mn aewnie were a tS mst ceri usa sgp acpi chate Saeitter e at sae nono e pete facia : ~ ng eae << LS Re mr me panera Tee — Rl ie 0 wl «Re ae ~ i esn a ten cms Oe 8 re AS a a saat fits Pa Pea Om a a aR Ea Oe OO a oe cg ea beh Grito tant ase » PENS ee e Bore ie BEA 7S sé SCIENCE A WEEKLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE: S. NEWcoMB, Mathematics; R. S. WoopDwaRD, Mechanics ; E. C. PICKERING, Astronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ; J. LE ContE, Geology ; W. M. Davis, Physiography ; O. C. MArsu, Paleontology ; W. K. BRooKs, C. Hart MERRIAM, Zoology ; S. H. ScupDER, Entomology ; C. E. BrssEy, N. L. Britton, Botany ; HenRy F. Ossorn, General Biology ; C. S. Minor, Embryology, Histology ; H. P. BowpircH, Physiology; J. S. Bruuineas, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ; DANIEL G. Brinton, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology. NEW SERIES. VOLUME VII. JANUARY-JUNE, 1898. $ NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1898 THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY, 41 NORTH QUEEN STREET, LANCASTER, PA. CONTENTS AND INDEX. N.S. VOL. VII-JANUARY TO JUNE, 1898. The Names of Contributors are Printed in Small Capitals. ABBE, CLEVELAND, John A. Gano, 123 Academy of Sciences, Washington, 58, 253, 595 Aéronautical Conference, A. LAWRENCE Rorcon, 846 Agricultural Chemistry, H. W. WILEY, 16, 44 Alabama Industrial and Scientific Society, E. A. SmitH, 70, 504; Geological and Biological Sur- veys, E. A. SMITH, 678 Alchemy, The Revival of, S. H. EMMENS, 386 Allen, Harrison, BuRT G. WILDER, 262 ALLEN, J. A., A Precise Criterion of Species, 801 ALLIN, A., Extra-organic Evolution, 267 American Assoc. forthe Advancement of Science, 487 Anesthesia, Electrical, E. W. SCRIPTURE, 776 Analytical Work, The Dignity of, C. B. DupLEy, 185 Anatomists, Assoc. of American, D. 8. LAMB, 311 Anatomy, The Biological Problems of To-day, BURT G. WILDER, 150 ANDREWS, G. F., A Necessary Correction, 802 Antarctic, Exploration, H. C. Bumpusand A. HEIL- PRIN, 121; Conference, The Royal Society’s, 339 Anthropological Society of Washington, J. -H. Mc- CORMICK, 71, 428, 646 Anthropology, Section of, at Ithaca, W J McGEE, 53; Notes on, D.-G. BRINTON, 57, 88, 125, 165, 204, 236, 274, 312, 347, 380, 416, 456, 491, 525, 593, 629, 668, 706, 742, '767, 795, 826, 851 Applied Chemistry, Third International Congress of, 64, 769; H. W. WILEY, 280 Arches, Causes of Natural, F. S. DELLENBAUGH, 714; Natural, of Kentucky, A. M. MILLER, 845 Arnold, C., Chemie, E. RENour, 467 Arthur, J. C.,and D. T. MacDougal, Living Plants and their Properties, C. E. BESSEY, 496 Astronomical Research and Teaching, G. EK. HALE, 532 Astrophysical, Notes. E. B. F., 417, 795 ATKINSON, GEO. F., Experiments with the Rontgen Rays on Plants, 7; Laboulbeniacez, R. Thaxter, 752 Audubon and his Journals, C. HART MERRIAM, 289 Australasian Assoc. for Advancement of Science, 452 B., C. F., Natural History of the U.S., R. W. Shu- feldt, 357 B., H. C., Penikese, 608 Bailey, E. H.S., Qualitative Analysis, J. E. G., 466 BAILEY, VERNON, Wild Neighbors, 173 BAKER, FRANK, Wilder’s System der Nomenclatur, T. Dwight, 715 BAKER, Marcus, A Century of Geography in the United States, 541 BALDWIN, J. MARK, Isolation and Selection, 638 BANCROFT, W. D., Traité élémentaire de mécanique chimique, P. Duhem, 214 Bancroft, W. D., Phase Rule, R. B. WaARpDER, 138 BANGS, OUTRAM, New Name for Nova Scotia Fox, 271 Barrows, F. W., New York State Science Teachers’ Association, 589 BaRus, C., Mathematical Theory of Top, F. Klein, 469 BAYLEY, W.5S., Description of Minerals of Commer- cial Value, D. M. Barringer, 716 Bayley, W.S., C. R. Van Hise, H. L. Smith, U.S. Geol. Survey Monograph XVIII. J. F. Kemp,137 Beman, W. W., and D. E. Smith, Famous Problems ' of Elementary Geometry, F. N. Conn, 102 BESSEY, CHARLES E., Some Considerations upon the Functions of Stomata, 13 ; A Text-Book of Gen- eral Lichenology, A. Schneider, 68 ; Correction, 136; Current Notes on Botany, 235, 560, 669, 842; High School Botany, 266 ; Ellis’s North Ameri- can Fungi, 346 ; A Laboratory Manual in Practi- cal Botany, C. H. Clark, 465 ; Living Plants and their Properties, J.C. Arthur and D. T. Mac- Dougal, 496 ; Text-Book of Botany, E. Strasbur- ger, F. Noll, H. Schenck and A. F. Schimper, 680 BIGELow, W. D., Pure Food Legislation, 505 Binet, A., L’ Année psychologique, E. B. DELABARRE, 248 Biological, Station, Functions and Features of, C. O. WHITMAN, 37; at Woods Holl, 90; Society of Washington, F. A. Lucas, 108, 180, 287, 357, 395, 468, 501, 646 ; Problems of To-day, H. F. Os- BORN, W. TRELEASE, BURT G.WILDER, J. Mc- KEEN CATTELL, J. Lorn, T. H. MorGan, CHAs. B. DAVENPORT, 145; Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute, 383 Biology, N. Y. Academy of Sciences, GARY N. CAL- KINS, 105, 176, 431, 540, H. E, CRAmMpToN, 647 Bjorling, P. R., Whittaker’s Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket-book, R. H. T., 427 Blanchard, R., Traité de zoologie, W. H. DALL, 537 BLANKINSHIP, J. W., Precise Criterion of Species, 690 Buiss, C. B., N. Y. Acad. of Sci., Anthropology and Psychology, 179 Boas, FRANZ, A Precise Criterion of Species, 860 Bouton, H. CARRINGTON, The Smithsonian Institu- tion, 181; The Metals of the Platinum Group, J. L. Howe, 282 ; Iatro-chemistry in 1897, 397; Al- chemy and Pharmacy, C. J. 8S. Thompson, 499 Bolyai, J., Scientia Spatii Absolute Vera, GrkoRGE BRUCE HALSTED, 861 Boston Society of: Natural History, SAMUEL HEN- SHAW, 180, 251, 575, 682 Botanical, Notes, CHARLES EK. BESSEY, 235, 560, 669, 842; Seminar of the University of Nebraska, 812 Botany, High School, C. E. BEssEy, 266 Breeding of Animals at Woods Holl, March, 1898, H. C. Bumeus, 485 ; April, 1898, A. D. Mean, 702 Bridge in Utah, A Natural, A. WINSLOW, 557 iv SCIENCE. BRINTON, D. G., Current Notes on Anthropology, 57, 88, 125, 165, 204, 236, 274, 312, 347, 380, 416, 456, 491, 525, 593, 629, 668, 706, 742, 767, 795, 826, 851 ; Northwest Central Queensland Abor- igines, W. EH. Roth, 498; The Antiquities of Ten- nessee, Y. P. Thruston, 539; Volkerkunde der deutschen Schutzgebiete, F. von Luschan, 539 British Association in Bristol, Coming Meeting of, 744 Bronchial System of the Mammalia, Eparterial, G. S. HUNTINGTON, 520 Brush, C. F., The Transmission of Radiant Heat by Gases at Varying Pressures, 474; The Measure- ment of Small Gaseous Pressures, 730 Bumpevs, H. C., The American Society of Naturalists, 21; Antarctic Exploration, 121; Breeding of Animals at Woods-Holl in March, 1898, 485 Buresss, E. 8., Torrey Botanical Club, 107, 252, 322, 359, 395, 430, 811, 867 Butler, Nicholas Murray, The Meaning of: Educa- tion, FRANK McMurRRY, 866 ; CALKINS, GARY N., Biology, New York Academy of Sciences, 105, 176, 431, 540; La cellule et les protozoaires, Delage et Herouard, 174 CAMPBELL, M. R., Earthquake shocks, 233 CATTELL, J. McCKEEN, Psychology, The Biological Problems of to-day, 152 ; The Longevity of Scien- tific men, 386; Mrs. Piper, the Medium, 534, 641 ; The Definition of Species, 751 Character Regularly Acquired but never Inherited, F. H. HERRICK, 280 Chemical, American, Society, N. Y., D. WoopMAN, 108, 288, 503, 719, 867; J. L. H., 272; Washing- ton, W. H. Krue, 468, 683, 782 ; V. K. CHES- Nut, 180; Journal, J. E. GILPIN, 144, 323, 396, 611, 681, 809 Chemistry, Third International Congress of Applied, 64, 769 ; H. W. WILEY, 280 ; Inorganic, Notes on, J. L. H., 89, 126, 166, 237, 275, 347, 380, 418, 456, 491, 563, 594, 630, 707, 743, 796, 827, 852 ; Teaching of, W. P. MAson, 734 CHESNUT, V. K., Chemical Society of Washington, 180 Christ, H., Die Farnkriuter der Erde, L. M. UNDER- WOOD, 572 ‘Christian Science,’ 565 Citations, Brevity in, H. B. WARD, 317 Clark. C. H., Practical Botany, C. E. BESSEY, 465 CLAYTON H. H., Weather Harmonics, 243 Clayton, H. H., Exploration of the Air by Means of Kites, R. DeC. WARD, 609 CLEMENTS, F. E., Kern und Zelltheilung bei den Sphacelariaceen, W. T. Swingle, 391 ; Das kleine botanische Practicum, E. Strasburger, 392 Clerke, A. M., A. Fowler, and J. E. Gore, Astronomy, M. B. SNYDER, 778 Climatic Contrasts along the Oroya Railway, R. DEC. WARD, 133 Climatology, as distinguished from Meteorology, M. WHITNEY, 113 Coastal Cloud, South American, R. DEC. WARD, 211 CocKERELL, T. D. A., Botanical Observations on the Azores, W. Trelease, 538; Isolation and Physio- logical Selection, G. J. Romanes, 606; The Di- verse Floras of the Rocky Mountain Region, 625 ; Agricultural Experiment Stations, A. C. True, 753 ; Land Shells of America, H. A. Pilsbry, 806 CoxE, F. N., Famous Problems of Elementary Geome- try, W. W. Beman and D. E. Smith, 102; Cal- culus for Engineers, J. Perry, 103. y CONTENTS AND INDEX. Color, Blindness, OGDEN N. Roop, 785; Vision, W. LE CONTE STEVENS, 513, 677 ; E. B. TITCHENER, 603, 832; C. LADD FRANKLIN, 773 Correction, CHARLES H. BESSEY, 136; G. F. AN- DREWS, 802 Coryphodon Radians, H. F. OSBORN, 585 Crampton, H. E., N. Y. Acad. of Sci., Biology, 647 Crustacean Genus Scyllarides, THEO. GILL, 98 D. JR., J., Birds of Village and Field, F. A. Mer- tiam, 643 DALL, W. H., Recent Progress in Malacology, 334 ; Traité de zoologie, Raphaél Blanchard, 537 DAVENPORT, C. B., Morphogenesis, The Biological Problems of To-day, 158; Precise Criterion of Species, 685, 776 DAvis, W. M., Current Notes on Physiography, 56, 124, 203, 273, 414, 489, 561, 627, 704, 765, 850 ; A View of the Ohio Valley in, 1755, 640 DELABARRE, E. B., L’ Année psychologique, A. Binet, 248 Delage et Herouard, Traité de zoologie concrete: La cellule et les protozoaires, GARY N. CALKINS, 174 DELLENBAUGH, F.S., Causes of Natural Arches, 714 Destruction of the United States Battleship Maine, R. H. THURSTON, 642 DEXTER, E. G., An Interesting Monstrosity, 136 Discussion and Correspondence, 28, 64, 94, 133, 172, 211, 243, 279, 317, 353, 386, 424, 462, 532, 570, 603, 637, 677, 713, 749, 773, 801, 832, 860 Dopcsz, R. E., New York Academy of Sciences, Ge- ology, 36, 178, 503; Reception and Exhibition, 558 DuDLEY, C. B., Dignity of Analytical Work, 185 Duhem, P., Traité élémentaire de mécanique chim- ique, W. D. BANCROFT, 214 Durchmusterung, The Northern, E. C. PICKERING, J. H. HAGEN, M. B. SNYDER, 354 Dwicut, THomMAs, Traité des variations du systéme musculaire de homme, A. F. LeDouble, 212 Dwight, Thomas, Wilder’s System der Nomenclatur, FRANK BAKER, 715 Earthquake Shocks, M. R. CAMPBELL, 233 Ecker, A., and R. Wiedersheim, Anatomie des Frosches, J. 8. KINGSLEY, 463 Eclipse, Total, E. W. MAUNDER, 327 ; 631, 670 Electrical Science, THomAS GRAY, 361, 402 Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund, CHARLES SEDG- wick Minor, 122, 281 Ellis’s North American Fungi, C. E. Brssty, 346 EMMENS, 8. H., The Revival of Alchemy, 386 Emmons, 8. F., A Century of Geography in U.S., 677 Energy of Organisms, Genetic, H. S. WILLIAMS, 721 Engineering Notes, R. H. THuRsSToN, 764 Engelmann Botanical Club, H. voN SCHRENK, 216, 359, 502 Entomological Society of Washington, L. O. How- ARD, 392 Evans, P. N., Chemical Analysis, J. E.G., 466 Evolution, Extra-organic, A. ALLIN, 267 F., E. B., Astrophysical Notes, 417, 795 FARRAND, LivINGsTon, Amer. Psychol. Assoc., 450 FARRINGTON, O. C., The Debt of the World to Pure Science, 605 FAWCETT, CeciLy D., and KARL PEARSON, Inher- itance of the Cephalic Index, 551 Fergusson, 8. P., Exploration of the Air by Means of Kites, R. De C. WARD, 609. NEw SERIES. Vou, VII. Field Columbian Museum, The, 848 Fish, Commission, The U.§8., 58 ; J. W. POWELL, 279 FLETCHER, ALICE C., The Import of the Totem, 296 Fuint, A. S., Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters, 142 Floras of the Rocky Mountain Region, Diverse, T. D. A. COCKERELL, 625 Fonvielle, W. de, Les Ballons-sondes de MM. Her- mite et Besancon, A. L. RoTcH, 33 Food Legislation, W. D. BIGELOW, 505 Forest Reserves, Surveys of, W. F. M., 128 Fox, a New Name for the Nova Scotia, O. BANGS, 271 Frankland, P., Pasteur, EDWIN O. JORDAN, 836 FRANKLIN, C. L., Color Vision, 773 Frost, E. B., The Sun’s Place in Nature, N. Lockyer, 77 Fulgur perversum at Avalon, N. J., Fossil, L. Woo.- MAN, 7o1 G., J. E., Quantitative Chemical Analysis, P. N. Evans, 466 ; E. H. 8. Bailey, 466 Gano, John A., CLEVELAND ABBE, 123 GANONG, W. F., Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology, 117 Geography in the United States, A Century of, Mar- cus BAKER, 541 ; S. F. Emmons, 677 Geologic Atlas of the United States, Folio 36, 286 Geological Society of America, Montreal Meeting, J. F. Kemp, 48, 79 ; Society of Washington, W. F. MORSELL, 71, 143, 216, 358, 429, 502, 612, 810 ; Survey, W.S., Monograph XVIIL., J.F. Kemp, 137 Geology, N. Y. Academy of Sciences, R. E. Dopex, 36, 178, 503 ; H. Ries, 683, 812 ; Journal of, 323, 771 GILBERT, G. K., Physiographiec Nomenclature, 94 Gill, A. H., Oil Analysis, S. F. PEcKHAM, 391 GILL, THEO., Crustacean Genus Scyllarides, 98 GILPIN, J. E., American Chemical Journal, 144, 323, 396, 611, 681, 809 GOEBEL, K., Julius Sachs, 662, 695 GRAy, THOMAS, Electrical Science, 361, 402 Griffin, Bradney Beverley, E. B. W., 523 Grinnell, G. B., and T. Roosevelt, Trail and Camp Fire, C. H. M., 320 Groom, P., Botany, CONWAY MACMILLAN, 466 H., G. B., Thomas Jeffery Parker, 376 H., J. L., Notes on Inorganic Chemistry, 89, 126, 166, 237, 275, 347, 380, 418, 456, 491, 563, 594, 630, 707, 743, 796, 827, 852 ; The American Chemical Society, 272 — HALE, G. E., Astronomical Research and Teaching, 532 ; The Function of Large Telescopes, 605 HALLOCK, W., Artesian Wells of Ia.,W. H. Norton, 499 HALSTED, GEORGE BrRucE, Newcomb’s Philosophy of Hyper-space, 212 ; The Lobachévski Prize, 231; Theoretical and Practical Graphics, F. N. Will- son, 305; Scientia Spatii Absolute Vera, J. Bolyai, 861 Heat Transmission by Gases, C. F. BRUSH, 474 HEILPRIN, ANGELO, Antarctic Exploration, 121 Helm., G., Mathematical Chemistry, the Energetics of Chemical Phenomena, R. B. WARDER, 139 HENSHAW, S., Boston Society of Natural History 180, 251, 575, 682 ; Revision of the Orthopteran Group Melanopli (Acridiz), S. H. Scudder, 497 Heredity, Ancestral, KARL PEARSON, 337 HERRICK, C. L., The Vital Equilibrium and the Ner- vous System, 813 SCIENCE. Vv Herrick, F. H., A Character, regularly Acquired but never Inherited, 280 HoupEN, E.S., The Longevity of Scientific Men, 462 Horn, George H., JOHN B. SMITH, 73 HowaArp, L. O., Les Cécidomyies, P. Marchal, 246 ; Entomological Society of Washington, 392 Howse, J. L., A. Joly, 230 Howe, J. L., Bibliography of the Metals of the Plati- num Group, H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, 282 HUNTINGTON, G. S., Eparterial Bronchial System of the Mammalia, 520 Hutton, F. W., Isolation and Selection, 570 Hydrogen, Liquid, 745, 855 Hyper-space, Philosophy of, Simon NEwcoms, 1; GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED, 212 Iatro-Chemistry, H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, 397 Tgneous Rocks, Classification of, H. W. TURNER, 622 INGERSOLL, ERNEST, Wild Neighbors, 172 Inheritance of the Cephalic Index, C. D. FAWCETT and KARL PEARSON, 551 Intelligence, Animal, EDWARD THORNDIKE, 818 Iowa Academy of Sciences, HERBERT OSBORN, 85 Isolation and Selection, F. W. Hurron, 570; H. S. WILLIAMS, 637; J. MARK BALDWIN, 638 JAMES, W., Mrs. Piper, The Medium, 640 JASTROW, JOSEPH, The Longevity of Scientific Men, 463 ; Stereoscopic Vision, 615 JENNINGS, H. S., The Development of the Frog’s Egg, T. H. Morgan, 283 Joly, A., J. L. Howe, 230 ” Jones, H. C., Physical Chemistry in Leipzig, 786 JORDAN, EpwIn O., Pasteur, P. Frankland, 836 Journals, Scientific, 144, 323, 360, 395, 432, 500, 574, 611, 644, 680, 717, 782, 809, 839 Jupp, C. H., Binocular Factors in Monocular Vision, 269 ; Retinal Images and Binocular Vision, 425 Kemp, J. F., Geological Society of America, 48, 79 ; U. S. Geological Survey, Monograph xvili., C. R. Van Hise, W.S. Bayley and H. L. Smith, 137 Kenyon, F. C., Terminology of the Neurocyte, 424 Keyes, C. R., Modern Stratigraphical Nomenclature, 571 ; The Myth of the Ozark Isle, 588 Kimball, Alonzo 8., T. C. M., 54 Kinestey, J. S., Anatomie des Frosches, A. Ecker and R. Wiedersheim, 463 Klein, F., Mathematical Theory of the Top, C. BARus, 469 Knieut, W. C., Prehistoric Quartzite Quarries in Central Eastern Wyoming, 308 Kollmann, J., Lehrbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, A. SOHAPER, 779 Krue, W. H., Chemical Society of Washington, 468, 683, 782 Ktmmet, H. B., Age of the Artifact-bearing Sand at Trenton, 115 L., F. A., Zoological Notes, 413 Ladd, G. T., Outlines of Descriptive Psychology, H. C. WARREN, 610 Lamarck and a ‘ Perfecting Tendency,’ C. O. WHIT- MAN, 99 Lamp, D. S., Assoc. of American Anatomists, 311 Lamb, H., Infinitesimal Calculus, W. F. OsGoop, 678 Lanciani, R., Ancient Rome, J. R. WHEELER, 244 Le Double, A. F., Traité des variations du systéme musculairede ’homme, THomAS Dwicut, 212 vi SCIENCE. LEE, F. 8., American Physiological Society, 217 Lobachévski Prize, First Award of, GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED, 231 Lockyer, Norman, Eclipses, H. W. WRIGHT, 99 ; The Sun’s Place in Nature, E. B. Frost, 777 LoEB, J., Physiology, The Biological Problems of To- day, 154 Longevity of Scientific Men, J. McKrEN CATTELL, 386 ; E.S. HOLDEN, 462 ; JosepH JAstRow, 463 Lucas, F. A., Information desired, 68 ; Biological So- ciety of Washington, 108, 180, 287, 357, 395, 468, 501, 646 Luschan, F. von, Beitrige zur Volkerkunde der deutschen Schutzgebiete, D. G. BRINTON, 539 M., T. C., Alonzo S. Kimball, 54 M., W. F., Surveys of Forest Reserves, 128 McCormick, J. H., The Anthropological Society of Washington, 71, 428, 646 MAcDoueat, D. T., Pflanzenphysiologie, W. Pfefier, 318 ; Plant Physiology, 369 McGeEE, W J, Anthropology at Ithaca, 53 MACMILLAN CoNWAY, Pteridophytes and Gymno- sperms, 161 ; Elementary Botany, P. Groom, 466 McMurry, FRANK, The Meaning of Education, Nicholas Murray Butler, 866 Malacology, Recent Progress in, W. H. DALL, 334 Mat, F. P., Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikro- skopischen Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, A. Oppel, 426 Manacéine, M. de, Sleep, G. T. W. PAtRIcK, 175 Marchal, P., Les Cécidomyies, L. O. HowArp, 246 Marsh’s Collections, Presentation of, to Yale Univer- sity, 77 Marsupial, A Placental, H. F. 0., 454 Mason, Oris T., Travel and Transportation, 66 Mason, W. P., The Teaching of Chemistry, 734 Mathematical Society, American, 238, 564, 718 MAUNDER, E. W., Total Eclipse of the Sun, 237 MEAD, A. D., The Breeding of Animals at Woods Holl during the Month of April, 1898, 702 Mechanical Engineers, The American Society of, R. H. THURSTON, 824 MELDOLA, R., Proposed Sylvester Memorial, 65 MERRIAM C. HART, Mammalium tam Viventium quam Fossilium, E. L. Trouessart, 30 ; Audubon and his Journals, 289 ; Trail and Camp Fire, G. B. Grinnell and T. Roosevelt, 320 Merriam, F. A., Birds, J. D., JR., 643 Merrill, G. P., Stones for Building and Decoration, its dele Mts Bip) Meteorological Work, Harvard’s, on the West Coast of South America, R. DeC.WaRpD, 95 Meteorology, Notes on, R. DEC. WARD, 415, 524, 628, 766, 793 ; and Terrestrial Magnetism, Re- prints of Rare Works on, 527 Michigan, Natural History Survey, V. M. SPALDING, 577 MILLER, A. M., Natural Arches of Kentucky 845 Mimicry in Insects, ROLAND TRIMEN, 433 Minot, CHARLES SEDGWICK, Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund, 122, 281 Miron, F., Les huiles minérales, S. F. PeckHAm, 389 Models of Extinct Vertebrates, H. F. OsBorN, 841 Monstrosity, An Interesting, E. G. DEXTER, 136 Morean, T. H., Developmental Mechanics, The Biological Problems of To-day, 156 Morgan, T. H., The Development of the Frog’s Kgg, H. S. JENNINGS, 283 ; CONTENTS AND INDEX. Morphological Society, The American, G. H. PARKER, 194, 220 Mors, E. §., Spiritualism as a Survival, 749 MORSELL, W. F., Geological Society of Washington, 71, 143, 216, 358, 429, 502, 612, 810 Mourlon, M., et G. Simoens, Bibliographia geologica F. B. WEEKS, 808 Naples, ‘University Table’ at Biological Labora- tory, 91 National Academy of Sciences, 613 Naturalists, American Society of, H. C. Bumpus, 21 NEWBOLD, WM. ROMAINE, The Psychology of Sug- gestion, Boris Sidis, 863 New Books, 72, 144, 180, 216, 288, 324, 432, 468, 540, 576, 648, 720, 812, 840, 868 NEWcomp, Simon, Philosophy of Hyper-space, 1 New York, Academy of Sciences, Geology, R. E. Dodge, 36, 178, 503 ; H. Ries, 683, 812 ; Biology, G. N. CALKINS, 105, 176, 431, 540 ; H. E. CRAMP- TON, 647; Psychology and Anthropology, C. B Buiss, 179; Reception and Exhibition, R. E. DonGE, 558; Address of the President, H. F. OSBORN, 649; State Science Teachers’ Associa- tion, F. W. BARRows, 589 ; Zoological Park, H. F. OSBORN, 759 Nouan, E. J., Academy of Natural Sciences of Phil- adelphia, 681, 720, 784, 840 Nomenclature, Physiographic, G. K. GILBERT, 94 Norris, J. F., Organic Chemistry W. A. Neyes, 69 Norton, W.H., Artesian Wells of Ia., W. HALLOcK, 499 Noyes, W. A., Organic Chemistry, J. F. Norris, 69 O., H. F., Paleontological Notes, 164; A Placental Marsupial, 454 Observations on the Azores, 709 Observatory, U.S. Naval, 111; The Allegheny, 382,418 Ohio, State Academy of Sciences, R. OSBURN, 141; Valley in 1755, W. M. Davis, 640 Oppel, A. Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, F. P. MALL, 427 OSBORN, H., Iowa Academy of Sciences, 85 OsBORN, HENRY F., Paleontology, The Biological Problems of To-day, 145; A Complete Skeleton of Teleoceres, 554 ; of Coryphodon Radians, 585 ; Address of the President, N. Y. Academy of Sciences, 649; N. Y. Zoological Park, 759 ; Models of Extinet Vertebrates, 841 OsBURN, R., Ohio State Academy of Sciences, 141 Oseoop, W. F., Infinitesimal Calculus, H. Lamb, 678 PACKARD, A. S., North American Orthoptera, S. H. Scudder, 33 Packard A. S., Entomology, W. M. WHEELER, 834 Paleontological Notes, H. F. O., 164 Paleontology, Presentation of Professor Marsh’s Col- lection to Yale University, 77. PARKER, G. H., American Morphological Society, 194, 220 Parker, Thomas Jeffery, G. B. H., 376, and W. A. Haswell, A Text-Book of Zoology, E. B. W., 535 PatRIcK, G. T. W., Sleep, M. de Manacéine, 175 PEARSON, KARL, On the Law of Ancestral Heredity, 337; and C. D. FAWcETT, The Cephalic Index, 551 PECKHAM, S., Les huiles minérales, F. Miron, 389 ; Oil Analysis, A. H. Gill, 391 Penikese, H. C. B., 608 Perry, J., Calculus for Engineers, F. N. Cour, 103 NEW vi | VoL. VII. Pfeffer, W., Pflanzenphysiologie, D. T. MAcDoUGAL, 318 ; Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences, HE. J. NOLAN, 681, 720, 784, 840 Philosophical Society of Washington, E. D. PREs- TON, 142, 215, 251, 321, 394, 502, 647, 719, 839 Physical Chemistry in ‘Leipzig, Opening of the New Laboratory for, H. C. JONES, 786 Physiographic Nomenclature, G. K. GILBERT, 94 Physiography, Notes on, W. M. Davis, 56, 124, 203, 273, 414, 489, 561, 627, 704, 765, 850 Physiological Society, The American, F.S. LEE, 217 Photometer, Flicker, OGDEN N. Roop, 757 PICKERING, E. C., J. H. HAGEN, M. B. SNYDER, The Northern Durchmusterung, 354 Pictet, Raoul, Etude critique du matérialisme et du spiritualisme, E. A. STRONG, 864 Pilsbry, H. A., Land Shells of "America, a Ds Ar. COCKERELL, 806 Piper, Mrs., the Medium, J. MCKEEN CATTELL, 534, 641 ; W. JAMES, 640 Plant, Morphology and Physiology, Society for, W. F. GANONG, 117; Physiology, The Province and Problems of, D. T. MAcDouGaAL, 369 Poole, H., The Calorific Power of Fuels, R. H. THURSTON, 574 PowELL, J. W., President McKinley’s Appointment of a Fish Commissioner, 279 Prehistoric Quartzite Quarries, W. C. KNIGHT, 308 Pressures, Gaseous Measurement of, C. F. BRuSH, 730 PRESTON, E. D., Philosophical Society of Washing- ton, 142, 215, 251, 321, 394, 502, 647, 719, 839 Psychological Association, Sixth Annual Meeting of the American, LIVINGSTON FARRAND, 450 Psychology, The New, E. W. SCRIPTURE, 750 Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms, Relationships be- tween, CONWAY MACMILLAN, 161 Pure Science, The Debt of the World to, J. J. STEVENSON, 325 ; O. C. FARRINGTON, 605 Reeve, S. A., Entropy-Temperature Analysis of Steam-Engine Efficiencies, R. H. THURSTON, 427 RENOUF, E., Chemie, C. Arnold, 467 Ryngota, The Mouth Parts of, JOHN B. SMITH, 374 Rice, WILLIAM NortH, Volcanoes of North Amer- ica, I. C. Russell, 34 Ries, H., N. Y. Academy of Sciences, Geology and Mineralogy, 683, 812 Rogers, Wm. A., W. LEC. S., 447 Romanes, G. J., ” Darwin and ‘after Darwin, T. D. A. CocKERELL, 606 Rontgen Rays on Plants, Gro. F. ATKINSON, 7 Roop, OGDEN N., On a Flicker Photometer, 757 ; On Color Blindness, 785 Rorcn, A. LAWRENCE, Les Ballons-Sondes, W.. de Fonvielle, 33 ; Aéronautical Conference, 846 Roth, W. E., Northwest Central Greenland Aborig- ines, D. G. BRINTON, 498 Royal Society, Conversazione of the, 738 Rubber, Singular Stress-Strain Relations of, R. H. THURSTON, 522 Russell, I. C., Volcanoes of North America, WILLIAM NortTH RICE, 34 8., W. LEC., William A. Rogers, 447 ‘Sachs, Julius, K. GOEBEL, 662, 695 St. Louis Acad. Sci., W.TRELEASE, 143, 287, 429, 648 ScHAPER, A., Lehrbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, J. Kollmann, 779 SCIENCE. Vil Schenk on the Predetermination of Sex, 736. Schneider, A., General Lichenology, C. E. BEssry, 68 SCHRENK, H. von, Englemann Botanical Club, 216, 359, 502 Scientific Notes and News, 23, 58, 90, 128, 167, 205, 237, 276, 313, 348, 382, 418, 457, 492, 526, 564, 595, 631, 670, 708, 744, 768, 797, 827, 854 ; Alli- ance of New Vork, IN Proposed Building for, 408 SCRIPTURE, E. W., The New Psychology, 750 ; Elec- trical Anesthesia, 776 Scripture, E. W., The ‘New Psychology, TON, 213 Scudder, 8S. H., North American Orthoptera, A. 8. PACKARD, 33 ; the Orthopteran Group Melanopli (Acridiz), S. HensHAw, 497 Scyllarides, Crustacean Germs, THEO. GILL, 98 Shufeldt, R. W., Natural History of the U.S., C. F. B., 357 Sidis, Boris, The Psychology of Suggestion, WILLIAM ROMAINE NEWBOLD, 863 Situ, E. A., Alabama Industrial and Scientific So- ciety, 70, 504 ; Geological and Biological Sur- veys of Alabama, 678 Smith, H. L., U.S. Geological Survey, Monograph XVIIL., J. F. Kemp, 137 SmitH, JOHN B., George H. Horn, 73; The Mouth- parts of the Rhyngota, 374 Smithsonian Institution, The, 255 ; Memorial of the, H. CARRINGTON Bouton, 181 SNYDER, M. B., Astronomy, A. M. Clerke, A. Fowler, J. E. Gore, 778 Societies and Academies, 36, 70, 104, 141, 176, 215, 287, 321, 357, 392, 428, 468, 501, 540, 575, 612, 646, 681, 718, 782, 810, 839, 867 SPALDING, V. M., A Natural History Survey of Michigan, 577 Species, A Precise Criterion of, CHAs. B. DAVEN- PORT, 685, 776; J. W. BLANKINSHIP, 690; J. A. ALLEN, 801; FRANZ Boas, 860 ; Definition of, J. MCKEEN CATTELL, 751 Speyers, C. L., Text-book of Physical Chemistry, FERDINAND G. WIECHMANN, 281 Spiritualism as a Survival, E. S. Morse, 749 ‘Spoils System,’ Logarithms on, 109 StaNLEY, H. M., Psychology and Memory, 713 Steam Engine, Multiple-cylinder, R.H.THuURSTON, 304 Stereoscopic Vision, JOSEPH JASTROW, 615 STEVENS, W. LE Conte, Muscular Disturbances in Monocular Vision, 353 ; Color Vision, 513, 677 ; Laboratory Experiments in General Physics, 8. W. Stratton and R. A. Millikan, 836 STEVENSON, J. J., The Debt of the World to Pure Science, 325 Stomata, Functions of, CHARLES E. BESSEY, 13 Strasburger, E., Das kleine botanische Practicum, F. E. CLEMENTS, 392; E. Noll, H. Schenck, and A. F. Schimper, Botany, C. E. BESsSEy, 680 Stratigraphical Nomenclature, C. R. KEYES, 571 STRATTON, G. M, The New Psychology, E. W. Scrip- ture, 213 Stratton, S. W., and R. A. Millikan, Laboratory Ex- periments in Physics, W. LE CONTE STEVENS, 836 Stricker, Solomon, 633 Srrone, E. A., Zeitschrift fiir den physikalischen und chemischen Unterricht, 324 ; Erkenntnisstheoret- ische Grundztige der Naturwissenschaften, 12% Volkmann, Etude critique du matérialisme et du spiritualisme, Raoul Pictet, 864 Suess, E., La face de la terre, J. B. WooDWoRTH, 803 G. M. STRAT- vill Swingle, W. T., Sphacelariaceen, F. E. CLEMENTS, 391 Sylvester Memorial, R. MELDOLA, 65, 526 Teaching of Chemistry, W. P. MAson, 734 Telegraphy, Wireless, 791 Teleoceres, A Complete Skeleton of, H. F. OSBORN, 554 Telescopes, The Function of Large, G. E. HALE, 650 Temperatures, Water Surface, of Lake Titicaca, R. DEC. WARD, 28 Thaxter, R., Laboulbeniaceze, GEO. F. ATKINSON, 752 Thompson, C. J. 8., Alchemy and Pharmacy, H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, 499 THORNDIKE, EDWARD, Animal Intelligence, 818 Thruston, Y. P., The Antiquities of Tennessee and the Adjacent States, D. G. BRINTON, 539 THURSTON, R. H., Multiple-Cylinder Steam Engine, 303 ; Stones for Building and Decoration, G. P. Merrill, 392; Entropy-Temperature Analysis, S. A. Reeve, 427; Whittaker’s Mechanical Engi- neer’s Pocket-book, P. R. Bjorling, 427 ; Singular Stress-Strain Relations of Rubber, 522 ; "The Cal- orific Power of Fuels, H. Poole, 574 ; Destruction of the United States Battleship Maine, 642; Il Codice Atlantico di Leonardo da Vinci, 755 ; En- gineering Notes, 764; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 824 TITCHENER, E. B., Color Vision, 603, 832 Titchener, E. B. , Psychology, H. C. WARREN, 780 Torrey Botanical Club, E. S. BURGEss, 107, 252, 322) 359, 395, 430, 811, 867 Totem, The Import of. the, ALICE C. FLETCHER, 296 Travel and Transportation, OTIs T. Mason, 66 TRELEASE, W., Academy of Sciences of St. Louis, 148, 287, 429, 648 ; Botany, The Biological Prob- lems of To-day, 147 Trelease, W., Botanical Observations in the Azores, T. D. A. COCKERELL, 538 TRIMEN, R., Mimicry in Insects, 433 Trouessart, E. L., Catalogus Mammalium tam vi- ventium quam fossilium, C. HART MERRIAM, 30 True, A. C., Agricultural Experiment Stations, T. D. A. COCKERELL, 753 TURNER, H. W., Classification of Igneous Rocks, 622 UNDERWOOD, LUCIEN M., Die Farnkrauter der Erde, H. Christ, 572 University and Educational Notes, 27, 63, 94, 133, 172, 210, 242, 279, 316, 353, 385, 423, 461, 495, 532, 569, 602, 636, 676, 712, 747, 773, 801, 831, 859 Van Hise, C. R., W.S. Bayley and H. L. Smith, U. S. Geological Survey, Monograph XVIII., J. F. KEmpP, 137 Vision, Binocular Factors in Monocular, C. H. Jupp, 269 ; Retinal Imagesana Binocular, C. H. Jupp, 425 ; Muscular Disturbances in Monocular, W. LE CONTE STEVENS, 353 Vital Equilibrium and the Nervous System, C. L. HERRICK, 813 SCIENCE. CONTENTS AND INDEX. Volkmann, P. Erkenntnistheoretische Grundziige der Naturwissenschaften, E. A. STRONG, 864 W., E. B., Bradney Beverley Griffin, 523 ; Zoology, T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, 535 WaAvbDswortTH, M E., Zirkelite, 30 WARD, H. B., Brevity in Citations, 317 WARD, R. DEC., Water Surface Temperatures of Lake Titicaca, 28 ; Harvard’s Meteorological Work on the W. Coast of S. A., 95; Climatic Contrasts © along the Oroya Railway, 133 ; South American Coastal Cloud, 211 ; Notes on Meteorology, 415, 524, 628, 766, 793; Exploration of the Air by Means of Kites,S.P. Fergusson, H. H. Clayton, 609 WARDER, R. B., The Phase Rule, W. D. Bancroft, 138 ; The Energetics of Chemical Phenomena, G. Helm, 139 WARREN, H.C., Psychology, G. T. Ladd, 610 ; E. B. Titchener, 780 Washington, Academy of Sciences, 58, 253, 595 Wattenwyl, B. von, The Coloration of Insects, 140 Weather Harmonics, H. H. CLAYTON, 243 WEEES, F. B., Bibliographia geologica, M. Mourlon et G. Simeons, 808 WHEELER, J. R., Ancient Rome, R. Lanciani, 244 WHEELER, W. M., Entomology, A. S. Packard, 834 WHITMAN, C. O., Functions and Features of a Biologi- cal Station, 37 ; Zoology at Univ. of Chicago, 67 ; Lamarck and ‘a Perfecting Tendency,’ 99 WHITNEY, M., Climatology and Meteorology, 113 WIECHMANN, F. G., Text-book of Physical Chemis- try, C. L. Speyers, 281 Wild Neighbors, ERNEST INGERSOLL, 172 ; VERNON BAILEY, 173 WILDER, Burt G. , Anatomy, the Biological Problems of To- -day, 150 ; Harrison Allen, 962 WILEY, H. W., Agricultural Chemistry, 16, 44 ; In- ternational Congress of Applied Chemistry, 280 WILLIAMS, H.S., Isolation and Selection, 637 ; On the Genetic Energy of Organisms, 721 Willson, F. N., Theoretical and Practical Graphics, GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED, 355 WINsLow, A., A Natural Bridge in Utah, 557 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, A. S. Frint, 142 WoopMAN, DURAND, American Chemical Society, 108, 288, 503, 719, 867 WoopwortH, J. B., La face de la terre, E. Suess, 803 WooLMAN, L, Fossil Fulgur perversum at Avalon, Wo Voy 751 WRIGHT, 'W. H., Recent and Coming Eclipses, N. Lockyer, 99 X., Time Wasted, 66 X-Rays, Properties of, 564 Zirkelite, M. E. WADSWORTH, 30 Zoological, Club, University of Chicago, 104, 321, 576 ; Notes, F. A. L., 413; Garden, The Phila- delphia, 632; Society of London, 741 Zoology, at the University of Chicago, ©. O. WHIT- MAN, 67; International Congress of, 167 “MOlaq Ydvisojoyd uanyuoy ‘asoqe ydeasojoyd eus0u i Dpnpun vipunjjed (‘SJULTq Uo shvy ussjuoy oy} YgIM syuomisedxy Arvayarijerg awog Jo y1oday, uo uosuiyzy “YH Jossajorg Aq apoHay Sayeysnqiy saeastens as on MENTE - = : oe = i a a iN T M1VTd “ITA “OA ‘S'N “HONALOS SCIENCE Epiror1aAL CommMitTEeE: S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WoopWARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING, Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry; J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MARSH, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks, C. Hart MERRIAM, Zoology; 8. H. SCUDDER, Entomology; C. E. Brssry, N. L. BRirron, Botany; Henry F. OssBorn, General Biology; C. S. Minor, Embryology, Histology; H. P. BowpitcH, Physiology; J. S. BILLINGs, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology. Fripay, JANUARY 7, 1898. CONTENTS: The Philosophy of Hyper-space: PROFESSOR S. ISTEANCONOS csogonoo9ce0s09 50005 sosonn poo nOEbeSbooae.EEEcoOscS 1 Report upon some Preliminary Experiments with the Rénigen Rays on Plants: PROFESSOR G. F. ATEKINSON..........0.c0ecs0e0es Doaietselielarectenemncirieetsesd 7 Some Considerations upon the Functions of Stomata : PROFESSOR CHARLES EH. BESSEY.........0..0...00008 13 Recent Progress in Agricultural Chemistry: DR. H. NAYS) YAO S.C casccpandosadodcobasneeHecddacseocnosnecsasaces 16 The American Society of Naturalists: PROFESSOR FE Cs BUMPUS i esctattt sisiaccecesstsccssselsebececeteece 21 Scientific Notes and News.........0.cccecceecceseesecesesens 23 University and Educational News..............0..0s0.s00 27 Discussion and Correspondence :— Water Surface Temperature of Lake Titicaca: Rk. DEC. WARD. Zirkelite—A Question of Prior- ity: PRESIDENT M. E. WADSWORTH............. 28 Scientific Literature :— Catalogus Mammatium tam viventium quam fos- silium: DR. C. HART MERRIAM. Guide to the Genera and Classification of the North, American Orthoptera found north of Mexico: PROFESSOR A. S. Packarp. Les Ballons-Sondes: DR. A. LAWRENCE RotcH. Russell’s Volcanoes of North America: PROFESSOR WM. NoRTH RICE......... 30 Societies and Academies :-— New York Academy of Sciences—Section of Geol- ogy: PROFESSOR RICHARD E. DODGE...... ..... 36 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y. THE PHILOSOPHY OF HYPER-SPACE.* THERE is a region of mathematical thought which might be called the fairyland of geometry. The geometer here disports himself in a way which, to the non- mathematical thinker, suggests the wild flight of an unbridled imagination rather than the sober sequence of mathematical demonstration. Imaginative he certainly does become, if we apply this term to every conception which lies outside of our human experience. Yet the results of the hypoth- eses introduced into this imaginary uni- verse are traced out with all the rigor of geometric demonstration. It is quite fit- ting that one who finds the infinity of space in which our universe is situated too nar- row for his use should, in his imaginative power, outdo the ordinary writer of fairy tales, when he evokes a universe sufficiently extended for his purposes. The introduction of what is now very generally called hyper-space, especially space of more than three dimensions, into mathematics has proved a stumbling block to more than one able philosopher. The question whether a fourth dimension may possibly exist, and whether it can be legiti- mately employed for any mathematical pur- pose, is one on which clear ideas are not universal. I do not, however, confine the term ‘ hyper-space’ to space of more than *Address of the President before the American Mathematical Society, December 29, 1897. 2 SCIENCE. three dimensions. A hypothesis which is simpler in its fundamental basis, and yet seems absurd enough iu itself, is that of what is sometimes, improperly I think, called curved space. This also we may call hyper-space, defining the latter in general as space in which the axioms of the Euclid- ean geometry are not true and complete. Curved space and space of four or more dimensions are completely distinct in their characteristics, and must, therefore, be treated separately. The hypothesis of a fourth dimension can be introduced in so simple a way that it should give rise to no question or difficulty whatever. Indeed, the whole conception is so simple that I should hardly deem it necessary to explain the matter to a pro- fessional mathematical student. But as we all have to come in contact with educated men who have not had the time to com- pletely master mathematical conceptions, and yet are interested in the fundamental philosophy of our subject, I have deemed it appropriate to present the question in what seems to me the simplest light. The student of geometry begins his study with the theory of figures ina plane. In this field he reaches certain conclusions, among them that only one perpendicular can be drawn to a line at a given point, and that only one triangle can be erected with given sides on a given base in a given order. Having constructed this plane geometry, he passes to geomety of three dimensions. Here he enters a region in which some of the propositions of plane geometry cease to be true. An infinity of perpendiculars can now be drawn to a given line at a given point, and an infinity of tri- angles can be constructed on a given base with given sides. He has thus considered in succession geometry of two dimensions, and then passed to geometry of three di- mensions. Why should he stop there? You reply, perhaps, because there are only [N. 8S. Vou. VII. No. 158. © three dimensions in actual space. But in making hypotheses we need not limit our- selves to actualities; we can improve our methods of research, and gain clearer con- ceptions of the actual by passing outside and considering the possible. For logical purposes there is no limit to the admissibility of hypotheses, provided we consider them purely as hypotheses, and do not teach that they are actual facts of the universe. It is, therefore, perfectly legitimate to inquire what our geometry would be if, instead of being confined to three dimensions, we introduced a fourth. Many curious conclusions follow. When we are confined to a plane a circle com- pletely bounds a region within the plane, so that we cannot pass from the inside to the outside of the circle without intersecting it. Beings conscious only of two dimensions and moving only in two dimensions, and placed inside such a material circle, would find themselves completely imprisoned, with no possibility of getting outside. But give them a third dimension, with the power to move into it, and they simply step over the circle without breaking it. They do not have to even touch it. Liv- ing, as we do, in space of three dimen- sions, the four walls, pavement and ceiling of a dungeon, confine a person so com- pletely that there is no possibility of escap- ing without making an opening through the bounding surface. But give us a fourth dimension, with the faculty of moving into it, and we pass completely outside of our three dimensional universe, by a single step, and get outside the dungeon as easily as a man steps over a line drawn on the ground. Were motion in the fourth dimen- sion possible, an object moving in that dimension by the smallest amount would be completely outside of what we recognize as the universe, and would, therefore, be- come invisible. It could then be turned around in such a way that on being brought JANUARY 7, 1898. ] back it would be obverted, or appear as in a looking glass. A man capable of such a motion would come back into our sight similarly obverted, his left side would now be his right, without any change having taken place in the relative positions of the ‘particles of his body. The somerset he would have turned would have completely obverted every atom and molecule of his body without introducing any disturbance into its operations. This possibility of obversion brings in a curious question concerning the rigor of one of the fundamental propositions in ele- mentary geometry. Euclid proves by super- position that the two triangles in a plane having two angles and the included side equal are equal to each other. In the dem- onstration it is assumed that the triangles can be made congruent by simply placing one upon the other without taking it out of the plane. From this the conclusion is drawn that the same conclusion holds true if one of the triangles be obverted. But in this case they cannot be brought into con- gruence without taking one of them out of the plane and turning it over. dimension is thus assumed in geometry in- _ volving only two dimensions. Now consider the analogous case in ‘space. Two pyramids upon congruent bases may be proved equal by bringing them into congruence with each other. But suppose that they differ only in that one is the obverse of the other, so that they could be brought into congruence only by looking at one of them in a mirror and then placing the other into congruence with the image of the first as seen in the mirror. Would we detract from the rigor of the demonstration by assuming the possibility of such an obversion without changing the volume of the pyramid? With a fourth dimension we should have no detraction from rigor. We would simply obvert the pyramid as we would turn over the triangle. The third- SCIENCE. 3 The question of the fourth dimension as a reality may be considered from two points of view, its conceivability and its possible objective reality. If by conceivability we mean the power of being imaged in the mind it must be admitted that it is ab- solutely inconceivable. We have no diffi- culty in forming a visual conception of three lines passing through the same point, each of which is at right angles to the other two. Such is the familiar system of coordi- nate axesin space. But he who would con- ceive a fourth dimension must be able to imagine a fourth axis perpendicular to all three of the others. This clearly transcends all possibility even of imagination. The fourth dimension in this sense is certainly inconceivable. The question of the objective possibility of the fourth dimension is quite a distinct one from that of its conceivability. The latter limitation upon our faculties grows out of the objective fact that we and our ancestors have had no experience of a fourth dimension; that we have always lived in a universe of three dimensions only. But we should not too readily con- clude that all being is necessarily confined to these three dimensions. Those who speculate on the possible have taken great pleasure in imagining another universe alongside of our own and yet distinct from it. The mathematician has shown that there is nothing absurd or contradictory in such a supposition. But when we come to the question of physical fact we must admit that there appears to be no evidence of such a universe. If it exists, none of its agencies intrude into our own universe, at least in the opinion of sober think- ers. The intrusion of spirits from without into our world is a favorite idea among primitive men, but tends to die out with enlightenment and civilization. Yet there is nothing self-contradictory or illogical in the supposition. The fish that swims the 4 SCIENCE. ocean experiences objects which, to him, seem to come from outside his universe, steamships for example. If our atmos- phere had been opaque to the rays of light from the sun, or even if it had been so filled with clouds and vapor that we could never see outside of it, we also should have had a similar experience. But we may be said, in a certain sense, to see through the whole of our conceivable space with the aid of our telescopes, and the general tendency of scientific thought at the present time is toward the conclusion that no natural agency of which we can trace the operation originates outside the space into which our telescopes may penetrate. Our uni- verse forms, so to speak, a closed system. This is true apparently even of agencies so subtle as those which give vibrations to ether. If there is any agency which we could imagine to connect us with an out- side sphere it is certainly the luminiferous ether. But should this ether enter into a fourth dimension the intensity of light and radiant heat would diminish as the cube of the distance and not as the square. To speak more accurately, radiance emanating from an incandescent body would be en- tirely lost—would pass completely out of our universe. The fact that it is not lost, and indeed the general theory of the con- servation of energy, shows that there is no interchange of energy between our universe and any possible one lying in another di- mension of space. We may regard the limitations of the dimension of space to three as expressing in a certain way a physical fact. Our con- ception of space is originally based upon the possibility of motion. The threefold. posibility of relative motion can be reduced to a physical fact in this way. Leta point be fixed at one end of a rod, the other end of which is immovably fixed toa wall. The point can then have motion over the surface of a sphere whose center is at the fixed [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 158. point and whose radius is the length of the rod. Now fix one end of a second rod to another point of the plane and bring the two ends of the rods together, and fix the point on both ends; then the point can only move in acircle. Fasten it to a third point of the plane with a third rod, and it cannot move atall. Butif we adda fourth dimen- sion it could move. The limits of space are for us simply the limits of possible motion of a material body. We can imagine a body coming from any point in three dimensional space to us, but cannot imagine one coming from outside of such space, until we add a fourth dimen- sion. Our conclusion is that space of four dimensions, with its resulting possibility of an infinite number of universes along- side of our own, isa perfectly legitimate mathematical hypothesis. We cannot say whether this conception does or does not correspond to any objective reality. What we can say with confidence is that if a fourth dimension exists, our universe and every known agency in it is, by some fundamental law of its being, absolutely confined to three of the dimensions. But we must not carry a conclusion of this sort beyond the limits set by experience. When we say that experience shows that not only our material universe, but all known agencies in it, are, by a law of their being, incapable of motion in more than three dimensions we must remember that the conclusion applies only to those motions which our senses can perceive, the motions of masses, in fact. There is no proof that the molecule may not vibrate in a fourth dimension. There are facts which seem to indicate at least the possibility of molecular motion or change of some sort not expressi- ble in terms of time and three codrdinates in space. If we consider those conceptions of mechanics which we derive from visible phenomena to afford a sufficient explana- JANUARY 7, 1898. ] tion of molecular action we must admit that, when the position and motion of every atom of a given substance are defined, the chemical properties of that substance are completely determined. If we take two ollections of atoms of the same substance, put them together in the same way, and endow them with the same kinds of vibra- tory motion, we ought, on any mechanical theory of matter, to obtain substances of identical properties. Now, there seem to be reasons which I cannot stop at present to develop that might make us believe in changes of properties and attributes of sub- ‘stances not completely explained by molecu- lar changes. That such is the case with vital phenomena can be demonstrated beyond ‘doubt; that it is the case with chemical phenomena when they approach the vital character seems very probable. Certainly there is some essential difference between that form of molecular motion in which heat is commonly supposed to consist and the motion of masses. Perhaps the most remarkable of these differences consists in the relation of this motion to the ether. The motion of a mass suffers no resistance by passing through the ether with the high- est astronomical velocities. Matter so rare as that of the diffuse comets may move around the sun with a speed of many miles per second without suffering the smallest resistance from the ether—in a word, with- out any friction between the matter and the ether. But when the molecules have the motion of heat, that motion, if motion it be, is always communicated to the ether, and is radiated away from the body, which thus becomes cool. Whatever form we at- tribute to the energy of heat, it is certainly a form which is constantly communicated from matter to the ether by a fundamental law of matter. Consequently, if heat be really a mode of motion, as is now generally supposed by physicists, it follows that there is some essential difference between the SCIENCE. 5 character of this motion and the motion of the smallest masses into which mat- ter can practically be divided. The hy- pothesis of vibration in the fourth dimen- sion merely suggests the possibility that this kind of motion may mark what is essentially different from the motion of masses. Ofcourse, such an hypothesis as this is not to be put forward as a theory. It must be worked out with mathematical rigor, and shown to actually explain phe- nomena before we assign it to any such rank. ; I cannot but fear that some confusion on this subject is caused by the tendency among both geometers and psychologists to talk of space as an entity in itself. As I have al- ready said, a fourth dimension. in space is nothing more than the addition of a fourth possibility of motion to material bodies. The laws of space are only laws of relative position. Certain fundamental axioms are derived from experience, not alone indi- vidual experience, perhaps, but the experi- ence of the race, giving rise to hereditary conceptions born in the mind and corre- sponding to the facts of individual experi- ence. A tree confined to one spot, even if it had eyes to see anda brain to think, could never have a conception of space. For us the limits of space are simply the limits to which we can suppose a body to move. Hence when space itself is spoken of as hay- ing possible curvatures, hills and hollows it seems to me that this should be regarded only as a curvature, if I may use the term, of the laws of position of material bodies in space. Clifford has set forth, with great acuteness and plausibility, that the minute spaces occupied by the ultimate atoms of matter may, in this respect, have properties different from the larger space which alone makes itself known to our conceptions. If so, we should only regard this as expressive of some different law of motion, or, since motion is only change of position, of some 6 SCIENCE. different law of position among the mole- cules of bodies. This consideration leads us to a possible form of space relations distinct from those of our Euclidean geometry, and from the hypothesis of space of more than three di- mensions, I refer to what is commonly known as ‘curved space.’ The history of this conception is now so well known to mathematicians that I shall mention it only so far as is necessary to bring it to your minds. The question whether Euclid’s axioms of parallels is really an independent axiom, underivable from the other axioms of geometry, is one which has occupied the attention of mathema- ticians for centuries. Perhaps the sim- plest form of this axiom is that through a point in a plane one straight line and no more can be drawn which shall be parallel to a given straight line in the plane. Here we must understand that parallel lines mean those which never meet. Theaxiom, therefore, asserts that through such a point we can draw one line which shall never meet the other line in either direction, but that if we give this one line the slightest motion around the point in the plane it will meet the other in one direction or the op- posite. Thus stated, the proposition seems to be an axiom, but it is anaxiom that does not grow out of any other axioms of geom- etry. The question thus arising was at- tacked by Lobatchevsky in this very conclusive manner. If this axiom is inde- pendent of the other axioms of geometry then we should be able to construct a self- consistent geometrical system, in conformity to the other axioms, in which this axiom no longer held. The axiom of parallels may be deviated from in two directions. In the one it is supposed that every two lines in the plane must meet; no line par- allel to another can be drawn through the same point in the plane. Deviating in the other direction we have several lines drawn [N. S. Von. VII. No. 158. through the point which never meet the given line ; they diverge from it as lines on an hyperboloid may diverge. That such possibilities transcend our or- dinary notions of geometrical relations is. beyond doubt, but the hypothesis of their possibility is justified by the following analogy. Let us suppose a class of beings. whose movements and conceptions were wholly confined to a space of two dimen- sions as ours are to a space of three dimen- sions. Let us suppose such beings to live upon or in a plane and to have no concep- tion of space otherwise than as plain extend- ed space. These beings would then have a plane geometry exactly like ours. The axiom of parallels would hold for them as it: does for us. But let us suppose that these beings, without actually knowing it, instead. of being confined to a plane, were really confined to the surface of a sphere, a sphere such as our earth, for example. Then, when they extended their motions and ob- servations over regions so great as a large part of the earth’s surface, they would find the axiom of parallels to fail them. Two parallel lines would be only two parallel great circles, and though each were followed in a direction which would seem to be in- variable they would be found to meet on opposite sides of the globe. The suggestion growing out of this consideration is: May it not be possible that we live in a space of thissort? Or, to use what seems to me to be the more accurate language: May it not be that two seemingly parallel straight lines continued indefinitely would ultimately meet or diverge? The conceptions arising in this way are certainly very interesting. If the lines would meet it can easily be shown that the total volume of all space is a finite quantity. The sum of the three angles of a triangle extending from star to star would then be greater than the sum of two right angles. Equally legiti- mate is the hypothesis that it would JANUARY 7, 1898. ] be less than three right angles, but in this ease the total volume of space would still be infinite. Now, this is an hypothesis to be tested by experience. Unfortunately, we cannot triangulate from star to star; our limits are the two extremes of the earth’s orbit. All we can say is that, within those narrow limits, the measures of stellar par- allax give no indication that the sum of the angles of a triangle in stellar space differs from two right angles. If our space is el- liptical, then, for every point in it—the po- sition of our sun, for example—there would be, in every direction, an opposite or polar point whose locus is a surface at the great- est possible distance from us. A star in this point would seem to have no parallax. Measures of stellar parallax, photometric determinations and other considerations show conclusively that if there is any such surface it lies far beyond the bounds of our stellar system. Such are the considerations by which it seems to me that speculations on this sub- ject may legitimately be guided. The wise man is one who admits an infinity of possibilities outside the range of his experi- ence, but who in considering actualities is not decoyed by the temptation to strain the facts of experience in order to make them accord with glittering possibilities. The experience of the race and all the re- finements of modern science may be re- garded as showing quite conclusively that, within the limits of our experience, there is no motion of material masses in the direc- tion of a fourth dimension, no physical agency which we can assume to have its origin in regions to which matter cannot move, when it has three degrees of free- dom. Claiming this, we must carry the claim only to the limits justified by actual experience. We have no experience of the motion of molecules ; therefore we have no right to say that those motions are neces- sarily confined to three dimensions. Per- SCIENCE, % haps the phenomena of radiation and elec- tricity may yet be explained by vibration in a fourth dimension. Weare justified by experience in saying that the space relations which we gather from observation around us are valid for the greatest distances which separate us from the most distant stars. We have no right to extend the conclusion further than this. We must leave it to our posterity to determine whether, in either way, the hypothesis of hyper-space can be used as an explanation of observed phenomena. S. NEwcoms. REPORT UPON SOME PRELIMINARY EX PERI- MENTS WITH THE RONTGEN RAYS ON PLANTS. Sryce it is a matter of some interest to know what influence, if any, the Rontgen rays would exercise on plants, I undertook a series of somewhat extensive preliminary experiments, to determine what lines of in- vestigation might profitably be carried on should there be marked indications of any response to possible stimuli from this source. The lecture room of our botanical de- partment being connected by separate elec- tric wire for the stereopticon, and the wire passing within a few metres of the end of one of the houses of the (botanical) conserva- tory, the current could be connected with the apparatus in the glass house with little trouble and expense. The connecting of the electric wires with the house was done under the direction of Professor H. J. Ryan, of the Sibley College of Mechanic Arts. An ordinary tin frame rheostat and an App’s Coil were loaned by Professor HE. lL. Nichols, of the physical department, and the Crookes tubes used were of a pattern recommended by Professor Nichols, who, at the beginning of the experiment, set up the apparatus. To him I am indebted also for advice concerning the use of the apparatus, and also to Professor E. Merritt, of the physical department. 8 SCIENCE. The portion of the conservatory employed for the experiments was the north end of one of the houses, where a bench space of about 2m. x 3m., and the height of the house, was enclosed as a dark room, by hanging black canton flannel and covering this on the outside and on the roof of the house with coarse cloths or board frames to ex- elude the light. Experiment 1. Since in a number of cases the use of the Rontgen ray for exploring in- ternal parts of the human body has resulted in certain injuries which are supposed to be due to some action of the ray, the first of the series of experiments which I conducted with plants was for the purpose of ascer- taining if there was any marked injury which could be induced by an exposure of about one hour’s time. Indeed, those with whom I discussed the matter prior to the investigations, and who were familiar with the use of the rays for other purposes, were inclined to think that distinct injuries would be produced. For the first experi- ment a potted Caladium about 60 cm. high was used. One leaf was supported directly in front of the bulb and about 10 em. dis- tant, while a flat metal key was suspended over the center of the leaf to intercept the rays at this point. The light was turned on at 11:07 a. m., June 6th, and a continu- ous run was made of 1 hr. 18 mins., 7. ¢., until 12:25 p.m. There was no visible ef- fect at the close of the exposure and subse- quently the leaf remained to all appear- ances normal. Experiment 2. For the next experiment seedlings of corn, oats, German millet, sun- flower and radish, which had been germi- nated in small 2-inch pots a few days before were used. The seedlings varied from 5 to 10 cm. in height. The pots were placed di- rectly in front of the bulb, in such a man- ner that each kind of seedling was situated at different distances from the bulb in a radiating row. The experiment started at [N.S. Von. VII. No. 158. 1p.m., June 6th. A piece of black canton flannel was tied over the bulb to intercept the electric light rays, so that their influ- ence would not be felt, and this was kept over the bulb during all the subsequent ex- periments. At 2:45 p. m. it was noticed that the plants nearest the bulb were so close that electrical discharges took place between the bulb and the leaves, causing the plants to nod constantly toward the bulb and even to come sometimes in con- tact with it as the spark was formed. They were then moved to a distance of 15-20 em. At nearly 4 p. m. all the plants were removed for a period of about three min- utes while exposures were being made to obtain photographs. With this exception the seedlings were exposed to the influence of the Rontgen ray for a period of ten hours, the run being made from 1 p. m. to 11 p. m., when the dynamos were shut down for the night. No injurious effect was noticeable nor could any be detected later. Experiment 3. The next experiment was started at 6 p.m., on June 6th. For this were used seedlings of corn, wheat, sun- flower, radish, German millet and soja bean. The seedlings were grown in a dark room and were, therefore, etiolated, and varied from 8 em. to 20 em. in height. The plants were exposed that evening continu- ously for five hours. The wheat, German millet and corn seedlings were so frail that they drooped in various directions. At 9 p- m. it was noticed that the seedlings of the soja bean were turned slightly toward the bulb, while at the beginning of the ex- periment they were turned away from it. No perceptible injury took place. Experiment 4. A potted begonia plant was placed so that the delicate flowers hung in front of the bulb within 10 em. and remained there for five hours. There was no perceptible injury at the close of the run; nor on any subsequent days could injurious effects be observed. _JANUARY 7, 1898. ] Experiment 5. A potted plant of Cala- dium was placed with the leaf within 20 cm., with a small piece of sheet lead so placed between it and the bulb as to intercept a portion of the rays. The exposure contin- ued for five hours. At the close of the ex- periment, and subsequently, no change could be observed. Experiment 6. On June 8th a large num- ber of seedlings which had been started previously in soil contained in wooden trays were placed in front of the light and ex- posed for several days. The seedlings used were those of corn, oats, wheat, radish, sun- flower, soja bean, white lupine, cucumber, vetech, pea, German millet and cotton. There were several duplicate sets of the seedlings for this experiment ; one lot was planted June 1st and the other June 5th, to provide seedlings in different stages of growth. From some which were just germi- nating they ranged in size to those which - were 10 cm. high. The following gives the facts concerning the condition of the seed- lings on June 8th, at the time of starting the experiment : LOT 1. PLANTED JUNE IST. NAME OF PLANT. CONDITION JUNE 8TH. Sunflower......... 5—8 cm WEE go oobeoacse 8—10 cm German millet..... 3 cm. Nonpareil bean... .just coming through the soil. Soja bean......... 5 cm Cotton............ just coming through the soil. OBSo ooo gob00CGR0 8—10 cm. Conntneeencieere: 5—8 em RVietchertersplerieteti< 5—8 ‘f Pea tarerieiteeicr cies 2—5 ‘ Cucumber ........ 