the basis of their social struc- ture. At least two out of eleven clans are mod- ern and confined to one section of the tribe. The remaining nine clans seem once to have been grouped into two opposite phratries with one odd clan, but the evidence to this effect is slender. The grouping of clans within such phratries must have been largely accidental and of comparatively short duration, since there is barely any record bearing on their existence, and practically no sur- vival, Herb Medicine Practises of the Northeastern Al- gonkins: FRANK G. SPECK. This paper presents lists of plants used in the medicine practises of several eastern Algonkin -tribes—the Montagnais, Penobscot and Mohegan. Practically devoid of ceremonial associations in this area, the pseudo-scientific use of herbs by the northeastern tribes is taken as another indication of the primitive character of their culture. As- suming that a simple herbalism unmodified by Titual is more elementary than where subordinated to ceremonial practises, the author brings forth another reason for regarding the northeast as a region where a fundamentally characteristic type of Algonkian culture has survived unmodified by contact with outside and more advanced types. The associations of color, taste, name and the like, are shown to underlie the remedies and their func- tions in most cases, as appears in the botanical identifications and the analyses of native names. The Social Significance of the Creek Confederacy: JOHN R. SWANTON. The Creek confederacy was a result of those social linkings from which, in all parts of the world, nationalities and governments have arisen. SCIENCE 827 Although it originated among peoples related by language and bound together by similar customs and a similar economic life, the constituent parts had themselves been subjected to still earlier uni- fying tendencies, as is evidenced by their clan sys- tems, and to some extent by their known history. Their gradual consolidation was in accordance with a certain plan having both social and relig- ious aspects, a plan itself probably evolved pro- gressively with the organization. It had a relig- ious seal in the shape of a myth in which a super- natural origin and character were attributed to it. As with similar complexes elsewhere, some of which have been brought about more rapidly, the Creek organization resulted from a progressive sur- rendering of cultural, religious and governmental independence by the several parts and approxima- tion toward a typical mean. The relation of the various incorporated tribes, towns and clans to each other and to the entire body, the dual division of towns and of clans, and the method of sharing out the functions of the collective body all bear wit- ness to this evolution and furnish material for comparison with the development of social bodies in other parts of the world. Notes on the Sign Language of the Plains In- dians: Hues L. Scorr. After referring briefly to the development and communication of the languages in general and of the American languages in particular, the author treats of the language of signs employed by divers indigenous tribes which inhabit the region extend- ing from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Moun- tains and from the Saskatchewan River in British Columbia to the frontiers of Mexico. He also tefers briefly to the principal dialects of the American Indians and to the fact that these dia- lects served as an international vehicle of com- munication. With respect to the language of signs, the au- thor demonstrates that it is one of the natural modes of communication and that it obeys the general law of linguistics, with exception of those concerned with phonetics. He traces the history of sign language which in his opinion appeared in the year 1535 of the Christian era and perhaps at a more remote epoch. The author then refers to the opinions and data which the first chroniclers and historians of ‘Spain secured with respect to this language. These Spanish chroniclers and historians make it clear that this language existed in Mexico and was replaced by the spoken lan- guage of the Aztecs. The author compares the 828 signs used by the Indians with those employed by deaf mutes and indicates the origins of the Indian sign language, citing cases related to this class of language which were referred to by Homer in the ‘‘Odyssey.’’ In speaking of the signs of the Indians the author treats of pantomime as a means employed in the communication between races of distinet ethnic origin from times of the most re- mote antiquity. He then refers to the particular sign language of the North American Indians and to the origin and propagation of the signs, as well as to the grammatical rules to which the sign lan- guage was subject. Omaha and Osage Traditions of Separation: Francis LA FLESCHE, Before the advent of Europeans the Indians had no means other than by oral accounts to trans- mit their rituals and stories of important events. Narratives, in their transmission, often lost im- portant details of time or place. Accounts of changes that occurred in a tribe became reduced to a few words, as in the story of the separation of the Omaha from the Osage. The Omaha story of the separation came down in two versions: One tells of the attempt to cross the Mississippi in skin boats, of being separated by the rising of a heavy mist; the other, of their efforts to cross the river by means of grapevines spliced together. On the visits of the Omaha to the Osage and the Quapaw, members of these tribes say to their vis- itors: ‘‘ You were a part of us, but you went away in an angry mood and never came back, because in the distribution of sinew you were slighted.’’ An Osage who recently visited the Omaha gave the detailed story, here recounted, of the separa- tion as told by one who was a recognized authority on the traditions of the Osage. In this story it was shown that at a tribal ceremony two leaders were reproved for violating the hunting usages. Taking offense at this reproof, the two leaders broke away from the tribe with many of the fam- ilies of the various gentes, and these afterward organized and became known as the Omaha tribe. Zuni Conception and Pregnancy Beliefs: Eusir CLEWS PARSONS. Description of two phallic shrines. To give birth to a girl, men sent out of house during labor. Conception ceremonials. Conception of twins through practises relating to deer. Deer bearing twins. Pregnancy taboos: dyeing wool, firing pot- tery, viewing a corpse, eating pino nuts, standing at a window, scattering bran on oven floor. Albin- ism due to parent eating white leaf inside the SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITIT. No. 1119 corn husk; blindness or lameness or malformation to expectant father shooting animals in the eyes, legs, ete. Birth-marks due to father dancing in a ceremonial during the pregnancy; erying from pain in the back, to maltreatment of horses; deaf- ness, to mother stealing before the birth. Curing by inoculation magic. Some Esoteric Aspects of the League of the TIro- quois: J. N. B. HEwirt. In the esoteric thinking of the early prophetic statesmen of the Iroquois and their co-tribesmen, the League of the Five Tribes as an institution, an organic unity, was conceived as a bi-sexed being or rather person, 7. é., an organic whole or totality formed by the union of two human per- sons of opposite sex. ‘This conception appears in the organie parts of the institution and in the ritual governing the installation of its officers and of those of its constituent organic parts. Owing to the vastly differing viewpoint of the civilized man of to-day from that of the founders of the league, this esoteric meaning with its implications is, perhaps, strange and he may apprehend it only as metaphor, because to him it is only poetic. To those early prophetic statesmen, life was omnipresent; obtrusively so. For, unconsciously, it had been imputed by their ancestors to all bod- ies and objects and processes of the complex world of human experience. The life so imputed was human-like life. And so as an organic totality, the league of the Iroquois was conceived as an animate person or being, endowed with definite biotie properties or functions; among these char- acters may be mentioned male and female sex, fatherhood and motherhood, mind, eyesight, dream- power, human blood; it was also conceived as hay- ing a guardian spirit, even as its essential organic parts had, ‘These were distinct from those pos- sessed, or supposed to be possessed, by the per- sons who composed the people of the league. In the ritual of installation of chiefs, each of the constituent persons, the father and the mother principles represented in the league, is addressed as a single individual, in all of the many ad- dresses and chants and songs. In the so-called Six Songs, which are so dramatically sung by one rep- senting the dead chief to be resurrected, each of these constituent persons is addressed, but in the fifth song the Totality, the League as a Unity, is addressed as a person, for in its honor is this fifth song being sung. Tribes of the Pacific Coast: A. LL. KROEBER. rm This paper analyzes a commonly accepted cul- JUNE 9, 1916] tural differentiation between the Indians of the narrow belt of the Pacifie coast, from southern Alaska to southern California, and those of the remainder of the continent. The difference is found not to extend to specific elements of native civilization, but to consist in the use to which such specific elements are put by the two groups of peoples or the setting in which the elements are placed. The difference is traceable in material aspects of culture, such as agriculture and the art of pottery-making, and in non-material, as polit- ical organization, the employment of property, and ritualistic expression in religion. While the culture of the Pacific coast tribes thus forms a well-marked unit distinct from the com- paratively uniform culture of the remainder of America, it does not reveal any indications of definite connection with Asiatic civilizations, either in type or in source. Its origins must be sought iu America. When the extreme and puzzling lin- guistie diversity of the Pacific coast is examined, in the light of recent comparative, philological studies, this diversity appears to be not funda- mental, but the result of a differentiating inclina- tion connected with the peculiar type of political organization on the Pacific coast. The linguistic relationships also indicate that the Pacifie coast has long been a fairly defined historical area, whose development and population have proceeded at least for several thousand years, from within rather than by importation and immigration. The Relationship Terms of the Crow and Hidatsa Indians: Ropert H. LowIs. The various principles determining the develop- ment of kinship terminologies have become clear through the writings of Morgan, Rivers and others. The time has now come for testing their relative efficacy in concrete instances and within restricted areas. More particularly is it desirable to compare the nomenclatures of very closely re- lated tribes and to correlate empirically observed changes with probable causes. The Crow and Hidatsa systems furnish an instructive case in point. While on the one hand they bear clear evi- dence of the operation of sociological factors, in fundamental features common to both, the minor variations are not reducible to such causes, and must be referred to the psychologico-linguistie agencies of Kroeber. The Sacred Literature of the Cherokee: JAMES Mooney. The Cherokee Indians were the aboriginal moun- SCIENCE 829 taineers of the southern Alleghanies, holding un- disputed possession of a territory of some 40,000 square miles, with a population of about 25,000, being numerically, historically and culturally the most important single tribe within the United States. In 1838 the bulk of the tribe removed to what is now Oklahoma, but some 1,800 still re- main in their native mountains, keeping up fairly well their purity of blood and their ancient lan- guages and customs. Their native culture reached its highest point with the invention of the Chero- kee syllabic alphabet by a mixed-blood of the tribe about the year 1820. The system was at once adopted by them for purposes of book and newspaper publication, current record and corre- spondence, and even as a medium of instruction in their schools. At the same time their priests and doctors seized the opportunity to preserve in permanent form for their own secret use the ritualistic formulas and occult knowledge which had hitherto been transmitted orally and confined to the keeping of initiates of exceptional power of memory. Ym a study of the tribe extending at intervals over a period of thirty years Mr. Mooney has been so fortunate as to obtain the original Cherokee manuscripts embodying virtually the whole of this ancient ritual, as recorded by noted priests dead many years ago. ‘They cover the whole range of Indian interest—war, love, hunting, fishing, agri- culture, gaming and medicine—and are without parallel as a revelation of the Indian spiritual idea. The expression of the formulas is archaic and symbolic, and frequently of high degree of poetic beauty. Mr. Mooney has them now in prep- aration for publication by the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology. Sauk and Fox Notes: ‘TRUMAN MICHELSON. The writer’s phonetic scheme of the Fox dialect differs in certain respects from that of the late Dr. William Jones. These differences consist mainly in the position of the accent, the quantity of vowels, the quality of o and w vowels, and as- pirations. Some of these differences can be ex- plained if we assume that Dr. Jones was influenced by the Sauk dialect. It is clear that the verbal complex will have to be viewed from a different psychological point of view than has obtained hitherto. A few obscure grammatical points have been elucidated. The regulations concerning membership in the tribal dual division of the Sauk are not clear, whereas those governing membership in the tribal 830 dual division of the Foxes have been definitely as- certained. That the dual division among the Foxes is ceremonial and not merely for athletic purposes has been amply confirmed. The ritualistic myths on the origin of sacred packs, especially those belonging to entire gentes, are all of one and the same type. They were doubtless invented in the remote past to account for existing ceremonies. Le Verbe dans les Adjectifs et les Adverbes Por- teurs: A. G. Morice. In the Carrier (Porteur) dialect of the Dene language there is scarcely any regular adjective in our sense of the word. Practically all the quali- ficative adjectives are regular verbs, which may be divided into primary and secondary. The former have several forms that change not only according to the nature of the nouns they qualify, but also when they imply some comparison. Be- sides those two categories, the Carrier language contains also a third class of verbal adjectives, which may be called composite adjectives, and are distinguishable by their being made up of an im- personal verb and a pronominal prefix. A few ad- verbs are likewise occasionally conjugated. Terms of Relationship and the Levirate: E. SAPir. Evidence has recently been adduced from Mela- nesia and other parts of the world to show that specific features of relationship systems are fre- quently explainable as due to definite types of marriage. Evidence here presented from aborig- inal America shows that in some systems certain relationship terms imply the custom of the levi- rate, that is, the marrying of the deceased wife’s sister, and its correlate, the marrying of the de- ceased husband’s brother. The North Building of the Great Ball Court, Chichen Itza, Yucatan: ADELA BRETON. The detached building (called Chamber C in Dr. A. P. Maudslay’s survey) at the northern end of the great Ball Court had a single long, narrow chamber, the inner walls covered with sculptured human figures in relief. These are of great inter- est and appear much older than those of Chamber E, below Temple A (the Temple of the Tigers). Although part of the vaulted roof remains, and though hardest limestone was used, it is so weath- ered that prolonged study is needed to see the de- tails. The stones are not large and appear to have been removed from some other building and re-erected. Instead of the regular rows of armed warriors that cover all three walls in Chamber E, there are here two principal groups and a number SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLITI. No. 1119 of detached figures conversing, in twos and threes, whose relation to the whole is difficult to under- stand. At the base of the walls is a flowery border, separated by a blue band from the figures, and the colors were still visible in this border in 1902. The recumbent personage of the paintings in Temple A occupies the center. Above, there is first a sort of altar with an animal laid on it and five chiefs standing on either side. The next set higher has.a seated chief with the feathered rattlesnake. Facing him stands a being in a gar- ment of scales and surrounded by flames or tongues. Five chiefs on either side, seated on round stools and carrying atlatls, complete this group. The sculptures on the two round columns. which divide the entrance are particularly fine. Excavation in the center of the chamber floor exposed a massive round stone cist with heavy cover finely wrought. Pocomchi Notes: ADELA BRETON. The Berendt manuscript collection in the library of the University Museum of Philadelphia con- tains three ‘‘Doctrinas’’ in Pocomchi, a volume of sermons at Tactic, 1818-20, with Spanish trans- lations, a confesionario of 1814, and a fragmen- tary original vocabulary. ‘The ‘‘Doctrinas’’ can be studied only by making a parallel copy of the three, so that the varieties of misspelling may be compared. One is dated 1741, by H. Aguilera, Cura of Tactic, but is a poor copy. Another is a copy from a manuscript at Tactic of 1810. The third is evidently taken from that, and is in Villa- corta’s ‘‘Doctrina en lengua Castellana Quekchi y Pocomchi,’’ made at Coban, 1875. The ignorance of the copyists is well shown in these. Thomas Gage, the Dominican who was in Guate- mala for several years about 1680, was advised to study Pocomchi as it was most spoken about there and in Vera Paz, Salvador. He calls it Pocomchi or Pocoman and most elegant. In three months he learned enough to be able to preach. The rudi- ments given in his work served Dr. Stoll in his study of the modern language, but this differs much from the vocabulary. Gage was intimate with Moran, who may have written the vocabulary. This consists of 290 closely written pages, portions of original volumes many times larger. ‘The writer was living at San Cristobal Cahcoh, near Coban, and introduces much information as to the charac- ter and habits of the people. Knowledge of an- cient customs was disappearing. They no longer used stone axes nor trumpets made from cala- bashes, and only a few remember the name Poytan JUNE 9, 1916] for wall-coverings or tapestries, such as were seen in dwellings of rich Spaniards in the capital. In 1814 they still believed in dreams, wizards and the power to change into animals. The great variety of suffixes used with nu- merals is a striking feature. The highest named number was 160,000 with multiples. There was no word for temple. In relationship, brother and first cousin were expressed by the same term. The writer mentions Pocoman only as the name of the people. He quotes constantly from Padre Viana’s “¢Vita Christiani.’? Some Aspects of the Land as a Factor in Mexican History: LEON DOMINIAN. The relief of the land has afforded certain lines of easiest access to the plateau region. The line of advance of the Mexicans in the course of their early migrations, the routes followed by the white man in modern times, and railway penetration have all been determined by preexisting natural routes. Settlement has taken place mainly on the plateau and above the 4,000-foot contour. This region constitutes the only favorable human habi- tat within present Mexican territory, hence is ex- plained the excess of population and of the exist- ence of the larger cities on the plateau. Physical conditions within this tableland have affected the social status of the inhabitants at all times. The want of political union found by Cortes and mani- fest throughout known Mexican history is largely the result of the conspicuous lack of means of communication. Navigable rivers are not found in Mexico, while the mountainous and intermon- tane regions are characterized by a succession of narrow valleys, each practically walled up from the others by intervening ridges over which travel is arduous. In the same way the Mexican form of land tenure can be traced to the occurrence of large arid areas. The inhabitants of the three tierras reflect respectively the conditions which surround them. From the standpoint of conti- nental relations, Mexico is a transition zone, both physical and human. In the former case the sa- lient features of North American physiography are prolonged into Mexico to end in the vicinity of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. In the latter the country can be considered as the link connecting Anglo-Saxon and Latin America. Incense Burners from a Cave near Orizaba: H. NEWELL WARDLE. The Lamborn Collection of the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences of Philadelphia contains four curi- ous earthenware beasts, found in a cave near Ori- SCIENCE 831 zaba, Mexico. Two of the monsters have sup- ported incense-pans, and two were probably at- tached to and form a part of such cultus objects of a cave temple. The types are believed to be previously undescribed, but show affinities both in form and in style of art to the cultus objects from the ancient religious center of Chavelé, Guatemala. Their relationship to the distribution and signifi- cance of the cave god is briefly considered. The Rain Ceremony as Practised to-day by the Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and North- ern British Honduras: THOMAS GANN. The paper describes the ceremony as practised by the Santa Cruz, Icaiche and Xcanha Indians, and the mixed Indians inhabiting the northern portion of British Honduras, and indicates points of resemblance between the ceremony and various ceremonial religious procedures of the Maya of Yucatan at the time of the conquest, as well as of the modern Lacandon Indians. Climatic Changes and Maya Civilization: Ewus- WORTH HUNTINGTON. In the search for the causes of the rise and fall of civilization the Maya hold a peculiarly impor- tant place, since they afford an independent Amer- ican means of testing conclusions reached in the Old World. Perhaps the most striking fact about the Maya civilization is that it developed in a re- gion where agriculture is to-day extremely diffi- cult or well-nigh impossible, where tropical fevers are at their worst, where the hot, damp climate is in itself highly enervating, and where neither the natives nor the people of Spanish descent have been able to make any progress. In the better climate of the Yucatan coast and of the Guate- malan plateau, however, the physical conditions are far more favorable, and a certain amount of prog- ress can now be seen. This suggests that when the Maya flourished the climate can scarcely have been so unfavorable as at present. In the corresponding parts of Asia, that is in Indo-China and the Hast Indies, similar ruins are found in a similar geographical environment. Farther north in the desert belt of both America and Asia there is abundant evidence of an irregular shifting backward and forward of the rainy con- ditions of the temperate zone into and out of the present arid regions. This process would nat- urally force the dry belt alternately to invade the Maya region, causing dry conditions favorable to the civilization, and to retreat from it, causing the present unfavorable conditions. Recent investiga- tious of the chemical history of the salt lakes of 832 California and Nevada have greatly strengthened this ‘‘pulsatory’’ hypothesis, as it is called. If the hypothesis is well grounded, the course of his- tory in all parts of the world must have been pro- foundly modified by repeated climatie changes which have been powerful factors in the fall of civilization at certain times and its rapid develop- ment at others. Thus the correct interpretation of the general course of Maya history, and espe- cially the establishment of an unimpeachable chronology, assumes added importance. It will furnish one of the most critical tests of an hypoth- esis which, if true, will demand a widespread re- modeling of the established ideas as to the condi- tions necessary to the advancement of civilization. The Hotun as the Principal Chronological Unit of the Old Maya Empire: SyYLvANUS GRISWOLD MORLEY. Nine years ago attention was attracted by a certain periodicity in the occurrence of the dated monuments at Quirigua, eastern Guatemala, a con- dition previously noted but not at that time defi- nitely established. The Quirigua monuments were found to follow each other at intervals of 1,800 days, and, although the sequence was then incomplete, subsequent stud- ies at the ruins in 1910-14 have resulted in filling all the lacunae, and in finding a corresponding monument for every 1,800-day period during which the city seems to have been occupied. Later investigations, particularly during the last two years, at all the principal Old Empire sites, amply established the former prevalence of this same periodicity in the occurrence of the dated monuments, and furthermore have resulted in the identification of the glyph for this 1,800- day period for which the name hotun is here sug- gested, as well as that for the 3,600-day period for which the name lahuntun is suggested. In- deed the practise seems to have been so universal during the Old Empire that it is possible to for- mulate the following general thesis based upon it: The stela type of monument seems to have been used primarily to record the passage of time, stelae being erected at intervals of every hotun (1,800 days), or even multiples thereof, as la- huntuns (3,600 days), or katuns (7,200 days), throughout the Old Empire, approximately a.p. 200 to A.D. 600. The paper offers this thesis to Maya archeolo- gists, and presents coincidently a partial summary of the evidence on which it is based, illustrated with photographs, maps and diagrams. SCIENCE. « [N. S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1119 The Chilam Balam Books and the Possibility of their Translation: ALFRED M. TozzzER. Owing to the large amount of original manu- script material made available during the last two years by Professor William E. Gates, a great op- portunity is offered to Maya students for the study and translation of the Chilam Balam books. With photographie copies of the Motul and San Francisco dictionaries, and copies of all the known ~ original Chilam Balam books, one has for the first time the material at his disposal. As Brinton remarked many years ago, ‘‘The task of deciphering these manuscripts is by no means a light one.’’ The importance of the re- sults which may be expected should serve as a powerful incentive to all Maya students. The task is not an impossible one. ‘There are cer- tainly some passages which will never be trans- lated. The books, as they now appear, are copies made chiefly in the eighteenth century or earlier works going back in some cases probably to the sixteenth century. The text as a consequence has suffered badly. The copyist shows in many cases an ignorance of Maya, and, in some instances, a surprising ignorance of Spanish. In several cases Latin words appear in an almost unrecognizable form. The Maya is most arbitrarily separated into several different ways on the same page. The punctuation is also never consistent. The few passages already translated show the great importance attached to the manuscripts. The chronological parts have already served to make possible the coordination of Maya and Christian chronology. These portions are, of course, of primary importance. The parts deal- ing with prophecies and the good and bad days of a year are other parts worthy of study. There is much that is almost entirely Spanish in character, with little reflection of the native element. The medical parts figure largely in many of the manu- scripts. In most cases the directions for curing various kinds of illness are entirely Spanish in origin. The Christian teaching with the ‘‘Doe- trinas,’’ the astrological information, and discus- sion of the Zodiac, as in the Kaua manuscript, have little of interest for students of precolum- bian history as compared with those portions deal- ing with the ancient chronology and the history of the wanderings of the Maya. In addition to the translations, a careful colla- tion of the material from all the manuscripts is absolutely necessary. The reconciliation of the various statements regarding similar events in the JUNE 9, 1916] different books will be no less difficult than the simple translation of the Maya text. ecent Progress in the Study of Maya Art: HEr- BERT J. SPINDEN. The historical arrangement of sculptures at Copan has now been reduced to great certainty, and there is hardly a monument that after exami- nation of the carving can not be dated within twenty years. Mr. S. G. Morley has succeeded in deciphering most of the inscriptions, and there is entire agreement between the dates and the sty- listie sequence. At cities that flourished in the Great Period (455-600 a.D.) the criterion of se- quence is seen mostly in the progressive elabora- tion of designs by flamboyant details. It is neces- sary to treat homogeneous material. At Quirigua the faces carved on the tops of the bowlder altars furnish an interesting series. At Naranjo the ceremonial bar passes from comparative simplicity to extreme complexity, and the change is in ac- cordance with the inscribed dates. Piedras Negras proved to be the most interesting of the sites visited by Mr. Morley and the writer in 1914, The monuments give an especially full ac- count of the Middle Period and extend well into the Great Period. Four monuments, represent- ing the same subject, with considerable intervals of time, show a remarkable increase in design elaboration. In spite of provincialism that appears in some sites we are now able to strike the general levels of artistic development in practically all Maya cities of the First Empire (200-600 a.D.). Pro- gressive changes in the construction and orna- mentation of buildings is seen very clearly at Yaxchilan. The most interesting problems are those of roof-comb support and the origin of the sanctuary. Several Yaxchilan temples have dated lintels which bring the sequence in architecture in touch with sequence in sculpture. On the Origin and Distribution of Agriculture in America: HERBERT J. SPINDEN. Without agriculture none of the high civiliza- tions of the New World would have been pos- sible. ‘Agriculture was independently developed in America because the plants under domestica- tion are different from those of the Old World. It probably had one point of actual origin and that was in the region where maize grew wild. This region was pretty clearly the highlands of Mexico and Central America. Maize, with beans and squashes, are found throughout the area of agriculture. Secondary centers in which special plants were brought under cultivation are seen in SCIENCE 833 Peru, the lower Amazon valley, ete. In the re- gion north of Mexico all cultivated plants (except tobacco) were introduced, and none is indigenous; therefore the pueblo and mound cultures are not strictly autocthonous. Pottery and weaving are practically dependent on agriculture. The earliest pottery of Mexico— that of the so-called Archaic culture—seems to have developed soon after the rise of agriculture and to have been carried well into South America with the same cultural stream that carried agri- culture. A peculiar technique can be traced with- out change to the Isthmian region, and with pro- gressive modifications, under which the original features can still be seen, it can be traced to southern Colombia and well into Venezuela. Résumé of Recent Excavations in Northern Yuca- tan: EDWARD H, THOMPSON. A résumé of the excavations conducted in and about northern Yucatan up to the time of the first Peabody Expedition of Harvard University to explore the Cave of Soltun and the ancient group of Sabna. Sabn4, the first ruin group on the peninsula of Yueatan to be scientifically excavated and sur- veyed. Detailed methods described, and some of the interesting results obtained. Kichmook, the second ruin group on the penin- sula to be systematically excavated and scientifi- cally studied. Excavation, conducted subsequently to those above named, in the ancient sites of Chichen Itza, Mayapan, Acanceh, Tiho, ete. The Maya Zodiac of Santa Rita: HAGaR. A number of years ago Dr. ‘Thomas Cann exca- vated on the estate of Santa Rita, near Corozal, in British Honduras, a rectangular building, the walls of which were covered with stucco paintings of the pre-Cortesian period. Those on the north will present a continuous series of Munan figures associated with conventional symbols of glyphs, and some of them holding a rope. The whole may be interpreted as a picture of the cosmos with the sky and stars above, the earth below, and the waters under all. The figures and symbols repeat the zodiacal sequence found in the constellations of Tezozomoc, Sahagun and Duran, the Maya day- signs, the paintings at Mitla and Acanceh, the various pictorial sequences in the codices. They seem, therefore, to represent the asterisms, deities and day-signs of the Maya zodiac in a correct and continuous sequence, the rope being that of the ecliptic or zodiac. ‘A Nahua element is prominent STANSBURY 834 in this zodiac, and its symbols reveal intimate correspondence with those of other native zodiacs in Yucatan, Mexico and Peru; also in lesser de- gree with the zodiae which we have received from the prehistoric Orient. Archeological Studies in Northwestern Honduras: MARSHALL H. SAVILLE. During the summer of 1915 the writer and his son made a reconnaissance in the department of Cortés, Honduras. An examination was made of the archeological conditions along the Ulua River, previously reported on by Gordon. An important collection of antiquities was brought together il- lustrating the complex features of this section of Central America, objects of several well-known and far-distant cultures being found in the re- stricted area of the broad valley in which flows both the Ulua and Chamelicon rivers. Pottery vessels recalling Tarascan, Nahuan, Costa Rican - and Colombian ware in shape and decoration were found, as well as the characteristically Mayan type of polychrome and undecorated vessels, Jadeite ornaments of unquestioned Costa Rican origin occur, and two well-defined examples of the ‘‘palma-stones’’ of the Totonacan class of sculp- tures of Vera Cruz were collected. In the mountains toward the department of Santa Barbara, several large groups of mounds were visited, the unknown groups of Mancha- gualla and Chasnigua being of particular inter- est for further investigation and excavation. Mounds and village sites were found also near the borders of Lake Yojoa. It isthe intention of the Museum of the Ameri- ean Indian in New York to make a survey of Mos- quitia, the region lying along the Caribbean Sea, from the vicinity of the mouth of the Ulua River to Bluefields, embracing a vast strip of territory, partly in Honduras, partly in Nicaragua. This area is little known geographically, and less so archeologically. Information was obtained show- ing Nicaraguan and Costa Rican resemblances in the antiquities, such as animal-shaped metates and stools, reported in this country, and shown by sev- eral examples in the collections of the Museum of the American Indian, collected many years ago by the late Dr. Joseph Jones. GrorGE GRANT MacCourpy, (To be continued) Secretary SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON Tue 554th regular meeting of the society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, SCIENCE. [N. 8. Von. XLITII. No. 1119 Saturday, April 8, 1916, called to order by Presi- dent Hay at 8 p.m. with 65 persons present. The president called attention to the recent death of Wells W. Cooke, treasurer of the society, and announced the appointment of Messrs. Hol- lister, Gidley and Wetmore to draw up appropriate resolutions. The president also announced that the council had elected Dr. Ned Dearborn to the vacancy caused by treasurer Cooke’s death, and also of his appointment to the committee on publications. On recommendation of the council the following persons were elected to active membership: Robert M. Libbey, Washington, D. C., G. K. Noble, Mu- seum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., and Dr. Howard H. Ames, U. S. Navy (retired). The following informal communications were made: Dr. R. W. Shufeldt commented upon and ex- hibited specimens of a Japanese salamander, Diemictylus pyrrhogaster, obtained from a local dealer in live animals. Dr. Paul Bartsch called attention to the intro- duction of European agate snail Rumina decollata in certain parts of the southern states; and to the recent publication by J. B. Henderson of a book entitled: ‘‘The Cruise of the Tomas Barrera,’’ the narration of a scientific expedition to western Cuba and the Colorados Reefs, with observations on the geology, fauna and flora of the region. Dr. M. W. Lyon, Jr., made remarks on the his- tory of the Filaria bancroftt embryos exhibited at the previous meeting of the society. Mr. F. Knab discussed the mosquito host of Fila- ria bancrofti, saying that an appropriate species of Culez is found in Washington in the late summer. The regular program was an illustrated lecture by Mr. Edmund Heller entitled ‘‘ Hunting in the Peruvian Andes.’’ Mr. Heller gave an account of a recent collecting trip made by him from the west coast of Peru up into the high Andes and down to the headwaters of the Amazon. He de- scribed the animals collected, mainly mammals, but also birds and reptiles, including the rare spectacled bear, wild llamas, ete. He also com- mented on the habits and customs of the natives. He showed photographie lantern slides not only of the wild life, the inhabitants and physiographic features but also of many points of archeological interest. M. W. Lyon, Jz., Recording Secretary A ha Tae ite i) JUN 17 1916 Noy: “Conal Mysew™ SINGLE CoPrEs, 15 Crs, von. an No. 1120 FRipay, JUNE 16, 1916 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 Thelco “Lowtemp”’ Electric Incubator Although primarily designed for use at 20°C. the “Low- temp” incubator can be used just as satisfactorily at any temperature from about 8° to 45° C. {| The Thelco ‘‘all metal’ thermo- stat is quickly and easily set for any temperature within the range of the incubator and will maintain in- definitely constant temperature to one degree Centigrade. { Adjustable cold air oirculation around the inside jacket of incuba- tor and splendid construction re- duces the ice consumption to a minimum and secures highest pos- sible uniformity. | Exterior of incubator and the working chamber are of glazed por- celain fused on steel at 2000° F. The most perfect sanitary construc- tion. Made in Two Sizes Dimensions of Working Chamber 18 by 15 by¥J2 inches, $195.00 Net 30 by 23 by 14 inches, $240.00 Net Descriptive Pamphlet on request EIMER & AMEND Founded 1851 Headquarters for Laboratory Supplies NEW YORK li SCIENCE—ADVERTISEMENTS WEED’S CHEMISTRY IN THE HOME By Henry T. Weep, B.S., Head of Science Department, Manual Training School, Brooklyn, N. Y. 3886 pages. Illustrated $1.20. , A general course in chemistry for students who do not intend to go to college. It treats of chemical processes and products in a way that leads a pupil to make use of what he learns. For example, by the food tables given he can tell whether he is receiving proper nourish- ment; he learns how foods may properly be preserved and the changes which occur when foods are cooked; he learns how metals can be protected against corrosion ; how dyes may be used successfully in the home, etc., etc. Ask for “100 Practical Chemistry Questions About the Home’’—it will show you the practical scope of this book. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cincinnati Chicago For the pee ee Library GEOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS By Witiram M. Davis, Harvard University. 777 pages, $2.75. Presented in a form especially adapted to the use of advanced students and teachers of physio- graphy. GLACIERS OF NORTH AMERICA By IsRAEL C. RUSSELL, late of the Griversity of Michigan. 210 pages, illustrated, $1.75. This book presents not only the results of the author's own explorations but also a condensed and accurate statement of the present status of glacial investigations. LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA By IskaEL C. RUSSELL, late of the University of Michigan. 125 pages, illustrated, $1.50. The author hasselected from the broad subject of physical geography a single phase with which he is familiar from original investigations, and has presented it in its modernized aspect. Ginn and Company Boston New York Chicago Lendon The American Academy of Arts and Sciences 28 Newbury Street, Boston, Mass. Just issued. Proceedings, Vol. 51, Nos. 10, 11 and 12. 51. 12. Bridgman, P. W.—Polymorphic changes under Pressure of the Univalent Nitrates. Pp. 579-625, April, 1916. 70 cents. 51. 11. Mayor, James W.—On the Life-History of Cera- tomyxa acadiensis, a new species of Myxosporidia from the eastern coast of Canada. Pp. 549-578. Spll, April, 1916. 70 cents. 51. 10. (I) Blake, S. F—Compositae new and trans- ferred, chiefly Mexican: (II) Robinson, B. L._—New, reclassi- fied, or otherwise noteworthy Spermatophytes; (IIT) Macbride, J. Francis.—Certain Borraginaceae new or transferred. Pp. 513-548, January, 1916. 50 cents, Other recent issues of the Proceedings 51. 9. Mayor, J. W.—On the Development of the Coral Agaricia fragilis Dana. Pp. 483-511. 6 pll. December, 1915. 90 cents, 51. 8. Kennelly, A. E., and Affel, H. A.—The Mechanics of Telephone-Receiyer Diaphragms, as Derived from their Mo- tional-Impedance Circles, Pp. 419-482. November, 1915. $1.25. 61. 7. Jackson, Dunham.— Expansion Problems with Irregular Boundary Conditions. Pp. 381-417. November, 1915, 70 oa 6. Kofoid, Charles Atwood, and Swezy, Olive —Mito- sis oa wuluae Fission in Trichomonad Flagellates. Pp. 287- 379. 8 pls ovember, 1915. $1.50. 61. 5. Wheeler, William Morton.—The Australian Honey- Ants of the Genus Leptomyrmex Mayr. Pp. 253-286. Novem- ber, 1915. 50 cents. 51. 4. Daly, Reginald A.—The Glacial Vonuen! Theory of Coral Reefs. Pp. 155-251, November, 1915. $1.25. 61. 3. Warren, Charles A.—A Quantitative Study of Certain Perthitic Feldspars. Pp. 125-154. October, 1915. 50 cents. Send for descriptwe circulars and sample pages PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU, S.M.,S.D. PROFESSOR OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Large Octavo, 1150 pages, with 254 illustrations in the text. Cloth bound, price, $7.50. Send for descriptive circular A. G. SEILER & CO. PUBLISHFRS 1224 Amsterdam Avenue NEW YORK, N. Y. SCIENCE Frmay, JuNE 16, 1916 CONTENTS The American Chemist and the War’s Prob- lems: PRorEssoR JAMES R. WITHROW..... 835 Death Rates and Expectation of Life The Iroquois Indian Groups of the New York State Museum Scientific Notes and News ...............-. University and Educational News .....:.... 850 Discussion and Correspondence :-— Public Health Work and Medical Practise: Proressor C. R. BARDEEN. Nomenclatorial Consistency: A. N. CAUDELL. **Definitions’’ of Energy: Prorrssor H. M. Units of Force: PAuL CLoKE. Thermometer Scales: PROFESSOR ALEXANDER McAviz The Current DADOURIAN. 850 Scientific Books :— Roman on American Civilization and the Ne- gro: Dr. Huprert LyMAN CLARK. Popple- well on the Elements of Surveying and Geodesy: WitL1AmM Bowrs. Diabetes Mel- litus: PROFESSOR GRAHAM LUSK .......... 855 Special Articles :— Permeability and Viscosity: PRrorrssor W. Pollen Sterility in Re- lation to Crossing: Drs. R. R. GATES AND T. H. GoopsPEED J. V. OSTERHOUT. Anthropology at the Washington Meeting: PROFESSOR GEORGE GRANT MacCurpy ..... MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent to Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison- on-Hudson, N. Y. THE AMERICAN CHEMIST AND THE WAR’S PROBLEMS1 A votuME could be written upon this subject if one possessed the power to as- semble the material. The new problems which have arisen; the old ones which have become acute because of changed condi- tions; the splendid way in which the prob- lems have been met where they were a matter of invention or skill; the new meth- ods and processes which have sprung up as though born fullgrown; the many old ones which have been improved, altered and utilized in new connections; the way in which the chemists of the country have risen to emergencies which have compelled them to manufacture products in whose manufacture they had had no prior experi- ence, would easily fill entire chapters in such a volume. Even so, no earthly prog- ress, achievement or consideration can lift the pall which settles over us when we per- mit our minds to dwell upon the spectacle of this war. And whose mind can be di- verted from it for any length of time? He must indeed exist far below the kindling- point who does not resent and despise with all his soul the philosophy and ideals which made it possible. It would be out of place therefore to consider our subject from the point of view of achievement, or felicita- tion, on any alleged good which has come to the science of chemistry because of the war. Surely no one would want progress at such a cost to his fellow man. We ap- proach the subject rather in a spirit of thankfulness that we have been enabled to 1 Address before Section C, American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, Columbus meeting, December 30, 1915. 836 save something out of the wreck, and that our experience had prepared us in advance so that we have been enabled to prevent the collateral business and economic trag- edies of the war from spreading univer- sally. It is not in any spirit of gladness, therefore, at the evil providence which has fallen upon our European neighbors, that we recognize that this war has exalted the importance of chemistry in the minds of those who had not much opportunity hitherto to appreciate its value, nor is it with any jubilation that we take pleasure as chemists in meeting our new problems and emergencies arising from the war. The satisfaction to many industrial chemists in the last two years of being able to contribute to the solution of these prob- lems and of being conscious of the salva- tion of many businesses from financial ruin through the exercise of their chemical ex- perience, has seldom been so widely distrib- uted as it now is. What an inspiration it would be to read, spread out upon the pages of such a book as we have mentioned, the chemical] successes, big and little, of the past two years. It is not likely that many of them will be known for a while because of the fact that business caution forbids their publicity in many cases, and the vigor- ous campaign of destruction of equipment and diversion of supplies which stops at nothing which will hamper export from this country, makes silence a necessity in self-defense. The problems of the war are of two kinds, those due to changed conditions and those arising from supplying munitions at high speed. Among the former are changes in raw materials made necessary by the fail- ure of imports or by unusual consumption of raw material in other channels such as for products not heretofore manufactured in this country to the extent made neces- sary under present war conditions. These SCIENCE [N. S. Vou XLIII. No. 1120 changed circumstances were also due in part to new demands for materials and products, which have arisen in the complete rearrangement of things that has come about in many circles since the war began. The other line of war problems which have arisen, those directly connected with muni- tions supply, are frequently of a difficult nature. All these various problems, how- ever, have been met in practically every case with a degree of success which has sur- prised even ourselves. Naturally one of the first serious effects of the war on American industries was the stagnation produced by the enforced cessa- tion of exports in various lines. Such things as rosin, turpentine, petroleum prod- ucts, acetate of lime and methyl alcohol were seriously affected for a varying length of time. Then the demand for munitions became, for instance, the wood distillation industry’s salvation and, with great celer- ity, acetone plants were attached to many of the works of this industry and the high prices which the products of the industry demanded have brought unprecedented prosperity to it and have correspondingly hampered progressive improvement. Pro- duction, not efficiency, is at present the slogan for this and many other industries. Set-backs of the nature cited usually take time for readjustment and frequently the chemist is a material factor therein. The producer himself is often compelled to add the next manufacturing step to his own operations. The acetate maker, for in- stance, tends to enter acetone manufac- turing. Where the new demands were ample, these attempts have succeeded and the war’s conclusion will find an increased tendency to manufacture at the source. The set-backs to industry arising from the disturbance in exports, while they were important financially, were minor matters compared with those arising from such June 16, 1916] changed conditions as failure of raw mate- rials or their curtailment by absorption in new or abnormally expanded industries. It is here that the chemist is needed most and it is here that he has been of immeasurable service, and has met the problems that have arisen in wonderful style. He was seriously hampered at first by the uncertainty as to the facts. The fundamental thing in every industry is the market. At first much damage was wrought and delay produced by false reports as to stocks on hand and supply, particularly, of imports. Much withholding of goods for higher prices was practised and even yet the pirates of com- merce seek ways and means of evading con- tracts, even on deliveries of goods which they were receiving without cessation, so as to avail themselves of the inflated market prices. Some clever work by consumers trapped at least some of these unscrupulous brokers and sellers. All manner of fictiti- ous prices were demanded of those unfamil- jar with the facts and attempts were even made to influence the Washington govern- ment to activity against the British block- ade through the use of untruthful statistics regarding dyes. As soon as the true status of market and supply became reasonably certain many changes were effected which will give gradual, and probably ultimate relief. On every hand we see chemical activity with- out end. Products like synthetic phenol and barium salts not made in this country before the war are now made in large amount. Great expansion in production has taken place in the case of such mate- rial as benzol, toluol, aniline products, naphthaline, carbon-tetra-chloride, acids, alkalis, chlorates, bichromates and even oxalic acid. With all of these we were largely or in part dependent on imports, but have almost ceased to be so since the war began. Fertilizer plants erect their SCIENCE 837 own sulfuric-acid works and insecticide makers their own arsenic-acid plants. Tex- tile mills make their own bleach. Numbers of manufacturers replace potash compounds by sodium compounds and, to my own sur- prise at least, often with great improve- ment in results. The ceramist is render- ing this country less and less dependent upon imports in that field by scientific purification and utilization of domestic clays. Manufacturers of numerous mis- cellaneous chemicals and pharmaceutical preparations proceed to refine and produce their own crude raw materials and inter- mediates. The dye famine—for it is real in certain quarters—stirs up corporations with capital of hundreds of millions to enter the field. One of these new companies has installed half a million worth of ma- chinery in the last few weeks. Indigo and other dyes are being made in nearly half- ton batches which will soon expand to sev- eral ton size. Where formerly was the most peaceful of occupations, even fertilizer manufacture, every effort now goes to the making of munitions. New plants spring up at the beck and call of the new conditions such as the world has never seen. Think of a battery of one hundred nitric-acid stills each charging 4,000 lbs. of sodium nitrate three times a day. Think of the sulfuric acid required and the nitric acid produced. Think of the fact that this one of a number such (the largest nitric acid plant in the world, it is said) is a plant which a year ago did not exist except in the minds and plans of a group of chemical engineers. How little are we able to comprehend the reality of producing 1,000,000 pounds per day of gun-cotton where a year ago was merely pine-woods. What does it mean with reference to design of plant, erection and operation to any one who has not man- aged chemical engineering operations, to recount the engineering operations in- 838 volved in this enormous production of gun- cotton in a single plant?—work that is conducted in ten to fifteen parallel proce- dures or ‘‘cotton-lines,’’ which with their accompanying accessories, include cleaning and alkali digestion of the cotton; bleach- ing with chloride of lime; manufacture of sulfurie acid for the production of nitric acid and ‘‘mixed acid’’; nitration of the cotton in thirty-pound batches; the hazard- ous wringing and hasty submerging of the cotton in water, to avoid the consequences of heating by too slow dilution of the strong acid held spongelike by the cotton; the conveying of this material in the cotton- line to the washers where the remaining acid in the tube-shaped cotton fibers is re- moved; and finally the removal from the water as wet or damp gun-cotton, the com- mercial product of many plants. This end product of course is but the beginning or raw material for the various nitro-cellu- loses, smokeless powders and other high ex- plosives. Yet this scale of operations is not going on in just one plant of this kind or even in this one industry. This is a sample of what is happening every day in the shape of the American chemical engi- neers’ answer to the question, how are you meeting the war’s problems? At some of these things we are permitted to take at least a peep. No one man can know all of even such gross developments, and practically every chemist we meet has his enthusiastic story of the progress in his own and familiar fields. We all do know, however, that if this is the character of the outward developments, there must be legions of quiet research and other experi- mental attacks on the new problems, and literally hundreds of solutions being worked out for minor problems in factory and plant, not to speak of the vast amount of work in other departments of chemistry made necessary by all these things. Then, SCIENCE, [N. S. Von XLIIT. No. 1120 too, there is the ever verdant crop of inter- esting suggestions, revolutionary changes and inventions throughout the list of the chemical industries. In fact they are doubly numerous and aggressive under the stimulation of such a time as this. It is never wise to predict their success or failure until even years have elapsed in many cases. So that the lecturer who wishes +o entertain his hearers with pleasant and surprising intellectual gymnastics in the shape of the newest and most wonderful achievements in industrial chemistry is safe from apparent error for from three months to three years, if he picks his illustrations well. At the end of that time he can dodge criticism for misjudgment by referring the back-fires to poor business management, insufficient capital, tariff, trusts and some- times to poor engineering. It is true that a large number of these new things never make good. It is equally true that some of them will make good and that all of them indicate progress, for they are strivings, and progress comes by striving. It is equally true also that many of the chemical expedients which are in success- ful use under war conditions will auto- matically step aside when normal condi- tions resume. It is fundamental industrial chemical intelligence that a procedure which is ridiculous under some conditions may be a God-send under others. We do not expect every change installed to be really normal progress, for it will not be so in the ordinary sense at least. On the other hand, it would be wrong also to say that the mushroom plants producing munitions are not signs of progress. They unquestionably are not such signs in as far as they are temporary. They do not measure true ex- pansion in their respective fields. He would — be a novice or singularly blind, however, who did not see that the construction of such plants on the undreamed-of scale I Junu 16, 1916] have already mentioned, not to talk of the new materials and procedures which have been incorporated into many of them, makes for greatly enlarged experience in chemical engineering designing, construc- tion and operation. It is easy to see the pressure these things are going to exert upon the future development of American chemical industries. The American chem- ist’s experience is becoming greatly ex- panded and the significance of this is ap- parent when we consider that engineering progress is a function of demand, and skill or experience in solving problems. The demand increment is ever expanding with the development of the country. In addi- tion the skill acquired in the production of munitions is a valuable potential asset for defense should such a necessity ever arise. Such preparedness is highly to be desired. Then too at the close of the war when the output of these plants is no longer needed for that purpose, their equipment and intelligence will be directed into what- ever field promises most. Already some of these concerns are assured that some of their products will find a continuous de- mand after munitions manufacturing ceases, which will be some little time after actual hostilities are at an end. The field of dye production is already attracting some of them. Without doubt the indus- trial rearrangements to follow the war will leave us much better situated in our ability to cope with the problems of chemical pro- duction. At any rate, powerful financial interests will attack these problems as they never have been attacked before. These in- terests will constitute another great force, which will be particularly effective after the war. When they seek new outlets for mate- rials such as alcohol, benzol and acids, whose production they are greatly accele- rating at the present the gasoline and other problems will be greatly affected. These SCIENCE 839 interests will be found after the war lined up behind the industrial chemists who have been struggling for years against all kinds of unfair competition and disreputable de- preciation. Then again, any change in process, be it ever so time-worn chemistry or transient in its nature, if it actually is put into successful operation under the then existing conditions, must of necessity push out the boundaries of experience to greater and greater distances and make us better able to meet the problems of the future. Chemical engineering is like any other divi- sion of engineering, it grows by what it accomplishes. In this proof of ability to meet a transient emergency the American chemist is certainly reaping a hundred- fold, from his unadvertised care in the meeting of his industrial problems of the years which have gone before. Individual cases of progress and development which I have mentioned, it is easily seen, are rarely of great importance in themselves. We have not been revolutionizing on a great scale nor have we been jumping at once into great new national industries, but we are rather directing the normal steady gait of our progressive industrial develop- ment with keener perception toward more complete self-containedness, and thorough industrial preparedness. Some of the in- dustries mentioned which receive much public attention are of relatively little im- portance compared with many other items affected. The dyestuff shortage appears to annoy many, but the complaint is out of all proportion to the facts and the damage done, compared with that of other com- modities. We import normally, for in- stance, $9,000,000 in coal-tar dyes per annum and if we should make them all our- selves—which we shall only gradually ap- proximate—we should only increase our chemical manufactures two per cent. and 840 our total manufactures five one-hundredths of one per cent. Though we have made reasonable head- way on our problems we are keenly aware that much remains to be done. We do not expect to set the market right in the dye or other matters in a year or two. These de- velopments take time and have always taken time. Neither should we deceive ourselves or the public into thinking because of what we are doing that we could turn out with- out the most careful and detailed previous planning, adequate munitions for our own defense ‘‘in sixty days’’ to supply the ‘‘two million men who would spring to arms”’ as we so often hear would happen in that un- desired emergency. It would be interesting to discuss in de- tail some of the transient as well as probably permanent advances, where they happen to be a matter of personal knowledge, if it were wise to hand information to the assassins who lie in wait to hamper some of them, for military reasons. It might be well therefore to spend just a little time in emphasizing some general considerations which are connected with this subject. There is little use in attempting to dis- guise the fact that the present war is a struggle between the industrial chemical and chemical engineering genius of the Central Powers and that of the rest of the world. Quite irrespective of the war’s origin, aims, ideals or political circum- stances, these are the cohorts from which each side derives its power. When we consider the strategie position of the Central Powers themselves, their , capable education and training, their sys- tem of government, which, no matter what we may think of its selfish effect on the world as a whole, we must admit makes for more effective concentration upon its own governmental objectives, among which pre- paration for war is merely one of its mani- SCIENCE [N. S. Von XLIITI. No. 1120 festations—when we take into account all these things it must often appear to us that the greatest outstanding feature of the past two years is the miracle of the Entente Powers’ resistance to the terribly efficiently prepared onslaught of the Central Powers. This resistance is due, to an extremely large extent, to the efficiency of the chemists of the neutral and Entente nations. The chemists of the Entente Powers and of America have arisen to the emergency as no chemists have ever done before in the history of the world. Confronted at the beginning of the war by antagonists whose munitions industry for years had been developed for just such a contingency, these chemists have in less than two years built up a rival industry at least as strong. Plant after plant has sprung up of such perfection of design and operation that one wonders how the mind of man was capable of such engineering. Though the speed with which these new and unexpected problems have been solved may appear sur- prising, no one who is informed about the progress and development of industrial chemistry in this country, could have rea- son to doubt that American chemical engi- neers and industrial chemists would rise to any emergency which it was within human power to meet. They have already and will continue to live up to what we have a right to expect of them, in view of their past successes. We should be surprised if a similar degree of success did not crown the efforts of the chemists of the other countries, France, Britain, Italy, Germany, Austria, Russia, for it has never been the habit of American chemists to boastingly claim superiority because of any advantage, real or imaginary, with which they, like any group, are apt to be blessed for a greater or less period of time. We have always appreciated chemical contributions to prog- ress from whatever source they have come JUNE 16, 1916] and praised unstintingly the individual wherever he may be who has taken a dis- tinct step forward, for we firmly believe this is an important help in advancing the progress of the science. These general developments are naturally not a matter of public information, except attention is called to them. The chemist works almost entirely beneath the surface of things and only in a few spectacular cases is publie attention drawn to his work. It is quite natural, therefore, that apprecia- tion and praise of foreign chemical achieve- ment and particularly our consistent praise of German achievement to our students by our wniversity teachers of chemistry have been misunderstood, and have prepared a fertile field for foreign propagandas to establish a false impression of the superior- ity of certain groups of foreign chemists. We should searcely object to a good-natured adulation of any one’s fatherland and its achievements. Such things always contain good and are stimulating to every one, and it is a pleasure to hear them when free from arrogance, even when the adulation contains little that is new or even strictly true. When, however, this privilege is abused so that the point of superiority must be made by depreciating American efforts it has a vicious positive result upon the minds of the uninformed, and at times causes great financial loss to them. If the shortcomings of American chemis- try were frankly discussed and compared with foreign successes in a chemical pub- lication, some help might thereby be given to those who could derive benefit from it. When this is not frankly done, but simply issued as an incidental depreciation of American chemistry, particularly when dis- cussing foreign chemical achievement, and still worse when in a non-chemical publica- tion, the object can scarcely be rated as creditable. SCIENCE 841 A good illustration of this is an article published by the Review of Reviews for August, 1915, upon ‘‘What German Chem- ists are Doing to make Germany Self-sus- taining,’’ by Hugo Schweitzer, who, the editor humanely states, is an American chemist. Considering the avowed purpose of the article as attempting to influence American public opinion to stop ‘‘all ex- ports to all belligerent nations,’’ the article gives an interesting appreciation of the German chemist’s efforts to meet their pres- ent problem, but commences to wind up as follows. Thus the horrors of war, through the ingenuity of the German chemists, are promoting the legiti- mate industry of the nation, rendering it more and more independent of foreign conditions, and keep- ing in the country vast sums formerly spent for imports. Unfortunately and unexpectedly we can not record similar advantages for the United States, although we are enjoying peace. The inaccuracy of the last statement we hope is no measure of the truthfulness of the article as a whole. If the myth of the overwhelming industria] chemical superior- ity of German chemists ever was really be- lieved, in that country, the military forces of the Central Powers at least must marvel at the reason the supposedly inferior for- eign industrial chemists have been able to display such astounding ability and speed in meeting the problems of munitions pro- duction, particularly too in countries where governmental mobilization of industries was unknown before the war and, in Amer- ica at least, still is unknown. At any rate, it has become evident that lack of advertise- ment is no sign of lack of ability or activity, and that ability to handle science skillfully and powerfully is not confined to any race or nation. We do not feel that there is much to be gained by confuting claims of the chemical superiority of foreign coun- tries in this and other similar articles, for it is curious how this war has developed 842 foresightedness to the extent that such Americans can see only the chemical devel- ments abroad. I hope I have made it clear that it is the abuse of a privilege against which IJ speak, and not against individuals, for we do not let such personal attacks affect our regard for individual Germans any more than we allow our opinions on the history of the past two years to affect this regard for such individuals. Every one of us know Ger- mans who are the most whole-souled and kindly men—who we are grateful to know and who scorn to be guilty of, or to take ad- vantage of, such chauvinism. Such depreci- ations of American efforts will bury them- selves, without any assistance from us, and I only emphasize them here to eall attention of teachers of chemistry to the fact that we owe protection to the business community and the public against such misrepresenta- tion. We should never cease our apprecia- tion of foreign chemists of whatever nation, but in addition it is our duty first to in- form ourselves and then our students upon what our own chemists have done to solve our problems in this country. We have been able to blame our shirking this duty in the past upon the fact that it was easy to get information about foreign chemical achievement and no one seemed anxious to give publicity to American development. We as teachers have certainly done little to remedy this condition. The American Chemical Society, however, has spread the results of American effort before us and made them accessible in its Journal of In- dustrial and Engineering Chemistry for the last two years, in the shape of a series of addresses on the chemist’s contributions to American industries. ‘There are other addresses in these same volumes profoundly informing along these lines and this is par- ticularly true of the Perkin Medal ad- dresses each year in the same journal. In addition Professor 8. P. Sadtler in the SCIENCE [N. S. Vou XLITI. No. 1120 American Journal of Pharmacy for Octo- ber, 1915 (an address before the National Exposition of Chemical Industries), in giv- ing popular information along this line limits himself entirely to chemical indus- tries originated as well as developed by American chemists, and Edgar F. Smith’s “History of Chemistry in America,’’ but recently issued, should be read by every student of chemistry. None of this work is in any sense a vain- glorious adulation of the chemist as some superbeing nor is it an attempt to compete in the questionable game of lauding one nationality above another. It is merely a matter of a belated form of education which our universities and chemists hitherto have largely denied to the American busi- ness man, and which he has a right to ex- pect of them. The record is one for which we have good reason to be thankful and, as we teachers no longer have the excuse of ignorance about American progress, we are at fault if the rising generation has not an appreciation of the progress of chemistry in America, commensurate with the high level of its development. In conclusion then, let us take courage from the fact that though much damage has been done to us and our industries by the war, our efforts at salvage benefit us as experience, power and preparedness. We have seen that the chemists of America have met the war situation well and do not re- quire defense at the hands of any one. It becomes increasingly evident that business is awakened to the value of chemistry as a source of power and wealth as business has never had occasion or opportunity to be hitherto. Let us hope also that not only the spectators, but also all the combatants may learn, even if impelled by bitter war’s ex- perience, to appreciate the worth, each of the other, and that all nations are ‘‘made of one blood to dwell on the face of the earth.”’ James R. WitHROW JUNE 16, 1916] DEATH RATES AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE Dmector Sam. L. Rogers, of the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce, is soon to issue a unique set of tables, the first of their kind which have ever been prepared by the United States government. These tables, which were compiled in the division of vital statistics, under the supervision of Professor James W. Glover, of the University of Michi- gan, show death rates and expectation of life at all ages for the population of the six New England states, New York, New Jer- sey, Indiana, Michigan and the District of Columbia (the original death-registration states) on the basis of the population in 1910 and the mortality for the three years 1909, 1910 and 1911. They are similar to the “life tables” prepared by life insurance companies, but differ from them in that they relate to the entire population of the area covered, whereas the life insurance tables relate only to risks se- lected through medical examination and other- wise. Expectation of life, at birth, in a stationary population—that is, one in which the births and deaths were equal and were the same from year to year, and in which there was no immi- gration or emigration—would be the same as average age at death, which is calculated by totalizing the ages of all deceased persons and dividing the result by the number of deceased persons. According to these tables the average expec- tation of life, at birth, for males is 49.9 years; for females, 53.2 years; for white males, 50.2 years; for white females, 53.6 years; for na- tive white males, 50.6 years; for native white females, 54.2 years; for Negro males, 34.1 years, and for Negro females, 37.7 years. Fe- males are thus longer lived than males to the extent of more than 3 years, and in the case of the native whites and Negroes, more than 34 years. The expectation of life at the age of 1 is considerably greater than at birth, being 56.8 years for native white males and 59.5 for na- tive white females, and reaches its maximum at the age of 2, when it is 57.5 for the former SCLENCE 843 class and 60.1 for the latter. At the age of 12 the average native white male’s expectation of life is 50.2 years; at 25 it is 39.4 years; at 40, 28.3 years; at 50, 21.2 years; at 60, 14.6 years; at 70, 9.1 years, and at 80, 5.2 years. Simi- larly, at the age of 12 the average native white female’s expectation of life is 52.6 years; at 25 it is 41.8 years; at 40, 30.3 years; at 50, 22.8 years; at 60, 15.8 years; at 70, 9.8 years, and at 80, 5.5 years. A part of the difference between expectation of life for men and for women is due to the greater number of violent deaths among men. Nearly four fifths of these violent deaths— suicides, homicides and accidental deaths—are of males, and such deaths form about 7 or 8 per cent. of the total number occurring each year. This fact, however, does not account fully, or even in major part, for the greater longevity of women. An examination of the tables discloses a lower death rate for females than for males during each of the first 12 months of life and, in the case of the native whites, during each year of life up to the age of 94. During the first month of life the death rate among native whites is nearly 28 per cent. higher for boys than for girls, and during the first year it is more than 20 per cent. higher. The enormous waste of infant life which still goes on, although medical science has done and is doing much to arrest it, is shown by the exceedingly high death rates which pre- vail among infants under 1 year of age. Of 100,000 native white boy babies born alive 4,975, or almost 5 per cent., die during the first month, and 12,602, or 12.6 per cent., die within one year. The girl baby’s chance of life is con- siderably better, the death rate among native white females during the first month being 3,894 per 100,000 born alive, or less than 4 per cent., and during the first year 10,460 per 100,000, or nearly 10.5 per cent. On its first birthday, however, the likelihood that a child will die within the year is only about one fourth as great as it was at birth, the death rate among native whites during the second year being 2,841 per 100,000 for males and 2,610 per 100,000 for females. The 844 rate continues to decrease until the twelfth year of life—that is, the period between the eleventh and twelfth birthdays—during which it is only 228 per 100,000 for males and 198 per 100,000 for females. This, the figures indi- cate, is the healthiest year of life among native whites. Thereafter there is a continuous in- erease in the death rate from year to year. During the forty-eighth year of life, in the case of native white males, it is 1,267 per 100,- 000, or almost exactly what it was during the third year, 1,266; during the sixty-second year it is 2,919 per 100,000, or a little more than during the second year, 2,841, and during the eightieth year it is 12,184, or somewhat less than during the first year, 12,602. Similarly, among native white females the rate during the fiftieth year, 1,120, is a little less than dur- ing the third year, 1,144; during the sixty- third year it is 2,548, or somewhat less than during the second, 2,610, and during the eightieth it is 10,901 per 100,000, or a little more than during the first, 10,460. The native white man at the age of 102 and the native white woman at 99 have approximately the same prospect of dying within one month that they had at birth. To say that a person’s expectation of life is a certain number of years is not the same as saying that he has an even chance of living that number of years. This is because, as al- ready explained, expectation of life represents the average remaining length of life, at any given age, in a stationary population, whereas an average person in a given group has an even chance of living to what is called the median age at death, that is, the age below which half of the members of that group will die. The median age at death for all native white males in the assumed stationary popu- lation would be 60; that is to say, ef a given number of such males born alive, half would die before reaching 60 and the other half at 60 and beyond. A native white male child at birth, then, has one chance in two of reaching this age. At the end of his first year, how- ever, he has a trifle better than an even chance of reaching 64; and at 42 he has one chance in two of attaining three score and ten. Simi- larly, a native white female child at birth has SCIENCE [N. S. Von XLITI. No. 1120 an even chance of living a few months past the age of 64; at the age of 1 she has one chance in two of living until she is nearly 68 years old; and at 22 her chance of reaching 70 is an even one. Thus a native white man at 42 and a native white woman at 22 have about the same chances of celebrating their seventieth birthdays. The relative healthfulness of city and country is strikingly shown by the tables, ac- cording to which the death rate among white males under 1 year of age in cities having 8,000 inhabitants and over in 1909, and in cities of 10,000 and over in 1910 and 1911, is 13,380 per 100,000 born alive, whereas in smaller places the corresponding rate is only 10,326 per 100,000, or 23 per cent. less than the rate for cities. A similar difference prevails with respect to white females under 1 year of age, for whom the death rate in cities is 11,123 per 100,000 born alive, while in rural localities it is only 8,497 per 100,000, or 24 per cent. less than the urban rate. For white males the expectation of life, at birth, in rural localities is 7.7 years greater than in cities; at the age of 10, 5.4 years greater, and until the age of 39 is reached there is a margin of more than five years in favor of the country. Thereafter the differ- ence becomes gradually less, but is always in favor of the country until the age of 88 is reached, at and after which the cities show a slightly greater longevity than the rural lo- calities. For white females the difference between urban and rural longevity, while pronounced, is somewhat less than in the case of males. At birth the white female’s expectation of life is 6 years greater in rural than in urban locali- ties; at 10, 3.3 years greater, and until the age of 46 is attained the difference continues to be more than 8 years. ‘Thereafter it declines until the age of 83 is reached, after which the cities have a slight advantage over the country. THE IROQUOIS INDIAN GROUPS OF THE NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM TuerE have recently been opened for public exhibition in the New York State Museum six JUNE 16, 1916] life groups which have been erected for the purpose of portraying the aboriginal activities of the Iroquois, or the Confederacy of the Six Nations. The figures in these groups are life casts of the best types obtainable and each one is thus a somatic document. They have been reproduced by Caspar Mayer and Henri Marchand, sculptors. The background paint- ings, each 55 feet long, are of historic spots in New York Indian history, and they, together with the entire setting of the groups, are by David OC. Lithgow, artist. The conception and execution of the groups and the accuracy of their composition are due to the director and the archeologist of the museum. The groups are a gift to the State Museum from Mrs. Frederick Ferris Thompson. Seneca Hunter Group—With a background scene representing Canandaigua Lake and Genundewa, the sacred hill of the Senecas, in the distance, the group is that of the Seneca family clustered about the door-yard of their hunting lodge, each individual engaged in his allotted duties; the father bringing in a fawn from an early morning hunt, the mother busy skiving a deer skin, the daughter dressing and cutting venison; while the eldest son is a hunter and warrior and the younger son is cutting down a tree which obstructs the door- yard. The Return of the Warriors—The advance party of a Mohawk war expedition has re- turned to Theonondioga, the Mohawk capital, situated in 1634 just above the present village of Sprakers in the Mohawk valley, and the ob- server is looking north toward the foothills of the Adirondacks. The Mohawks have brought in two Mahikan captives from the vicinity of the Hudson River. The purpose of the group is to illustrate (1) the treatment of prisoners, (2) the authority of the Iroquois woman, who is by virtue of her tribal right interposing to save one of the captives from death, (8) the differences between the Mohawks and Hudson River Mahikans, (4) an Iroquois village with its stockade wall. Council of the Turtle Clan—The scene is laid within an elm-bark lodge typical of the habitation of the Iroquois before the coming of SCIENCE 845 the whites. The figures are all Onondagas and the chiefs are engaged in trying out some im- portant tribal subject. The one female in the group, not permitted by tribal usage to appear before the council on her own behalt, is urging her cause upon her secretary. The purpose of the group is to illustrate (1) one of the polit- ical units of the Iroquois Confederacy, (2) the interior and equipment of a bark lodge, (3) the four Turtle Clan sachems in council, (4) the method of recording by wampum the transactions of the council, (5) the privilege of an Iroquois woman to voice her opinions in the highest or lowest councils of the nation. Through the open door of the council house is a typical scene of the rough country in south- ern Onondaga County. Cayuga False Face Ceremony.—This is the midwinter purification rite, when evil spirits are driven from all the houses of the Iroquois village. Grotesquely clad and masked medi- cine men burst into the cabins, throwing open the doors and windows, and scatter new ashes over the heads of the occupants. The Indian cabin is an old one, typical of the period of 1687-1850, when the New York Indians had become accustomed to traders’ cloth and tools. The clothing of the figures, made of trade cloth highly embroidered by symbolic bead- work, the tools and other articles are all indic- ative of contact with the Europeans. The False Face Ceremony is one of the most spec- tacular rites common among the Iroquois. The figures are all life casts of Cayuga Indians and the view through the open doorway is of a moonlight winter’s night on the frozen Cayuga Lake. Typical Iroquois Industries—This group depicts a company of Oneida Indians gathered in a sheltered spot in the woods near their capitol village on Nichols Pond, Township of Fenner, Madison County. This was the fort unsuccessfully stormed by Champlain in 1615. The arrowmaker in the center is telling an amusing tale while he chips his flints. About him are the basket maker and belt weaver, the wood carver, the moccasin maker and the pot- ter, all engaged at their occupations as they 846 listen to the arrowmaker’s story. The figures are casts of Oneida Indians. The Corn Harvest—This group depicts a harvest scene in the maize fields on the flats near Squakie Hill in the Genesee Valley look- ing south toward the High Banks of the Genesee River. With one exception the fig- ures are all of women who are engaged in harvesting, braiding and pounding the maize and baking corn bread. The autumnal color- ing is brilliant and the background very rich and effective. The figures are life casts of Seneca Indians. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS THE degree of doctor of laws has been con- ferred by Washington University on Dr. Theo- bald Smith, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. At the commencement exercises celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Le- high University the degree of doctor of sci- ence was conferred on Joseph Barrell, B.S. (792), professor of structural geology in Yale University. THE Paris Academy of Sciences has elected, as corresponding member in the section of medicine, Dr. Yersin, of Nha-Trang (Annam), former worker at the Pasteur Institute, known for his work in bacteriology, especially on antiplague serum. THE Journal of the American Medical As- sociation states that ever since Professor Kita- sato resigned his office as director of the Im- perial Institute for the Study of Infectious Diseases, in consequence of the amendment of the imperial ordinance which took place quite against his and his followers’ wishes, public sympathy has been aroused to help him in com- pleting his new enterprise in establishing an institute, which was completed in December last. His services have been recognized by over 400 statesmen, business men and others of his native province, Kumamoto, who held a meeting on April 10, at which they presented him with a medal in order to express their recognition of his achievements in promoting bacteriology, public health and medicine. SCIENCE [N. 8. Von XLITI. No. 1120 WE learn from the Journal of Engineering and Industrial Chemistry that Professor E. C. Franklin, of the Leland Stanford University, has had an unfortunate laboratory accident, through an explosion in his laboratory which caused burns and other injuries. Later news announces that he is recovering in the hos- pital and that the accident will not leave seri- ous consequences. Mr. Crypr H. Barney, cereal technologist of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, has been granted a year’s leave of ab- sence to take up research work in the labora- tory of the State Grain Inspection Department in Minneapolis. Proressor GrorcE M. Resp, of the depart- ment of botany of the University of Missouri, has been appointed research fellow at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden for the summers of 1916 and 1917, in place of Professor W. H. Rankin, of Cornell University, who was ob- liged to resign on account of a change in his duties at Cornell. The problem to be investi- gated is the diseases of the trees and shrubs of Prospect Park, which adjoins the Botanic Garden. Dr. Martin B. Tinker, who was professor of surgery at the Cornell Medical College in Ithaca from 19038 till the second-year instruc- tion was discontinued at Ithaca, has been elected to the presidency of the New York State Medical Society. A. CABLEGRAM has been received by the Mu- seum of the University of Pennsylvania offi- eials from Dr. William OC. Farabee, leader of the university museum’s Amazon Expedition, saying that he has sailed from Para, Brazil, and expects to reach Philadelphia about the middle of this month. Dr. Farabee is bring- ing the collections he has made in the last two years, those of his first year having reached the museum. Proressor ApoLtpH F. Meyer, consulting engineer to the International Joint Commis- sion, has just returned from the northern part of the state of Minnesota where he was called to investigate flood conditions prevailing on the Lake of the Woods watershed. Damage JUNE 16, 1916] from high water has been serious and wide- spread and the waters are still rising. Pro- fessor Meyer stated that if such regulation of these waters as the International Joint Com- mission will soon recommend to the govern- ment of the United States and Canada had been in force, most, if not all, of the damage could have been prevented. A sEconp relief expedition is to be sent out from the American Museum of Natural His- tory and the American Geographical Society in the hope of rescuing Donald B. MacMillan and the members of the Crocker Land Expe- dition sent out in 1913 by the American Mu- seum of Natural History, the American Geo- graphical Society and the University of Illinois. The party is believed to be several hundred miles northwest of northern Greenland. The first relief expedition is frozen in at Parker Snow Bay, 150 miles south of Etah. The sec- ond expedition will try to join forces with the first and then proceed to Ktah. The steamship Danmark has been chartered for the trip, and the sum of $11,000 has already been pledged— $6,000 by the American Museum and its friends and $5,000 by the American Geograph- ical Society. According to George H. Sher- wood, assistant secretary of the museum, the members of the expeditions are in a serious plight, and there is urgent need of more funds to finance the new relief expedition. A DESPATCH from Montevideo, dated June 6, states that a relief expedition for the rescue of the twenty-two members of Lieut. Sir Ernest Shackleton’s Antarctic expedition left behind on Elephant Island will start immediately. Tuer Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution is manifesting con- siderable activity in archeological and ethno- logical research in the field at the present time. Mr. Neil M. Judd and Dr. Walter Hough have been temporarily detailed by the National Mu- seum for the purpose of conducting archeolog- ical investigations in southern Utah and west- ern New Mexico, respectively, and Dr. J. Walter Fewkes is engaged in work of a similar nature northeast of the Hopi villages in north- ern Arizona. Mr. John P. Harrington is de- voting his attention to gathering the final SCIENCE 847 material necessary to the completion of an ex- haustive memoir on the practically extinct Chumash Indians of southern California; Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt is among the Iroquois of Ontario; Dr. Truman Michelson has resumed his studies among the Fox Indians of Iowa, and Mr. James Mooney has taken the field for the purpose of continuing his studies among the Cherokee of North Carolina. Mr. Francis LaFlesche has recently returned from a trip to the Osage tribe of Oklahoma after recording additional material pertaining to the sacred ceremonies of that people. Miss Frances Densmore will shortly resume her studies of Indian music in the field, special attention this summer being devoted to the Hidatsa Indians of North Dakota, while Dr. L. J: Frachtenberg is still engaged in studying the almost extinct Indian languages of Oregon. At a meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, on May 11, Dr. Erwin F. Smith, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, delivered an address on “Resemblances between Crown Gall in Plants and Human Cancer.” This ad- dress will be printed in Scrmmncz. Proressor ArtHur B. Lamp, of Harvard University, lectured on “ Induced Reactions,” in the Havemeyer Chemical Laboratory, New York University, on May 12. Tur Halley Lecture at the University of Oxford was delivered on May 20, by Dr. G. W. Walker, late fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge. His subject was “The Measurement of Earthquakes.” Dr. Cuartes B. ALEXANDER, of New York, a regent of the University of the State of New York, gave a dinner in Albany last week in honor of Dr. John J. Carty, president of the National Institute of Electrical Engineers, and Professor Michael Pupin, Serbia’s Consul to this country and professor in Columbia Uni- versity. The guests inspected the instruments contrived and used by Professor Joseph Henry while a teacher in the Albany Academy in ma- king the first successful experiments on long- distance electric transmission beginning in 1827. Professor Pupin pledged himself to raise $15,000 if a like sum were raised to erect 848 a bronze statue of Professor Henry in the park in front of the school in one of whose rooms the great discovery was made. Dr. John J. Carty and Regents Pliny T. Sexton, Charles B. Alexander, Chester S. Lord, Abram I. Elkus, James J. Byrne, Adelbert Moot, William Berri and Albert Vanderveer each pledged $100. Proressor Kari ScHWARZSCHILD, director of the Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam, has died from illness contracted while on military service. THE death is announced of Mr. John Griffiths, formerly tutor in mathematics and for many years past senior fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. An appeal has been issued by the Chinese Medical Board to the medical profession of Philadelphia to supply fifty physicians and surgeons for immediate service at hospitals in China. It is believed that the furnishing of this unit will be undertaken by the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Invitations from the Kansas City Section of the American Chemical Society and from the University of Kansas to hold the spring meeting of 1917 in Kansas City, Mo., and in Lawrence, Kan., have been accepted. A MEETING for the reading of papers will be held by the Ecological Society of America at San Diego, in connection with the meeting of the Pacific Division of the American Associa- tion on August 9, 10 and 11. Two field ex- cursions in the vicinity of San Diego will be held by the society on the succeeding days. Ar the tenth annual meeting of the British Science Guild, held on May 17, the Right Hon. Andrew Fisher, high commissioner for the commonwealth of Australia, described the es- tablishment of the National Institute of Sci- ence and Industry in Australia. Surgeon-Gen- eral Sir Alfred Keogh, referring to the rela- tion of science to the work of the Royal Army Medical Corps, said that in the British army in France there were twenty-two cases of ty- phoid fever and stated that under former con- ditions there would probably have been from eighty to a hundred thousand eases. Dr. R. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou XLITI. No. 1120 Mullineux Walmsley, principal of Northamp- ton Polytechnic Institute, E.C., spoke of the work of the technical optics committee of the guild. Ow the occasion of his seventieth birthday on March 16, 1916, Professor G. Mittag- Lefer and his wife made a joint last will and testament of peculiar significance in the do- main of science. Extracts from this will have recently been published by Professor Mittag- Leffler in a pamphlet, so that the features of the document are now public property. By the terms of the will there is founded a mathe- matical institute to bear the name of the donors, which institute is to be housed in their villa at Djursholm, Stockholm. The institute is to be fully established at the death of the donors, and is to consist of the villa in ques- tion, the mathematical library of Professor Mittag-Leffler, and a fund for the encourage- ment of pure mathematics, particularly in the four Scandinavian countries, Sweden, Den- mark, Finland and Norway, but more espe- cially in Sweden. The library is to be open to all mathematicians, subject to the approval of the president of the committee of trustees, or the director of the institute. Certain financial assistance is to be given to those who show genuine aptitude for research and discovery in the domain of pure mathematics. There is also provided for the bestowal of medals and of prizes in the form of sets of the Acta Mathematica. The institute thus becomes one of the most noteworthy establishments in the learned world, and will be a perpetual monu- ment to the great interest in mathematics al- ways manifested by Professor Mittag-Leffler. Tue Journal of the American Medical As- sociation states that the seventeenth annual meeting of the Kitasato Institute Alumni As- sociation was held on April 3 and 4, and at the general meeting held on the afternoon of the second day the discoverer of the cause of in- fectious jaundice, Professor Inada, and his as- sistant, Dr. Ido, were awarded by Professor Kitasato the prize of the late Professor Asak- awa fund. The prize consisted of a gold medal and a sum of money. It is offered for the best JuNE 16, 1916] work on bacteriology, parasitology, immunol- ogy and study of infectious diseases carried out and published in Japan during the pre- ceeding year. The work consisted of the dis- covery of the cause of the infectious jaundice, which prevails endemically not only in Japan but also in other countries. The causative agent has been discovered to be one of the species of spirochetes. In accordance with plans approved by Sec- retary of the Interior Lane, the investigation of the mineral resources of Alaska by the Geo- logical Survey will be continued this year by 12 parties. Congress has recognized the ne- cessity of preparing in advance for the sur- vey of this difficult field by including the ap- propriation for its continuation in the urgent deficiency act, which was approved on Feb- ruary 28. This prompt action makes it pos- sible to plan the work in advance of the opening of the field season and to carry out the plans efficiently and economically. The work to be done this year includes a detailed survey of the region tributary to Juneau, Juneau, which is the most important quartz camp in Alaska. A continuation of the study of the mineral resources of the Ketchikan dis- trict, where there are important gold and cop- per mines, is also planned. The investigation of the water powers of southeastern Alaska will also be continued. Only one party will be employed in the Copper River region. Two parties will work in Prince William Sound. Four parties will make surveys in the region directly or indirectly tributary to the govern- ment railroad under construction. One of them will study the new Tolovana placer dis- trict and also make some supplementary in- vestigation of the Fairbanks lode district. The geologists of this party will later visit the Nome district. A detailed geologic survey will be made of the western part of the Nenana coal field, which is adjacent to the route of the government railroad. Two other parties will be employed in carrying reconnaissance surveys westward from the railroad route to the Kantishna placer and lode district. It is SCIENCE, 849 also proposed to make surveys of the lower Yukon, including the Marshall placer district. It is stated in Nature that at the recent an- nual meeting of the Paris Academy of Sci- ences, the president, M. Gaston Darboux, gave an account of the careers of men, for the most part young, to whom prizes of the academy had been awarded, but who have fallen in the service of their country. M. Marty (Fran- ceur prize), killed September 10, 1914, at the battle of the Meuse, was distinguished by his contributions to mathematics. M. R. Mar- celin (Hughes prize), killed near Verdun, in September, 1914. His work on kinetic physi- cal chemistry was remarkable, both in theoret- ical treatment and on the experimental side. M. Marcel Moulin (Gaston planté prize), killed at the battle of the Marne, September 6, 1914, founded the Institute of Chronometry at Besancon. M. Viguier (Cahours prize), killed at Beauséjour, March 5, 1915, made his mark in the field of organic chemistry. M. Albert de Romeu (Delesse prize), killed January 12, 1915, at Bucy-le-Long, near the Aisne, was the author of noteworthy petrographic work. M. René Tronquoy (Joseph Labbé prize), wounded and missing, February 20, 1915, was proposed for the Cross of the Légion @’honneur, and was well known for his mineralogical work. M. Blondel (Saintour prize), wounded and miss- ing, September 8, 1914, at Fére-Champenoise, was distinguished for his work on the theory of tides. M. Georges Lery (Gustave Roux prize), killed at the battle of the Marne, Sep- tember 10, 1914, was a geometer of great prom- ise. Lieutenant-Colonel Arnaud (Henri Bec- querel prize), aged sixty years, died of illness contracted on active service. M. Jean Merlin (Becquerel prize), on the staff of Lyons Ob- servatory, killed at Arrozel, August 29, 1914. He was known by his researches dealing with the theory of numbers. M. Rabioulle (Bec- querel prize), on the staff of the Algiers Ob- servatory, killed in the battle of the Aisne, September 21, 1914. M. Jean Chatinay (Fanny Emden prize), killed at Vermelles, October 15, 1914. Commandant Henri Batail- 850 ler (Wilde prize), killed June 9, 1915, well known for his researches in ballistics. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS By the will of the late Dr. J. William White, trustee of the University of Pennsylvania, and John Rhea Barton emeritus professor of surg- ery, $150,000 is bequeathed in trust as a perma- nent endowment fund, the income to be used for establishing a professorship of surgical re- search in the medical department of the uni- versity. Other bequests were made to the university hospital. A miuuion dollars will be available for use by the Washington University Medical School, with the opening of the new term in Septem- ber, through the donation to the school of ‘$166,000 each by Edward Mallinckrodt and John T. Milliken, of St. Louis. One fund of $500,000, which will be known as the Edward Mallinckrodt Fund, will be devoted to teaching and research work in pediatrics. The other fund of $500,000, which will be known as the John T. Milliken Fund, will be devoted to teaching and research work in medicine. The funds will enable the medical school to employ physicians in these departments for their full time. The amount in addition to the Mallinek- rodt and Milliken donations to bring it to $1,000,000 has been given by the General Edu- eation Board. A MOVEMENT has been inaugurated to se- eure at least $2,000,000 additional endowment for Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. Mr. David Baugh, a member of the board of trustees, and founder of the Baugh Institute of Anatomy and Biology, has subscribed $100,- 000, provided that an equal amount is raised on or before June 16. The money so obtained is to be used for permanent endowment. THE executors of the estate of Emil C. Bundy, of New York, have paid over to Co- lumbia University the sum of $100,000, for re- search work in cancer. Dr. Jean Piccarp, of the University of Lausanne, Switzerland, has been appointed as- sistant professor of chemistry in the Univer- SCIENCE [N. 8. Von XLIITI. No. 1120 sity of Chicago, beginning with the autumn quarter of this year. Professor Piccard is of the same nationality as the late Professor John Ulric Nef, who for more than twenty years was the distinguished head of the department of chemistry. Dr. Henry W. Wanptess, of New York, has been appointed clinical professor of ophthalm- ology at the University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College. Wo. F. Auten, formerly instructor of his- tology and embryology in the University of Minnesota, has accepted the position of pro- fessor of anatomy in the University of Ore- gon Medical School, Portland, Oregon. Ar Vassar College Dr. Elizabeth B. Cowley, assistant professor of mathematics, has been promoted to an associate professorship. Sm James ALrrep Ewrnc, K.C.B., F.R.S., has been elected principal of the University of Edinburgh, in succession to the late Sir Wil- liam Turner. Sir Alfred Ewing, who is a graduate of the university, has been for the last thirteen years director of naval education; before that he had been in succession professor of mechanical engineering in the Imperial University, Tokyo; of engineering in Univer- sity College, Dundee, and of applied mechanics in the University of Cambridge. His scien- tific work has been chiefly in the investigation of magnetism and the physics of metals. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE PUBLIC HEALTH WORK AND MEDICAL PRACTISE To tHE Epiror or Science: To the state- ment that no sharp line can properly be drawn between preventive medicine as embraced in public health work and curative medicine as applied to individuals Mr. Harold F. Gray in Science for May 5 has applied the term “ falla- cious.” While it may in general be true that “under our form of government, it is not pos- sible for public health officers to apply by com- pulsion remedies to diseased citizens,” it is also true that in a democracy a large share of pub- lic health work lies outside the field of arbi- trary compulsion. JUNE 16, 1916] Quarantine of individuals afflicted with com- municable disease represents one of the earliest and most arbitrary of public health measures. The stoning of a leper to keep him away from a community without regard to the welfare of the leper himself is not, however, to be re- garded as a sign of a high stage of civilization. We reach a higher stage when special provi- sion is made for the care of lepers isolated from the community for the good of the com- munity. We reach a still higher stage when earnest efforts are made to discover remedies . for the cure of the disease such as are now being made by the federal health service. If such remedies are discovered and applied, both lepers and the community at large will profit. The legal aspects of the matter are well summarized in a decision of the Wisconsin Supreme Court as cited in “Communicable Diseases: An analysis of the laws and regula- tions for the control thereof in force in the United States,” Public Health Bulletin No. 62, by J. W. Kerr and A. A. Moll. The right of a state through its proper officers to place in confinement and to subject to regular medical treatment, those who are suffering from some contagious or infectious disease, on account of the danger to which the public would be ex- posed if they were permitted to go at large is so free from doubt that it has rarely been ques- tioned (State v. Berg Northwestern Reporter, p. 347). The federal public health service has charge of the restrictions imposed upon individuals afflicted with disease who desire to enter the United States from outside and is required to cooperate with local health authorities in en- forcing regulations to prevent the spread of contagious and infectious diseases from one state or territory to another. In connection with the medical inspections of immigrants, medical officers are required, among other things, to certify to the diseases observed by them and to render opinions, whenever requested, as to the curability of a loathsome contagious or dangerous contagious disease affecting the wife or minor child of a domiciled alien, and to supervise the appropriate treatment. In addition they are required to supervise or conduct the treatment of all detained aliens. SCIENCE 851 In the various states of the union the num- ber of diseases for which quarantine is re- quired by law and the extent of the quarantine differ greatly but it is fairly generally recog- nized that in cases where strict quarantine is required the public is under obligations to fur- nish treatment at least to individuals not able to pay for medical service. The quarantine is compulsory, the treatment is not necessarily so, but both may properly form a part of the pub- lic health service. At times special care has been taken to emphasize the fact that indi- viduals thus receiving medical service at pub- lic expense are not thereby made paupers. Private agencies may cooperate with public health officials in the warfare on disease through treatment of individuals. The vari- ous anti-tuberculosis associations are accom- plishing much in their efforts not only to edu- cate the public as to proper precautions to be taken to prevent the spread of this disease but also in their support of measures for the establishment of sanatoria for the treatment of incipient cases and homes for the isolation of advanced cases. The effective work of the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission in coopera- tion with various boards of health in the south for the eradication of hookworm disease is an example of where medical treatment of indi- viduals in the ordinary use of that term has played an active part in public health work. Various steps have been taken to give state aid to physicians in their treatment of indi- viduals in order that the public health may be promoted. Examples are to be seen in the distribution of diphtheria antitoxin free either for all cases or more frequently for all indigent cases. Waccines for smallpox and typhoid fever are distributed in a similar way for the prophylactic treatment of individuals, from which in turn the community profits. Public health laboratories established to give aid in diagnosis to physicians in private practise are becoming of increasing importance from the standpoint of public health. It is thus that the first steps are being taken in control of venereal diseases. In public health work we have, on the one hand, engineering problems into which dis- 852 eased individuals as such do not enter. On the other hand we have the problem of the pre- vention of the spread of diseases from the sick to the well. In private practise we have, on the one hand, the treatment of sick individuals in whose welfare the public as such, aside from humane sympathy or the danger of attendant financial burdens, has no concern and, on the other hand, the treatment of individuals who so long as they are ill are of more or less danger to the community at large. The fields of the sanitarian in the prevention of the spread of disease from one individual to an- other and of the private practitioner in his care of individuals afflicted with communicable disease interweave. The duty of the public health officer is to see that such persons are eared for in a way that prevents so far as pos- sible the spread of disease. The private prac- titioner attending such individuals is required to observe regulations in the interest of the public health. Questions of public interest should determine to what extent treatment of individuals by private practitioners should be supplemented by state officers. There cer- tainly need be no fear that medical treatment furnished sane adult individuals for their own welfare by public officials will be forced on them at the expense of their individual liberty. In medical supervision in the public schools it has not yet been determined to what ex- tent medical inspection of the school children should be supplemented by furnishing medical treatment at public expense, but such treat- ment is likely to increase in the future. In the assumption by the public of responsibility for the health of children as individuals, a re- sponsibility that is beginning to extend back of the school years, public health duties are assumed which reach far beyond the control of contagious diseases and are of great impor- tance to the welfare of the race. Perhaps some time we shall see in times of peace as effective a medical service as nations which desire success must have for their armies in times of war. Here we see no line drawn be- tween services for preventive medicine and curative medicine. Fortunately our own army medical service has been able to furnish some of the most important recent advances in pre- SCIENCE [N. 8. Von XLITI. No. 1120 ventive medicine, of value alike in times of peace and times of war, an interesting summary of which has recently been given by Henry B. Hemenway.! It is noteworthy that the most important American contributions both to the science of public health and to the application of this science have been made by medical services which include within their scope re- search, prevention and treatment, the Army Medical Service and the Federal Public Health Service. C. R. BarDEEN NOMENCLATORIAL CONSISTENCY? Noruine more strikingly illustrates the hope- lessness of unanimity among systematists on nomenclatorial matters than a footnote in a recent article by Mr. Hebard, Hnt. News, Vol. XXVII., p. 17 (1916). Here he protests strenuously against the resurrection of the orthopterous genus Pedeticum of McNeill, which he maintains is preoccupied by the hemipterous genus Pedeticus of Laporte. But these two names do not conflict according to the apparent meaning of Article 36 of the International Rules of Zoological Nomencla- ture, where it is recommended that names even derived from the same radical and differing from each other only in termination are not to be considered as conflicting. Furthermore, opinion 25 of the International Commission bears directly on this subject, quotes from the above mentioned recommendations and de- cides that Damesella does not conflict with Damesiella. Dr. C. W. Stiles, the secretary of the International Committee on Zoological Nomenclature, and our foremost authority on nomenclature, when consulted regarding the matter of Pedeticum and Pedeticus, expressed the opinion that these two names should not be considered as conflicting. But Mr. Hebard contends that the ornithologists and mammal- ogists have long ago settled this matter, the one-letter rule being suppressed unless indi- cating different word derivation. This being true, how about those, including Mr. Hebard himself, who profess themselves followers of the International Rules? Is it to be assumed 1‘*American Health Protection,’? Bobbs-Mer- rill Company, 1916. JUNE 16, 1916] that they follow these rules as such rules are usually followed, that is only so far as they conflict with no personal opinion? In the above-mentioned note Mr. Hebard ex- presses regret that well-known names should be changed on debatable grounds. In view of this statement it is interesting to note his use in the same paper, page 19, of the name Schisto- cerca serials Thunberg instead of Schisto- cerca americana Drury, a name in common use long before Pedeticum was erected. That the original inclusion of the species americana in the genus Libellula, which makes it a primary homonym of Libellula americana Linn., a true dragon fly, was a lapsus seems clear for several reasons, a matter too compli- eated for discussion at this time. However, even if granted as obviously a lapsus calami, there appears to be no definite authority in any code of rules for the setting aside of this reference. Thus Mr. Hebard’s suppression of the name americana is accepted, but, until a decision is rendered on the case by the Inter- national Commission, the grounds upon which he suppresses it are certainly debatable, more so, in fact, than those upon which the present writer resurrects the genus Pedeticum. Indeed this action of Mr. Hebard would probably not be sustained by the International Commission if it acts on the case, as its decision would very likely agree with the private opinion of its secretary, Dr. C. W. Stiles, as stated in the authorized quotation here given from a letter written on April 10, 1916: . . . Im the ease of Libellula americanus Drury, 1770 (in index of later date) it seems clear that this is a Lapsus calami. Without attempting to commit the Commission to any view, I personally would not reject—espe- cially at the present moment—a, well-known name like Gryllus americanus seu Schistocerca americana because of an obvious lapsus calamt. Dr. L. Stejneger, also a member of the Com- mission on Zoological Nomenclature, author- izes the statement that his present views on this matter coincide with those expressed in the above quotation. : A. N. CaupELL BuREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, WASHINGTON, D. C. SCIENCE 853 THE CURRENT “DEFINITIONS” OF ENERGY To tHe Eprror or Science: In a communi- cation which appeared in a recent number of Scrence! Professor M. M. Garver criticizes the current definitions of energy, such as “the capacity for doing work,” the “ability to do work,” and the “power of doing work,” on the ground that these definitions are not consistent with the concept of energy. The terms “ capac- ity ” and “ ability ” do not mean entities, while energy is not only a physical entity but it has the property of conservation. It seems to me that Professor Garver’s criti- cism is well taken, but the alternative he pro- poses is open to criticism also. For Professor Garver would have no definition of energy at all or, if it is insisted upon, he would have it based on the principle of the conservation of energy. Energy is first introduced in text-books of physics as a mechanical concept. Therefore any definition of energy should form an inte- gral part of a logically developed system of mechanics. It should be the direct and nat- ural result of the dynamical concepts which precede it and should form an adequate basis for the new ideas which follow it. Further it should have such a form as to lend itself easily to a mathematical expression of the definition. Elementary mechanics is usually based upon postulates, such as Newton’s laws of motion or the action principle, which involve the con- cept of force. Therefore the ,definitions of energy and momentum as well as the prin- ciples of the conservation of energy and of momentum should be made the direct conse- quence of the postulates which have been selected as the starting point of the develop- ment of mechanics. This necessitates the defi- nition of energy as the “result of the action of force in space” and the definition of momentum as the “result of the action of force in time.” In other words, energy should be defined in terms of work and momentum in terms of impulse. The definition of energy contained in the following extract fulfills these conditions. It is not only consistent, but has the advantage of leading to the mathematical expressions for kinetic and potential energy. 