2-4 “ LOT 2. PLANTED JUNE 5TH. NAME OF PLANT. CONDITION JUNE 5TH. (Oia SoG paodacocdouboseacaKans germinating. \WADEM Hs Sooo Sn S554 sq0a50aMs0RGrose germinated. San loweletstetetey ities eeeeer nearly up. Germanimilletieerrerreriistriiceleete germinated. The boxes containing the seedlings were 80 arranged that some of the seedlings were SCIENCE. Od very near the bulb, while others were at varying distances, to the front, and right and left, so that if any distinct influence was manifested the extent of the field of this influence could be easily determined, and its degree, to some extent, be measured by the effect on the plants at varying dis- tances. The field was explored with a fluoroscope to be certain that the rays reached all the plants which were placed in front of a line a few centimetres in advance of the bulb. A check lot of the seedlings was placed behind the instrument in the dark room in which the experiments were being conducted, so that they might grow under exactly the same conditions, except that they would not be under the influence of the Rontgen rays. The experiment was started at 11 a. m., June 8th. The run was continued until 11 p. m., but since the interrupter in con- nection with the coil did not work satisfac- torily the circuit was permanently broken at intervals. During this period the cur- rent was on about one-half the time. The following day, June 9th, the interrupter continued to work unsatisfactorily, and finally broke down at 5 p. m., the current having been turned on at 8 a.m. During the day of June 9th the instrument was running about one-fourth of the time. The interrupter was repaired and the current was started again at 10:20 a. m., the follow- ing morning, June 10th, and a continuous run was made up to 11 p. m., June 11th, the run was continuous from 8 a. m. until 11 p. m., and on June 12th, Saturday, from 8 a. m. to 4:30 p. m., when this experiment was discontinued. During all of this time the plants be- haved exactly as one would expect them to in an ordinary dark room. Those which had not come above the soil before they were placed under the influence of the Rontgen rays were entirely etiolated, while _the new growth of shoots and leayes on 10 those which had attained some growth be- fore the beginning of the experiment was also etiolated, the shoots being slender and the leaves small. The leaves, which were green at the start, gradually became nearly or quite yellow. The wheat, oat and millet seedlings were so weak that they fell pros- trate, lying in all directions. At times it appeared as if the rays might have some peculiar taxic influence, since some of the seedlings were turned, now in one direc- tion and at a later time in another, but there was no constancy in any of these movements, and they were ascribed to nu- tation. In fact, seedling plants which were in the path of the Rontgen rays for a period of over forty-five hours during five days did not at the close of the experiment appear in the least different from those in the same dark room, but which were out of the reach of the rays, and there was no appreciable difference in behavior during the continu- - ance of the experiment. That the seedlings were susceptible to directive influences of ordinary daylight was shown by their behavior when the dark compartment was opened. At one - time the compartment was opened by part- ing two of the hanging dark curtains for about two minutes. Two hours afterward, when the compartment was again opened, nearly all the plants were turned strongly toward this point. This appears to me to be an interesting illustration of the great sensitiveness of these. etiolated plants to light, and proves the fact that the response to the stimulus occurs some time subse- quent to the stimulus. The plants used in this experiment were now placed in normal light, and were ob- served carefully for several days. All of the etiolated plants gradually became green, but it was noticeable that those which were not under the influence of the Réntgen rays recovered more rapidly, though the difference was not very striking. SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 158. - This suggests that there may be some sub- tle injurious influence on the chloroplastids. of the plant. Experiment 7. The next experiment was. started on June 14th, at9a.m. The dark cloth had been removed for the purpose of growing seedlings under the Rontgen rays. which were at the same time exposed to normal daylight. The seedlings were ar- ranged in front of the bulb in the same way as described for experiment 6. . The follow- ing seedlings were used: squash, wheat, oats, pea, vetch, cow pea (Dolichos), sunflower, radish, soja bean, nonpareil bean and cot- ton. The seeds were planted a few days in advance, so that they were just coming through the ground in various stages when the experiment was started. A run of fourteen hours was made on June 14th, and of nine hours on June 15th, when this experi- ment terminated. No influence whatever from the Rontgen rays was observed. In 1896 Schober* published the results of some experiments with the Rontgen rays on seedlings ; these were undertaken for the purpose of determining if short exposures. to the rays would produce taxic movements in the nature of curving or bending of the seedlings. Young oat seedlings were used which had been germinated in a dark room, and they were enclosed in a small geotropic chest, blackened both on the inner and outer side. This was so placed that they were at a distance of two cm. from the bulb at the opening of the chest. They were exposed for one half hour, and after a short interruption for another half hour. No turning had taken place. In order to see if the seedlings were sensitive to the light they were then placed near a small opening in the side of the room, and in the course of an hour perceptible heliotropic movements began, which were more marked *Schober, A. Ein Versuch mit Rontgen’schen Strahlen auf Keimpflanzen. Ber. d. deutsch. Bot: Gesell. XIV., 108-110, 1896. JANUARY 7, 1898. ] at the close of two hours, when they stood at an angle of 60°. He concludes from his experiments that the Rontgen rays have no taxic influence on seedlings. Experiment 8. Three species of Mucor were sown in dilution cultures in nutrient agar-agar, in Petrie dishes. After the spores had begun to germinate one culture of each was placed within 25 cm. of the bulb, and the rays were then intercepted from one-half of each culture by a piece of sheet lead. A duplicate set of the cultures was placed out of reach of the rays. The eultures were exposed for four hours, and returned to the culture room. No differ- ence in growth was perceptible, the Ront- gen rays neither inhibiting nor hastening growth. Experiment 9. Several forms of chromo- genic bacteria were then subject to the in- fluence of the rays. Several tube cultures in nutrient agar-agar were placed within 10 em. of the bulb for about four hours. A duplicate set was kept in the same house, but outside of the field covered by the Rontgen rays. From each of the two sets of cultures inoculations were made into fresh nutrient media. There was no per- ceptible difference in growth nor in the color as a result of the exposure to the rays, Experiment 10. A motile bacillus, B. communis, was next placed within 15 cm. of the bulb. The cultures were made in bouillon and poured into Petrie dishes. Two Petrie dish cultures were employed, and the rays were intercepted from one- half of each by sheet lead. They were ex- posed six hours. From each half of the two cultures then one drop was carried to the third dilution, and four cultures were then made from each of the second and third dilutions in nutrient agar, and distributed in Petrie dishes in order to com- pare the number of colonies. The results showed no difference in the proportionate number of bacilli in the two halves of the SCIENCE. ee Petrie dishes. The rays, therefore, have no influence on the distribution of the bacilli in the liquid, nor on their vitality for the length of time exposed, a fact which Pro- fessor Marshall-Ward had already demon- strated. Experiment 11. A species of motile Oscil- latoria was distributed in six watch glasses with a small amount of water, the threads being arranged in a tangled mass in the center. Two of these were placed within 8 cm. of the bulb, two others at a distance of 20 cm. with the Roéntgen rays inter- cepted by sheet lead, and the other two placed outside of the dark room. The ex- periment began at 12:30 p. m. and was dis- continued at 4:30 p.m. In all the vessels during this period of four hours the threads moved out in a radiating fashion from the center, and some had moved partly up the sides of the vessels. In one of those ex- posed to the influence of the rays the thread had moved farther than in any of the others, while in the other five vessels no difference in the extent of the movement was observed, and the greater movement of the threads in one of the two exposed to the rays could probably be accounted for on other grounds. Experiment 12. The influence of the rays was next tested on sensitive plants, Mimosa pudiea, grown in pots. Two plants were used, and both were jarred, so that the leaves dropped on their petioles and the leaflets closed in pairs. The larger one, a, was placed so that the nearest leaves were within 10 cm. of the bulb after the dark room had been dispensed with. The smaller one was placed in another portion of the same house, but where the daylight was of the same intensity, so far as the eye could judge. In twenty minutes the leaves of the two plants had opened somewhat, but 6 had opened more than a, which was within the field of the rays. The plants were then jarred a second time, and inter- 12 changed, 6b being placed under the rays. Ten minutes later 6 had opened slightly, while a had not opened at all; the sun by this time, 6 p.m. (June 12th), having passed below the top of a western building. While I intended at the time to repeat this experi- ment on the following day, the result shows quite conclusively, I think, that the differ- ence manifested by these two plants in the rapidity of opening was due to individual peculiarities rather than to any influence of the Réntgen rays. For while it would at first appear that they exercised a slight in- hibitory influence, the interchange of the plants shows that this was due to the more rapid response of the plant b to the influence of daylight. In Schober’s experiments the question as to whether the seedlings, or any parts of the plant, readily absorbed the Rontgen rays was not studied. From time to time, during the continuance of my own experi- ments, the field was explored with the fluoroscope to be certain that the rays were being evolved, and also an occasional pho- tograph of the hand was made as a test of the strength of the rays. Good photographs were thus obtained with an exposure of from four to five minutes at a distance of 20 cm. to 25 em. During the close of the first week’s experiments the Crookes tube gradually deteriorated because of the high vacuum produced by prolonged use. This was first manifested in the resistance offered by the tube to the passage of the electric current. It was also manifested in some of the photographs taken at the time, the plates being affected unevenly, which indi- cated that the rays were given off more strongly in some directions than others. This bulb was discarded on June 12th, and a new one substituted on June 14th. Since it is well known that the Rontgen rays pass quite readily through wood the non-absorp- tion of the rays by the plants might ex- plain the absence of any marked influence SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 158. upon them. Consequently, this subject re- ceived some attention, and attempts were made to obtain Rodntgen photographs of some of the plants experimented upon, as well as of some other plant parts. The greater number of the exposures were made by placing both the sensitive plate and the object inside an ordinary card box, in which the plates are sold, a thin sheet of white paper being placed between the sensitive film and the object. A plate of a high sensitometer was used. The first object used was an oak leaf (Quercus rubra). This was exposed, first for four minutes and a second time for three minutes. The leaf selected was a rather young and succulent one, thus being more difficult to photograph by transmitted light, but the older and firmer ones were too large for the size of plate used. The oak leaf was exposed for a longer time than would have been necessary if the method employed for a majority of the photographs, described above, had been followed in this case. Here, however, an ordinary plateholder was used, and a black rubber slide not only lay over the plate, but another was placed over the leaf, which was on the outside, to hold it in place. While in both of these cases an outline of the leaf and of the more prominent veins was obtained, better results were had when the exposure was made in an ordinary cardboard box. Here a fairly good out- line of the leaf and of its venation was obtained. It is also to be observed that in the shorter exposure, which is needed for these delicate objects, a picture is also ob- tained of the structure of the box, the thin paper which is pasted on the outside, and overlaps the edges, showing quite plainly. Rontgen photographs of five seedlings which had for several days been under the influence of the rays were made. These were cotton, pea, nonpareil bean and soja bean, the cotton and one of the nonpareil JANUARY 7, 1898. ] bean seedlings being grown entirely under the rays. Good outlines of the leaves and tracings of the principal veins were ob- tained, while the stems, roots and coty- ledons of the pea and beans made strong pictures. The contrast between the gen- eral groundwork of the leaves and the surrounding space is quite strong, which shows that there was considerable absorp- tion of the Rontgen rays even by the deli- eate seedlings experimented upon, and that the absence of any marked injury or other influence could not be due to non-absorp- tion of the rays. The other plant parts which were photo- graphed by the Rontgen rays are the fol- lowing: Leaves of two species of Begonia, in which quite strong pictures of the leaves and of the venation were obtained. The venation of B, rex, with rather prominent red veins coming out more strongly than B, nitida-alba, both were being taken on the same plate. The interior of various nuts, as almond, peanut, hickorynut, makes quite strong pictures. Good pictures were obtained of the endosperm (prothallium), of the fruit of cycas, also of the seeds of green peas and beans still within the pod. Flower buds of Fuschia show the pistill and sta- mens in position before opening and the delicate flowers of Begonia also absorb the rays sufficiently to be photographed, al- though the picture made was weak. Fruits of apricot and green fruit of the plum and pea absorb the rays so strongly that it is difficult to get a good contrast between the flesh and stone, while the ripe fruit of a black cherry (probably a variety of Prunus avium) gives better contrast. The pla- centa and young ovules of Podophyllum peltatum show rather indistinctly through the walls of the ovary. A knot in the pine board makes a distinct Rontgen photo- graph. The spadix and flowers of Arisema triphyllum show distinctly through the spathe, and the vascular ducts of the stem SCIENCE. 13 are also photographed. In specimens of Peltandra, in which the spadix was en- tirely enclosed within the spathe the spadix and outlines of the staminate and pistillate flowers are quite distinctly shown in a Roéntgen photograph, while the vascular ducts of the stem show quite strongly in the picture (see Plate I., Frontispiece). It is thus seen that plant tissues absorb the Rontgen rays quite freely, and it is singular that there is not a more marked influence on growing parts, especially that there are no visible external injuries, even when the parts are exposed at close range a large part of the time during several days, since the general impression is that the rays, even with comparatively short ex- posures, are injurious to the human tissues. The longer my experiments continued the more mysterious the whole subject seemed. On a dark night, when the elec- tric-light rays were intercepted by a black screen, exploring the field with a fluoro- scope there was an abundance of light, flashing and quivering with the variations in the electric transmission through the tube, penetrating, and yet capable of ab- sorption to a considerable degree. That it should present no easily discernible influ- ence for the time during which the work continued was cause for profound surprise. G. F. ATKINSON. CoRNELL UNIVERSITY. SOME CONSIDERATIONS UPON THE FUNC- TIONS OF STOMATA.* THE sporophytes of many Bryophyta and of all Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta have their epidermis pierced with minute open- ings known as stomata. These occur upon particular portions of the aérial structures, not being found upon roots, nor upon sub- aqueous stems and leaves. They always stand over masses of chlorophyll-bearing * Read before Section K. of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, August 19, 1897. 14 cells, and communicate directly with their intercellular spaces. Every stoma is more than a mere slit be- tween the epidermal cells. It is, in fact, a simple organ consisting of two active cells, the ‘guard cells,’ between which is the elon- gated opening. By changes in shape the guard cells narrow or broaden the opening, or completely close it. It has been found that gases and water- vapor pass through the open stomata. In the case of gases the passage is in either di- rection, while it appears that the water- vapor passes in one direction only, namely, from the intercellular spaces outward. From the fact that the stomata serve for the pas- sage of both gases and water-vapor have arisen two views as to their proper function, some botanists holding that they are organs of respiration, that is, breathing pores, while others regard them as transpiration organs, that is, organs for permitting the escape of surplus water from the tissues of the plant. According to the first view the stomata are connected directly with the process of photo- syntax and the metabolic changes which follow it, in other words, with the supply of carbon to the plants, while according to the second view they are connected with the supply of inorganic salts to the ash con- stituents of the plant. Since the passage of water-vapor through the stomata is a much more noticeable phenomenon than the ingress or egress of gases, it is quite nat- ural that at first the former should be con- sidered as the primary function. With this view have come corresponding explanations of the purpose of transpiration, involving much of the discussion of nutrition in the treatises on plant physiology. If stomata are organs of transpiration, then transpira- tion is a physiological phenomenon of much importance, and it behooves us to find out why plants have developed organs for its promotion. In considering the questions involved, it SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 158. is well to remember that terrestrial plants which possess stomata have developed from: aquatics none of which havestomata. These aquatics, living in the ocean or the fresh- water rivers and lakes, must supply them- selves with all their food constituents from: the water and the substances it holds in solution. In the simpler plants every cell. absorbs these directly from the surrounding water, and this is true of the larger plants also, with slight modification. We must not, however, overlook the fact that water itself is an indispensable constituent of every cell, not as food, but as a part of its me- chanical structure. More than nine-tenths of every active cell is water, upon whose presence the activity of the cell is depend- ent. In aquatics this necessary water is supplied directly from the surrounding medium, and since there is no loss of water each cell easily maintains all that it re- quires. Terrestrial plants must supply their cells with the necessary food constituents, and must, also, maintain in them the proper amount of water. Every cell ina terrestrial plant must be turgid with water in order to be active, and if this be impaired the plant suffers. The maintenance of the water supply is thus of the greatest im- portance in terrestrial plants. Accord- ingly, the roots are always in communica- tion with water in the soil from which they obtain their supply. The cells of the stems. and leaves must obtain their water by ab- sorbing it from the turgid root-cells. Now, these cells in the stems and leaves not only have no direct access to water, having to obtain their supply indirectly, at second hand as it were, but they are surrounded by a medium which is drier than they, so: that they are constantly losing water by evaporation. This loss of water is usually greater than the scanty supply from the water of the soil, and accordingly the aerial parts of plants are protected by a layer of JANUARY 7, 1898. ] euticularized cells, the epidermis. The ‘drier the air in which a plant grows the thicker the epidermal layer, an extreme ease occurring in the Burro Thorn (Holo- cantha emoryt) of the arid regions of south- ern Arizona, where there are from three to five layers of cells in the epidermis. That plants are able to protect themselves against very dry air is shown by the fact that even in excessively dry climates there are many species which are able to live and form flowers and seeds. But with the change from the aquatic to to the terrestrial habit there came a divi- sion of labor in the organs of absorption. The roots now absorb water and solutions, while the stems and leaves absorb carbon dioxide. And here arises a difficulty: The epidermis which prevents the escape of wa- ter-vapor also. prevents the absorption of earbon dioxide. This difficulty was sur- mounted by the formation of stomata. A leaf without stomata, or what is the same thing, with its stomata permanently closed as with wax, will not lose water, but it will starve for want of carbon dioxide. These stomata are open as long as there is no danger of such a water loss as would result in loss of turgidity, but when the cells show an approach to flaccidity the stomata close. While open there may be a free in- terchange of gases, carbon dioxide entering and being absorbed by the chlorophyll-bear- ing cells, but while this is going on there is certain to be a considerable loss of water, especially if the air be dry. On every dry day land plants lose much water, since they must have their stomata open in order to obtain their supply of carbon dioxide. Aerial plants, as many Tillandsias and Orchids, do not differ in any essential re- spect from terrestrial plants. They must have enough water to keep their cells turgid, and, at the same time, their chlorophyll- bearing cells must be supplied with carbon dioxide. They invariably grow in moist SCIENCE. 15 climates, where the constant moisture of the air is supplemented by frequent drench- ing rains. Under such conditions many terrestrial plants would be able to live and grow for some time. At the same time it is to be observed that many aérial plants have a greatly thickened epidermis, or have their surfaces covered by a coat of dry hairs. They evidently have taken some precautions to guard against harmful water loss. It is not too much to say that the facts cited above indicate that respiration is the normal function of stomata, and that the loss of water through stomata is incidental and secondary. Some experimental results may be cited here. a. Stahl has shown that when the sto- mata are closed no starch is made,* show- ing that the carbon dioxide must enter by the stomata. 6. Blackman concludes that “‘ practically the sole pathway for carbon dioxide into or out of the leaf is by the stomata.’’} ce. Stahl has shown that transpiration takes place through the stomata, and this only when they are open.{ d. Observations often repeated by many physiologists show that the stomata of many cultivated plants close quickly when the supply of water to the roots is deficient, and that plants in dry climates have remark- able devices for preventing the loss of wa- ter. e. Stahl has shown§ that in many ever- green plants the stomata close during the period when there is no carbon assimila- tion. f. It isa well known fact that stomata are usually open in sunlight, when carbon- assimilation (photosyntax) is possible. g- Plants from which carbon assimila- * Bot. Zeit., 52: 127-133 (1894). } Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 186, B:485 (1895) ; from abstract in Bot. Gaz., 20: 336. t Bot. Zeit., 52: 117-127 (1894). él. ec. 16 tion is absent have greatly reduced num- bers of stomata, as in the dodders (Cuscuta) and the little mistletoes (Razoumofskya), while they are present in abundance in green parasites (Viscum and Phoraden- dron). From the foregoing rapid and quite sum- mary survey of the different phases of this question we are warranted in concluding: 1. That one of the functions of stomata is the admission of carbon dioxide to the chlorophyll-bearing tissues of the plant, for use in the formation of the carbohydrates. 2. That the loss of water by terrestrial plants was originally hurtful, and is so now in many cases. 3. That if plants have utilized this con- stant phenomenon it is for the supply of food matters of secondary importance, as the salts in solution in the water of the soil. CHARLES E. BEssry. THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. RECENT PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.* I. Since the last réswmé of progress in agri- cultural chemistry was reported to this body.a considerable advance has been made in our knowledge of the methods and means of nitrogen assimilation. The most marked progress has been made along the line of the inoculation of seed and the soil with nitrifying ferments. Much has been done in this direction, and the results of the experiments are sufficiently encouraging to warrant the belief that much good may yet come to agriculture by following out this line of investigation. In 1895, in the Year- book of the Department of Agriculture, the following statements occur : * Prepared at the request of the officers of Section C, of the A. A. A. §., and read before Section C and the American Chemical Society at the Detroit meet- ing, August, 1897. SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 158. “Tt may not be long until the farmer may apply to the laboratory for particular nitrifying ferments to be applied to such special purposes as are mentioned above. Because of the extreme minuteness of these organisms the too practical agronomist may laugh at the idea of producing fertility thereby, and this idea, indeed, would be of no value were it not for the wonderful facility of propagation which an organism of this kind has when exposed in a favora- ble environment. It is true that the pure cultures which the laboratory affords would be of little avail if limited to their own ac- tivity, and it is alone in the possibility of their almost illimitable development that their fertilizing effects may be secured.” It cannot be said that. the prophecies. foreshadowed in the above quotation have been fully verified, but at least something has been accomplished. From the time that it was demonstrated by Hellriegel and Wilfarth that the power which leguminous plants possess of increas- ing their stores of nitrogen was due to the bacteria inhabiting nodules on their root- lets, the study of this phenomenon has been pushed with great vigor in all parts of the world. Intimately related, as itis, to the nitrifying organisms of the soil, it has, nevertheless, been demonstrated that the two species of bacteria, the general nitrify- ing species and the special so-called sym- biotic species, inhabiting the roots of plants,. are entirely different in their nature, andi that their activity is not mutually converti- ble. The most extensive experiments in the direct inoculation of the soil with nitrify- ing ferments have been conducted by Dr. Salfeld, of ingen, in Hanover. The greater part of the experiments has been made on peaty soils, as it is in such soils. that the greatest deficiency of nitrifying organisms is observed. An excellent re- view of Dr. Salfeld’s work has been pub- JANUARY 7, 1898. ] lished by N. H. J. Miller, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. 7, third series, part 2, pp. 286 et seq. The method employed by Dr. Salfeld was to spread upon the peaty soils large quanti- ties of soils in which peas, beans and other leguminous crops had been grown. Im- mense quantities of the soil to be used to develop the fertilizing ferments were re- quired; quantities ranging from 16 to 32 hundred weight per acre were used, and it was found that the larger quantities gave the better results. The particular bacterium which is most active in developing nodules on plants has been called the Bacillus radicicola. It was found in Dr. Salfeld’s experiments that there exist many peaty soils which are so poor in this bacterium as to require inocu- lation with other soils containing it before leguminous crops can be grown success- fully. As was to be expected, the most striking results were obtained with soils which were most deficient in the nitrifying bacillus, and when the inoculation was accompanied with the addition of a sufficient quantity of lime, phosphoric acid and potash. The large quantities of soil which are re- quired for the direct inoculation, as outlined above, have rendered of great interest the attempts to secure inoculation in a more direct and positive manner. This has led to a study of the possibilities of securing pure cultures of nitrifying organisms which can be applied directly to the seed before planting, or can be mixed with moderate quantities of soil and thus distributed over a large area. The most extensive experiments in the processes of seed inoculation have been car- ried on by Professor Nobbe, of Tharand, Saxony. The principle of these inocula- tions is first to secure the pure cultures of the bacteria inhabiting the nodules of the roots. These pure cultures are obtained by SCIENCE. li the ordinary bacteriological processes now so well known. With these pure cultures inoculations of various kinds have been practiced, viz., inoculations of the soil itself, inoculations of the exterior of the seed, and inoculation by pricking the seed with needles bearing the germs of the pure cultures. The remarkable fact has been developed that while the bacteria derived from the pure cultures of the root nodules of various legumes appear to be microscopically iden- tical they, nevertheless, have very dis- tinct characters. The results of these ex- periments have shown that in inoculation best results are obtained when plants of the same species and, as nearly as possible, the same family are used. Even among the Leguminosz, when passed from one species to another, the vitality of the organism is either diminished or entirely destroyed. This is illustrated, for instance, in attempts which have been made to inoculate the members of the pea family with the bacteria taken from the reots of clover, or vice versa. The commercial outcome of these experiments is that these cultures have been prepared on a large scale for general sale. While the idea of thus preparing fer- tilizers in a practically infinitesimal quantity for field work is not a new one, and is not lacking in its appeals to the imagination, it cannot be said that the practical results have been fully equal to the expectations which have been aroused. The commercial name of these prepara- tions is nitragin, although, etymologically, probably the term nitrogene would have been preferable, but it was necessary to dis- tinguish it in some way from the name of the element. The Imperial Seed Control Station at Vienna made experiments with 100 kilo- grams of soil taken from a field where lu- pines had been grown, and 20 kilograms of analogous soil coming from a field where 18 serradella had been grown. ‘These soils, which were to be used for inoculation, were taken from portions of the field where the roots were abundantly provided with the usual nodules. The soil selected for inocu- lation by these samples was sandy, poor in humus aud rich in lime with a gravelly sub- soil. The inoculations which were made have shown that the lupines and serradellas, which, up to that time, had never been developed successfully in the fields where the experiments were made, in spite of most careful culture, showed a remark- able growth in comparison with the plots which were not inoculated. The serra- della which was inoculated directly with the nitragin did not respond to this inocula- tion, but peas inoculated with the nitragin showed a remarkably luxuriant develop- ment of the plants, with the formation of radical nodules, in comparison with the plants cultivated at the same time and not inoculated. It is necessary, however, that these experiments with inoculation be re- peated for several years before definite con- clusions in regard thereto can be drawn. (V’Engrais, Vol. 12, 1897, p. 351.) Experience has shown that preparations of nitragin do not retain their vitality in- definitely and, in order to secure the best results, should be used as soon as possible after manufacture. It is evident also that the particular source from which each sample of nitragin is prepared must be designated, and the farmer wishing to use it as a fertilizer must purchase those varie- ties which are suited to the crop he wishes to grow ; otherwise, he may make the mis- take of applying nitragin derived from peas or beans to a clover field, or the contrary. An excellent review of the methods of preparing nitragin and the processes of its application is given by J. Augustus Voelck- er, in the Journal of the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England, Vol. 7, third SCIENCE, [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 158. series, part 2, pp. 253 et seg. The method of obtaining the pure cultures of the nitri- fying bacteria is as follows: A plate of prepared gelatin is inoculated from the nodules of the leguminous plants containing the living bacteria. A second plate is inoculated from one of the colonies formed in the gelatin plate. This process is continued until a pure cultivation is ob- tained, due to one particular species of nitrifying organism. In preparing nitragin for commercial use the pure cultivation, obtained as above, is placed in a bottle, holding from 8 to 10 ounces, containing a small quantity of agar gelatin on which it is allowed to grow. The bottle is sealed and the contents kept in the dark. Up to the present time nitra- gin has been prepared from 19 different kinds of leguminous plants. Each bottle, when sealed, has a different colored label according to the kind of crop it is intended for, and also the German and botanical name of the plant. The contents of.a single bottle are sufficient for securing the inoculation on an acre and a-half of land on which the crop is to be grown and are sold for about 65 cents. In appearance, as a rule, the bottle seems to be filled to the depth of one and a-half inches with a light brown jelly in which may be noticed a white growth or mold. Care must be taken that the temperature of the mixture be not raised above blood heat and that the bottle be not exposed for any length of time to strong light. A moderately high tempera- ture and exposure for any length of time to intense light destroy the vitality of the organism. The nitragin may be used directly on the the seeds which are to be sown, which, on germinating, develop radicles on which the organisms grow. In the inoculation of the seed the contents of the bottle of nitragin are liquefied by gentle warmth and poured into half a liter of lukewarm water. Any xy JANUARY 7, 1898. ] residual jelly in the bottle is dissolved by shaking it with the water. When the jelly has been thoroughly distributed through- out the water the seeds to be inoculated -are sprinkled thoroughly and worked well together so that a portion of the moisture is attached to each seed. The seeds are -dried by mixing with some fine earth taken from the field in which they are to be sown. The best method of applying nitragin is to at first introduce it into a sufficient quantity of moist earth, which is subse- quently thoroughly stirred from time to time until the organisms have had time to multiply and distribute themselves in great numbers throughout the whole mass. ‘This moist mass, dry enough, however, to permit of its being thoroughly stirred with- -out caking, is applied to the field either by -sowing broadcast or in ordinary drills such -as are employed in the distribution of fer- tilizers. While, as has been said, the first effects have not been so good as have been anticipated, there is sufficient evidence to warrant the belief that the use of nitragin may in the near future become commer- cially valuable. This leads to the hope that we may find speedily verified the pre- ‘diction which I made some four or five years ago to the effect that the nitrifying organisms of the soil, in the form of reason- ably pure cultures, would eventually be used for fertilizing principles. The seeding -of the soil with appropriate nitrifying fer- ments is certain to become as much of an exact science as the use of the proper fer- ments in butter dnd cheese making, in the ¢curing and fermentation of tobacco and in other commercial operations where the activity of bacteria conditions the character -and value of the product. Mazé has recently shown that the life of bacteria resident in the nodules of the Leg- uminose is not a pure symbiosis. It has been demonstrated by this investigator that where artificial conditions, suited to the SCIENCE. 19 nourishment of these bacteria, are provided, they are able to oxidize free nitrogen in an environment from which all plant life is rigidly excluded. The bouillon in which the bacteria were cultivated was obtained from white beans. To this bouillon 2.5 per cent. of sugar and 1 per cent. of com- mon salt and a trace of bicarbonate of soda were added. The bouillon was solidified by the addition of 15 per cent. of gelose and was spread in layers 4 millimeters thick on the botton of glass dishes about 20 centimeters in diameter. These vases were so disposed as to be supplied with a current of air from which every trace of oxidized nitrogen was removed and which had been subjected to a high temperature for a suffi- cient length of time to entirely sterilize it. This was accomplished by passing it through a tube containing metallic copper heated to low redness but not high enough to sen- sibly diminish the content of oxygen in the air. It was then conducted through a tube filled with broken glass saturated with sul- furic acid for the purpose of absorbing any ammonia, next through a bottle containing sterilized distilled water to saturate the air with the vapor of water, whence it passed to the dishes where the cultures were made. In five days it was found that the sugar of the broth was all consumed and that the quantity of oxidized nitrogen in the bouil- lon had been more than doubled. Thus it was proved that the bacteria of the Leguminosz, placed in a medium re- sembling as nearly as possible that in which they naturally live, are capable of oxidizing free nitrogen without any symbiotic help of any kind. If these deductions of Mazé be verified by subsequent investigators, it will prove that the nodules in which these bac- -teria reside are only convenient places in which they exercise their activity, which is entirely independent of the vital activity of the plant which they inhabit. The sources of the first organic nitrogen 20 suitable to the nourishment of plants have been the subject of investigation in many quarters. It has been established with a considerable degree of certainty that the nitrifying organisms are capable of existing on the surface and even to a considerable depth in the interior of bare rocks at high altitudes where even the mosses and lichens fail to grow. It is evident, therefore, that these organisms have a great deal to do in the incipient stages of vegetable life and in the preparation of the first particles of humus, which is the substance distinguish- ing soil from finely cominuted rocks. Later investigations show also that nitrogen exists in combination with metals, as metallic nitrids, as has been shown by the investi- gations of Hillebrand and others. Among other metallic nitrids that of thorium has been detected. Notable quantities of min- eral nitrogenous compounds have been found in the carnallit coming from the Stassfurt mines. As much as .018 per cent of ammoniacal nitrogen has been found in these salts. The artificial carnal- lit is richer in ammonia than that of nature. It is evident that in carnallit the ammonia replaces a small portion of the potash. In regard to the origin of this am- moniacal nitrogen, it is generally under- stood that it comes from the decomposition of the living beings which peopled the sea whose evaporation produced the saline de- posits. The ammoniacal nitrogen which is present in the primitive rocks, however, cannot be ascribed to this source, since these rocks were formed at an epoch when life did not exist upon the surface of the earth. This ammoniacal nitrogen, as has been said, occurs almost uniformly as metallic nitrids. It was doubtless, therefore, the first form of nitrogen used to nourish the beginnings - of animal and vegetable life, since it existed before any of these forms could, by their decomposition, have furnished available nitrogen for plant growth. This am- SCIENCE, [N. 8. Vout. VII. No. 158. moniacal nitrogen, therefore, must have served directly to nourish the first forms of life and thus to have helped lay the founda- tions of the whole vegetable world. (1’En- grais, Mar. 12, 1897; Apr. 9, 1897.) A heated discussion has arisen between the French and German schools of agricul- ture in regard to the harmfulness of the denitrifying organisms found in soils and manures. Wagner urges the importance of sterilizing stable manure in order to prevent the loss of nitrogen that would otherwise be brought about by the organisms contained init. Deherain, on the other hand, declares that this precaution is unnecessary when stable manure is applied to ordinary soils in the usual quantities. Comparatively little attention has been given to the isolation and study of pure cultures of the nitrate-destroying organisms found in soils, manures, straw and fodders. While their existence has been repeatedly proved and their behavior in mixed cultures. has been studied by Gayon and Dupetit, Springer, Deherain and Maquenne, Breal and others, the first denitrifying organisms obtained in pure cultures and accurately described were those reported by Burri and Stutzerin 1895. These investigators found a denitrifying organism in horse manure which they called Bacillus denitrificans I., and which they found to rapidly destroy nitrates when growing in the same culture with B. coli communis. They also isolated and described, under the name of B. deni- trificans IT., a denitrifying organism from straw. A second denitrifying organism was found in horse manure by Schirokikh early in 1896, while more recently an organism of this class was found in cow manure by Ampola and Garino. Considerable progress in our knowledge of the denitrifying ferments in soil has been made by Ewell in the Division of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, in JANUARY 7, 1898. ] investigations not yet published. He has separated and begun the study of three organisms that rapidly destroy nitrates with the formation of free nitrogen. One was obtained from a sample of soil, another one from pig manure and the third one from hen manure. The first two belong to the class of organisms which liquefy gelatine and produce a green or yellowish green fluorescent pigment. They belong to the same or closely related species. For com- parison of these organisms, cultures of all similar organisms obtainable have been procured from the bacteriological labora- tories of the United States Marine Hospital Service and of the Surgeon-General of the Army. The organisms thus far examined in regard to this property are the following: Two cultures from different sources of B. pyocyaneus, two of B. fluorescens liquefaciens and one each of B. pyocyaneus, B. pyocya- neus D. and B. pyocyaneus pericarditidis. From the description given by Schiro- kikh of the organism found by him in horse manure it would appear that it is also of this class. The study of the organisms isolated by Ewell will be continued and reported at the proper time; the investigation is to be ex- tended to include soils of the various types, the feces of all the domestic animals, and various fodders, etc., in order that we may develop as fully as possible our knowledge of the nature and habitat of all organisms possessing the power to reduce nitrates with the liberation of free nitrogen. Numerous bottles of nitragin have been received in this country, and I believe ex- periments are now in progress in many of our experiment stations in its use. The practical demonstrations which have been made, however, of its utility have been made at European stations, and many of the results which have been obtained in this country have not yet been published. Many interesting contributions to the liter- SCIENCE. 21 ature of the subject will doubtless come from our own stations in the near future. Important work has already been done in studying the nodules of leguminous plants in many of our stations, especially in those of Massachusetts, Louisiana and Illinois. (To be concluded.) H. W. Witey. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS. THE annual meeting of the ‘ Naturalists’ and ‘ Affiliated Scientific Societies ’ was held at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, December 28, 29, 30, 1897. The mild weather and attractive surroundings, to- gether with the unbounded hospitality of the people of Ithaca and an excellent pro- gram and large attendance, combined to make the meeting more than usually suc- cessful. In the absence of the President, Professor Whitman, of the University of Chicago, the chair was occupied by Professor S. F. Clarke, of Williams College, one of the founders of the Society. After listening to the Report of the Treasurer, action was taken on certain items of business. Communications from the President of Columbia University, the President of the American Museum of Natural History, and the Secretary of the New York Academy of Sciences, inviting the Society to hold its next meeting in New York City, were read and referred to the Executive Committee. The Society subsequently decided to accept the invitations from New York. It was reported that President McKinley was about toappoint a commissioner to serve in the place of Mr. John J. Brice and, in view of the present deplorable condition of the scientific work of the Commission, the following resolutions were unanimously adopted : 22 “Resolved, That the American Society of Naturalists, .as representatives of the principal scientific and edu- ational interests of this country, unanimously ex- press to the President and Congress of the United States their sentiment that the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries should, according to the law of 1888, governing his appointment, be ‘a person of proved scientific and practical acquaintance with the fish and fisheries of the coast.’ “Resolved, That it is of the utmost importance that the Fish Commission, as one of the most useful scientific institutions of the government, should be free from political influence and should be adminis- tered with the highest degree of scientific efficiency by an experienced officer.” It was then voted that Professor H. F. Osborn, of Columbia University, be a delegate to convey the resolutions of the Society tothe President of the United States, and the members were asked to urge their Congressmen to prevent the appointment of any person unfitted for the place. The keen interest that was manifest in the discussion is a guarantee to Mr. McKinley that if his appointment is in accord with the spirit of the law he will gain the active support of scientific men throughout the country. Professor T. H. Morgan stated that the “American Tables’ at Naples were quite inadequate to the needs of American stu- dents, and that were it not for the unlimited generosity of Professor Dohrn many Ameri- cans could not have availed themselves of the privileges of the Zoological Station. Professor Osborn said that a friend of Co- lumbia University had offered two hundred and fifty dollars towards the five hundred necessary for the support of an additional table, and Professor John B. Smith moved that the Society appropriate one hundred dollars to be added to that already in the hands of Professor Osborn. It was so voted. It was also voted that that fifty dollars be appropriated for the continuance of the ‘ Naturalists’ Table’ at Woods Holl. An amendment to the constitution, pro- viding for the extension of the territory in which the Society may meet, was actively SCIENCE. [N. 8S. Vox. VII. No. 158. discussed, but failed of the number of votes necessary for its passage. The members then listened to the annual discussion on ‘The Biological Problems of To-day:’ Paleontology. Professor H. F. Osborn, Columbia University. Professor Wm. Trelease, Missouri Botanic Gar- dens. Professor Burt G. Wil- der, Cornell Univer- sity. Professor J. McKeen Cattell, Columbia Uni- versity. Professor Jacques Loeb, University of Chicago. Professor T. H. Morgan, Bryn Mawr College. Botany. Anatomy. Psychology. Physiology. Developmental Mechanics. Morphogenesis. Professor Charles B. Davenport, Harvard University. Each participant was limited to ten min- utes and the papers were short and to the point. They will be printed in full in this JOURNAL at an early date. Special papers were presented by Professors Osborn, Will- iams and Wilder. The following officers were elected for 1898 : President.—H. P. Bowditch, School. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Wm. James, Harvard University ; ProfessorS. H. Gage, Cornell Univer- sity; Professor H. 8. Williams, Yale University. Secretary.—Professor H. C. Bumpus, Brown Uni- versity. Treasurer.—Professor John B. Smith, , Rutgers College. Executive Committee.—Professor J. P. MeMurrich, University of Michigan ; Professor E. G. Conklin, University of Pennsylvania. Harvard Medical The annual dinner, given at Cascadilla Place, was a thoroughly enjoyable occasion. Professor Osborn presided in the absence of Professor Whitman, who, being unavoid- ably detained, was unable to give the ad- dress on ‘Some of the Functions and Fea- tures of a Biological Station,’ that he had JANUARY 7, 1898.] prepared. It will be published in an early issue of ScrENCE. H. C. Bumpvs, ‘ Secretary. BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, R. I. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS. THE meeting of the American Society of Naturalists at Ithaca, reported above, was un- usually well attended, owing to the large number of affiliated societies meeting with it. In addition to the Physiological Society, the Morphological Society and the Psychological Association, which met last year at Boston, there was not only the Association of Anato- mists, which last year postponed its meeting till the spring, but there were also two new societies—the Association for Botanical Mor- phology and Physiology, and Section H., An- thropology, of the American Association. The proceedings of all these societies, which will be fully reported in this JoURNAL by the Secre- taries, were crowded with excellent papers. The meeting at New York next winter will undoubtedly be the most important in the history of the American Society of Naturalists and affiliated societies. THE Royal Society has received, through Pro- fessor Anderson Stuart, telegraphic information that the expedition sent out to bore a coral reef at Funafuti has returned to Sydney, having carried the bore down to 698 feet, without reaching the bed rock. AT ameeting of the Board of Managers of the National Geographic Society on December 31, 1897, Alexander Graham Bell was elected Presi- dent of the Society. This election fills the va- cancy occasioned by the death of Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard. THE Parkin Prize of the. Paris Academy of Sciences has been awarded to Dr. A. D. Waller, of London, for his investigations on the relations of nervous activity and carbon dioxide. The prize is of the value of about $600. M. RAMBAUD, French Minister of Education, Senator, and professor of contemporary history at the Sorbonne, has been elected a member of the Academy of Moral Sciences, in the room of the late Duc d’ Aumale. SCIENCE. 23 THE Berlin Academy of Sciences has appro- priated three thousand Marks for the publica- tion of a map of the Arabian desert of Egypt. THE office of Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and the professorship of astronomy in the Univer sity of Dublin, has been conferred upon Mr. C. J. Joly, fellow of Trinity College. WILLIAM HARPER, Chief of the Bureau of In- formation of the Philadelphia Commercial Mu- seums, has returned to Philadelphia after a trip. around the world taken in the interest of the Museums. THE death is announced of Dr. Friedrich A. T. Winnecke, who some years ago made im- portant contributions to the astronomy of posi- tion at the observatories at Bonn, Pulkova and. Karlsruhe. On the establishment of the Univer- sity of Strassburg, at the end of the Franco-Ger- man War, he was made director of the observa- tory, but his health broke down, and since that time he has been unable to accomplish any scientific work. WE regret also to record the deaths of the fol- lowing men of science: M. Imbault Huart, the French Consul at Canton, at the age of forty years, who was a high authority on the lan- guages and geography of the Far Hast, espe- cially of Formosa, on which he published an elaborate work ; Dr. Giacomo Sangalli, profes- sor of pathological anatomy in the University of Pavia, and Senator of the Kingdom of Italy, aged 76; Dr. Franz Ritter von Schneider, pro- fessor of chemistry in the University of Vienna. GROUND was formally broken for the Museum Building of the New York Botanical Garden by President Samuel MacMillan, of the Depart- ment of Public Parks, on December 31st, with a nickel-plated pick and shovel presented to him at the site for the purpose by Messrs. Parker and Parshley, of the John H. Parker Co., contractors, in the presence of Messrs. Fallows and Ward, representing Mr. R. W. Gibson the architect, and Dr. Britton, Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Nash, of the Garden staff, and others. Appropriate remarks were made by President MacMillan and by Dr. Britton. The contract for the construction and equip- ment of the Museum Building, Power House and minor buildings has been awarded by the 24 Commissioners of Parks to the John H. Parker Company for $347,019.00. The plans for the great range of horticultural houses have been completed, and specifications for them have been printed. We hope to publish illustrations and descriptions of these and of the Museum Building in an early issue. The sum of $15,- 000.00, in addition to the funds provided by the Act of Incorporation, has been made avail- able for the building of portions of the drive- way system. During the past season about 2,900 species of plants have been obtained, to- gether with large quantities of Museum, Li- brary and Herbarium material. THE trustees of the British Museum have de- cided to discontinue the opening of the exhi- bition galleries on week-day evenings from 8 to 10 p. m. after the close of the year, and, in- stead, to keep them open (in alternate sections) until 6 p. m. all the year round. The evening opening commenced in February, 1890, on the installation of the electric light, but the at- tendance has been too small to warrant the continuation. The arrangements for opening on Sunday afternoon have not been altered. THE schooner ‘Prosper’ has arrived at San Francisco with about 240 fur-seal skins from the Galapagos Islands. It is a pity that Ecuador has taken no steps to protect what is left of the once valuable rookeries on these islands, which, with proper care, might have been brought in time to a paying basis. Of course, every catch like that of the ‘Prosper’ lessens the possibility of so doing and increases the length of time it would require. The species, Arctocephalus townsendi, is only known to science through a few skulls obtained by Mr. Townsend some years ago when the seals were not on the rookeries. TuHE Secretary of the Treasury has issued regulations under the Act of Congress prohibit- ing the taking of seals by American citizens, except on the Pribyloff Islands, and forbidding the importation into this country of pelagic sealskins. The regulations provide that no sealskins, raw, dressed, dyed or otherwise manufactured, shall be admitted to entry in the United States, except there be attached to the invoice a certificate signed by the United SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 158. States Consul at the place of exportation that said skins were not taken from seals killed within the waters mentioned in said act, speci- fying in detail the locality of such taking, whether on land or at sea, and also the person from whom said skins were purchased in their raw and dressed state, the date of such pur- chase and lot number. Consuls shall require satisfactory evidence of the truth of such facts by oath or otherwise before giving any such certificate. A NEw laboratory for physical chemistry at the University of Leipzig was formally opened on January 3d, if the program was carried out. Mr. JoHN MILNE writes to Nature that ar- rangements have been made for the establish- ment of horizontal pendulums, with photo- graphic apparatus to record unfelt movements, at Toronto, Harvard, Philadelphia, Victoria, B. C., New Zealand (two), Batavia, Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Mauritius, the Cape, Argen- tina, San Fernando and Kew, while a number of other stations are under consideration. Seis- mograms have already been received from To- ronto. At his station on the Isle of Wight, for purposes of comparison, Mr. Milne has also two horizontal pendulums writing on smoked paper, and very shortly a Darwin bifilar pen- dulum is to be established. To this will be added later a von Rebeur-Paschwitz apparatus, with which type of apparatus Mr. Milne worked for many years in Japan. In 1889 the late Francis B. Hayes placed all his property in trust, providing that at his death it might be willed to such charitable cor- porations as he might select. He made the Massachusetts Horticultural Society his residu- ary legatee, and as there was some doubt as to whether this could be regarded as a charitable organization the matter was brought before the Court. Judge Allen has decided that the be- quest was permissible, and the Horticultural Society will receive $300,000, as well as $10,- 000 left to it directly. THE Massachusetts Board of Agriculture has authorized an inspection of the spread of the brown-tail moth, which was first discovered in Cambridge and Somerville last spring, and it has been found that it has spread greatly to JANUARY 7, 1898. ] the northeast. The Board has no means at its disposal for exterminating the pest, but has noti- fied the owners or managers of some 1,900 es- tates of the law of 1897, which says that ‘‘it shall be the duty of the owners and managers of premises infested with this moth to exert themselves persistently to confine and suppress it,’? and have furnished them with-a bulletin describing the pest and giving directions for its destruction. THE nomenclature of the new New York City parks, relative to which there has been much discussion, was fittingly determined at a recent meeting of the Park Commissioners by the selection of the following: Alexander Hamilton Park, John Jay Park, De Witt Clinton Park, William H. Seward Park and Hamilton Fish Park. It had been suggested, as we noted in a recent issue, that the name of the late W. A. Stiles, a former Park Commissioner, should be associated with one of the new pleasure grounds, but the precedent of naming a park in honor of any Park Commissioner was wisely deemed a bad one. The fostering care of science and art, and the distinguished ser- vices rendered the city and the nation by the eminent men whose names have been chosen, make the decision one which will meet with universal approval. All lovers of nature will be particularly gratified by the graceful recog- nition of De Witt Clinton. THE Astley-Cooper prize of the value of £300, awarded biennally by Guy’s Hospital, will again be given at the beginning of 1901, the subject being the ‘ Physiology of the Pancreas.’ THE United States Civil Service Commission announces that, on February 7, 1898, an exam- ination will be held to establish an eligible reg- ister from which a selection may be made to fill a vacancy in the position of keeper of aquarium at the National Zoological Park at a salary of $75 per month. The examination will consist of a light educational test, together with prac- tical questions on the habits, distribution and classification of fishes, including translations of descriptions of fishes from German and Latin into English. THE Friday evening meetings. of the Royal Institution will begin on January 21st at 9p. m., SCIENCE. 25 when the Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M. P., will give a discourse on ‘ Buds and Stip- ules.’ Succeeding discourses will probably be given by Professor C. Lloyd Morgan, Mr. Alan A, Campbell Swinton, Dr. John Hall Gladstone, Professor L. C. Miall, Captain Abney, Professor T. B. Thorpe, Mr. James Mansergh, the Very Rey. the Dean of Canterbury, Professor Dewar and others. To these meetings members and their friends only are admitted. Lord Ray- leigh will deliver lectures after Easter. THE fifth annual lecture course of the Lin- neean Society of New York City, in codperation with the American Museum of Natural History, will be given in the large lecture hall of the Museum, Seventy-seventh street and Eighth avenue, as follows: January 6th, ‘Cats and the Lands they Inhabit,’ by DANIEL GIRAUD ELLIOT, F. R. 8. E., Curator of Zoology, Field Columbian Museum. February 3d, ‘From Vera Cruz to Mexico City,’ by FRANK M. CHAPMAN, Assistant Curator, Vertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History. March 17th, “The Mammals of North America,’ by ERNEST SETON THOMPSON; illustrated by views from nature and from original drawings by the lecturer. April 7th, ‘Protective and Directive Coloration of Animals,’ by C. Hart MERRIAM, M. D., Chief of Biological Sur- vey, U. S. Department of Agriculture. THE Garden and Forest Publishing Company announce that with the last issue, which com- pletes the tenth volume, the publication of Gar- den and Forest will be suspended. They state that ‘‘For ten years the experiment has been tried of publishing a weekly journal devoted to horticulture and forestry, absolutely free from all trade influences, and as good as it has been possible for us to make it. This experiment, which has cost’a large amount of time and money, has shown conclusively that there are not persons enough in the United States inter- ested in the subjects which have been presented in the columns of Garden and Forest to make a journal of its class and character self-support- ing. It is useless to expend more time and money on a publication which cannot be made financially successful, and must, therefore, sooner or later cease to exist.’’ M. BRUNETIERE has retired from the editor- ship of the Revue des deux Mondes, the great 26 French literary journal. Thisis a matter of some scientific interest, as M. Brunetiére had changed the journal from a liberal to a clerical organ, and while professing to use scientific methods in literary criticism had adopted an attitude somewhat hostile to modern science. PROFESSOR O. TASCHENBERG has retired from the editorship of Die Natur and has been succeeded by Professor Willi Ule. The journal, published weekly by the Schwetschke’sche Verlag at Halle, was founded forty-six years ago, under the editorship of Dr. Otto Ule and Dr. Karl Muller. It maintains an excellent standard of popular science, being neither technical nor trivial. THE publication department of the Progrés Medicale offers the complete works of Charcot, in thirteen vols. for 50 fr., reduced from 188 fr. Messrs. STUDER Bros. announce ‘Chap- ters on the Natural History of the United States,’ by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt. The pictures are reproduced from a series of photographs, ' made from life by the author. A NEW monthly periodical, Archives de Médi- cine des Enfants will hereafter be edited by Dr. J. Comby and published by Masson, Paris. Mr. JoNAS STADLING, who contributed to the November Century an account of Andrée’s expedition, sends to the January number a fac- simile of a message from Andrée, sent by the aéronaut by carrier pigeon. In Nature for December 7th an article on the beaver park of Sir Edmund Loder gives inter- esting information regarding the beavers of Sweden. It appears that they are mainly con- fined to the Stifts of Christiania and Christian- sand, although a few remain ‘in Bratsberg Amt and Slavanger Amt. They feed on the bark of deciduous trees, not touching the firs. As they are unable to dam the swift streams of Sweden, they make their burrows at right angles to the bank, running inward and upward for some distance, so that when the rivers rise the beavers go higher up in their burrows. In 1880 there were about 60 animals left, but be- ing protected they increased to 100 by 1883. Since 1894 a law has been passed protecting them for a period of ten years. SCIENCE. [N. 8. Von. VH. No. 158. A SKELETON of the moa, Dinornis or Euryap- terix emeus crassus, the extinct giant bird of New Zealand, was purchased recently at auction in London by Dr. Hutchinson for 48 guineas. It is said that most of the skeletons exhibited in museums are made up from different species. The present specimen was set up by Captain F. W. Hutton, F.RB.S. THE United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey wil] send the steamship ‘McArthur’ to the waters of Alaska to make, when spring opens, a thorough survey of the coast, especially about the mouth of the Yukon River. A small steamer will also be taken to aid in the surveying work and to serve for the navigation of rivers too shallow for the ‘McArthur.’ AT the recent international congress of pub- lishers, held at Brussels, a recommendation was made that is of special interest to men of science, and should be insisted upon by them in arrange- ments with their publishers. The resolution was to the effect that a mere new printing of a book should be called a tirage, and not a new edition, unless it has been revised by the author. THE metric system of linear measurement has now been in use in the English engine building works of Messrs. Williams & Robinson four years. Captain Sankey reports in the London Engineer that the draughtsmen are unanimously pleased with its working, and that the work- men, at first strongly opposed to its introduc- tion, now greatly favor it. The manager finds it easier to teach the new than the old system. AT an extra meeting of the Chemical Society, London, held at Burlington-house on December 15th, Professor Francis R. Japp, F.R.S., de- livered a memorial lecture in honor of the dis- tinguished German chemist, Friedrich August Kekulé, whose death occurred last year. After giving a sketch of Kekulé’s life, Professor Japp. said, according to the report in the London Times, that his supreme merit lay in his contri- butions to theoretical chemistry. His greatest achievements in this department were the doc- trine of the linking of atoms in terms of their valency, and, growing out of this, the theory of the structure of organic molecules, both in open-chain and in closed-chain compounds. These were not recondite theories, hidden JANUARY 7, 1898. ] away in the depths of the science; on the con- trary, they were organic chemistry itself, and learnt by students on their first introduction to the subject. The lecturer proceeded to give an account of the genesis of some of Kekulé’s theo- ries and their relation to the work of other investigators. His memoir on the benzene theory, which was referred to as the crowning achievement of the doctrine of the linking of atoms, was the most brilliant piece of scientific prediction to be found in the whole range of organic chemistry. What Kekulé wrote in 1865 had since been verified in every particular, and not only had the various substitution derivatives been discovered in the number and with the properties required by the theory, but various observations that appeared to con- tradict it had been proved erroneous. More- over, it had shown itself capable of boundless development, and there seemed no limit to the fruitfulness of Kekulé’s conception of closed chains. Even in the undeveloped state of the subject prior to this theory, the facts were apparently so intricate and so unconnected that few chemists could claim to have mastered them. The theory appeared; the previously unmarshalled facts fell into their proper places, and, further, it became possible to say whether in any given section of the subject the facts were complete or only fragmentary. The debt which both chemical sciences and chemical industry owed to Kekulé’s benzene theory was incalculable. As regards the former, three- fourths of modern organic chemistry was di- rectly or indirectly the product of the theory, and as to the latter the industries of the coal- tar colors and the artificial therapeutic agents in their present form and extension would be inconceivable without the inspiration and guid- ance of Kekulé’s fertile idea. By the accuracy of his predictions he had done more to inspire chemists with a belief in the utility of legitimate hypotheses in chemistry, and had, therefore, done more for the deductive side of the science than almost any other investigator. His work stood preéminent as an example of the power of ideas. A formula, consisting of a few chemical symbols jotted down on paper and joined together by lines, has supplied work and inspiration for scientific chemists for an entire SCIENCE. 27 generation and afforded guidance to the most. complex industry the world had yet known. THE scientific work accomplished by the Prince of Monaco, in the Hirondelle up to 1889, and since then in the Princesse Alice, has developed so greatly that the last named yacht has been found too small for the proper carry- ing out of these researches. As we learn from Industries and Iron, a larger yacht will be built for the continuation of the work. It will be a fast vessel, propelled by engines of 1,000 indi- cated horse-power, and designed to ensure a speed of 12 knots. She has a length between perpendiculars of 225 feet, with 34 feet beam, a depth of 20 feet, and her tonnage is 1,270 tons. The hull is built of steel, divided into seven water-tight compartments extending the upper deck. The cabin accommodation will be extensive, there being separate cabins for the scientific staff and a large laboratory. THE British Central Africa Gazette states that reports from the West Shiré and Ruo districts give reason to believe that rinderpest has made its appearance among the game in both those districts. Game is said to be dying in numbers. in the Elephants’ Marsh—one of the game pre- serves formed by the administration of the Pro- tectorate for the purpose of preventing the extermination of wild animals in this part of Africa. Prompt measures, it is said, have been taken to endeavor to prevent the introduction of the disease into the Shiré Highlands.. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS. THE Executive Committee of the Board of Trustees of the New York City College have accepted the plans of the new buildings pre- sented by Mr. George B. Post. The estimated cost is about $1,200,000. The plans include provision for a chapel with a seating capacity of over 2,000, a library that will hold 70,000 books, a museum of natural history, labora- tories, etc. The building, which will be of the English Collegiate Gothic style of architecture, will stand on a high elevation. It will be on Convent Avenue, St. Nicholas Terrace and 138th and 140th streets. Mr. Levi BARBour, of Detroit, one of the regents of Michigan University, has donated 28 $15,000 toward an art building for the uni- versity, providing a $100,000 building shall be erected on the campus within six years. By the will of the late Susan S. Clark, of Hartford, Conn., just admitted to probate, Trinity College is to receive $10,000 for the support for two scholarships. THE library of the University of Missouri has received a gift of about 2,000 volumes, chiefly on physics and chemistry, from Dr. A. Linton, of St. Louis. A FELLowsuHipP, to be called the Geoffrey Fellowship, of the value of £100 a year for three years, has been presented to Newnham College, Cambridge, and will be awarded in June, 1898. The Geoffrey Fellow will be re- quired to reside at Newnham College, and to pursue independent study in some department of learning, letters or science. THE committee of the Charing-cross Hospital Medical School has passed the following resolu- tion: ‘‘That the committee of the Charing- cross Hospital Medical School respectfully urges the government to introduce, early in the ensu- ing session, a bill on the lines of the London University Commission Bill, 1897. Further, the committee hopes that on this occasion the government will give sufficient time and sup- port to the bill to insure its passing through both Houses of Parliament.’’ AN election to the Isaac Newton studentship of Cambridge University will be held in the Lent term, 1898. The studentship, which is of the annual value of £200, is for the encourage- ment of study and research in astronomy (es- pecially gravitational astronomy, but including other branches of astronomy and astronomical physics) and physical optics. The persons eligible are Bachelors of Arts of the University who will be under the age of 25 years on Jan- uary 1, 1898. THE University of Zurich has 713 students, of whom as many as 333 are foreigners. 135 of these are from Russia. There are more women than men in the medical department. THE Quain professorship of physics in Uni- versity College, London, will be vacant at the end of the present session by the resignation of SCIENCE. [N.S. Vor. Vil. No. 158. Professor Carey Foster. Candidates for the chair should send their applications by Tues- day, March Ist. ‘The Curators of Patronage’ of the University of Edinburgh announce that candidates for the chair of moral philosophy, vacant by the death of Professor Henry Calder- wood, must send in their applications not later than March 31st. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE. WATER SURFACE TEMPERATURES OF LAKE TITICACA. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: A few observa- tions of the temperature of the surface waters of Lake Titicaca, made during a recent trip across the lake, may be of interest to the readers of SCIENCE. Lake Titicaca lies on the elevated plateau of Titicaca, partly in Peru and partly in Bolivia, at an altitude of 12,505 feet above sea-level. Its large size, its altitude, and the climatic conditions of the region in which it is situated, together with the historical associations con- nected with it, combine to make it in many respects the most interesting lake in the world. The following observations—unfortunately very incomplete—were made during the steamboat trip from Puno, situated on the Bay of Puno, at the western end of the lake, to Chililaya, a small village near the southern extremity of the lake. Chililaya, the landing place for pas- sengers and freight going to La Paz, is about 100 miles from Puno, and 36 miles by carriage road from La Paz. The steamer left Puno at 8 a. m., November 26th, and reached Chililaya at 7:30 p. m., the same day. At 8 a. m., before leaving the wharf at Puno, the air temperature was 56.0° and the water 60.9°. There were at that time scattering cirrus clouds, and a gentle breeze from NE. The air and water temperatures. during the remainder of the day were as fol- lows: 9 a. m., air, 50.0°; water, 59.5°. 10a. m., air, 53.2°; water, 59.0°. 11 a. m., air, 51.8°; water, 57. 2°. 12m., air, 51.2°; water, 57.7°. 1p.m., air, 50.9°; water, 57.9°. 2p. m., air, 54.2°; water, 58.2°. 3 p. m., air, 54.8°;. water, 58.3°. 4p. m., air, 54.1°; water, 57.9°. 5 p.m., air, 49.8°; water, 57.9°. 6:15 p. m., JANUARY 7, 1898. } air, 53.5° (in lee of land); water, 57.8°. The conditions of sky and wind during the day were a light to fresh breeze from NE, and scattering cirrus clouds or clear sky over the lake. These observations, incomplete as they are, are of some interest. The higher tempera- ture of the water near shore, where the lake is shallow, and in the Bay of Puno, which is pretty well cut off from the main body of the lake; the slight diurnal variation of tem- perature, reaching a maximum at 3 p. m., and the prevailingly higher temperature of the water surface over that of the air, are facts that seem to be rather clearly indicated as far as this one set of observations is concerned. On November 28th, during the return trip of the steamer, observations of air and water sur- face temperatures gave the following results: 7a. m., air, 52.1° ; water, 56.5°. 8a. m., air, 51.1°; water, 57.0°. 9a.m., air, 51.9°; water, 57.1°. 10 a. m., air, 56.7° ; water, 57.7°. 11 a. m., air, 52.5°; water, 58.2°. 12 m., air, 55.1°; water, 57.9. 1 p. m. (outside Bay of Puno), air, 57.7°; water, 59.5°. 2p. m. (in Bay of Puno), air, 62.1°; water, 60.4°. 5 p.m. (at Puno mole), air, 49.0°; water, 62.0°. The meteorological conditions during the day were an overcast sky (cirro-stratus) and light south-- east wind, or calm, till 11 a. m., when the wind changed to northeast, and gradually in- creased, with increasing cloudiness (alto-stratus and cumulo-nimbus) until it reached about twenty-five miles an hour. The sky remained dark and threatening during the rest of the afternoon, but the wind died down soon after 4 p.m. The water temperatures show the diurnal increase up to 11 a. m., after which hour, owing probably to the increasing cloudi- ness and the change in wind direction, there came a fall in temperature in the open lake. In the Bay of Puno, as on the outward trip, the temperatures were higher than in the main body of the lake. Throughout the day, except at 2 p. m., the air temperature was below that of the water. The clouds noted during the two trips across the lake were also interesting. On the first day, during the whole of which the sun was shining brightly, there was a very active growth of cumulus clouds over the mountains border- SCIENCE. 29 ing on the lake. These clouds were first noted at 8:15 a.m. It was very noticeable, during the entire day, that the cumuli were over the land, where the rapid warming of the surface gave rise to ascending currents of air, and not over the lake, the sky over the water re- maining clear, or showing light cirrus only. This phenomenon is very commonly noted in the neighborhood of large bodies of water, as in the case of our own Great Lakes. Another fact of interest was that the cumuli were bet- ter developed over the eastern shore of the lake, where the mountains are higher, than over the western shore, which is lower. Dur- ing the morning the cumuli developed rapidly into cumulo-nimbus clouds, whose tops, blown southwestward over the lake, soon broke off from their bases, and dissolved as they descended to lower levels, being no more supported by ascending currents of air from below. About 2 p. m. the cumuli reached their greatest de- velopment, and at 4:30 began rapidly to dis- solve into long lines of degraded cumuli. The height of the latter at 5 p. m., determined by reference to the heights of the Bolivian Andes behind them, was about 15,000 feet above sea level. It was noted that there was a consid- erable development of cirrus over the cumuli during the morning hours of this day, thus in- dicating a relation between the cumulus, formed at a lower level in the ascending current, and the cirrus, formed at a second higher level. At this second level, as explained by Abercromby, the diminished amount of vapor which the as- cending current contains after the formation of the cumulus reaches its second condensation point, and a second layer of cloud, the cirrus, is formed. As yet no careful study has been made of the meteorology of the Lake Titicaca district, and nothing definite can be said as to the influence of this body of water upon the climate of the surrounding country. There can, however, be little doubt that the lake must modify this climate to a considerable extent, although the surrounding mountains would confine this influ- ence to the immediate vicinity of this lake. R. DEC. WARD. HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, AREQUIPA, PERU, December 1, 1897. 30 ZIRKELITE—A QUESTION OF PRIORITY. In the Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. X1., pp. 86-88 (read June 18, 1895) is described a new mineral containing zirconium, titanium, lime, iron, etc., under the name of Zirkelite. This paper was prepared by my friend Dr. E. Hussak and Mr. G. T. Prior. Later Mr. Prior (1. c., pp. 180-183, Read Nov. 17, 1896) published an analysis of the same mineral. I wish to protest against the use of the name Zirkelite for this mineral on the ground of the prior use of it to designate a commonly occur- ring rock belonging to the basaltic family. When two subjects are so intimately con- nected as mineralogy and petrography it does not seem to be for the interest of science that names should be duplicated in them. So true is this that Iabandoned the name Rosenbuschite, which I had given to a class of rocks in honor of Professor Rosenbusch, because only a few weeks previously it had been employed to des- ignate a new mineral. The term Zirkelite was used by me in 1887, or seven years before it was taken by Messrs. Hussak and Prior. (See Preliminary Descrip- tion of the Perioditites, Gabbros, Diabases and Andesites of Minnesota. Bulletin No. 2, Geo- logical Survey of Minnesota, 1887, pp. 30-32.) It was used to designate the commonly occur- ring altered conditions of basaltic glassy lavas which are often called diabase glass, ete. Zir- kelite occurs forming the entire mass of thin dikes, and the exterior parts of many dikes of diabase and melaphyr, as well as the surface of old lava flows like the melaphyrs: and diabases of Lake Superior, Newfoundland and elsewhere. Zirkelite holds the same relation to tachylite that diabase and melaphyr do to basalt, 7. e., an older and altered type. The macroscopic and microscopic characters of this rock were given in the locality cited above. The term Zirkelite was again used in the same way in my Report to the Geological Survey of Michigan for 1891-1892 (1893, pp. 80, 97, 138, etc.). It was also published in my classification of rocks given in the Catalogue of the Michigan College of Mines (Michigan Mining School) 1891— SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 158. 1892, p. 104; 1892-1894, Table XI.; 1894-1896, Table XI. Further, the term Zirkelite is defined in ac- cordance with my usage in Loewinson-Lessing’s Petrographisches Lexikon, 1898, p. 252; and accounts of it are given in the Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, 1893, II., p. 292, and in Kemp’s Handbook of Rocks, 1896, p. 170. M. E. WADSWORTH. MICHIGAN COLLEGE OF MINES, HoucGuHtTon, Micu., December 17, 1897. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Catalogus Mammalium tam viventium quam fossil- ium. Dr. E. L. Trovressart. New Ed. Fascic. II., Carnivora, Pinnipedia, Rodentia (Protrogomorpha and Sciuromorpha), pp. 219-452, June, 1897. Fascic. III., Rodentia (concluded), pp. 4538-664, Oct., 1897. Berlin, R. Friedlander und Sohn. Price, $2.50 each part. The second and third parts of Trouessart’s ‘Catalogue of Mammals, living and fossil,’ have come to hand and carry the work through the Carnivora and Rodentia. These parts are less satisfactory than the first, and cannot be said to represent the present state of knowledge of the groups treated, particularly with respect to American forms. Among the latter many synonyms are accorded full specific rank, many good species are degraded to synonymy, and many forms are transfosed in a manner that shows an absence of appreciation of their affini- ties. And when it comes to the geographic distribution of American species the most as- tonishing inaccuracies creep in, as might be ex- pected. In matters of nomenclature Dr. Trouessart seems to be a law unto himself, and consistency does not seem to be one of his canons. In using Brisson he quotes the pre-Linnzan edition (1756), which has no status in nomenclature, instead of the edition of 1762 ; while in quoting Linnzus he takes the opposite course and uses the 12th edition (1766) instead of the 10th (1758), which is accepted the world over as marking the beginning of Zoological nomen- clature. With respect to Brisson’s genera it will be interesting to know what rules, if any, led to the adoption of Hydrocherus and the re- JANUARY 7, 1898. ] jection of Odobzxnus, Glis* and others. If all had been rejected his course would have had the merit of consistency and would be defen- sible. The generic name Trichechus is-erronously applied to the Walrus instead of the Manatee. Dr. Trouessart is a most diligent searcher of the literature and is to be congratulated on the freedom of his catalogue from omissions. Most of the errors here pointed out are such as are bound to creep in in an undertaking of this character and magnitude, and the reviewer wishes it understood tkat in calling attention to them he has not done go in a spirit of criticism, but for the purpose of rendering the work more useful. The authority for the generic name Bassaris- cus is Coues, 1887, not ‘Rhoads, 1894.’ The genus Wagneria Jentink, 1886, cannot stand. It is not only the same as Bassariscus, butis pre- occupied. j Thalassarctos Gray, 1825, is antedated by Thalarctos of the same author and based on the same animal. Lyncus Gray, 1825 (first printed Lynceus by Gray in 1821), is antedated by Lynx Kerr, 1792. The name Ictis Kaup, adopted for a sub- genus of Weasels, is preoccupied by Ictis Schinz, 1824, for which reason Arctogale Kaup will have to stand for the Weasels. This I have already published in ScrENcE (Vol. V., p. 302, Feb. 19, 1897); and since Arctogale Peters, 1864, is pre- occupied by Arctogale Kaup, 1829, I proposed the new name Arctogalidia for the palm civets, of which Viverra trivirgata is the type (see SCIENCE as above). Ursus piscator Pucheran, 1855, and U. beringi- ana Middendorff, 1851, given as forms of U. arctos, are based on the same animal. Ursus emmonsi Dall, given as a ‘ variety’ of U. americanus, is certainly a most distinct spe- cies. * In the case of Glis it is stated in a footnote that the genus cannot be admitted because Linneus had previously instituted the order Glires, and because Brisson, did not use binomial nomenclature. The first reason is trivial and not in accord with any code of nomenclature ; the second, if considered a valid ob- jection by the author, should have caused him to re- ject Hydrocherus also. SCIENCE, 31 A most unfortunate slip is the reintroduction of Peale’s generic name Cricetodipus (a synonym of Perognathus) for the Kangaroo rats of the genus Perodipus, in accordance with an ill-ad- vised suggestion from Mr. Rhoads. But Mr. Rhoads carefully abstained from giving Peale’s measurements of his type specimen, which prove beyond question that the animal could not have been a Kangaroo rat. The hind foot measured ‘,§; inch ’—a trifle less than 20.5 mm., which agrees with young specimens of Perogna- thus from the plains of the Columbia, in Oregon and Washington. A nursing young Kangaroo rat (Perodipus columbianus), from the same re- gion, has a hind foot measuring 36 mm. and a total length more than double that given by Peale for his Cricetodipus. Among the 12 Kangaroo rats of the genus Dipodomys given full specific rank, one (similis) is a synonym (of simiolus) and three (ambiguus, simiolus and parvus) are subspecies (of merriamt Mearns). In the sequence given, these sub- species are not only accorded specific rank, but with one exception are removed from the forms to which they are most closely related and placed after members of widely different groups. Similarly, the large Dipodomys spectabilis, with its long tail-brush of pure white, is separated from its nearest ally, D. deserti, by a group of small dark-tailed forms. Under the genus Peromyscus, comprising the American white-footed mice, the mixture of species and subspecies fairly takes one’s breath away. The same is true in less degree of Microtus and of numerous other genera through- out the Catalogue. Sciuropterus volans is given as the name of the European Flying Squirrel and S. voluncella as that of the American. This, while in accord- ance with former usage, is unfortunate since the Mus volans of Linnzeus, 1766, is the Flying Squir- rel of Virginia, as shown by Jordan and Bangs. Under Sciurus douglasi five synonyms are raised to the rank of ‘ varieties.’ Under Sciurus aberti, S. castanotus [= castano- notus| Baird and S. durangi Thomas are given as subspecies. The former is a synonym; the latter a distinct species. Under Sciurus arizonensis are included as sub- species the hardly distinct huwachuca of Allen 32 and several widely different species, as S. col- dizi Richardson, S. hypopyrrhus Wagler and others. A curious freak in nomenclature is illustrated by this series, the majority of the ‘subspecies’ included under arizonensis anteda- ting it by many years ! Coming to the Chipmunks, the author aban- ‘dons his own earlier and, in the reviewer’s judg- ment, excellent division of the group into Tamias and Hutamias and lumps them all under the former name. In arranging the species and subspecies of this perplexing group it is no wonder he is somewhat mixed, and that the forms are distributed without regard to their affinities. Thus pricei, at most a subspecies of merriami, is given full specific rank and placed between townsendi and macrorhabdotes. The latter, instead of ranking as a species, should stand as a synonym of quadrimaculatus. The Spermophiles of the lateralis group (sub- genus Callospermophilus Merriam) are placed in the genus Tamias, with which they have no close affinity. Spermophilus sonoriensis, a subspecies of tereti- caudus, is placed in a different subgenus! And tereticaudus and the closely related neglectus are wrongly referred to the subgenus Ictidomys. In many instances Dr. Trouessart adopts the oldest generic name, as Cendu for Synetheres ; Ochotona for Lagomys, and so on; but in many cases he fails to do this. Thus, Ceelogenus F. Cuvier, 1807, is antedated by Agouti Lacépéde, 1799. Lagostomus Brookes, 1829, is antedated by Vizcacia Schinz, 1824. Myoxus Schreber, 1782, is antedated by Glis Bris- son, 1762. Platycercomys Brandt, 1844, is antedated hy Pyge- retmus Gloger, 1841. Scirtomys Brandt, 1844, is antedated by Scarturus Gloger, 1841. He uses also many preoccupied names. Among these are: Arctogale Peters, 1864; replaced by Arctogalidia Merriam, 1897. Echiothrix Gray, ‘Thomas, 1896. Hydrolagus Gray, 1867; replaced by Limnolagus Mearns, 1897. Ictis Kaup, 1829; replaced by Arctogale Kaup, 1829. 1867; replaced by Crawrothrix SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 158. Macrorhinus F. Cuvier, 1826; replaced by Mirounga Gray, 1827. Wagneria Jentink, 1886; replaced by Bassariscus Coues, 1887. The authority for Tylonyx, given as a syno- nym under Dicrostonyx, should be Schulze in- stead of ‘ Huth.’ Dr. Trouessart is not one of those who re- gards as sacred the original spelling of generic names. On the contrary, he accepts amended names in preference to the originals and in so doing operates at both ends, changing Pithecheir to Pithecheirus and Endecapleura to Hendecap- leura! A number of generic names are given errone- ous dates. For instance: Acomys dates from 1838; not 1840. Alticola get. 1884, Ctenodactylus ‘* ‘* 1830; ‘‘ 1828. Dolichotis fs Gs giles 8 Te. Graphiurus es GG ageyelp SIS pt). Heterocephalus ‘‘ ‘ 1842; “* 4834. Nyctocleptes GG GE TER ye 6S TIEBE. Rhombomys See! 4:1 mice 4s Tachyoryctes *‘ Ce CSO) Wael ods “Under Echimys and the amended form Echi- nomys the authorities and dates are badly mixed. In the case of family names the rule of priority is not always followed. For instance, ‘ Lagos- tomidz Bonaparte 1837’ is antedated by Chin- chillide Bennett 1833; and Cendide Trouessart is antedated by Hrethizontide Thomas. Perhaps the oddest error in the Catalogue is the transposition of the Trinidad Opossum, Thylamys carri Allen and Chapman, to the Rodent genus Tylomys Peters ! The subfamily heading Murine is omitted, apparently by accident, and the resulting ar- rangement as printed puts Mus as a subgenus of Otomys ! A single new subgenus, Microlagus, is named. It is based on Lepus cinerascens Allen, a form whose relationship with L. trowbridgii is so ex- ceedingly close that it is probably only subspe- cifically separable, and yet L. trowbridgit is © placed in a separate subgenus (Sylvilagus Gray) ! A curious instance of persistent misspelling is the repeated occurrence of Vernon Bailey’s name as Bayley, and of specific names based JANUARY 7, 1898. ] thereon as bayleyi. lacet is spelled lacyt. In dividing the work into parts it is a pity the publishers did not end the second part with the Carnivora instead of including the first 63 pages of the Rodentia. In binding by orders—the most convenient form for most uses—the volume on the Rodentia will have no title-page in front, but has one for the matter posterior to the 63d page, where the 3d fasciculus begins (page 453 of the whole Catalogue). The reviewer is indebted to Dr. T. S. Palmer for calling his attention to a number of the er- rors in generic names and dates. In two instances Trouessart imposes new names on forms distinguished but not named by previous authors, and in both instances modestly but wrongly credits the name to the previous author instead of himself. The cases in point are Vespertilio gryphus septentrionalis, attributed to Harrison Allen, and [Mus] sylvati- cus var. noveboracensis, attributed to Erxleben, and placed as a synonym of Peromyscus leucopus. The three parts now published comprise the Primates, Chiroptera, Insectivora, Carnivora and Rodentia and contain 760 genera and 4,085 species. Of these, 288 genera and 1,900 species are included in the single order Rodentia. The Catalogue, in spite of its inherent imper- fections, is an extremely useful document and must be at the elbow of every student of mam- mals. Similarly Reithrodontomys C. HART MERRIAM. ‘Guide to the genera and classification of the North American Orthoptera found north of Mexico. By SAMUEL HUBBARD SCUDDER. Cambridge, Mass., Edward W. Wheeler. 1897. Pp. 89. Price, $1.00. Dr. Scudder began his entomological studies with the Orthoptera, and is still at work elab- orating the sub-families, genera and species with reference to a general work on the classi- fication of the order. The little book before us is designed to serve as a Prodomus of the -work, which we hope may be completed at a no distant day. As such it will be of great ‘service to the student, since the families, sub- families and genera are tersely and yet fully described. Besides these diagnoses there are SCIENCE. 33 elaborate tables for the determination of the families, sub-families and genera; the species not being mentioned. In addition to the general bibliographical notes, those devoted to the families and the list of the literature are full and presumably exhaustive. The index appears also to be complete. The paper and printing are unex- ceptional. It will be seen that the book will be indis- pensable to the student, as there is nothing like it in our entomological literature. That it has been prepared with thoroughness and care goes without saying. When will the time come when we shall have similar exhaustive manuals of the other orders of insects. A. S. PACKARD. Les Ballons-Sondes de MM. Hermite et Besan- gon et les Ascensions Internationales. Par WILFRID DE FONVIELLE. Bibliothéque des Actualités Scientifiques. Paris, Gauthier- Villars. 1898. 18mo. Pp. 112. Figs. 27. This brochure by my colleague, the Secretary of the Aéronautical Commission, is timely, since it is the first complete account of an im- portant investigation in Europe. M. de Fon- vielle is well fitted to write on the subject, for he is not only a distinguished aéronaut and the author of several books on ballooning, but since their inception he has been an advocate of “ballons-sondes,’ or ‘ballons perdus,’ as for- merly they were derisively named. When one of these exploring balloons, set free by MM. Hermite and Besancon, in No- vember, 1892, lost its buoyancy and fell to the earth there was obtained for the first time, from its minimum barometer and thermometer, the greatest height and the lowest temperature which had been reached. Fourteen of these small balloons having envelopes, generally of paper, filled with illuminating gas were lib- erated from Paris and most of them were re- covered with their instruments recording the extremes of height and cold. MM. Hermite and Besangon, therefore, were encouraged to continue the exploration of the upper air with larger balloons made of goldbeaters’ skin or of special silk, which they called Aérophiles. These carried continuously recording barom- o4 eters and thermometers of Richard’s construc- tion, and in March, 1893, records were obtained 49,000 feet above the earth. In 1894 the Ber- lin Aéronautical Society began similar explora- tions in connection with manned balloons, and in September the exploring balloon Cirrus rose 60,000 feet and recorded photographically a temperature 90° Fahrenheit below zero. In December of the same year Berson, of Berlin, ascended alone 30,000 feet, and, at the highest level ever reached by man, observed a temper- ature 54° Fahrenheit below zero. Efforts were now made to secure interna- tional cooperation, and the International Me- teorological Conference which was held at Paris in September, 1896, furnished the oppor- tunity to M. de Fonvielle. As stated in SCIENCE of January 1, 1897, simultaneous flights of manned and exploring balloons were recom- mended, and in consequence of the successful experiments with kites lifting self-recording in- struments at Blue Hill this method of studying the lower air was advised. A commission was appointed to execute these resolutions, con- sisting of Messrs. Hergesell (President), of Strassburg; de Fonvielle (Secretary) and Her- mite, of Paris; Pomortzeff, of St. Petersburg ; Erk, of Munich; Assmann, of Berlin, and Rotch, of Boston. In the first international flight of ‘ballons-sondes’ on November 14, 1896, balloons were despatched from Paris, Strassburg, Berlin and St. Petersburg, but only the Aérophile from Paris reached a great alti- tude. Three simultaneous flights were made the past year, and the results of these and subsequent ones will certainly elucidate the conditions prevailing through a large extent of the upper air at much greater heights than can be reached by human beings. With these bal- loons only the barometric pressure and the air temperature are recorded, but after several at- tempts to obtain samples of the air at great heights this was finally accomplished with the apparatus of Cailletet carried by the Aérophile. The chapter on the theory of a ballon-sonde, and the effect of temperature on the height to which one will rise, presents simply and clearly some important facts and formule. In closing this review it may be well to point out a few typographical errors. On pages 16 and 17 the SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 158. words ‘en papier’ evidently should be omitted from the heading of the table, since balloons of goldbeaters’ skin are included; in the same table the date 1862 should be 1892 and ‘ tem- pérature maxima’ should be ‘température minima;’ in the heading of the table on pages 88 and 89 the words ‘en soie spéciale’ should be omitted for the reason stated above. It is proposed to hold a meeting of the Inter- national Aéronautical Commission next Febru- ary, to consider plans for a more extended exploration of the atmosphere. As yet ex- ploring balloons have not been employed in the United States, but the development of the kite in this country has proved it to be the best agent for studying the meteorological conditions. of the lower ten thousand feet of free air at definitely determined heights. In fact, the rec- ords of temperature and humidity obtained with kites 11,086 feet above Blue Hill probably ex- ceed in altitude any balloon observations on this side of the Atlantic, while the proposed use of kites by the Weather Bureau to obtain data for daily synoptic charts of the condi- tions a mile above the earth’s surface may result in improving the weather forecasts. A. LAWRENCE RorcH. Volcanoes of North America: A Reading Lesson for Students of Geography and Geology. By IsRAEL C. RUSSELL, Professor of Geology, University of Michigan ; author of ‘ Lakes of North America,’ ‘Glaciers of North Amer- ica,’ ete. New York, The Macmillan Co. 1897. 8vo. Pp. xiv+346. Price, $4.00. In giving to the world a companion volume to his Lakes, and Glaciers, of North America, Professor Russell has laid under renewed obli- gation both the geological student and the general reader. He is eminently fitted for the discussion of his present theme. His own travels and explorations have made him fa- miliar with the eruptive phenomena of North America, through a wide range of latitude and longitude, and in manifold variety of type— from the Mesozoic trap sheets of New Jersey, to- the majestic snow-clad cone of Rainier; from the craters of the Mono valley, to the widespread stratum of volcanic dust in the valley of the Yukon. To the knowledge gained by personal JANUARY 7, 1898.] observation he has added an extensive and critical acquaintance with the varied literature of the subject. - The book opens with a general discussion of the characteristics of volcanoes, in which the various types of eruption are illustrated by the classical examples of Stromboli, Vesuvius, Kra- katoa, the Hawaiian volcanoes and the colos- sal lava sheets of the Deccan and the Columbia valley. A description of the gaseous, liquid and solid ejecta of volcanoes is followed by a discussion of the form and structure of volcanic cones and necks. Next are described the characteristic types of subterranean intrusions —dikes, sheets, plugs, laccolites and sub- tuberant mountains. The opening chapter closes with a brief discussion of the character- istics of igneous rocks. A brief and popular petrological section is by no means an easy thing to write. The requirement of perfect accuracy in brief and non-technical language is somewhat like the pious old woman’s order on her book- seller for a very small Bible with very coarse print. The following statements are inaccurate and confusing: ‘‘If fused slag is cooled quickly, crystals are not developed, but the mass has a glassy or stony structure” (p. 68); “Cif solidification takes place at this stage [after formation of minute crystals floating in the still fused material], the ground mass becomes a glass or felsite’’ (p. 112); ‘‘if the cooling is rapid, a crystalline glass is produced”? (p. 114). The application of the name basalt to the coarsely crystalline rock of the Palisades in- volves an extension of the meaning of the word unwarrantable even in a brief and popular discussion. The statement that trachyte is normally dark colored is certainly misleading. With Dana and others, Professor Russell holds that some granites are truly metamorphic rocks. The tendency at the present time is to derive gneisses from granites rather than granites from gneisses ; but we believe there is truth in both views. The main part of the book, as implied in the title, is occupied by the description of the ac- tive and recently extinct volcanoes of North America ; and the reader cannot fail to be in- terested in the great variety of volcanic phe- nomena so clearly described in its attractive SCIENCE. ‘ canic necks. 35 pages. The eruption of Coseguina in 1835 al- most rivals in tremendous explosiveness that of Krakatoa in 1883. In Mount Taylor and its companions are seen beautiful examples of vol- The volcanoes of the Mono val- ley include a remarkable variety of volcanic phenomena; and the pages devoted to their description, bright with the vividness of per- sonal observation, are among the most fascina- ting in the book. In Crater Lake we have a magnificent example of a caldera formed by the ingulfing of a volcanic cone. The reader will readily sympathize with the author’s enthusi- asm over the majestic beauty of the snowy cones that dominate the Cascade Range. In the Columbia lava sheet we have the result of colossal fissure eruptions rivaled only by those of the Deccan. The Spanish Peaks are beauti- ful examples of voleanoes dissected by erosion. In Shishaldin we see a volcanic cone, the symmetry of whose graceful, slightly concave lines rivals the beauty of Fusiyama. In Bogos- loff we have apparently a shapeless mass formed by the sudden chilling of highly viscid lava erupted beneath the sea. From the description of the volcanic phe- nomena shown in North America the author returns to the discussion of volcanoes in general. The reader who has become familiar with such widely varied details is in position to appreciate the inductions which may be drawn from them in regard to the mechanism of volcanic erup- tion. Professor Russell adopts the view that the interior of the earth is solid, but potentially liquid at no great depth below the surface—a view which seems to harmonize the teachings of geology with those of physics. In common with Reyer, the author attributes the relief of pressure, which is the condition of local lique- faction, and consequently of eruption, to the formation of fissures. We are inclined to be- lieve that the principal cause of such relief of pressure and consequent liquefaction is found in crustal elevation, as suggested by Archibald Geikie.* Professor Russell rightly connects igneous intrusions with volcanic eruptions, as different phases of the same process. A true and comprehensive theory of vyulcanism must include all phases of eruption and intrusion, * Text-book of Geology, 3d edition, p. 268. 36 Incidentally, we remark that it may well be questioned whether the theory of protuberant mountains, so beautifully illustrated in the Sun- dance Hills, is not unduly stretched in attempt- ing to make it cover the Front Range of the Rockies in Colorado and Wyoming. Finding the essential condition of eruption in liquefac- tion by means of relief of pressure, Professor Russell makes the réle of steam merely inci- ‘dental. The action of steam is conspicuous enough in volcanic eruptions of the explosive type, but it cannot account for the phenomena of great fissure eruptions ; and the two extreme types of eruption are so connected by fine gradations that the general cause must be iden- tical throughout the whole series. In criticis- ing the special form of the steam theory pro- posed by Shaler, the author justly protests against the enormous thickness of sediments postulated by that theory. Professor Russell holds the steam contained in lavas to be exclu- sively of superficial origin. Thisis undoubtedly true of a part of it, and probably of much the larger part. But the fluid cavities of plutonic rocks are proof of the existence of water vapor in magmas at great depth, and it appears probable that somewhat of this vapor may have been occluded in the originally molten mass of the globe. Professor Russell holds that vol- canic activity increased through geologic time until the Tertiary, and that it is now declining. This conclusion seems to us not supported by adequate evidence. According to modern views of the mode of solidification of the globe, the reaction of its heated interior upon its surface could not have been very different in Cambrian time from what itis now. The apparent rarity and insignificance of voleanic phenomena in the earlier geological periods may well be explained as due to the destruction of the evidence by erosion and metamorphism, or its concealment beneath masses of superincumbent strata. The closing chapter, on the life history of a volcanic mountain, is an exquisite piece of scientific description, in which picturesque imagination gives vividness without detracting from scientific accuracy. One incidental point, however, we should be disposed to criticise. We would not, indeed, contradict the state- ment that it is possible that the aborigines, so SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 158. artistically introduced to add a human interest to the pictures of natural scenery, were living in Tertiary time ; but we do, nevertheless, con- sider such a supposition extremely improbable. The book, so delightful and instructive, would have been made still better by more careful proof-reading. Several proper names are mis- spelled. We read Atria del Cavallo, instead of Atrio ; Mazana, instead of Mazama ; Roichthofer, instead of Richthofen; Johnson-Lewis, instead of Johnston-Lavis. In the note on page 74, in which the last name is thus misspelled, the reference to the American Journal of Science should be to Vol. 386. Typographical errors have rendered a few sentences ungrammatical or nearly unintelligible. The printers have also metamorphosed the young insects of Lake Mono into lave. The book is thoroughly at- tractive in its mechanical execution. Many of the pictures (mostly reproductions of photo- graphs) are very beautiful. Wo. Norra RICE. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES—SECTION OF GEOLOGY, DECEMBER 20, 1897. THE first paper of the evening was by Mr. Arthur Hollick, entitled ‘Recent Explorations for Prehistoric Implements in the Trenton Gravels, Trenton, N. J.’ Dr. Hollick gave in his paper a summary of the present under- standing of the artifacts found in the Trenton gravels, a more complete statement of which has already been published in ScreNcE for No- vember 5, 1897. The second paper of the evening was by Professor J. F. Kemp, entitled ‘Some Eruptive Rocks from the Black Hills.’ Professor Kemp summarized the geological features and history of the Black Hills, and gave a bibliography of the works concerning these deposits. He then mentioned the occur- rence of some Leucite-bearing rocks, in the northern part of the hills, similar in character to those which occur in but few other places in this country, as in Wyoming, Montana, Lower California and New Jersey, near the Franklin Furnace. RIcHARD E. DODGE, Secretary. SCIENCE EpIToRIAL ComMMITTEE: S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WooDWARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING, Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry; J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MARsH, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks, C. Harr MerRRIAM, Zoology; S. H. ScuDDER, Entomology; C. E. Bessry, N. L. BRiTron, Botany; Henry F. OsBorN, General Biology; C. S. Minor, Embryology, Histology; H. P. BowpitcH, Physiology; J. 8. BILLINas, Hygiene ; J. McKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology. Fripay, January 14, 1898. CONTENTS: Some of the Functions and Features of a Biological Station: C. O. WHITMAN ........ceseseeeeenenneen eee 37 Recent Progress in Agricultural Chemistry (II.): TELS Wyo \WVIBETON Zo cco0s conte ncocoaosocccssoasnboosaqs0D02005 44 The Montreal Meeting of the Geological Society oe America. J. BF. KEMP..........:..0ccccseseseeeseeesene The Section of Anthropology at Ithaca: W as INIGLEHITR 5-dosc00cosnq0ecco.cconoduNSDDAEDoOD.ONdOXoODAGDBN0000 53 Alonzo S. Kimball: T. C. Ma. ......cececceeseeceeeneenes 54 Current Notes on Physiography :— Milne on Suboceanic Changes; Hatcher’s Explora- tions in Patagonia; The St. Croix Dalles, Minn.: Current Notes on Anthropology :— The Unity of the Human Species; Local Ethno- graphic Collections ; Racial Geography of Europe : 1D), (Gio IBIPIOS BNO copsocococcconnscoscospadoDososG0oos0900900 57 Scientific Notes and News :— The United States Fish Commission ; The Washing- ton Academy of Sciences; The Swedish Arctic WrpedironOfpel SIS eccsseersasadeescesaceeernceneesees > 58 University and Educational News...........+++++seseee0s 63 Discussion and Correspondence :— : The Third International Congress of Applied Chem- istry ; Proposed Sylvester Memorial: RAPHAEL MELDOLA. Travel and Transportation: O. T. Mason. ‘ Time Wasted’: X. Zoology at the University of Chicago: C. O. WHITMAN. In- formation Desired: EF. A. LUGAS..........0sc0eceee 64 Scientific Literature :-— Schneider's Text-book of General Lichenology : CHARLES E. BEssEY. Noyes’ Organic Chemistry : JAMES FB. NORRIS....-. 2.00. b.c...cecascesscseessnsenseee . 68 Societies and Academies :— The Alabama Industrial and Scientific Society : EUGENE A. SMITH. Anthropological Society of Washington: J. H. McCormick. Geological Society of Washington: W. EF. MORSELL......... 70 LUGE TEND xcespncocoanconbsasbo0coosonUDoadnScoceboHaceoaseqRece 72 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y. SOME OF THE FUNCTIONS AND FEATURES OF A BIOLOGICAL STATION.* I HAVE a few considerations to offer on a subject not quite new, but perhaps not without some interest, to a Society of Naturalists. The subject may be stated in the form of a question: What are some of the more essential functions and features to be represented in a biological station ? This question is one that may fairly claim the attention of a society organized for ‘the discussion of methods of investiga- tion and instruction, and other topics of in- terest to investigators and teachers of Natural History; and for the adoption of such measures as shall tend to the advance- ment and diffusion of the knowledge of Natural History.’ I know of no other organization in this country in which the different sides of biology are more fully and widely repre- sented, and no other in which the discus- sion of such a question as I have stated has been more explicitly invited. The question before us, as you perceive, is one of ideals, something which we can construct without the aid of an endowment, and probably without any permanent loss of protoplasm. And yet, what I have in mind is not wholly imaginary, for it has * Address of the President of the Society of American Naturalists prepared for the Ithaca meeting, 1897, but not delivered, owing to the unavoidable absence of the writer. 38 some basis in experience and in acquaint- ance with some of the best models. Let us, first of all, try to get at some gen- eral principle which may serve to guide our judgment of ideals, and by the aid of which we may be able to formulate an-answer to the question proposed. As all will allow, ideals are absolutely indispensable to progress, and always safe provided they are kept growing. Like all biological things, live ideals originate by germination, and their growth is subject to no limit except in mental petrifaction. Growth and adaptability are as natural and necessary to them as to living organ- isms. Here we have, then, an unfailing test for the soundness or relative merit of ideals. Seeds may be kept for years with- out sensible change or loss of power to ger- minate. But it is because they are kept, not planted and cultivated. Once planted, they must grow orrot. So it is with ideals. The unchanged ideal that we sometimes hear boasted of is at best but a dormant germ, not a plant with roots and branches in functional activity. If an ideal stands for anything which is growing and develop- ing, then it must also grow, or be sup- planted by one that will grow. It is easy, of course, to conceive of ideals a hundred years or more ahead of possible realization ; but such ideals could have no vital con- nection with present needs, and long before the time of possible realization they would cease to be the best, if the best conceivable at the start. We are here, then, concerned only with ideals rooted in experience and continually expanding above and in advance of experi- ence. The moment growth ceases, that moment the work of the ideal is done. Something fails at the roots and you have waste mental timber to be cleared away as soon as possible to make room for the new seed. Let us here take warning of one danger SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 159. to which we are all liable—the danger of adopting ideals and adhering to them as finalities, forgetting that progress in the model is not only possible, but essential to progress in achievement. The danger is all the greater in the case of ideals lying out- side our special field of work, which we are unable to test and improve by our own efforts. The head may thus become stored with a lot of fixed mental furniture, and the possessor become the victim of an il- lusion, from the charms of which it is diffi- cult to disenchant him. MHe falls into admiration of his furniture, taking most pride in its unchangeableness. It was, per- haps, the best to be found in the market at the time of installment, and he finds pleas- ure in the conceit that what was the best is and must remain the best. He sees new developments in the market, but his pride and inertia content him with theold. The illusion now takes full possession of him, and every departure from his own ideals seems like abandonment of the higher for the lower standard of excellence. His con- ceit grows instead of his ideals, and every annual ring added to its thickness renders it the more impervious. Can any one say he has never met this illusion? Then a warning may have more pertinency than I should have ventured to claim for it: To conclude these introductory remarks let me again emphasize the all-important qualification of the sound ideal and name the prime condition of its usefulness. The qualification is vitality and the capacity for unlimited growth and development. The condition is absolute freedom for growth in all directions compatible with the symmet- rical development of the science as a whole. Please remember that the question of means does not now concern us. We must first get at principles, leaving details of execution to be worked out afterwards in harmony there- with. No onecan foresee what means may JANUARY 14, 1898. ] be found, and it would be a waste of time to try to decide what should be done under this, that or the other set of conditions. If we know our ideal we know the direction of effort, and through the effort the means are eventually found. It will help us in the formulation of our ideal if we glance for a moment at the ideals that have found most. favor. The best models of marine laboratories ten years ago all agreed in making research the ex- elusive aim and in limiting the work to marine forms. In most cases the work was still further limited, embracing only marine zoology, and often only a small portion of that field. The idea of representing all branches of even marine biology was seri- ously entertained nowhere except at Naples. Remembering that marine laboratories were first introduced only about a quarter of a century ago, we are not surprised at these limitations. Even the narrowest limitations were extensions beyond what had been done before. The Naples Station itself began as a zoological station, and still bears the name Stazione Zoologica. But the earlier ideal was not long in expanding so as to include both physiology and botany. Will its growth stop, there? I don’t believe it will, but that remains to be seen. Our own seaside schools, introduced by Louis Agassiz at Penikese and continued by Professor Hyatt at Annisquam, combined instruction with research, and this plan was adopted at Woods Holl in 1888. Instruc- tion, however, was accepted more as a necessity than as a feature desirable in itself. The older ideal of research alone was still held to be the highest, and by many investigation was regarded as the only legit- imate function of a marine laboratory. Pov- erty compelled us to go beyond that ideal and carry two functions instead of one. The result is that some of us have developed an ideal of still wider scope, while others stand as they began by their first choice. vestigation. SCIENCE. 39 We have, then, two distinct types of ideals, the one including, the other exclud- ing instruction. One is preferred for being limited to investigation ; the other is claimed to be both broader and higher for just the contrary reason, that it is not limited to in- At first sight, it might seem that we had exact contraries, but that is really not the case, for one type actually includes the other, and differs from it only by the more which it contains. The differ- ence is, nevertheless, an important one, and as it divides opinion we must examine it. To my mind, nothing but experience can settle such a question; but if reason and experience coincide, so much the better, so we may consider it from both points of view. On the basis of ten years’ experience, and a previous intimate acquaintance with both types, I do not hesitate to say that I am fully converted to the type which links in- struction with investigation ; and I believe that many, if not most, of my colleagues in the work at Woods Holl, would now concur with me in the opinion that we could not wisely exclude instruction, even if made free to do so by an ample endowment. Some of you will probably feel that such a conclu- sion implies a step backward rather than forward. On which side is the illusion ? Is it with those who have accepted their ideal second-hand and held to it unchanged from the time of its adoption, or with those who have been compelled to develop their own ideal from all that they could learn by actual experiment and study? Which is the broader ideal, and with which are the possibilities for progressive growth least limited ? In what consists the argument for limita- tion to research? I have yet to learn of a single important advantage which is necessarily dependent upon this limitation. Is instruction a burden to the investigator which interferes with his work? That ob- jection is frequently raised, and it is about 40 the only one that we need stop to consider here. That instruction interferes with in- vestigation when it is so arranged as to absorb all, or the larger share, of one’s time, no one will deny. But is it not easy to so divide the time that the investigator will find rest and improvement from the in- struction he gives? Certainly itis possible, as we have fully demonstrated at Woods Holl, and that too with only the most limited means. With a laboratory open throughout the year, the investigators con- nected with it would scarcely feel a few weeks’ instruction as an impediment. Not only have we shown that such an accom- modation or adjustment of the functions is possible and tolerable even in our vaca- tions, but we have also learned that there are some important advantages growing out of it which are impossible under limitation to research. Tomy mind these advantages far outweigh any and all objections. The advantages I have in mind are not those of means for running the laboratory, which could be supplied by an endowment, but those which add directly to the prog- ress of the investigator and to the advance- mentof hiswork. If important advantages exist in connection with instruction even where there is no endowment, which are not available even with an endowment, where instruction is excluded, we can read- ily make our choice of types. I suppose no investigator, not even the most confirmed claustrophil, would deny that instruction compels thinking and im- proves ability to express ideas as well as to describe facts. So does writing, so does in- vestigation itself. True,and if that is to their credit, it must be the same to instruc- tion. But wherein is the advantage with instruction? Every teaching investigator can answer that; and the answer will be, that power of exposition can be acquired and perfected by class-work and lectures to an extent otherwise unattainable. . In SCIENCE. Ge iy [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 159. this we need no better example than Hux- ley. If rare powers of exposition are some- times gained without teaching, as in the case of Darwin, that in no way weakens the position here taken, which is that teaching is the most effective method, not the only one, yet an essential one to the highest attainment. One thing more on-this point. Why do we place so high a value on investigation ? Because it is the only way of advancing knowledge, and because it affords a most attractive field for the exercise of the mind. But if knowledge needs advancement, so does the investigator, and whatever con- tributes to the increase and improvement of his powers makes him the better investi- gator, and thus indirectly raises the quality and augments the quantity of his researches. Herein instruction plays a very important part, as becomes evident when we remem- ber that with increase and specialization in science the investigator himself becomes more and more dependent upon the instruc- tion which he draws not only from books and journals, but also directly from his col- leagues and his pupils. Indeed, he may learn in this way much quicker and more thoroughly than by reading. and often a long time in advance of publication. That is an immense advantage realized in a variety of ways, as in lectures giving the more important results of work before pub- lication ; in seminar where the results of individual investigators are brought for- ward and discussed, while the work is still in progress; in journal clubs devoted to reviews and discussions; in direct inter- course with pupils, seeing with their eyes and working with their hands; in daily intercourse of thought and comparison of observations with fellow-workers, ete. In- deed, it may be truly said that no one stands in such close and pressing need of continual instruction as the investigator. No one else absorbs it more eagerly and -J ANUARY 14, 1898.] copiously, and no one else can convert ait so directly into the results of research. Another advantage supplied by instruc- tion must be mentioned here, for in it I see opportunities for development of far-reach- ing importance to research. It is lament- able to see so much energy available for research lost or ineffective for lack of proper directive coordination. The ava- lanche of modern biological literature con- ‘sists too largely of scrappy, fragmentary, dis- connected products of a multitude of investigators, all working as so many inde- pendent individuals, each snatching what- ever and wherever he can, and then dump- ing his heterogeneous contributions into the common hodge-podge. How are we ever to extricate ourselves from such appalling confusion? The ambition to be prolific rather than sound is a peril against which ‘we seem to have no protection at present. And yet, if I mistake not, there is a grow- ing sentiment against such traffic in science, which will eventually make it plain that ambition in that direction spends itself in vain. A dozen or more dumps a year, with as many or more retractions, corrections and supplements, is only a modest-sized ambition. Conclusions are palmed upon the unsuspecting reader, and then, without com- punction or apology, reversed from day to -day or from month to month, or, worse still, in an appendix subjoined, so that it may be ‘seen how little it costs to be prolific when one day’s work cancels another. It behooves us to find effective remedies as rapidly as possible. The correction would be complete if each worker could ‘bridle his lust for notoriety and take the lesson of Darwin’s industry and reservation into his laboratory and study. The out- look for such a millennial dispensation is not very hopeful, and our resources are few and very inadequate, but all the more de- serving of attention. The great need is dong-continued, concentrated and codrdinated SCIENCE. 41 work. Ina laboratory which draws begin- ners in investigation in considerable num- bers it is possible to assign problems in such a way that the participants may work in codrdinate groups, and the problems be carried on from year to year, and from worker to worker, each performing his mite in conjunction and relation with the others of his group. In this way energy would be utilized to the greatest advantage to science as well as to the individual. Even under the very imperfect conditions repre- sented at Woods Holl, I have found it pos- sible to put this idea into practice to some extent, and I have great faith in its effi- cacy. Herein we see another possibility of development realizable only through in- struction. But it is as important for independent in- vestigators as for beginners to cultivate organic unity in their work. How shall the investigator hope to keep in touch with the multiplying specialities of his science? Here, again, I maintain that instruction is anindispensable means. Fill a laboratory with investigators and, if no instruction is provided, many of the more important ave- nues of acquisition will be closed and the opportunities for codrdination of work will be of little or noavail. Investigators might work for months in adjoining rooms and never learn anything about each other’s work, as every one knows who has worked in such a laboratory. How different in a laboratory, where instruction is so arranged as, without over-taxing any one, to bring the workers into active and mutually help- ful relations, and enable them to draw from one another the best that each can give! Instruction in the various forms before in- dicated supplies just the conditions most favorable to interchange of thought and suggestion. It is just this feature of our work at Woods Holl to which we are most indebted for whatever success we have had. 42 I am aware that other points might be raised ; but it is far from my purpose to run down all possible objections. It is enough to have indicated the grounds of my choice of types. It now remains to briefly sketch the general character and to emphasize some of the leading features to be represented in a biological station. The first requisite is capacity for growth in all directions consistent with the sym- metrical development of biology as a whole. The second requisite is the union of the two functions, research and instruction, in such relations as will best hold the work and the workers in the natural coordination essen- tial to scientific progress and to individual development. It is on this basis that I would construct the ideal and test every practical issue. A scheme that excludes all limitations except such as nature prescribes is just broad enough to take in the science, and that does not strike meas at all extrava- gant or even as exceeding by a hair’s breadth the essentials. Whoever feels it an advantage to be fettered by self-imposed limitations will part company with us here. If any one is troubled with the question: Of what use is an ideal too large to be realized ? I will answer at once. It is the merit of this ideal that it can be realized just as every sound ideal can be realized, only by gradual growth. An ideal that could be realized all at once would exclude growth and leave nothing to be done but to work on in grooves. That is precisely the danger we are seeking to avoid. The two fundamental requisites which I have just defined scarcely need any amplifi- cation. Their implications, however, are far-reaching, and I may, therefore, point out a little more explicitly what is involved. I have made use of the term ‘ biological sta- tion’ in preference to those in more com- mon use, for the reason that my ideal rejects every artificial limitation that might SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VII. No. 159. check growth or force a one-sided develop- ment. I have in mind, then, not a station devoted exclusively to zoology, or exclus- ively to botany, or exclusively to physiol- ogy; not a station limited to the study of marine plants and animals; not a lacustral station dealing only with land and fresh- water faunas and floras ; not a station lim- ited to experimental work, but a genuine biological station, embracing all these im- portant divisions, absolutely free of every artificial restriction. Now, that is a scheme that can grow just as fast as biology grows, and I am of the opinion that nothing short of it could ever adequately represent a national center of instruction and research in biology. Vast as the scheme is, at least in its possibilities, it is a true germ, all the principal parts of which could be realized in respectable be- ginnings in a very few years and at no enormous expense. With scarcely any- thing beyond our hands to work with, we have already succeeded in getting zoology and botany well started at Woods Holl, and physiology is ready to follow. If, now, experimental biology could be started, even in a modest way, it would add immensely to the general attractions of our work; for it would open a field which is comparatively new and of rapidly growing importance. There are so many things now called ‘ experimental’ that I must explain what I have in mind sufficiently to make the general purpose intelligible. It is not the experimental embryology redundantly described as ‘developmental mechanics’ which is now in vogue; not laboratory physiology, even in its wider application to animals; not egg-shaking, heteromorphism, heliotropism and the like —not any of these things, but experimental natural history, or biology, in its more general and comprehensive sense. It is not the natural history of the tourist, or the museum collector, or the systematist, but JANUARY 14, 1898. ] the modern natural history, for which Darwin laid the foundation, and which Semper, Romanes, Galton, Weismann, Va- rigny, Lloyd«Morgan and others have ad- vocated and practiced to the extent of the meager means at their command. The plan which I should propose, however, has not, so far as Tam aware, been definitely formulated by any one, although some of its features were indicated several years ago, when I proposed such a station in con- nection with the University of Chicago. The essentials of the plan were sketched as follows: “Experimental biology represents not only an extension of physiological inquiry into all provinces of life, but also the appli- cation of its methods to morphological prob- lems—in short, it covers the whole field in _which physiology and morphology can work best hand in hand. * * * ‘“A lake biological station equipped for experimental work would mark a new de- parture for which science is now ripe. Such a station has nowhere been provided, but its need has been felt and acknowl- edged by the foremost biologists of to-day. There are no problems in the whole range of biology of higher scientific interest or deeper practical import to humanity than those which center in variation and hered- ity. For the solution of these problems, and a thousand others that turn upon them, facilities for long-continued experimental study, under conditions that admit of perfect control, must be provided. Such facilities imply, first of all, material for study, and that nature here supplies in rich abundance. Thena convenient observatory, with a scientific staff, is required. Im addition, and this is all-important, there should be not only aquaria and plenty of running water, but also a number of ponds with a continuous supply of water, so arranged that the forms under observation could be bred and reared in isolation when necessary. Finally, there’ SCIENCE. 43 should be room for keeping land animals and plants under favorable conditions for cultivation and study. A station with such facilities as have been briefly indi- eated would furnish ideal conditions for the prosecution of research in nearly every department of biology, and especially in embryology and physiology.” * If such a station could be developed in immediate connection with the plant al- ready under way at Woods Holl we might begin to realize what a biological station stands for. We need to get more deeply saturated with the meaning of the word ‘ biological,’ and to keep renewing our faith in it asa governing conception. Our centrifugal specialties have no justification except in the ensemble, and each one of them is pro- lific in grotesque absurdities, for which there is no correction in disconnection with the organic whole. But why talk of an or- ganie whole which no man can grasp or make any pretension to mastering? Pre- cisely that makes it necessary to talk and act as if we knew the fact, and as if our inability had not rendered us insensible to our need. Physiology is meaningless without morphology, and morphology equally so without physiology. Both find their meaning in biology, and in nothing less. What an absurdity was human anatomy without comparative anatomy, and comparative anatomy was only a much bigger absurdity until the general connec- tion of things began to dawn in the concep- tions of biology. Just think of a physiolo- gist seriously proclaiming to the world that instinct reduces itself in the last analysis to heliotropism, stereotropism and the like. The whole course of evolution drops out of sight altogether, and things are explained as if the organic world were a chemical creation only a few hours old. The ab- surdity is no greater than for a geologist to * Program of Courses in Biology, Chicago, 1892. 44 try to explain the earth without reference to its past history. Think of a young morphologist, with all the advantages of the Naples Station at hand—yes, within the walls of that grand station—loudly sneering at Darwinism, and spending his wit in derisive caricatures of general truths beyond the horizon of his special work and thought. And shall we forget the physiologist whose philosopher’s stone is the search for his ancestry among the Arachnids? Or the anatomist who re- verses his telescope to discover that his science begins and ends in terminology ? And could we, much as we might yearn for such a benediction, forget the omnipresent and omniscient systematist whose creed is summed up in priority ? The catholicon for crankiness has not yet been found, but in science there is but one cure where cure is possible ; it is exposure to the full and direct rays of the system as a whole. The application to the subject in hand is patent. The one great charm of a biological station must be the fullness with which it represents the biological system. Its power and efficacy diminish in geomet- rical ratio with every source of light ex- cluded. My plea, then, is for a biological station, and I believe that experimental biology would be the most important element in such astation. It is now possible to procure a favorable site, with land and fresh-water privileges, in close proximity with the Marine Biological Laboratory ; and with a moderate foundation to start with, the work could begin at any moment. The project is certainly one of preémi- nent importance, and for a successful un- dertaking of that magnitude we need the coéperation of American naturalists. I bring the suggestion before you in the hope that it will enlist your interest and sup- port. C. O. Wuirman. SCIENCE. se [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 159, RECENT PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. II. Tur methods of the cheméeal changes produced in the growth of plants have re- cently received an admirable study at the hands of Green. (Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. 6, third series, part 4, pp. 635 et seq.) The chief object of Green’s study is the reserve food materials of plants, but in conducting these investigations he studies carefully the chemical action on which the plant metab- olism is based. The apparatus of the plant, which is active in vegetable metab- olism, was studied microscopically and fully illustrated by drawings. The source of chemical activity in plants is confined to certain small bodies which are imbedded in the layer of protoplasm or liv- ing substance which lines the cells of the plants. ‘These small bodies are called chlo- roplastids or chlorophyll corpuscles, and it is to them that we must look for the actual constructive activity. These are comprised essentially of small masses of protoplasm which have a loose or spongy arrangement of particles forming a complicated mesh work. In the meshes of this spongy mass the green color known as chlorophyll is found. It exists principally in solution. The work which is done by the chloroplas- tid is very complex, but it is possible to dis- tinguish to a considerable extent between the part played by the green coloring mat- ter itself and that which is discharged by its protoplasmic framework. On account of the character of this material the air has ready access to the interior tissues of the leaf. It enters at the stomata and fills the intercellular spaces. This air contains the small quantity of carbon dioxid which is the fundamental material of plant metab- olism. The water which is taken in by the rootlets of the plant contains various mineral and nitrogenous matters in solu- JANUARY 14, 1898.] tion and is conducted directly to the leaf by means of the circulation of the plant itself. This water, the mineral and nitrog- enous matters which it contains in solu- tion, and the carbon dioxid which enters from the air, are the raw materials which by plant metabolism are changed into the tissues of the living vegetable. The source of energy, by means of which this wonderful chemical synthesis is pro- duced, is the heat and light coming from the sun. Green is of the opinion that for- maldehyd is one of the first products of the condensation of the carbon dioxid, but as formaldehyd is essentially a poison and a preservative it is not probable that its ex- istence is more than momentary. It may be that formaldehyd is one of the transi- tory products of vegetable metabolism, but it cannot be regarded as being produced in any considerable quantities or existing for any length of time. The final and possibly the direct product of the condensation is some form of sugar. The production of these reserve stores of food, viz., carbohydrates, proteids and fats in quantities largely in excess of those necessary for the growth of the plant itself are fully discussed, and the very latest views concerning the methods of storage and subsequent use of these materials clearly pointed out. Investigations of marked interest have lately been conducted on the properties and functions of humus. Hilgard has shown that the nitrogen content of humus found in the soil of the California Agricultural Experiment Station is as much as 18 per cent. in the virgin state. The content of nitrogen in the humus by after years’ culture was reduced from 18 to 3 per cent. In the meanwhile, however, the total percentage of humus in the soil had slightly in- creased. The obvious conclusion to be drawn from these researches is that the fertility of a SCIENCE. 45 soil, in respect of its humus, does not de pend so much on the actual percentage of humus itself as upon the nitrogen content therein. When a plant, therefore, gives evidence of nitrogen hunger it is not always due to a deficiency of humus, but probably rather to the diminution of the nitrogen content of the humus. A more striking example came to Hil- gard’s attention in a soil from Hawaii, which, after three years of cultivation, gave evidence of marked deficiency in the ni- trogen ration of the plant. The virgin soil showed a content of 10 per cent. of humus, which is far above the average of even fer- tile soils. On analysis, however, it was found that the nitrogen content of the humus had been reduced to 1.7 per cent. It is concluded from the observations of the deportment of crops on soils of this kind that wherever the nitrogen in the humus of the soil falls below 2.5 per cent. of the total weight of the humus the crop will show‘evidences of nitrogen hunger. Snyder has shown that in sterilized sand oats will not grow when fed with humus in which no nitrifying ferments are present. If, however, the nitrifying ferments be ad- ded in the form of leachings from an arable soil the oats will grow and develop in the usual manner. Snyder has also shown, as a result of his investigations, that humus acts not only in supplying the elements of fertility, but also in combining with mineral matters, espe- cially potash, producing in the soil potas- sium humates and rendering the potash thus more easily assimilable. In other words, the humus acts in a favorable man- ner by converting the inert plant food of the soil into a form in which it can be ab- sorbed. The experiments in sterilized pots show that the humates of potassium, magne- sium and iron and the double humates of phosphorus and sulfur can be utilized di- rectly as plant food, provided nitrifying 46 organisms be present. (Bulletin Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. No. 41.) The remarkable property of vegetable soils, consisting largely of humus, in in- creasing the nitrogen of a cereal crop, has been noticed in the experiments of the Chemical Division of the Department of Agriculture at Washington. In three suc- cessive years roots growing in a vegetable soil from Florida haye shown an increased percentage of nitrogen as compared with roots grown in the same conditions in typ- - ical arable soils. The increase in nitrogen content has, in some instances, been as high as 30 per cent. in a whole crop. An examination of the character of the nitrogen-content of the soil shows that this increase is largely in the form of amid ni- trogen. I have frequently noticed in Florida the mechanical absorption of humus by a plant in the case of sugar cane grown upon the peaty soils. The juices of these canes often have a distinct brown color which is char- acteristic of water which has passed through a soil of this nature. The sugar which is made from these canes does not have the bright crystalline appearance of ° ordinary sugars made from cane, but has a brownish tint difficult to remove even when the sugars are of a high degree of purity. There is no doubt whatever of the fact that the liquid absorbed by the plant root- lets carries mechanically in solution parti- cles of humus to all parts of the plant. It thus appears that humus has a more direct use as a plant food than has been supposed by those who adopted in toto the mineral theory of Liebig, and this is shown by its nitrogen content, as studied by Hil- gard; by the action of humates in support- ing plant life, as investigated by Snyder, and by the actual increase in the content of nitrogen in plants, grown upon peaty soils, noticed in our own experiments. It has been generally supposed by agri- SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 159. cultural investigators that the acidity of a soil injurious to crops is found only in peaty or marshy soils. This idea has been found to be incorrect by the investigations of Wheeler, which have shown that many of the soils of Rhode Island, not subjected to overflow nor in any sense marshy or peaty, are so acid as to prevent the proper growth of crops. These soils are not particularly deficient in plant food, but ordinary crops fail to flourish when planted therein. The simple application of lime, in sufficient quantities to correct the acidity of the soil, is enough to convert those almost barren fields into highly productive areas. The difficulty of estimating properly the acidity of the soil has been the chief ob- stacle in the way of a more thorough inves- tigation of this subject. The acid reaction of peaty soils, as well as all others, is due, as a rule, to the presence of free humic acid or of acid humates. The exhaustion of the soil in any way for the determination of the moisture in the filtrate obtained gives imperfect and unsatisfactory results. In the titration of the extracts obtained the processes which are used in the satura- tion may act upon the humus bodies, decom- posing them and producing fresh portions of humic acid and thus increasing the ap- parent acidity. This goes on with especial vigor in the presence of free oxygen. To avoid this difficulty, Tacke has de- vised a method of determining the acidity in an environment free of oxygen. The essential principle of the apparatus is in having a flask, from which the air can be removed by any convenient method, preferably by a stream of hydrogen, so ar- ranged that when the oxygen is entirely eliminated precipitated carbonate of lime, suspended in water free of oxygen, can be introduced and brought in contact with the finely divided peat or soil. In this way the decomposition of the finely divided cal- cium carbonate can only be effected by the JANUARY 14, 1898. ] free acid or acid humates already formed, and no humus in the absence of oxygen can be converted into an acid and thus in- crease the amount of carbon dioxid evolved. ‘The quantity of carbon dioxid evolved is estimated by the usual methods and thus an exact measure of the total acidity is se- cured. (Chemiker-Zeitung, March, 1897, p. 174.) The claim has been repeatedly made that soda can replace potash to a certain extent in plant growth. The physical and chem- ical similarity between these two substances is so great that it would not be surprising to find also a physiological resemblance. Wagner, in fact, claims to have demon- strated that a slightly less quantity of potash is needed for plant growth, pro- vided abundant supplies of sodium are present. These deductions of Wagner, however, have not been confirmed by other experimenters. When good effects have followed the application of soda it has been demonstrated that itis due to other causes than the replacement of potash in plant tissues. Soda in certain circum- stances may act happily on inert plant food in the soil and render it assimilable. In this respect it doubtless can assist greatly in plant growth. In respect of the mineral food of plants it may be said that it appears to be of two kinds: First, the minerals which are essential, such as phosphoric acid, potash, lime and magnesia. A certain quantity of these mineral substances seem to be necessary for the production of a given quantity of dry plant tissue. But plants have also a general appetite for min- eral substances, eating freely in addition to the quantity necessary to their proper nu- trition. The exact physiological function of this excess of mineral food cannot be de- termined, and it is probable that it is largely accidental. Nevertheless, recent investiga- tions have shown that plants thrive best where mineral food, even when non-essen- SCIENCE. 47 tial, is liberally supplied, and in these cases soda doubtless plays its part, together with other non-essential matter. In the light of our present knowledge, however, it must be denied that soda can, in any essential way, replace potash in plant growth. In a recent re-study of the proteids of the maize kernel, Osborne has brought practically to a close his interesting and valuable contributions to our knowledge of the proteid matters existing in many com- mon cereals. In asample of yellow maize meal he finds 3.15 per cent. of a proteid soluble in a 0.2 per cent. solution of potash. This proteid contains 15.82 per cent. of nitrogen. The quantity of zein is 5 per cent., containing 16.32 per cent. of nitro- gen. These two proteids comprise almost the whole of the proteid matter in the maize. In addition to these, there are minute quantities of edestin containing 18.10 per cent. of nitrogen; a globulin, containing 15.25 per cent. of nitrogen, and a proteose, containing 17 per cent. of nitro- gen. Maysin exists to the extent of one- quarter of one per cent. and contains 16.70 per cent. of nitrogen. Asa result of.all the determinations, it appears that the mean percentage of nitro- gen in the proteids of maize is 16.057. The proper factor for the multiplication of proteid nitrogen to determine the total weight of proteids in maize is, therefore, 6.22. This is so near the common factor of 6.25 as to make practically little differ- ence in the statement of results. The fac- tors by which nitrogen should be multiplied in order to obtain the weights of proteids in common cereals are: for wheat, 5.70; nye, 5.62; maize, 6.22; oats, 6.06, and barley, 5.82. This revision of the factors for determining the total amount of pro- teid matter is not only important as regards this matter itself, but also affects the num- ber for the determination of the carbohy- 48 drates, which is usually made by difference. Agricultural analysts hereafter should use the factors mentioned instead of the com- mon factor 6.25, which has been so long employed. The use of the basic bessemer process for the manufacture of steel from phosphorifer- ous pig iron has not yet been fully estab- lished in this country. The agricultural importance of this branch of manufac- ture is found in the production of basic phosphatic slags. In Europe this indus- try has grown to an enormous magni- tude, and it is estimated that at the pres- ent time the rate of production in that country is a million and a-half tons of basic slag annually. All this material has found a ready market in the fertilizer trade, and the result has been a corre- sponding depression in the prices of super- phosphates. The methods of valuing the fertilizing properties of basic slag have lately been worked out very thoroughly in different localities in this and other countries. The difficulties attending the solution of the phosphoric acid in acid ammonium citrate are found chiefly in the varying quantities of uncombined lime which the slags con- tain. This subject was introduced at the last meeting of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, but the discussion was only of a formal nature, it having been relegated to the next meeting. In addition to the chemical methods of analysis the separation of the slags into silts of different magnitudes will probably prove of use. This cannot be accomplished by subsidence in water, on account of the solvent action of the water on the quick- lime present. The substitution of alcohol of appropriate strength, however, obviates this difficulty and renders the mechanical separation of the slags easy of accomplish- ment. In this country basic slags have been SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 159. manufactured only at Pottstown, Pa., and at Troy, N. Y. I visited a large factory at Troy last winter, which was then in full action, but I believe it has been shut down on account of the low price of steel billets. © It is believed, however, that a vast quantity of phosphatic iron ores will soon be brought into the market in this country and that the by-product, basic slags, will find a ready agricultural use. Experience has shown that these slags act happily on sandy soils, and, in fact, in most cases can replace the acid phosphates where phosphoric acid is indicated in the application of fertilizers. The association of agriculture and manufacture in this re- spect cannot fail to be of value, and it may soon be possible to offer to the farmer available phosphoric acid, in the form of basic slags, at a lower price than can be profitably asked for acid phosphates. In terminating this brief review of recent progress in agricultural chemistry, I am as fully aware as any of you of the imperfect nature of the réswné which has been given. I was not asked, however, untila short time ago to prepare this paper, and have been compelled to gather the information by piecemeal and in the intervals of other pressing duties. Iam certain that in my hurry I have omitted many points of prog- ress made by our own investigators which ought to have been incorporated in the paper. I only hope that the one who is next called upon to present a résumé of this progress may be given a longer time in which to prepare for his duties. H. W. WILEY. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. THE MONTREAL MEETING OF THE GEOLOG- ICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. I. THE Geological Society of America as- sembled in Montreal, December 28th, for its JANUARY 14, 1898. ] tenth annual meeting. The Council met at 10 a.m.and performed the usual routine business of canvassing the votes for officers and new members and the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer and the Hditor. The Society held its first formal session at 2:30 p. m. in the lecture room of the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill University. This is the lecture room in which for so many years Sir J. William Dawson, past President of the Society, delivered his lec- tures, and it was felt by all present to be peculiarly appropriate that the Society should gather within its walls. One of the first proceedings was to send a greeting to Sir William, who was prevented by illness from being present. A cordial address of welcome was pre- sented by George Hague, Hsq., of the Board of Governors of McGill University, who happily referred to the ties that unite men of science and that recognize no polit- ical boundaries. President Orton, of the Society, returned a felicitous response to the address of welcome, after which the report of the Council was distributed in printed form. This showed the Society to be in a very prosperous condition. There are 242 members on the roll, which with the tour elected at the meeting make a total of 246. As will readily appear, this number embraces practically all the geological workers in North America. The Bulletin, the published proceedings of the Society, is meeting with a gratifying sale outside of the active mem- bers. From this source the past year $772.05 were realized, which defrayed about half the expense of publication. The So- ciety has an invested fund of $3,000, and closed thefiscal year November 30,1897,with a further balance in the Treasurer’s hands. This will make possible the more elaborate illustration of future papers. The Society has now a valuable library from exchanges, and this year added a librarian, Professor H. P. Cushing, of Adelbert College, Cleve- SCIENCE. 49 land, to its list of officers. The library is placed in Cleveland, which is a central point as regards the membership. When the vote was declared, the follow- ing nominees were announced as elected by an almost unanimous ballot: President : JOHN J. STEVENSON, New York City. First Vice-President : BENJ. K. EMERSON, Amhers6, Mass. Second Vice-President: GEORGE M. DAWSON, Ot- tawa, Ont. Secretary: H. L. FAIRCHILD, Rochester, N. Y. Treasurer: I. C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va. Editor: J. STANLEY-BROWN, Washington, D. C. Councillors: W. M. Davis (for unexpired term of B. K. Emerson), ROBERT BELL, Ottawa, Ont.; M. E, WADsworTH, Houghton, Mich. John M. Clarke, of Albany; George L. Collie, of Beloit; Arthur M. Miller, of Lex- ington, Ky., and James E. Talmage, of Salt Lake City, were elected Fellows. Two proposed amendments to the constitution were carried. Professor W. B. Scott de- livered an appreciative and impressive me- morial of Edward D. Cope; and one of Joseph F. James, prepared by T. W. Stanton, was read by J. F. Kemp, in the absence of its author. The reading of pa- pers was then begun. Notes on the Sands and Clays of the Ottawa Basin. R. W. Ets, Ottawa, Canada. Dr. Ells included in the area discussed the region lying between Lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and the Ottawa river, He gave a brief review of the rocks lying to the north, which have been the source of the loose materials now forming the surface deposits. The sands and the marine clays, so prolific in shells, and several kame-like ridges were described, and the evidence of submergence beneath the sea was adduced at length. In general the interpretation corroborated the views already urged by Sir J. William Dawson, and widely famil- iar. The discussion was quite protracted and developed a variance in interpretation on 50 the part of the several speakers. The close connection of the glacial lakes, the pre- cursors of the present Great Lakes, with the sands and clays was brought out; the presence of marine and fresh-water shells and the evidence of differential uplift all came up. The discussion was sustained by Messrs. Scott, Taylor, Ami and Coleman. Topography and Glacial Deposits of the Mohawk Valley. ALBERT PERRY BricHAm, Hamil- ton, N. Y. The present topography of the Mohawk Valley was described and some probable features of the ancient drainage stated. The Mohawk was considered as a monoclinal valley following the outcrop of the Utica and Hudson River shales which had di- verted the southern Adirondack drain- age by headward cutting west to Little Falls. Further evidence for the divide lo- cated by Chamberlin at this point was given in the valley filling and arrange- ment of streams to the westward. A pos- sible discharge of the West Canada Creek into the main valley west of Utica was sug- gested. The Mohawk faults were reviewed in their bearing on the maturing of the val- ley. The westward movement of the lower Mohawk Valley glacier was confirmed by some additional evidence. The drift de- posits fall into three groups, viz. : terraces and deltas west of Utica; terraces, kames and other morainic masses between Utica and Little Falls; terraces of massive till mantled by sands and clays, below Little Falls. The drift of the valley was de- scribed as representing lacustrine and fluvi- atile phases of ice retreat, and some reasons were given for a discharge prolonged and strong, but not of great depth. The paper was illustrated by a good map and was listened to with deep attention, as so many of the fellows were familiar with the region. The evidence of stream rob- bing by the Mohawk in its upper portion SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 159. and the diversion of the southwest Adiron- dack drainage to the Hudson was striking. The paper was discussed by F. B. Tay- lor. At its conclusion the Society ad- journed until 8:30 p. m., at which time it reconvened in the Physics lecture room of the University, to listen to the presidential address of the retiring President, Professor Edward Orton. The subject was ‘ Geolog- ical Probabilities as to Petroleum ’ and was an able review of the hypotheses advanced regarding oil and gas. The speaker was happily introduced by Dr. George Dawson, Director of the Canadian Geological Sur- vey. On Wednesday, at 10 a. m., the meetings were resumed. Before the reading of papers was begun the Committee on Photo- graphs presented a report from its Chair- man, Dr. George P. Merrill, of Wash- ington. The report showed that 134 new photographs had been received during the year, bringing the number up to 1,558. The Committee has also received a collec- tion of 300 negatives taken by the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. An exhibition of the pictures now in the pos- session of the Society was made in an ad- joining room, and it was evident that a wealth of illustrative material for geolog- ical instruction has been made available, from sources, such as survey negatives, that are not usually accessible. The Topography and History of Jamesville Lake, WN. Y. Epuunp C. QueErREAv, Syracuse, Wo Me Jamesville Lake is one of aclass of small lakes in central New York which are often called ‘ Round Lakes,’ a term which distin- guishes them well from the‘ Finger Lakes.’ It lies between two of the main yalleys . (Onondaga and Butternut) which dissect in this region the New York plateau in a gen- eral south-north direction. The portion of the plateau between these two valleys is dis- JANUARY 14, 1898. ] sected also, but not so deeply, by a series of small parallel west-east gorges or ravines, in one of which, the Jamesville gorge, the lake issituated. The immediate vicinity of the lake is channeled ina complicated man- ner by abandoned stream beds which run west-east, and whose sides are often ter- raced in such a manner as to make it evident that large quantities of water once passed across this region. Associated with these channels a number of kettle-like depressions are found, of round or oval outline and of varying dimensions. It is in oneof the larg- est of these that the present Jamesville lake is situated. The lake basins were explained as probably caused in each case by a water- fall, which had hollowed out a depression or great pool at its foot. The paper was discussed by W. M. Davis, who corroborated, from his own observations in the region, the views of the author; by H. L. Fairchild, who commented on the altitudes, and by F. B. Taylor, who con- nected the streams with the drainage of the glacial Lake Warren. This led to some estimate of the probable size of the river, and it was stated by A. P. Brigham and W. M. Davis to have been less than the present Niagara. Notes on the Moraines of the Georgian Bay Lobe of the Ice-sheet. FRANK B. TAYLOR, Fort Wayne, Ind. When the ice-sheet had retreated in the basin of Lake Huron so far as to leave the summit of Blue Mountain south of Georgian Bay uncovered, there still remained a well defined glacial lobe projecting towards the southeast nearly to Toronto and eastward beyond Lake Simcoe. This lobe was divi- ded in two parts by the Penetang peninsula, the larger one extending southeast from Nottawasaga Bay, and the smaller one ex- tending east-southeast from Matchedash Bay. Recently the moraines of the eastern limb of the Nottawasaga lobe were par- SCIENCE. 51 tially explored and a well defined series of five was found filling the interval from the head of Georgian Bay to the ‘Oak Ridges’ north of Toronto. During the later stages of this lobe there was a glacial lake covering Lake Simcoe and a considerable area to the east, and probably held up on that side by a lobe projecting from the northeast up the valley of the Trent River. Its beach is 90 to 100 feet above the Algon- quin beach, a few miles northeast of Barrie. Well marked glacial striee were found on the summit of the promontory of Blue Mountain, over 1,100 feet above Georgian Bay, running §.60°E. Some of the moraines running along the east side of Lake Huron were also traced northward to the vicinity of Durham and Flesherton. T. C. Chamberlin inquired regarding the direction of the glacial striz as bearing on the views advanced, and the speaker replied that they bore S. 60° E. wherever visible. This brought out the observations of H. M. Ami that strice in Ontario to the southwest of this region run southwest, and Robert Bell stated that they run southeast on Georgian Bay, but that atits north end they change to southwest. Robert Chalmers re- ferred to the ridges, like drumlins, along Lake Ontario, on the line of the Pacific Railroad, and remarked that the associated striee were variable from southeast to south- west. I. C. White asked about the height of the old Algonkian beach above Lake Simcoe, and F. B. Taylor replied that it was about 100 feet above the lake, which latter is 720 feet above tide. Notes on the Geology of Montreal and Vicinity. Frank D. ADAMS. By means of the geological sheets of the Canadian Survey, Dr. Adams outlined the extent of the several formations from the old Laurentian gneisses, anorthosites and crystalline limestones on the north across the Paleozoic plain to the south. He gave 52 a brief description of the curious volcanic plugs now remaining as Mt. Royal and several others in an easterly line from it, and in a few words referred to their inter- esting petrographical character. The re- markable survival of Lower Helderberg strata in a patch of a few square feet on an island in the St. Lawrence, near Montreal, excited great interest, especially in their bearing on the views lately advanced by H. S. Williams on the line of entry of the late Silurian fauna into New York. The post- Pliocene deposits in the shape of the boul- der clay; the bouldery gravels and stiff overlying clay; the Leda-clay and the Saxicava sand, all of which are carved into the marine beaches which now form the terraces on which the city is built, received passing mention. The way in which the geological structure had determined the location of the city and the settlement of the country was the closing topic of the paper. The discussion turned at first on the de- termining factors in the present relations of of the ancient crystallines and the paleozoics, and whether the rather straight contact shown on the map is the result of faulting or of the creeping-up of the Cambrian sea on an even shore-line. Dr. George Dawson and several other Canadian geologists said that there were no faults, but that the inroad of the sea had brought about the phenomena. The discussion then turned on the course of events,in the region in the times after the latest paleozoic sediments and before the superficial deposits had accumulated, and developed the fact that it is easy to ask questions which no Fellow can answer. The discussion also turned on the Helder- berg outlier and its relation to the older Ordovician strata. It was shown to rest on a curious tufa deposit, but, as remarked by H. M. Ami, the Devonian to the east rests unconformably on the Cambrian. The dis- cussion was participated in by H. P. Cush- SCIENCE. [N.S. Vox. VII. No. 159. ing, H. M. Ami, W. M. Davis, George M. Dawson, J. H. Tyrrell, R. W. Ells and F. B. Taylor. Marine Cretaceous Formations in Deep Wells in Southeastern Virginia. N. H. Darton. The paper was read by W. N. Rice, in the absence of the author. It recorded the sections recently revealed by deep wells at Norfolk, Va., Fortress Monroe, Lambert’s Point and Jetty Point. They show that the marine Cretaceous, which was thought to be growing thin in southern New Jersey, thickens again farther south. The Cretaceous Series of the West Coast of Greenland. CHARLES ScHUCHERT and Dayip WHITE. The paper was presented by David White and described the results obtained the past summer while exploring the plant beds along the Nugsuak peninsula. On a base of gneisses lie 3,000 feet of sediments forming the plant beds, and on these, 4,000 feet of ba- salt flows. The beds dip away from the gneisses and are available between tidewater and the basalt, which covers their upturned edges and pierces them in dikes. The stratigraphical section, with the European equivalents, is as follows: Patoot = Senonion Atane = Cenomanian Kome = Urgonian Cretaceous All corresponded to the American Po- tomac formation, except, perhaps, the Patoot. Marine fossils were also found, giving the offshore equivalents of the plant beds. The latter are remarkable in afford- ing dicotyledons. W. B. Scott asked about the equivalency of the Potomac, to which the speaker replied that it would be fully discussed in an early paper by Dr. L. F. Ward. T. C. Chamberlin inquired as to the climatic conditions as indicated by the Potomac floras north and south. Mr. White replied that they showed no climatic JANUARY 14, 1898.] differences, and that the Nugsuak plant beds filled up hollows in the gneisses, and were not very different now in their position as regards the sea from that occupied at the time of their deposition. (To be concluded. ) J. F. Kreme. CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. THE SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AT ITHACA. In accordance with an arrangement made at Detroit, a meeting of Section H (An- thropoloy) of the American Association for the Advancement of Science was held at Cornell University, at Ithaca, December 29 and 30, 1897. On Wednesday morning, December 29th, the Section organized with Vice-President W J McGee in the chair and Dr. A. Hrdlicka as Secretary pro tem. Immedi- ately afterward the session adjourned to permit the members to attend the meeting of the American Psychological Association then in progress, and to unite with the American Society of Naturalists during the afternoon. The Section reassembled for the reading of papers Thursday morning. The first communication was a full account of the elaborate ‘Mythology of the Bella Coola,’ by Dr. Franz Boas. After describing the beliefs of this remarkably interesting Indian tribe, the author proceeded to a comparison of these beliefs, and the ceremonies by which they are attended, with those of neighboring tribes, and discussed the de- velopment of myths in general as well as the special lines of mythic development traced among the Bella Coola. Comments were made by Dr. Farrand, Professor Cat- tell and Dr. Beauchamp. This was followed by a paper on the ‘Loss of Aboriginal Arts and its Signifi- cance,’ by Rev. W. M. Beauchamp, in the course of which the author emphasized SCIENCE. 53 the transformation in the aboriginal arts of central New York attending the incursion of conquering tribes. On behalf of the Committee of the Asso- ciation on ‘ The Ethnography of the White Race in the United States,’ Dr. Boas made a brief report of progress. The next communication was an illus- trated account of ‘ Dwellings of the Saga Time in Iceland, Greenland and Vineland,’ by Miss Cornelia Horsford. Beginning with a description of the Norse Sagas, covering the period A. D. 875-1025, Miss Horsford noted the recent researches concerning the habita- tions described in the Sagas. None of these have thus far been identified in Denmark, Sweden or Norway, but several have been identified with considerable certainty in Iceland, chiefly through the investigations of the Icelandic Antiquarian Society, and also in Greenland, while a few have been identified with fair certainty in the ‘Vineland the Good’ of the Sagas—what is now east- ern Massachusetts. The houses of the three countries were illustrated and shown to be essentially similar by means of photographs and sketches of the ruins, and were identi- fied in design and other characteristics with the house-types still surviving in Iceland. The paper was discussed by Dr. Boas, who pointed out the essential distinctness of the habitations described from those of the aborigines of America,including the Eskimo- Remarks concerning the extent and thor- oughness of the investigation were also made by Dr. Beauchamp and the presiding officer. The afternoon session began with a brief paper on ‘Eskimo Boot Strings,’ by John Murdoch. This was followed by an ex- tended ‘ Preliminary Report on the Soma- tology of the Tribes of Northwestern Mexico,’ by Dr. A. Hrdlicka, in the course of which a large number of crania from Mexico and the United States were de- scribed, while the distribution of the types 54 was indicated. Dr. Boas and others con- tributed supplementary information. ‘Views of the Paleolithic Question,’ by Rev. Stephen D. Peet, and ‘ The Collection of Anthropometric Data,’ by Professor J. McKeen Cattell, were read by title. The next communication was presented under the title ‘Conditions attending the Rise of Civilization,’ by W J McGee. The author pointed out that the development of civilization on the shores of the Mediterra- nean was attended by growing recognition of proprietary right in land, together with concomitant recognition of the territorial rights of others, and the gradual growth of law relating to boundaries, monuments and inheritances. He gavespecial emphasis to the altruistic character of the laws regula- ting territorial interest. Considering, then, the characteristics of life in desert regions, he showed that the tendency of common strife against hard physical environment is toward the development of an intimate co- peration and interaction of such sort as to simulate the altruism of civilization. He then touched briefly on the influence of desert conditions in promoting the recogni- tion first of custom and then of law cor- responding to the customs and laws of ad- vanced culture. The communication was discussed by Professor J. Mark Baldwin, Dr. Farrand and Dr. Boas. An informal symposium followed on the question ‘ Will Winter Meetings Meet the Need of American Anthropologists for Or- ganization ?’? It resulted in a decision to recommend to the Association that pro- vision be made for a meeting of the Section of Anthropology to be held in New York during the Christmas holidays of 1898. In- cidentally the need of a medium for the publication of anthropologic papers received consideration, and a special committee was appointed and given power to act toward the establishment or adoption of an Ameri- can anthropological journal, the commit- SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VI1. No. 159. tee consisting of Messrs. Boas (chairman), Brinton, Putnam, Frank Baker and McGee. The Section adjourned at 5 p. m. to meet with others at Boston. W J McGez, Vice- President Section H. ALONZO S. KIMBALL. Prorrssor Atonzo §. Kimpatit, who was for a quarter of a century professor of physics in the Worcester Polytechnic In- stitute, was born at Center Harbor, New Hampshire, in 1848. He was prepared for college at New Hampton Academy, and was graduated from Amherst College in 1866. In 1871 he was called to the Wor- cester Polytechnic Institute, which had just graduated its first class. He organized the department of physics, and the In- stitute was among the first in the country to provide systematic instruction in a physical laboratory. After seven or eight years of great activity and usefulness, shown alike in the development of the important department of which he had charge, and in a series of valuable original contributions to physical science, he was, in 1879, at- tacked by a painful disease,which, in spite of the highest medical skill in both this coun- try and Europe, proved to be incurable, and from the effects of which he died on Decem- ber 2, 1897. Notwithstanding the steady progress of a malady which entailed nearly continuous suffering, Professor Kimball, through all these years, discharged the constantly increasing duties of his position to the great satisfaction of the officers of the Institute and of the hundreds of pupils to whom his life and work were always in- spiring. In addition to his regular work in Worcester, he was for several years a lec- turer at Mt. Holyoke College, of which in- stitution he was for many years and at the time of his death a Trustee. While the Salisbury Laboratories of the Polytechnic Institute were being built he spent a year J ANUARY 14, 1898. ] in Europe, engaged in the study of the best European establishments, and in selecting apparatus for the better equipment of the new building to which his department was to be transferred. While there he suffered from a more than usually acute attack and submitted to a difficult and dangerous sur- gical operation, which it was hoped might lead to a permanent recovery. Only tem- porary results followed, however, and within the past five or six years several similar operations were performed with the same result. His work in the lecture room and laboratory was not seriously inter- rupted, although carried on under condi- tions that would have made it impossible with most men. When, ten or fifteen years ago, the creation of a new branch of en- gineering began, Professor Kimball was not slow to appreciate its importance, and the Institute was among the first schools of applied science to offer a course in elec- tricity with ample equipment of electrical machinery and other appliances necessary to its success. The management and develop- ment of this course, along with the courses in pure physics, remained with him until about two years ago, when its magnitude became such that it was necessary to set off the electrical engineering as a separate department with a special professor at its head. With lessened responsibility, his en- thusiasm and, for a time, his activity greatly increased, but his enjoyment of the new conditions was cut off by his death, a few weeks ago. Professor Kimball was uncommonly skill- ful in experiment, possessing originality in design and his work was done with that sense of refinement and precision which is essential to original research. Between the years 1875 and 1880 he published in various scientific journals a series of papers, each the result of wisely planned and carefully conducted experiment and all of much value. The first was on ‘Sliding Friction,’ \ SCIENCE. 5d published in the American Journal of Science, March, 1876. It marked the beginning of an important investigation of the general subject of friction, the results of which were published in subsequent numbers of the same journal, in Van Nostrand’s Engineer- ing Magazine and elsewhere. In these papers he shows that friction between sliding surfaces is independent of neither velocity nor pressure, experiment pointing to the existence of a maximum coefficient of friction depending on both velocity and pressure. During these years there were also other papers on the influence of temper upon the physical properties of steel, the ef- fect of magnetization on the physical proper- ties of iron, etc. There was also prepared and printed a small treatise on thermody- namics, arranged especially for the use of his pupils, exhibiting much originality and clearness in method of presentation. From the quality of Professor Kimball’s work during this period there can be little doubt that he would have achieved marked distinction in his chosen field but for the failure of his health, from which he never recovered. From 1879 to his death, a period of nearly twenty years, his fight was against odds that must have long ago de- feated any one endowed with only the ave- rage human courage and tenacity of pur- pose. Conscientiously discharging every duty that the day brought, he had little energy left for research work, although he published occasional papers and was always anxious to utilize any temporary increment of vitality in that way. Although a member of numerous scien- tific societies, Professor, Kimball was rarely seen at their meetings, his long illness thus standing in the way of those intimate per- sonal and social relations with his confreres for which he was by nature so admirably fitted. His manner was charming, his good nature unceasing, his instincts fine and noble. 56 To those with whom he was associated in work, or who were otherwise privileged to know him intimately, his prolonged but splendidly heroic struggle with a fatal dis- ease, together with the uniformly high standard of performance which that strug- gle did not sensibly affect, will ever remain an inspiring example of the best of human qualities. ah, OL Wil CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY. MILNE ON SUBOCEANIC CHANGES. Tus topic, already noted in ScreNcE (September 3, 1897), receives further de- tails (London Geog. Journ., X., 1897, 259- 289), which will well repay study. Their practical importance may be inferred from the expense—half a million sterling— of fifteen cable repairs necessitated by submarine disturbances. Their specific character appears in the items of place and date, as well as in the photographic illus- trations of torn cables, gathered by the author with much care from usually inac- cessible sources. Their novelty is illus- trated in such items as the following: ‘‘ The Bilbao cable broke down periodically, usu- ally in March during or after a heavy north- west gale, at a point about thirty miles off shore; when repaired, it was invariably found that three or four miles of cable had been buried. This is attributed to a strong submarine current, caused by the piling up of surface water by the wind; the under current crossing the drowned prolongation of a river valley with steep walls, which, when undercut, fellin masses.”’ Again: “The military and naval reserves were called out in Australia, in 1888, when the simultaneous interruption of two cables cut off communi- cation with the rest of the world for nine- teen days and gave rise to the fear that war had broker out in Europe.’”’ The physio- graphical interest of the article comes from the constant association of cable fractures SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 159. with the steeper slopes of continental mar- gins where the submarine contours are not only irregular but variable; this being in strong contrast to the undisturbed condition of cables in deep water on a soft level bot- tom, of which Kipling says: There is no sound, no echo of sound, in the deserts of the deep, Or the great gray level plains of ooze where the shell- barred cables creep. Near the continents, slopes of 1 in 7, or even 1 in 8 are discovered. Changes of depth amounting to 100 or 200 fathoms are determined by soundings before and after cable fractures in regions of disturbance. In conclusion, Milne makes two sugges- tions: First, that he would be glad to re- ceive (at Shide Hill House, Newport, Isle of Wight, England) details regarding cable interruptions in any part of the world ; sec- ond, that seismographs, similar to the one he has on the Isle of Wight, should be in- stalled in various countries, their cost being about £50; this suggestion being adopted by the British Association, whose circular on the subject may be obtained from their Seismological Committee (Burlington House, London, W.). HATCHER’S EXPLORATIONS IN PATAGONIA. PRIMARILY with the object of collecting fossil mammals, Princeton University sent J.B. Hatcher to Patagoniain January, 1896. He returned in July, 1897, and after leaving reports on his geological and geo- graphicalresults (American Journal of Science and National Geographical Magazine for No- vember) he has gone out on a second expe- dition. The geographical description gives an excellent picture of the Patagonian pampas. They consist of a heavy series of fresh-water (continental) deposits, deeply cut by west-east valleys and strewn over with drift from the Andes, morainic near the mountains and water-washed farther east. The terraces, by which succes- JANUARY 14, 1898.] sive plains descend toward the Atlantic, famous since Darwin’s voyage, are ac- counted for as sea cliffs, cut during the re- covery from a period of depression after the valleys had been eroded. Volcanic cones and lava flows give some variety to the re- gion. Salt lakes are barred in valleys be- hind the sand reefs of the former shore lines, and their salt is explained as having been retained since a part of the ocean was there enclosed. This conclusion, as well as the implication that salt lakes are usually sup- plied by salt springs, seems open to question; but as a whole the geographical descriptions are much more lucid than those that one usually meets in geographical magazines. THE ST. CROIX DALLES, MINN. A THESIS by C. P. Berkey, University of Minnesota, discusses the ‘Geology of the St. Croix Dalles’ (Amer. Geol., XX., 1897, 345-383) and throws much light on the geography of the district, which seems to be one of special interest. Cambrian strata lying unconformably on pre-Cambrian ig- neous masses constitute the bed-rock of the region. Heavy glacial deposits, morainic and washed, overspread the bed-rock and determine much of the surface form. Large glacial rivers and the discharge of the glacial West Superior lake have carved important valleys, of which the rock-walled dalles at- tract most attention. Several abandoned river-courses contain lakes, some of which seem to belong in the rare species of pools excavated by the plunge of extinct falls. SURFACE CURRENTS OF THE NORTH SEA. OBSERVATIONS made for the Fishery Board of Scotland on the surface currents of the North Sea, chiefly by means of floating bot- tles, are discussed by T. W. Fulton (Scot. Geogr. Mag., XIII., 1897, 636-645). A tol- erably regular circulation around the mar- gin of the sea is found at an average rate of two or three miles a day, southward on the west, northward on the east side of the SCIENCE. 57 sea. The velocity varies with the winds, and after a period of unusual and persist- ent southeasterly winds in December, 1896, and January, 1897, the current was re- versed along the coast of Great Britain. The currents are, therefore, ascribed to the prevailing westerly winds, which drive the water towards the eastern side of the sea and tend to heap it up there. In the firths the currents are irregular, varying with winds and tides. W.M. Davis. HARVARD UNIVERSITY. CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY. THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. LirtLE is now written about ‘monogen- ism’ or ‘polygenism.’ To the physical anthropologist that question is quite ab- sorbed in the wider one of ‘ variation.’ But the psychical unity of the species is still lacking definition. A noteworthy contri- bution to it is one by the Marquis de Nadaillae in the Revue des Questions Scien- tifiques for October last. He points out the unending similarities in implements, arts, funeral rites and religious symbols in tribes of like stages of culture in all times and places. That these are proofs of psychic identity there can be no doubt. But it is not quite clear how the author interprets them. In some passages he speaks of such customs and inventions being ‘handed down from unknown ancestors by generation to genera- tion ;’ while elsewhere he says the solution lies ‘in the identity of the mind of man in all periods and in all regions.’ The latter is the position which is most acceptable to the trained ethnologist. LOCAL ETHNOGRAPHIC COLLECTIONS. In the rapid changes of American history the mode of life of one generation is scarcely known to that which follows it. Hence the ‘value of collecting, while we can, those ob- 58 jects which represent how our near an- cestors worked and played. No recent publication better illustrates how much of worth there is in such a collection than a descriptive catalogue of objects in the Mu- seum of the Historical Society of Bucks County, Pa., prepared by Mr. Henry C. Mercer. It bears the felicitous title ‘Tools of the Nation Maker,’ and is handsomely printed and covered. The notes, folk- songs, ete., which the author adds render it much more than a catalogue, and the in- dex is a model of completeness. Copies can be obtained through Mr. Mercer (Doyles- town, Pa.). RACIAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. On previous occasions attention has been called in these notes to the excellent series of articles on the racial geography of Europe contributed by Professor W. Z. Ripley to the Popular Science Monthly. The eleventh instalment, that in the December number, dealt with the British Isles, and is of special interest to English-speaking peo- ples. In preparing it Professor Ripley was actively aided by members of the Anthro- pological Institute of Great Britain, and officially by that institution itself. His article, therefore, represents the most re- cent and thorough scientific study of the population of the British Isles. D. G. Briyton. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS. THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. As directed by the American Society of Na- turalists, Professor Henry F’. Osborn presented to President McKinley, on January 7th, the resolution passed by the Society at the Ithaca meeting, and published in the last issue of this JOURNAL. As it is desirable to give this resolu- tion the widest possible circulation, it may be repeated : “* Resolved, That the American Society of Natural- ists, ag representatives of the principal scientific and SCIENCE. [N. 8. Von. VI. No. 159. educational interests of this country, unanimously ex- press to the President and Congress of the United States their sentiment that the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries should, according to the law of 1888, governing his appointment, be ‘a person of proved scientific and practical acquaintance with the fish and fisheries of the coast.’ “Resolved, That it is of the utmost importance that the Fish Commission, as one of the most useful scientific institutions of the government, should be free from political influence and should be adminis- tered with the highest degree of scientific efficiency by an experienced officer.’’ The President received the resolution very courteously and replied that he recognized it as representing the sentiment of all the institu- tions of the country, and that the United States Fish Commission should coéperate with the col- leges as originally planned by Spencer F. Baird. His decision in the matter of appointment will not be made public at present. THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. On September 15, 1897, the Council of the Geological Society of Washington invited the other societies represented in the Joint Commis- sion of the Scientific Societies of Washington to appoint ‘a committee of conference, to meet similar committees from other societies,’ for the consideration of certain questions relating to the joint organization of the scientific societies. In response to this invitation, the following committees were appointed: From the Anthro- pological Society, Frank Baker, W J McGee, Lester F. Ward; from the Biological Society, L. O. Howard, C. Hart Merriam, George M. Sternberg; from the Chemical Society, C. E. Munroe, W. H. Seaman, Wirt Tassin ; from the Entomological Society, W. H. Ashmead, Theo- dore Gill, C. L. Marlatt; from the National Geographic Society, Henry Gannett, G. K. Gil- bert, Gardiner G. Hubbard; from the Geolog- ical Society, Whitman Cross, S. F. Emmons, Arnold Hague; and from the Philosophical Society, Marcus Baker, J. R. Eastman, Bernard R. Green. This Committee of Conference met on December 6 and organized by the election of J. R. Eastman as Chairman and Whitman Cross as Secretary; other meetings were held on December 9 and 11. After full discussion, the following resolutions, among others, were JANUARY 14, 1898. ] adopted and recommended to the governing boards of the several scientific societies : “ Resolved, That in the judgment of this Committee, the autonomy of the several scientific societies should be maintained. “ Resolved, That in the judgment of this Committee the Joint Commission should be modified in the fol- lowing particulars : 1st, That its name be changed to the Washington Academy of Sciences; 2d, That it assume indepen- dent scientific functions ; 3d, That it have power to add to its members. “« Resolved, That the Committee therefore recom- mends to the several societies that they instruct the Joint Commission to take such action as may be necessary to carry the above recommendations into effect.’’ The conferees subsequently reported their action to the governing boards of the several so- cieties, and all of these have adopted the resolu- tions substantially as voted by the Committee of Conference. The matter comes up for action at a special meeting of the Joint Commission on January 11th. THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF 1898. THE preparations for this expedition are de- scribed in a recent issue of the London Times. It will be under the leadership of Dr. A. G. Nathorst, who accompanied Nordenskjéld in his Greenland expedition of 1883. Its main ob- ject is to examine the eastern side of Spitz- bergen, Wiche’s Land and New Island—in short, the region between Spitzbergen and Franz Josef Land. But, as this area will probably not be accessible in the beginning of next sum- mer, Dr. Nathorst intends to carry on investi- gations in western Spitzbergen, Northeast Land, Bear Island, etc. He has bought the ‘ Antarctic,’ which in 1895 carried the whaling expedition to the South Polar Sea; it is now being overhauled and equipped for the expedition. The captain will be Emil Nilsson, who has been several times to the Yenisei and who commanded the ‘Sofia’ during Nordenskjéld’s Greenland expedition in 1883. Dr. Nathorst himself will have special charge of the geological work. The zoologist will be Mr. G. Kolthoff, of Up- sala, curator of the fine biological museum at Stockholm. He also was in the 1888 expedi- tion, and has made ornithological expeditions SCIENCE. 59 to Iceland and the Farés. Dr Axel Ohlen, of Lund, will also look after the zoology. He has dredged off the east coast of Greenland, has visited Baffin’s Bay and Melville Bay, and was in the recent Swedish expedition to Tierra de] Fuego. Dr. Gruner Andersen will be the bot- anist. He has studied the Arctie flora on the mountains of Sweden and Norway. The hydrog- rapher will probably be Dr. Axel Humberg, also a well-known geologist; he also was in the 1883 expedition. The hydrographical work will form avery important part of the researches of the expedition. The cartographical work will be under the charge of Lieutenant Otto Kjellstrom; in this department photographic methods will be utilized as an aid to the ordi- nary methods. Special attention will be given to glaciers wherever found, and the surgeon, Dr. E. T. Levin, will investigate the occurrence of bacteria in the Arctic regions. GENERAL. THERE were in attendance at the Ithaca meet- ing of the American Society of Naturalists and Affiliated Societies 166 members coming from 47 institutions. AMONG those who have accepted nominations as Vice-Presidents of the General Committee of the Fourth International Congress of Zoology are the following: Professor R. J. Anderson, of Belfast; Professor Bridge, of Birmingham ; Professor D. J. Cunningham, of Dublin; Pro- fessor Herdman, F.R.S., of Liverpool; Profes- sor M’Intosh, F.R.S8., of St. Andrews; Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill, of Manchester ; Professor Lloyd Morgan, of Bristol; Professor Alleyne Nichol- son, F.R.S., of Aberdeen; Dr. Scharff, of Dub- lin; Dr. Traquair, F.R.S., of Edinburgh ; Canon Tristram, F.R.S., of Durham; Lieuten- ant-Colonel R. G. Wardlaw Ramsay, and Pro- fessor Percival Wright, of Dublin. As we learn from Nature, the Council of the London Chemical Society have recommended the following as foreign members to be balloted for at the next meeting, January 20th: Pro- fessor Remsen, Baltimore; Professor Troost, Paris; Professor Moissan, Paris; Professor Raoult, Grenoble; Professor Oswald, Leipzig; Professor Curtius, Bonn; Professor Mensutkin, St. Petersburg; Professor Markownikow, St. 60 Petersburg; Professor Arrhenius, Stockholm; Professor Waage, Christiania; Professor Fran- chimont, Leyden; Professor van der Waals, Amsterdam; Professor Spring, Li¢ge; Pro- fessor Korner, Milan. Srr W. H. FLower has been elected associate of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Belgium. QUEEN VICTORIA has conferred among the usual New Year honors the following: knight- hood on Professor George Brown, Consulting Veterinary Advisor to the Board of Agriculture; Ernest Clarke, Esq., Secretary to the Royal Agricultural Society; John Struthers, M.D., LL.D., late President of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, and John Batty Tuke, Esq., M.D., President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh; The K.C.B. on Pro- fessor Gairdner, Dean of the Faculty of Medi- cine, Glasgow University, and the C.B. on Pro- fessor D’ Arcy Thompson. A BRONZE bust of the late General Francis A. Walker, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was presented formally by the undergraduate students to the Institute of Technology, on January 5th, the anniversary of General Walker’s death. Dr. A. D. WALLER has resigned from the Fullerian professorship of physiology and com- parative anatomy of the Royal Institution owing to the lack of any facilities for physiological research. Mr. W. P. Pyorart has left Oxford, accord- ing to Natural Science, and has been appointed temporary assistant in ornithology in the British Museum (Natural History). He will devote his attention specially to the arrangement of the collection of skeletons of birds. GOVERNOR BLACK has appointed the follow- ing as delegates to represent the State of New York at the Fisheries Congress to be held at Tampa, Fla., on January 19th: Tarleton H. Bean and Warren N. Goddard, of New York City ; Charles L. MacArthur, of Troy; Charles L. Babcock, of Rochester; Edward Thompson, of Northport, and A. Nelson Cheney, of Glens Falls. NeEws has just been received of the death of Professor Thomas Jeffery Parker, F.R.S., on SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VII. No. 159. November 7th, at Dunedin, New Zealand. Pro- fessor Parker was from 1872 to 1880 demons- trator in biology at the Royal College of Science. He then went to New Zealand as professor of biology in the University of Otago, where he did much to promote the advancement of nat- ural science in the colony both by his lectures and addresses and by founding the Otago Uni- versity Museum, of which he was curator at the time of his death. In 1884 he published ‘A Course of Instruction in Zootomy (Verte- brata),’ and a ‘Text-book of Zoology,’ written jointly with Professor W. A. Haswell, was com- pleted before his death and will be published by the Macmillans. Dr. ERNEST HART, since 1866 editor of the British Medical Journal, died in London on January 7th. He had made the Journal, per- haps, the leading medical journal of the world, only rivalled by the Lancet, and had at the same time built up the British Medical Associa- tion to be probably the strongest professional organization in the world. Dr. Hart was the author of many publications and was promi- nent in numerous and important sanitary and social reforms. WE regret also to record the death of Pro- fessor Francesco Brioschi, the mathematician, President of the Accademia dei Lincei, at Milan, on December 18th, aged seventy-two years; and of Professor James Holm, professor of physics at the South African College, Cape- town, and before 1895 demostrator in physics at University College, Nottingham, aged twenty- eight years. Tue Science Teacher is the name of a monthly publication just established by Mr. A. T. Sey- mour, instructor in science and mathematics, Westminister School, Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. There is room for a scientific journal that will be of interest to teachers in the secondary schools, and we hope that this journal will fill the place, but in order to do this it will be nec- essary to improve upon the first number. THE Philadelphia Medical Journal, established under the auspices of the leading physicians and medical men of Philadelphia and edited by Dr. George M. Gould, has begun publication with the New Year. The first number contains JANUARY 14, 1898. ] contributions from Dr. J. M. Da Costa, Professor N. Senn, Professor William Osler, Professor W. W. Keen and other distinguished contribu- tors. Much space is devoted to editorials, notes and a review of the contents of other medical journals in the English language. Under its present editorship the Journal is sure to be interesting and agressive, as witness the following from the editorial columns: ‘‘ Be- cause a city [i. e., New York] has a great harbor it is boobyishness to boast and be proud. *-* %* % * Tt will require a good many years before the supremacy of Philadelphia as the medical center of America will be seriously disputed. But we are less interested in the braggart’s vaunt of any supremacy, etc.” Av a meeting of the Zoological Society of London on November 14th Mr. J. Graham Kerr gave an account of his recent expedition, along with Mr. Budgett, to the Chaco of Para- guay in quest of Lepidosiren, and made remarks on its habits as there observed. Mr. Kerr also gave a general account of the early stages of its development, drawing special attention to the presence in the larva of external gills anda sucker similar to those of the Amphibia. Mr. Oldfield Thomas, F.Z.S., read a paper entitled ‘On the Mammals obtained by Mr. A. Whyte in North Nyasaland, and presented to the British Museum by Sir H. H. Johnston, K.C.B.; being a fifth contribution to the Mammalogy of Ny- asaland.’ This memoir contained notes on 61 species of mammals, 4 of which were charac- terized as new, viz, Macroscelides brachyrhynchus malosx, Crocidura lixa, Myosorex soulla and Gra- phiurus johnstoni. In the Journal of the Boston Society of Med- ical Sciences, for December, 1897, Dr. C. F. Hodge gives ‘some results of the action of alco- hol on dogs as regards non-viability and mal- formation of the young, and severity of attack in an epidemic of distemper.’ These observa- tions, which are a continuation of the experi- ments described in The Popular Science Monthly for April, 1897, show that of the progeny of the alcoholic pair, twenty pups, born in three lit- ters, eight were malformed and six born dead. The normal pair produced sixteen whelps in three litters, and not one of these was born dead, SCIENCE. 61 and only one was malformed. During an epi- demic of distemper one of the alcoholized dogs died, and all save one were seriously affected ; none of the other dogs exhibited any serious symptoms of disease. THE monkeys in the vicinity of Hardwar, India, are said to be seriously affected with the bubonic plague, which they are supposed to have contracted through visits to infected rooms in the town of Hardwar. The proposed extermination of the monkeys with a view of putting an end to the disease so far as they are concerned might clash seriously with the re- ligious views of the Hindoos. Mayor Quincy, of Boston, in his inaugural message urgently recommends the establish- ment of a marine aquarium in Boston. He notes that for ten years or more the Boston Society of Natural History has been engaged in considering and endeavoring to carry through plans for natural history gardens, to be estab- lished within the parks under three different divisions—one, the marine aquarium, to be located at Marine Park; another, the fresh water aquarium, to be located at Jamaica Pond, and the third, the Zoological Garden, to be located in the Long Crouch Woods, Franklin Park. The total expense of carrying out the complete plans is estimated at $200,000, and Mayor Quincey strongly recommends them. He urges that $65,000 be appropriated at once for the marine aquarium. GOVERNOR BLACK, of New York, in his recent message pays special attention to the forestry interests of the State. He proposes that the State should purchase a tract of forest land and cultivate it scientifically as a means of diffusing knowledge and showing the reyenue- producing character of such an investment sagaciously administered. It should be kept clear of politics by giving the Regents of the University or the Trustees of Cornell University charge of it, and an annual report of progress and results should be made to the Legislature. SENATOR PLATT, of New York, has intro- duced into the United States Senate a bill to establish a national park on the Palisades of the Hudson River. 62 A BILL which will limit the lawful use of hypnotism to licensed physicians will, it is said, be introduced into the New York Legisla- ture during the present term. A number of in- stances have been collected to prove that the use of hypnotism by irresponsible persons is dangerous and opposed to the public good. The bill, before introduction, will be submitted to eminent lawyers for revision, and when finished will be supported, it is said, by the medical societies of the State. Britis have been introduced into the United States Senate and House of Representatives making appropriations for the continuation of timber tests by the Forestry Division of the De- partment of Agriculture. Senator McBride’s bill appropriates $40,000, and Representative Hurley’s $100,000. AN appropriation of $200,000 is asked this year by the Gypsy Moth Committee, which has just made its annual report to the Board of Agriculture. The work of the past few years has convinced the Committee that extermina- tion of the moth is not only possible, but cer- tain, if sufficient sums be promptly appropriated for the purpose. THE plaster casts used by Professor Osborn in his lecture on museums before the recent meeting of the American Society of Naturalists have been presented by him to Cornell Univer- sity. THE leading editorial in-the January number of Natural Science endorses the article in the Contemporary Review on the fur-seals from which we recently quoted. The editorial concludes: ‘“‘Tt may be retorted that if the Canadians are to be debarred from killing fur-seals at sea the Americans ought to be prevented from killing them on shore. But the conditions are totally different. On shore only non-breeding males with perfect skins are killed. No females or breeding males are taken. But at sea no such selection is possible; the sex cannot be deter- mined until the sealis killed. Many of the seals escape with fatal wounds, and as the fe- males are less active than the males, and are often hampered by the presence of their young, they are more easily captured. Hence the ma- jority of the seals killed at sea are females. SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 159. The economic value of the pelagic seal industry is now insignificant, and as it appears to be ad- mitted by both sides that the herds of fur-seals are being greatly reduced in numbers by the excessive killing at sea of female seals, and the consequent starvation of nearly 20 per cent. of the young, it is to be hoped that effective meas- ures may be taken to prevent this inhuman and wasteful slaughter.’’ THE new volume of ‘ Minerva’ published by Triibner, Strassburg, has as a frontispiece an etching of Nansen. Le Journal de Colmar, of December 12th, an- nounces the translation of Hirn’s ‘ Analyse élémentaire de l’Univers’ into the Russian by General Starinkévitch. The translator informs the former secretary or personal friend of Hirn, M. E. Schwoerer, that the work is just issued and that he has prefaced to the text a bio- graphical sketch of ‘Hirn: sa vie et ses tra- vaux.’ General Socrate Starinkévitch is the Governor of Varsovie and one of the best known scientific men in Russia among the nobles of that rapidly developing country. THE works of the United States Liquefied Acetylene Distributing Company, located at Jersey City, were completely destroyed by a series of explosions on December 24th. Two men were killed and others were injured. It is evident that the manufacture and use of acetylene should receive a thorough scientific investigation before it can take the place that its merits warrant. THE royal British Antiquarian and Archeolog- ical Societies have lodged a petition with Lord Salisbury protesting against the peculiar form _ of prison labor in Egypt since the Khedive’s penitentiaries and jails have been under English management, says the Scientific American. It seems that the convicts, of whom there are twelve hundred in the Jourah prison alone, are employed in manufacturing bogus antiques, for which there is reported to be a large market, especially in America. The petitioners declare that the forgeries are so clever as to be scarcely distinguishable from the real article. As yet only antiques of relatively small dimensions have been produced, but the prison authorities express the hope of being able in course of time JANUARY 14, 1898. ] to turn out full-fledged mummies and sar- cophagi. The scientific societies in England point out, with some degree ofjustice, that while this form of prison labor may have commercial advantages it practically renders the British government a party to fraud. Per Dus&N, the Swedish engineer and bry- ologist, has returned from Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia, where he has been engaged in scien- tific research since September, 1895. AT a meeting of the Royal Colonial Institute, London, on November 21st, Mr. W. Saville- Kent, late Commissioner of Fisheries to the Government of Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia, made an address on the nat- ural history of Australia. Lord Loch, who presided, referred, at the close of the lecture, to the question of Antarctic exploration. He said there was a movement on foot at the present moment, which was receiving very strong sup- port, for fitting out an expedition, and he trusted that the Council of the Institute would give that movement, when it came in a very short time prominently before the public, every support. This matter of exploring the Antarc- tic regions had long occupied the attention of the several colonies in Australia. During the time he was Governor of Victoria there was a strong feeling in favor of assisting any such movement. If the Imperial Government would have assisted in fitting out an Antarctic expe- dition these colonies, and he believed others, would haye willingly joined. Whether circum- stances that had since occurred in Australia would enable them now to join in any move- ment that might be brought forward by the Im- perial Government he did not know, but he be- lieved there would be a strong expression of opinion in Australia in favor of the southern colonies joining in any organized expedition, whether assisted by the government at home or promoted by private enterprise entirely, to carry out Antarctic exploration, UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS. PRESIDENT HARPER announced at the recent Quarterly Convocation of the University of Chicago that Mr, Rockfeller had given $200,- SCIENCE. 63 000 to maintain the University in its present condition during the year beginning July ist. It is announced that the Rush Medical School of Chicago, with 77 instructors and 699 students, will probably affiliate with the University of Chicago. THE east wing of Ottawa University (Cath- olic) was destroyed by fire on January 5th. The loss on the building is $50,000 ; on contents $30,000. The loss is covered by insurance. THE Educational Council of the Nebraska State Teachers’ Association has adopted the re- port of a committee of which Professor Bessey is chairman, recommending that only those in- stitutions be recognized as colleges that require as a minimum for admission the equivalent of a good high-school course of at least three years above the eighth grade of the public schools, and that give a full four-year course of colle- giate work of creditable grade for graduation. A CHEQUE for £1,000 from Mr. Alexander Peckover, Lord-Lieutenant of the county of Cambridgeshire, has been received by the Vice- Chancellor of Cambridge University for the fund for rebuilding the School of Medicine and Sur- gery atttached to the University. THE establishment of a new technological institute in the north of Prussia is being dis- cussed in the German papers, and is favored by several political leaders, including Dr. yon Gossler, lately Minister for Education and the Fine Arts. Danzig, Thorn and Posen are men- tioned as suitable places. Hamburg is also agitating the question, though that city seems to want a university. Mr. FRANCIS RAMALEY, instructor of phar- maceutical botany in the University of Minne- sota, has been appointed assistant professor of botany in the University of Colorado, Boul- der, Col. PROFESSOR KELLY has resigned from the chair of hygiene in King’s College, London. Dr. ABELOUS has been appointed professor of physiology at the University of Toulouse, and Dr. F. Stanley Kipping, F.R.S., professor of chemistry at University College, Nottingham, England. Dr. Hollerman has qualified as docent in botany in the University of Berlin, 64 DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE. THE THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: The great suc- cess of the Second International Congress of Applied Chemistry leads to the belief that the next one, which is to be held in Vienna in July, 1898, will also be numerously attended. Nearly 2,000 members were present at the Paris meeting, and it required five large vol- umes to contain the report of its proceedings. The undersigned have been appointed a com- mittee in the United States to promote the interests of the Third International Congress of Applied Chemistry, and beg to call the attention of the chemists of this country to that meeting, with the hope that many may be induced to attend. Those whosubscribe and receive their membership cards will be entitled to all reduc- tions in rates going to and coming from Vienna which are arranged for members of the Con- gress. During the Paris meeting the French line of steamers reduced its rates 33 per cent. to members of the Congress. It is hoped that an arrangement can be made with some of the steamship lines during the coming summer for a similar reduction, although the committee has not yet been informed of any arrangement of this kind. The opportunity of meeting distinguished chemists from all parts of the world should not be lost sight of, and will doubtless be appre- ciated by the American members. The scientific work of the Congress will be divided into the following sections : Section 1. General analytical chemistry and apparatus, Dr. George Vortmann, Wien, IV Schaumburgergasse 16, Chairman. Section 2. Food, medicinal and pharmaceut- ical chemistry, Dr. Ernst Ludwig, Wien, XIX Bilrothstrasse-72, Chairman. Section 8. Agricultural Chemistry, Professor KE. Meissl, Wien, If Trummerstrasse 3, Chair- man. Section 4. Chemistry of the sugar industry, Professor Friedrich Strohmer, Wien, IV/2 Schonburgstrasse 6, Chairman. Section 5. Chemistry of the fermenting in- dustries, Professor F. Schwackhafer, Wien, XIX Karl Ludwigstrasse 74, Chairman. SCIENCE. [N.S. Vox. VII. No. 159. Section 6. Chemistry of wine making, Dr. L. Rosler, Wien, Physiologische Versuchsstation, Chairman. Section 7. Inorganic chemical industries (manufacture of sulphuric acid, soda, etc.), Herr Paul Seybel, Wien, III Reissnerstrasse 50, Chairman. Section 8. Metallurgy and explosives, Pro- fessor Franz Kupelwieser, Wien, I Franzen- ring, Chairman. Section 9. Organic chemical industries, Dr. Hugo Ritter von Perger, Wien, IV Gusshaus- strasse 23, Chairman. Section 10. Chemistry of the graphic indus- tries (photo-chemistry, photography, etc.), Dr. Josef Maria Eder, Wien, VII West Cohnstrasse 25, Chairman. Section 11. Didactic chemistry, Professor Franz Lafar, Wien, Technische Hochschule, Chairman. Section 12. Electro-chemistry, Dr. Kellner, Hallein, Salsburg, Chairman. All persons desiring to become members, and wishing further information on the subject of the Congress can secure copies of the pro- visional ‘reglement’ by addressing the chairman of the committee, Washington, D. C. Excursions, visits to localities of interest, banquets, etc., will be arranged for and defi- nitely announced ata later period. Papers in German, French and English will be accepted, and authors are requested to communicate with the several chairmen and send them titles of papers and subjects which they would like to have discussed. All persons intending to become members of the Congress may receive a membership card from the Secretary, Dr. F. Strohmer, by send- ing 21 frances to his address, 1V/2 Schonburg- strasse, Nr. 6, Vienna, Austria. If preferred, members may send $4.30 to the Chairman of the American Committee, who will transmit the proper amount to Dr. Strohmer. The provisional officers of the Congress are as follows: President of Honor—Hofrath Professor Dr. Alexander Bauer. Active President—Regierungsrath Dr. Hugo Ritter v. Perger, Professor in the Royal Imperia Technical High School of Vienna. Karl JANnuARy 14, 1898. ] Vice-President — Regierungsrath Dr. Josef Maria Eder, Director of the Royal Imperial Graphic School in Vienna. Secretary—Professor Dr. F. Strohmer, Di- rector of the Experiment Station for Beet Sugar Industry, Vienna. Respectfully, H. W. Witey, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., Chairman. W. O. ATwWaTER, Middletown, Conn. Peter T. AusTEN, 11 Broadway, New York,,. IN, NG C. F. CHANDLER, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. B. F. DAVENPORT, 161 Tremont street, Bos- ton, Mass. C. A. DorEmus, 17 Lexington avenue, New York, N. Y. C. B. Dubey, Altoona, Pa. W. L. Dupiey, Nashville, Tenn. Wm. P. Mason, Rensselaer Polytechnic In- stitute, Troy, N. Y. Wm. McMourtriz, 100 William street, New York, N. Y. C. E. Munroe, Columbian University, Wash- ington, D. C. A. A. Noyes, Massachusetts Institute Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. T. B. OsBorNE, New Haven, Conn. IrA RemMsSEN, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. W. B. Risine, Berkeley, Cal. EDGAR F. Suir, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. F. G. WIECHMANN, 771 West End avenue, New York, N. Y. : FRANCIS WYATT, 39 South William street, New York, N. Y. PROPOSED SYLVESTER MEMORIAL. To THE EpIToR oF ScleENCcE—May I be per- mitted to appeal through your columns to all friends and admirers of the late Professor J. J. Sylvester to assist in founding a suitable memorial in honor of his name and for the encouragement of mathematical science. A movement was inaugurated on this side of the Atlantic soon after his death, and it was resolved by the promoters that a fund should be raised for SCIENCE. 65 the purpose of establishing a Sylvester Medal, to be awarded at certain intervals for mathematical research to any worker irrespective of national- ity. For the purpose of carrying out the scheme, ~ a strongly representative International Commit- tee has been formed, and I should like to take ad- vantage of this opportunity of expressing the great satisfaction which it has given to the pro- moters to be enabled to include in this Com- mittee so many great and distinguished names from the American universities. In every case our invitation to join the Committee has been most cordially responded to, and the consent has in many instances been accompanied by expres- sions of the greatest sympathy and encourage- ment. The list as it stands practically includes the leading mathematicians of the whole world. It has been estimated that a capital sum of $5,000 will be sufficient for the proposed endowment, and of this about one-half has already been subscribed here. In appealing to the American public to enable us to complete the desired sum I am in the first place prompted by the consideration that Sylvester’s associa- tion with the Johns Hopkins University and the leading part which he took in advancing mathematical science in America renders his claim to estimation on the part of the citizens of your country quite a special one. It is but a modest endowment that we are asking for, and I am sure that all those who were per- sonally acquainted with him and who realize the great influence which he exerted in raising the intellectual level of every institution with which he was associated will be glad of this opportunity of codperating in the movement. It is proposed that the fund when complete shall be transferred to the Council of the Royal Society of London, that body having undertaken to accept the trust and to award the medal tri- ennially to mathematicians of all countries. I ean hardly venture to trespass upon your courtesy to the extent of asking you to print the complete list of our Committee, but for your own information I beg to send a copy herewith. It will be sufficient to state that it comprises the names of President Gilman, of the Johns Hopkins University; of Professor Simon Newcomb, of Washington; of Professor Willard Gibbs, of Yale; of Professor Pierce, 66 Harvard, and many other well known American men of science. Subscriptions may be sent to and will be acknowledged by Dr. Cyrus Adler, the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, or by Dr. George Bruce Halsted, President of the Texas Academy of Science, 2407 Guadalupe street, Austin, Texas. RAPHAEL MELDOLA, Hon. Organizing Secretary. TECHNICAL COLLEGE, LONDON, ENGLAND, December, 1897. TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: In my book on ‘Travel and Transportation,’ published in the Smithsonian Report for 1894, pages 280 and 281, will be found pictures of the only climbing de- vice ever reported to have been used by an American Indian. At the time of describing this apparatus I had no information as to the manner of its use. During the last summer Doctor Franz Boas made a journey among the Bella Coola Indians, British Columbia, and saw the apparatus employed in climbing. It is also used by the Tlingit and other tribes as far south as Vancouver Island. The wooden portion figured in the Report is not a boatswain’s chair, but a foot-rest; the soft, flat portion is for use around the upper part of the back of the climber, under his arms. This combination is necessary in the Northwest country because the trees are not altogether de- void of limbs and knots ; therefore, at certain points on the tree, the climber must unship his apparatus in order to pass the obstruction. My figures show that both parts of the device have loops so that the rope may be withdrawn at anytime. The climber connects the upper half with the lower half of the apparatus by means of lines. When he arrives at a limb he draws his foot-board up as high as possible ; then rest- ing his body on this he readjusts the upper por- tion, sustaining his back above the obstruction, and moves upward as far as he can reach. Then, hanging himself in this, he is able to draw up and readjust his foot-board and make fast again after the manner of the inch worm. The specific difference between this device and any other with which the writer is ac- quainted is in this facility of readjustment ‘on SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 159. account of knots and limbs by means of the connecting lines between the upper and lower half of the apparatus as explained by Doctor Boas. O. T. Mason. ‘TIME WASTED.’ To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: Apropos the article in your last issue ‘Time Wasted,’ a pro- fessor in a reputable theological seminary in the West lately informed me that the astronomers were now convinced the end of the world was imminent. To substantiate his statement he showed me an article in a religious paper, The Prophetic News and Israel’s Watchman, where such a prediction was made on the strength of some utterances from ‘‘ Professor S. J. Carrigan, Director of the Carleton University, North- field, Minnesota, the great university of the Northwest of America.’’ Professor Carrigan is spoken of as having written an article in ‘ Popu- lar Astronomy, the recognized organ of Ameri- can astronomy’ on the subject, and he is said to have ‘discovered the existence of three hitherto unknown planets, which are tearing through space between our earth and the sun.’ The following extracts are then made from his article: ‘‘ This new planet (one in the process of evolution from the sun) may at any instant. break away from the sun, and the terrific ex- plosion which will necessarily accompany this breaking away will produce a great disturbance of the entire universe, but particularly of the earth, perhaps completely smashing it, and surely destroying all animal life on land as well as in the waters.’’ ‘‘ Neither is this tremen- dous disturbance of the earth and the destruction of all life upon it completely unprecedented. A similar detachment of solar matter by the same means is known by the scientists to have occurred twenty-three million years ago, a period simultaneous with the Paleozoic age, at which time all atiimal and vegetable life then existing on the face of the earth was crushed out.’’? ‘The results of my investigations on this subject indicate that the earth is closely approaching a critical epoch. These results . convince me that it is imminent.”’ An account of the etiology of these peculiar products of journalism would be of interest. xX, JANUARY 14, 1898. ] ZOOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: My attention has just been called to the following statement in SCIENCE, No. 157, p. 998: “The student of science may fairly ask whether, when twelve doctorates are conferred in zoology and but three in Latin and Greek combined, this means that there is less demand for teachers of the classics or that a less exacting preparation is required.”’ Such is the comment appended to a mere summary of the Ph.D. degrees conferred by the University of Chicago during its first five years. I am surprised to see insinuations of this kind obtruded as ‘ University News.’ Neither ‘a student of science’ nor a student of anything worth naming could ‘fairly’ indulge in such ambiguous reflections on the basis of figures which he does not understand, and while pre- tending merely to report ‘Universtty News.’ Moreover, it seems difficult to assign a proper motive for the remark under any circumstances. Had the reporter, who poses as ‘a student of science,’ even a reading knowledge of zoology, he would have seen the impertinence of his query. Our zoological theses already published would be sufficient, I think, to ‘fairly’ satisfy any one qualified to understand them whether the ‘preparation’ here demanded is adequately ‘exacting.’ Graduate students from colleges and universities in good standing, who devote from three to five years to their theses, are entitled to be judged by the merits of their work, and are not ‘fairly’ open to disparaging conjectures on the part of uninformed reporters of university news. If comments were in order in such a report, I should have supposed that the result of ‘five years of graduate work’ might have suggested something more appropriate than an invidious comparison between zoology and the classics. What excuse for saying ‘but three in Latin and Greek combined,’ when Latin is not repre- sented in the ‘three’ at all? The author thus insidiously seeks to give point to the suspicion which he casts in his query, realizing that the contrast between zoology and Greek alone was not quite excuse enough for his remark. To one desiring to represent things ‘fairly,’ what could be more obvious than that no such query SCIENCE. 67 was permissible on the figures recorded for the first five years of the University’s existence, when the different departments could not be supposed to be equally advanced in organiza- tion or to have begun work under equal condi- tions? What justice could there be, for example, in comparing the 3 in Greek with the 0 in Latin? Would ‘a student of science’ need to be told that no inference could be drawn from the bare numbers 8 and 0 in this case as to the standards of work upheld by the two depart- ments? And what more senseless than to ask if the 0 indicates ‘a less demand for teachers’ or ‘a less exacting preparation ?’ It so happens that zoology has conferred eleven doctorates (the report of twelve is in- correct), nearly double the number in any other department. We are not ashamed of any of them, nor afraid of any just comparison. And while we take due pride in every one of them, it would be nothing less than contemptible to disparage any other department with a smaller record. There is reason for our larger number, but very remote from the suggestion so gratui- tously offered by the reporter for SCIENCE. When we came to Chicago we brought with us five candidates for the Ph.D in zoology, some of whom had already spent three years on their research work while in Clark University. Our number for the five years in Chicago is thus to be considerably reduced for comparison with that of any other department. Other circum- stances, which we need not here explain, would readily account for whatever differences re- main. If enough has not been said to show the ab- surdity of the comparison made in SCIENCE, and the injustice of disparaging comments based upon obviously insufficient data, then there is but one thing for this ‘student of science’ to do, and that is, to drop his study of science for the more humble occupation of learning some of the elements of common sense. C. O. WHITMAN. UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, January 8, 1898. [PROFESSOR WHITMAN rebukes the writer of the note in SciENCE for lack of common sense by precept, but not by example. The sentence 68 “The student of science may fairly ask whether, when twelve complained of is as follows: doctorates are conferred in zoology and but three in Latin and Greek combined, this means that there is less demand for teachers of the classics or that a less exacting preparation is required.’’ It seems difficult to interpret this in any other way than to the effect that if fewer doctorates are conferred in the classics than in the sciences then it follows that there are fewer adequately prepared teachers of the classics than of the sciences. We should not like to pub- lish an unsigned note disparaging the classics— least of all the admirable instruction given in the classical languages at the University of ‘Chicago—but it is proper for a scientific journal to call attention to the fact that more well- trained teachers and students have been sent out from the University of Chicago in zoology than in any other subject.—ED. SCIENCE. | INFORMATION DESIRED. I shall be greatly indebted to any reader of ScIENCE who will inform me of the whereabouts of a partial cranium of Bison antiquus, figured in the Kansas University Quarterly for July, 1897, and stated to be ‘in a high school in Illi- nois.’ F. A. Lucas. WASHINGTON, D. C. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. A Text-Book of General Lichenology, with de- scriptions and figures of the genera occurring in the northeastern United States. By AL- BERT SCHNEIDER, M.S., M.D., Fellow in Botany, Columbia University, 1894-1896. Binghamton, N. Y., Willard N. Clute & Com- pany. 1897. 8vo. Pp. xvii+230. Pl. 76. It is now several months since this important work first appeared, and doubtless many American botanists are already familiar with its contents. The author intended it primarily as a text-book for the use of students in col- leges and universities, and it is not too much to say that, with all its faults, it is the only SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 159. modern work of its kind in the English lan- guage. The first chapter is devoted to the history of lichenology, in which seven periods are recognized, viz.: I. Theophrastus (circa 300 B. C.) to Tournefort (A. D. 1694). II. Tournefort to Micheli (1729). III. Micheli to Weber (1779). IV. Weber to Wallroth and Meyer (1825). V. Wallroth and Meyer to Schwendener (1868). VI. Schwendener to Reinke (1894). VII. Reinke to the close of 1896. This historical summary will be of in- terest to students, especially those who do not have access to the older works, which are con- veniently cited in numerous footnotes. In this historical treatment the author has quite needlessly separated the last three years, a procedure due to his adherence to Reinke’s somewhat confusing views as to the nature of lichens. The second chapter deals with the subject of Symbiosis, including (a) antagonistic and (5) mutualistic symbiosis, the latter only, accord- ing to our author, occurring in lichens. This view, again, is inspired by Reinke. The third, fourth and fifth chapters are de- voted to the structure, growth and reproduc- tion of lichens. To our mind this is the best part of the book, and the student who goes over these chapters carefully, while studying the plants themselves in the laboratory, will obtain a very good idea of the subject they treat, especially if, at the same time, he makes use of the text and plates of Part II., dealing with classification and special morphology. Regarding the latter it may be said that the text is far better than the plates for the pur- pose for which the book was prepared. The figures are almost entirely diagrammatic, in spite of the statement on page 110 that they were ‘made from hand sections mounted in water (C. ocular, 1-5 objective, and camera lucida).’ The student who is led to suppose that he may obtain sections like these will find himself sadly mistaken after making the at- tempt. As diagrams these figures will be help- ful, but they should not be placed before the student as camera lucida drawings of actual sections. The text of this portion of the book possesses the merit of clear and direct statement, which is more than can be said of lichen litera- JANUARY 14, 1898. ] ture in general. Whether it will prove to be full enough and sufficiently accurate to be quite helpful we are not able to say, not having as yet had the opportunity of giving it a pro- longed trial in the laboratory, but a somewhat careful examination of the pages pertaining to a few of the familiar genera has impressed us favorably. The chapter on phylogeny brings out the author’s views as to the nature of lichens, views which, as stated above, are essentially those of Reinke. He holds with the Schwendenerians that the fungal symbionts of the Ascolichens are derived from the Ascomycetes, and these represent different groups of fungi, e. g., Pezi- zaceee, Patellariaceze, Phacidiacez, Stictidacez, Spheeriaceze. With Schwendener also, he refers ‘the ‘gonidia’ to various algal types. By re- turning to the second chapter we learn that the relation between fungi and alg is considered to be the highest form of mutualistic symbiosis, which he terms individualism. This requires “that one of the symbionts be absolutely de- pendent upon the mutual relationship.’? In lichens, our author says: ‘‘ We find the nutri- tive interdependence so marked that a new in- ‘dividual is formed, which in its morphology and physiology is wholly different from any of the symbionts.’? Again: ‘‘ From the very nature of individualism it is evident that the resulting structure is a morphological unit in the full sense of the word—that is, a lichen is neither a fungus nor an alga, but a new individual which should be given a definite position in the vegetable kingdom. It is an independent in- dividual, because we find that on separating the symbionts the individual is destroyed, as has already been indicated.’’? We have thus a new kind of taxonomic unit, consisting of two -organisms—(q@) that derived from fungal ances- tors, and (6) that derived from algal ancestors. This dual thing is the lichen. Hence, lichens, being entirely unlike anything else under the sun, are to be regarded as constituting a dis- tinct class! We have thusa nominal restoration -of the Class Lichenes, for which the lichenolo- gists have been fighting for a quarter of a cen- tury. But what a restoration! A lichen is no dJonger a single organism, comparable to a Fucus, a Polysiphonia or a Marchantia, but a SCIENCE. 69 compound of two organisms, and these admit- ted to be of fungal and algal origin. When it comes to this, the autonomists might as well surrender and come at once into the Schwen- denerian camp. It but remains for us to say that this book, with all its shortcomings, will be useful, and that the publishers have done well in their se- lection of type and paper, and have further- more given it a substantial binding. CHARLES E. BESSEY. THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. Organic Chemistry for the Laboratory. By W. A. Noyes, Po.D. Easton, Pa., Chemical Publishing Co. 1897. 12mo0. Pp. xi+257. Price, $1.50. Two purposes have been kept in view by the author in writing a new book on organic prep- arations. ‘‘ The first has been to furnish the beginner with sufficiently full and accurate di- rections, and clear, concise, theoretical explana- tions of processes which have been found suc- cessful in practical laboratory experience. The second object has been to furnish the more advanced student and practical worker with a guide which will aid him in the selection of processes which are likely to be successful for the preparation of compounds which he may desire to use.’’? The bookis divided into eleven chapters, in which is described the preparation of the various classes of organic compounds, namely: Acids; derivatives of acids; halogen compounds; nitro compounds; amines; hydrazo, azo, and diazo compounds, etec.; alcohols and phenols; aldehydes, ketones and their deriva- tives; sulphonic acids and sulphine compounds; hydrocarbons, and miscellaneous compounds. At the beginning of each chapter is a discussion of the chemical reactions involved in the differ- ent methods of preparation. This is followed by directions for the preparation of a com- pound illustrating each method. For example, in the first chapter twelve pages are given up to a general discussion of acids and nineteen preparations are described. In all cases the theoretical explanations and experimental de- tails are clear and full. A particularly valu- able chapter is devoted to the qualitative identi- fication of organic compounds. The usual tests 70 for elements other than carbon are described, and then an account is given of the typical reactions of the classes of organic compounds (hydrocarbons, phenols, amines, etc.). By means of a melting-point or boiling-point deter- mination, a qualitative ultimate analysis, and the application of the reactions described, a large number of compounds can be easily identified. The descriptions of such important laboratory operations as crystallization, distillation, etc., are but meagre and are scattered throughout the book. Most of them are described in the first chapter, which treats of the preparation of acids. As the student will make scarcely more than two or three of these compounds, and probably not at the beginning of the work, he is compelled to refer to the index and search out, from the details of one or more experi- ments, the description of the process which he wishes to use. Filtration is discussed, for ex- ample, on pages 21, 29 and 57; crystallization on pages 27 and 44, and distillation on pages 18-15, 19, 46 and 48. The book will be par- ticularly valuable to the advanced worker in or- ganic chemistry on account of its logical and thorough treatment of the subject, the numer- ous references to the literature, and the fact that it includes the recent work of importance. JAMES F. NorRIs. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. THE ALABAMA INDUSTRIAL AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Tuer regular winter meeting of this Society was held in the city of Birmingham, on the 21st of December, Truman H. Aldrich, President, in the chair. W. M. Brewer, of the Committee on Statistics, reported that he had collected and had pub- lished, in the technical journals of the country, monthly during the present year, the statistics of coal, coke, iron-ore, limestone and other mineral productions of the State. By the end of the first week in January he expected to have ready for publication, in the Proceedings of the Society, the complete mineral statistics for the year 1897. SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 159. With reference to the approaching Exposi- tion at Omaha it was the sense of the Society that the State of Alabama should be repre- sented there by a full and well arranged ex- hibit of its mineral and other natural resources. Four new members were elected, and a com- mittee, consisting of Mr. James Bowron, Mr. J. H. Fitts and Dr. Wm. B. Phillips, was appointed to represent the Society at the River and Harbor Convention, which is to be held in inthe city of Tuscalloosa on the 29th of De- cember. To this committee the President of the Society was added. M. Henri Cardoza, a Commissioner of the French Government to investigate the labor conditions of this country, was presented to the Society by Dr. Phillips, and made some remarks. explanatory of his mission. Mr. Mason H. Sherman then read a paper, prepared by Wm. Blauvelt, on ‘The Semet- Solvay Coke Oven and its Products.’ This. paper gave avery full account of the retort oven plant which is now in course of construc- tion at Ensley, near Birmingham, and which is the sixth installation of by-product ovens in this country. The coke, tar, ammonia, gas. and other by-products of these ovens were treated in detail by Mr. Blauvelt. As usual, this subject gave rise to an animated discussion, in which Dr. Phillips, Mr. Aldrich and others: took part. Inasmuch as recovery-ovens and by-product plants have occupied a very promi- nent place in the papers read before this So- ciety and in the discussions thereon during the past six years, it is believed that the installa- tion of the plant at Ensley is the direct outcome of the persistent efforts of this Society to put a. stop to the appalling waste incident to the use of the old bee-hive ovens. Dr. Phillips then read a paper on ‘Some of the Results of Washing the Alabama Coals for Coking,’ in which he presented a number of tests carried out by him upon the cokes from the different coals mined near Birmingham, and coked under different conditions. This paper is. from advance sheets of a new edition of ‘ Iron Making in Alabama,’ by Dr. Phillips, soon to be: published as a Bulletin of the Geological Survey. President Aldrich then spoke of the great. quantity of low-grade, free-milling gold ores JANUARY 14, 1898.] occurring in the eastern part of the State, and suggested that they offer a promising field to our mining engineers for experiments in con- centrating on a large scale so as to avoid the necessity of running so much barren material through the mills. The Society then adjourned to meet again in February. EUGENE A. SMITH, Secretary. THE 269TH MEETING OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, TUESDAY, DECEMBER 21. Mr. Gro. R. STETSON, in his paper upon ‘The Climacteric of the Negro Problem,’ dis- cussed the causes which have brought about the estrangement of the races ; contending that race discrimination upon the part of the whites is frequently justified by necessity ; a practice of which the negro cannot justly complain, as in every instance where he has obtained goy- ernmental control—in the West Indies, in Li- beria and elsewhere—white citizenship is abso- lutely proscribed. The progress in the economic condition of the negro is without intention sentimentally ex- aggerated ; while numbering 12 percent. of the population, the value of his taxable property is but 0.39 of one per cent. of our total wealth. The negro does not suffer from the lack of op- portunity, but for want of the means and knowledge to make the opportunity his own. While his criminal record is bad, if we take into consideration his opportunities and moral status, our own record of degeneracy is worse, and the White Problem is quite as serious as the Negro Problem. Mr. Stetson attributed the present climacteric to the default on our part, and especially of those more closely associated with him, in ignoring the ethical relations of the two races and neglecting personal interest in the negro’s moral, industrial and general training. ‘‘ Our chief and fatal error lies in not practically reorganizing in our educational systems his peculiar racial needs and differences ;’’ an error which has been fatal to his social progress, and highly inimical and dangerous to the collective interests of both races. SCIENCE. 71 The primary and greatest need of the negro and forty-one per cent. of our white population is practical instruction in agriculture in the elementary school, a system already revived in France, Germany, Russia and Ireland. The abandonment of secondary education at the public expense was advocated upon the ground of its inaccessibility to the great majority of both races, and especially to the negro, the ef- fect of such education upon races of inferior development and upon inferior classes of the higher races being to create a prejudice against manual labor. Incidentally, Mr. Stetson ad- vocated positive religious instruction in the elementary school, and the establishment of the kindergarten as a necessary reénforcement of our school systems in the presence of an en- vironment seething with the most virulent moral pest germs. Mr. O. F. Cook, professor of natural science in Liberia College, Monrovia, read a paper on ‘Traits of Native African Character,’ in which he described the negro as he exists to-day in this negro republic, and gave the difference in character between them and those of the United States. His remarks showed a close and true study of these people, and how they had suc- ceeded, notwithstanding the current belief in this country to the contrary. In Liberia and among the native population generally they re- spected the judgment and ability of the white man, J. H. McCormicx, General Secretary. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. AT the meeting of December 22, 1897, Mr. W. Lingdren, of the United States Geological Survey, read a paper on ‘The Canyons of the Salmon and Snake Rivers, Idaho.’ The little known region between Idaho and Oregon where the Snake River and its mighty tributary, the Salmon, joinis one of exceptional interest. In this vicinity lies the eastern margin of the great Columbia lava-fields, the shore line, so to speak, where the moulten flows were arrested by the mountain ranges of Idaho. Near Weiser, Snake River leaves the broad open valley occu- pying such a large part of southern Idaho, turns northward and flows across the great lava 72 masses in a canyon which in grandeur is only second to the Canyon of the Colorado. Itis an abrupt trench cut to a depth of over 5,000 feet in the basaltic plateau. The deepest and most impressive part lies in the vicinity of the Seven Devils, a group of peaks rising to elevations exceeding 9,000 feet on the eastern side of the river. From the summits of these there is a sharp and continuous slope of 8,000 feet down to the level of the river. The exposures along the canyons are magnificent, showing from 1,000 to 4,000 feet of horizontal lavas’ covering a series of older slates and greenstones. The Salmon River Canyon, for a long dis- tance above its junction with the Snake, is be- tween 4,000 and 5,000 feet deep. Except in its lowest portion, it is cut in the rocks of the older series. Granitic rocks, forming a large part of the great Idaho granite area, occupy a large space in Idaho adjacent to the Columbia lava. Instead of being of Archean age, as has been hitherto supposed, the granite is probably post- Carboniferous, as shown by the contact meta- morphism of the Paleozonic series adjoining on the north. This series of slates, limestone, schist and greenstones present the greatest similarity to the Auriferous slates of the Sierra Nevada. Round Crinoid stems were found in one of the limestone lenses. Excellent exposures are found in the lower Salmon River Canyon and along the Snake River. The Columbia lava flows are of Miocene age. They consist nearly exclusively of massive basalt, and are piled up one on another in seemingly endless succession. Slight differences of structure make the indi- vidual flows conspicuous and from a distance the exposures along the canyon side appear like those of a sedimentary series. The lava flows were poured out over an exceedingly uneven surface of deep valleys and precipitous moun- tain ranges. The latter tower far above the summit of the lava plateau, while the bottom of the former lie below the level of the river. Coupling this evidence with the fact that the sediments in the lower Snake River Valley, above Weiser, are of great depth, their bottom probably not being far from sea level, it appears that this whole area has suffered a depression since pre-volcanic times. The great outpouring SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 159. of the Columbia lava evidently dammed a gap: between the two high pre-voleanic ranges, the Blue Mountains of Oregon on the west and the Salmon River Ranges on the east. This barrier produced a great lake, the Miocene and Pliocene sediments of which now fill the upper Snake River Valley. The inland sea overflowed its barrier, established an outlet and the mighty volume of water has worn a canyon which eventually drained the lake. At this meeting the Society elected officers for the ensuing year. Theseare: President, Arnold Hague: Vice-Presidents, Joseph S. Diller and Whitman Cross; Treasurer, M. R. Campbell ;. Secretaries, C. Willard Hayes and T. W. Stanton ; Members-at-Large of Council, 8. F. Emmons, George P. Merrill, W. H. Weed, David White and Bailey Willis. W. F. MoRSsELL. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. NEW BOOKS. The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896. The History of its first half century. Edited by GEORGE BRowN GoopDE. City of Washing- ton. 1896. Pp. 856. Audubon and his Journals. MARIA AUDUBON. With zoological and other notes by ELLIOTT Cours. New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1897. Vol. 1I., pp.x + 532. Vol. II., viii + 535. $7.50. Revision of the Orthopteran Group Melanopli (acridiidx). With special reference to North American Forms. SAMUEL HUBBARD ScuD- DER. Washington, Government Printing Office. 1897. Pp.421. 26 plates. An Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus. Horace LAMB. Cambridge, The Univer- sity Press; New York, The Macmillan Com- pany. 1897. Pp. xx + 616. $3.00. Theoretical Mechanics. A. E. H. Love. Cam- bridge, The University Press; New York, The Macmillan Company. 1897. Pp. xiv + 370. $3.00. Lessons With Plants. LL. H. BAtLEY. New York and London ; The Macmillan Company. 1898. Pp. xxxi+ 491. $1.10. SCIENCE EpirorraL CommittEe: S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. 8S. Woopwarp, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING, Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry; J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. Marsu, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks, C. Hart MERRIAM, Zoology; S. H. ScUDDER, Entomology; C. E. BrssEy, N. L. BRITTON, Botany; Henry F. OsBoRN, General Biology; C. S. Minot, Embryology, Histology; H. P. BownpitcH, Physiology; J. S. BILLINGs, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology. FRIDAY, JANUARY 21, 1898. CONTENTS: George H. Horn: PROFESSOR JOHN B. SMITH..... 73 Presentation of Professor Marsh’s Collections to Yale (ORROEPSH) soccooabadncdonoceseooapadocooHpaqdonosobdonosaK6a 77 Geological Society of America (II.): PROFESSOR a: 19), Ton GaaapsondononndceconsssshpncnecAbenancaadeacaces 79 Towa Academy of Sciences: PROFESSOR HERBERT (OST ROLE son ccacindoanosabnovssocnboedeodeepsapososaoosOSanI9000 85 Current Notes on Anthropology :— The Pre-mycenxan Culture; Contributions to the Study’ of the Stone Age: PROFESSOR D. G. BRIN- DOR cosoosannsooensonsadonsccoannp out OnooonDooDbEDEDSBHOGCDOCN 88 Notes on Inorganic Chemistry: J. L. H........ 9000000 89 Scientific Notes and News :— The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl ; The Establishment of the ‘ University Table’ at Naples ; General ..........-...5.-.+.---- University and Educational News Discussion and Correspondence :— A Proposed Addition to Physiographic Nomencla- ture: G.K. GILBERT. Harvard’s Meteorological Work on the West Coast of South America: R. DEC. WARD. The Crustacean Genus Scyllarides : Dr. THEO. GitL. Lamarck and the ‘ Perfecting Tendency’: PROFESSOR C. O. WHITMAN .......... 94 Scientific Literature :-— Lockyer on Recent and Coming Eclipses: W. H. WRIGHT. Lecent Mathematical Books: PRo- FESSOR FP. N. COLE........0 0.00... 00 ccceccccesesseeeenene 99 Societies and Academies :— Zoological Club of the University of Chicago: M. F. GUYER, DR. C. M. Cuiup, A. L. TREAD- WELL. New York Academy of Sciences, Section of Biology: GARY N. CALKINS. Torrey Botanical Club: EDWARD 8S. BURGESS. American Chemi- cal Society : DR. DURAND WOODMAN. Biological Society of Washington: F. A. LUCAS............. 104 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended tor review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y. GEORGE H. HORN. GEORGE Henry Horn was born in Phila- delphia, April 7, 1840, and died at Bees- ley’s Point, N. J., November 24,1897. He was stricken with apoplexy in December, 1896, resulting in hemiplegia, and thereafter passed most of the time, until his death, at or near the seashore. Dr. Horn received his preliminary edu- cation in the Jefferson Boys’ Grammar School, and from this entered the Central High School of Philadelphia, July, 1853. He graduated February 11, 1858, with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and received his Master’s degree from the same institu- tion in July, 1863. He entered the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania as a medical student soon after receiving his first degree from the High School, and received the degree of M. D. in 1861, his graduating thesis being on ‘ Sprains.’ The patriotic young physician enlisted in the U. 8S. Army in 1863 and received a commission as Assistant Surgeon, March Ist, of that year. He was first attached to the Second California Cavalry, Department of Pacific, until July 14th of the following year, then commissioned as Surgeon to the First California Infantry Volunteers, re- taining this position until the term of ser- vice of this regiment expired, December 3, 1864. He was again mustered into service May 22, 1865, as Assistant Surgeon of his old regiment, the Second California Cavalry, 74 and was commissioned as Surgeon of the Second California Infantry, September 23, 1865. His services terminated with that of the staff of his regiment, April 16, 1866. In the course of his service he spent some time in California, Arizona and New Mexico, in territory which was at that time almost unknown to collectors or students of Coleoptera, or, indeed, any order of insects. From the beginning Dr. Horn had been interested in natural history, and his tastes in this direction had been encouraged and stimulated by some of his teachers in the High School. The opportunity given by his service in these unknown territories was not neglected, and large collections of in- sects, principally Coleoptera, were made. In the course of his collecting he met with many ludicrous and some dangerous experi- ences; but he gradually interested many of the soldiers in his work, and some of the rarities in his collection were taken, accord- ing to his statements, by privates who picked them up and brought them to him. This was the most extensive field experi- ence gained by the doctor, and throughout his life he was always much more interested in the fauna of this particular territory than in that of any other. His familiarity with the region and the peculiar difficulties of collecting in it led him to attach unusual interest and value to specimens originating there, and, as a result, his collection was most complete for this particular fauna. Dr. Horn was naturally an original stu- dent, and began his work in Entomology in 1860, even before graduating from the Medical School. Yet his first paper was on Molluscs, not insects, though his first de- scriptions of new Coleoptera appeared only a few months later. On his return to Philadelphia he estab- lished himself as a physician, with an office at the then residence of his father, at the corner of Fourth and Poplar streets, and this office he retained until his death, al- SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 160. though for some time previously he had not been practicing. When he began work his father, Mr. Philip Horn, carried on business as a druggist, and back of the store the doc- tor had a little room for consultations. This also he retained long after the drug business had passed out of his father’s hands. The neighborhood in which the doctor settled was a populous one, and he soon be- gan tomake a specialty of the diseases of women and children, gradually acquiring a large obstetrical practice, and being often called in consultation in difficult or unusual - cases. Dr. Horn never married, and much of his time, when not actually engaged in the out- side business of his profession, was passed in a large room on the second floor, in which he had an iron bedstead, two or three chairs, a huge desk, a small table or two, and shelves and cabinets wherever there was room to place them. The desk, except for a small space near the middle of one side, wasalways piled with books, papers and specimens in boxes of all kinds. The chairs were piled with material of the same character; the shelves and cabinets were filled to over- flowing. When a visitor arrived whose entomological taste entitled him to admis- sion to this apartment he either sat on the bed, or a chair was cleared for his accommo- dation. Not unusually, the bed was more or less filled with books and papers, and everything was always in such condition that scientific work could be resumed at a moment’s notice whenever the doctor came in from a round of calls or had a few mo- ments to spare during office hours. A physi- cian in active practice does not have much time during the day, and in the special line in which Dr. Horn was engaged night calls are not infrequent; so that his hours of sleep were frequently more or less irregular and always scant. When no calls took him away he would work until midnight or long afterwards, over his collections. Almost JANUARY 21, 1898. ] as a necessary consequence of the constant readiness of his room for work, it was for- bidden to do any cleaning, except in the immediate vicinity of the bed. During the entire time that I was acquainted with Dr. Horn—and this was nearly eighteen years— I can remember no more than one occasion when the room had been actually swept and scrubbed in its entirety. When Dr. Horn began to give up active practice, several years ago, he ceased to sleep in this room, and it was not long before the bed was piled as high as the table with books, boxes and other literary or entomological material. For many years Dr. Horn seemed to have no interest in life outside of his profession and his scientific work in Celeoptera. His collections in this order increased enor- mously, as did his knowledge ; so that, even during the lifetime of Dr. Leconte, he was the man best acquainted with the structural characteristics of the North American Co- leoptera. It is almost impossible to speak of Dr. Horn without also referring to Dr. John L. Leconte, his fellow townsman, and for many years also his fellow worker in Coleoptera. Although at first there was some friction be- tween him and the younger man, who was very positive in many cases where the older, more experienced student was inclined to be conservative, yet the two men soon be- came firm friends, and so continued during their joint lives. The combination was use- ful to both. Dr. Leconte was, by all odds, the broader man ; his knowledge of nature at large was much wider, and he saw his specialty, the Coleoptera, much more truly in their relation to the other orders of in- sects, and this class in its relation to the rest of the animal kingdom. Dr. Horn was much more completely a specialist, with lit- tle interest outside of the Coleoptera, but in this knowledge of detail was infinitely greater, and the result of combining two such men appears in the Classification of the SCIENCE. 75 North American Coleoptera, which is their joint production. There is no other work which will compare with this in the amount of condensed strictly scientific, technical in- formation on this order of insects. Unfor- tunately, these characters, which render it so valuable to the advanced student, rather repel than attract the tyro. Dr. Horn was by nature an arranger of things. In his hands the most hopelessly mixed lot of specimens separated themselves naturally ; he found characters where none had been suspected, and his appreciation of the value of apparently immaterial or in- significant structures resulted in some of the most brilliant work that he did. He had an almost intuitive perception, which enabled him to arrange a large mass of spe- cies in a natural series. He had also the power of persistent and practical applica- tion, the ability to do continuous hard work, which enabled him to give a solid scientific foundation to the conclusions that he had reached. He had a facile pencil, which he used in illustrating his work. His pictures were by no means artistic, for that faculty was to a great extent lacking; but somehow his drawings, even when they were mere outlines, seemed to convey the information that he intended they should, so that his sketches were always a real help. It is difficult for one who is nota special- ist to appreciate the work that was accom- plished by Dr. Horn. Thenumber of titles of papers published by him is not especially large. It does not exceed 240, all but six entomological, and in these about one hun- dred and fifty new genera and about fifteen hundred and fifty new species were de- scribed. But this does not fairly express the work that was accomplished, because, by all odds, the greater part of Dr. Horn’s species and genera were described in con- nection with monographic work, so that while a paper might contain descriptions 76 of only one new genus or only a few new species it would yet contain descriptions of all the genera and all the species of a large group. He wrote few short papers and, as he never was an editor, was not compelled to supply ‘fillers.’ He believed in mono- graphie work covering considerable groups, or at least a large genus, and rarely wrote critical or review notes. He was by no means a diffuse writer, and his papers are models of brevity, and of clear, succinct statement. His descriptions of species and genera have never been excelled, and one is rarely left in doubt as to which species the doctor had before him when writing. His monographic and revisional papers are almost all built with the evolutionary idea constantly in mind. The preliminary di- visions are always made upon well defined structural characters, and around each type of structure its derivatives are grouped. His belief was that species are not isolated facts or productions, but that they are parts of a great scheme, which itis the work of the systematist to unravel. Species are the products of their surroundings, and each species consists of an aggregation of indi- viduals. No one specimen, to his mind, ever could represent a species. It required at least a male and a female, and a proper definition of a species is one that would in- clude also all the variations of both sexes; therefore, Dr. Horn never had a ‘type’ speci- men, because he did not admit that any in- dividual could be a type of a species. The species consists of a certain combination of characters; all the individuals containing this combination of characters are equally types of the species ; therefore, there was not anywhere in his collections any indi- vidual marked as a type of any species de- scribed by him. In fact, Dr. Horn never considered the individual; to him it was simply an evidence of the existence of a certain combination of structures, and no more. A well-known Coleopterist has com- SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VII. No. 160. pared Dr. Horn’s description of species to an excellent portrait whose likeness to the original is so great as to be recognizable at the first glance. While the most of the work done by Dr. Horn referred to the North American fauna, he was yet well acquainted with the general character of the Coleopterous fauna of the world at large, and in his most notable papers he considered our own species and genera in comparison with those of other countries. The two papers which effectually fixed his place in the first rank of workers in entomology were his ‘Genera of Carabide,’ published in 1881, and his paper on ‘The Silphide,’ printed in 1880. The first cited was the most brilliant of the two; the second re- quired much the more painstaking labor. Both of these have been accepted by all students of this order. Dr. Horn’s influence upon Coleptero- logical work in North America has been so great that almost all the present students are following his methods wherever they are doing similar work. He was a ‘ closet naturalist,’ a worker with dry specimens ; he never dealt with microtomes or sections, and considered life histories of subordinate importance, though necessary to a complete understanding of the insects in all cases. Nevertheless, his work will always stand as a contribution to knowledge, because it is original, accurate, and, with a vital mean- ing so far as it goes. It will stand the test of time and of critical examination in the future, for it is well done. His rank and standing were recognized in foreign countries, some of which he vis- ited several times to familiarize himself with their best collections, as well as in America. He was an honorary member of the Societié Entomologique de Belgique, of the Societé Entomologique de France, and of the Entomologischer Verein in Stettin ; an active member of the Societas Entomo- “JANUARY 21, 1898.] logica Rossica, and a corresponding mem- ber of most of the other foreign societies as well as of the k. k. Zodlogische-Botanische ‘Gesellschaft in Wien. He was an honorary member of most of the American entomo- logical societies, and a corresponding mem- ber of many other natural history societies throughout the country. From an early date he was connected with the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, where he held the office of Corresponding Secretary for fourteen years, and was amember of Council and of the Finance and Publication Committees for long periods of time. He wasalso a promi- nent member of the American Philoso- phical Society, in which he was Secretary and Librarian at the time of his death. In the American Entomological Society he was always a leading member, succeeding Dr. Le- conte as President in 1883, and he was also Director of the Entomological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences. In 1889 he was appointed professor of entomology at the University of Pennsylvania; but the position was a purely honorary one, and he did not teach or lecture. Personally he was a good friend and a genial companion. While not in any sense a ‘social’ man, he could at times relax completely and act as though no such sci- ence as entomology existed. It is more than probable that his intense and continu- ous application and the nervous tension induced by it contributed to his death. That the doctor himself realized that he was doing too much is proved by the fact that for several years he had gradually re- duced his active practice, and finally gave it up entirely, to spend a large portion of the summer at least at the seashore. But the mischief had been done and the final blow was only a little delayed. Entomological science can ill afford to Jose a man of his calibre! RUTGERS COLLEGE. JOHN B. Smite. SCIENCE. UE PRESENTATION OF PROFESSOR MARSH'S COLLECTIONS TO YALE UNIVERSITY. At the meeting of the Yale Corporation, held on the 13th inst., O. C. Marsh, Profes- sor cf Paleontology, formally presented to the University the valuable scientific col- lections belonging to him, now deposited in the Peabody Museum. These collections, six in number, are in many respects the most extensive and valuable of any in this country, and have been brought together by Professor Marsh at great labor and expense, during the last thirty years. The paleon- tological collections are well known, and were mainly secured by Professor Marsh during his explorations in the Rocky Mountains. They include most of the type specimens he has described in his various publications. The collection of osteology and that of American archeology are also extensive and of great interest. The pres- ent value of all these collections makes this the most important gift to natural science that Yale has yet received. At the same meeting the Yale Corpora- tion accepted Professor Marsh’s gift by a unanimous vote, and expressed their high appreciation of his generosity to the Uni- versity. Professor Marsh’s letter accompanying his deed of gift is essentially as follows: To the President and Fellows of Yale University. GENTLEMEN: It is thirty years and more since Mr. George Peabody established at Yale, by a gift of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, the Museum that now bears his name. This was in 1866, the year I began my work as Professor of Paleontology, and I secured this gift mainly with a view of building up a Department of Paleontology that should be a school of original research as well as one of instruction. The collections of natural history which I had thus brought together were subsequently deposited in the Peabody Museum, and from that time I have en- deavored in every way to increase these collections, so that at present they are in many respects the most extensive and valuable in this country. It has always been part of my plan that these scientific collections should eventually become the property of Yale University, and from the first I pro- 78 vided in my will for such a disposition of them. As it now seems probable that I may not be able to carry out my original intentions in regard to a Department of Paleontology at Yale, I have decided to present these collections to the University, subject only to certain conditions that appear necessary for their per- manent care and preservation. The deed of gift, which I herewith enclose, bears the date of January 1st, 1898. These various collections, now deposited in the Peabody Museum in New Haven, include six of special importance which may be briefly described as follows: (1) The Collection of Vertebrate Fossils. This is the most important and valuable of all, as it is very ex- tensive, contains a very large number of type speci- mens, many of them unique, and is widely known from the descriptions already published. Jn extinct Mammals, Birds and Reptiles, of North America, this series stands preéminent. This collection was pronounced by Huxley, who examined it with care in 1876, to be surpassed by no other in the world. Darwin, in 1878, expressed a strong desire to visit America for the sole purpose of seeing this collection. Since then it has been more than doubled in size and value, and still holds first rank. The bulk of this collection has been secured in my western explorations, which have extended over a period of nearly thirty years, during which I have crossed the Rocky Mountains twenty-seven times. (2) The Collection of Fossil Footprints. These speci- mens are mainly from the Connecticut Valley, and thus havea special local interest. They also form one of the most extensive and complete collections of the kind in this country, if not the most valuable of all. (3) Lhe Collection of Invertebrate Fossils. This in- cludes a large number of interesting specimens from many formations and localities, both in this country and in Europe. Some of these fossils I collected my- self, but the greater number were secured by pur- chase. Among the series of specimens especially val- uable may be mentioned several thousand from the famous Mazon Creek locality in Illinois ; a very exten- sive collection of Crinoids from Crawfordsville, in Indiana ; the largest collection of nearly entire Trilo- bites yet discovered, and one of the rarest series of Silurian Sponges known, including important type specimens. (4) The Collection of Recent Osteology. This is be- lieved to be the most complete collection in this country for purposes of study. I have made special efforts for many years to secure the skeletons of rare existing vertebrates from every part of the world, particularly of Mammals, Birds and Reptiles. The SCIENCE. (N.S. Vou. VII. No. 160. collection is rich in Anthropoid Apes, the Gorillas being represented by no less than thirteen individuals, and the other genera by rare characteristic specimens. (5) The Collection of American Archxology and Ethnology. This collection is the best in the country in several branches of the science, being particularly rich in Central American antiquities, several thousand specimens in number and many of them unique. Some of these I obtained myself in Central America, and among the others is the famous de Zeltner collec- tion, rich in gold ornaments, which I secured by pur- chase. The specimens from Mexico are also of great interest, and the series is a representative one. It in- cludes the well-known Skilton collection. (6) The Collection of Minerals. This is a limited collection, but contains many valuable specimens, among them probably the most interesting series- known of Nova Scotian Zeolites. These were mainly collected by myself, before I graduated at Yale, dur- ing six expeditions to Nova Scotia. The three principal collections in the above series, numbered 1, 4 and 5, have practically no other repre- sentatives at Yale, and hence their importance to this- institution. Besides the six main collections named, I have several others of less value, which include fossil plants, casts of fossils, geological specimens and re- cent zoological material. These, also, are deposited in the Peabody Museum, and are covered by the present deed of gift. * * * * * %* On learning of the acceptance of this gift on the part of the Corporation of Yale University, with the conditions stated in the accompanying deed, I will make the formal transfer to them of all the collec- tions above named. Very respectfully, O. C. MARSH. YALE UNIVERSITY, January 1, 1898. The conditions on which Professor Marsh gives his invaluable collections to Yale University, for the benefit of all depart- ments of the University, are few in num- ber, the more important being the follow- ing: (1) The scientific collections I now give to Yale University shall be kept in the present Peabody Museum building or in additions thereto equally safe from fire. (2) During my life, these collections shall remain, as now, under my supervision and control, available for my own investigation JANUARY 21, 1898. ] and description, or for the work of others designated by me. (8) At my decease, and forever after, these collections shall be under the charge of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum and their successors, and in the special custody of Curators recommended by them and appointed by the Corporation of Yale University. (4) The type specimens and others of special importance in these collections shall not be removed from the Museum building. Less valuable specimens, however, espe- cially duplicates, may be so removed by vote of the Trustees of the Museum. From a scientific point of view, the value of the collections now presented to Yale is beyond price, each one containing many specimens that can never be duplicated, and already of historical interest in the annals of science. Among the prominent features of one of these collections, that of extinct verte- brates, may be mentioned (1) the series of fossils illustrating the genealogy of the horse, as made out by Professor Marsh, and accepted by Huxley, who used it as the basis of his New York lectures ; (2) the Birds with teeth, nearly two hundred indi- viduals, described in Professor Marsh’s well-known monograph ‘ Odontornithes ;’ (3) the gigantic Dinocerata, several hun- dred in number, Hocene mammals de- scribed in his monograph on this group; (4) the Brontotheride, huge Miocene mam- mals, some two hundred in number; (5) Pterodactyles, or flying dragons, over six hundred in number; (6) the Mosasaurs, or Cretaceous sea-serpents, represented by more than fifteen hundred individuals; (7) a large number of Dinosaurian reptiles, some of gigantic size. Besides there are various other groups of Mammals, Birds and Reptiles, most of them including unique specimens. The resolutions of the Corporation of SCIENCE. 