1 Science, April 21, 1916. 854 Energy may be defined as work which is stored up. Work stored up in overcoming kinetic reac- tions is called kinetic energy. Work stored up in overcoming non-frictional forces, such as gravita- tional forces, is called potential energy. Work done in overcoming frictional forces is called heat energy. Potential, kinetic and heat energy are different (at least apparently2) forms of the same physical entity, i. e., energy. Energy may be changed from any one of these forms into any other form. Whenever such a change takes place energy is said to be transformed. Transformation of energy is always accompanied by work. In fact the process of doing work is that of transformation of energy. The amount of energy transformed equals the amount of work done.3 YALE UNIVERSITY UNITS OF FORCE To THE EprTor oF Science: I have read with much interest Professor Kent’s article in SciENCE on the units of force. I might say that I have taught mechanics in my physics course this year, using the units the way Pro- fessor Kent recommends. The results have been entirely successful and highly gratifying. I used the pound and the gram as the units of mass and the pound and the gram as the units of force. As far as the results to the student go it has resulted in conciseness and clearness of thought and an avoidance of the unescapable confusion that results from in- troducing units that nobody but a teacher of physics wishes to use. Not only did this apply to force equations but it had a good result all along the line in problems on work energy and power. I embodied in my method of teaching the things that Professor Kent rec- ommends and also many of the things that Professor Huntington recommends. I be- lieve that a great deal of the trouble is due to the fact that most of our teachers of physics do not have the point of view of the engineer (they should have if they teach engineers) and 2 Recent developments in physical sciences tend to show that differences between different forms of energy are only apparent and that all forms of energy are, in the last analysis, kinetic. 3H. M. Dadourian, ‘‘ Analytical Mechanies,’’ 2d edition, p. 248. H. M. Dapourtan SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou XLIII. No. 1120 I believe that the only way to get this point of view is in the school of practical engineer- ing. This hodgepodge of units which some of us wish to use are undesirable and pedagog- ically unsound. Paut CLoxkE THERMOMETER SCALES To THE Epitor or Science: In a letter pub- lished in ScrencE of May 5, 1916, page 642, a correspondent advocating the retention of the Fahrenheit scale says that “nine tenths, prob- ably, of the use of the thermometer is for the weather” a statement that should not pass unchallenged; but even if there were no other uses of the thermometer, the Fahrenheit scale would still be objectionable. If your corre- spondent will visit any extensive meteorolog- ical library, he will find that nearly all national weather services now use the Centigrade scale and that internationally no other scale has been recognized for some years. Even the few weather services retaining the Fahrenheit scale, restrict its use and banish it from all investigational and research work. It is urged that “the common people are familiar with the Fahrenheit scale.” They may be familiar with it and yet not under- stand it. When the temperature is 64° F., is it clearly understood by every one, that the temperature is 32 degrees above freezing; and on the other hand when it is —32° F., that the temperature is 64 degrees below freez- ing? The scale says one thing and means an- other. It is true that the Centigrade scale divi- sion is nearly twice the length of the other scale division; and much has been made of this by some who insist upon accuracy to the tenth of a degree; but it may be well to remember that most air temperatures are a degree or more in error. Eyen with official instruments, errors of exposure or time, exceeding several degrees, go uncorrected, while instrumental errors are applied to a tenth of a degree. On the daily weather map one finds isotherms charted from readings made at different hours and different elevations. A reading made at 5 A.M. in the Nevada desert is linked up with readings made at 8 A.M. on the Atlantic sea- board. Some years ago, I suggested to the JuNE 16, 1916] former chief of the Weather Bureau that the hour of observation be given at the top of the map; and the suggestion was adopted; but the type used is small and at best this is only a makeshift. If the isotherms are to have true comparative value, diurnal corrections should be applied, whatever scale be used to express values. At Blue Hill Observatory, no less than three scales have been used and we are now con- sidering a fourth. Beginning with 1891, the Centigrade scale displaced Fahrenheit in our published summaries. In 1914 the Absolute seale displaced the Centigrade, the first of the three figures being written once in tabular work at the head of the column. The use of minus signs for low temperatures, frequent in winter months for surface readings, and in all months with upper air readings, is thus avoided. The objection made, however, to the length of the Centigrade division holds also for the Absolute scale and therefore the writer sug- gested? a scale based on the Absolute system but with the present 273° marked 1,000°. For many reasons the freezing point is im- portant. The new scale emphasizes this point. The boiling point is not so definitely marked but the whole system has the advantage of flexibility and consistency. For thermo- dynamic problems it is an ideal arrangement. ALEXANDER MoApmm SCIENTIFIC BOOKS American Civilization and the Negro. By C. V. Roman, A.M., M.D., LL.D., Editor of the Journal of the National Medical Associa- tion, etc. Philadelphia, F. A. Davis Co., 1916. This book is obviously prepared and pub- lished as an antidote for Shufeldt’s book on the negro, issued last year by the same frm.! As such, it is a complete and amusing success. The word “amusing” is used advisedly, for Dr. Roman has by imitation without comment emphasized many of the weaknesses and de- fects of Dr. Shufeldt’s book. Moreover like 1 Physical Review, N. 8., Vol. VI., No. 6, Dec., 1915. 1See Screncs, N. S., Vol. 42, p. 768. SCIENCE 855 most of his race, Dr. Roman has a keen sense of humor and real skill in the use of witty phrases, so that many of his aphorisms are exceedingly clever. From the title-page, with its long list of degrees, honors and positions, following the author’s name, to the very full glossary at the end of the book, Roman has taken his cue from Shufeldt, with such good- natured appreciation of the Caucasian author’s failings that any one who has read both books can not help but be amused. In no respect is this done better than in the matter of illus- trations. In neither volume is there any par- ticular connection between text and plates, but whereas Shufeldt’s figures are deliberately chosen to exaggerate the animal nature of the negro and make him repulsive to the reader, Roman’s illustrations are selected to exaggerate his intellectual and spiritual achievements and make him most attractive. Neither volume is in any real sense a scien- tific book, but whereas Shufeldt’s pretends to be, Roman’s makes no such claim. The latter author says truly in his Preface: “ This book is written without bitterness and without bias” and in the hope that it “may increase racial self-respect and diminish racial antag- onism.” The good nature and self-control of the author are notable and his evident famil- larity with the literature of the subject is equally so. There are very few references to Shufeldt, Bean or other negrophobists, but many quotations from Boaz, Murphy and Cable, real and sympathetic students of the race problem. The chief contention of the author is that there is no superior race, but that there are superior individuals, and that the effort of all races should be to increase the number of these superior individuals of what- ever race, while weeding out the inferior. He admits frankly that at the present time, the whites average higher than the negroes but he very properly claims that there is far less difference between the best whites and the best negroes than there is between the better and worse elements of either race. His chief protest is against the utterly unfair and unscientific method of treating all colored people alike be- cause they are colored, and he emphasizes the 856 importance of encouraging the development of the exceptional individual in every race. The fifteen chapters which make up the volume are of rather unequal merit and seem to have no natural sequence. This defect of arrangement is emphasized by faults of style. The writer is discursive and tends to glowing thetoric, “glittering generalities” and over- much interpolation of poetry and emotional anecdote. There is too much repetition and iteration, oftentimes on trivial points. In spite of all this, the book is readable and en- joyable because of the author’s skill in putting telling points in brief, pithy sentences. In discussing physiognomy as a criterion for judging men, he says: “ As a man thinks, not as he looks, finally fixes his status,” and again, referring to facial angles and jaw form, “Thoughts and not bites win the battles of life.” In reference to the origin of the south- ern negroes, we find these apt words: “The question then is, not where did he start from, nor how long has he been on the road, but has he arrived?” In chapter ten, “ The Solution,” probably the best chapter in the book, there is an admirable plea for the suppression of those people who, and thimgs which, tend to en- courage racial friction. The following deserves quotation. “Dixon and Johnson have been drawbacks to their race and country. It was an unfortunate thing for the country that pop- ular notice was given to the Leopard Spots or the Reno Battle. If neither had been noticed the subsequent ‘bad eminence’ of the chief actors would not have marred the country’s history.” The frankness and fairmindedness of Dr. Roman are constantly in evidence. His appre- ciation of the point of view of the best south- ern whites is delightful and most encouraging. Referring to their claim of “the absolute and unchangeable superiority of the white race” he says: “ Fundamentally erroneous and mis- chievous as I believe this assumption to be, I am not disposed to quarrel over it with such men as Messrs. Page and Murphy.” “From different starting points, Mr. Page and I reach the same conclusion: ‘ Our plain duty is to do the best we can to act with justice and a broad SCIENCE [N. S. Von XLIII. No. 1120 charity and leave the consequences to God.’” One other quotation is necessary to reveal the point of view of the best southern colored men on that bugbear “social equality.” Dr. Roman says: “I know my people, their hopes, their fears, their aspirations and their desires; and from my youth up I have preferred a discreet silence to false or dishonorable speech. With all candor and earnestness I say to the Amer- ican public: the negro has no desire to break over social barriers. In thts regard he ts if possible more strongly prepossessed in favor of his own than the white man. In these matters the negro is not only pleased but happy to work out his own equivalent rights. But in eivil, political and economical matters the negro insists and for the good of the country ought to insist upon equal, not equivalent, rights.” If this is not a scientifically impregna- ble position, your reviewer fails to detect its weakness. It seems to him obvious that the one possible solution of the race question lies in strengthening racial self-respect and mutual interracial confidence. For this reason, all legislation looking towards segregation of either race is sadly mistaken and postpones indefi- nitely the solution intelligent men on both sides are seeking. As Dr. Roman truly says: “White ignorance is the most serious menace in the race situation; for this ignorance is in power and hopes to benefit itself not by find- ing more light but by increasing darkness.” Colored ignorance is much less mischievous be- cause so much less powerful, but it is of course a serious menace. Racial self-respect should be greatly promoted among the negroes by the publication of Dr. Roman’s book, and racial comity should be likewise advanced. For there is as much for the white race in the volume as there is for the author’s own people. Hupert Lyman CLark The Elements of Surveying and Geodesy. By W. C. PoprpreweLtt. Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1915. Pp. ix + 244, illustrated. The author states in the preface of this vol- ume that he has made an attempt to present a comprehensive view of the subject of geodesy in its widest sense in order to provide students and others with such information as may lead JUNE 16, 1916] to a sound knowledge of the fundamental ideas inyolved. As leading towards this the author said he has always advocated personal instruc- tion in the use and adjustment of instruments, as well as the useful practise which may be obtained in a students’ surveying camp, but that before either of these is possible the stu- dent must have mastered the bedrock prin- ciples, and the author hopes that a careful perusal of the pages of the volume may help him to do this. The book is disappointing and is not recom- mended to the student of engineering nor to the practising engineer as a guide or manual. It seems to be more suited to the old-fashioned county surveyor, with his Jacob’s staff and Gunter’s chain, for the county surveyor of to- day, in the United States at least, is more in- clined to use the steel tape and the transit than those old instruments, which should be rele- gated to the museum. The chapter on “ Calculations of Distances and Heights” opens with the statement that “Tt is assumed that the reader has some knowl- edge of plane trigonometry.” In this country there is probably no school teaching surveying which does not require a rather thorough course in plane trigonometry as a preliminary to the course in surveying. Under the heading, “ Levelling and Contour- ing ” this significant statement is made: “ The staff-holder should be very careful to see that the particular spot of ground upon which the staff rests is fairly flat, and if the ground is of a soft or spongy nature the spot should be pressed down with the foot.” This is not teaching correct principles, for there is scarcely any leveling which should not require solid supports for the rod, and the earth, even if “pressed down by the foot,’ can not be con- sidered a satisfactory rod support. The short chapter on “ Geodetic or Trigono- metrical Surveying” is almost entirely his- torical and gives the student nothing which would guide him in actual work. Even the historical part does not include the recent de- velopments and methods. The chapter on “Geodetic Astronomy” is particularly disappointing, for it deals with SCIENCE 857 only those methods which might be used in ex- plorations and in determining the variation of the compass. It is very difficult to see where or how such a book has any useful purpose, for there are so many other books available which are far better for both the student and the engineer. WiriaM Bow Diabetes Mellitus. By Newus B. Foster, M.D. J. B. Lippincott and Company, 1915. This is a model monograph for the modern practising physician. Clearly written and not too technical in language, it is still thoroughly scientific in the mode of presentation. The rapid advance in the knowledge of the funda- mental biochemical processes which take place within the living body has nowhere been more pronounced than in studies concerning the nature of diabetes, a disease in which the oxidation of glucose, a substance which ordi- narily furnishes two thirds of all the chem- ical transformations of the organism, has been impaired or totally abolished. Dr. Foster has presented all the essential details concerning the pathological chemistry of diabetes, and has at the same time written from that three-fold standpoint which controls the value of a mod- ern medical book, personal research, personal clinical experience, knowledge of the research and clinical experience of the best authorities of the modern world. In no other book on diabetes has the value of American work been so fully recognized, and the reviewer feels that it is the best book upon the subject which has been written. GraHaAM Lusk SPECIAL ARTICLES PERMEABILITY AND VISCOSITY In a recent article! Spaeth has suggested that the permeability of the surface layer of protoplasm is determined by its viscosity, which in turn depends on its colloidal condi- tion. Imcreased permeability may be pro- duced by increased colloidal dispersion, which decreases viscosity and permits substances to diffuse more rapidly into the protoplasm. An 1 Screncz, N. S., 43: 502, 1916. 858 inerease of colloidal aggregation increases vis- cosity and causes a decrease of permeability: but if this goes beyond a certain point it pro- duces “a decrease in the degree of intimacy between disperse phases and solvent; the fluid- ity is suddenly increased and diffusion across the surface is correspondingly facilitated.” Some years ago a similar conception was suggested to the writer by the fact that living tissue of Laminaria placed in NaCl? becomes much softer while in CaCl, it becomes much harder. The changes in viscosity are so great as to suggest that they are fully capable of ex- plaining the fall of the electrical resistance of the tissue which occurs when it is placed in NaCl and also the rise of resistance which oc- curs in CaCl, (which is always followed by a fall of resistance). In the hope of throwing some light upon this process sections of the tissue were observed in CaCl, under the microscope. It was then seen that after a time the protoplasm assumed a coagulated appearance: it seemed obvious that the process which increased the viscosity might produce a coagulation of the protoplasm or some other change in its structure whereby it became more permeable. This conception led the writer to expect de- creased resistance in tissues placed in NaCl (because of decreased viscosity) while in CaCl, we should expect to find increased resistance (due to increased viscosity) followed by a fall of resistance (due to coagulation or other structural change in the protoplasm). It soon became apparent that there were sey- eral serious objections to this conception. The most important of these may be briefly stated as follows: 1. If to a solution of NaCl we add CaCl, until the increase of viscosity produced by one salt is just balanced by the decrease produced by the other, the resistance should remain sta- tionary. This is not the case, though it seems to be so when the observations are not taken frequently enough (as happened in some early experiments). There is always a fall, or a rise followed by a fall, of resistance. 2 Throughout this paper NaCl and CaCl, of the same conductivity as sea water are referred to. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou XLIII. No. 1120 2. If more CaCl, be added there should be a rise of resistance: this should after a while be- come stationary, provided there is not enough CaCl, to produce the coagulation or other structural change which decreases the resist- ance. This does not occur: the tissue never maintains its increased resistance, but shows a fall of resistance which begins soon after the maximum is reached. 3. If still more CaCl, be added, so as to pro- duce the coagulation or other structural change which decreases resistance, we should expect to find in all cases the same viscosity (and con- sequently the same maximum of resistance) just before the fall begins. Still further in- erease of CaCl, would only hasten this process without changing the maximum. This does not correspond with the facts. The maximum steadily rises as the proportion of CaCl, in- creases, so that the greatest maximum is found in pure CaCl,. 4. If the fall of resistance in CaCl, is due to coagulation or to some other structural change it might be expected to be irreversible almost from the start; but this is not the case. Only when it has proceeded a good way toward the death point does it become irreversible. On the other hand the fall in NaCl (due to liquefaction) might be expected to be revers- ible at every stage. But it ceases to be wholly reversible after it has proceeded one sixth of the way (or less) to the death point. 5. The effect of anions on the permeability of Laminaria is completely at variance with their effect on the viscosity of colloids as seen in Hofmeister’s series. 6. Since the changes in viscosity occur in dead as well as in living tissue we should ex- pect to find in both eases similar changes in resistance. It is found that the decrease in viscosity in NaCl produces no appreciable effect on resistance. ven when the process proceeds so far that the tissue is reduced to a very soft jelly there is little or no change in resistances The hardening in CaCl, produces some rise in resistance, but it is much too 3In a liquid a change of viscosity alters the re- sistance, but this is not necessarily the case in a gel. June 16, 1916] small to account for the great changes which occur in living tissue. It might be supposed that the reason that no change in resistance occurs in dead tissue is because the hardening and softening do not proceed as far as in living plants, but this is not the case. Moreover, it is found that the inerease of viscosity in NaQOl is accompanied by absorption of water, while the decrease of viscosity in CaCl, is accompanied by loss of water, and these processes take place in the same way. in living and dead tissue. It would seem that these and other impor- tant objections must be removed before we can accept the idea that changes in permeability are determined by changes in viscosity.* W. J. V. OsTERHOUT LABORATORY OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY POLLEN STERILITY IN RELATION TO CROSSING In view of the recent revival of the old idea that pollen sterility is a universal and safe criterion of hybridity in plants! we found it of interest recently to examine the pollen of some California plants with this idea in mind. The first species examined, Trillium sessile var. giganteum, perhaps better regarded as T. giganteum, a separate species from the T. sessile of the eastern states, is found in quan- tity in Strawberry Canyon, Berkeley, where it is now in full bloom. It is already known that this species shows a remarkable degree of variability, especially in the color and width of the petals. In color the petals vary from dark purple through pinks to nearly white, and also through yellows to nearly pure green. One of us is making a detailed study of these variations. The former color series, com- bined with the width series, is found on one hillside in Strawberry Canyon, the greenish and yellowish series occurring across the bay in Marin County. No other Trillium occurs 4It would appear that the term viscosity is loosely applied to a variety of phenomena which may be produced in different ways. 1Jeffrey, EH. €., 1915, ‘‘Some Fundamental Morphological Objections to the Mutation Theory of DeVries,’’ Amer. Nat., 49: 5-21, Figs. 7. SCIENCE 859 in this canyon, but a variety of T. ovatum oceurs along with 7. gigantewm in various parts of Marin County. The two forms are not closely related, however, and it is ex- tremely doubtful if they ever cross. In Strawberry Canyon at any rate there is no pos- sibility of T. gigantewm crossing with any other species, yet some plants collected here show a considerable amount of sterile pollen. In all the pollen examinations the grains were only considered “bad” when they were obviously shrivelled or greatly undersized, so that the amount of non-viable pollen would doubtless be considerably larger than the per- centage recorded here as bad. The highest amount of bad pollen recorded from any nor- mal plant of T. giganteum from Strawberry Canyon was 18.2 per cent., and the lowest 8.2 per cent. In another plant having certain abnormalities of the flower the percentage was as low as 1.5 per cent. In five plants from Camp Taylor, Marin County, where the spe- cies grows in company with T. ovatum, the percentages of bad pollen were respectively 7.8, 5.6, 3.9, 3.2, 2.8. Thus the amount of de- fective pollen is not high in any of the plants examined, with one exception, though the pollen grains are never all perfect. The form of 7. ovatum occurring in Marin County is remarkably uniform, in contrast with the variable T. giganteuwm. The pollen from seven plants of 7’. ovatum was examined, and they were found to have respectively 7.3, 7, 5.8, 4.5, 4.2, 3.9 and 3.9 per cent. bad pollen grains. Thus a species which is very invari- able in this locality and which we can be quite certain does not cross with JT. gigantewm, nevertheless produces regularly a certain per- centage of shrivelled and misshapen grains. Still more conclusive evidence regarding the occurrence of considerable quantities of bad pollen in the absence of crossing was fur- nished by Scoliopus. This remarkably iso- lated genus of the Liliaceew contains only two species, S. Bigelovit, which is confined to Cali- fornia from Santa Cruz to Humboldt County, and S. Hallii, which occurs in western Oregon. In plants of S. Bigelovit collected in Marin 860 County, where all possibility of crossing is ex- cluded, there was found a most unexpected amount of shrivelled pollen grains. One flower was examined from each plant. The flowers have three anthers and in some cases anthers from the same flower yielded differ- ent percentages of bad grains. Yet the anthers, and the plants as a whole, were all entirely normal in appearance. The amounts of bad pollen are shown in the following table: Pollen of Scoliopus Bigelovii Bad Grains Individual Anthers Plant Per Cent. Per Cent. ING leommon ah 31.9 45.4 25.8 33.2 INO 2th e nei 20.6 — ING, Bas cooccae 18.5 6.4 25.6 6.5 INOWP4 ss ser yarerar 10 10.7 9.04 ING; Bhoweosden 9.9 11.1 7.8 10.4 IN@ Goo cucsona 3.75 —_— INOW Woes soe ose 3.25 —_— Thus, in the absence of crossing, these plants in their normal habitat produce from 3 per cent. to 32 per cent. of bad pollen, and in indi- vidual anthers the observed amount exceeded 45 per cent. This in itself is a sufficient refu- tation of the hypothesis that bad pollen is nec- essarily a sign of hybridity. It would be diffi- eult to find a plant which is more suitable for disprovying this hypothesis than Scolopus Bigelovii. It furnishes all the conditions that the most captious critic could desire, inclu- ding relative uniformity and the absence of a related species with which it might cross. Yet, with two exceptions, it shows a higher percentage of bad grains than any other plant examined. Dirca occidentalis furnishes an even more convincing proof that bad pollen may occur in quantity in plants that are not hybrids. This shrub belongs to an isolated genus of the Thymeleacee, the only other species being found in the eastern states. Pollen examined SCIENCE [N. S. Vou XLIITI. No. 1120 from three separate flowers on the same branch yielded respectively 8.7 per cent., 20.8 per cent. and 46.6 per cent. of bad grains. Many of the pollen grains are also conspicu- ously undersized, so that the amount of non- viable pollen in this plant apparently often far exceeds 50 per cent. The pollen of two other species taken at random has also been examined, with the fol- lowing results. Ranunculus Californicus showed in one case 21.7 per cent. bad pollen and in another case 4.4 per cent. The pollen of Fritillaria lanceolata var. floribunda appears to contain regularly more than 50 per cent. of bad grains. These are both variable species, and in this case the possibility of crossing is not excluded. They are included here so as to avoid the pub- lication of selected results. It is certain, then, that bad pollen, even when it occurs in large amount, is not neces- sarily an indication of hybridization. Pollen sterility is rather a physiological condition which occurs in all degrees of intensity and may be due to a variety of causes. Hybridi- zation is of course one of these, but only one. Multiple causes apply in the same way to the conditions of sterility in animals. The mule is sterile because it is a hybrid whose parents are not only very dissimilar but have different chromosome numbers.? On the other hand, the various species of the genus Bos apparently intercross freely without any sign of sterility. To cite one other case of sterility of an entirely different character, Morgan* showed that in certain generations of Phyl- loxerans in spermatogenesis, half the sperma- 2 Wodsedalek, J. E., 1916, ‘‘Causes of Sterility in the Mule,’’ Biol. Bull., 30: 1-57, Pls. 9. 3 Similarly, Dorsey (‘‘ Pollen Development in the Grape with Special Reference to Sterility,’’ Univ. of Minnesota Agric. Expt. Sta., Bull. 144, 1914) concludes that in grapes hybridity is not necessarily a cause of sterility, since both sterile and fertile hybrids occur among cultivated varieties. 