79 Yale University, accepting Professor Marsh’s gift, and showing their apprecia- tion of his services to the University, are given below: YALE UNIVERSITY, January 13, 1898. The President and Fellows having received a deed of gift from Professor Othniel C. Marsh, presenting to the University his very valuable collections now in the Peabody Museum, which represent the labor of many years on his part and also the expenditure of a large amount from his personal fortune, desire, as they accept the gift, to communicate to him and to place on record an expression of their grateful ac- knowledgment of his generosity. In this grateful acknowledgment they are confident that all the graduates and friends of Yale will unite, when they learn of this most recent manifestation of his long-continued interest in the University, even as they already fully appreciate the unselfish devotion of his time, his talents and his energies, for more than thirty years, to the scientific researches which have given him such personal distinction and have brought such renown to the institution. TimoTHyY DwiIGcHt, President. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. If. Note on Lepidophloios Cliftonensis. Sin W1- LIAM Dawson, Montreal, Canada. In the Bulletin of this Society for May, 1891, appeared a paper by the author on ‘Fossils from the Carboniferous of New- foundland,’ including new species of Lepido- dendron (L. Murrayanium). In connection with this species I noticed what seemed a closely allied form from New Brunswick, which I had named L. Cliftonense. Later studies of this species have shown me that it should should rather be placed in the allied genus Lepidophloios. I haveso placed it in a more recent paper on the genus in the present year. It should, therefore, be named Lepidophloios Cliftonensis, but is one of the species of that genus nearest to Lepi- dodendron, and especially to my L. Murray- anium and to L. Wortheni, of Lesquereux, as I have already stated in the paper to which this note is an addendum and erratum. 80 The paper was read by the Secretary. In discussion David White referred to Sir William’s long service in paleobotany, he having begun the study of fossil plants in 1848, at the same time with Ettingshausen and Geinitz. Omphalophloios, a New Lepidodendroid Type. Davip WGHITE. Mr. White described a Lepidodendron trunk that had been found in the Des Moines series (Lower Carboniferous), at Clinton, Mo. After a review of the forms of the common leaf-scars on Lepidodendrons and an explanation of their functions so far as understood, the peculiar features of the one in question were outlined. The paper requires cuts to make these clear. It was discussed by H. L. Fairchild. The Mastodon in Western Ontario. AMI. Mr. Ami described the exhuming of two mastodons in Ontario, one in Essex county, north of the west end of Lake Hrie, and one in Norfolk county, at the east end of the same lake. In the former case the sec- tion of six to eight feet that was dug up involved the following from below upward, at the bottom clay and boulders; then gravel, the bones, sand and shell marl, sand and peat, gray sand, sand and ochre yellow sand. The remains were fragmen- tary. In Norfolk county the pit was three to four and one-half feet ; at the base was clay; then shell marl, mottled sand, gray sand and peat. The skull extended from the clay through the others. In addition, 25 ribs, 40 feet-bones, 2 tusks and many vertebrae were recovered. In the peat deer-bones and arrow-heads were found- H. M. Mastodon and Mammoth Remains found near Hudson Bay. Rozert Berth, Ottawa, Canada. The paper gave an account (1) of the discovery of some mastodon bones in 1877, near the junction of the Mattagomi and SCIENCE. [N. 8. Von. VII. No. 160. Missinaibi Rivers, to form the Moose River in the southern part of the basin of Hudson Bay, and described the superficial deposits in that region; and (2) of the finding of a peculiarly small mammoth’s tooth on Long island, off the Eastmain coast of Hudson Bay. It discussed the question of the specific identity of this small northern mammoth with the common species of more southern latitudes in North America. The first mentioned specimen was dis- covered by an Indian, who chopped out a tooth from a skull lying in the river and then left the latter. The speaker passed the spot at high-water and could not secure the bones. The other was found on the bare rock. - Fossil-like Forms in the Sault Ste. Marie Sand- stone. Rosrert Beti, Ottawa, Canada. In the bottom of the pit which was ex- cavated in the sandstone for the canal lock on the south side of the Sault Ste. Marie, in 1891, a bed was found covered with very distinct markings, which in some respects resemble large plant remains, but they are probably casts of desiccation cracks. The author’s remarks were illustrated by photo- graphs, of four large specimens. The re- mains were surprisingly like fossils, but all present agreed with the speaker in their in- terpretation. Syenite-porphyry Dikes in the Adirondack Re- gion. Henry P. Cusnine, Cleveland, O. Recent field work in Clinton county, N. Y., has shown the existence of dikes be- longing to the syenite-trachyte family of eruptive rocks, which are of different age from the bostonites described by Kemp and Marsters from the near vicinity. They are older than the Potsdam sandstone, as they have furnished pebbles to its basal con- glomerate. On the other hand, the older rocks of the region were metamorphosed before their extrusion. Together with the associated diabases they show great resem- JANUARY 21, 1898. ] blance to the Keweenawan eruptives of the Lake Superior region. They possess con- siderable petrographical interest. Analyses which were given showed them to be rich in soda and of a composition that would lead one to infer the presence of nephe- line, yet none could be detected by chemical or optical tests. The rocks attracted much interest from the petrographers present. In discussion J. F. Kemp outlined briefly the area in the Champlain Valley in which the smaller dikes were found, stating that they practically ceased near Ticonderoga and were not known in the southwestern Adirondacks. J. P. Iddings mentioned the difficulty of giving an expressive name to the rocks and the curious position that they occupied. Clastic Huronian Rocks of Western Ontario, and the Relation of Huronian to Laurentian. A. P. Coteman, Toronto, Canada. The speaker had been led to observe and study the rocks in question while reporting on the gold districts north of Lake Superior for the Ontario government. He reviewed the work of Lawson, H. L. Smyth and others in connection with maps, and de- seribed especially the clastic rocks. The distribution of the Conchiching around dome-like areas of the Laurentian crystal- lines, he suggested, could be perhaps ex- plained by dome-like upheavals or bulgings of the latter, the domes being located where the overlying burden of sediments was thin- nest. It was suggested that the same ex- planation might be applied to mountains elsewhere. In discussion Robert Bell reviewed the early work of the pioneer observers in the region, and differed from Professor Cole- man in his interpretation. G. O. Smith stated that many contacts in the Huronian regions on the south were obscure, but that others were very plain and showed a basal conglomerate resting on the ancient granite. SCIENCE. 81 G. M. Dawson spoke of the importance and difficulty of discriminating between an in- truded batholite and a supporting basement of older granite. A. E. Barlow briefly de- scribed the breccias, gray wackes, quartzites and conglomerates on Lake Temiscaming, and insisted that Laurentian was now only a petrographical and not a time-term. In closing the discussion Dr. Coleman replied ina few words to the remarks that had been made. The Grading of Mountain Slopes. Davis, Cambridge, Mass. With the lantern Professor Davis threw on the screen a series of views of slopes in various mountain ranges and from areas of other topographic forms and brought out the idea that, unless sapping or some other undermining action is in progress, the sur- face reaches a slope or grade that expresses the balance established between the weath- ering forces and the resistance of the ma- terials. This feature is quite pronounced and characteristic and is described by speaking of the slopes as ‘graded.’ The grades differ according to the materials in- volved, and the evenness of the ‘ grade’ is largely a function of the time of exposure. The Harvard Geographical Models. W. M. Davis, Cambridge, Mass. The Harvard Geographical Models, de- signed by the author and constructed by Mr. G. C. Curtis, have been prepared for the purpose of giving systematic illustra- tion of a number of geographical forms in their genetic relationship. Three of the series were described and exhibited by means of lantern slides. They represent a mountainous region descending to the sea ; the same after depresssion, whereby the shore-line has become very irregular; the same after elevation, whereby a coastal plain has been added to the land area. The Society then adjourned until the fol- lowing day. In the evening a reception 82 was tendered the Fellows by Mrs. J. B. Porter and Mrs. F. D. Adams in the new McDonald mining laboratories of the Uni- versity. Many of the faculty families and their friends in the city gathered to welcome the Fellows and a most enjoyable evening was passed. Everything that cordial hos- pitality could suggest was done for the vis- itors. The spacious laboratories and their elaborate equipment with machinery of actual working size excited everyone’s ad- miration and should assist in an important way in developing the University and the Dominion. On reassembling Thursday morning, at 10 a.m., the reading of papers was resumed. Nodular Granite from Pine Lake, Ontario. Frank D. ApaAms, Montreal, Canada. The paper described a granite from a re- cently surveyed portion of the Province of Ontario which in places contains an abun- dance of nodules scattered through it. These nodules differ in a marked manner from any of those occurring in the hitherto described nodular granites, among other things in being more acid in composition than the rock itself. They are frequently found to be arranged in long lines which, when followed up, coalesce into sheets hav- ing all the characters which are commonly presented by secondary quartzose veins. The phenomenon evidently results from a process of differentiation in the original magma and has an intimate bearing on the question of the origin of ‘ Contemporaneous Veins.’ Chemical Composition of the Granite from Pine Lake, Ontario. Nevin N. Evans, Mon- treal, Canada. The analyses as given below proved that the cores of the nodules were more acid _ than the rims, a relation the reverse of that met elsewhere. J. P. Iddings compared these nodules with spherulites in obsidian, and Whitman SCIENCE. [N. S. Vox. VII. No. 160. Cross brought out the lack of correpond- ence between them and the spherulitic phe- nomena with which he had become familiar. J. F. Kemp emphasized the contrasts with Craftsbury, Vt., ‘prune’ granite and the orbicular granite at Quonochontogue, R. I. Nodule. Normal Granite. POSS Peiececes sascesseces 0.92 0.32 NiO acskcccsctascoseoees 81.43 78.83 MAUS Om ccc scciesccuse sess 13.70 10.88 ESO seats sees dectsaiess 1.58 1.63 Cais eecesedureuun ets 0.37 0.22 IMG O isciecceetac. aentes 0.06 0.35 Kis Obsacesacehnnschcaverss 1.28 5.31 INE 0 esaneseceicepenosseen 1.02 2.13 100.36 99.67 Experiments on the Flow of Rocks now being made at McGill University. FRANK D. Apams and Joun T. Nicnorson, Montreal, Canada. The paper was presented by Dr. Adams and was illustrated by the lantern, by speci- mens of the results attained, and by a sub- sequent visit to the shops to see the machine. The authors have constructed a special crushing machine, much like the usual testing apparatus of engineering labo- ratories. Their object has been to subject cylinders of various rocks to pressures far above their crushing resistance, yet to con- fine them so that they could not shatter. After many unsuccessful trials of materials, strips ofsoft Swedish sheet iron were wrapped around a core of mild steel and welded to- gether. The core was then bored out, the hole carefully polished and given a taper of one in a thousand. These cylinders were about 34-4 inches high and were turned down in the outer middle part so as to local- ize any bulging under pressure to this portion. They, therefore, looked like large spools, with thick ends. Cylinders of Carrara marble had meantime been pre- pared in Germany of the same taper as the holes and of such a size that, when the spools were heated and expanded, JANUARY 21, 1898. ] the cylinders dropped snugly in and were caught midway of thespool. The cylinders of marble were about two centimeters in diameter. Chrome-steel plungers were em- ployed in the squeeze, and fitted perfectly in the spools. By using the city water mains, which give at the University a pressure of 135 pounds to the square inch, oil was forced in beneath the piston of the press, and cylinder pressure gauges and a recording curve-tracing mechanism were connected. The blocks were grad- ually compressed until subjected to thirty tons’ pressure. Under this squeeze the marble cylinder bulged at the middle, expanded its iron jacket and approxima- ted a thick disc. When released it was found that it had flowed without losing its cohesion at all. When split down the ver- tical axis the cross section revealed two ‘opposing paraboloids, or blunt cones of un- changed marble, filled in between with a dense, chalky variety, but all perfectly solid. Thin sections show a great abundance of twinning striations and gliding planes and evidences of strain. Cylinders of Baveno granite are now ready for experimentation, but have not yet been compressed. Peat has, however, been compressed into a black, shining and lustrous substance, very like high-grade lignite or coal, a result similar to that obtained abroad. Copper filings have been compacted also to solid metal. A further apparatus has been designed so that superheated steam can be introduced into the test, which can be kept at 500° F., for months at a stretch, while the compres- sion is progressing, the gauges and recorder meantime registering the pressure at all times. Dr. Adams stated that two and .a-halfyears had been spent in experimenting and six months in getting results. The Fellows were outspoken in their praise of this work, and it was felt by all to be one of the most important contribu- ‘tions ever laid before the Society. It brings SCIENCE. 83 within the domain of experiment some of the obscure proceses of dynamic metamor- phism and throws great light on the viscous flow of rocks. The Geological versus the Petrographical Classi- fication of Igneous Rocks. Wuirman Cross, Washington, D. C. In this paper the aim was to show that much of the confusion in existing schemes for the classification of igneous rocks arises from wrong ideas as to the relations of petrography to geology. Suggestions were made which it is hoped will be useful both to the geologist and to the petrographer. Dr. Cross presented a very thorough and philosophic review of the vexed question of nomenclature and classification. The dis- tinction was made between petrography, the descriptive part of the subject, and petrology, the discussion of the at present more or less hypothetical or theoretical views regarding the splitting and variations of magmas, ete. Although no actual scheme was suggested, the general bearing of the paper tended toward the development of one that should give widespread satisfac- tion. In discussion J. F. Kemp emphasized the importance of having the larger groups of a petrographical scheme, ones that can be used by the student, the mining engineer and by others engaged with rocks, whereas the finer determinations under these gen- eral, working groups might be left to the specialist. Such groups must depend solely on mineralogy and texture. On the Classification of Igneous Rocks. P. Ippres, Chicago, Ill. The paper involved a discussion of some general principles of classification with special reference to the chemical composi- tion of rocks. The point of greatest inter- est in the paper was the extremely signifi- cant charts that Professor Iddings had prepared on the basis of over 900 analyses. Jos. 84 The ratios of the molecular equivalents of the alkalies to the silica were used as the ordinates, by which the dot indicating the particular analysis was located on the chart, while the actual silica percentages were employed as the abscissas. Very interest- ing and suggestive groupings of rocks re- sulted, and charts were shown that ex- hibited in a graphic way many peculiar points of composition. Adjournment was then had for lunch. On re-assembling after lunch the following papers were read : « Concentric Weathering in Sedimentary Rocks. T. C. Hopkins, State College, Pa.; read by G. O. Smith. The paper was a brief explanation of four photographs showing concentric structure in shale and fire-clay beds in western Penn- sylvania. In some places they show a double concentric structure; one on a large scale, starting from the joint planes and re- sembling exfoliation ; another on a smaller scale, showing flattened concretions of vary- ing sizes. New Geothermal Data from South Dakota, ete. N. H. Darron, Washington, D. C.; read by W. B. Scott. By means of two large scale maps of South Dakota the curious variations in the temperature of the water from the artesian wells of the region were shown. All are warm, but the temperatures differ. Assuming that the temperature of the water indicates the temperature of the rock stratum that yields it, and using this in connection with the depth of the well and the mean annual temperature at the sur- face, very high rates of increase in depth are shown. They vary from an extreme of 18 feet for 1° F. west of the Missouri river to 35 feet for 1° F. at the last point re- corded in eastern South Dakota. Belts were marked off according to the gradients 20-25 feet, 25-30 feet and 30-35 feet per SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 160. degree. This developed a long, narrow east and west belt of relatively low gradi- ent, projecting westward into the areas of higher gradient, and corresponding to the nearness to the surface of one of the lower geological formations. The maps are, how- ever, necessary to make the relations clear. Note on an Area of Compressed Structure in Western Indiana. GrorcE H. ASHLEY. This paper was read by J. J. Stevenson. It emphasized the great lack of any evi- dences of disturbance throughout Indiana, as the geology of the State presents remark- able regularity of strata. Recently, how- ever, the author had found near Asherville, . in the block coal region, a great number of small faults, some even reversed, and cited them as evidence of local compression. Niagara Gorge and St. David’s Channel. WARREN Upuam, St. Paul, Minn.; read by T. C. Chamberlin. Having recently again examined the Niagara falls and gorge, with especial ref- erence to the older channel of St. David’s, the author believes that a most important element in the history of the gorge erosion has been overlooked by some observers, and that by others its evidences have been misunderstood. This paper shows that the small preglacial stream which eroded the St. David’s and Whirlpool channels, having a great depth beneath the river in the Whirlpool, must have flowed for a consider- able distance, before reaching that depth, ina gradually widening and deepening ravine, coinciding with the present gorge along the Whirlpool rapids. Because the Niagara River found there a drift-filled narrow ravine, which is cué to the present size of the gorge, its erosion took place in that part by rapids and cascades. South- ward from the head of the old ravine the river has eroded its gorge by a great verti- cal cataract, under which the masses of the Niagara limestone, rolled about by the JANUARY 21, 1898. ] power of the waterfall, have worn the river bed to a maximum depth of nearly 200 feet beneath the water surface. The narrowness of the gorge along the Whirlpool rapids is therefore attributed to the conditions of the river erosion here in- dicated, rather than to decrease of the vol- ume of the river by diversion of the water of the upper lakes to flow from Lake Huron eastward. Studies of the glacial Lake Agassiz convince the author that the prog- ress of the epeirogenic uplift of the north- ern United States and Canada from the Champlain depression was too rapid to ac- cord with the hypothesis of any outflow from Lake Huron toward the east during the long time that would be required for the Niagara River, while thus diminished, to erode the gorge along the Whirlpool rapids. The explanation here given ac- cords mainly with Dr. Julius Pohlman’s discussion of the Niagara history, but dif- fers concerning the age of the river and of postglacial time, which is estimated, as from Professor N. H. Winchell’s discussion of the Falls of St. Anthony, to have been between 5,000 and 10,000 years. The Princeton Expedition to Patagonia. W. B. Scorr. Professor Scott gave an outline of the remarkably rich finds made by the Prince- ton expedition, whose gatherings already amount to 20 tons and include 1,000 skulls. Mr. Hatcher is again on the ground and will remain three years. The results at present reached show that much revision is necessary of the Argentine stratigraphy as at present published. The lowest beds ex- amined, constituting the Patagonian a ma- rine formation, are Oligocene or lowest Miocene and are equivalent to the Miocene of New Zealand. The overlying Santa Cruz beds of volcanic ash, possibly lacustrine, are not older than the middle Miocene. The upper series or Cape Fairweather beds SCIENCE. 85 are Pliocene. All the fossils are in great contrast with those of North America, and the investigator finds himself in a new world. They show foreshadowings of the present South American types. Notwith- standing the incomplete stage of the in- vestigation, many details were given by the speaker which were of the greatest in- terest to the Society. The following papers were read by title : Location and Form of a Drumlin at Barre Falls, Mass. Wri~1am H. Nriuxs. Drift Phenomena of the Puget Sound Basin. BatLtey WILLIS. Notes on the Geology of the Rocky Mountains of Montana. Watter H. Weep. Weathering of Alnoite in Manheim, N. Y. C. H. Suytu, Jr. On the Occurrence of Corundum in North Hastings, Ont. A. E. Bartow. The regular business of the meeting being concluded, the Society passed resolutions of thanks for the extremely hospitable recep- tion that it had received from the resi- dent Fellows, especially Professors Adams and Porter, and from the authorities of McGill, and then adjourned. In the even- ing the usual banquet was held in the Windsor Hotel and proved a very enjoyable conclusion of the exercises of the week. All the visitors were greatly impressed by the new buildings and fine laboratories of McGill,?and repeatedly expressed their ap- preciation and admiration for the gifts of Mr. McDonald, who has been largely re- sponsible for the recent expansion. The advance of one university is a stimulus and . an encouragement for all. J. F. Kemp. CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Tue twelfth annual session of the Iowa Academy of Sciences was held on Decem- ber 27 and 28, 1897, with Professor T. H. 86 Macbride, of the State University, pre- siding. A goodly number of scientific workers of Iowa and adjoining States were present, among them Professor J. E. Todd, State Geologist of South Dakota; Mr. Frank Leverett, of the United States Geological Survey ; Charles R. Keyes, former Assistant State Geologist of Iowa and later State Ge- ologist of Missouri ; Professor F. W. Sarde- son, of the State University of Minnesota ; Professors Calvin and Shimek, of the State University ; Professors Weems, Osborn and Ball, of the State College at Ames; Profes- sors Page, Arey, Newton and Mortland, of the State Normal School, Cedar Falls; Mr. R. I. Cratty, of Armstrong ; Professor T. M. Blakeslee, of Des Moines College; J. L. Tilton, Indianola; L. §. Ross, Des Moines ; W.S. Hendrixson, Grinnell, and others. ‘Some Geometrical Generalizations,’ by T. M. Blakeslee, was a discussion of a method whereby a number of geometrical theories could be put under one, itself a special case of a more general proposition, and hence more easily proven. In the absence of Professors Combs and Pammel, papers on ‘ Comparative Histology of Corn Leaves” and ‘Comparative Anat- omy of the Fruit of Corn’ were presented in summary by Professor C. R. Ball. The study was undertaken to determine, if pos- sible, variations of structure that could be used in selection of varieties specially adapted to Iowa climate. “Occurrence of Termes flavipes in Iowa,’ by Herbert Osborn, noted the observation of the white ant, so common in Southern States, at LeClaire. In a paper by Professor C. C. Nutting, ‘Do the Lower Animals Reason?’ the ground was taken that this faculty exists among lower members of the animal king- dom. In the discussion following the read- ing a number of instances supporting the views advanced in the paper were cited by different members. SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 160. Professor Herbert Osborn, in a paper, ‘ Additions to the List of lowa Hemiptera,’ enumerated ninety-seven species that had been hitherto unrecorded. Some of them were new to science, and two species that present striking mimicry and dimorphism were described in detail. The same author, in ‘ Coccide Occuring in Iowa,’ discussed the species of scale in- sects observed in the State, giving charac- teristics by which they might be recognized and calling special attention to the proba- bility of introduction of the San José Scale, the means by which it is distributed, and the necessity for prompt recognition should ~ it appear. ‘The Hemipterous Fauna of Northwest- ern Iowa,’ by the same author, presented results of a collecting trip in the northwest- ern counties and showing the occurrence in this area of species which belong properly to the plains of Nebraska and the Dakotas ; also, some forms that occur normally in more southern localities, but seem to follow up the Missouri river ; still others that are boreal in distribution, but that occur in the northwestern corner, ana, so far as known, only in that part of Iowa. The President’s address, by Professor T. H. Macbride, of the State University, began with an interesting review of scientific work of the year past. Especial mention was made of the contributions by Iowa scientific workers, members of the Academy. This was followed by a prophetic outlook on the work thatlies before Iowa scientific workers, the speaker giving unqualified commenda- tion to those researches which result in practical value to mankind. Professor B. Shimek read a paper on the ‘Flora of the Sioux Quartzite in Iowa.’ The researches presented, which form a continuation of those prosecuted in former years, resulted in the addition of a number of species. A comparison was drawn be- tween conditions existing in June and JANUARY 21, 1898. | August, and the meeting of Eastern and Western flora in this region were dis- cussed. Professor T. H. Macbride read a paper on ‘The Myxomycetes of the Black Hills.’ These minute and interesting organisms which thrive in moist climates exist here under conditions that would seem very unfavorable. They are, however, much dwarfed as compared with those occurring in most localities in eastern Iowa, and, while affording an abundant variety, are such as would be recognized anywhere as very peculiar and poor. “Tdiocerus and Pediopsis,’ by Herbert Os- born and E. D. Ball, included a discussion of generic affinities and species occurring in North America. Some of the species are abundant on various trees and of economic importance. : Papers by Professor Fitzpatrick on ‘ The Flora of Northeastern Iowa’ and ‘The Flora of Southern Iowa’ were read by title. What proved to be a very spirited discus- sion on the formation of the loess of the western part of the State and other portions of Iowa was opened by the paper of Profes- sor B. Shimek on ‘Is the Loess of Aqueous Origin ?’ followed by one on ‘ The Degrada- tion of the Loess,’ by Professor J. E. Todd, State Geologist of South Dakota. Professor Shimek presented a vast array of evidence, mainly from the occurrence and distribu- tion of the mollusea, to support his view that parts at least of this formation could not have been deposited in water. The facts presented had been gathered with the greatest care, and the evidence most thoroughly sifted so that the conclusions must command wide attention. Professor Todd presented numerous cases where the loess material gave evidence of creeping and ravining, and the formation of secondary deposits in which the determina- tion of fossils became difficult. Dr. C. R. Keyes presented a paper on SCIENCE. 87 ‘The Carboniferous Formation of the Ozark Region,’ embracing results of recent work and a statement of equivalent formations for different parts of the area. Professor Calvin, in a paper on ‘Some Anomalous Valleys and Paradoxical Di- vides in Delaware County, Iowa,’ called attention tothe peculiar habit, noted in the eastern part of the State, of streams turning aside from low plains to follow chasms cut in highlands that rise from forty to fifty feet above the plains from which the stream turned aside. One of the most interesting features was a symposium on interglacial formations in Iowa, and participated in by Messrs. Cal- vin, Leverett, Bain, Udden and Fitzpatrick. Professor Calvin opened with a discussion of the ‘ Interglacial Deposits of Northeast- ern Iowa,’ describing the forest beds and gravel formations and discussing the sig- nificance of the gravels and the availability of the term Buchanan as a name for an interglacial stage. In papers on ‘The Weathered Zone (Sangamon) between the Iowan Loess and the Illinoisan Till Sheet ’ and ‘ The Weath- ered Zone (Yarmouth) between the Illi- noisan and Kansan Till Sheets,’ Mr. Lev- erett discussed the characteristics of the deposits and proposed names for each soil horizon. Mr. Bain considered ‘The Afto- nian Deposits of Southwestern Iowa,’ loca- ting typical exposures and presenting evi- dence to show that in southwestern Iowa there are cases of a drift sheet of unknown extent earlier than the Kansan and sepa- rated from it by an interval of unknown but considerable length. It is believed to represent one of the theoretical earlier and minor advances of the ice. The paper by J. A. Udden, on ‘ Preglacial Peat Beds,’ was a consideration of the peat beds and soils under all the drift and upon the rock surface. Professor T. J. Fitzpatrick discussed ‘The 88 Drift Section and Glacial Strize in the Vi- cinity of Lamoni.’ The facts brought together in this sym- posium serve to clear up a number of de- bated questions relating to the glacial and interglacial deposits in Iowa, and must serve as a most substantial basis for any further studies of this interesting and im- portant subject. The following papers read by title were referred to the aoe for publication in the Proceedings : L. H. Pammel, J. R. Bann and Hanna Thomas, ‘ Comparative Study of Berberida- cece L. H. Pammel, ‘ Notes on Fungi in Iowa for 1896-7.’ G. W. Carver, ‘Notes on Fungi in Iowa for 1895-6.’ This meeting of the Academy was one of the best attended and most interesting in its history. Its next annual meeting will be held in December, 1898. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, Professor T. H. Macbride, Iowa City; First Vice-Presi- dent, Professor B. Fink, Fayette; Second Vice-President, Professor M. F’. Arey, Cedar Falls; Secretary-Treasurer, Herbert Os- born, Ames ; elective members of Executive Committee, Professors S. W. Beyer, Ames ; A. C. Page, Cedar Falls; and W. H. Nor- ton, Mt. Vernon. HERBERT OSBORN. Secretary. CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY. THE PRE-MYCENEAN CULTURE. A score of years ago the early history of Greece was bounded by a Homeric fog, a thousand years or so B. C. Then came the brilliant researches of Schliemann at Hissarlik, Tiryns and Mycene, and the fog lifted to reveal the vivid and potent Myce- nean culture at its acme, about 1500 B. C. SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 160. Now, once more, the clouds have rolled away, and investigations on the islands of the Archipelago and the mainland of Greece have disclosed to us, with abundant clear- ness, the ‘ pre-Mycenzean’ culture, extend- ing from about 2000 to 3000 B. C. It is simple and rude, that of the Grecian folk before they had been touched by the Promethean fire which transformed them to the noblest artists of all time. The statues of stone are misshapen and incom- plete; the pottery is generally coarse, and it is doubtful if its moulders knew the pot- ter’s wheel; its decoration is in lines and spirals only, animal figures being unknown; neither the sword nor gold had yet been dis- covered; tattooing was common; and the general condition was that of barbarism. A full, well illustrated and instructive article on this culture is that of C. Blink- enberg, in the Memoires de la Société Roy- ale des Antiquaires du Nord, 1896. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF THE STONE AGE. Proressor Enrico H. Gierioxt, of Flor- ence, has recently published a number of in- teresting papers bearing on the industries of the stone age in various parts of the world. In one he describes, from an unpublished MS., the stone age in New Caledonia as it now exists. It is in the neolithic stage, but the period is not far distant when it emerged from paleolithic types. Another article describes various stone implements still in use among the tribes of the Rio Napo, in South America. They are princi- pally axes of various sizes and forms. Again, from Melaneria, he figures and de- scribes the formidable maces of the natives of New Britain, made of hard wood, the end armed with a perforated stone, sphe- roidal in shape. Finally, in a note with sev- eral illustrations, he explains the use of the stone-armed threshing machine still a com- mon implement’in Tunisia. These and JANUARY 21, 1898. ] other articles by Professor Giglioli are pub- lished in the Archivio per lV Antropologia e L Etnologia, Florence. D. G. BRINTON. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. NOTES ON INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. In the Comptes Rendus the question of the identity of argon with nitrogen is taken up by H. Wilde, and the description given of an attempt to convert the spectrum of the one into that of the other. At a pres- sure of one millimeter and temperature of —76° the electric spark was passed through nitrogen for eight hours, but the spectrum remained unchanged. A negative result was also obtained when a strong spark was passed for eighteen hours through nitrogen at a pressure of twenty atmospheres. The spectrum of argon also remained unchanged by the passage of the spark at a pressure of three millimeters ata temperature of —76°. Tue work of Moissan on the metallic car- bids and silicids has now been carried out, in ‘conjunction with P. Williams, on the borids of the alkaline earths. Calcium borate, aluminum and carbon are heated together in the electric furnace. Calcium borid is obtained as a fine black powder which under the microscope consists of transpar- ent, yellow, cubic crystals. They scratch the ruby, and are fusible at the temperature of the electric furnace. The crystals do not burn in the air until heated to redness ; fluorin attacks them in the cold, chlorin at a red heat; hydrogen is without action at this temperature. Water is without action upon the crystals until a temperature of 1000° is reached. The fused borid is, how- ever, acted upon by water with evolution of hydrogen. The borid has the formula ‘CaB,, but there seems to be a less stable borid with a smaller proportion of boron. The strontium and barium borids are simi- larly formed and possess analogous formu- lee and properties. The borids of the alka- SCIENCE. 89 line earths thus do not fall in the same class with the carbids and silicids. Proressor MicHae.is, of the University of Rostock, has published, in the last Be- richte, the description of a considerable number of organic compounds of selenium, tellurium, antimony and bismuth. The tetrachlorids of selenium and _ tellurium unite with aromatic ethers, phenoles and ketones, giving products in which two atoms of chlorin are replaced by the organic rad- ical. When the dichlorid of selenium is used, both chlorin atoms are replaced. The close analogy between selenium and tellu- rium is shown in these compounds. With antimony chlorid, anisol and phenetol re- act in benzene solution only in the presence of metallic sodium. Compounds of antimony with three and two anisyl groups are de- seribed, as well as a number of addition products in which the antimony is quinti- valent. Analogous bismuth compounds are similarly formed. The whole work forms a valuable contribution to the relatively little known field of the compounds of or- ganic radicals with the elements of higher atomic weight. In the above number of the Berichte, Mel- ikoff and Pissarjewsky discuss the constitu- tion of the salts of peruranic acid, which have been previously studied by Fairley. They consider the salts to have the formula (R,0,),UO,, and to be compounds of the metallic peroxids with uranium tetroxid. By treatment with aluminum hydroxid they succeed in actually decomposing the salts into the peroxids and UO,. GerorG Bere has added to the number of “complex acids’ a compound of titanic acid with malic acid. As described in the Zeit- schrift fiir anorganische Chemie it has the for- mula 2TiO,.C,H,0,, 6H,O and crystallizes in’ minute white prisms. When ammonia is led over it, three molecules of the water of crystallization are replaced by ammonia, 90 giving another instance of the chemical re- semblance between H,O and NH,. In the Z. Ver. Riibenzucker- Industrie, A. Herzfeld has a series of articles on lime (CaO) and its compounds. They refer largely to experiments carried out in a fur- nace of special construction for the purpose of solving the chemistry of lime making. Among other conclusions reached, we note that in the presence of superheated steam the complete burning of lime takes place at 900° lower than in air; that water will ex- pel the carbon dioxid from all its com- pounds at 800°; and that the overburning of lime is occasioned almost exclusively by the presence of silica. A new locality for Chili saltpeter has been discovered, according to H. Thoms, in the Journal fiir Landwirtschaft, in southwest Africa in the Kharas Mts. and on the Orange River. The mineral, known locally as Klipzweet, or Boomester, appears as an efflorescence on the rocks, and is used by the natives as a valuable remedy for many ills. Analysis shows it to contain chiefly sodium and potassium nitrates and chlorids, about three parts of sodium to one of potassium, and four parts of nitrate to one of chlorid; it may thus be considered to be an impure Chili saltpeter. No par- ticulars are given as to its abundance, or possible economic importance. J. L. H. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS. THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY AT WOODS HOLL. THE winter meeting of the Trustees of the Marine Biological Laboratory was held in Boardman Hall, Cornell University, upon De- cember 30th. Twelve members of the Board were present, including the President, Profes- sor Osborn, of Columbia; the Secretary, Pro- fessor Bumpus, of Brown; Chairman of the Executive Committee, Dr. E. G. Gardiner, of Boston ; Professor Clarke, of Williams ; Profes- SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 160. sor Macfarlane, of Pennsylvania; Professor Penhallow, of McGill; Professor Metcalf, of Baltimore; Professor Patten, of Dartmouth; Professor Morgan, of Bryn Mawr; Professor Peck, of Williams; Professor Wilson, of Co- lumbia; Professor Trelease, of St. Louis. Pro- fessor Conklin, of the University of Pennsyl-- vania, was present at the preliminary confer- ence held on Tuesday evening. The Secretary reported that the Laboratory Prospectus for the summer session of 1898 had been prepared by the Director and was ready for distribution. This prospectus for the eleventh session of the Laboratory provides. for the representation of nearly all the univer- sities of the country in the corps of lecturers. and instructors. Investigation in Zoology will be under the direction of Professors Ayers, Bumpus, Conklin, McMurrich, Metcalf, Morgan and Morrill. The embryological course will be under the direction of Dr. F. R. Lillie, of Michigan, assisted by Messrs. Strong, Cramp- ton, Treadwell and Professor Clapp. The course in Anatomy will be under the direction of Professor Peck, of Williams, assisted by Messrs. Dahlgren, Greene, Lefevre, Murbach,,. Packard and Waite. The course in Physiology will be under the direction of Professor Loeb, of Chicago, assisted by Messrs. Norman and Lyon. The course in Botany will be under the- direction of Professor Davis, of Chicago, as- sisted by Messrs. Moore, Caldwell, Harper, Fairchild, Webber, Swingle and Esten. The institutions represented in the whole staff are: Missouri, Brown, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Bal- timore, Bryn Mawr, Hamilton, Columbia, Miami, Mt. Holyoke, Princeton, Leland Stan-- ford Jr., Johns Hopkins, Detroit High School, Chicago, Harvard, Texas, Bradley Institute, Lake Forest, New York Experiment Station and. the United States Department of Agriculture. Special seminars in Embryology and Neurology will be conducted by Drs. Conklin, Morrill and Strong. A course of historical lectures. will be given by the Director and Drs. Wilson, Morgan, Wheeler, Watasé and Mall. Upon the list of regular evening lecturers upon Gen- eral Biology are those who have already con- tributed to the regular evening course, together with some others. The course of instruction in. JANUARY 21, 1898. ] Scientific Drawing, by Dr. Arnold Graf, for- merly a student of Professor Lang, will be con- tinued in five lectures and demonstrations of all the various methods employed in the illustration of scientific works. The session will extend from June 29th to August 10th. A new feature of the embryological course is that the Director will associate with himself in the lectures a number of specialists in the different groups of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. This admirable prospectus for the coming season was heartily approved by the Trustees and ordered for distribution. The Treasurer’s report showed a balance of $838 to meet the initial expenses of the coming year, and directed attention to the fact that while many members of the corporation had not as yet paid their dues the expected income from this source will be ample to meet the initial expenditures. Mr. Gardiner presented a written report to the corporation of the work of the Execu- tive Committee since the last meeting of the Board in September, and recommended cer- tain improvements in the Laboratory buildings at Woods Holl—which were approved. The matter of cooperation between the Laboratory and the United States Fish Commission was also discussed and referred to a-special com- mittee who will confer with the new Commis- sioner to be appointed by President McKinley. The preparation of the decennial report of the Laboratory, which will contain a historical notice, was also referred to the Executive Committee. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ‘ UNIVERSITY TABLE’ AT NAPLES. OnE of the most gratifying results of the Ithaca meeting was the hearty response given to Professor Anton Dohrn’s offer to American naturalists in respect to the work at Naples, during his recent visit to this country, namely, that if three tables were established by America he would find places for as many students as came over from this country. For several months past efforts have been made to supple- ment the subscription of Mr. William E. Dodge, of New York, originally designated as a ‘ Half- year Columbia Table,’ and establish what might SCIENCE. 91 be termed an ‘American University Table’ in dis- tinction from the ‘Smithsonian Table’ and the proposed Table of American Colleges for Women. Mr. Dodge, upon the recommendation of Pro- fessor Osborn, had very liberally consented to drop the name ‘Columbia’ and continue his subscription under the general designation ‘University.’ At the business session of the Naturalists, as has been already noted in this. JOURNAL, Professor T. H. Morgan brought for- ward the resolution to appropriate $100 from the Treasury of the Naturalists towards this University table, and: this was unanimously approved. Upon the following day, at the meeting of the Trustees of the Marine Bio- logical Laboratory, Professor H. C. Bumpus, promised to secure an addditional $100 upon behalf of the Marine Biological Laboratory and the Anatomical Laboratory of Brown Univer- sity. He has promptly fulfilled this pledge, and the University table is now fully established for the present year at least, with the prospect of continuance. Inasmuch as Professor Bumpus has secured the $100 in the name of the Woods Holl Laboratory, it is eminently appropriate that the Laboratory should have a voice in the appointment of delegates to this table. This. appears to be secured by the personnel of the Naples Committee, nominated by the Temporary Chairman, Professor Clarke, namely, Professor T. H. Morgan, Bryn Mawr; Professor H. F. Osborn, Columbia University; Dr. C. W. Stiles, Washington, D. C.; to either of whom applica- tions may be made. GENERAL. THE agricultural appropriation bill, carrying $3,323,402, has been approved by the House of Representatives in"°committee of the whole. An amendment to strike out the appropriation of $130,000 for the free distribution of seeds was lost by a vote 19 to 155. THE Director of the Geological Survey has been directed by Congressional resolution to: prepare a map of Alaska showing all known topographic and geologic features, including the gold-bearing rocks, with a descriptive text, the text to include an explanation of the best known routes and methods of reaching the gold fields. 40,000 copies are to be printed. ‘92 A BILL will be brought before the next ses- ‘sion of the British Parliament appropriating upwards of $15,000,000 for the rebuilding of ‘South Kensington Museum. Mr. E. W. MAunper, Mr. C. Thwaites and the Rey. J. M. Bacon, with the parties under their direction sent by the British Astronomical Association for the observation of the total solar eclipse which occurs to-morrow, had, as we learn from the London Times, arrived at Bombay on January 4th The other observing parties had also arrived. The different observ- ing stations will be as follows: Mr. Maunder and Mr. Thwaites will be stationed at Talni, on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, between Amraoti and Nagpur; the Rev. J. M. Bacon at Baxar. Mr. W. H. Christie, the Astronomer Royal, and Professor H. H. Turner, forming the third official party sent out by the joint committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society, will be stationed at Sah- dol, between Katni and Bilaspur. The observ- ing party from the Government Observatory at Madras, under the direction of Professor Michie ‘Smith, will be at Indapur. Mr. JAcos H. Scuirr has given $10,000 to the New York Public Library for the purchase of scientific books. A BRONZE statue of Charcot by Falguiére will be erected in the Saltpetriére, Paris. WE learn from the Auk that Mr. George K. Cherrie has resigned his posision as assistant curator of ornithology in the Field Columbian Museum, and has sailed for Bolivar, Venezuela, which he proposes to make the base of explora- tion in the upper Orinoco region for the period of a year or more. THE Academy of Sciences, Paris, has nomi- nated as first choice M. Maquenne, and as sec- ond choice M. André as candidates for the chair of physiological botany in the Paris Mu- seum of Natural History, vacant by the death of M. Georges Ville. M. Ren& Cacnat has been made a member of the French Commission on Scientific Mu- seums, in the place of the late M. du Courdray La Blanchére. MM. BerTHeEtor, Bourgeois, Falliéres and SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 160. Liard have been appointed members of the Council of the Paris Museum of Natural His- tory, with M. Berthlelot as President. It is stated in Nature that Mr. George Shar- man retired at the end of last year from the post of paleontologist to the Geological Survey of Great Britain, with which he had been con- nected since 1855. Dr. Orro FrinscuH has been appointed direc- tor of the ornithological division of the museum at Leiden, in succession to Dr. J. Buttikofer, who, as we announced sometime since, has ac- cepted the directorship of the zoological garden . at Rotterdam. Mr. WALTER SICHE, the traveler and florist, has, says Knowledge, returned from an expedi- tion to the Cilician and Cappadocian Taurus, with a large number of alpine plants and ten thousand examples of various species of the asphodel family, with varieties of fritillary, galanthus, colchicum, iris and many other plants. Mr. Siche has been the means of intro- ducing many new flowers to the domain of English horticulture. THE Rey. Charles L. Dodson, from 1855 to 1881 mathematical lecturer at Oxford and the author of valuable contributions to mathe- matics and logic, has died at the age of sixty- six years. Mr. Dodson is known to every one as ‘Lewis Carroll,’ author of ‘ Alice in Wonder- land’ and other tales, which have delighted in- numerable children and older people. WE regret also to record the deaths of Sir Charles Hutton Gregory, an eminent English civil engineer, on January 10th, at the age of eighty-four; of Mr. Charles Cornevin, pro- fessor of hygiene and zoology at the Veterinary School at Lyons, and of Dr. Edward Linde- man, astronomer at the Observatory of Pol- kowa, aged fifty-three years. THE National Geographic Society has an- - nounced for to-night a meeting in honor of the late Gardiner G. Hubbard, at the time of his death President of the Society. Mr. Alexander Graham Bell, will preside, and the program thus far arranged includes addresses by the fol- lowing: Surgeon-General George M. Stern- berg, U. S. A., on behalf of the joint scientific societies of the District; Dr. Philip G. Gillette, JANUARY 21, 1898. ] on behalf of the American Association for Teaching Speech to the Deaf; Dr. B. L. Whit- man, on behalf of the Columbian University ; Dr. Marcus Benjamin, on behalf of the Society -of Colonial Wars; W. L. Wilson, on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution; Mr. A. R. Spof- ford, Assistant Librarian of Congress, on behalf -of the Columbia Historical Society; Major J. W. Powell, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and probably Commissioner Ross, representing the District. General A. W. Greely will close the meeting with a review of the ten years’ work of the Geographic Society, representing the labors of Mr. Hubbard, its late President, dur- ing the latter years of his life. THE British Institute of Public Health will in future be styled the Royal Institute of Public Heath. Queen Victoria has accepted the office of Patron of the Institute, and has conferred the Jubilee Medal upon the President, Professor ‘W.R. Smith, M. D. The Council of the Insti- tute has conferred the Harben Gold Medal for 1898 upon Lord Playfair, and has appointed Professor W. R. Smith, Harben Lecturer for ‘the year 1899, and Mr. Henry C. Jones, Solic- ‘itor, Secretary to the Institute. Mr. DAvip Hunt, of Boston, has arranged to give four lectures on the ‘ History of Medi- eine,’ at the Harvard Medical School, on Thursday evenings. The first of the series was -given on January 11th, the subject being “Hippocrates to the Sixteenth Century.’ AT a meeting of the Zoolgical Club of Spring- field, Mass., on January 5th, Mr. W. W. Col- ‘burn was elected President, and Miss M. A. Young, Secretary. Dr. George Dimmock made a report on the card catalogue of the fauna of the region being prepared under the auspices of ‘the Club. 1,940 species have been listed, the most complete portion being that on birds. A LINCOLNSHIRE Science Society with sev- eral sections has been organized, with a view to advancing the interests of natural history and founding a museum in the county. THE Nominating Committee of the Appala- -chian Mountain Club, Boston, has named Pro- fessor William H. Niles for President, Mr. Rest #. Curtis for Vice-President, Mr. R. B. Lawrence SCIENCE. 93 for Recording Secretary and Mr. John Richard, Jr., for Corresponding Secretary. Mr. Vicror Horstey, the President-elect of the Neurological Society, London, gave his in- augural address at the annual meeting of the Society on January 13th. The subject of the the address was ‘The Degree of Discharge of Different Nerve Centers.’ QUEEN VICTORIA has decided to convert the old palace at Kew, near the Botanic Gardens, into a public museum. M. Hoerst has applied to the city of Paris for permission to begin the construction of the colossal terrestrial globe to be erected under the direction of M. Elise Recluse for the Paris Exposition of 1900. PROFESSOR NORDENSKJOLD, the Arctic ex- plorer, has informed the Swedish Academy of Sciences that the Foreign Office has received intelligence that several persons worthy of credence saw Herr Andrée’s balloon early in August, in British Columbia, seven miles north of Quesnelle Lake, in the district of Cariboa. THE statements contained in the daily and other papers regarding the will of the late Alfred Nobel appear to be only partially cor- rect. His personal estate in Great Britain has been valued at £434,093, but the amount set aside for the foundation of the five great prizes is not yet known. It will be remembered that according to the terms of the will the interest of the fund is to be divided into five equal parts, of which one part is to devolve upon him who, within the department of natural philos- ophy, has made the most important discovery or invention; one other part to him who has made the most important discovery or improve- ment in chemistry ; one other part to him who has made the most important discovery within the department of physiology or medicine ; one other part to him who in literature has pro- duced the most excellent work in an idealistic direction ; and one part to him who has worked most or best for the fraternization of the na- tions and for the abolition or diminution of standing armies, as also for the promotion and propagation of peace. The prizes in physics and chemistry are to be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences, for physiological 94 or chemical work by the Carolinian Institution in Stockholm, for literature by the Academy in Stockholm, and for the propagation of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian Parliament. Cuas. D. WALcorTtT, Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey, will have, in the next issue of Appleton’s Popular Science Monthly, an article on ‘The Preservation of our Forests,’ and President David Starr Jordan an article on ‘The Evolution of the Mind.’ WirH the January number The Journal of School Geography has been enlarged to 40 pages, and the editor, Professor Richard E. Dodge, Teachers’ College, New York, announces that it will be improved in several ways. Particular attention will hereafter be given to mathemat- ical geography, elementary meteorology and commercial geography. Mr. Andrew J. Her- betson Collington, Scotland, has become asso- ciate editor for Great Britain. THREE packages of yellow fever serum from Dr. J. Sanarelli, of the Institut de Hygiene Ex- perimentale at Montevideo, have been received at New York, intended for Dr. Wyman, of the United States Marine Hospital service at Wash- ington and for Dr. Doty. Part will be used in experiments made by Dr. Doty’s assistant, Dr. C. B. Fitzpatrick, at the laboratory at Quaran- tine. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS. AT a meeting of the Corporation of Yale University on January 18th it was decided to appoint a committee to prepare plans for the proper celebration, in October, 1901, of the bi- centennial anniversary of the granting of the charter to Yale College. AT a special meeting of the Council of Co- lumbia University, on January 13th, action was taken as authorized by the Board of Trus- tees, incorporating the Teachers’ College as a professional school for the training of teachers. President Low will become President of the Teachers’ College, but the Trustees of the Col- lege will be continued as an independent board, responsible for the financial administration of the College. The Teachers’ College was founded in 1887, Professor Nicholas Murray SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 160- Butler, of Columbia University, being the first President. In 1893 the College was partially affiliated with Columbia University for educa- tional purposes. The buildings of the College, erected at a cost of about $1,000,000 on land! given by Mr. George W. Vanderbilt, are ad- jacent to those of Columbia University and Barnard College. The foundation of a profes- sional school for the training of teachers of the: same rank as university schools for medicine and law is one of the most important advances. ever made in educational methods. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE. A PROPOSED ADDITION TO PHYSIOGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE, THE rocky mass of the earth, the lithosphere,,. is mantled in large part by formations whose particles or grains are loosely aggregated, either incoherent or feebly coherent. To these formations collectively Merrill has given the appropriate name regolith (stony mantle), a term approximately codrdinate with litho- sphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. It was not proposed until its need had come to be distinctly recognized, and I believe it will be promptly adopted in geology and physiog- raphy. But a companion term is equally needed. The lithosphere is composed of rock,. the hydrosphere of water and the atmosphere of air; of what does the regolith consist ? There is no compact name for its material, although surface geology and physical geog— raphy have found occasion to mention it so frequently and under so many relations that there are plenty of descriptive phrases. Lying above the firm rock, it is superficial or surficial’ material. Having been formed by the breaking” up of rock, it is disintegrated material. Because destined eventually to coalesce as rock, it is wn- consolidated material. As a substitute for these’ binomial terms I propose the word discrete. The adjective discrete comes to us along with discreet, from the Latin discretus, separate. Discreet is now appropriated by a secondary meaning, wise, but discrete means only separate, incoherent, discontinuous. In converting it into a technical noun I propose to retain this- adjective meaning and add the idea of stony JANUARY 21, 1898.] material, making discrete=discontinuous stony amaterial, or the material of the regolith. Portions of the material of the regolith are already well named. Part of it is sedentary, the remainder transported. The sedentary portion has been called geest (Le Duc, McGee) sand saprolite (Becker). The transported por- tion is sometimes broadly included under the term drift, but it is more commonly classified ‘by genesis as alluvium, glacial drift, etc. Dis- -crete is proposed to include all these. It is proper to add that for many years I have personally felt the need of a succinct term for this idea, and that I have already made experi- mental use of the word discrete in two courses -of lectures on physiography as well as in un- published manuscript. Despite Dr. Branner’s -deprecation,* I cannot avoid the feeling that such tests, when critically applied, are of prac- tical value, and I therefore venture to hope that the new word will be found useful by some -of my colleagues in physiographic study. After the writing of the preceding paragraphs amy attention was directed to the fact that the moun discrete is already in print. It is used in the sense here proposed, but without defini- tion, in a Johns Hopkins thesis by my friend Dr. A. C. Spencer.+ G. K. GILBERT. WASHINGTON, D. C. HARVARD'S METEOROLOGICAL WORK ON THE WEST COAST OF SOUTH AMERICA. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: Ina previous communication on ‘Meteorology in South America,’ published in ScrENCE, October 1, 1897, pp. 523-525, the writer gave some facts as to the meteorological work now being done in Brazil and in the Argentine Republic. It would seem well to supplement the informa- tion given in that letter with some notes on what has been and is being done in Peruvian meteorology. With the exception of the observations made cat the ‘Unanne’ observatory in Lima, all the meteorological work now being done in Peru is ‘being carried on by the Astronomical Observa- *Scrence, N.S., Vol. VI., 1897, p. 134. 7 The Geology of Massanutten Mountain in Vir- -ginia. Published by the author. Washington, 1897. See p. 33. SCIENCE. 95 tory of Harvard College. Haryard’s astro- nomical and meteorological work in Peru is the result of a bequest left to the Harvard College Observatory by the will of Mr. Uriah A. Boyden, in 1887. By the terms of the will this money was to aid in the establishment of an observatory ‘‘at such an elevation as to be free, so far as practicable, from the impedi- ments to accurate observation which occur in the observatories now existing, owing to atmos- pheric influences.’’ In order to determine the best site for the new observatory, it was neces- sary to make a more or less careful study of the meteorological conditions, especially as affecting the visual conditions, at various places which seemed to promise well. Accordingly pre- liminary stations at which astronomical and meteorological work was temporarily carried on were established in 1888 and 1889 in Colo- rado and in California. It was, however, thought advisable, for various reasons, to place the new observatory within the tropics, and accordingly an expedition was sent out in 1889 to make a study of the meteorological condi- tions, and of the availability for astronomical work, of various places along the west coast of South America. There is, as is well known, along this coast a narrow strip of desert, which extends roughly from latitude 4° to 30° S., over the greater part of which rain seldom or never falls. This desert strip, about 1,800 miles in length from north to south, is probably best known to scientific men, and to the world at large, as containing the rich nitrate fields of northern Chili, which were seized by the Chilians in the late war with Peru. These nitrate deposits which have, since the war, furnished the greater part of the revenues of Chili, are essentially a product of the dry climate of this interesting region. The expedition above referred to was in charge of Professor Solon I. Bailey, of the Harvard College Observatory, and reached Lima on March 6, 1889. After a survey. of the surrounding country it was finally decided to place a temporary station on a summit about 20 miles northeast of Lima, at an altitude of 6,600 feet above sea-level. This summit, which had previously been unnamed, was called Mt. Harvard. Meteorological observations on Mt. 96 Harvard were made from May, 1889, to Sep- tember, 1890, inclusive, and embraced those made with standard, maximum and minimum thermometers, rain-gauge, barograph and ther- mograph, sunshine and pole-star records. Owing to the approach of the cloudy season and to the consequent difficulty of carrying on work with the meridian photometer, Professor Bailey and his party left Mt. Harvard in No- vember, 1889, in order to spend the succeeding cloudy months in a study of the meteorological conditions of other parts of the coast farther south, with a view to selecting the most favor- able site possible for the location of the perma- nent observatory. On this trip Arequipa was visited and a study made of its availability as a site for the observatory. Farther south, Pampa Central, in the desert of Atacama, was visited and a system of observations of cloudiness started, which were continued (thrice daily) from December 14, 1889, to August 23, 1890. In this region there is absolutely no vegetation, not even the cactus growing there. Pampa Central is in a rich nitrate field, and is distant from the Pacific Ocean about 80 miles, its alti- tude being 4,530 feet above sea-level. In October, 1890, Arequipa having then been chosen as the permanent site for the observa- tory, the Mt. Harvard station was given up. The exact site of the observatory was chosen by, and the buildings erected under the super- vision of Professor Wm. H. Pickering, who came to Arequipa in January, 1891, and re- mained in charge of the station for two years. Since that time Professor Bailey has been in charge. ‘ The meteorological observations above re- ferred to, made at Mt. Harvard and at Pampa Central, were not the first made in Peru under the auspices of the Harvard College Observa- tory. By means of correspondence carried on in 1887 and 1888 Professor E. C. Pickering had already been able to establish four meteorolog- ical stations, at which observations were begun in November, 1888, viz.: Mollendo, Arequipa- Vincocaya and Puno. At Arequipa observa- tions have been continued from that date down to the present time, and at Mollendo they were continued until 1896, when the station was re- moved to Mejia, a neighboring town, close to SCIENCE. (N.S. Vox. VIL. No. 160. sea-level on the Pacific Ocean. At Puno the observations were discontinued in March, 1889, and at Vincocaya in November, 1890. All these places are on the line of railway running from Mollendo, on the Pacific, to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, at an altitude of 12,540 feet. The whole length of the line is 325 miles. Vincocaya, at an altitude of 14,360 feet, was, at the time when observations were there made, the highest meteorological station in the world. It is situated on an extensive level plateau, barren except for some sparse desert vegeta- tion, and is very near the crest of the western range of the Cordillera, the highest point on the line of the railway being at Crucero Alto, 14,666 feet, a short distance east of Vincocaya. The instruments used at Vincocaya were maxi- mum and minimum and dry-bulb thermometers, rain-gauge, wind-vane and thermograph, and observations were also made of cloudiness. At Puno, situated towards the western end of Lake Titicaca, no thermograph was in opera- tion. The meteorological stations at present at work under the auspices of the Harvard College Observatory in Peru are the following = Mejia, La Joya, Arequipa, Pampa de los Huesos, Mont Blanc, Misti Summit, Cuzco and Hcharati. These stations are roughly in a §.-N. line, and extend from the seacoast across both ranges of the Cordillera and down to 3,300 feet, in a valley at the head of the Amazon river system. A brief description of these stations, and of the instruments in op- eration at each one, may be of interest. The station at Mejia has, since January, 1896, re- placed that which had existed at Mollendo from 1888 through 1895, and as the two places are near together, and have similar topographic surroundings, the continuity of the records has not been seriously interfered with. Mejia is situated on the Pacific, 9} miles from Mollendo, the port of Arequipa and the terminus of the railroad. The instruments are 55 feet above sea-level and 420 feet from the sea. The sur- rounding country is extremely desolate, there being only the most scanty vegetation, except where irrigation is possible. Behind Mejia there is a range of hills, barren and unattract- ive, and all around it there is an abundance of JANUARY 21, 1898. ] drifting white sand, which gives the whole re- gion a most inhospitable appearance. The in- struments at Mejia are the dry- and wet-bulb and maximum and minimum thermometers, rain-gauge, wind-vane, Pickering sunshine-re- corder, barograph, thermograph and hygro- graph. Observations are made thrice daily, at 8a.m., 2 and 8 p. m., and include, besides the records of the instrumental reading, observa- tions of clouds (kind, position, amount) and of wind velocity (estimated). This seacoast sta tion is especially valuable as giving data con- cerning the climatic conditions of the desert belt, where its climate is modified by the proximity of the ocean. The next station inland from Mejia is at La Joya, a railroad station distant from the ocean about 40 miles, and situated in the center of the elevated pampa of Islay, at an altitude of 4,141 feet above sea-level. This pampa lies east of the coast range of mountains, and is almost completely devoid of vegetation. It is surrounded by hills, and is very largely covered, towards its eastern margin, with the curious traveling sand crescents known as medanos, which moye across the desert from south to north, in the direction of the prevailing day wind. These medanos are composed of white sand, apparently quite different from that which makes up the rest of the desert surface, and they are a very striking feature of the land- scape. The meteorological conditions at La Joya are very interesting, and the records will furnish abundant data for the study of what we may call desert meteorology, which would include such characteristically desert phenomena as mirages and dust whirls. The instruments at La Joya are similar to those at Mejia. The central station is at the Observatory, in Arequipa. Arequipa is situated at a distance of about 80 miles, in a direct line from the Pacific Ocean, and lies on both sides of the river Chile, the water from which is extensively used in irrigating the neighboring fields. Al- though the surrounding pampas can support only scant vegetation, the city itself lies in the midst of green fields of wheat, barley, Indian corn and alfalfa. The Observatory is built on high land overlooking the city, and stands at an elevation of 8,050 feet above sea-level, being SCIENCE. 