4 Morgan, T. H., 1909, ‘‘A Biological and Cyto- logical Study of Sex Determination in Phylloxer- ans and Aphids,’’ Jour. Hxpt. Zool., 7: 239-352, Pl. 1, Figs. 23. June 16, 1916] tids (those lacking the accessory chromosome) recularly degenerate. This obviously has no connection with crossing, but is concerned with sex. If we were to classify the causes of pollen sterility we might at least mention the fol- lowing: (1) Crossing of sufficiently distinct species, (2) a condition of variability or mutability in the species, (3) the substitution of vegetative for sexual reproduction, (4) un- known physiological causes. So far from it being improbable that muta- bility in a species should be accompanied by a certain amount of pollen sterility, we should be at a loss to account for the reverse condi- tion, namely, a highly mutable species which had perfectly good pollen. For it is clear that in a mutating species various types of aberrant pollen grains must be produced, some of which may be unable to mature, and these will form shrivelled grains. This view is borne out by direct observations of pollen development in the (inotheras. Moreover, some such gametes will form zygotes which are unable to develop, as has again been shown by direct observation in Cnothera. It follows almost from neces- sity that if the gametes of a mutable species are varying in many ways some of them will vary so as to produce pollen grains which are non-viable. The view that a great increase in the vege- tative methods of reproduction in a species may lead to or be accompanied by partial sterility of the pollen, is often expressed and apparently with reason. How narrowly such a relationship holds, however, could only be determined by statistical comparison. In the ease of Trillium, T. giganteum apparently re- produces largely from rootstocks and JT’. ovatum chiefly from seeds. From these preliminary observations it is clear at any rate that geographically isolated species do not invariably have good pollen, and that pollen sterility is by no means a sure sign of hybridity. R. R. Gatss, T. H. GoopsPrep UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, March 16, 1916 SCIENCE 861 ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE WASHING- TON MEETING Tr Indian Ruins of the Republic of Guatemala: Frr- NANDO CRUZ. The ruins scattered throughout the territory of Guatemala are of two characteristic types: (1) Those properly classed as prehistoric, consisting of cities which were inhabited by races who occu- pied the territory centuries before the Spanish conquest and left notable vestiges of their civili- zation. (2) Those of a later period which were the fortifications used by the natives in their re- sistance to the Spaniards. Those of the first class have been studied with eare, at least the greater part of them; those of the second class have been viewed up to the pres- ent time with but little interest by archeologists. The ruins of this second class are simpler and do not reveal in their construction the same high grade of architectural beauty as those of the first class. The author mentions the principal Indian ruins of Guatemala which have been studied, as well as those that have not yet been studied. He also gives a general idea of the arrangement of the cities, some of which he briefly describes. With regard to the ruins of the cities contem- porary with the Spanish conquest, the author notes that they reveal certain artistic decadence, and that in none of them is there to be found anything like the monoliths and sculptures of the former inhabitants. These ruins are of cities'of a mili- tary character, fortifications intended for the re- sistance of the enemies in their domestic wars. The author indicates some of these ruins, and de- scribes the condition in which they are to be found. Native Languages of Guatemala: ADRIAN RECINOS. After a few preliminary considerations with re- gard to the problems which demand the attention of the scientific men occupied in the study of the pre-Columbian epoch, the author proceeds to a study of the native languages of the races that have inhabited the Central American territory. He gives an outline of the Maya race and the grade of civilization which it attained. The author does not believe that the native Cen- tral American languages can be described as dia- lects of the Maya. In his opinion they are perfect languages, with a construction, and some of them with a literature of their own. Studying the different native races which in- habit Guatemala at the present time, and analyzing 862 their relations, the author concludes that they may be classified in the following groups: (1) The primitive language; the Sinca. (2) Maya-quiches, Mopan, Chol, Chorti, Quechi, PoconchiQuiché, Cachiquel, Zutijil, Pocomam, Mam, Aguacateca, Ixil, Uspanteca, Chuj y Jacalteca. (3) Languages of Nahuatl origin, Pipil, Alaguilac. (4) Caribes. The author studies with care each one of these ethnic groups and the languages which they speak. The report contains a bibliography and is ac- companied by photographs of some of the types of Indians of Guatemala. Sources of Cuban Ecclesiastical History: Rr. Rv. CHARLES WARREN CURRIER. History of the Cuban Church divided into five periods. Sources for each of these are given by the author, who laments the irreparable loss of manuscripts relating to the earliest history of the church in the West Indies. Among the more noted sources should be mentioned the Archivo Nacional of Havana, especially the large collections of manuscripts in Escota’s library. The Social Revolution of the Highteenth Century in South America: BERNARD MosEs. The society of Spanish South America at the be- ginning of the nineteenth century had departed widely from that which its founders proposed to establish. A point was reached somewhere in the colonial history where the ideals of the mother country ceased to dominate completely the life of the colonies. The greater part of Spain’s con- structive work in colonizing was done in the mid- dle period of her colonial history. Spain aimed to reproduce the European form of society in America: class distinctions, a titled no- bility, feudalism, and a state church with great authority. When the colonies had become con- scious of their individuality as communities, the influence of their environment led them to revolt against a social organization suited only to other circumstances. This revolt was strengthened by Spain’s excluding creoles and mestizos from high office, in spite of their fitness. Growth of mestizo class was encouraged by preventing unmarried Spanish women from emigrating. In spite of lo- cal differences among populations of different dis- tricts, the creoles, mestizos, and the more culti- vated free Indians were thrown into one class by the action of the Spanish government. This union was favored by the fact that Spain had adopted the Indians as an element of colonial society. Primary elements of that society were the en- SCIENCE, [N. 8S. Von XLIII. No. 1120 comenderos and their Indian dependents. A mid- dle class grew later, composed of landless creoles, mestizos and free Indians. The upper class em- braced Spanish officials, the nobility, and the clergy. The creole-mestizo class grew by natural increase faster than the Spanish class by immi- gration. The line of separation became fixed, with the more rapid growth on the part of the creole- mestizo class. The physical growth was not more rapid than the growth of new ideals and new as- pirations; whence the holders of ancient Spanish ideals became a declining minority. Spain’s persistence in governing according to her established rigid, exclusive policy drove the two sections of the population farther and farther apart. When the creole-mestizo class became con- scious that its interests were opposed to the pur- poses of the Spanish government, the social revo- lution was complete on its spiritual side. The later discussions, agitation, rebellions and military campaigns were only required to convince Spain and the world of the reality of the change. A Forgotten Cereal of Ancient America: W. E. SAFFORD. Among the tributes paid to Montezuma by the various pueblos of Mexico were maize, beans, cacao, capsicum peppers, maguey syrup and bees’ honey, salt, salvia seeds called chian, and huautl or guautli. Concerning the last-named, Albert Gallatin wrote as follows: ‘‘I ean not discover what is meant by guautli. It is interpreted as being semilla de bledo; but I am not aware of any other native grain than maize having been, be- fore the introduction of European cereals, an article of food of such general use, as the quantity mentioned (an annual tribute of 18 granaries full, each granary containing about 9,000 bushels) seems to indicate.’’ This seed was described in 1629 by Hernando Ruiz de Alarcon as ‘‘smaller than mustard seed’’ and ripening when the temprano maize begins to tassel. The Mexicans made of it certain dump- lings (bollos), ‘‘which in their language they called tzoalli, and these they eat cooked like their tortillas.’? It was of these seeds, ground and made into paste, or dough, and mixed with agave syrup, that they made certain idols in human shape which they placed upon altars and to which they made offerings of pulque, incense and lighted candles or splints of pitch-pine (ocotillos). The following day the idols were divided into small pieces and administered to the worshippers like communion. Padre Acosta (1590) speaks at JUNE 16, 1916] length of the use of this seed in the worship of the god Uitzilipuztli. In his honor an idol was made by young virgins, who ‘‘molian quantidad de semilla de bledos juntamente com mays tostado, y despues de molido amassabanlo con miel.’’ It was undoubtedly this grain which Alvar Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca found on the west coast, where it took the place of maize as a food-staple. He re- fers to the plant as bledos, and states that the natives ate nothing else than flour made of it. The identity of the plant called huauth, uauhtli, or guautli, has long been a mystery. In the eco- nomic collections of the United States Department of Agriculture are certain seeds collected by the late Dr. Edward Palmer at Imala, Sinaloa, bear- ing the vernacular name ‘‘guaute,’’ which are used for food when maize is scarce. They are ground into paste, mixed with brown sugar, and made into balls called swales, which are wrapped in corn-husks and sold in the markets of Jalisco in strings called rosarios de suale. The seeds have been identified as those of Amaranthus cruentus L., a species closely allied to A. caudata L. At ‘Colima Dr. Palmer saw a handsome variety with red spikes occurring both in cultivation and spon- taneously, and in the vicinity of Guadalajara, both red and yellow varieties cultivated either alone or among maize. This species has a white-seeded form which was described by Sereno Watson as A. lewcocarpus. It is interesting to note that very elosely allied, if not identical, species, also having white-seeded forms, are cultivated as cereals in Tibet, the mountains of India, and in Peru and Bolivia. Food Plants and Textiles of Ancient America: W. E. SAFrorD. This paper is based on collections and observa- tions by the author in Chile, Peru, Bolivia and Mexico, supplemented by the study of additional material from those countries and from various parts of the United States derived from ancient graves, cliff-dwellings, caves and prehistoric burial grounds. From prehistoric mounds and ancient village sites in the United States the only vegetable products preserved are those which have been charred by fire. From dry eaves and eliff-dwell- ings of southwestern United States, food-products have been found in good condition, while from an- eient graves of the arid coast region of Peru and northern Chile the organic material is in a re- markably perfect state of preservation. Not only such staples as maize, gourds, beans and peanuts, SCIENCE 863 but leaves of Hrythroxylon coca, soft pulpy fruits, including the lucuma, the chirimoya and various starchy tubers have been collected. In addition to the fruits, seeds, grains, tubers, roots and leaves, many of which have already been recorded by Wittmack and others, beautiful repre- sentations in terra-cotta of these and other veg- etable products have also been unearthed, prin- cipally in the vicinity of Trujillo and Chimbote, Peru. Casts of maize, squashes, peanuts, etc., occur on burial vases. Often the original model has been reproduced so accurately that the vari- eties are clearly discernible. The paper deals with actual specimens concern- ing which there can be no doubt, dug up from prehistoric graves and discovered on the sites of ancient habitations. Among the most interesting objects to be shown are specimens of the ‘‘al- mond of Chachapoyas’? (Caryocar amygdali- forme); the balsam of Peru, found in a calabash in a grave at Ancon; a ceremonial planting-stick with an ear of maize attached, represented in terra-cotta; a remarkable carving in stone from the vicinity of Oaxaca, Mexico, representing ears of maize; and specimens of maize from prehis- torie graves of Chile, Argentina and Peru; from various parts of the southern United States, in- cluding mounds of the Mississippi valley, and from ancient village sites farther north. In con- nection with textiles, cotton cultivated by the an- cient Peruvians and by the Indians of our own southwest will be shown; and, among other fibers those of various eurceas, agaves and yuceas, of tropical America and southwestern United States. The Puma Motive in Ancient Peruvian Art: CHARLES W. MEAD. In the present state of our knowledge it is im- possible to treat of the decorative art of the pre- historic Peruvians otherwise than as a whole, and no attempt has been made at a chronological se- quence. The decorative motives most commonly employed are from the human figure, birds, fish and the puma, and these, together with such de- signs as undoubtedly owe their origin to the tex- tile art, form a large part of the decorations found in Peruvian cloth and on the pottery ves- sels. The object of this paper is to show to what an extent the puma figures in Peruvian art, and to attempt the identification of some of the highly conventionalized designs. The Rise of the Inca Empire: Pump A. MzANs. Explanatory introduction summarizing reasons 864 for accepting Garcilasso’s rather than Sarmiento’s version of the rise of the empire. A short survey of conditions in the Andean area prior to the rise of the Incas. The reigns of the earlier Incas, those before Inca Rocea, briefly considered, the accessions of territory gained by each one (except the first two) shown by maps. The reigns of the Incas from Rocca to Huira-ceocha, inclusive, considered with special reference to the Chanca rebellion. Doctor Adami gives the following as the char- acteristics of the atypical (malignant) tumors: (1) Vegetative (embryonic) char- acter of the tumor cells; (2) rapidity of growth; (3) peripheral extension, lack of capsule and infiltration of the surrounding tissues; (4) tendency to develop metastases ; (5) tendency to central degenerative changes; (6) liability to recurrence after removal; (7) cachexia; (8) anemia. All of these occur in crown gall except 4 and 8. There is nothing in the plant correspond- ing to blood, and the rigid cell-wall of the plant prevents metastasis in the true sense of that word. But if we use metastasis in Ribbert’s loose way, then metastasis also occurs in crown gall. One of the striking things about cancer and one separating it off sharply from all other animal diseases, is the fact that the secondary tumors are not granulomatous proliferations. That is, the secondary tumors are not a growth-response of local tissues to an irritation, and hence are not comparable to the protective granulations formed in the healing of a wound or in such a disease as tuberculosis, but they are due to the migration from the initial tumor either of infected cells or of deteriorated 4 Zeitschrift fiir Krebsforschung, 12te Bd., 1913, p. 146. 5 Vol. I., p. 671. SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1121 cells which continually reproduce their own kind to the detriment of all others. The cancer cell is a lawless entity, different in its tendencies and capabilities from any other cell of the body, and so far as we know, it always reproduces its kind, the daughter cells being cancer cells and not normal cells. Why this is so is wholly un- known in human and animal pathology, but that it is so admits of no doubt what- ever. To illustrate: If medical men were able to reach into the center of tubercle nodules or syphilitic nodules in the human body, and kill the nest of pathogenic bac- teria in the one case and of pathogenic protozoa in the other case, without injuring the unparasitized barrier cells forming the periphery of these nodules, then these cells would be immediately destroyed and re- moved from the body as no longer of use, or else would behave once more as normal body cells (scar tissue). In cancer, on the contrary, as every surgeon knows, if any cancer cells are left after an operation— even the least number—they are likely to reproduce their evil kind, in which case an- other tumor results either in the old local- ity or in some other part of the body. In other words, the outermost cancer cells are not barricades erected by the body to pre- vent further encroachments of the enemy, but are self-multiplying outposts of the enemy himself. However, this does not militate against the belief that some of the elements in a malignant tumor are harm- less ones. Very few laymen, I believe, have any clear conception of the exact mechanism of the cancerous process, and not a few physi- cians also seem to be ignorant of it. Can- cers are the result of the multiplication in the body of certain body cells which have become abnormal and dangerous to the rest of the body, or as we say ‘‘cancerous,’’ a single cell or a few cells to begin with, then JUNE 23, 1916] many. Whether infected or only degen- erate, these cells retain their hereditary tendencies, that is, liver cells to reproduce liver; brain cells, brain; connective tissue cells, connective tissue; and so on; but all of them while deriving nourishment from the body have become more or less emanci- pated from body control and exercise their freedom by an unlimited and hasty multi- plication very destructive to the other tissues of the body. They reproduce their kind first in the primary tumor and later in secondary tumors. I can make this plainer perhaps by another illustration. Following tuberculosis of the lungs there sometimes occurs blood-infection and a gen- eralized tuberculosis of every organ in the body, but in such cases the nodules wher- ever they arise are due to local bacterial irritation, and are always built up out of local tissues, liver tissue in the liver, spleen tissue in the spleen, and so on. In cancer, on the contrary, it is the cancer cell which migrates with all its hereditary tendencies and the secondary tumor, therefore, repro- duces more or less perfectly (or imper- fectly) the hereditary cell complex of the primary tumor, so that the trained pathol- ogist after studying sections of a cancer can usually (but not always) decide whether it is primary in the organ under examination, or secondary, and if second- ary, then in what other organ the primary tumor is to be sought. For example, if a primary cancer occurs in the liver and there are metastases to the lungs the lung tumors will contain lwer cells; so if a pri- mary cancer occurs in the stomach and there is metastasis to the liver, the liver tumor will not be formed out of liver cells but out of stomach cells. It is a very stri- king thing to see under the microscope, particularly in a well-stained section, a nest of malignant glandular stomach cells in the midst of a piece of liver. I do not know SCIENCE 881 that it has been actually proved but un- doubtedly such a liver tumor must have the power of secreting pepsin or at least of mucin, just as we know that metastases from a primary liver tumor into other organs may retain the power of secreting bile. I have now come to another way in which these plant tumors resemble cancer in man and the lower animals, viz., in the striking fact that as in animals the secondary tumors reproduce the structure of the pri- mary tumor. Thus, when a primary tumor is induced on a daisy stem by inoculation, deep-seated secondary tumors, developed from parenchymatie tumor-strands, often arise in the leaves and these tumors convert the unilateral leaf or some portion of it into the concentric closed structure of a stem. (Slides shown.) Having now reviewed my older discov- eries,° I come to details of more recent ones also bearing directly, I believe, on the etiology of cancer. I have referred to the rapid growth and — early decay of cancers in men and to the common occurrence of atrophy and cachexia in connection with such tumors. Similar phenomena occur in the plant. I show you three slides from photographs of galled sugar beets. They were grown in different years (1907, 1913 and 1916) but each showed the same thing, viz., sound control plants and dwarfed, sickly (yellow) and dying inoculated plants. Each inoculated plant bore a tumor larger than itself and the time from inoculation to date of the photograph varied from 214 to 44% months. This year I have obtained the same results on ornamental (white flowered) tobacco. At the end of five months all of these inocu- lated tobaccoes are dead or dying from large tumors of the crown, whereas the con- trol plants are healthy, many times larger 6 See this journal, N. S., Vol. XXXV., p. 161. 882 and now in blossom. To get such prompt, disastrous results, the inoculation must be fairly early in the life of the plant and near the growing point. Secondary infections due to other organ- isms are also as common and as disastrous in crown gall as in cancer in man. Just now in the hothouses we have striking examples of it on the Paris daisy and I will show you a few slides. (Slides.) These second- ary infections may be either fungous or bacterial. Third, let me show you some examples of infiltration, taken from sunflower heads in- oculated last year. The first three slides show hard greenish gray vascular tumors which have developed from a few needle pricks made into the extremely vascular thin layer which bears the seeds. The one shown in vertical section is from the middle of the flower disk and it has grown down- ward in the white pith for a distance of 4 inches. It lies in the pith but has not de- veloped out of pith. The fourth slide from another tumor shows cancerous cells and vessels of the supporting stroma pushing out into the sound tissues much as roots do into a fertile soil. The fifth slide is from the cortical part of a teratoma on Pelar- gomum. Here the small-celled blastomous tissue has crowded in between coarse cells of the cortex. Next to be considered are examples of atypical blastomous tissue taken from dif- ferent parts of the same tumor (a young deep inoculation into the stem of a Paris daisy). In the first slide, at the left, is a part of the supporting stroma (cortex cells) ; the right side shows round cells of the same type that have become cancerous, 2. €.. much smaller, more embryonic, rapidly proliferating, large-nucleate and deep- staining cells which have lost their polarity. The second slide shows spindle-shaped blas- tomous cells from the outer part of the SCIENCE. [N. S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1121 same tumor. This tumor is the ordinary rough gall of the daisy stem, which is a sar- coma as near as the plant can make one, that is, a sarcoma minus the intercellular fibrils which are wanting in plants. Now let us consider how plastic the liv- ing tissues can be when they are brought under a cancer stimulus. I show you photo- micrographs of tumors (atypical hyper- plasias) produced by inoculating the crown- gall organism into the extreme outer bark (living cortex) of young stems of Paris daisy, the inoculated cells being ordinary cortex cells. These tumor cells which con- ceal the bacteria (there are none in the in- tercellular spaces) have become more em- bryonic than the tissue out of which they have grown. This is shown by their size (0 that of the cells from which they have developed), their large nuclei and their avidity for stains, as well as by the pecul- lar way in which they fix the stains. It is also shown by the fact that they can pro- duce vessels in their midst (trachei) whereas the uninjured cortex never pro- duces vessels. The embryonic tissues of the plant, however, have this vessel-producine power. In a word, these tumor cells have become more embryonic than the tissue out of which they have developed and have lost their polarity, and this is exactly what occurs in cancer in man, as I shall show you. I have produced these superficial fine- celled hyperplasias out of coarse-celled cor- tex, not once, but a number of times, and in several different kinds of plants. Thus far I have spoken only of one type of tumor, the common crown gall. Until this winter (if we except hairy root) I did not know of the existence of other types. Now I believe from what I have seen that all the leading types of cancer, viz., (1) sarcoma, (2) carcinoma, (3) mixed tumors and (4) embryomas, occur in plants and that all are due to one and the same organ- JUNE 23, 1916] ism. I certainly have abundant material of the end terms (Numbers 1 and 4), and enough of 2 and 3 to convince myself, if not others. The ‘‘further evidence’’ alluded to in the title of this paper relates more especially to the embryomas and consists of the dis- covery of an entirely new type of plant tumor due to the crown-gall organism, in which tumor there are not only ordinary cancerous cells of the common crown-gall type but also entire young shoots or jumbled and fused fragments of leafy shoots and of other young organs, thus ma- king the tumor correspond to the highest type of animal cancer, in which in addition to the blastomous element there are frag- ments of various fetal tissues, sometimes representing many organs of the body. This is, I believe, the first time this type of tumor has been produced experimentally, and it has been done with the bacterial organism cultured from an ordinary rough crown gall of the simpler, well-known type. It was first done by inoculating the leaf axils of growing plants, 7. e., the vicinity of dormant buds, in other words, centers containing totipotent cells. Some of these strange tumors have produced daughter tumors in other parts of the stem and in leaves and, as in the embryonal teratomata in man, a portion of these secondary tumors have the full structure of the primary tumor. I have also produced these teratoid tu- mors in parts of plants where no totipotent cells are known to exist, but only young plastic cells normal to the parts and hitherto supposed to be able to produce only one kind of organ. This will be plainer if I say that by needle pricks introducing the bacteria locally I can now produce atypical teratoid tumors in internodes and in the middle of leaves, an astonishing discovery, and one bound, I believe, to revolutionize our views SCIENCE 883 as to the origin of these tumors in man. I do not here deny that totipotent cells, hitherto unsuspected, occur in the places I have inoculated, indeed they must so occur, but I only cast doubt on their abnormal occurrence in such places, 7. e., as the result of early embryonic dislocations. The belief that I have also produced ‘‘mixed tumors,’’ that is, tumors containing distinet types of tumor cells originating from different layers of the plant, rests on stained sections of tumors from several different kinds of plants. The evidence here is not as complete as in the case of the embryonal teratoma, and I am still experi- menting. What I think I have in one part of the tumor is sarcoma originating from the deeper connective tissue layers and in another part of the tumor carcinoma de- rived from the skin and glands of the plant. However this may be, it is now beyond question that two very distinct types of plant tumor (sarcoma and embryonal tera- toma) corresponding to similar types in man, as nearly as plant tissues are able, can now be produced by bacterial inocula- tions, using the same orgamsm. To get one type of tumor I inoculate one set of tissues, and to get the other type, another set of tissues. Coming to the details of my newer studies, I shall first take up the question of the possible existence of carcinoma in plants, the slides I shall show you being from photomicrographs of what I con- sider to be ‘“mixed tumors.’’ All are due to pure-culture inoculations, but they show a diverse internal structure suggestive of a mixture of epithelioma (skin cancer) and sarcoma (connective tissue cancer). There is still, perhaps, some doubt as to the inter- pretation of these facts, so that I speak only with reserve. The first slide I show you is from a tera- toma on the common Pelargonium or house 884 geranium, but in this connection I invite your attention only to a small portion of its surface (teratoid part) where strange phenomena are in progress, quite like what often occurs in the epithelium of human teratoids. Hereisa compact, small, surface tumor showing subepidermal erosion, an ef- fort on the part of the plant to protect itself. Its deeper tissues fuse into those of the epi- dermis in such a way as to suggest that they have originated from the latter, 7. e., there are no epidermal and subepidermal differences, although these differences are conspicuous in the normal plant and also in other parts of the teratoma. In this late stage of development it is impossible to tell what may have been the origin of these queer tumors, but what appear to be much earlier stages of the tumor are visible in several places, especially on their margins. and these places exhibit, or seem to exhibit, all stages of transition between the normal one-layered faint-staining columnar epi- dermis (equivalent to an epithelium), and a several-layered, large nucleate, loosely ar- ranged, deep-staining tissue, the cells of which are rounded or angular and have lost their polarity, that is, their orderly relation to their fellows. Now this is ex- actly what takes place in early stages of carcinoma. For instance, below the one- layered epithelium in glandular tissues of the breast, of the stomach, etc., irregularly placed, large, deep-staining, rapidly pro- liferating cells make their appearance as shown on the next slide, which is from a cancer of the lung. This kind of prolifera- tion is recognized as the beginning of a malignant tumor, and surgeons baSe their operations on its presence or absence. If, in the breast, let us say, this displacement of cells is present, then the surgeon does a major operation, but if it is not present, then he is content with having removed only the local nodule. These surface tu- SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1121 mors on the geranium were accidental dis- coveries, but I have now begun a systematic inoculation of the skins of plants to see what I can get. I have what I believe to be the same phe- nomenon (a mixed tumor) on tobacco. This tumor I produced out of young cortex in 1907, but it has been properly stained — and eritically studied only recently. Its outer part consists of blastomous cells quite different in shape and staining capacity from the cells of its inner part. The outer cells are more or less compact and angular and the protoplasmic contents stains uni- formly. The inner cells are round, more loosely arranged and stain like the ordi- nary sarcoma cells of this tumor. In con- nection with the last slide I would also eall special attention to the evidence it shows of the appositional transformation of nor- mal cells into cancer cells (atypical blas- tomous cells). JI refer to the band of tissue lying between the normal cortex on the right (out of which the tumor has devel- oped), and the fine-celled hyperplasia on the left. These 10 or 12 rows of cells, bordering the tumor, have the same ar- rangement as the tumor cells and stain deeply like those of the tumor, but are sev- eral times as large. Occasionally an un- changed cortex cell is buried in their midst. They are, I believe, a transition from the normal tissue into cancerous tissue." The same phenomenon has been seen in human cancers by several good observers and there can be no doubt as to its occurrence. Finally, from shallow bacterial inocula- tions done on the glands of Ricinus last winter I have also obtained what appears to me to be satisfactory evidence of gland- ular proliferations, 7. e., rapid multiplica- tion of the surface layer of cells with loss of form and polarity and entrance into the 7See The Journal. of Cancer Research, April, 1916, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 78. JUNE 23, 1916] subepidermal region as an invasive hyper- plasia. The punctures were deep enough, however, to have infected the subglandular connective tissue which is also proliferating. The sections were cut at the end of 27 days and show transitions from a columnar (glandular) epidermis into an irregular, angular-celled, large nucleate, deep-stain- ing mass of rapidly multiplying atypical cells corresponding to an epithelioma (slides). The shape of these cells is exactly that of proliferating epidermal cells from my %4o0 mm. deep 72-hour inoculations on tobacco stems. I have not yet obtained metastases from such surface growths, but I am only now beginning my studies of skin and gland proliferation and there is much to learn. We now come to embryomas. Before describing the atypical teratoid tumors I wish to make some general remarks. Con- ceiving human and animal cancer to be due to a parasite, I have been greatly interested for the past ten years to see to what extent the phenomena of such cancers, the cause of which is unknown, can be paralleled by crown gall phenomena the cause of which is an intracellular schizomycete. By dis- covery of a tumor-strand and of stem struc- ture in leaf tumors (in 1911) my interest received a tremendous accession from which it had not yet recovered when the newer discoveries of this winter converted it into a white heat! I am now persuaded that the solution of the whole cancer problem lies in a study of these plant tumors. At least they must now be studied until the matter is definitely settled, pro or con. If cancer is due to a microorganism, bac- terial or other, we are not obliged theoret- ically to conceive of all such new growths as due to one and the same parasite, nor, indeed, on first thought, is such the more probable hypothesis. The first thought is that probably there must be as many para- SCIENCE 885 sites as there are kinds of tumors, yet cer- tainly, on further reflection, the mere cell differences between a sarcoma, let us say, and a carcinoma do not necessarily involve the conception of two parasites. The two tumors can be explained theoretically just as well by the postulate of one parasite, and in the light of our researches on crown gall much better by one. If the tissue re- sponse depends on the kind of cell or cells first infected, as apparently it must, on the assumption of a parasitic origin, then, of course if connective tissue cells only are involved, we shall have sarcoma; if gland cells only are invaded we shall have carci- noma; or if both, then a tumor containing both types of cancer. Whichever cell was first invaded (the bacteria being impris- oned) would be likely to continue its pro- liferation as a tumor of a pure type, but other elements might eventually become in- fected by a surgical operation, or other- wise, €. g., a sarcoma might follow a carci- noma as in some mouse tumors, and also in man, the connective tissue stroma becoming infected. I now think the human embryonal tera- tomata are cancerous not only potentially, but actually from the beginning. Many of them have been recognized to be so on removal, and in the remainder the stimu- lating blastomous portion may have re- mained undiscovered owing to its rela- tively small size, as was the case in hairy root of the apple (and every particle of such a tumor would have to be sectioned and studied before one could deny it), or it may have receded during the rapid de- velopment of the non-blastomous purely teratoid portions. All of them, whether it be assumed that they have developed from ““cell-rests’’ or parthenogenetically, are, I believe, due to the stimulus of a micro- organism, but not necessarily of a schizo- mycete, since other orders of parasites may, 886 conceivably, give rise to the same chemical and physical stimulus. Wilms in his book on ‘‘Die Mischge- schwilste’’ (Heft 3, Leipzig, 1902, p. 242), if I understand him correctly, considers the blastomous portions of embryoid tu- mors to be of a secondary nature, as do other writers, but in this assumption they are probably wrong. To the statements of these authors claim- ing the cancerous element to be secondary, may be replied: The same could be said of the shoot-producing tumors on Pelargonium and on tobacco did we not know experi- mentally that it is actually the infected tu- mor tissue which is the earlier and which has stimulated the normal tissues to de- velop. Moreover, which tissue is the earlier is a matter that can not be determined by mere observation of sections (Betrachtung des Wachstums—Wilms), but one to be worked out experimentally. To condense results, I may say that dur- ing the past winter I have discovered that when the crown-gall organism (Bacterium tumefaciens) is introduced into the vicinity of dormant buds on growing plants atypical teratoid tumors are produced quite reg- ularly. J have obtained these in Pelargo- mum, tobacco (2 species), tomato, Crtrus, Ricinus, ete. Apparently what happens is this: The bud anlage are torn into frag- ments by the rapidly growing tumor and these fragments are variously distributed and oriented in the tumor where under. the stimulus of the parasite they grow into abortive organs variously fused and oriented, some on the surface of the tumor, others in its depths. Surface fasciation occurs. Also in the depths of the tumors fragments of organs occur, lined by mem- branes bearing trichomes (hairs) and lying upside down and variously oriented and combined. The flower shoots and leaf shoots on the surface of such tumors vary SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1121 greatly in number and in size, often they are the merest abortions and in that case there may be a hundred or more of them (leafy shoots or flower shoots) on a single tumor, especially on the Pelargonium. Hven the largest and best developed sur- face shoots if they arise out of the tumor tissue and not from its vicinity are feebly vascularized and become yellow and dry up within a few months and often before the tumor itself decays. Such shoots never come to maturity. Immature fragments of ovaries and of anthers also occur on the surface and in the depths of such tumors. These teratomas when produced in leaf axils on the castor oil plant reach a large size and perish quickly, 7. e., often within 2 months. Frequently in this plant the neighboring glands on the base of the leaf stalk are also invaded (within 2 or 3 weeks) and greatly enlarged. This is one of the striking results on Ricinus to which I would” eall special attention, since it is very sug- gestive of what often occurs in cancer in man, that is, of the malignant enlargement of lymph glands in the vicinity of a cancer. Following inoculations on the middle part of the leaf-blade of Ricinus I have also traced a parenchymatic tumor-strand down the petiole a distance of 1lem. This was nearly circular in cross-section, large enough to be visible to the naked eye and composed of parenchyma cells. Corresponding to this were swellings on the surface of the petiole and bulging into the petiole cavity, but no ruptured tumors. No teratoids were formed on the Ricinus leaves. Daughter tumors are produced freely on tobacco if the inoculations are made early enough, and these often reproduce all the teratoid elements of the primary tumor, é. g., daughter tumors 10 inches away from the primary tumor may bear leafy shoots. These secondary tumors, which have been seen both in stems and in leaves, are con- June 23, 1916] nected with the primary tumor by a tumor- strand which is lodged in the outer cortex and is vascular, 7. e., has the structure of a diminutive stem (stele). What is still more astonishing, I find that I can produce these teratomas in the leaves of tobacco plants, where no dormant buds are known to exist. To get these re- sults the leaves must be fairly young, 7. e., plastic. They will then produce tumors where they are inoculated (needle-pricked) and many of these tumors will be covered with leafy shoots (tobacco plants in minia- ture). I have obtained seven such tera- tomas from the blade of a single leaf, and twenty-seven from the leaves of a single plant—too many to be due to Cohnheim’s “‘cell-rests.’? They must have originated, I think, from groups of plastic (totipotent) cells normal to the inoculated parts of the leaves and probably also present in many uninoculated parts of such leaves, if not in all parts. How, then, can these phenomena be ex- plained? The teratoids I have obtained being essentially like the embryonal tera- tomas in animals, I believe that in both plants and animals they must have the same origin, 7. ¢., must arise from an iden- tical chemical and physical stimulus. So far I have been able to explain the em- bryonal teratomas only on the assumption that in all animals and in all plants (except the simplest) certain widely distributed normally arranged cells or groups of cells, possibly all cells when very young and plastic carry the potentiality of the whole organism, which potentiality is not ordi- narily developed on account of division of labor, but which comes into action when hindrances are removed, 2. é., when the physiological control is disturbed or de- stroyed. We know that life must have 8 See Journal of Agric. Research, April 24, 1916, Plate XXIII. SCIENCE 887 begun so in unicellular plants and animals and there is no good reason why it should not have continued so in multicellular ones. Only we have not been accustomed to think of it in this way, yet there are many facts respecting regeneration of lost parts in both plants and animals which coincide per- fectly with this view. Coinciding with this view as to the origin of embryomas in vari- ous organs, 7. e., from groups of normal but very young undifferentiated or but slightly differentiated cells or groups of cells multi- plying under a cancer stimulus, is the fact that I have been able to produce the tera- tomas in tobacco leaves only by inoculating very young leaves. When older leaves are inoculated they either do not respond or yield only the ordinary crown galls. I may be permitted a few general re- marks in conclusion, premising that this is the way the cancer problem looks to an ex- perimental biologist. With some praiseworthy exceptions, the cancer specialists of to-day, following the lead of the Germans, and their English imitators, are lost in a swamp of morphol- ogy, and it is time that an entirely new set of ideas should be promulgated to rescue them from their self-confessed hopelessness. When a pathologist can say: ‘‘Concern- ing the ultimate nature of neoplastic over- growth we shall never have more than a descriptive knowledge,’’ he has reached the end of the road in his direction and the limit of pessimism! I do not care a rap whether I am called orthodox or heterodox, but I do care tremendously to keep an open mind and a hopeful spirit. One trouble with too many cancer specialists is that they are not biologists, whereas the cancer problem is peculiarly and preeminently a biological problem. These cancer morphol- ogists have patiently cut and stained and studied hundreds of thousands of sections of tumors, fining and refining their defini- 888 tions and distinctions and building up high walls of separation where nature has made none, all because they do not understand the plasticity of living, growing things. I do not mean to condemn the study of sec- tions, but only to suggest that there are also other ways of looking at this problem, which is one of growing things. There is too much reasoning in a circle on the part of many of these writers, too much argu- ment basing one assumption on another as- sumption as if the latter were a well-estab- lished and solid fact, too little clear think- ing of a biological sort, too little first-hand knowledge of living plants and animals, too much dogmatism, too much orthodoxy, and not enough experimentation. Hence the pessimism and the discouragement. Cancer research was born in Germany and has been prosecuted there more dili- gently than anywhere else in the world, and they have done wonders in the study of its morphology, but etiologically the best the Germans have been able to do has been to cover the whole situation with a cloud of obscurity. With a few uninfluential excep- tions they have denied the parasitic nature of the disease and discouraged search for an organism, and in this pessimistic atti- tude they have been ably seconded by their English followers. These strong men, chiefly morphologists, have dominated the situation for a generation, but they have not explained cancer and they can not ex- plain it, and they must now give way. In- deed, from Cohnheim to Ribbert there is not one of their arguments in opposition to the parasitic nature of cancer which is not as full of holes as a skimmer! Listen to Ribbert in his last great book:® Denn wenn auch durch Mikroorganismen knotige, tumoriihnliche Wucherungen hervorgerufen werden kénnen, so handelte es sich doch stets nur um die 9‘‘Das Karzinom des Menschen sein Bau, sein Wachstum, seine Entstehung,’’ Fr. Cohen, Bonn, 1911. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1121 Bildung eines entziindlichen Granulationsgewebes, das héchstens mit Tumoren der Bindegewebs- gruppe eine gewisse Ahnlichkeit haben konnte (p. 378). In other words, the most that parasites can do is to produce a granulomatous tumor superficially like a sarcoma. Again he says: Aber wenn das fremde Lebewesen die Zellen bewohnt, miissen diese notwendig geschiidigt werden. Das folgt aus dem Begriff der Parasiten, der selbstverstindlich der Zelle nur Nachteil bringen kann. Damit ist aber die den Tumor characterisierende Steigerung der Wachstums- fihigkeit der Zelle nicht vereinbar (p. 384). In other words, when a parasite occupies a cell that cell must necessarily be injured. It follows out the very concept of a para- site that it can only bring injury to a cell, and the characteristic increase of cell growth in tumors is incompatible with this idea. Here as usual he just misses the point. Ribbert ends his great book, of which ‘‘seine Entstehung’’ is its weakest part, although the illustrations are also to be criticized because they are all vague wash drawings when they should have been exact photomicrographs, as follows: Das Karzinom entsteht auf Grund einer durch Epithelprodukte bewirkten die Differenzierung des Epithels vermindernden und sein Tiefenwachstum auslésunden subepithelialen Entziindung. In other words, if I understand him, can- cer is due to a subepithelial inflammation induced by substances arising in the epithelium, which substances cause it (or which inflammation causes it) to be less well differentiated and to grow downward. This. etiologically, is about as clear as mud! Wilms, also, at the end of his book,1® sarcastically inquires: Welches Bakterium soll wohl eine Keimblatt- zelle, Mesoderm- oder Mesenchymzelle producieren kénnen, die dann embryonale Gewebe und Or- gananlagen bildet? 10 ‘*Die Mischgeschwiilste,’’ p. 275. JUNE 23, 1916] To which may be replied Bacterium tumefaciens, and probably others! This is his additional and closing sen- tence designed to be a finality of invincible logic: Wer diese genannten angeborenen Sarkoma- formen als durch Bakterien erzeugt betrachtet, tibernimmt damit die Verpflichtung, auch fiir die Bildung seiner eigenen normalen Gewebe und Organe eine bakterielle Infektion nachzuweisen. To which may be answered: Very well, and why not? Since a bacterial organism does just that in the plant! I believe these old ideas and assumptions must be sifted, turned and overturned, and many of them wholly rejected if we are to find the truth. Cancer, according to my notion, is a problem for the experimental biologist and the bacteriologist. The morphologist has gone as far as he can go and the energy of cancer research from now on must, I be- lieve, be turned into new channels, if we are to expect results commensurate with the needs of humanity. Erwin F. Suite LABORATORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ESTABLISHMENT OF A SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND PUBLIC HEALTH BY THE ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION In recognition of the urgent need in this country of improved opportunities for train- ing in preventive medicine and public-health work and after careful study of the situation the Rockefeller Foundation has decided to establish a school of hygiene and public health in Baltimore in connection with the Johns Hopkins University, where it is be- lieved that the close association with the Johns Hopkins Medical School and Hospital and with the school of engineering of the uni- versity furnish especially favorable conditions for the location of such a school. Dr. William H. Welch, now professor of pathology, and Dr. SCIENCE 889 William H. Howell, professor of physiology in the university, will undertake the organiza- tion of the new school in its inception. The trustees of Johns Hopkins University have ap- pointed Dr. Welch as director of the school, and Dr. Howell as head of the physiological department. Funds will be provided by the foundation for the purchase of a site and the erection of a suitable building, in proximity to the hos- pital and the medical laboratories, to serve as the institute of hygiene, which will be the cen- tral feature of the school. Here will be housed various laboratories and departments needed in such a school, such as those of sanitary chemistry, of physiology as applied to hygiene, of bacteriology and protozoology, of epidemi- ology and industrial hygiene, of vital statis- tics, a museum, library, ete. Additional facil- ities for instruction and research will be sup- plied by the medical and engineering schools, the hospital and other departments of the university. Funds will be provided by the foundation for the maintenance of the school in accordance with plans which have been submitted. It is expected that the school will be opened in October, 1917, as it is estimated that a year will be required for the construction and equipment of the institute and the gathering together of the staff of teachers. As it is recognized that the profession of the sanitarian and worker in preventive medicine, however closely connected, is not identical with that of the practitioner of medicine and requires a specialized training, the school of hygiene and public health, while working in cooperation with the medical school, will have an independent existence under the univer- sity, coordinate with the medical school. The school is designed to furnish educa- tional and scientific opportunities of a high order for the cultivation of the various sci- ences which find application in hygiene, sani- tation and preventive medicine, and for the training of medical students, physicians, engi- neers, chemists, biologists and others properly prepared, who wish to be grounded in the principles of these subjects, and above all for 890 the training of those who desire to fit them- selves for careers in public-health work in its various branches. The most urgent need at the present time is provision for the training of prospective health officials and for supple- mentary and advanced courses for those al- ready engaged in public health service. Satis- factory completion of work in the school will be suitably recognized by the bestowal of cer- tificates and degrees. It is anticipated that mutually helpful rela- tions will be established with municipal and state departments of health and the federal public health service, whereby opportunities will be afforded for field work and other prac- tical experience in various departments of public health work. Especially advantageous will be the relations with the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation, which is engaged in the study and control, not only of hookworm, but also of malaria, yellow- fever and other tropical diseases in various parts of the world. The influence and usefulness of the school of hygiene and public health will be extended toward education of the public by exhibits, lectures and other means in a better apprecia- tion and understanding of the importance and needs of public and personal hygiene, in co- operative efforts for the training of public health nurses, and in other directions. The benefits to be expected from the estab- lishment of such a school as that contemplated will not be measured solely by the number of students trained within its walls. A far- reaching influence should be exerted upon the advancement of the science and the improve- ment of the practise of public health, in estab- lishing higher standards and better methods of professional education in this field, in stimu- lating the foundation of similar institutions in other parts of the country, in supplying teachers, and in cooperating with boards of health and other medical schools. ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE STATE COLLEGES In the Senate of the United States on March 9, 1916, Mr. Newlands introduced the follow- SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLII. No. 1121 ing bill, which was read twice and referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. A Bill to establish experiment stations in engineer- ing and in the other branches of the mechanic arts in connection with the colleges established in the several states and territories under the provisions of an Act approved July second, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and of the Acts supplementary thereto. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That jn order to aid in acquir- ing and diffusing among the people of the United States useful and practical information on sub- jects connected with engineering and the other branches of the mechanic arts, and to promote the scientific investigation and experiment respecting the principles and applications of the mechanic arts, there shall be established under the direction of the land-grant college in each state or territory established, or which may hereafter be established, in accordance with the provisions of an Act ap- proved July second, eighteen hundred and sixty- two, entitled ‘‘An Act donating publie lands to the several states and territories which may pro- vide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanie arts,’’ or any of the Acts supplementary to said Act, a department to be known and desig- nated as an ‘‘engineering’’ or a ‘‘mechanic arts experiment station.’’ Sec. 2. That it shall be the object and duty of said experiment stations to conduct original re- searches, to verify experiments, and to compile data in engineering and in the other branches of the me- chanic arts as applied to the interests of the people of the United States, and particularly of such as are engaged in the industries; also to conduct re- searches, investigations and experiments in connec- tion with the production, transportation, extrac- tion and manufacture of substances utilized in the application of engineering and of other branches of the mechanie arts to industrial pursuits; water supplies as to potability and economic distribution; sewage purification and its ultimate inoffensive dis- posal; economic disposal of urban and manufac- turing wastes; flood protection; architecture; road building; engineering problems connected with transportation, manufacturing and public utilities, and such other researches or experiments bearing directly on the various industries and occupations of the people of the United States as may in each ease be deemed advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions, resources and needs of the people of the respective states and territories. JUNE 23, 1916] Src. 3. That bulletins giving results of investi- gations or reports of progress shall be published at said stations at least once in six months, copies of which shall be sent to persons, newspapers, insti- tutions and libraries interested in engineering and in other branches of the mechanic arts as may request same in the states and territories in which the stations are respectively located, and to others as far as the means of the stations will permit. Such bulletins or reports, and the annual reports of said stations, shall be transmitted in the mails of the United States free of charge for postage under such regulations as the Postmaster General may from time to time prescribe. Src. 4. That for the purpose of paying the nec- essary expenses of conducting investigations and experiments, printing and distributing the results as hereinbefore described the sum of $15,000 per an- num is hereby appropriated to each state and terri- tory, to be specially provided for by Congress in the appropriation from year to year, out of any money in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be paid in equal quarterly payments on the first lay of January, April, July and October in each Jar to the treasurer or other officer duly appointed by the governing boards of said colleges to receive the same, the first payment to be made on the first day of October, nineteen hundred and sixteen. Src. 5. That whenever it shall appear to the Secretary of the Treasury from the annual state- ments of receipts and expenditures of any of said stations that a portion of the preceding annual appropriation remains unexpended, such amount shall be deducted from the next succeeding annual appropriation to such station in order that the amount of money appropriated to any station shall not exceed the amount actually and necessarily re- quired for its maintenance and support. Sec. 6. That in order to secure as far as prac- ticable uniformity of methods and economical ex- penditure of funds in work of said stations the supervision of the proposed experiment stations shall rest with the Secretary of the Interior. It shall be the duty of each of said stations an- nually, on or before the first day of February, to make to the governor of the state or territory in which it is located a full and detailed report of its operations, including a statement of receipts and expenditures, a copy of which report shall be sent to each of the other stations provided for in thig Act, to the Secretary of the Interior and to the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States. Sec. 7. That nothing in this Act shall be con- strued to impair or modify the legal relation exist- SCIENCE 891 ing between any of the said colleges and the gov- ernment of the states or territories in which they are respectively located. Sec. 8. That nothing in this Act shall be held or construed as binding the United States to continue any payment from the Treasury to any or all the states or institutions mentioned in this Act, but Congress may at any time amend, suspend, or re- peal any or all the provisions of this Act. This bill, appearing to be an important meas- ure for the advancement of research, the Com- mittee of One Hundred on Scientific Research of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science has adopted the following resolutions: WHEREAS the applications of science have made democracy possible by so decreasing the labor re- quired from each that equal opportunity can be given to all; WHEREAS in a democracy scientific research, which is for the general benefit and can not usually be sold to individuals, must be supported by the public; WHEREAS a combination of national and state support and control is desirable in education and in research and its value has been fully proved by the Land Grant Colleges of Agriculture and the Mechanie Arts, established in the states and terri- tories by the Congress in 1862; WHEREAS there is in connection with each of these colleges an agricultural experiment station to which the national government appropriates an- nually $30,000 for agricultural research, the re- sults of which have been of untold value to agri- culture and to the nation; WHEREAS experiment stations for the mechanic arts and engineering, including in their scope re- search in physics, chemistry and other sciences, would be of equal value to the nation and would repay manyfold their cost, and WHEREAS at the present time attention is di- rected to the need of preparation for every emerg- ency, and this can best be accomplished by the ad- vancement of science and the ability of our peo- ple to meet new conditions as they arise; Resolved that the Committee of One Hundred on Scientific Research of the American Association for the Advancement of Science earnestly recommends the passage of the senate bill introduced by Mr. Newlands to establish experiment stations in engi- neering and in the other branches of the mechanic arts in connection with the colleges established by the Congress in the several states and territories, 892 with an annual appropriation to each of $15,000 for conducting investigations and experiments and printing and distributing the results; and further Resolved that the committee urges each of the ten thousand members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science to use all proper efforts to bring the importance of the measure be- fore members of the Congress and to the attention of the public. J. McKeen Cartett, June 20, 1916 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. WituiAmM J. Mayo, of Rochester, Minne- sota, has been elected president of the Amer- ican Medical Association, in succession to Surgeon General Rupert Blue, U. S. N. Dr. A. B. Macatium, professor of physiol- ogy in the University of Toronto, has been elected president of the Royal Society of Canada. Proressor WinuiAM J. Brat, formerly pro- fessor of botany at the Michigan Agricultural College, has received the degree of doctor of agriculture from Syracuse University. TuREE degrees of doctor of laws were con- ferred at the recent commencement exercises of the University of Missouri at Columbia, as follows: Curtis F. Marbut, graduate and former professor of geology in the University of Missouri, now in charge of the national soil survey organized by the U. S. Department of Agriculture; Henry Jackson Waters, presi- dent of the Kansas State Agricultural Col- lege, a graduate and former dean of the agri- cultural faculty of the University of Missouri; and Roscoe Pound, dean of the Harvard Uni- versity School of Law. Proressor Epwin G. Conxuin, of Princeton University, will give the William Ellery Hale lectures at the autumn meeting of the Na- tional Academy of Sciences. Sm Artuur Evans, F.R.S., will preside over the eighty-sixth annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to be held at Newceastle-upon-Tyne on Septem- ber 9. The following are the presidents of sections: A (mathematical and physical sci- SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1121 ence), Dr. A. N. Whitehead; B (chemistry), Professor G. G. Henderson; C (geology), Professor W. S. Boulton; D (zoology), Pro- fessor E. W. MacBride; E (geography), Mr. D. G. Hogarth; F (economic science and sta- tistics), Professor A. W. Kirkaldy; G (engi- neering), Mr. G. G. Stoney; H (anthropology), Dr. R. R. Marett; I (physiology), Professor A. R. Cushny; K (botany), Dr. A. B. Rendle; L (educational science), Rev. W. Temple; M (agriculture), Dr. E. J. Russell. Sir Davm Prat, director of the Kew Botan- ical Gardens, has been elected president of the Linnean Society. Dr. Emit von Brurine, professor of hygiene at Marburg and director of the Institute of Experimental Therapy, has for reasons of health retired from active service. Dr. L. H. Bamry has assembled the ad- dr,,ses delivered by him as vice-president of Sec.ion M (agriculture) of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, which were published in ScrencE, and two others of similar character, and published them privately under the title “Ground Levels in Democ- racy.” He offers to send the booklet free, as long as the supply lasts, to persons interested, upon application to his home address, Ithaca, N. Y. Proressor Herpert E. Grecory, of Yale University, who has been spending the winter in the Australian deserts, has returned to New Haven. THE International Health Commission of the Rockefeller Foundation sent to Brazil to make a general medical survey of the south- ern part of the country, has returned. The commission consisted of Professor Richard M. Peirce, of the University of Pennsylvania, chairman; Major Bailey K. Ashford, of the U. S. Medical Corps; Dr. John A. Ferrell, of the International Health Commission, and a secretary. They were absent for about four months and the work included a study of the general educational system in Brazil, the med- ical schools, hospitals and dispensaries, and public health organization. JUNE 23, 1916] THE Carnegie Institution expedition to To- bago, British West Indies, was exceptionally successful. The southwestern end of Tobago consists of elevated coral-bearing limestones and the coast from Milford Bay northward is flanked by a modern coral reef. Dr. Herbert Lyman Clark, of Harvard University, collected 73 species of echinoderms in this region, and of these Dr. Th. Mortensen, of Copenhagen University, reared 10 throughout their larval stages; among them a crinoid Tropiometra which was abundant over the shallow reef-flats. Dr. A. G. Mayer studied the Siphonophores, the pelagic life being abundant, due to the fact that the water of the great equatorial drift of the Atlantic strikes immediately upon the coast of Tobago. The coastal waters of To- bago are those of the clear blue tropical ocean, for the island lies to the northward of the muddy shores of Trinidad. N. S. Amsturz, of Valparaiso, Indiana, re- cently gave an illustrated lecture on the “ Mar- vels of Illustration” during an afternoon meeting at the Bureau of Standards, Wash- ington, D. C., and in the evening before the Association of Federal Photographers in the new National Museum. Two Harvard graduates and a member of the junior class in Harvard College will leave this month on an expedition to South America for the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zool- ogy. The party, consisting of Dr. L. S. Moss, of Baltimore, a graduate of the medical school; Dr. C. Tello, a Harvard graduate who is now living in Lima, Peru, and G. K. Noble, 717, of Yonkers, N. Y., will sail from New York for Paita, Peru. From this point they will cross the Andes and into the Amazon Valley. The purpose of the expedition is to collect zoological specimens and to study the native tribe of Guarani Indians. Six physicians and six nurses, comprising the sixth medical relief expedition to be sent from the United States to the Central Powers under the auspices of the American Physician’s Expeditions Committee, have left New York on board the Holland-American line steamship Ryndam for Rotterdam, whence they will pro- ceed to Austria. The party is headed by Dr. SCIENCE 893 Joseph Irilus Eastman, of Indianapolis, pro- fessor of surgery in the University of Indiana. THE Royal Society has awarded to Miss Dorothy Dufton, of Girton College, Cambridge, the first year’s income of their Lawrence Fund, for an investigation of pneumonia produced by poisonous gases. The income of the Lawrence Fund, about £160 a year, is devoted to research in the relief of human suffering. Miss Dufton is the daughter of Dr. S. F. Dufton, inspector of schools in Leeds, and is doing research work in Cambridge University Physiological Labora- tory. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS THE magnificent new buildings of the Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, on the Cambridge side of the Charles River, were dedicated last week with imposing ceremonies. At the formal dedicatory exercises on June 14, addresses were made by President Richard C. Maclaurin, by President A. Lawrence Lowell, of Harvard University, now allied with the ~ institute, by Governor Samuel W. McCall, and by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge. THe tenth annual report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- ing, published on June 19, shows that the in- come from general endowment was $697,892, and the expenditures $712,852. The income from the endowment of the Division of Edu- cational Enquiry was $50,300, and the expen- ditures $54,633. At the commencement exercises of Wesleyan University the Van Vleck Astronomical Ob- servatory, the gift of the late Joseph Van Vleck, of Montclair, N. J., was dedicated. To represent the faculty of Cornell Univer- sity as delegates at the meeting of the board of trustees, the following have been elected: Dexter S. Kimball, professor of machine de- sign and industrial engineering; Walter F. Willcox, professor of economies and statistics, and John Henry Comstock, emeritus professor of entomology and general invertebrate zool- ogy. Mr. Ernest Martin Hopkins, until 1910 secretary of Dartmouth College and since en- 894 gaged in business in Boston, has been elected president of the college, to succeed President Ernest Fox Nichols, who has resigned to ac- cept a chair of physics at Yale University. At the University of Nebraska, Dr. David D. Whitney, now at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., has been appointed pro- fessor of zoology, in charge of courses in the fields of genetics, evolution and experimental zoology. Homer B. Latimer, now professor of zoology in Nebraska Wesleyan University, has been appointed associate professor of zool- ogy, in charge of work in vertebrate anatomy, embryology and histology. GrorcE FREDERIC OrpDEMAN, Ph.D., has been elected associate professor of chemistry, and Robert William Dickey, Ph.D., associate pro- fessor of physics in Washington and Lee Uni- versity. At Sibley College, Cornell University, the following instructors have been promoted to the grade of assistant professors: Clarence Andrew Pierce, in power engineering; Myron A. Lee, in machine design, and John George Pertsch, Jr., in electrical engineering. Joseph Franklin Putnam has been appointed assistant professor of electrical engineering. He has been professor of physics in St. John’s College, Shanghai. Frederick George Switzer has been appointed instructor in the mechanics of engi- neering. VerA DantscHakorr, M.D., of the Rocke- feller Institute for Medical Research, has been appointed instructor in anatomy, and Rosalie F. Morton, M.D., as attending surgeon at Vanderbilt Clinic of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University. Recent additions to the faculty of the Uni- versity of Arkansas are J. Sam Guy, Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins), head of the department of chemistry, succeeding the late Dr. C. G. Car- roll; F. G. Baender, M.S. (Cornell Univer- sity), formerly assistant professor in the Uni- versity of Iowa, head of the department of mechanical engineering; P. B. Barker, late of the agricultural faculty of the University of Missouri, head of the department of agronomy. Arthur M. Harding, Ph.D. (Chicago), returns _ SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIIL. No. 1121 to the university, after a year’s leave of ab- sence, as professor of mathematics and uni- versity examiner. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE CORAL REEFS To THE Eprror or Science: In his article on “Coral Reefs ” in the April Scientific Monthly, Professor Davis gives an abridged and distorted version of Alexander Agassiz’s theory, thus setting up a dummy to be conveniently knocked down. A careful consideration of all the forces suggested by Agassiz as contributing to the formation of atolls and barrier reefs should convince Professor Davis that the hypothesis calls for neither cliffs, deltas nor talus on the islands enclosed by barrier reefs. For the ring of living corals breaks the force of the waves; and the great quantities of water piled over the reef by the trade winds forms a gi- gantic modified pothole which scours out the material eroded from the island. Professor Davis has stated that any theory would ac- count for the formation of atolls and barrier reefs themselves. He appears to forget that it was because many investigators in the field were unable to reconcile the facts observed with the theory of subsidence that led them to suggest other explanations. Any one at all familiar with the methods of work of both the elder and younger Agassiz would never think of quietly assuming that either was ignorant of the literature of his subject. G. R. Aaassiz ANOTHER POISONOUS CLAVICEPS THE results of the experiments by Brown and Ranck, showing the poisonous action of Claviceps paspali Stevens and Hall on ani- mals, published in Technical Bulletin 6, Mis- sissippi Agricultural Experiment Station, has just been received by me and read with un- usual interest, as I have followed the history of this interesting fungus since 1902. I first noticed the disease produced by Claviceps very abundant and conspicuous on Paspalum leve in Maryland in the summer of 1902, and in the autumn of the same year a sample of it was received from a Maryland JUNE 23, 1916] farmer who had taken it from a field where cattle had died with symptoms of poisoning. The similarity of these sclerotia to the com- mon ergot gave further indication of its prob- able poisonous character and a quantity of the diseased grains was collected for testing, but no animals were available at the time and learning from Professor P. H. Rolfs that he was working on the life history of the fungus (as recorded by Stevens and Hall when they published descriptions of the two Paspalum ergots in the Botanical Gazette in 1910) the matter was dropped. There was, however, a short note on these observations published in my report on plant diseases in Maryland in 1902, in the Maryland Horticultural Society Report for 1902, as follows: “A fungus dis- ease causing the seeds of a wild grass (Pas- palum leve) to expand and break open like popcorn has been abundant and has been sus- pected of being poisonous to cattle.” Since then a few cases of stock disease, sometimes confused with the well-known but yet little understood “horse disease,” have occurred in Maryland, where the Paspalum ergot was abundant enough to be suspected and, judging from the experimental results so well worked out in Mississippi, was without much doubt the cause of the trouble. The Claviceps sclerotia which replace the Paspalum grains are frequent in Maryland nearly every year, though in some years al- most absent and sometimes, as in 1915, un- usually abundant. J. B. S. Norton AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, CoLLEGE Park, Mp. NAMES OF CELESTIAL ELEMENTS I wisu to learn the name of the giver and first place of publication of the following: Neptunium of Mendeléef, cited by Biclok and Martin; Coronium (the same as Mendeléef’s “x”), said to be by Huggins; Helium, Auro- rium and Nebulum (or Nebulium), the last two cited by Crookes, presidential address Brit. Ass. 1898. Any one who can give me any one of the citations will confer a favor upon the subscriber. B. K. Emerson AMHERST, MAss SCIENCE 895 QUOTATIONS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE LAND GRANT COLLEGES On July 2, 1862, President Lincoln approved the act establishing the Land Grant Colleges of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, and on March 3, 1863, he approved the act incorpo- rating the National Academy of Sciences. When the nation was stricken down with civil war it sought relief in science, on the one hand, establishing institutions for the scien- tific education of all the people in the arts of peace, on the other hand, recognizing excep- tional merit in science and making the most distinguished men of the country the advisers of the government. Now when the world is again infected by war more terrible than can be imagined in this one great nation which has escaped, we are naturally driven to think of “ prepared- ness,” and it will be well if this movement can be directed to making the nation strong through education and scientific research. At least three bills are before the Congress which are more important for the welfare of the country and its defense from foreign aggres- sion, should that ever become necessary, than any enlargement of the army and navy. These bills would establish a national university, ex- tend secondary education in industry and agriculture, and establish research stations for engineering at the college of agriculture and mechanic arts. A national university at Washington, hold- ing the same position toward the state and privately endowed universities as these hold or should hold to the colleges and schools of each state, would correspond with the estab- lishment of the National Academy of Sciences during the civil war, but could be made far more effective in its influence on research and on the efficient conduct of the departments of the government. The Smith-Hughes bill provides for the pro- motion of the vocational education of boys and girls of high-school age through coopera- tion of the nation and the states. There is appropriated for the first year $1,700,000 with an increment each year for eight years on con- dition that each cooperating state shall appro- 896 priate an equal sum. In the first year the sum of $200,000 is for administration and investi- gation, $500,000 for training teachers for voca- tional work, and $1,000,000 for payment of teachers, equally divided between agriculture, on the one side, and trade, home economics and industry, on the other. Of special interest to scientific men is the Newlands bill establishing research stations in engineering, corresponding to the existing agricultural stations in the colleges of agri- culture and the mechanic arts. These land grant colleges and their agricultural research stations have been of incalculable value to edu- cation, to agriculture, to the states and to the nation. They have been largely responsible for the establishment and development of the state universities. The land grant colleges and the institutions of which they are a part re- ceived in 1914 from the United States $2,500,- 000; from the states and from other sources over $30,000,000. They have 9,000 instructors and 105,000 students. By the Hatch act of 1887 and the Adams act of 1906 the sum of $30,000 a year is appro- priated for research in agriculture in the ex- periment stations. The colleges have more students of mechanic arts than of agriculture, but there is no similar provision for research in the mechanic arts and engineering, and the sciences, such as physics and chemistry, on which they are based. The agricultural inter- ests have always had great influence on legis- lation and in this case they have led the way. It is to be hoped that research in the engi- neering sciences will now be equally encour- aged by the passage of the Newlands bill, which appropriate $15,000 to each state and territory for conducting investigations in engineering and publishing the results. Some scientific men may believe that more could be accomplished by the establishment of one great research laboratory or by granting the money only to institutions already distin- guished for their contributions to science. There is, however, much to be said for ini- tiating investigation in fifty widely scattered centers where work is already being done in agricultural science. It brings the value of research to the attention of the students of the SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLITI. No. 1121 college and the people of the state, and each station has the possibility of great develop- ment. In any case the passage of the bill as it stands is the most feasible method at present to extend research and will forward rather than interfere with other methods.