97 about 500 feet above the city. Its exact location. is lat. 16° 22/7 28/7 S.; long. 4h., 46 m., 12 sec. To the north, about 12 miles distant, rises Char- chani, 20,000 feet high; to the northeast, 10: miles away, is the Misti, 19,200 feet; and to the east comes the serrated ridge of Pichu-Pichu, an extinct volcano, 18,600 feet high. Arequipa, at a considerable distance from the ocean, and in close proximity to several high mountains, presents meteorological conditions, a study of which is peculiarly interesting. Observations are made at 8a. m., 2 and 8p. m. daily. The instruments in use are the following : Wet- and dry-bulb, maximum and minimum, solar- and terrestrial-radiation thermometers; mercurial barometers, rain-gauge, anemometer and ane- moscope, Pickering sunshine recorder, baro- graph, thermograph and hygrograph. The observations include, in addition to readings of the instruments, tri-daily records of clouds. (kind, position and amount), and of the visi- bility of the three neighboring mountains. Earthquake records include two observations. daily of the seismograph and seismoscope, and: two daily records are also made of changes in. the level of the ground. The fourth station, still farther inland, is on, the so-called Pampa de los Huesos, about 30 miles northeast of Arequipa, at an elevation of 13,400. feet above sea-level. This pampa is composed of volcanic sand and ashes, and is almost com- pletely barren. There being no possibility of securing an observer in this desolate region, readings of the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are made whenever a visit to the shelter is pos- sible, at which times, also, the sheets of the barograph and thermograph are changed. On the flank of the Misti above the Pampa de- los Huesos, at a height of 15,700 feet, is the fifth station, known as ‘ Mont Blanc,’ because the altitudes of this station and of that on the summit of Mont Blane are almost exactly the same. The ‘M. B.’ shelter, as it is called for brevity, isat a distance of about 300 feet from the hut where observers from Arequipa, on their way to visit the meteorological station on the summit of the Misti, spend one night. The instruments are wet- and dry-bulb and maximum: and minimum thermometers, thermograph and barograph ; and this station is visited, as is that 98 on the Pampa de los Huesos, when an expedi- tion is made to the summit. The most interesting of all the meteorological stations in Peru—indeed, the most interesting meteorological station in the world, because it is the highest in the world—is that on the summit of the Misti, at an altitude of 19,200 feet above the level of the sea. This was established by Professor S. I. Bailey in October, 1893. The shape of the Misti is that of an almost perfect, al- though more or less truncated cone, and the conditions of exposure of the instruments areas nearly perfect as it is possible to obtain on a mountain. The instruments now in use on the summit are dry- and wet-bulb and maximum and minimum thermometers, rain-gauge, baro- graph, thermograph and hygrograph. There is also a meteorograph, constructed by Fergusson, of Blue Hill Observatory, especially for this station, and designed to record temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind direction and velocity, and to run three months with- out re-winding. This meteorograph has not yet given as complete records as it was originally hoped would be obtained from it. For some months after its establishment the Misti station, together with the Huesos and Mont Blane stations, was visited by one of the assist- ants in the Observatory once in ten days, but lately not more than, one visit a month has been possible. The trip is by no means an easy one, and the altitude of the Misti is so great that almost every one going there suffers from soroche, or mountain sickness. The writer has twice visited the ‘highest meteorological sta- tion in the world’ during his present stay in Peru, and both times had some experience in the unpleasant symptoms of soroche. Although it has thus far been impossible, in view of the great altitude and the distance of the station, to secure complete and continuous records from it, still the broken records which have been ob- tained are so interesting that this, toa consider- able extent, makes up for their fragmental char- acter. The seventh station is at some distance far- ther north, at Cuzco (lat. 18° 30’ 55” S.; long. 74° 24’ 30’ W., approximately), lying in a valley between the eastern and western ranges of the Cordillera, at an elevation of SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 160- 11,378 feet above sea-level. It is rather an in- teresting fact that here, in the ancient capital of the Incas, a North American university should be maintaining a meteorological station. Cuzco is at present distant from Arequipa five days’ journey; two days being spent in the train, one in a vehicle and two on horseback. The instruments are wet- and dry-bulb and maximum and minimum thermometers, rain- gauge, wind-vane, Pickering sunshine recorder, barograph and thermograph. The last station, the farthest from Mejia, is Echarati, on the eastern slopes of the eastern ranges of the Cordillera, and in the fertile val- ley of the Urubamba, about 130 miles north of Cuzco. Echarati is at present just at the outer limits of what may be called civilized Peru, for a short distance beyond it comes a wild terri- tory, inhabited altogether by Indians, through which white men seldom pass. When first es- tablished, in 1894, the shelter was at Santa Ana, about 30 miles nearer Cuzco, but last year the instruments were removed farther north, to their present location. The equipment is the same as at Cuzco. The altitude is 3,300 feet. A glance at a good map of Peru will show at cence what a magnificent series of stations Harvard has thus established in this hitherto meteorologically unknown country. Reaching from sea-level across the desert pampa of Islay to Arequipa, they continue on up past 13,400 and 15,700 to 19,200 feet, and then down, towards the north, to 11,378 feet and finally to 3,300 feet. The line of stations thus cuts diagonally across the desert belt of Peru and extends through a region of increasing rainfall down to the well-watered valley of Urubamba, which belongs to the Amazon water-shed. That the large number of observations already col- lected in Peru, and now being tabulated for publication, will furnish data of the greatest interest and value is a foregone conclusion. R. DEC. WARD. HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, AREQUIPA, PERU, December 1, 1897. THE CRUSTACEAN GENUS SCYLLARIDES. WHILE looking into the anatomy and no- menclature of the Astacoidean crustaceans, I in- JANUARY 21, 1898.] cidentally learned that the only species of Scyllarus known to Fabricius* in 1775, when he first made known that genus, was the S. arctus —the Cancer arctus of Linneus. That, being the only species, is necessarily the type, and, therefore, the name Scyllarus must be retained for it. The early carcinologists (Latreille, White) correctly recognized the type. Never- theless, the S. arctus was taken asthe type of a new genus—Arctus—and. the name Scyllarus was reserved for the ‘‘Sc. sculptus, latus, squamosus, equinoxialis, Haanti, Sieboldi,’’? by Dana in 1852. He was doubtless influenced in this respect by the consideration that the arctus was the only species of its genus known to him, while most belonged to the other one. All succeeding carcinologists have followed him, and, indeed, the family is one of the very few for which a classification proposed nearly half a century ago has been retained intact to the present time, new species only having been added meanwhile. However, the necessity for a change will be recognized by almost every zoologist, and the sooner it is made the better it will be. I, therefore, propose to restore Scylla- rus to the typical species, and to give the new name Scyllarides (Scyllarus with the Greek pa- tronymic termination -ides) to the bereft genus. Scyllarides may be typified by the S. xquinocti- alis (Scyllarus zquinoctialis of Nicolaus Tonder Lund).+ According to Dr. Ortmann (Zool. Jahrb., Syst., 268, X., 1897), there are five well de- fined species of Scyllarides—squamosus, latus, haani, exquinoctialis and elizabethi. THEO. GILL. WASHINGTON. LAMARCE AND ‘A PERFECTING TENDENCY.’ PROFESSOR JOHN GARDINER has done well to recall the fact that the chief factor in evolution, * Systema Entomologie, p. 413, 1775. t+ The proper authority for the species (generally known as ‘S. xquinoxialis Fabr.’) has been given by Miss Rathbun in the Annals of the Institute of Ja- maica (I., 43). The excellent memoir of Lund (Om Slaegten Scyllarus < Skrivter af Naturh. Selskabet, II., p. 17-22, 1793) has been ignored by almost all others. It was referred to by White, but the references to Lund were mostly given after those to Fabricius. SCIENCE. 99 according to Lamarck, is not the so-called ‘ La- marckian factor,’ but ‘a perfecting tendency.’ Lamarck’s Histoire Naturelle is in perfect ac- cord with his Philosophie Zoologique, as inter- preted by Professor Gardiner. Lamarck thus describes his two factors: (1) ‘ Composition progressive,’ ‘progression,’ ‘plan de la nature,’ “pouvoir qui tend sans cesse a compliquer Vor- ganisation, & accroitre le nombre et le perfectionne- ment des facultés,’’ ‘‘ cause premiere et prédomin- ante.”’? (2) ‘‘ La cause accidentelle n'ayant pu altérer la progression en question, que dans des particularités de détail, et jamais dans la généralité des organisations.’’ The editors of the second edition of the His- toire Naturelle add a foot-note (Vol. I., p. 114) which concisely states Lamarck’s position : “Tl y a done, d’aprés Lamarck, deux causes toujours agissantes sur les animaux, ]’une qui tend a les perfectionner d’une maniére uniforme dans leur organisation, l’autre modifiant irrégu- ligrement ces perfectionnements, parcequ’elle agit selon les circonstances locales, fortuites, de température, de milieu, de nourriture, etc., dans lesquels les animaux vivent nécessaire- ment.’’ Lamarck repudiates the ‘ échelle graduée’ of Bonnet, and claims there is no identity between it and his ‘ composition progressive.’ C. O. WHITMAN. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Recent and Coming Eclipses. By Str NoRMAN LockYER, K.C.B., F.R.S. Macmillan & Co. 1897. This volume, consisting mainly of. articles which have appeared from time to time in cur- rent periodicals, is issued with a view to supply- ing the general reader with information re- garding the latest phases of the chief eclipse problems. The treatment divides itself into two parts. The earlier chapters of the work contain ele- mentary explanations of the theory of eclipses, and that of the instruments used in their obser- vation. The spectroscope in its various forms is discussed in detail, and much stress is laid on the efficiency of the slitless spectroscope or. ‘prismatic camera.’ The application of this 100 instrument to many of the problems of solar physics is dwelt upon at length. A chapter is also devoted to the various simple observations which can be made without the use of elaborate apparatus. Following this preliminary discus- sion is an account of the eclipse expedition to Kio Island, with a description of the arrange- ment of the camp and apparatus, and an ac- count of the development of the latent obser- vational powers of the officers and crew of H. M. 8. ‘ Volage,’ which had been detailed to as- sist in the expedition. Then comes the story of clouds, failure and the retreat. A chapter is now devoted to the success at Novaya Zembla, where Mr. Shackleton succeeded in obtaining the spectrum of the chromosphere by means of a prismatic camera. This finishes what has been referred-to as the first part.of the work. What follows is devoted to the bearing of eclipse observations up to date upon the ques- tion of the composition and distribution of the solar atmosphere. It is stated that the ‘ flash spectrum’ of the chromosphere is radically dif- ferent from the ordinary absorption spectrum with which we are familiar, and that therefore the chromosphere is not the seat of most of the absorption. Comparisons are made with are and spark spectra and that of ‘ hot stars’ with a view to showing that the chromosphere is hotter than the absorbing media, which must therefore be situated higher up in the solar at- mosphere. The step from this proposition to dissociation is a short one, and, with the satisfied conclusion that ‘‘ The eclipse work strengthens the view that chemical substances are dissoci- ated at solar temperatures,’’ the author closes his book. In brief, it may be said that the features of the work are the stress laid upon the importance of the prismatic camera in eclipse work, the account of the volunteer corps of the ‘ Volage,’ and the exposition of the vindication of the dissociation hypothesis by all the phenomena of solar and stellar spectroscopy. While there is no denying the fact that in the slitless spectroscope we have one of the most powerful instruments for the prosecution of eclipse work, it seems doubtful whether it will accomplish all that our author, its warmest advo- cate, expects from it. It is hoped to get a defini- SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VII. No. 160. tive spectrum of the corona, by means of sub- tracting from the spectrum of the whole eclipse, obtained with an integrating spectroscope, that portion which is due to the chromosphere alone. This latter is to be determined by the prismatic camera. It is not impossible that a line might be common to both chromosphere and corona, but shine so feebly in the latter that its presence would be masked by the continuous spectrum. In such a case the line would be assigned to the chromosphere alone. - It would, therefore, seem as though the true solution of the problem is to be expected from the slit spectroscope, part of the slit being made to lie on the moon’s shadow In order to make such an attack complete many parts of the corona should be covered. With an instrument of the probable dimensions of that described by Sir Norman Lockyer the field of the collimator should be flat enough to allow several images of the sun to be used. These could be twisted by means of reversion prisms so that any portion of the corona could be brought upon the slit. In this manner the regions sur- rounding the sun could be well commanded. It will be seen that in the case of the inte- grating spectroscope the full efficiency can not be developed, as the central part of the lens will be covered by the dark cone of the moon. Again, and this is more or less in the same line of argument, the brightness of a line will be an average of the brightness of that color over the entire field, while with the instrument provided with a slit we have maximaand minima, which is important in the case of faint lines. For these and other reasons it seems doubtful whether the great power the instrument de- scribed might not be used to better advantage in some manner other than the one proposed. It is expected, by means of the prismatic camera, to decide between the two contending hypotheses regarding the distribution of gases in the solar atmosphere. Do the vapors all rest upon the photosphere, and thin out at different heights, or are they arranged in concentric layers? One of the methods suggested is as follows, to quote Sir Norman Lockyer: ‘‘ There is a very definite way in which the photographs taken with the prismatic camera may indicate the presence of layers of vapors concentric with the photosphere, but not reaching down to it. JANUARY 21, 1898. ] At a certain height above the photosphere the chromosphere spectrum in a photograph of the chromosphere visible at any one instant beyond the edge of the moon will show ares of certain relative intensities. As the moon advances and gradually uncovers the base of the chromo- sphere the same arcs will remain visible, but those produced by a layer which does not ex- tend down will be reduced in intensity as com- pared with arcs produced by vapors which do reach lower down; the latter will continue to get brighter, while the others remain at the same absolute intensity. As the lowest part of the chromosphere is shown in the photographs taken immediately after totality, or exactly at the end, it is only necessary to compare the relative intensities of the arcs in different pho- tographs, in order to investigate the general question as to the existence of layers.”’ Let us now consider what we should be led to expect under the hypothesis that all the gas- eous envelopes rest upon the photosphere. There are no grounds for believing that those Fia. 1. gases which extend the highest should be in- trinsically the brightest. In fact, we should ex- pect extent and brightness to depend largely upon separate conditions. In Fig. 1 let the ordinates represent the height of a point above SCIENCE. 101 the chromosphere, and the abscisse the bright- ness of a gas at that point. The lines a, 6, ¢ and d are supposed to represent the relation between height and brightness of four different gases. For simplicity, and in the absence of definite information upon the subject, these lines are assumed to be straight. If the exami- nation is made close to the photosphere the effective intensity of the arc will be proportional to the amount of gas uncovered per unit of length along the moon’s edge. Fig. 2 has been roughly sketched to indicate the effective in- tensity at different levels. Fig. 3 shows the FIG. 3. relative intensities of the lines at the levels in- dicated. Ifthe extent of some of the vapors is so great that theirarcs havea considerable area the case is still further complicated. If we un- derstand our author aright, a series of photo- graphs corresponding to Fig. 3 would indicate layers d and b resting on the photosphere, fol- lowed by ¢ higher up and finally by a alone. It is true that a rough scale of absolute bright- nesses might be built up by comparing the mid- dle of the are with portions nearer the cusps, but such an arrangement would be only approx- imate, and is evidently not intended by the author. It is not, therefore,"at once apparent that the riddle proposed by the relative inten- sities of a large number of lines belonging to different gases is easy of solution. It is with regret that the reader finds through- out the work statements and suggestions to which, perhaps, for a want of comprehension of exactly what is meant, he is forced to issue a 102 mental challenge. The one just discussed is an example; others might easily be cited, for in- stance the reasoning leading to the conclusion that prominences are not of the chromosphere and must, therefore, come from the outside. But space forbids further discussion in this di- rection. The training of the volunteer corps of H. M. S. ‘ Volage’ was ingeniously planned and car- ried out with pains. Parties consisting of those fitted for certain classes of work were organ- ized and regularly drilled for some time pre- ceding the eclipse. In training the sketchers, former coronas were thrown on a screen by means of a magic lantern and, after some prac- tice, remarkable proficiency was shown in ac- curately drawing the objects, within the eclipse interval of time. It is doubtful, however, whether results of value are to be had from drawings of the corona. Since such very short exposures are required completely to fog a photographic plate the question of getting faint outlying details is merely one of contrast, and with skillful exposure and development there seems to be no reason why the camera should not be considered superior to the sketch- book in delineating eclipse phenomena, as it has shown itself to be in innumerable other branches of research. With regard to the bearing of solar work in general on dissociation, itis safe to say that the consensus of scientific opinion is not with Sir Norman Lockyer. While dissociation is admit- ted as a possibility, it is not considered that a preponderence of evidence has given it the standing of a scientific fact. It is claimed that for astrophysics there is laid the foundations of an exact science. Butasyet the superstructure has not neared completion. Peculiar character- isties of spectra accompany certain physical con- ditions. Good work has been done in the di- rection of associating the one with the other, but it is only a beginning. It is doubtful whether most scientists consider that the influ- ence of all our terrestrial conditions upon the spectrum has been determined, or even guessed, to say nothing of those which may exist in the sun and stars. In time to come, when knowl- edge becomes more definite on some of these points, and the effect of influences probably ex- SCIENOE. [N. 8S. Vou. VII. No. 160. isting in the sun has been allowed for, we may, with a mental reservation, assign the residual anomalies of solar and stellar spectra to some condition which we suspect to exist. Until then this line of attack is to be followed with caution. “Tn the course of the spectroscopic solar in- vestigations which have been going on since 1868 I have had to point out over and over again that the phenomena observed could be more easily explained on the hypothesis that the chemical elements with which we are fa- miliar here were broken up by the great heat of the sun into simpler forms’’ etc. In the pres- ent state of our knowledge it is somewhat of a problem how much of a figure the question of ‘ease’ should cut. We call to mind the fact that,on account of insufficient experimental data, the phenomena of light were more easily ex- plained to Newton by the emission hypothesis than by the wave theory. And we are not all Newtons. In closing, however, it is to be said that Sir Norman Lockyer has given us an interesting book, one particularly so to the general public. Technical subjects are explained in simple lan- guage, and the mere recital of facts and theories has been relieved from time to time by digres- sions upon subjects of a more human nature. This is particularly so in the account of the 1896 eclipse expedition. It is hoped that the volume will give to amateurs and others who may witness the coming eclipse such a knowl- edge of some of the problems awaiting solu- tions as will enable them to make intelligent observations which may be of interest to them- selves and of use to science. W. H. WRIGHT. Lick OBSERVATORY, December, 1897. RECENT MATHEMATICAL BOOKS. Famous Problems of Elementary Geometry. An authorized translation of F. Klein’s ‘ Vortrage uber ausgewahlte Fragen der Elementargeo- metrie.’ By WoosTER WOODRUFF BEMAN, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Michigan, and DAvip EUGENE SMITH, Professor of Mathematics in the Michigan State Normal College. Boston, Ginn & Co. 12mo. Pp. ix+80. JANUARY 21, 1898. ] Augustus De Morgan, who in his day waged - such merry war with the circle squarers, got half the delight of battle from the fact that he had to meet his foes in single combat and pepper them with small shot, a kind of warfare from which he was sure to emerge with joyous triumph and an appetite for more. To chase his prey through a tangle of reasoning had to his versatile mind the zest of a fox hunt. To kill all the foxes at one discharge would have spoiled his sport. Until very recently the circle squarer had one safe retreat. Nobody could logically dispose his general thesis. And, beside, he had philosophic and scriptural au- thority. A circle is a perfect figure. That which is one span across is three spans around. Even the august Legislature of Indiana was lately beguiled by a savant from Hooppole county into enacting that no circle should be de rigeur in that State for which the ratio of circumference to diameter was not exactly three and two-tenths. But we have changed all that. The circle squaring fraternity has long had no standing in court, but now a per- petual injunction is out against them. Not only do we now possess a proof of the trans- cendental nature of the number 7, but this proof has been recently so simplified as to be perfectly intelligible at a very early stage of mathematical study. The mathematical pi is inedible without e. The modern investigations begin with Hermite’s proof of the transcendence of the exponential base in his paper ‘ Sur la fonction exponentielle,’ Comptes Rendus, 1878. Lindemann’s celebrated proof of the transcendence of = appeared in the Mathematische Annalen, 1882. The connect- ing step is the establishment of the theorem that in an equation c+ ce'+ ce'+---=0, the exponents and the coefficients cannot all be algebraic numbers. From Euler’s equation 1-{e'—0, the transcendental character of 7 then follows at once. But it was first in 1893 that Hilbert, Hurwitz and Gordan did away with the earlier formidable apparatus and re- duced the proof to the present elementary form. The results, together with the modern disposition of the kindred problems of the du- plication of the cube and the trisection of an arbitrary angle, have since been made generally SCIENCE. 103 available by the publication in book form of Klein’s lectures on these subjects. These lec- tures have already been translated into French and Italian, and we have now, thanks to Pro- fessors Beman and Smith, an excellent English version. The present book is well edited and well printed. Every teacher of even elemen- tary mathematics will do well to obtain a copy, not merely for his library, but to be actually read. The Calculus for Engineers. By JOHN PERRY, Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, London. Lon- don and New York, Edward Arnold. 8vo. Pp. viii+378. From the title of this book one might natu- rally expect to find injit a considerable deviation from the prevalent stereotyped treatment of what the author rather deprecatingly calls ‘academic’ calculus. On inspection, however, the divergence turns out to be about as com- plete as could well be imagined. The author’s aim is to make the methods of the calculus. available for the use of students who already have a considerable knowledge of practical physics and mechanics. A great deal can be done in this direction by the aid of a few func- tions and the simplest rules of differentiation and integration. In the present book the first 266 pages are divided into two chapters, one of which deals, so far as the calculus proper is. concerned, with 2", the other with e* and sin a. These chapters are filled with an excellent col- lection of examples drawn from every branch of applied mathematics. To give an idea of the diversity in this regard, I cannot do better than to quote from the index, which is in itself a commendable feature of the book. Under B, which supplies one of the shortest lists in the index, we have: Ballistic effects ; Basin, water in ; Beams, fixed at ends, of uniform strength, shear stress in, standard cases; Beats in music ;. Belt, slipping of; Bending, in struts; Bessels ;. Bifilar suspension ; Binomial theorum; Boiler, heating surface of; Bramwell’s valve gear ; Bridge, suspension. Very many of the exam- ples are of a kind to be very appropriately in- troduced into the ‘academic’ books; and con- sidering how completely latter-day writers on 104 the calculus have plucked Williamson and Tod- hunter and each other, I recommend a raid on Perry by way of refreshing variety. Having got his reader fairly into the calculus, the author finally confesses a weakness for the subject and adds a third chapter of ‘ academic exercises,’ in which he treats the subject of the usual text-books, only in a different order and ‘briefly, but nevertheless including differential equations, Bessel’s functions and spherical har- monics. Even the student who has already studied the calculus in the usual systematic form will profit by traversing it with the author; and to the engineer the book must be very useful, The lecture style in which it is written often makes the subject more attractive. It also ‘sometimes carries away the author, in an excess -of enthusiasm, into expressions of opinion which are not to be taken too seriously nor yet to be ‘skipped,’ as the author advises in the cases of difficult passages. F. N. Cone. CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. ZOOLOGICAL CLUB, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, NOVEMBER, 1897. A New Human Tenia (Tenia confusa, Ward). —The new form has much of the slender ap- pearance and delicate structure of Tenia solium, but as regards the size of the proglottids is even larger than Txniasaginata. The segments are of almost uniform breadth and very narrow. In addition to a peculiarly constructed head, the worm presents many variations of bodily structure when compared with the ordinary forms. The sexually mature proglottids meas- ure 4-5 mm. long by 3-4.5 mm. wide; the lobes of the ovary are kidney-shaped and two or three times as long as broad; the genital pore is extremely shallow ; in all of which respects it differs markedly from either T. saginata or T. solium. ) 6) 7 8) 19) 10) 14) 1213514) 15 No. of Indiyiduals.| 110 15 7163740 9 4 2 @ al at © ©) @ x 692 From the table above we may collect the following data: SCIENCE. [N. S. Von. VII. No. 177. tively with that of the chief-differential. Any variable character in the two species r HWGHTOF|/,. || DivERG- | GREATER | INDEX OF eee ey M@nras) ago MinimMuM| LowER eae oe ENCE OF HALF- DIVERG- ze OF SINUS. MopDE. FE MOopgEs. RANGE. ENCE. Stem Height. | 7-21dm. | 14-15 dm. oe S20 Gon dooacos || kopan se S000 Base Diam. | 6-36mm. |10 & 24mm. 4 19 79 14 mm. 12mm 116 Mid-Diam. | 2-12 ‘ AGsy 29 31 7 3} 48 Bie 60 Leaf-Width. | 4-23 ‘* 6&15 5 20 75 Quan Byeics 112 Spike Length. | 3-26 cm. | 11-12cm. an ee Pee lueciee ace, Niimasoacs ooo9 Spike Diam. | 9-35 mm. |16&27mm. 2 ae . 89 Ta ee Bins 137 Interval. 0-15 em. | 0&5 cm. ‘7 40 83 5 em 10 cm 50 Of these seven characters the stem-height and the spike-length show no apparent dif- ferentiation for the two species ; the differ- entiation is slight in the mid-stem diameter, but is marked in the other characters. Both isolation and divergence are greatest in the spike-diameter, which therefore should be taken for the chief-differential. The isolation being above 50 per cent. (89) and the divergence above 100 per cent. (137), both are undoubtedly good species. Taking those characters showing marked differentiation, the modes indicate the most frequent form of the species, the smaller size being angustifolia and the larger latifolia, and hence represent the specific types of those species as they occur in this region. This specific type must not be confused with the Justorical type, which is the form of the spe- cies first described and may occur at any point within the normal limits of the vari- ation of the species. II. Specific and Individual Characters. In order to make the enumeration of dif- ferentiz accurate it may be necessary in the discrimination of species to determine which characters can be regarded as spe- cific and which as individual. Those cha- racters are called specific which differ in some respect in the two species and whose difference increases or diminishes correla- not exhibiting such correlation is regarded as individual. In order to determine this fact of correla- tion, these same characters of Typha were compared with the spike-diameter as sub- ject. The average stem-height, base-diam- eter, leaf-width, etc., was found of all specimens having a spike-diameter of 8 mm., the same of 9 mm., 10 mm.,and so on up to 36mm. Correlation is then shown by the character having a proportional in- crement or reduction in size in comparison with the chief-differential, the spike-diam- eter. The result is given in the table below. From this it appears that the correlation with the spike-diameter is well-marked in the case of the base-diameter, the mid-stem diameter and the leaf-width. It is apparent in the stem-height and spike-length, yet is not so close as to give rise to two modes in the table of frequency. The case of the interval is peculiar. In the table of fre- quency it exhibits a combined normal and half Galton-curve, while in the table of correlation above, there is little increase or decrease in the first ten numbers (good angustifolia) and the subsequent decrease is probably due to intergrading. This charac- ter then exhibits individual variation for this species.’ * Of the other characters of Typha not here consid- ered, the pollen-grains might possibly prove a better May 20, 1898.] SOLENCE, TABLE OF CORRELATION. 693 No. Spike Diam. | Stem Height Base Diam. Mid-Stem. Leaf Width | Spike Length Interval Measured. mm. em. mm. Diam, mm. em. mm. mm. ot 8 115 9 2 4 7 50. 3-5 @) 100 8 2 3 8 43 7-10 10 100 8 2 4 7 69 5-6 ial 105 10 3 5 8 57 11-15 12 110 9 3 4 i 58 11-12 13 124 11 4 5 i 44 23-34 14 Uy 11 3 5 11 53 29-36 15 130 11 4 6 10 49 46-57 16 140 11 4 6 11 50 37-41 17 141 12 4 7 12 43 30-35 18 173 15 4 8 12 37 15-16 19 153 16 5 10 12 15 18-20 20 169 19 6 11 13 8 7-10 21 153 17 6 10 11 13 36-38 22 168 18 2 & 11 13 a 22-28 23 163 17 6 10 14 5 24-27 24 158 19 6 11 13 6 33-34 25 155 21 7 13 18} 3 17-18 26 159 22 a 1183 11 2 33-37 27 168 2 ra 14 13 1 23-27 28 170 23 7 15 13 1 9-12 29 175 22 g) 15 13 0 15-21 30 172 24 8 15 13 1 11-12 31 162 24 7 14 13 0 6 32 167 24 8 15 13 0 1-4 33 184 23 8 7 iil 4 2-3 34 205 20 8 19 18 0 1 35 167 27 9 15 13 * 0 1 36 142 26 7 13 10 0 A norma! curve of variation extends an equal distance on each side of its mode, and hence in a dimorphic curve composed of two such normals the continued extension of the interior curves below the point of confluence may be determined approxi- mately by reference to the exterior halves. In the curve of the spike-diameter (Fig. 17) this overlapping portion of the curves of latifolia and angustifolia (19-23 mm.) rep- resents the region of intergrades between, differential than any of those measured, but their extremely short duration (about two weeks in the year) and their microscopic size do not render them generally available for systematic work. From my observation of Typha in this region, I do not think the color of the spike or shape of the stigmas are re- liable as differentials between these two species, and the floral bracts are doubtfully absént in latifolia, be- coming gradually larger through the intergrades to typical angustifolia. those two species. Also, the minimum ofthe sinus (21 mm.), where occur the fewest in- tergrades between the two species, is the point where systematists would naturally separate them. It has now been shown that confluent species can be separated by a fixed amount of isolation and divergence, as indicated by their most distinctive character—the chief- differential, which. can be determined mathematically by the measurement of all the specific characters; and finally, a method has been indicated whereby specific and individual characters may be distin- guished by correlation. It should be remembered that the meas- urement of individuals of a species, selected impartially after a fixed method throughout a given region, gives the characteristics of that species—its type and variation, the SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 177. 7O 60 40 30 30 46 20 20 z 6 Ey Tt. MID-STEM DIAMETER. Fia. 14. 22 7 8 9 10 1213 IS 6 17:18:19 20 2 I.- STEM- HEIGHT, Iria. 12 Z.- BASE - DIAMETER. No Fig. 13. 6 Bid 2 4 % 1% 20 1222¢ 26 28 90 32 34 MY, His il z I sh 40 an 30 10 16 2D 27-30 as W.-SPIKE-DIAMETER. 20 Fid. 17. 40. } 20 +— -4 6 8 10 12 4/46 BW 22MM, Z, LEAF-WiIDTH Fig. 15. V.- SPIKE-LENGTH Fic. 16. relative abundance of its forms and its confluence with allied species—only for that region. For the complete determination of its true characteristics the species must be studied throughout its entire range. This can often be done approximately by the study of a large collection representing the various parts of that range, as is now done in ordinary systematic work. However, two groups found to be so isolated and di- vergent as to constitute distinct species in any one region where their ranges or spe- Mm 465 DR bb BW ULB 924 6 8 24 tm WZ, -iNTERVAL. Fia. 18. cific factors overlap will doubtless be found to continue distinct in all parts of their ranges, as the greatest confluence of such groups is necessarily at points where they occur together. This method attempts only to express in mathematical terms the facts already recog- nized by systematists in the discrimination of species ; it attempts to determine, by im- partial quantitative enumeration of indi- viduals, the specific type and the limits of specific variation, as well as the relative MAY 20, 1898.] value of the species or variety, and this more accurately than can be done by the ordinary descriptive terms. The discrimi- nation of species has hitherto been depend- ent upon the experience and judgment of each systematist, and consequently the results have often been most conflicting and confusing. By the use of a precise mathematical criterion of species ‘splitting’ and ‘lumping’ is no longer possible and any hybrid or intergrade, which may have been described as a species or a variety, is clearly shown by its intermediate position and by the absence of isolation, while a sport is indicated by its relative fewness of individuals and its place at the extreme of variation. The possibilities of statistical methods in the study of individual variation extends far beyond the applications here proposed. The gradual change of the specific type and of the variability of a species, the distin- guishing of stable from plastic groups, the influence of environment upon specific form, and many other matters of importance to the philosophical naturalist and systematist, are in the future to be investigated quanti- tatively.* JULIUS SACHS (II). Ir was at Wirzburg that Sachs first - found fit opportunity to develop his talent for teaching. Too often it happens in lec- ture-rooms that ‘man Viele sieht, die nicht da sind,’ but this did not apply to him. His - fascinating, lucid expositions stimulated the students, whilst he knew well how to practically illustrate his subject. He worked incessantly at the materials for demonstrating, drew and painted a number *Those who desire further information on the quantitative study of species are referred to the ex- cellent paper of Dr. F. Ludwig: ‘Die Pflanzlichen Variationscurven und die Gauss’sche Wahrschein- lichkeitscurye,’ in the Botanisches Centralblatt, 73: 241, 1898. SCIENCE. 695 of diagrams, and was constantly adding to his stock of dried plants, alcohol prepara- tions, models and cultures. He considered that all should be in due relation to the subject-matter in a scientific lecture as in the acting of a play. In the winter he lectured on general botany (anatomy and physiology), and in the summer on the ‘Natural History of the Plant World.’ Besides this he often gave experimental demonstrations in the summer and this necessitated a great deal of work; occa- sionally he lectured on the history of bot- any and on the physiological basis of mor- phology. After 1874 he had a class every term for microscope work. A great number of botanists worked at one time or another in his laboratory. The first were Dr. Kraus and Millardet (both formerly at Bonn and Freiburg). Among others attracted by him to Wurzburg were Baranetzky, Brefeld, Francis Darwin, Det- lefsen, Elfving, W. Gardiner, Godlewski, Goebel, Hansen, Hauptfleisch, Klebs, H. Miuller-Thurgau, Moll, Noll, Pedersen, Pfeffer, Prantl, Reinke, D. H. Scott, Stahl, Vines, De Vries, Marshall Ward, Weber, Wortmann and Zimmermann. He insisted upon his pupils being in earnest~ about science, and he brooked no laziness. Weak natures naturally felt his influence most strongly, but he set a higher value on those from whom he could gain something. With failing health he withdrew more and more into himself. ‘I am beginning to take private pupils again,’’ he writes, ‘“but there is little pleasure in it. When a professor reaches the age of sixty he ought eo ipso to be pensioned off with his full salary ; it might be possible to arrange a university that would serve as an alms- house, but I would not go into it.” He urged his pupils to make comprehen- sive studies even as he was constantly striving after wide generalizations. He was a master in the art. We have only to 696 think of his ‘ Experimental Physiology,’ his “Text-book’ in four editions, his ‘ History of Botany’ and his ‘ Lectures on the Physi- ology of Plants.’ Although he wrote with ease, he bestowed great care upon composi- tion, and usually made several rough sketches before the work was done to his satisfaction. In later years he generally dictated, and the ‘ Lectures’ were written in this way. The great debt owed by mod- ern botany to his ‘ Text-book ’ can scarcely be appreciated even yet by the younger generation of botanists. No entirely satisfactory text-book had ap- peared since Schleiden’s ‘ Outlines,’ a book that contained much that was critically suggestive, but, on the other hand, was one-sided and tinged by the author’s per- sonal prejudices ; nor had the later editions of it been brought up to date with the ad- vance of science. Sachs’ book was the first to make Nageli’s and Hofmeister’s re- searches known to the world. It was writ- ten in an unusually clear, literary style, and contained all that was best according to ‘the present state of science,’ as the title page says, especially the author’s important physiological researches. The letter-press was interspersed with numerous illustra- tions, chiefly Sachs’ own work and not seldom the results of laborious, tedious ex- periments. These illustrations have been frequently reproduced and, contrary to Sachs’ express wish, have become common property. Too often it has been consid- ered quite unnecessary to obtain his con- sent to the use of the figures, and the ap- pearance of a newer text-book decked out with his own illustrations elicited from him the somewhat bitter though just remark that a student, using this book, would surely think that he (Sachs) was employed by the author to illustrate his work. To- wards the end of his life the frequent re- visions needed for a text-book became a burden to him; he could not make up his SCIENCE. [N. S. Von. VIL. No. 177. mind to a fifth edition and he wrote his ‘Lectures’ in a freer style of exposition. The book, however, that presents the best insight into Sachs’ individuality is his ‘ His- tory of Botany.’ Nageli had originally been commissioned to undertake this work, which was to form a part of ‘The History of Sci- ence in Germany,’ issued by the Royal Academy of Bavaria, but he had soon abandoned the task. It cost Sachs five years’ continuous toil. As with all human work, it has many defects and omissions, but the lucidity, the profound philosophical bent of Sachs’ mind, lend an incomparable charm to the whole. An English transla- tion of this work appeared in 1890. If I further attempt briefly to characterize Sachs’ importance with respect to science it is with a due sense of the difficulties of the case. His activity was so comprehensive, the results of his researches have become, through his ‘ Text-book,’ so largely common property that it is not easy briefly to set forth what he has done for science. One would have to write a history of botany from 1860 onwards to justly rate his. services. But this is by no means the place for such a work, nor do I feel equal to the task. The extracts already given show that he was no one-sided physiologist, and he was fully aware of the fact. ‘It may surprise you,’ he writes, ‘that from my boyhood the mysteries of relationship (sys- tematic botany) have interested me more than those of biology and physiology. I have apparently specialized in the last- named branch of science, because I have always been of the opinion that the ulti- mate problems of systematic botany can only be solved by physiological methods.” His latest treatises most clearly reveal what he meant. De Bary’s remarks with respect to Mohl apply more or less to almost all distin- guished investigators (‘ Bot. Zeitung,’ 1872, p. 572): ‘As regards a number of dis- May 20, 1898.] coveries for which we are indebted to Mohl, his claims to priority in them may justly be disputed if this expression be taken to de- note the pretension to have first seen or spoken ofa thing, * * * the lucid, con- fident recognition of it is, however, due to Mohl’s observation.”” But in Sachs’ case the remark applies not merely to the obser- vation of facts, to which Mohl confined him- self, but to bringing into prominence the importance of such facts in their relation to the common stock of our knowledge, and to the right ordering of observations in the general building of knowledge—work on which he laid great stress. He writes: “As I read your book I feel anew how much more merit there is in working out a comprehensive subject from reliable sources, and from a higher standpoint, than in constantly supplying fresh contributions, which, however meritorious in themselves, are yet as the scattered stones of the hillside compared to milestones pointing us on our way!” Sachs is best known and most famous as the founder of the modern physiology of plants, and his physiological works may be next touched upon. ‘ My earliest treatises,”’ he once wrote, ‘‘ were composed at a time when the physiology of plants was simply non-existent; I myself was entirely self- taught and consequently much of my work was imperfect, especially the manner of exposition.’? Nevertheless these earlier works are of great importance. Next to be named come his works upon chemical phil- osophy. The investigations of Ingenhouss, Th. de Saussure, Liebig, Boussingault and others had supplied the foundation upon which, in connection with the results of plant-anatomy, a more exact knowledge of the phenomena of metabolism was to be built up. It was Sachs who first pointed out ‘that the starch in chlorophyll is not merely a secondary deposit, but must be re- garded as the product of the assimilating SCIENCE, 697 activity (produced by the action of light) of the granular, chlorophyll substance; that it is formed in the chlorophyll out of its original elements, and is conducted to the growing buds and to the tissues which store up the reserve material ’’*—a brilliant addi- tion to our knowledge, the fundamental importance of which needs hardly to be demonstrated at the present day. The formation of starch largely engaged his attention later on. He contrived a simple means of quantitatively estimating starch-assimilation, and by the application of the ‘iodine test’ to leaves or portions of leaves, respectively, supplied an extraordi- narily simple and instructive method of demonstration. His services in improving the culture of plants in nutrient solutions are well known. They drew down upon him a violent attack from Knop which deeply wounded him, and not without reason. It is now one of the most elementary experiments in the physiology of plants to rear a plant from germination to seed-bearing by the admin- istration of nutrient salts, but at that time it was maintained that the seed-bearing plants of maize must have been placed in the solution of nutrient salts after they had attained a flourishing condition ! He incidentally discovered the interest- ing fact that polished marble slabs may be corroded by roots—a fact of some impor- tance for the understanding of the functions of these organs. He began to work upon en- tirely virgin soil when, at the close of his fiftieth year, he set on foot investigations which brought to light by microscopical tests, and above all by microchemical meth- ods, the movements, chemical changes, and final consumption of the reserve material during the growth of organs. These exper- iments have also proved of fundamental importance, and he lays stress upon the fact that they served first to lead him to think * “Collected Essays,’ p. 335. 698 that the chlorophyll grains are the true or- gans of assimilation. A bare reference must suffice to the classical treatises on the germination of the date-palm, of grasses, or on inulin, ete. In later years he ceased to contribute ex- perimentally to our knowledge of metab- olism. Other problems had meanwhile claimed his attention. His investigations— the first to be made—into the action of heat claim special notice. The phenomena of freezing had long been in need of investiga- tion, and here also Sachs’ work created a clear conception of the problem and went far towards clearing it up. Even more impor- tant were ‘The Physiological Experiments upon the Dependence of Germination on the Temperature.’ For by these the law of the ‘drei Kardinalpunkte’ (three cardinal points) was established, and the term ‘ Op- timum’ introduced for one of them—a name that has been adopted in other de- partments of science. These experiments were carried out with the simplest appliances not even in a botanical laboratory, but in his own rooms at Prague. His great man- ual dexterity and skill in devising simple, but extremely effective, instruments were most useful to him. The discovery that with sensitive organs there are temporary conditions of rigor due to heat and cold has become an intrinsic part of physiology, whilst the establishment of the fact that not only light, but at the same time a sufficiently high temperature, is needed for the formation of cholorophyll in the higher plants was of great interest. From amongst the series of researches grouped together in the Gesammelten Abhand- lungen (Collected Essays) under the heading ‘The Action of Light’ I should like shortly to refer to the treatise ‘Upon the Influence of Daylight on the Production and Devel- opment of Different Plant-organs.’ The fact that the formation of cells and organs is dependent upon light was sub- SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 177. mitted in this paper for the first time to a searching investigation ; it was shown that the formation: of roots was in many cases” directly favored by light; the conclusion was drawn from Wigand’s data that with fern prothallia light determines the dorsi- ventrality, and the phenomena of etiolation, which still present many enigmas, were more closely examined, The investigation into the action of light through the medium of the foliage-leaves upon the formation of flowers was especially important to Sachs, because it formed the starting-point for his later theory of ‘Matter and Form.’ It showed him that plants, such as Tropaeolwm, Brassica, ete., continue to produce etiolated stem-parts and leaves in darkness “in suf- ficient quantity for the production of fresh blooms if this depended only upon the bulk of the material stored for the purpose and not also upon the particular quality of it,” a fact that later led him to form his theory as to the specific matter out of which or- gans are formed. The formation of blos- soms was proved to depend directly or in- directly upon light, inasmuch as by the assimilating activity of the leaves in light the materials destined to produce flowers areformed. Later research into ‘ The action of the ultra-violet rays upon the production of flowers’ seeks to define this phenomenon more closely. The action of colored light upon plants in respect to assimilation and to their helio- tropic curves, ete., received soon after valu- able confirmation. Sachs introduced the simple and convenient method of counting the bubbles given off by water plants in light, and came to the conclusion (which lately has again been questioned) that the so-called chemical rays have very little to do with the giving off of oxygen. A keen controversy was aroused by the opinions he formed in consequence of his researches into ‘The movements of water in plants.’ But even if his inbibition May 20, 1898. ] theory be rejected it must not be forgotten how many valuable facts are due to his activity in this field. The effects produced by the chemical and physical state of the soil upon transpiration, the checking action of salt solutions, low temperatures, etc., were well established ; the ‘Lithium Method’ was used for measuring the rate of the trans- piration current; and the profound and far- reaching importance of transpiration for the life of most plants was demonstrated. A further laborious and protracted series of experiments dealt with the phenomena of growth and of movements produced by stimuli. Among the more notable of these are the construction of the first auxanom- eter, the graphic description of his observa- tions, and the recognition of the grand period of growth. His investigations into the growth of the main and side roots first proved convincingly the factors which condition the regular extension of the root system in the ground, and established the distribution of growth in roots, as well as the correlation between main and side roots. A number of isolated observations are also to be found in this exhaustive treatise. Sachs’ clear, perspicuous style renders it a pleasure to read any of his essays, even when he is compelled to enter minutely into detail. The phenomenon of ‘ Hydrotropismus’ (the name originated with Sachs) had al- ready been occasionally investigated, but Sachs showed it to be due to irritability, demonstrated its importance and facilitated the examination of it by a simple appara- tus. The ‘Hangende Sieb’ (hanging sieve) is now to be found, like the auxanometer and the klinostat, in every botanical labora- tory. The ‘Tropisms’ (Heliotropism, Geotro- pism, etc.) made large demands upon his time and attention. When under Hof- meister’s influence, as regards experimental physiology, he inclined to an external, me- SCIENCE. 699 chanical conception of these, but abandoned this later. His own words best denote his standpoint: ‘I, too, should have nothing to say against the term ‘ Lebenskraft’ (vital force), and have indicated as much from time to time in my ‘History of Botany,’ but the word has been spoilt and rendered nugatory by misuse. I say, therefore, to denote my conception of the organic world, that the province of true physiology begins where that of mechanics, physics and chemistry of organisms ends. Indeed, I go farther and maintain that the time will come when in physiology will be found the ultimate basis (what Goethe speaks of as ‘die Mutter’) of all natural sciences.” There is no need to say that this vitalistic view did not prevent him from working out with the deepest interest the phenomena of growth-curvatures. He also established the phenomenon known as ‘ after-effects,’ and contributed many other valuable iso- lated experiments. If he attached great importance to theo- ries, he was fully conscious of their transi- tory nature; and I might mention, as an example of this, that in his later years he did not lay so much stress upon his theory of Heliotropism. There will be more to say about this when reference is made to his treatise on orthotropic and plagiotropic organs. In the meanwhile attention must be di- rected to the essays upon the connection between cell-formation and growth, which in my opinion belong to his most brilliant achievements. As a result of Nageli’s re- searches on the apical cell, numerous botan- ical works had arisen dealing with the laws of cell-division. It was this tendency, ex- aggerated until it was justly dubbed ‘ Zell- fangerei,’ that led men to neglect plants and organs as a whole for the mere cells, and to take it as granted that growth is deter- mined by the manner and method of cell- division, much as the shape of a building 700 is determined by the way the building- stones are laid one upon another. Hofmeister’s brilliant, though hardly well-grounded, opposition had but little suc- cess; only a few botanists took any notice of it. It was Sachs who, in his usual clear manner and by the aid of simple contriv- ances, first explained the relations between cell-disposition and growth. In his opinion the latter is the determining factor, the ar- rangement of cells depending upon growth. This explained why, for instance, cross-sec- tions through cylindrical masses of cells in plants belonging to widely separated groups may present the same appearance of cell- arrangement as a developing alga or a hair of a dicotyledon. The introduction of the terms ‘ anticlinal’ and ‘ periclinal’ made a brief, striking bird’s-eye view of the matter possible, and facilitated further study of the changes in cell-disposition occurring during growth. A large group of facts was brought together under a common heading, and not only was the way made smooth for further investigations into the causes of the arrange- ment of cells, but an important point of departure was also made for experiments on the evolution of organs which do not possess an apical cell. The changes which had gradually taken place in the cell theory have led to an en- tire alteration in its original meaning. This prompted Sachs, who always felt the need of clear and consequently historically cor- rect conceptions, to introduce the definition ‘ Energid.? In my opinion he thereby ren- dered good service to science. It was a great satisfaction to him that his achieve- ments found favor with the most eminent histologists (Kupffer, for instance), and this consoled him for the fact that the botanists, ‘now as on other occasions, instead of test- ing the innovation in its general applica- tion, sought only too zealously for instances in which it did notapply. But the time will surely come when it will be deemed absurd SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 177. to describe a Caulerpa, for instance, as a ‘unicellular’ plant, and it fell to Sachs to fit scientific nomenclature to recent ad- vanees in knowledge. It was self-evident to him that definitions are only a means towards generalization and that they have absolutely no validity in themselves. The essay upon orthotropic and plagio- tropic plant-parts takes us into a region that lay nearest to Sachs’ heart during the last years of his life, namely, that of phys- iological or causative morphology. In this treatise he deals with the connection be- tween the structure (in the widest sense of the word) and the direction of the organs. The definitions ‘orthotropic’ and ‘ plagio- tropic’ were introduced, and referred more particularly to the dorsiventral structures that had long been neglected under the supremacy of the ‘spiral theory.’ He does not merely treat of the purely structural conditions, but of the causative relations between orthotropic growth and dorsiven- tral structure. Sachs would, I believe, have altered later his theoretical conclusions upon plagiotropism; they are based upon ideas which he no longer held, as we may see in the text, to be as thoroughly war- ranted as formerly. But putting aside these points, about which opinions still differ, we find ideas in this essay that are still work- ing with considerable effect in morphology. As a morphologist Sachs’ activity dis- played itself in one direction by some special studies that date from his earlier years, in another by his text-books, and again by his final general essays. His two treatises, on Collema* and Cru- cibulum, show him at work in the region of ceryptogams. It was he who in his ‘ Text- book’ defended Schwendener’s Lichen *In this essay he approached very closely to the later lichen theory when he said that it looked as if a parasitical fungus had established itself in the nos- toc; he believed that the nostoc-heterocysts might develop into a mycellium. May 20, 1898.] theory at a time when the cautious De Bary (in his criticisms of the second editions of the ‘ Text-book’) looked askanceatit. The Archegoniates are treated in the ‘ Text- book’ with special interest, forming part, as they had done, of his own researches. His grouping of thallophytes (in the fourth edition of the ‘ Text-book’), which met with such adverse criticism, has at any rate at- tained the satisfactory position of being approached again in our own days by many writers. Throughout his life he cared little for those details that often fill men’s lives, and preferred to view matters from a wide and general standpoint. In the first edition of his ‘ Text-book’ he had set his face against ‘idealistic morphology’ at a time when it was dominant, and in a paragraph of his ‘History ’ that promises to become classical he laid bare the foundations upon which this tendency rested. Darwinism was another bugbear to him and he intended to attack it vigorously in the ‘ Principles.’ ‘“ As far as it goes I am delighted to be free from ‘ the immutability of species’ and to be able on good grounds to accept evolution. But it is absolutely uncertain how we are to conceive of this latter. Therefore, I say that the natural system of classification is only to be ex- plained by descent, but how this is to be explained no one knows. I regard descent as a fact, like gravitation, about which also we are absolutely in the dark.”? His whole conception of the world rebelled against ‘the crude materialism’ which he thought he found in Darwinism. “If my ‘ Princi- ples’ do not meet with the response I had expected, they have done me good service in showing me that Darwinism as a whole is entirely superfluous for any scheme of the final causes ofnature. A superfluous theory has received its sentence.” He sought, however, to obtain some simi- lar conception of causes by his theory of SCIENCE. 701 ‘organ-forming matter,’ which caused the external diversity of organs to appear de- pendent upon their material differences of substance, a view which had its origin in the researches alluded to above on the de- pendence of bud-formation upon the as- similation activity of the leaves. By this a theoretical basis was gained for experi- mental morphology ; deformities, galls, etc., could be referred to definite changes of sub- stance; and the assumption that stem- forming substances find their way to the point of stem-growth, root-forming to that of the root-system, explained to him most naturally the facts to be seen in reproduc- tion. It is evident that in such a difficult subject one must look for sketches, or gen- eral views, rather than theories worked out in detail. But at any rate Sachs’ views are more fruitful than Nageli’s ‘Idio-plasma,’ and he made a number of experimental morphological studies on their bases. He had already arrived at the conception of the continuity of the embryonic sub- stance before the appearance of Weis- mann’s ‘Germ-plasm.’ ‘That which has maintained itself alive, and has continually reproduced itself since the beginning of or- ganic life upon the earth, moving steadily onward in the eternal change of all struc- tures, in the unvarying alternation of life and death, that is the embryonic matter of vegetation, and it is this which in certain cases differentiates itself into the two sexes in order again to unite.” He conceived of the multiplicity of plant forms as arising, on the one hand, from the phylogenetic morphological differentiation (this, however, he regarded as an ‘ absolute mystery’), and on the other from the re- action of the common vegetable substance in response to external stimuli (automor- phosis and mechanomorphosis). ‘ Adapta- tion’ in Darwin’s sense of the expression he considered entirely superfluous, and herein he was in entire agreement with 702 Nageli. He expressed his views in a powerful manner in his last writings—the physiological ‘Notices’* published in ‘Flora.’ The manuscript found after his death, entitled ‘The Principles of Vegeta- ble Formation,’ has been handed over to Professor Noll for publication. This slight sketch can give but an in- adequate idea of Sachs’ life-work, with its abundant results as regards science; in- deed, I can but liken what I have written to a man striking, one by one, a few strings of an instrument that has answered to the touch of some great musician. One may well say with the Psalmist in speaking of his days: ‘Yet is their strength but labor and sorrow.’’ Nevertheless his life has borne rich fruit ; his name is forever bound up with the his- tory of botany. He has enriched this science by the discovery of new and im- portant facts and conceptions and by his unrivalled power of clear definition. In the nature of things it is impossible that all his theories should retain acceptance, but they have all profoundly influenced his eontemporaries. There is no doubt that in any other calling Sachs would have risen to the first rank ; eccentricities and narrow ‘specializing’ were alike repugnant to him. In the last years of his life he applied him- self eagerly to paleontological and zoological studies. ‘I must be learning, always learn- ing,” he wrote in a letter. In spite of his incessant labors, he was one of the few men of the present day who possess the gift of letter-writing and withal & spirited style, clear and trenchant. And yet these letters, written during the last fifteen years of his life, form one long report of illness. At last Death, who in the latter years had often drawn very near, took him gently by the hand and led him to his final rest. K. GorEBEL. * These will shortly appear as a separate publica- tion. SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 177. THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS AT WOODS HOLL DURING THE MONTH OF APRIL, 1898. Tue temperature of the water has re- mained above the average almost through- out the month. During the first week the thermometer registered 41 F’. to 42 F.; dur- ing the last week, 45 F. to 46 F. The specific gravity has varied from 1.0231 to 1.0235. The weather has been generally cloudy and the temperature of the atmos- phere low. Vertebrates. — The winter flatfish, P. americanus, ceased spawning early in the month, and, though the height of the breed- ing season was in March, few of the young flatfish have been taken, even over the natural spawning grounds. Young sculpin (A. eneus) were very abundant-in the tow, especially during the first of the month. On April 4th a very large number were captured, and many were taken on the 18th. On the 27th a few more were taken which apparently had just hatched. Small cod and pollock have been frequently cap- tured, and the latter were more numerous: than in March. The young of the sand- launce (A. americanus) have diminished in numbers but little since last month, though some have increased considerably in size. On the 17th an unusually large number were taken. The young of the fall herring (A. harengus), from three-fourths of an inch to three inches in length, have appeared in increasing numbers. A few specimens of Ctenolabrus were examined on April 19th, but the sexual glands, though quite large, were not nearly mature. Petromyzon has. been taken in the fish traps, and may be seen frequently in the markets. Crustacea.