—The Scien- tific Monthly. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS The Mathematical Theory of Probabilities. By Arne Fisuer, F.S.S. Translated and edited from the author’s original Danish notes with the assistance of WILLIAM Bonyner, B.A., with an introductory note by F. W. Franxuanp, F.1.A., F.A.S., F.S.S. New York, The Macmillan Company. Vol. IT. Pp. ix 17a. Although a considerable number of standard text-books on probability have appeared in re- cent years in foreign languages, there is a lack of such books in the English language. Both on this account and because of the selec- tion of subject-matter, the present book should be particularly useful. Research work in the theory of probability has received during the past twenty years a new impetus, through the labors of certain mathematical statisticians. In this connection, we may perhaps mention particularly the work of Pearson in England, Lexis in Germany, Westergaard in Denmark. Each group of investigators seems to have moved along its particular line. In the pres- ent work an attempt is made to treat these researches from a common point of view based on the mathematical principles grounded in the work of Laplace, “ Theorie analytique des Probabilites.” The introductory chapter consists of a brief discussion of the general principles and philo- sophical aspects of a theory of probability. Here, in the determination of what events are to be regarded as “ equally likely,” both the principle of “insufficient reason” and the principle of “cogent reason” are illustrated, and the inference is drawn that a compromise of the two principles gives us a valuable mean- ing of “equally likely.” Then follow some interesting historical and biographical notes. JUNE 23, 1916] The definition of mathematical probability from which are developed the elementary theorems of probability is quoted from Czuber, and is about the usual definition of a@ priori probability. The author is rather emphatic in his criticism of the idea of replacing the @ priori probabilities of Laplace by the empir- ical ratios of Mill, Venn and Chrystal. He believes the distrust of a priori probabilities is due to a misapprehension of the true nature of Bernoulli’s theorem, which is the cornerstone of the theory of statistics. The chapter on probability a posteriori deals with the criti- cisms of Bayes’s rule in a rather constructive manner, by indicating the limitations under which Bayes’s rule will give correct results in practise. The author makes the connection between a priori probabilities and statistical series by the use of the well-known theorem of Tchebycheff. In this connection he offers a proof that the limit of a relative frequency a/s when s becomes infinite is the postulated @ priori probability p. It seems to the re- viewer that the notion of limit here employed is not quite the rigorous notion; for, the state- ment that the probability that |4/s—p| <6 approached 1 as a limit, is not the same as the usual statement that | a/s—p | becomes and remains less than §. The author does not seem to discriminate in this connection be- tween a point of condensation and a limit point. One of the most interesting and important parts of this book is its neat and striking ap- plications of Bernoulli, Poisson and Lexis series to the characterization of actual data. Furthermore, the application of the Lexian ratio and of the Charlier coefficient of disturb- ancy is clearly shown. Taken as a whole, this book will be found of much value to students of the mathematical methods in statistics. H. L. Rierz Gould’s Practitioner's Medical Dictionary. Third edition, revised and edited by R. J. E. Scorr, M.A., B.C.L., M.D., of New York. Pp. xx -+ 962. Flexible cloth, round corners, marbled edges. P. Blakiston’s Son & Oo., Philadelphia. Price $2.75. SCIENCE 897 The history of medical dictionaries begins with the fifteenth century. The first works of the kind are the “ Synonyma” (Venice, 1473) of Simone de Cordo or Simon of Genoa and the contemporary Pandects of Matheus Silvaticus. Both these works are alphabetical lists of medicinal simples, but a goodly number of real medical dictionaries were published during the Renaissance period, in particular those of Lorenz Fries or Phryesen (1519), Henri Estienne or Stephanus (1564) and Jean de Gorris (1564). In the seventeenth century appeared the famous “Lexica” of Bartholommeo Castelli (1607) and Steven Blaneard (1679) which passed through many editions. After these the num- ber of medical dictionaries is legion. Among the best known of more recent times are those of Robert James (London, 1748) and P. H. Nysten (Paris, 1810), which, in 1855, was en- tirely rewritten by Emile Littré and Charles Robin and is still a standard source of refer- ence. In England, the dictionary of the New Sydenham Society (1878-99), in America that of Frank P. Foster (1888-93), and in France, Galtier-Boissiére’s ‘“ Larousse Médical illus- tré” (1912), are monuments of scholarship. Gould’s large illustrated medical dictionary (1894), frequently revised and reedited, has been of great practical use to the medical pro- fession. Of late years the tendency has been towards handy volumes of reasonable thick- ness, printed on thin paper, with flexible covers, and of these the new edition of Gould’s Practitioner’s Dictionary is an excellent ex- ample. This new edition is unsurpassed as to com- prehensiveness, clearness and size. It contains over 70,000 words. To reduce the size of the book and to make it a handy volume a small type had to be selected, but the type is very clear and legible and is even a little larger than that used in Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary. Each word is accompanied by its pronuncia- tion and followed by its etymology. The defi- nitions are clear and concise. The book contains all the numerous and latest eponyms in their proper alphabetical order, such as Abderhalden’s test, Alzheimer’s disease, Lane’s kink, Meltzer’s method, 898 Schlatter’s disease. An important feature is the large number of new words with which the medical vocabulary has been enriched during the last few years. The book contains such new words as anoci-association, biometer, colli- culectomy, gassed, keritherapy, leukotoxic, serobacterins, sympathoblasts, ete. This handy, practical book, in octavo size. 14 inches thick, containing nearly ‘71,000 words, is unique among modern dictionaries and can not fail to receive a hearty weleome by the medical practitioner and the student of medicine. A. ALLEMAN Army Merpican Musrum PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (VoLuME 2, NuMBER 5) THE fifth number of Volume 2 of the Pro- ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences contains the following articles: 1. The High Frequency Spectrum of Tung- sten: Aupert W. Hurt and Marton Ricsz, Research Laboratory, General Electric Com- pany. The authors show two photographs of the spectrum of X-rays taken in the usual man- ner in a rock-salt erystal. They also give fig- ures which show the ionization current as a function of the angle of incidence. A com- parison with previous results obtained by others is sketched. 2. On the Foundations of Plane Analysis Situs: Ropert L. Moorrt, Department of Mathematics, University of Pennsylvania. As point, limit-point and regions (of certain types) are fundamental in analysis situs, the author has set up two systems of postulates for plane analysis situs based upon these notions; each set is sufficient for considerable body of theorems. 8. A General Theory of Surfaces: Epwin B. Witson and OC. L. E. Moort, Department of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Continuing the work of Kommerell, Levi and Segre, a theory of two-dimensional sur- faces in n-dimensional space is developed by SCIENCE {N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1121 the method of analysis outlined by Ricci in his absolute differential calculus. 4. Dynamical Stability of Aeroplanes: JEROME C. Hunsarer, U. S. Navy and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A comparative detailed study of two aero- planes, one a standard military tractor, the other designed for inherent stability, is made for the purpose of reaching general conclusions of a practical nature with respect to aeroplane design. It appears that inherent stability (except at low speed) can be obtained by care- ful design without departing seriously from the standard type now in use. 5. Cliffed Islands in the Coral Seas: W. M. Davis, Department of Geology and Geog- raphy, Harvard University. The author extends his former work on the Origin of Coral Reefs to include the explana- tion of the cliffs of exceptional reef-encircled islands of which no adequate explanation has previously been given. 6. On Some Relations between the Proper Mo- tions, Radial Velocities and Magnitudes of Stars of Classes B and A: C. D. Prrrine, Observatorio Nacional Argentino, Cordoba. The velocity distribution of classes B-B5 and A differ from the distributions found for the 7, G, K and M classes by Kapteyn and Adams. 7. Asymmetry in the Proper Motions and Radial Velocities of Stars of Class B and Their Possible Relation to a Motion of Ro- ~ tation: C. D. Perrine, Observatorio Nacional Argentino, Cordoba. Stars of class B show differences in the proper motions in the two regions of the Milky Way at right angles to the direction of solar motion; the differences appear to be best explained by a general motion of rotation of the system of stars in a retrograde direction about an axis perpendicular to the Milky Way. 8. Theory of an Aeroplane Encountering Gusts: Epwin BiwELu Witson, Department of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The longitudinal motion of an aeroplane en- countering head-on, vertical, or rotary gusts is discussed by the method of small oscillations. JUNE 23, 1916] An inherently stable machine striking a head gust of J feet per second soars to altitude of about 44 J feet above its initial level and, after executing oscillations, remains about 3% J feet above the original level. 9. Terms of Relationship and Social Organi- zation: TRuMAN MrcHEetson, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. From the point of view of Algonquian tribes terms of relationship are linguistic and dis- seminative phenomena, though in other cases they may be primarily psychological and socio- logical. Report of the Annual Meeting: Prepared by the Home Secretary. This report has appeared in full in Scrence. Epwin Bmweit WILson Mass. INSTITUTE oF TECHNOLOGY SPECIAL ARTICLES THE SCALES OF THE GONORHYNCHID FISHES THE Gonorhynchide constitute a small family of very peculiar marine fishes of elongate form, found in the seas about Japan, Australia and South Africa. In the Eocene deposits of Wy- oming is a fish which Cope named Notogoneus osculus, considered to belong to the Gonorhyn- chide. Whitfield in 1890! gave an account of a specimen of this species, and expressed the opinion that it belonged in the vicinity of the suckers, or Catostomide. It seemed remark- able that a fish from a fresh or brackish water deposit in Wyoming should be referred to a rare marine family of a remote region of the earth; and the scales of Notogoneus, admirably figured by Whitfield, did not at all resemble those of the Isospondylous fishes in general, neither had they any resemblance to those of the Catostomidz. Wishing to apply the more exact methods of comparison of later times, I asked Dr. D. S. Jordan for scales of Gono- rhynchus, and he has very kindly sent mate- rial from G. abbreviatus Schlegel, obtained by Alan Owston in the Yokohama (Misaki) market, Japan. These scales wholly confirm the reference of Notogoneus to the Gonorhyn- chide, and afford a remarkable illustration of the constancy of scale-structure through mill- 1 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. His., I11., p. 117. SCIENCE 899 ions of years and migrations over the earth. The long parallel-sided scales of G. abbreviatus are narrower than those of NV. osculus, and the truncate base is ecrenulate, but the peculiar structure is entirely the same. The apical mar- gin has a single row of 18 or fewer (never so many as in NV. osculus) teeth, which are long and stout, and connected by a thin lamina. Just below these is a broad sculptureless band, the same in living and fossil forms. The lateral circuli are strictly longitudinal and not very dense. Spreading fan-like from the sub- apical nucleus are the radii (about 12), closely set, with longitudinal bands of curved lines, derived from the system of cireuli, be- tween them. Jordan and Snyder? say of G. abbreviatus : Mr. E. C. Starks has examined the shoulder girdle of this species; it has the mesocoracoid areh, as usual with Isospondylous fishes. Its place is apparently with the earliest and most generalized of these forms. The scales, however, are more like those of Acanthopterygians. Coming to details of structure, we find a striking resemblance to the scales of Aphredoderus, of which genus Jordan says: “ Probably the most primitive of all living Percoid fishes, showing affinities with the Salmoperce” (to which group Regan has more recently referred it). Aphredoderus has the same type of marginal teeth, though there is no hyaline band beneath them and the yadii are few. Marginal teeth of the same type are found in another group, little related to Aphredoderus or Gonorhynchus; namely, the Characiform genus Distichodus of the fresh waters of tropical Africa. The rest of the Distichodus scale shows no close resem- blance to that of Gonorhynchus. We have, then, evidence of the extreme con- stancy of scale characters, even minute de- tails, in the Gonorhynchide. On the other hand, the most striking feature of the Gono- rhynchid pattern appears, not in the presumed allies of that family, but in other families supposed to be very far removed from it. Is this wholly a matter of independent evolution, 2 Smithsonian Mise. Coll., 45 (1904), p. 236. 900 or did the Gonorhynchids early develop a type of scale-structure which has survived here and there in remote descendants? The actual origin of this type of scale may date back of the Gonorhynchids, but it is nevertheless a specialized structure, which in the absence of evidence to the contrary would be thought to be of relatively recent origin. T. D. A. CockERELL UNIVERSITY OF CoLoRADO ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE WASHING- TON MEETING IV The European and the American Child: Paun R. RADOSAVLJEVICH. 3 On the basis of a summary study of 50,000 Europeans and 50,000 American school children, represented by various European and American authors, it is shown that the most important fac- tors are: (1) age, (2) sex, (3) race; and the least important are (4) school brightness, and (5) environment. The general average values of these measurements for both European and American pupils are very much alike, the difference being most evident in their variations. American pupils vary more than their European brothers and sis- ters at all the school ages studied (5-20 years). Hebrew children show the greatest variation; then Anglo-Saxon; then Latin, and least variation is shown by Slav pupils. If we take in account, how- ever, not the variation based on general arith- metical averages, but on individual cases of such racial groups, then we see that the difference in the variation (or distribution) of one group, say the Slavie group, is greater than the difference of variation between two groups. This variation, however, is not uniform for all measurements: that for body heights and weights is the greatest, while that for the two common head diameters is the least. This might be due, of course, to the inaccuracy of measurements, or to the statistical treatment, or to the personal equa- tion of the investigators, or to the collective method of taking the measurements, ete., or to all of these factors. It is, therefore, for the present at least, very hard to accept many of the conclusions de- rived from these data, for it is an established fact that a mere statistical interpretation of these re- sults is not eo ipso a biological-anthropological possibility, nor, furthermore, that such a possibil- ity carries with it a pedagogical necessity. SCIENCE [N. S. Von. XLIII. No. 1121 Pedagogical Anthropology in the United States: PavuL R. RADOSAVLJEVICH. Physical anthropology of pupils in the United States is beginning to develop along scientific lines, both in regard to the method of collecting data and in describing and explaining these induc- tive facts. The purpose of school anthropometric investigation in the United States has been based on all kinds of criteria, but not on primarily scientific-pedagogical criteria. These criteria might be grouped into (a) statistical-correlative (Boas, Bowditch, Porter, Peckham, Byer, Mac- donald, West, Baldwin, et al.; (b) hygienic-com- parative (Sargent, Hitchcock, Seeley, Seaver, Crampton, Fuld, Smedley, Hastings, et al.); (¢) pathological-comparative (Wyley, Bar, Goddard, et al.). Scientific anthropological criterion in the study of physical traits of children and youth is sug- gested in the works of Dr. AleS Hrdlitka and B. A. Gould, who combine the spirit of three great European schools in pedagogical anthropology (Meumann-Martin school in Germany, Godin school in France, and Sergi school in Italy). This criterion might be called biological-pedagogical, a criterion which has been more or less propagated among educators by G. Stanley Hall’s ‘‘ Adoles- cence,’’ and the recently translated Montessori’s “‘Pedagogical Anthropology,’’ the only two gen- eral books on pedagogical anthropology published in the United States. The future of scientific pedagogical anthropol- ogy in the United States will depend largely on the establishment of (a) an anthropological-peda- gogical museum, (b) an anthropological-peda- gogical laboratory, and (c) special academic chairs for pedagogical anthropology, the scientific disci- pline of which will be binding on all those who are studying education, psychology, sociology and criminology. The Comparative Convolutional Complexity of Male and Female Brains: E. E. SourHarp. The material for the study consists of brain photographs (six views of each brain) in the col- lection of the Massachusetts State Board of In- sanity, derived from over 500 brains in the pos- session of various state and private institutions of Massachusetts, including so-called ‘‘normal’’ brains and brains from a variety of psychopathic subjects. The method of the study is numerical, based upon counts of fissures and fissurets. The results, so far as interpretable, show no great sex difference in degree of fissuration. JUNE 23, 1916] Oracles of the Saints: Pumiies Barry. Divination, prohibited by decrees of early ec- clesiastical councils, was not suppressed, but re- mained an important by-product of popular re- ligion. Some effort was made by a lax clergy to establish a Christian technique in divination. Divination by opening the Scriptures at random and taking as an oracle the first verse to meet the eye, originated with St. Augustine, persisted in spite of imperial and canon law, and is not yet extinct. The ‘‘Oracles of the Saints’’—a manual of divination for use of Christians, going back to the sixth century, may be shown by documentary evi- dence to have been compiled from catalogues of oracular texts used in local pagan temples—an evidence of the historic continuity between pagan and Christian divination. Use of letters of the alphabet in divination, widely current in the Middle Ages, is of pre-Chris- tian origin, and may be traced to the usage of Egypt-Greek magic and mystical cults. Ballads Surviving in the United States: C. At- PHONSO SMITH. Ballad singing is not a lost art, since 77 of the original 305 ballads are still sung in the United States and about 85 in Great Britain. In the re- covery of the ballad in the United States, the South leads, Virginia reporting 36. Communal composition may be best illustrated by the camp- meeting songs of the southern negroes. ‘‘The Hangman’s Tree’’ (No. 95) is popular among the negroes of Virginia as an out-of-doors drama. A comparison of ballad tunes shows greater variety than of ballad texts. American ballad tunes and American ballad texts may be older than their surviving parallels in Great Britain. They may go back to textual and melodie variants, which not only antedate the surviving British variants but which in some eases left no lineal British issue. A comparison, for example, of seven musical ar- rangements of ‘‘Barbara Allen,’’ one from Scot- land, one from England, and five recently trans- cribed from the lips of singers in Virginia, no one of whom understood music and four of whom were from the same county, proves that the differences are so great that neither the British nor the Scotch melody can be claimed as the original. A new field of comparative song is thus opened. (This paper appeared in full in The Musical Quar- terly, edited by O. G. Sonneck, New York and London, January, 1916.) SCIENCE 901 Pan-American Topic: ABRAHAM ALVAREZ. After a brief consideration of the importance of the study of the archeology of the American continent, the author proposes as a means of con- serving the pre-Columbian monuments the follow- ing plan: Article I. The American governments agree to establish a museum of American anthropology and archeology, which shall be called ‘‘Pan- American Museum.’’ Art. II. In this museum there shall be collected: (a) American antiquities, (b) mummies, (c) stuffed specimens of animals existing in the dif- ferent countries from the time prior to the con- quest to the present, (d) specimens of native plants, (e) native minerals, (f) collections of books relating to the ancient plans, photographs, chromolithographs and detailed descriptions of all the monuments and ruins of the pre-Columbian epoch, (h) maps of the respective countries show- ing the location of each race or tribe and the posi- tion of the ruins, (i) phonographs with records of the speech and songs of the Indian languages for the purpose of preserving said languages, (j) studies of all the native races, (k) studies of the different native languages. Art. III. The ancient ruins shall be preserved and eared for by each government. They shall not be sold or given away or disposed of in any other manner. They shall be the property of the nation. Art. IV. Each museum shall send to the other Pan-American museums reports of the anthropo- logical and archeological work done during the year within its jurisdiction. Art. V. All the objects to which Article IL., section (a), refers shall be property of the state and should be placed in the museum, whatever may have been the place they were found. The Desirability of Uniform Laws throughout the Pan-American Countries for the Encouragement and Protection of the Study of Archeology and Anthropology and the Collection of Material Re- lating to these Sciences: Max UBLE. The American nations have had only four cen- turies of existence on this continent. They lack, therefore, the long history which usually gives to other peoples strength and power of resistance in times of stress such as those through which all the nations of America have had to pass. The lack of a long national history must be made good by the study of the peoples, who occupied the territory before the time of Columbus. From this study lessons may be drawn applicable to national de- 902 velopment of the present time. The study of the pre-Columbian period in the Western Hemisphere must be based on the sciences of archeology and anthropology. The American governments have not yet recognized the importance of these two sciences as a means for deepening their knowledge of American history, and thus is to be explained the absolute neglect of the monuments and other archeological materials constituting the necessary basis for the study of the history of the pre-Co- lumbian epoch. On account of this complete ne- glect the documents which existed on the surface of the earth and beneath the soil—documents which must serve as the source for the study of early American history—have unfortunately al- ready been largely destroyed or removed from the American continent. It is, therefore, urgent that better protection should now be given the ruins that remain. During the century of the conquest the peoples constituting the existing nations occupied the whole continent. There was thus formed a kind of historie unity, which implies the duty of study- ing the pre-Columbian period, as well as that of the later period. The cooperation of all the countries in this common task is all the more neces- sary, because, notwithstanding numerous points of difference, the continent appears to have pre- sented a historic unity from the earliest times up until the development of the great native civiliza- tions. The solution of the common historie prob- lems is impossible unless all the countries advance along this line with equal step. It is, therefore, desirable that an agreement should be entered into by the different countries for the purpose of pro- tecting the vestiges of antiquity within their re- spective territories in their own interest and in the common interest. The best way to accomplish this end is by means of appropriate uniform laws in all the countries. The Study of the Convenience of Uniform Laws in all the American Countries, to Protect and Stim- ulate the Collection of Anthropological and Archeological Material and Data, and to En- courage the Study of the Same: SAMUEL LAINEZ. In this report the author considers carefully the importance of the study of American anthropology and archeology; he examines the great problems of these sciences and their solution; indicates the work of investigation effected up to the present time and what is yet to be done in this vast field, and as a result of his study formulates 13 propo- SCIENCE [N. 8. Von. XLITII. No. 1121 sitions with a view to stimulating and protecting, by means of uniform laws in all the American na- tions, the investigations whose object is the col- lection and study of anthropological and archeo- logical material and data. Service of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia to American Anthropology: S. G. DIXxon. Anthropology excited the interest of the earliest naturalists in America. The first contributions to American anthropology show that among the earliest members of this institution were those who took an active part in American anthropology. True to the traditions of the older natural science institutions, the Philadelphia Academy shows by its publications that man was considered as an animal to be studied structurally. One of the first contributions to the subject was the great collec- tions of human crania presented by Dr. Samuel G. Morton, which has been supplemented by Meigs and others. The collections of the academy have furnished material for important papers by Mor- ton and the late Dr. Harrison Allen, besides many other students of anthropology. Among the contributors to the literature of the subject are Brinton, Gabb, Halderman, Holmes, Hrdlitka, Leidy, Meigs, Moore, Morton and Put- nam. One of the lines of work of a substantial character done by the academy consisted in fur- thering the Arctie expeditions of Kane, Hayes and Peary, the last mentioned adding to our knowledge of the Greenland Eskimo. The Philadelphia Acad- emy maintained a chair of anthropology for many years under Dr. Daniel G. Brinton. The Phila- delphia Museum is rich in ethnographic and archeological specimens. Collections gathered by famous expeditions, beginning in 1805 with Lewis and Clark, were followed by Keating, Poinset, Meittal, Townsend, Rusemberger, Sharp, Gabb and Peary; but the most comprehensive of all have resulted from many expeditions of Clarence B. Moore, whose archeological collections from the southern states have no parallel. The Archives of the Indies: History of and Sug- gestions for their Exploitation: Roscor R. Hi. The Archives of the Indies, founded at the close of the eighteenth century, is one of the richest collections of materials for colonial history in ex- istence. Successive and proposed additions from Madrid and Simancas will make the collection cover completely the colonial history of the former oversea dominions of Spain. JUNE 23, 1916] The earliest use of the Archives was made by Muioz for his ‘‘ Historia del Neuvo Mundo,’’ and by Navarrete for his ‘‘Coleccién de los Viajes y Descubrimientos.’’ A more pretentious exploita- tion, aided by a subsidy from the Spanish govern- ment, resulted in the two series of the ‘‘Coleccién de Documentos Inéditos.’’ This work was ecare- lessly done, but serves to indicate the extent and richness of the Archives. Extensive investigations have been made in settling boundary disputes of the Latin-American republics, and many documents have been pub- lished in this connection. Several governments, notably Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Dominican Re- public, Mexico and Cuba, at various times have commissioned individuals to study and make col- “lections of documents for the history of their re- spective countries. The exploitation by the United States has been earried on by private individuals or by institu- tions, like the Carnegie Institution or the uni- versities of Texas and California. This has con- fined itself to describing and copying documents. A suggested plan for further exploitation is based on international cooperation. Hach of the American republics should have a director in Sevilla, and these should form a board or faculty for exploitation. Scholarships or fellowships should be maintained by the American govern- ments and universities. The directors should supervise the studies of the scholars, and direct the investigation, cataloguing, copying, editing and publishing the documents relating to their re- spective countries. The Origin and Various Types of Mounds in Hastern United States: Davi I. BUSHNELL, JR. The Indian mounds of the United States east of the Mississippi (this does not include effigies and inclosures) may be divided into three classes, namely: burial, ceremonial and domiciliary. Burial mounds are the most numerous; they form large groups in the area north of the Ohio, and near by are often traces of a former village; they are usually rather small, circular in outline, and, on examination, reveal burials of various types. But such mounds, isolated or in groups, are widely scattered over the valley of the Mississippi and eastward. Ceremonial mounds are less easily distinguished. The term should, however, be applied to mounds covering altars, and those which bear evidence of sacrifices, such as have been discovered in the val- ley of the Ohio and elsewhere. The great Cahokia SCIENCE 903 Mound was probably the site of a temple, and for this reason it, as well as others of this type, may be considered as ceremonial structures. Domiciliary mounds or platforms are those erected as elevated sites for habitations, or which resulted from the accumulation of camp refuse during a long occupaney. They are met with in Florida and along the low banks of the southern rivers. These often served also as places of in- dividual burials. The discovery of many objects of European origin in some mounds, more especially those in the southern. states; the many references in the works of early writers to the use of mounds by the Indians with whom they came in contact; and the nature of the burials encountered in the northern mounds, which correspond with the known cus- toms of the tribes whose homes were in the neigh- borhood of these groups, prove that mounds were still in process of erection at the time of the com- ing of Huropeans, but the practise ceased soon after. The Amazon Expedition of the University of Penn- sylvania: GEORGE BYRON GORDON. The Amazon Expedition was sent out for the purpose of procuring data respecting the relation- ships of the different tribes in the Amazon valley and in the southern Guianas. The first investiga- tion occupied six months in an unexplored terri- tory between the Guianas and Brazil. Here a number of new tribes were located and extensive data, linguistic and ethnological, were obtained. Each of the tribes was identified as belonging linguistically either to the Arawak or to the Carib stock. On the Ucuyali in the Peruvian Amazon, a number of obscure tribes were similarly studied and their relationships determined. The third re- gion explored was the plain between the Tapajos and Xingu rivers, inhabited by the Mundurucus, whose central villages were visited for the first time by Dr. Farabee, the leader of the expedition. This latter exploration proves that the great plain above mentioned is a barren waste instead of the fertile grazing land which it was supposed to be. The principal anthropological result of this exploration is the definite identification of the language of the natives with the Tupi stock. The Ruins of Yucu-Tichiyo: CONSTANTINE G. RICHARDS. Outside of the places where once stood the pal- aces of the principal chiefs of the Mixtee and the residence and temples of their priests, namely, 904. Tilantonge and Achiutla, little is known of the many other ruins found in the Mixtee country. Among these are the ruins of Tucu-Tichiyo. Even here little is now left of what at one time must have been an important center, and the author puts on record some views of the structures before the walls shall all have crumbled and nothing but mounds remain. Remarks were made on the coun- try where the ruins are to be seen, followed by a description of the buildings and mounds still standing. Information from old natives was given, as well as some measurements of the build- ings, and what has been found in the course of the limited excavations that have been made. A Study of Family Names in Chile: Luis THAYER OJEDA. The present study is composed of four chapters. The first treats of the history of surnames, study- ing their evolution and their origin from the time when they have merely the form of personal names through to their transformation into generie fam- ily names. The second chapter consists of the etymological classification of family names. From this point of view the author divides the surnames of Chile into seven groups, as follows: Individual, geo- graphic, historic, abstract, combined, doubtful and foreign. The author notes that these groups may be divided and subdivided into related classes. In the third chapter the author gives the morpho- logical classification of surnames in three groups, as follows: Perfect names, comprising all the Spanish surnames whose orthography is in con- formity with that indicated by the Royal Museum; imperfect names, including Spanish surnames which have suffered alterations; and foreign names which embrace all the surnames belonging to other languages. In the fourth chapter an ethnological classifica- tion of surnames is made, arranged by countries in which the names have originated. In the fifth chapter, after certain considera- tions, the author arrives at the conclusion that sur- names may be an efficient aid in determining the ethnic compositions of countries. The study made of 167,400 names has served as the basis for a calculation of the proportion of the different races which inhabit Chile. On the Glenoid Fossa of the Eskimo: V. GIUFFRIDA- RUGGERI. In a recent bulletin of the Canadian Department of Mines, Knowles directs attention to the peculiar SCIENCE [N. 8S. Vou. XLITII. No. 1121 form of the glenoid fossa and articular eminence in Eskimo skulls. The fossa is shallow, while the articular eminence is flattened and extended in a forward direction. Having read this notice in Na- ture, June 17, 1915, I immediately wrote to the author, asking for the extract, but up to the pres- ent I have received no answer. I think that surely only a small percentage of Eskimo skulls really present such an anomaly, for were it a common conformation it would hardly have escaped notice; but anthropologists who have previously studied collections of Eskimo skulls have never noted the observance of such a peculiarity. On the other hand, this anomaly is not peculiar to the Eskimo, as I remarked on its recurrence, seventeen years ago, in Italian skulls. The publication of my ar- ticle led to further extensive research in the Anthro- pological Museum of Florence and a detailed ar- ticle was published on the subject by R. Polli in 1899. Mongoloid Signs in Some Ethnic Types of the Andine Plateau: ARTHUR POSNANSKY. A study of certain somatic signs observed by the author in some of the ethnic types of the An- dine Plateau, and believed by him to be charac- teristically Mongolian. The signs observed are: (1) The Mongolian fold (pliegue mongolico) in the countenance of some Indians; (2) the os japonicum in certain erania; and (3) the Mongolian spot (mancha mon- golica). The author says that it is impossible to deter- mine the percentage of the Indians of the plateau having the Mongolian fold, since there are groups who do not possess it at all, while others show it without exception. Certain tribes of the Chingu River had it in a not very marked degree; but the author has observed it in a more pronounced form in the Paumari and Ipurina Indians on the river Pirtis and on the lower Acre (Brazil). The fold develops as the individual develops, disappearing completely in old age, a phenomenon observed in the Mongolian race also. This characterictie fold is found among the Eskimos, and the Botacudos of Brazil. The author has examined in Europe a thousand crania of Mongolians and an equal num- ber from the pre-Columbian mounds of the Andine Plateau; and in both he found a pronounced sulcus in the maxillar or the region of the procesus frontalis, and in the dacryon (lachrymal region), situated a little above the piriformis opening. As this sulcus does not appear in anatomical nomen- Tune 23, 1916] elature, the author has called it the Sulcus Mon- golis. The author believes that the pliegue mon- golico is motived by the above mentioned sulcus, which is found with more or less marked intensity in the crania of the Mongolian races and in some subraces of the Andine Plateau. In the cranium of the European it is so imperceptible that the anatomists up to the present time have had noth- ing to say about it. With reference to the os japonicum the author says that in a series of 20 crania from Tiahuanacu he found a specimen of the os japonicum dextrum. The author has classified this cranium as dolicho- cephalic. A characteristic of this cranium consists in the procesus marginales dextr. et sinistr. bemg greatly accentuated. It is also marked by the persistence of the frontal suture. On account of the lack of facilities, the author was not able to determine the frequency of the os japonicum in the crania of the Andine Plateau. The Mongolian spot (mancha mongolica), which has been considered up to the present time as a characteristic mark of the Mongolian race, is found also, according to the writer, with extraordinary frequency on the bodies of Indian children and adults of the Andine Plateau. In certain regions the spot is found in 92 per cent. of the children of pure Aimara (Colla) and Quechua races. The color of the spot is generally purple or greenish blue. It covers the large part of the buttock and extends to both sides of the spine. Curves of Physical Growth of the School Children of La Paz, Bolivia: GrorcES ROUMA. This report is composed of five parts, as follows: The methods used in establishing the curves of growth of the school children, and the importance _ of its application to the school children of the cap- ital of the republic of Bolivia. The program which was followed in carrying out the investigations of the physical development of the school children. q The technique employed in the investigations. A series of graphs showing the results of the measurements taken in La Paz. General consideration relative to the physical de- velopment of the school children of La Paz. Concepts of Nature among American Natives: Auice C. FLETCHER. A broad view of the concepts held by the tribes of this continent makes it evident that to the American natives the cosmos was a living unit, similar to a family, and permeated by a mysteri- SCIENCE. 905 ous, unseen, life-giving power which had brought nature into being and provided for its perpetua- tion through the dual (masculine and feminine) forces. Sky and earth are their simplest repre- sentatives. Hach section is made up of parts and each part partakes of the function of its section. Man is not regarded as a distinct creation, but as an integral part of nature, deriving his physical and psychical existence from the same mysterious power that animates all other portions of the cosmos. Many tribes have given this power a specific name which is held in reverence. This power was the object of worship in the tribal rites, in which symbols of animal and psychical forces were widely used, but nowhere did these symbols take on a human form. Tribal rites were primarily religious and were fundamental to the. tribal organization which aimed to reflect the con- cept of the cosmos and man’s relation to it. Sec- ular government was subordinate to tribal rites. To the mysterious power certain human qualities were ascribed, as order, truthfulness, justice, pity. The right to govern was also attributed; the pun- ishment of falsity and wrong-doing. These anthro- pomorphie ascriptions were never fully carried out and erystallized among the native Americans, as was done on the eastern continent. The belief that all things were alive and could affect the physical and psychical life of man was also common to both hemispheres. The expessions of this belief on the two continents afford material for an instructive comparison. Two Notes on Spanish Folklore: G. G. Kine. The author mentions two points of Gallegan use jn connection with corn: (1) All through Galicia the granaries are topped with a cross at one end and the ancient emblem of fertility on the other. (2) In August, before the corn is ripe, she found a fresh yellow ear saved from the harvest, hung on a wayside cross. A variant from Navarre of the folktales of the bird’s song that seemed three minutes and three hundred years passed. Comparative Study of Pawnee and Blackfoot Rit- uals: CLARK WISSLER. Since the Pawnee data used in this study are still unpublished, a brief characterization of Pawnee rituals will be given. Then it will be shown that there are very striking parallels between the Black- foot and Pawnee. This holds both for the rituals themselves and for the bundles with which they are associated. So far as the data for the upper 906 Missouri village tribes are available, they seem to place them as intermediate between the Pawnee and the Blackfoot. When we consider the distri- bution of these traits in the Plains area it ap- pears that rituals of the Pawnee-Arikara-Blackfoot type are but weakly developed in neighboring tribes, though strongest among the Siouan neigh- bors of the Pawnee. Also ritualism is most in- tense among the agricultural tribes and weakest among those strictly non-agricultural. The sug- gestion is, therefore, that the Pawnee are the ap- proximate center for the dispersion of this trait in the Plains. The second peint is a comparison of Pawnee ritualism with tribes in other parts of the conti- nent. We find certain parallels to Pueblo rituals as associated with maize culture and a specific Mexican parallel in the human sacrifice. A Manuscript by Rasmus Rask: The Aleutian Language Compared with the Greenlandic: Wi- LIAM THALBITZER. The famous Danish linguist, R. K. Rask, who in 1818-19 stayed at Saint Petersburg on his journey to India, met there two natives of the Aleutian Islands, who had accompanied the expedition of Otto V. Kotzebue on his return from Bering Straits. Rask took the opportunity of recording some specimens of the Aleut language, which he spelled in his usual way and accompanied with a Danish translation, with some additional compara- tive remarks on the Aleut and Greenland Jan- guages. Thus Rask was the first to discover some points of resemblance in the grammar and vocab- ulary of these languages. This manuscript, which contains about 200 Aleut words, was never pub- lished, however, and remained unknown to later explorers of the Aleutians. After the death of Rask, in 1832, the manuscript was deposited in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. It will now be submitted for publication in the Proceedings of the Congress, translated into English, being probably the earliest modern contribution to American linguistics made by one of the founders of the present comparative science of languages. PAPERS PRESENTED FOR WHICH NO ABSTRACT WAS PROCURED (1) ‘‘The Oldest Known Illustrations of South American Indians’’; (2) ‘‘Present State of our Knowledge of the South American Indians; with a Linguistie Map,’’ by Rudolph Schuller. (1) ‘‘Origin of the Indians of Central and SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLIII. No. 1121 South America’’; (2) ‘‘Lexicology of the Names of the Indian God,’’ by J. A. Caparo. (1) ‘An Inea Road and Several Hitherto Un- described Ruins in the Urubamba Valley, Peru’’; (2) ‘‘Some Extraordinary Trepanned Skulls Found this Year in the Urubamba Valley, Peru’’; (3) ‘The Inca Peoples and their Culture,’’ by Hiram Bingham. ““Notes on the Folklore of the Peruvian In- dians,’’ by F. A. Pezet. “«The Domain of the Aztecs,’’ by A. M. Tozzer. (1) ‘‘The So-called Pelike Type of North Ar- gentina Pottery’’; (2) ‘‘Searifiers of Northwest Argentina,’’ by Juan B. Ambrosetti. “‘Cayuga Ownership of New York Land,’’ by Grace E. Taft. “Hye and Hair Color in Children of Old Amer- icans,’’ by Beatrice L. Stevenson. ““New Methods in Ethnographic Photography,’’ by Frederick I. Monsen. ‘“What the United States has done for Anthro- pology,’’ by F. W. Hodge. (1) ‘*The Pre-Columbian Indians of the Eastern Extremity of Cuba’’; (2) ‘‘Discovery of the first Indian Sepulture of Cuba,’’ by Louis Montané. ‘Observations on Some Shell Mounds on the East Coast of Florida,’’? by Amos W. Butler. ‘¢The Indians and their Culture as Described in the Swedish and Dutch Records of 1614 to 1664,’’ by Amandus Johnson. (1) ‘‘The Diffusion of Culture, a Critique’’; (2) ‘‘Totemic Complexes in North America,’’ by A. A. Goldenweiser. ‘Chronological Relations of Coastal Algonkin Culture,’’ by Alanson Skinner. ‘“Eixcavations in the Department of Peten, Guatemala,’’? by Raymond E. Merwin. ‘ [ss Eastport, Me.......| T | 4.4/14.2/21.8/15.7) 6.5) 62.687.2 Portland, Me.......| T |12.0)12.2/20.2)36.3| 7.9) 88.6|73.1 Boston, Mass......./0.2/ 6.7| 4.8;30.3'33.0] 4.2) 79.2141.1 Blue Hill, Mass.® | 1.0/12.3]| 6.4183.4/42.2|16.2|111.558.2 Worcester, Mass.? | T {15.8} 6.2/24.9|36.0) 5.6) 88.550.9 Albany, N. Y...... 0.1/40.3) 0.6/13.7/37.9} 2.1) 94.7}46.0 Providence, R. I...}0.3} 3.5} 0.8/15.1/19.1) 4.7) 43.542.1 New Haven, Ct. ..| T {18.0| 1.6/24.7|29.0| 2.7| 76.0)37.8 In New Haven the ground was snow-covered from February 3 to March 28, 1916. Two fea- tures prevented the occurrence of floods when the snow melted. First, on account of the late- ness of the melting, the ground was thawed out below and so received readily the water from the melting snow. Second, the melting took place in clear, cool weather and lasted over a period of four days.?° The season ended with a fall of snow in eastern New England on April 28, amounting to eight inches at Blue Hill. PROFESSOR CLEVELAND ABBE At the annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences held in Washington in April, 1916, Professor Cleveland Abbe was awarded its gold medal for “ eminence in the application of science to the public welfare, in consideration of his distinguished service in inaugurating systematic meteorological ob- servations in the United States.’ Unfortu- nately, on account of illness Professor Abbe could not be present to receive the medal in 8 See Scrence, February 11, 1916, p. 212. ® Sleet included; since January 1, 1909, regular Weather Bureau Stations have measured sleet separately. Thus, if sleet were included, the total for New Haven would be 82.3 instead of 76 inches. 10 See article on snow-melting, by A. J. Henry, Monthly Weather Review, March, 1916, pp. 150 to 153. SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIII. No. 1122 person. Since last June he has been incapaci- tated by partial paralysis for his work as editor of the Monthly Weather Review. Professor Abbe, who is in his seventy-eighth year, has had forty-four years of distinguished service in government meteorology, a period significantly equal to the length of record of most regular Weather Bureau stations. Early in his career, Professor Abbe was an astron- omer. On September 1, 1869, while he was director of the Cincinnati Observatory, he inaugurated daily weather reports for the Cin- cinnati Chamber of Commerce, which at once led the United States government to take up similar work. From 1871 to 1891 he was pro- fessor of meteorology and civilian assistant in the office of the chief signal officer, U. S. Army; and with the change of the weather service to a civil bureau in 1891 he continued as professor of meteorology in the Weather Bureau. As editor of the Monthly Weather Review from the time of its foundation to the present!! Professor Abbe has been in touch with, and stimulated great numbers of meteor- ological observers and investigators. Al- though he was in a position to carry on but few original investigations, he did an im- mense amount of translation and compilation of the results of others’ meteorological investi- gations. Among the more important of his works are: “ Meteorological Apparatus and Methods” (1887); “The Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmosphere” (1891 and 1909); and “First Report on the Relations between Cli- mates and Crops” (1905, as of 1891). To him belongs the credit of publishing a “Report on Standard Time” (1879) which started the agitation that resulted in the mod- ern standard hour meridians from Greenwich. Professor Abbe is a member of a great many domestic and foreign scientific societies, among them being five meteorological societies of Europe. Two signal honors from his con- 11In the period 1909 to 1913, inclusive, the Monthly Weather Review was divided into two sections, the one which kept the title including the observational material, and the Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, the discussional. Professor Abbe edited the latter only. June 30, 1916] temporaries abroad are the degree of LL.D. from the University of Glasgow in 1896, and the Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteoro- logical Society in 1912. Cuartes F. Brooxs YALE UNIVERSITY SPECIAL ARTICLES A NEW FORM OF PHOSPHOROSCOPE?* Existine phosphoroscopes are of two types, those with a periodically interrupted source of light and those employing a steady source. To the first type belongs the classical instru- ment of E. Becquerel,? subsequently modified by E. Wiedemann,? in which the object is placed between two parallel vevolving disks and is alternately illuminated and observed through properly placed and adjustable open- ings. In 1908 Merritt,t devised a phosphoroscope in which the phosphorescent surface P, Fig. 1, was illuminated periodically by the passage fi / | RS | 1 Fie. 1. of an opening in a revolving disk D mounted between it and a source of light S. The phos- phorescence was observed at the desired time after exposure by means of a small revolving mirror, M, mounted obliquely on the end of the shaft. The disk was carried upon a hol- low sleeve revolving with the shaft and the angle between the opening in the disk and the 1A paper presented at the April meeting of the American Physical Society, 1916. 2H. Becquerel, Annales de Chimie et de Phys- aque (3), 55, p. 5, 1859. 8H. Wiedemann, Wiedemann’s Annalen, 34, p. 446 (1888). 4Nichols and Merritt, ‘‘Studies in Lumines- eence,’? Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publi- eation No, 152. SCIENCE 937 plane of reflection of the mirror could be varied during rotation. With this apparatus curves of decay of nu- merous cases of phosphoreseence of short dura- tion were determined by Messrs. Waggoner® and Zeller.® In these phosphoroscopes, the source of light is not in itself necessarily intermittent, the periodic interruption of excitation being pro- duced by the use of a revolving sectored disk. Another group of instruments of this general type employs the intermittent discharge from an induction coil or transformer, as in the spark-phosphoroscope briefly described by La- borde in 1869,7 Crookes’s device with sectored disk and commutator for observing the after- glow of substances subjected to kathode dis- charge,® Lenard’s® phosphoroscope of 1892 and de Watteville’s!? apparatus for the spectro- scopic study of phosphorescence (1906). Len- ard’s instrument differs from the others of this group in that the eclipse of the exciting spark is produced by the linear movement of a screen mounted upon the plunger of a Ruhmkorff mercury interrupter in the pri- mary circuit of the induction coil. The other type of phosphoroscope, in which an uninterrupted source of light is used, like- wise had its origin with Becquerel.1 It was later used for lecture demonstrations at the Royal Institution by Tyndall! and for meas- urements by Kester,18 Waggoner! and others. It consists simply of a cylinder revolving on a 5C. W. Waggoner, (1), XXVIL., p. 209. 6 Carl Zeller, Physical Review (1), XXX., p. 367. 7 Laborde, Comptes Rendus, 68, p. 1,576. 8 Crookes, Proc. of the Royal Society, 42, p. 111 (1887). 9Lenard, Wiedemann’s Annalen, 46, p. 637. 10C. de Watteville, Comptes Rendus, 142, p. 1,078. 11H. Becquerel, Ann. de Chimie et de Physique (3), 62, p. 5 (1861). 12 See Lewis Wright, ‘‘Light,’’ London, 1882, p. 152. 13 Kester, Physical Review (1), IX., p. 164. 14 Waggoner, Publications of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, No. 152, p. 120. Physical Review 938 vertical axis, A, Fig. 2, and carrying a layer oX< c Fig. 2. of the phosphorescent substance on its periph- ery. A source of light, S, illuminates the travel- ing surface through a fixed vertical slit and the various stages of the phosphorescent glow may be studied by observing at different angles from this opening. In the form used by Waggoner, where a wheel of 45 cm. diameter was used instead of the small drum of Tyndall and of Kester this instrument has many ad- vantages over other forms provided the sub- stance is available in sufficient quantity to coat the entire rim of the wheel. With a speed suit- | eda ect T Fie. 3. able to the substance under observation the whole phenomenon of the decay of phosphores- cence may be viewed at a glance, including progressive changes of intensity and color. The instrument, which we have called the synchronophosphoroscope and which is to be described in the present note, was devised for SCIENCE [N. S. Vou. XLIIT. No. 1122 various studies in phosphorescence to which the previous types are not easily adaptable. It consists of a small synchronous, alternating- current motor A. C., Fig. 3, and a small di- rect-current motor D. C. upon a common shaft. To one end of the shaft is attached a sectored disk, WW, Figs. 3 and 4, with four equal open and four closed sectors, corresponding to the four poles of the A. C. motor. On a circuit of 60 cycles this machine, when brought to speed by the D. C. motor and released, runs steadily at 30 revolutions per second. A “step up” transformer TT’, in the same alternating cur- rent circuit produces discharges at the spark gap, or series of gaps (/), at each alternation, 2. e., 120 times a second. This discharge may be reduced to a single spark by proper adjust- ment of the resistance and capacity of the cir- cuit or more conveniently for many purposes the discharge may be confined to the peak of the wave by means of the four-pointed star- wheel, SS (Figs. 3 and 4), which is mounted Fig. 4. on the shaft and carefully adjusted as to phase. The direct-current motor may also be used to drive the sectored disk at other speeds, in which ease the circuit of the motor A. C. is broken and the discharge is derived from any convenient source capable of producing a proper spark at each quarter revolution. When the sectored disk WW is so adjusted on the shaft that the closed sectors conceal the phosphorescent surface during excitation by the spark, an observer, looking through the open sectors as they pass, sees the phosphores- cence as it appears a few ten thousandths of a second after. The apparatus is thus suitable for the study of phosphorescence of very short: duration or of the earliest stages in cases of slow decay. By shifting the sector on the JUNE 30, 1916] shaft it is possible without variation in the rate of rotation to make observations at the very beginnings of phosphorescence and to compare by simultaneous vision, the appear- ances, just before and immediately after the close of excitation, or on the other hand the earlier with the later stages, up to about .004 second. The photometer, spectroscope, spec- trophotometer, camera, etc., may all readily be used with this form of phosphoroscope and studies of the most varied character become possible. The instrument has already been employed in various determinations, some of the results of which have been reported elsewhere. To study the change of color during the de- cay of phosphorescence in the case of certain sulphides, color photographs!® by the Lumiére process were taken, first of the glowing surface as it appeared through the sectored disk at full speed and® then for comparison with the disk revolving very slowly. To determine the effect of temperature the tube containing the sulphide was mounted within a cylindrical dewar bulb, and the lower end cooled to the temperature of liquid air. By keeping the upper end of the tube at + 20° C. a sharp temperature gradient along the axis of the tube was maintained and the very striking changes of color when the substance, under these circumstances, was excited to phosphores- cence were photographically recorded. Spectroscopic comparisons of the spectrum of the light emitted by the uranyl salts during fluorescence and at various stages during phosphorescence have been made with this phosphoroscope’® and it has been found espe- cially well adapted to the determination of the decay of phosphorescence in cases where, as in that of the urany] salts, the entire process occu- pies only a few thousandths of a second. Epwarp L. NicHots, H. L. Howzs PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF CoRNELL UNIVERSITY, May, 1916 15 Paper read at the April meeting of the Amer- ican Philosophical Society, 1916. 16 Nichols, Proc. Nat. Acad. of Sciences, 1916. SCIENCE 939 SCIENTIFIC QUEEN REARING Havine been engaged for several years in practical breeding of thoroughbred queens for commercial use, and realizing the certainty and definiteness of results if “ Mendel’s laws of heredity could be applied to bee breeding, I undertook to determine, if possible, the man- ner in which some of the most valuable traits of the different races of bees were transmitted through heredity, with the idea of combining in one strain of bees those qualities of recog- nized desirability, such as hardiness, prolifie- ness, longevity, length of tongue and wing ex- panse. Color also was brought under observa- tion as a means by which segregation could be more readily seen if it occurred in the second filial generation, as observed by Mendel in coat color of peas when a green-seeded variety was crossed on a yellow-seeded sort, in his experi- ments with the garden pea. I was therefore much interested to see that Professor Newell, of College Station, Texas, was working along the same lines.1 The con- clusions at which he arrives, in some instances, do not accord with the facts brought out in a series of breeding tests that were conducted to determine certain (the same) characteristics. Dzierzon was the first, I believe, to point out that drones were of the same zygotic constitu- tion as the mother alone, and were produced parthenogenetically, the correctness of which is supported by some very convincing evidence, obtained by other reliable experimenters in the same field. Professor Newell says: Pure Italian queens mated to Carniolan drones produce only Italian drones, and Carniolan queens mated to Italian drones produce only Carniolan drones. This is strictly in accordance with the theory of Dzierzon, the daughters of Italian queens which have mated to Carniolan drones pro- duce both Italian and Carniolan drones, produce them in equal numbers, and do not produce any other kind. (?) This is in accordance with the theoretical expectation under Mendelian law. (?) 1See ‘‘Inheritance in the Honey Bee,’’ Sci- ENCE, N. S., No. 1049, pages 218-219, February 5, 1915. 940 If the constitution of a pure Italian queen be rep- resented by II and of a pure Carniolan queen by CC, the former will produce gametes I and I, and the latter, gametes C and OC, these being Italian and Carniolan drones respectively. (?) These conclusions of Professor Newell are not verified in so far as I have been able to judge from the results obtained by breeding tests that I have made in various ways with drones reared from heterozygous queens. The Gulf Coast prairies near Houston, Texas, are ideal for the complete isolation of mating sta- tions. With little difficulty locations can be found where there are no trees or shrubs of sufficient size to harbor a swarm, within a radius of from five to seven miles, which allow matings to be made with a reasonable degree of certainty. To determine the behavior of the color fac- tor in transmission, a pure strain of golden Italians and gray Caucasians (bred from queens that I imported) were chosen with which to make the primary or initial cross, the former giving workers of the brightest yellow color, while the workers of the latter are dis- tinctly gray without a trace of yellow on the abdominal segments. The result of mating a golden queen to a Caucasian drone is shown by the following scheme. Golden Zygotes Caucasian queen Eee ee drone Te { £Ci gametes Fic} x 1£Ci | | | | | FfliCe FfliCe FfliCe FroCe = F, all heterozygous females, colored like ordinary Italian workers, showing that yellow is domi- nant to gray, a result agreeing entirely with Professor Newell’s observations of the F, Ital- jian-Carniolan Cross. The gray (dark) or re- cessive color does not appear in this genera- tion of workers, the reciprocal cross gives the same results. When queens are reared from these F, larvee they produce drones of the constitution TiCe the same as the mother, a fact verified by subsequent breeding tests. The following scheme shows the result of mating a heterozy- gous queen to a heterozygous drone. SCIENCE [N. 8S. Von. XLIIT. No. 1122 heterozygous heterozygous queen FFILCe ffliCe drone _ Zygotes | | | | | FfllIce FfliCe FfliCe FfiiCC = F, females, as will be observed, segregation occurs in this generation in a true 1: 2:1 Mendelian ratio, or one pure dominant, two heterozygous dominants and one pure recessive, a result similar to that observed by Mendel in the F, of his cross of a tall pea on a short or dwarf variety, in which he got one TT, two Tt, Tt and one tt, or (dwarf) recessive; so it is in the case of the F, workers, in appearance there are three that show the dominant or yellow color of the Italians and one in four is reces- sive, or gray in color. This feature is mark- edly noticeable when queens are reared from larve of this generation; of the number hatched, about 25 per cent. show *the pure golden color, 50 per cent. appear as ordinary Italian queens, with about the same variation in general color (that these are heterozygous in constitution is proved when bred to reces- sive drones) and 25 per cent. of them show only the recessive color, and in subsequent breeding prove to be pure recessives and con- tinue to breed true when mated to recessive drones. The differences in the color of the workers of this F, are riot so accentuated as in the queen reared from the same larve. As shown the pure dominant queens are golden, the impure dominants intermediate in color, while the recessives are gray without any trace of yellow on the abdominal segments. Since drones are produced parthenogenet- ically, we must consider the fact that the egg of the queen at maturation, when not fertil- ized, is reduced from the 2N (or NN) condi- tion to the 2N — 1 (or 2N — 2) condition, show- ing that a whole set, N, of chromosomes is not eliminated in maturation, but only one or two chromosomes. Hence the male condition here is 2N —1 or —2. The condition of the ga- metes formed, however, is N in both sexes. Since in fertilization only 2N zygotes are pro- duced, they are (in the case of bees) invariably females. JUNE 30, 1916] Therefore in parthenogenetic reproduction it seems that the chromosomes FF, or factors for femaleness, are eliminated at parturition, and the resulting zygote is a male. And so far, as observed by the tests of breeding (re- gardless of color) the F, females (queens) produce drones of the constitution ffliCe, and are heterozygous for the factors I and C with the allelomorphs i and ec, whether in queen or drone, and the only gametes that can be formed from these are IC Ic iC ic, when such individuals are bred together, heterozygous workers, as well as both pure dominants and pure recessives are produced, making it pos- sible to recover the pure line of either race used in making the initial or primary cross. CuHarLes W. Quinn Houston Hrieuts, TEXAS SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON THE 555th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 22, 1916, and called to order by President Hay at 8 p.M., with 24 persons present. On recommendation of the council George H. Clements, Washington, D. C., was elected to mem- bership. On recommendation of the council the following resolutions were read: WHEREAS: Professor Wells W. Cooke, distin- guished ornithologist, authority on bird migration, treasurer of the Biological Society of Washing- ton, and an active member of the council of the society, has passed from this life, therefore be it Resolved: That the Biological Society of Wash- ington deeply regrets the death of one for many years so keenly interested in the affairs of the society, one who was a peculiarly efficient officer, a wise counselor and a charming companion, and extends its warmest sympathy to the family of Professor Cooke. N. HouuistrEr, J. W. GIDLEY, ALEX. WETMORE Under the heading Brief Notes, Dr. Howard HE. Ames commented upon a question raised at the 553d meeting as to the existence of a South Ameri- can mammal having the mamme on the dorsal sur- face of the body. He had ascertained that this condition existed-in the coypu (Myocastor coypu). Dr. Ames also offered information in regard to another question propounded at the same meeting as to the ability of camels to swim: According to Dr. E. A. Mearns dromedaries used in Abyssinia Signed SCIENCE 941 were able to swim; and in a book by an English army officer of experience Dr. Ames had found a statement to the effect that camels were powerful Swimmers. Comments followed by the chair and by Dr. L. O. Howard. Under the same heading Dr. F. H. Blodgett, plant pathologist at the A. and M. College of Texas discussed the embryology of the duck weed, Lemna and exhibited seeds, remarking that though the plant was common the seeds were found seldom. Dr. Caldwell, of Chicago, had worked out the de- velopment of Lemna to the point of fertilization. Studies made by Dr. Blodgett carried the embryol- ogy from this point. The talk was illustrated by diagrams. Discussion followed by Mr. W. L. Me- Atee. The first paper of the regular program was by T. H. Kearney: ‘‘Native Plants as Indicators of the Agricultural Value of Land.’’ Mr. Kearney outlined the results of field work carried on with Dr. Shantz in the semiarid regions of the United States west of the 98th meridian of longitude. Typical areas were surveyed in Colorado, the Great Basin and in the southwest desert region. Detailed surveys defined the dominant types of vegetation and their distribution, and these were correlated with the varying degrees of salinity, moisture con- tent and other physical properties of the soil. Areas actually under cultivation gave a check as regards productivity. From these studies it is now possible to predict agricultural possibilities by examination of the original types of vegetation in these regions. Typical plant growths and dia- grams showing distribution were illustrated by lantern slides. Mr. Kearney’s paper was discussed by Messrs. W. L. MeAtee, Wm. Palmer, A. Wetmore and Dr. L. O. Howard. The last paper of the regular program was by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt: ‘‘Comparative Study of Cer- tain Cranial Sutures in the Primates.’’ Dr. Shu- feldt stated that no other single vertebrate struc- ture had so much written about it or was receiving more attention at the present time than the skull in man and the primates in general. This study was begun over two thousand years ago and certain names of bones bestowed by Galen in the second century are still retained. In a series of 6,000 human and about 1,000 ape skulls in the collec- tions of the U. 8S. National Museum Dr. Shufeldt found that while the bones of the face exhibited but little variation, in the bones on the lateral aspect of the cranium were remarkable variations, 942 many of which are not referred to in modern works on anatomy. Frontal, parietal, temporal, ali- sphenoid and malar articulations show many varia- tions in sutural lines. These again are varied by the presence or absence of epactal or epipteric bones. By means of lantern slides and diagrams these were illustrated and compared and the speaker touched upon their value in taxonomy and racial distinction and their pathological signifi- cance. Discussion followed by Drs. L. O. Howard and H. H. Ames and Mr. Wm. Palmer. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Recording Secretary, pro tem. THE 556th regular meeting of the society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, May 6, 1916, called to order by Presi- dent Hay at 8 P.M., with 45 persons present. On recommendation of the council Victor J. Evans, Washington, D. C., was elected to active membership. The president announced the recent deaths of Charles A. Davis and S. M. Gronberger, members of the society. The first communication of the regular pro- gram was by M. W. Lyon, Jr., ‘‘Longevity of Baeteria.’? Dr. Lyon deseribed a culture of Bacillus paratyphosus B which had been hermetic- ally sealed in a glass tube in ordinary culture medium for the past ten years and exhibited a liv- ing subculture which had been made from it. He called attention to the short life of certain organ- isms and the long life of others, especially those producing spores. This communication was dis- cussed by Dr. L. O. Howard and Mrs. E. M. En- lows. The second paper of the regular program was by Dr. L. Stejneger: ‘‘The Amphisbzenoid Lizards and their Geographie Distribution.’’? Dr. Stej- neger called attention to the various theories that have been advanced to account for distribution of animals and explained how the Amphisbenoid lizards with their peculiar morphology and habits were particularly adapted to show former connec- tions with now separated land masses and islands. The distribution and relationships of these lizards clearly showed a former land connection between South America and Africa. Dr. Stejneger’s paper was illustrated by charts, diagrams and maps, showing the classification, the structural taxonomic characters, probable evolution and geographic dis- tribution of the Amphisbeenoid lizards. The chair, Drs. L. O. Howard, C. H. T. Thownsend, General Wilcox and others took part in the discussion. SCIENCE [N. 8. Vou. XLITI. No. 1122 The last paper of the evening was by W. L. McAtee: ‘‘Sketch of the Natural History of the District of Columbia.’’ Mr. MeAtee gave a very interesting historical account of the study of the natural history of the District of Columbia from the earliest accounts of Capt. John Smith who as- cended the Potomac River as far as Little Falls and made notes on the fauna of the region; and the account of other early explorers and travelers, down to recent times. The speaker gave many entertaining quotations from the writings of these early naturalists, told about the early societies in- terested in the natural history of the District, and described the faunal and floral lists that have ap- peared, mentioning the number of species in each, and calling attention to the fact that the District of Columbia is the type locality for many species. Mr. MeAtee’s communication was discussed by the chair, Dr. L. O. Howard, D. E. Lantz and Wm. Palmer. M. W. Lyon, JR., Recording Secretary THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASH- INGTON AT the 488th meeting of the society, held Oc- tober 13, 1915, jointly with the Medical Society of the District of Columbia, Dr. AleS Hrdlitka read a paper on ‘‘The Evolution of Man in the Light of Recent Discoveries and its Relation to Medicine.’’ Human evolution is now an accepted doctrine in natural history. In addition to the older evidence in the analogies between man and other mammals, the resemblances in embryonic de- velopment, the presence of vestiges or reversions, and the like, in recent years a large series of pre- historie remains have completed the demonstra- tion. The evidence is conclusive, although there are as yet important gaps in the line, especially relating to the earlier periods. Among recent changes in man’s ‘‘evolution’’ are deterioration of the teeth and disharmonies in the facial struc- ture. Parts which become less useful are elimi- nated or weakened and degenerated. Progressive and retrogressive changes that are not harmonious or beneficial necessitate medical or surgical inter- vention. The erect posture results in greater dis- orders, as in pregnancy. The great enlargement of the brain results in imperfections. The ability of procreation is adversely affected. The study needs the enlightened help of all branches of medi- cine. DANIEL FOLKMAR, Secretary nf aM Rall A Oe iH ta eee rip i‘ 5 Ma x SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES Qa 3 9088 01301 4576