—The small species of Gam- marus, abundant in the tow during March, are still breeding. Their appearance, from day to day, is uncertain. One day there may be only four or five in the net, and the next day hundreds may be captured. A May 20, 1898. ] small species of Mysis, about one-half inch in length, has been abundant, and the brood-pouches have been filled with eggs or embryos. A largerspecies, bearing well de- veloped embryos, was abundantly taken during the first two or three weeks. The red copepod, the favorite food of the young cod, sculpin and sand launce, has been present in great numbers. A few were caught at every haul of the skimming-net, and frequently great numbers were taken. Their sudden appearance and disappear- ance is very puzzling. Dr. Loeb has shown that in the aquaria they are positively or negatively heliotropic, according to the temperature, but I find that when first transferred from the surface-net into a dish a large minority become negatively helio- tropic, though, of course, all are subjected to temperature of the ocean. Many other species of copepods were caught, though not in great abundance. Some were bear- ing eggs attached to the abdominal append- ages. A small parasitic copepod is very frequently found attached to the young cod, sand launce and sculpin. Perhaps one- third of these fish are thus infested. The isopod (Cirolana concharum) was not breed- ing on April 26th, and the associated amphipod had apparently passed its breed- ing season. Hippa has not begun to lay, though the ovaries are full of large brill- iantly-coloredeggs. They have been found breeding in July. Vermes.—No Nereis virens or Nereis lim- bata have been seen at the surface. sdosocann University and Educational News Discussion and Correspondence :— Spiritualism asa Survival: PROFESSOR EDWARD S. Morse. ‘The New Psychology :’ Dr. E. W. SCRIPIURE. Fulgur perversum at Avalon, N. J.: LEWIS WooLMAN. The Definition of Species: PROFESSOR J. MCKEEN CATTELL................4- 749 Scientific Literature :-— Thaxter’s Monograph of the Laboulbeniacee. PRO- FESSOR GEO. F. ATKINSON. Agricultural Experi- ment Stations: T. D. A. COCKERELL. II Codice Allantico di Leonardo da Vinci: PROFESSOR R. Jal, ALEC OARSAYORY scosccosnsnabnaasnDbAsad.ooqNCASADa0R0IROOO 752 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y. ON THE GENETIC ENERGY OF ORGANISMS * For several years the conviction has been growing moreand more definite in my mind that the fundamental principle in vital phenomena is to be found in variation rather than in heredity. The first time this opinion was definitely expressed in print was in ‘Geological Biology’ (1894): “Variability is thus assumed to be an in- herent characteristic of all organisms, and origin of species has primarily to consider how comparative permanency of characters, and of different sets of characters in differ- ent lines of descent, is brought about” (p. 184); and: ‘‘ The search has been for some cause of variation; it is more probable that mutability is the normal law of organic action, and that permanency is the acquired law,’’ ete. (p. 297). Two years later Pro- ' fessor L. H. Bailey said in his ‘The Sur- vival of the Unlike’ (1896): “In other words, I look upon heredity as an acquired character, the same as form or color or sen- sation is, and not as an original endowment of matter’’ (p. 23). Perhaps others have published the same conclusion, but, if so, I have not elsewhere seen the point ad- vanced as a scientific proposition. The conviction was reached on my part through studies in paleontology. As early as 1881 I was struck by the evidence of a * A paper read before the American Society of Naturalists, December 24, 1897, by Henry Shaler Williams, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. 722 beginning, adolescence, maturing and old age of races of species in the geological past, advanced by Hyatt and later elab- orated so fully by him and others. I re- flected back to the nature of development, which such geological recapitulation seems to imitate, as a process in which the cellu- lar parts of the individuals are undergoing a constant process of varying, and I con- ceived of the law of recapitulation as an ex- tension of the principle of varying first seen in the cells of the individual to successive organisms. ‘This principle of ‘recapitula- tion,’ which was taught by Agassiz, empha- sizes at least the wide applicability of vari- ability in organic processes. I have been testing, in all conceivable ways, the application of this theory to the facts of biology for the past fifteen years, but for only a short time have I been aware of the revolutionary nature of the conception. As I discover no escape from the essential validity of the proposition, and because of the importance of it for future investiga- tions, and because few biologists with whom I have spoken seem to understand the im- portance of the problem at issue, it may not be inappropriate to attempt at this time to state the foundation upon which the theory appears to rest. THE SOURCE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ORGANIC PHENOMENA. One of the difficulties standing in the way of forming clear and distinct notions of organic phenomena lies in the fact that we are not accustomed to orient them in their exact relationship to the current no- tions of physical and mathematical science. When we contémplate a physical body of matter as growing, varying, inheriting, ac- quiring characters or selecting, the body which performs these acts so far transcends anything which the physicist knows about simple masses of matter, and the perform- ances so far transcend the kind of work he SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VIL. No. 178. is accustomed to deal with, that, as a phy- sicist (whatever his opinion may be of biol- ogists), he frankly confesses he has no knowledge in the case. Without attempt- ing any metaphysical discussion, and with- out stating whether the biologist does or does not know any more than the physicist in the matter, we may join hands with the latter in the belief that if anything is known about them it can be expressed in scientific terms only by an analysis of the observed phenomena in the case. In seeking, therefore, for the fundamen- tal characteristic of a living organism we ask, first, how does it differ, phenomenally, from a similar body not organic? If we consider ultimate chemical or physical constitution we discover no funda- mental distinction between a living organ- ism and the same body of dead matter. The same chemical elements compose them ; the same physical properties pertain to each. Eyen mechanically, it is perhaps impossible to define wherein they differ. When we observe the functions of the organism we note certain phenomena in the living body not operating in the same body after death ; but in all these functions we discover none which are not like those of dead bodies of matter in this respect that a specific amount of equivalent of heat- energy is used in their operations, and the energy used is transformed from some other condition, as in inert matter, and no energy seems to be gained or lost in the process. Thus in the two aspects of constitution and action of the bodies it is difficult, and probably it is impossible, scientifically, to describe any constant point of difference in quality between an organism and a body of matter which is not alive. There is, however, one point of difference : A living body is constantly changing in its material constitution, while an inert body remains the same. An organism persists in becoming different so long as it lives, May 27, 1898.] while a mass of matter remains in a state of rest or of uniform direction of motion, except as compelled by some outward force to change that state. It may be objected, here, that this differ- ence is a subjective one, and has no objec- tive reality, in that a body, of which the substance is undergoing change, cannot be regarded as strictly the same body after as before the change. If the objection be valid we must still remember that it is such a changing phys- ical body which grows, inherits, acquires characters, ete., that we are studying. But whether the objection be valid or not, it is essential to keep our attention on the objective reality, the living organism, whatever difficulties we may have sub- jectively ; and the one group of phenomena which the live organism exhibits character- istically is that of becoming different. It is, then, this distinguishing character- istic of the living body—its becoming dif- ferent—that constitutes the point of view from which it is believed the true relaticns of the organism to other physical bodies may be seen. Most biologists, I suppose, are accustomed to treat of living organisms as if they were simple physical masses of matter exhibiting their peculiar phenomena solely on account of their peculiar organization, including under that term molecular arrangement of the protoplasm as well as molar organiza- tion of the body of the individual. This conception involves the hypothesis that the peculiarity of the phenomena is to be ac- counted for by difference in kind, state, condition or structure of the component matter of the body. Starting with such a conception, let us examine the phenomena and discover of what they consist. CLASSIFICATION OF VITAL PHENOMENA. In order to distinguish the phenomena SCIENCE. 723 of the organism from other phenomena and to restrict our attention, let us call the peculiar visible phenomena of an organism vital phenomena. Vital Phenomena may be divided into three groups, according to the relation they bear to mode of existence. A. When the question is: What organisms are? the phenomena described in the an- swer are found in the sciences of Botany, Zoology, Anatomy, etc. B. When we ask: What do organisms do ? the phenomena are described under the names of Physiology, Physiological Chem- istry and Psychophysics. C. When we ask: What do organisms be- come? the replies are found in Paleontol- ogy, Embryology, Evolution and Psy- chology. This third group (C) of phenomena, be- cause they are modes of becoming different and ina peculiar sense arise or are gen- erated, may be called genetic phenomena. The other two classes (A and B) may be left out of discussion for the present, be- cause their relationships to ordinary physical phenomena are sufficiently distinct and evident. The Genetic Phenomena of organisms are of, at least, three kinds; they are de- scribed under the scientific categories of C' Metabolism, C’ Development, and C’ Lvolution. In the phenomena of each of these three categories there are two elements, viz.: (1) a something which preserves its identity and integrity during the phenomena, which may be designated by the symbol «; and (2) a something which arises during the phenomenon and remains as an increment to the first; this may be represented by y. C'. In Metabolism «w stands for the matter flowing into the organism from without, and constitutes the physical basis of the or- ganic body at any particular moment of its 724 . existence; y is the complex and instable chemical union of the elements, set up in anabolism, which represents a definite quantity of potential chemical energy, that may be set free when the substance falls back into the more stable equilibrium of its previous condition, by processes of katabol- ism, or final decay. C’. In Development « is the vitalized pro- toplasm and other forms of the organized material basis of the organism ; and 7 is the differentiation of cell, tissue and organ, or what, in general, is described by the term organization of the body of the organism. C’. In Evolution x is the individual or- ganism, at any particular moment of its existence, which lengthens out by processes of generation into a series of successive in- dividuals ; and y is variation, when a single individual is considered, or divergence, when the series is considered, of both form and function, and results in ‘ modification of characters’ and ‘ origin of species.’ The genetic phenomena in these three categories form a series in which y of the first becomes x of the second, y of second becomes w of the third; and thus y of the third seems to be the direct outcome of the matter taken in and appropriated in the metabolic process at the beginning of the series. This inferencé would follow were it not for a second fact, viz.: that the first group of phenomena never (according to present knowledge) takes place except when the matter flows into a living organism. This fact proves that the matter, except for the action of the living organism, would not metabolize, but would be simply aggregated to the previous mass of the organism, in the same condition as when it met the organism, Thus it becomes evident that metabolism is a function of the organism upon receiving the increment of inert matter ; and going on to the second category we likewise discover that the organizing of the matter is a func- tion of the living organism ; and still fur- SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 178. ther on it is evident that the variation and the divergence of characters in evolution are functions of living organisms alone. In each case the phenomena are alike for like conditions of previous living organism, but they are unlike for like conditions of both the material medium and the ma- terial additions derived from without the organism. Hence it is proper to say that the determination of the genetic phenomena may be traced directly to a previous living organism, always present and active, and not to the conditions of the materials with- out at any particular moment of the process. NATURE OF AN ORGANIC BODY. This brings us to the consideration of another problem: What kind of a thing is this organic body which exhibits such genetic phenomena ? Tait tells us that ‘‘ In the physical uni- verse there are but two classes of things, matter and energy.” He has further elab- orated the proposition in the following words: ‘‘ Energy, like matter, has been ex- perimentally proved to be indestructible and uncreatable by man. It exists, there- fore, altogether independently of human sense and human reason, though it is known to man solely by their aid.” Again, in the Newtonian formula we have the following proposition about matter in general, viz.: ‘‘ Every body continues in its state, of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, except in so far as it is com- pelled by force to change that state.” With these definitions in our minds, what answer can be given to the question: Is a living organism an inert body or mass of matter ? and second: Is its integrity and in- dividuality determined by a compelling force? In forming a reply we note the fol- lowing particulars : 1. The matter of a living organism, as well as its form or configuration, is con- stantly undergoing change, while its integ- rity, identity and individuality persist. May 27, 1898.] 2. The atomic matter which flows into the organism in metabolism suffers change, both molecular and in mass, without inter- fering with the continuous operation of the genetic phenomena of the organism as a whole. 3. The energy which is added to that of the organism by way of this acquired matter does not determine the course of the genetic phenomena, since, as has been said, the same matter behaves differently as it enters different organisms, and different matter is made to behave according to the law of the organism which it unites with. 4. The thing transmitted from parent to offspring, through which alone we are able to trace the determining power of the ge- ‘netic phenomena in each case, cannot be matter alone, for matter is in itself inert; as Maxwell tells us: ‘‘We are acquainted with matter only as that which may have energy communicated to it from other mat- ter, and which may, in its turn, communi- cate energy to other matter. Energy, on the other hand, we know only as that which in all natural phenomena is constantly pass- ing from one portion of matter to another.” (‘ Matter and Motion,’ p. 165, 1878.) 5. Hence it follows that that which de- termines the individuality of the genetic phenomena of a living body, constitutes the integrity of the organism as distinct from a mass of matter, and preserves its iden- tity through all the changes it undergoes, is energy, not matter. 6. A living organism physically behaves, not like an identical mass of matter, but like a stream of matter slowly entering and departing from the field of some continuous, identical form of energy. It behaves like a magnet, or a heated body, the phenomena exhibted by which are temporary and de- termined by whatis called a particular form of energy resident for the time in the mass, and not determined by the particular ma- terials, or arrangement of materials, of SCIENCE. 725 which the body is composed., Whenever the non-living matter from outside enters the living organism it exhibits for the first time the vital phenomena, and when it passes out of the field of the organism these peculiar phenomena cease and are not set up again till the matter comes again into the field of a living organism. Thus the © physicist explains the color of an opaque object, not as the property of the material body as such, but as a phenomenon pro- duced by the reflection of light energy by the body. The matter has color only as illuminated from without by light energy. A GENETIC FORM OF ENERGY. This train of analysis leads to the recog- nition of a genetic form of energy, on the princi- ple of classification used in physical science. The physicist already recognizes the three forms—chemical, molecular and molar en- ergy. ‘The basis of that classification is the distinction between the three kinds of ma- terial units whose relation to each other, in each case, is disturbed in the phenomenal expression of energy of the several forms. Chemical energy is expressed when the re- lation of atoms changes. Molecular energy is the form of the energy when molecules change their relations; and it is molar energy which is exhibited when bodies or masses of matter change their positions in relation to each other. The genetic phe- nomena, above described, differ from the phenomena of each of the three classes named in that they concern changes of re- lation of living organic bodies only. It seems, therefore, appropriate, on this basis of classification, to speak of genetic energy as a fourth form of energy of equal rank with the chemical, molecular and molar energies of the physicist. The recognition of this peculiarity of genetic energy gives at once rational mean- ing to such terms as doing, varying, acquir- ing, etc., which are appropriate when ap- 726 plied to organisms, but have only figura- tive meaning when applied to any other of the classes of matter or material bodies. When a living organism is compared with a mechanical engine we note, first, that the work done by the machine is all accounted for by (a) the amount of coal burned and other potential energy entering in a sim- ilar way ; and, second, that the construction (what Maxwell called the ‘ configuration of the mass’) of the machine is accounted for by (0) the energy of the laborers expended in building it, together with (c) the potential energy of the bodies of matter used in the construction. But after bal- ancing all these resources with the corre- sponding work accomplished, there still ap- pears an item of cost of energy that has gone into the machine which must be rep- resented also on the side of work done, viz.: (d) the designing of the architect. Employing the same evidence which Tait deemed to be valid as a proof of the objective reality of energy, 7%. e., the price of labor, we discover that the architect’s labor must be accounted for in the work done, or else it was wasted energy. Furthermore, because, on the potential side of the account, we are able to sharply distinguish the designing from the constructing of the engine, we are authorized to reckon them as separate elements in the cost of the work done. It is to be noted that the particular kind of work performed by the architect, although it involves motion, is not strictly speaking any particular mode of motion, which may be measured in terms of horse- power, though measurable in terms of man- power. This may explain the reason why no account of his work is taken in estimating the potential energy of a machine. Never- theless, all know that it requires the ex- penditure of energy which has a price, and is exerted only by a living organism. If designing costs energy in the con- struction of a physical machine, is it not SCIENCE. [N. 8. Von. VII. No. 178 reasonable to look for a similar expendi- ture of energy in the construction of a living machine? In the phenomena of an organism we find the same groups of ex- penditure involved in the work done. These expenses are (a) the outside energy of heat, etc., of the food consumed; (0) the energy used in tissues exhausted in growth of construction ; (c) that of the materials built into the structure with their potential energies abiding with them. These three, like the first three in machine construction, are accounted for on both sides of the equation. There remains to be considered the fourth group (d), viz.: that which cor- responds to the designing of the machine and the potentiality of work consequent upon the designing. It will now be evident that, in the organism, that group of phenomena classified above as genetic constitutes this fourth group. The importance of, and the direction in which successful search for the ‘source of genetic energy is likely to be made, are suggested by the following three facts. First the chief aim of biological in- vestigations for the last half century has centered about the search for exactly this determining cause of the particular form of construction of organisms. This, in itself, is sufficient evidence of a prevailing belief that some such cause is to be naturally ac- counted for. Secondly, the main points of construction of a particular organism cor- respond to those of the parent organism, and not to anything in the material of which it is constructed, is sufficient to suggest the direction from which the energy comes which determines the construction. A third fact, that the three kinds of genetic phenomena (metabolism, development and evolution) are but elaborations of a single mode of operation, further points to the probability that the determining energy in question is the same for each. And all these considerations seem to lead directly to the conclusion, that some form of energy MAY 27, 1898. ] must be predicated for the purely genetic phenomena of organisms, to account, that is, for the particular course of development followed by each species, and the particular course of divergence seen in each line of evolution. These conclusions seem to rest on as valid a foundation as that the visible colors of bodies are determined by light energy, or that the temperature phenomnena of physical bodies are determined by heat energy. APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF GENETIC ENERGY. The application of this theory of genetic energy will become evident by attempting to distribute, in accordance with it, such a set of vital phenomena as are grouped to- gether in Darwin’s list of factors of evolu. tion. In the ‘Origin of Species’ Darwin gave the following brief summary of the factors entering into the origin of species: ‘‘ These laws, taken in the largest sense, being growth, with reproduction ; inherit- ance, which is almost implied by reproduc- tion ; variability, from the indirect and di- rect action of the external conditions of life, and from use and disuse ; a ratio of increase so high as to lead to a struggle for life, and as a consequence natural selection, entail- ing divergence of characters and the extinc- tion of less improved forms.” In this list eleven distinct factors are named. The question arises: What is the place of each in a system of vital phenom- ena in which variability is assumed to be _ the most fundamental of all? The first factor, growth, in so far as it in- cludes the material increase of the living body by the acquirement of matter from outside, and the reduction of it to a living state in metabolism, is one of the three forms of the fundamental genetic phenom- ena of variability. The second factor, reproduction, is made up of two distinct phenomena: (a) the act SCIENCE. 127 of separating a living body into two or more distinct units, precisely called generation ; and (6) the process by which the individual body is constructed after the fashion of its immediate ancestors, precisely called de- velopment. (a) The first, generation, is a mechanical phenomenon, not necessary or fundamental to all living ; for it is not con- tinually occurring, nor is it possible to occur till after some degree of development is accomplished. Hence, we may assume that itis an acquired phenomenon, @. é., an ex- pression of interaction between the genetic energy of the organism and the energies of the materials of construction and the en- vironment. (0) The second, development, is the second form of the fundamental process above described, and is a necessary and universal characteristic of all living bodies. In Darwin’s list the phenomena of develop- ment are partly included under the term growth, but material increase is not neces- sarily development. Metabolism is the acquirement and vivifying of inert matter by and into an individual organism; de- velopment is the differentiation of this mass into increased complexity of organization and function. The third factor, inheritance, is the name for the law observed in the course of devel- opment by which the living body success- ively assumes the characters of the other body from which it was separated in gener- ation. This law of repetition of the char- ters of ancestors cannot be a fundamental phenomena, because if it were strictly car- ried out no development would take place, and evolution results only by ignoring or transegressing the law of inheritance. We must assume, therefore, that inheritance is acquired, and in any series of organisms the law of inheritance became operative only after generation had arisen, and after the attainment of some degree of inequality had been reached between parent and off- spring at the point of the act of generation, 728 a. €., the parent organism must be more de- veloped than the germ cell it propagates. Inheritance is the completing of the devel- opment of the germ as a separate body after generation in the likeness of the parent from which it was separated. The fourth factor, variability, is the primary genetic phenomenon of all organ- isms which, in a particular case, relatively or entirely ceases with the acquirement of inheritance in the course of development, or with the acquirement of fixation and permanence of specific form in evolution. It may be regarded as the most direct and characteristic expression of genetic energy. The next three factors, ratio of increase, struggle for life and natural selection, are, as vital phenomena, of a purely secondary nature. Each of them implies the previous operation in the same organism of develop- ment, variation and the acquired phenom- enon of generation. The discussion of these factors, though of extreme interest for other purposes, and by many considered to be the chief causes of evolution, do not ap- pear as true determining causes of modifi- cation, but causes rather of removal from the field of such organisms as cease to con- tinue in the race. This point was granted by Darwin, as Cope reminded his readers in ‘Primary Factors of Evolution.’ He held that natural selection does not induce variability; ‘it implies only the preserva- tion of such variations as arise and are beneficial.’ In making this statement it is important to note the distinction between variability and variation. A variation which is trans- mitted or preserved by natural selection loses its variability exactly to the extent of its preservation ; therefore, natural selec- tion checks variability. The factors of indirect and direct action of the external conditions of life, and use and disuse,* which in the Darwin- jan and Lamarckian theories of evolu- SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 178. tion play so important a part as causes of variation, cannot hold their place of supreme importance if, as is here main- tained, variation be the fundamental factor in genetic problems. From this latter point of view the organism is conceived of, not as passively shaped by the conditions of environment, but as finding its fundamental function in actively occupying environ- ment; and adjustment is a positive active process involving constant modification. Adjustment is, thus, a result of successful varying, rather than varying a result of maladjustment. From this point of view the factors, external conditions of life, use and disuse, struggle for life, and natural se- lection, though operative in determining the course of developmental construction of the ~organism, are effective in the way of limit- ing, restricting, giving permanence to and making hereditary the characters which arise by the direct activity of genetic energy. The tenth factor, divergence of charac- ters, which by Darwin was conceived of as the direct result of the action of the above factors, is, according to this view, a characteristic genetic phenomenon, taking place with greater or less rate of progress in every organic series. It is organic evolution, proper, and consists in the ac- quirement, by a particular living organism, in the course of its individual development, of characters not possessed by its ances- tors. The first step in such evolution is necessarily variation. This analysis of the Darwinian factors of evolution presents us with two classes of phenomena, viz.: I. Three of them are fundamental phe- nomena exhibited by every living organic body, and it would appear (although not always visibly, still theoretically) continu- ously during active existence of the organ- ism. ‘These have been called genetic phe- nomena, because they are constantly result- ing in genesis of changed state, condition or MAy 27, 1898. ] form of the bodies exhibiting them. They are: (a) Growth, strictly speaking Metabo- lism ; (6) Development (the second part of the factor called Reproduction by Darwin), and (c) Divergence of Character—properly Evolution—which includes the phenomena of variation. II. The second group of factors are all of a secondary nature. They are: (a) the first part of Reproduction, 7. e. Generation, which is seen in its simplest form in Mitosis, next in cell-cleavage, in which the process results in producing two more or less equal and similar parts; and only in organism of some degree of differentiation in struc- ture does it result in true generation through the formation of immature germ-cells, which continue development along hereditary lines of generation ; (6) Inheritance, which cannot take place till inequality between germ and parent is already attained at the time of generation, and the attainment of this inequality cannot be primitive; (c) Ratio of Increase; (d) Struggle for life, and (e) Natural Selection, none of which can occur till after generation and inheritance have resulted in the production of antagon- istic individuals. The fundamental genetic phenomena of the first group are related to each other, and therefore distinguished, in the same way as the fundamental phenomena of non- living matter are related and distinguished in chemical, molecular and molar groups. Metabolism pertains to changes in the mo- lecular relations of the contents of a living cell; Development pertains to transmuta- tions of the cellular contents (as cells, tis- sues and organs) of a living unit, 7. e., the or- ganic individual; Hvolution pertains to the modifications of the individual members of a genetic series of successive organisms. These three forms of genetic phenomena are alike in that they all consist in the modi- fication or change in the mode of action or function of the body expressing them. SCIENCE. \ 729 In Metabolism, molecules, which in nor- mal chemical phenomena (not organic) have been at rest, or passing into or toward con- ditions of more stable equilibrium, in vital phenomena pass upward into more unstable combinations. Ispeak, of course, of the an- abolic phenomena of metabolism, In Development, bodies, which under the influence of physical forces would move to- ward a state of greatest rest and equilibrium, are in the living body actively engaged in changing position and overcoming resisting forces. In Evolution, series of bodies, normally revolving in adjusted cycles of generational reproduction are slowly departing from the hereditary course of these cycles, and ac- quire new characters which their ancestors did not possess. The recoguition of the fundamental na- ture of this principle of varying, or trans- mutation, in living bodies not only ties to- gether all the vital phenomena into a consistent system of correlated processes, but it brings their phenomena into a natural relationship to the normal phenomena of inorganic matter. The path by which these conclusions are reached is not a new one, but is simply an extension of the same line of thought which a century ago led to the overthrow of the Cuvierian notion of species. The mutability of species was a necessary preliminary step in the formation of a clear notion of organic evolution. We must carry the idea one step further and recognize the essential mutability of the organism. As in the last cen- tury the whole classification of organisms was based on the theory that the species was an immutable unit, so at the present time the whole classification of biological phenomena is based on the assumption that heredity is a fixed immutablelaw. The prin- ciple of mutability must be recognized in the phenomena of development before we can rightly comprehend the laws of organic life. 730 Variability is the expression of the funda- mental energy of the organism, and is not an irregular accident. Heredity is the ex- pression of the acquired adjustment of the organism to the conditions of its existence. Mutable heredity sounds like a contra- diction ; so did mutable species a century ago; but it is only as heredity is mutable that evolution is possible. THE MEASUREMENT OF SMALL GASEOUS PRESSURES.* Prior to the invention of the McLeod vacuum gauge, the measurement of even moderately small gaseous pressures was difficult, and subject to large errors. The introduction of the McLeod gauge, however, early in the seventies, seemed to solve the problem. In its ordinary form, and for most purposes, this beautiful instrument admirably serves the purpose for which it is designed. But when very accurate meas- urements of pressures as small as a few millionths only of atmospheric pressure are desired, its performance is extremely unsatisfactory and vexatious. As is well known, the chief cause of the difficulty is the unequal and variable capillary depres- sion of the two small columns of mercury, whose difference in height indirectly serves as the measure of pressure. Accurate measurement of this capricious difference obviously avails nothing. Three or four years ago I was engaged in an investigation requiring frequent and simultaneous measurements of slight but different pressures in two large glass globes connected by a capillary tube. For this purpose I constructed and carefully cali- brated two large McLeod gauges. The in- ternal diameter of the mercury tubes was about three millimeters, and they were made from. contiguous parts of the same glass tube selected for uniformity of bore. * Read before the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, August 12, 1897. SCIENCE. [N.S. Von. VII. No. 178. These gauges were often compared by measuring the same vacuum with both, but they rarely gave concordant results. Indeed, it was not uncommon at high ex- haustions for one or the other of them to indicate a negative vacuum ; that is to say, less than no pressure at all. The case of these two gauges is cited because of the op- portunity they afforded for comparison. In prior work I had, like most experimental- ists, used but one gauge, and, while always suspicious of its indications, had no means of knowing how large its errors might be. The phenomenon which I next desired to investigate is the spontaneous evolution of of gas from glass and other surfaces in high vacua. For this purpose an accurate and entirely reliable means for measuring very ‘small pressures was necessary, because I could not afford to wait months or years for the evolution of sufficient gas to be detected with certainty by the old gauges. To meet these requirements, I designed, constructed, and learned how to use, the modified form of McLeod gauge, which it is the purpose of this paper to discuss. The diagram herewith shows the essen- tial parts of my apparatus. The bulb A, of the gauge, is made conical in its upper part to avoid adhesion of gas bubbles when the mereury rises. This bulb holds about eleven pounds of mercury. 5b and C are the gauge head and comparison tube re- spectively. They are nearly twenty milli- meters inside diameter, and are made from contiguous parts of the same carefully se- lected tube. D is the usual air trap, and E is a long glass tube, with flexible pure rubber connections to the lower end of the gauge stem and the mercury cistern F. The latter is mounted on a carriage G, which moves vertically on fixed guides. The height of the carriage is adjustable, at .the upper end of its range of motion, by means of screw H, thumb-nut I and forked support K. The screw is pivoted to the May 27, 1898.] SCIENCE 732 carriage, so that it may swing out of the fork when the carriage is lowered. Lisa pinch-cock with screw for regulating the flow of mercury, or stopping it altogether, while pumping out the trap D. N is a bulb containing phosphorus pentoxide, to keep the interior of the gauge and other parts of the apparatus perfectly dry. P is a very elaborate cathetometer for observing the mercury columns in B and C. This beautiful instrument has a revolving column with vertical scale, and vernier with mi- scrope, reading to hundredths of a milli- meter. The eye-piece micrometer reads directly to hundredths of a millimeter, and the divisions on the revolving head of the screw are so open, that tenths of divisions are easy and certainly estimated by an ex- perienced eye, thus permitting the microm- eter to be read directly to thousandths of a millimeter. Of course the cathetometer is permanently located not as shown, but with the objective of its telescope equally distant from the axes of the tubes B and C, when it is alternately directed to them, and at such a distance that its micrometer read- ings correspond to a millimeter scale. The whole apparatus is located in a basement room, on a stone floor, whereby vibrations are reduced to a minimum. The most important part of the gauge is the head B. The purpose of its great di- ameter is the reduction of capillary depres- sion in its mercury column. But its size necessitates a very close approach of the mercury to its upper end, in order to re- duce sufficiently its capacity. Yet the re- maining space must be measurable by the cathetometer, with the utmost precision. Hence the glass must not be distorted by heating, and the closed end just over the mercury must be sharply defined. In con- structing this part of the apparatus, I se- lected a piece of heavy tubing which would just slip inside of B, with the least possible clearance. One end of this tube was closed SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 178. as squarely as possible. by fusion, and then. ground with fine emery and a suitable tool, to a convex spherical surface of a long radius. Care was taken to make the cen- ter of curvature lie in the axis of the tube, and the ground surface was left unpolished to facilitate observation. A suitable length of the closed end of the tube was then cut off, slipped into B, and both tubes were fused together at their open ends, as shown. For calibrating the head B, a ground glass stopper with a capillary duct was fitted to its neck, before the latter was sealed to the bulb A. The head was then filled with mercury by boiling, thus completely filling the small space between its wall and the cap. After cooling, the stopper was in- serted to expel all excess of mercury, and the whole weighed. Next the head was emptied, and the mercury in the annular space distilled out. Again the head was. very nearly filled with mercury, without al- lowing any to get into the annular space, and weighed as before; and the space be- tween the top of the mercury and the con- vex end of the head was very- carefully measured by the cathetometer. This pro- cess of weighing and ~easuring was re- peated several times, with less mercury each time. Thus the capacity of a vertical millimeter of the head was ascertained, as well as the capacity that would remain, if the top of the meniscus of mercury just touched the convex end of the gauge, above it. Finally the neck was sealed to the bulb A, and the capacity of head, neck and bulb combined was found by weighing them empty, and again filled with mercury. For lighting the top of each mercury col- emn, a narrow horizontal slit in an opaque screen, Ris used. The slit is covered with a strip of ground glass and obliquely illu- minated by an electric lamp. The screen and slit are vertically adjusted by a thumb screw S. The heat of the lamp is pre- vented from reaching the mercury col- May 27, 1898. ] umns and head B, by a thick screen. This is very necessary. In order to get the best results from the apparatus, many precautions are necessary. After filling A and B with mercury, time must be allowed for the compressed gas to cool. The effect of changing barometric pressure is nearly eliminated by so regu- lating the quantity of mercury in F, that its surface is in the small tube at the bot- tom of the cistern, when the gauge is prop- erly filled. Its area is then very small, as compared with that in B and C. The height of the meniscus in both tubes is easily adjusted sensibly equal, by a little manipulation. I always raise the mercury above the point at which readings are to be taken, and then lower it, so as to read on a falling meniscus. This is highly important. Some trouble was occasionally experi- enced at first, from electro-static induction between the mercury in B, and the glass above it. This was shown by distortion of the miniscus when it was brought very near the glass. The difficulty was par- tially, but not wholly remedied by putting mercury in the outside open end of the gauge head, and connecting it by a flexible conductor with the mercury in the cistern F. A complete remedy was effected by moistening the inside of the gauge head with a dilute solution of phosphorus pen- toxide. This became completely dried by the anhydrous phosphorus pentoxide in N, but was, of course, not dehydrated, and hence always remains conducting, and dis- sipates the static charge. Large pressures, up to a thousand mil- lionths or more, are readily measured with this apparatus, by finding with the cathe- tometer the distance between the mercury in B, and the end of the head above it; from this is quickly calculated the neces- sary multiplier for the number of milli- meters difference in height between the columns B and C, also measured by the SCIENCE. 733 cathetometer, in order to express the result in millionths. For very small pressures, the micrometer wires are set at such a dis- tance apart as to give a convenient con- stant (usually 2), and the column in B is adjusted this distance away from the glass, careful allowance being made for the thick- ness of the wires. Then the micrometer is used for repeated measurements of the dif- ference in height of the mercury in B and C. The disturbing effect of bias is entirely eliminated by giving the micrometer screw a partial turn after each reading. Thus the next measurement is made without any knowledge of its difference from the pre- ceding one, until the eye is removed from the telescope. In my early experience with the appar- atus, unusually careful measurements of very small pressures were often made, to de- termine how far its indications might be re- lied upon. - In this connection I quote as fol- lows from my notes, under date of February 20, 1895, concerning the last one of a series of pressure determinations :‘* Following is the last reading in detail, showing the ex- treme accuracy of these measurements: 432 M. .438 M. .441 M. 441‘ 4335‘ 429 ** 4335 “* 4275 ‘* 4305 ‘* =A 26) .450 ‘ 435° “* 4335) * 4425 “ 432 4895 ‘ -432 4185 ‘‘ 4305 ‘ fei 0 iets OC 441“ 432 “6 453“ Ce (0 4215 ‘ 4425 ‘ 435“ 4245 ‘ 438“ Means...... 4347 .43365 ‘S 43545 * ‘Mean of all the readings, .4846 M. ‘‘ Readjusted zero point of micrometer be- fore each reading of each set. Partially emptied gauge and readjusted capillary depression before each set of readings. The first series has no known source of error. The second and third series were made during wind squall, and surface of mercury was often tremulous. In the 734 third series, capillary depression was per- ceptibly though very slightly unequal, in direction to make readings too high.” In the above quotation ‘M’ means mil- lionths of atmospheric pressure. The cal- culated probable error of the thirty read- ings taken together, is only ninety-two hundredths of a unit in the third decimal place ; that is to say, less than a thous- andth part of a millionth of atmospheric pressure. The probable error of the three mean results, considered as single readings, is only eleven hundredths of a unit in the third decimal place of millionths. The net result may be expressed as follows, in terms of atmospheric pressure: Considered as thirty measurements : 0.000 000 434 60 + 0.000 000 000 92. Considered as three measurements : 0.000 000 434 60 + 0.000 000 000 11. Here we have the measurement of a total quantity of less than half a millionth of at- mospheric pressure, with a probable error of only about a fifth of one per cent. of the quantity measured. To show how small is the effect of vari- able capillary depression in the large mer- cury columns, the following measurements were made July 25, 1897. No correction was made of accidental capillary differences, but the columns were always observed with a falling meniscus. The zero of the microm- eter was freshly adjusted for each reading, and before each of the six sets of readings the mereury was lowered and then read- justed to the proper height in the gauge head. M. M. M. M. M. M 2.202 2.210 2.203 2.209 2.198 2.198 204 «64.195 = .202-— («i203 204 ~=—s «198 -209 .198 .204 .208 .200 .196 203 «.204 «= 210s «200 )3= 6196). 208 -203, «192, 202 « -198 196-203 Means 2.2058 2.1984 2.2054 2.2014 2.1988 2.2014 Calculating the probable errors we have: Six mean readings...... 2.20187 M. + 0.00073 M. All readings ........... 2.20187 ‘* + 0.00059 ‘‘ SCIENCE. [N. 8. Von. VIL. No. 178. The effect of not equalizing the capillary depression is very apparent when these re- sults are compared with the earlier ones quoted. But on account of increased skill- fulness of observation, due to long experi- ence, the individual readings of each set are more uniform than before ; so that the net result is better. In this example, we have the measure- ment of about two millionths of atmos- pheric pressure, with a probable error of only one part in three thousand, of the quantity measured. From the foregoing, we may safely con- clude that with the apparatus described, small gaseous pressures may be easily meas- ured, with a probable error of less thau a thousandth part of a millionth of atmos- pheric pressure. Cuarues F.. Brusu. CLEVELAND, O. SOME THOUGHTS CONCERNING THE TEACH- ING OF CHEMISTRY. In the preface to a short set of ‘ Notes Upon Qualitative Analysis,’ recently pub- lished, I made use of the expression: “There is small doubt that, were it not for the expense of printing, every teacher of. chemistry would use a text-book made by himself with either pen or scissors.”’ In a review of the little book which afterwards appeared in one of the foreign journals, the critic referred to the above sentence, with the added remark : ‘ Sad, in- deed, if true!’ He who wrote the criticism is a distinguished chemist, for otherwise his opinions could not find place in so eminent a journal; but the thought crosses me’: Is he a teacher? There is a tremendous dif- ference between the specialist who never enters the class-room and the trained in- structor who but rarely leaves it. A man may rank in the highest grade as a scientist, and yet benothing of a teacher ; he may be skillful to the last degree in map- May 27, 1898.] ping out a line of inquiry tending towards the solution of one of nature’s mysteries, and yet be a mere tyro in the art of impart- ing his knowledge to a class of students. It was the writer’s fortune, when a student, to have for an instructor a man of world- wide reputation ; but, great as the man was as an investigator, he was a very indiffer- ent ‘professor.’ It has been my privilege from time to time to attend lectures given to undergraduates by men who, although not professed instructors, stand, neverthe- less, atthe very forefront of their respective professions ; and it has greatly interested me to note how different their mode of pres- entation commonly is from that followed by men more in the habit of meeting an audience of such a character and more familiar with its peculiarities and methods of thought. It is trite to say that teaching is a dis- tinct specialty, and that to teach well is the gift of comparatively few; but the fact remains pertinent, notwithstanding its triteness, and is worthy of consideration. To return to the quotation, I would say that it was written in the light of over twenty-two years’ class-room experience, and with what I believe to be a pretty full knowledge of the wants of the average student. I cannot by any means agree with the critical comment: ‘Sad, indeed, if true!’ It is unquestionably true that every teacher would find his work more easy of accom- plishment could he use a text-book of his own arrangement; nor is there any ele- ment of sadness connected with this fact. The composition of classes and the arrange- ment of courses cannot fail greatly to modify the treatment of the same subject, as presented at different institutions; and it would be small praise, indeed, for the in- structor were it said of him that he stuck to his text-book literally, even though such book were of unsurpassed excellence. Itis SCIENCE. 730 the class-room enlargement of, or variation from, the text that is of real value to the student, for the points thereby brought out are the ones which he cannot readily secure by private study. At a New York pre- paratory school, where the methods of in- struction were as peculiar as they were ex- cellent, the writer remembers that the few text-books permitted were mostly selected. because of their poor qualities, in order that criticism thereof might make a deeper im- pression upon the class. Of course, it would be easy to carry such a system too far, especially when dealing with advanced subjects ; butif the instructor be worthy of his position he cannot, and should not, be entirely satisfied with the matter exactly as it is presented in the best text-book ever written. Heshould have his own way of presenting his subject, or else he will fail to hold his classes. ‘An ill-favored thing, sir, but mine own,”’ is a motto that might fit the method of many a successful teacher of chemistry, for there are but few sciences whose elemen- tary teaching calls for so much good judg- ment in placing the subject-matter in a form easily grasped by the beginner and in selecting illustrations from sources that are both homely and apt. When I said that, were it not for the expense of printing, a man would prefer his classes to use a book of his own making, I wish to be understood as holding that, in order to have such a book of the highest order of usefulness, it must be written for his classes, and his alone. For it is a fact that a man writes for his private use a very different and usually a much more effective book than the one he dares to offer the public. It would appear that books are largely writ- ten to please the crities ; and if they be so constructed as to pass the ordeal of ‘ re- view,’ it is entirely a secondary matter whether or not the student is able to readily 736 grasp their meaning when starting from his point of view. It being, of course, admitted that chem- istry should be so taught as to have its principles firmly retained by the student, the instructor should endeavor to place himself in the student’s position and strive to see things from his standpoint. It is immaterial how scientific the arrangement of the course may be if such arrangement does not follow the mental drift of the average learner and appeal to his sense of general fitness. It is for that reason that I cannot sympathize with a separation of the oxides of arsenic by an interval of seventy-five pages from the other com- pounds of the same element, as is done in one of our best text-books. Such separa- tion may suit the views of the distinguished author and his brother chemists, but the book is not written for them ; it is intended for the use of beginners, and beginners do not look at the subject in that apparently disjointed way. Another difficulty with many of our text- books is that they are much too full during the early portions of the course. They deal with expansions of, and exceptions to, topics at a period when the topics them- selves are fraught with entirely new ideas to the student. Take, for instance, the question of ‘valency.’ If my experience goes for any- thing, it is better to allow the beginner to conceive valency as a definite constant for each element, and then at a later stage, after considerable experience with things chemical has been acquired, the subject may be brought up again and more exten-. sively discussed. Again, let us suppose that the student is at work upon the subject of ‘ Phosphorus.’ Almost the first fact he learns is that phos- phorus is attacked by oxygen with exceed- ing readiness, and that an oxide of the element results. SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VI. No. 178. Is it wise, therefore, to insert in the text that ‘phosphorus is incapable of uniting with oxygen if the gas be perfectly pure and free from aqueous vapor?’ Would it not be better to allow the beginner to become as familiar as possible with the chemistry of ordinary conditions before venturing into those dimly lighted regions where ‘ chem- ical purity,’ ‘perfect dryness,’ ‘exceeding heat’ or ‘ exceeding cold’ are the disturb- ing factors? The student tends to hold the instruc- tor responsible for all irregularities in the science, and, as a beginner, he resents am- biguity. Exceptions and amendatory com- ments both confuse and discourage him. The time comes later on when to note the peculiar character of this substance, or the exceptional behavior of that, may be of real interest to him; but the establishment of such an interest is a matter of slow de- velopment, and care should be taken during the early stages of instruction that great masses of heterogeneous facts be not so piled together as to cause no growth at all. W. P. Mason. RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, Troy, N. Y., May, 1898. PROFESSOR SCHENCK’S RESEARCHES ON THE PREDETERMINATION OF SEX.* In view of the fact that Professor Schenck’s conclusions as to the power of artificially determining the sex of offspring have served as a nine-days’ wonder to some of the lay papers, it seems advisable to lay before our readers a plain statement of his argument, taken without comment from the pamphlet which he has just published.+ It opens with the statement that it is im- possible to command natural processes, but possible by scientific means to exercise a * From The British Medical Journal. } Einfluss auf das Geschlechtsverhilinis. Von Dr. Leopold Schenck, Professor an der k.k. Universitat und Vorstand des Institutes fiir Embryologie in Wien. Magdeburg: Schallehn and Wollbriick. 1898. May 27, 1898. ] amore or less effectual influence upon them, in order to extract from them the best pos- sible results. His essay falls into three parts—a summary of the writings of his predecessors, an account of his own re- searches and deductions, and finally a de- scription of the method of treatment he has devised, with illustrative cases. In the development of an embryo the generative organs are at first indifferent— hermaphrodite; in the further process of growth one set develops while the other ‘atrophies. This tendency must be prede- termined from the time of fertilization, for each cell formed from the ovum must have sexual characters, since these are not confined to the generative organs, but ap- pertain to the whole body. The readiness with which an ovum can be fertilized de- pends upon its position in the ovary, the thickness of its envelope, etc., and these may also have a bearing on the question of sex. In other words, the predetermination may precede fertilization, and of this con- firmation is found in the development of bees and in the production of male and fe- male flowers by plants under different nu- tritive conditions. In this connection Pro- fessor Schenck enunciates and discusses at considerable length the views of previous writers. He points out that the male sex preponderates to a definite though slight degree in the total number of births, and that the sex of a child is more likely to be that ofits older parent. He pays particu- lar attention to the theory of crossed sex- ual heredity, by which each sex tends to propagate the other. Thus if the sexual power of the male be greater a female off- spring is more likely to result, and vice versa. This theory is threshed out most thoroughly and with abundance of quotations and ex- amples ; in the end Professor Schenck prac- tically accepts it, and makes use of it in his further work. With regard to the influence of environment upon sex, he quotes Robin’s SCIENCE. 730 statement that in warm climates females preponderate, in cold and unfavorable, males. Born also showed that 95 per cent. of artificially fertilized frog’s eggs hatched out as females, this being an effect of nutri- tive conditions acting after fertilization. Thury’s researches are fully analyzed, and are stated to have originally called Profes- sor Schenck’s attention to the subject. Thury found that cattle fertilized at the be- ginning of ‘heat’ threw more females, at the end more males. This he explained by the degree of ripeness of the ovum, but Professor Schenck accounts for it on the crossed inheritance theory, the sexual power of the female being at its greatest at the end of the period of rut. This part of the work is summed up in the statement that the sex of offspring largely depends upon the state of nutrition of the parents, par- ticularly that of the mother during preg- nancy. During this period the difference between intake and excretion represents the food of the embryo, and hence requires special attention. The temperature is slightly raised owing to oxidation processes, which entail a considerable consumption of red blood corpuscles and consequent dimin- uation of hemoglobin. The second section begins with the enunci- ation of the fact observed in domestic animals and in insects that the better the mother is nourished the more females she produces, the number of males remaining practically constant. This influence upon the foetus im utero has received but little attention from the practical point of view, and Pro- fessor Schenck consequently set out upon a series of observations based on the theory of crossed sexual inheritance. He first in- vestigated the excreta, and particularly the carbohydrates of the urine. The presence of a certain amount of sugar, which is com- monly recognizable by the phenyl-hydrazine test in perfectly normal individuals, indi- cates incompleteness of the oxidation pro- 738 cesses, whereby a certain quantity of heat is lost tothe body. This physiological out- put of carbohydrate is in the male sex most marked during the period of growth—that is, between the ages of 14 and 19. In women there is no corresponding increase, but small quantities may appear in the urine before and after menstruation, while Iwanoff and others have shown that gly- cosuria is common in pregnant and par- turient women. Now the amount of sugar normally excreted is equal in men and women, but more significant in the latter owing to the lesser activity of their meta- bolic processes. For the perfect ripening of the ovum it is necessary that oxidation shall be perfect—that is, that no sugar shall be left unburnt. Where there isa remain- der of unburnt sugar the ovum stands a chance of being less ripe, and less well nourished. Hence the properties of its protoplasm are less well developed, and by the theory of crossed inheritance it is more likely to produce a female child. On the other hand, when the urine is free from sugar the ovum can attain perfect develop- ment, and give rise to male offspring. It is upon this cardinal principle that Pro- fessor Schenck’s theory is based. He holds that a prolonged course of appropriate nourishment both before and after fertili- zation will tend to the conception of male children only. The next question is of the means to be adopted to ensure thisend. Ifa male child is desired, and the maternal urine contains no sugar, but abundance of reducing sub- stances (particularly the levo-rotatory glycuronic acid), he allows impregnation forthwith. If, on the other hand, sugar is present it must be removed, and the reduc- ing substances increased before fecundation may take place. It is found that the urine of a woman pregnant with a boy contains more reducing substances than that of one with a girl. We need not enter into the de- SCIENCE. [N. S. Von. VII. No. 178. tails of the diet recommended, beyond say- ing that it contains much proteid, which seems to be required by a male embryo. Finally Professor Schenck gives what may be called his clinical results. He quotes numerous cases to show that the bearing of female children is associated with glycosuria. In such instances he recommends a diet comprising plenty of proteid and fat, and as little carbohydrate as can be tolerated ; this must be taken for two or three months before and three months after impregnation. He gives one example in which six boys were born in succession under this treatment, and a girl immedi- ately it was relaxed ; and others in which boys were born after repeated births of girls before the treatment. In all, out of seven recorded cases, six were successful. He concludes that the nutrition of the mother plays a most important part in the deter- mination of sex, and that in countries where much flesh is consumed there is a marked preponderance of male children. This can be imitated artificially, but it is far more important to ensure the complete- ness of oxidation processes in the body. As long as the combustion of the food is perfect, and the urine is totally free from sugar, the exact amount of meat consumed is of secondary importance. The birth of male children can thus, in certain cases, be predetermined, but the voluntary produc- tion of girls is a problem as yet unsolved. CONVERSAZIONE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. Tue first of the annual conversaziones of the Royal Society was held on May 11th, in the Society’s rooms at Burlington-house, the guests being received by the President, Lord Lister. The London Times states that there was the usual exhibition of objects, apparatus, processes, and experiments illustrative of some of the most recent advances in scien- May 27, 1898.] tific research. The exhibits seemed on the whole more abundant than usual, while an unusually large proportion were of a-char- acter that could only be understood by specialists, or at least by actual inspection under expert guidance. As might have been expected, the results obtained by the various parties who went to India to observe the recent eclipse of the sun were particu- larly prominent, and attracted considerable attention. These exhibits were lent by the Permanent Eclipse Committee and conveyed the impression that substantial results had been achieved by the parties which went to India. From the Astronomer-Royal there were six photographs of the corona, show- ing the results of various exposures. Sir Norman Lockyer showed several. photo- graphs illustrating the eclipse and the ex- pedition to Viziadrug. Some of these were photographs of the observing station, its party of observers, and some of the instru- ments employed. Another series illustrated some of the results obtained, including en- largements comparing the spectrum of the chromosphere taken at the beginning of totality with that taken eight seconds after the end of totality. Other eclipse photo- graphs were shown by Captain Hills, Mr. H. F. Newall, the Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and the Eclipse Committee of the British Astronomical Association, which had parties at Buxar and Tahni. Professor Oliver Lodge exhibited some results of his experiments in space tele- graphy, in which, under the requisite con- ditions, the most remarkable sympathy was manifested between two condenser circuits placed at a distance from each other ; with enough copper in each circuit there is no assignable limit of distance. Professor Lodge, in conjunction with Dr. Alexander Muirhead, also showed experiments in Hertz-wave space telegraphy between a couple of signalling stations, one at the far end of the library, the other in the Secre- SCIENCE. 739 tary’sroom. These two exhibits, especially the former, were perhaps the most sugges- tive and attractive in the rooms. The former especially is almost uncanny in its mystery, and both are capable of being turned to important practical uses—com- munication, say, with outlying islands and lightships. Professor H. Callendar showed a new electrical recording apparatus, which has been in use for some time at Mc- Gill College, Montreal, and which may be applied to a great variety of scientific and practical purposes. Mr. Orme Bastian’s electric current meter seemed to suggest the possibility of really delicate and accu- rate measurement. Interesting also were Mr. K. J. Tennant’s photographs of electric discharges. Of special interest were the charts, sec- tions and specimens, illustrating some of the results of the investigations carried on in the Atoll of Funafuti, South Pacific, shown by Sir W. J. L. Wharton and Pro- fessor Judd on behalf of the Coral Reef Committee of the Royal Society. It’ will be remembered that the expedition in H. M. §. Penguin in 1896 was not very suc- cessful, while that of 1897 under Professor David succeeded in boring to a depth of 698 feet. This year a third expedition is going out and hopes to reach a greater depth. As usual at recent exhibitions the Ront- gen rays held a prominent place. Mr. Mac- kenzie Davidson showed an apparatus very ingeniously arranged to localize exactly any particular object, such as a bullet. Mr. Campbell Swinton showed a Rontgen ray camera with a pin-hold instead of a lens, also very powerful cathode-ray lamps and some experiments on the circulation of the residual gaseous matter in Crookes tubes. Mr. Wimshurst exhibited an improved ap- paratus for holding and for the excitement of Rontgen-ray tubes. One beautiful de- monstration was that of Mr. C. T. R. Wil- 740 son, showing the production of cloud by the action of ultra-violet light, suggesting an explanation of the blue in the sky. Pro- fessor Hele-Shaw’s delicate experiments on the flow of water deserve mention. They are of practical moment also, as are Mr. T. Andrew’s micrographic illustrations of de- terioration in steel rails, indicating the microscopic structure and composition of the most enduring and safest rails. Pro- fessor Roberts-Austen showed a complete installation of apparatus for the micro- photography of metals designed for Sir Andrew Noble for use at Elswick Works, also apparatus to illustrate M. Daniel Berthelot’s interference method of mea- suring high temperatures. It consists of an optical interference apparatus in which a beam of light is divided by a thinly-silvered mirror and passed through two tubes. In one of these tubes air is rarefied by heat and in the other by ex- haustion, and when the rarefaction is equal in both tubes colored interference bands appear. As the degree of exhaustion in one tube can be measured by a manometer the unknown temperature is readily found. Mr. Horace Seymour, Deputy-Master of the Mint, exhibited a case of bronze Jubilee medals beautifully colored by a method, borrowed from the Japanese, which marks a new departure in medal work in’ this country. Mr. J. HE. Stead sent some re- markable specimens of iron and steel, show- ing crystalline structure developed at 750°C., the temperature at which the mag- netic change in iron takes place. They proved that their peculiar polygonal struc- ture could be produced without the presence of a cementing material between the joints, and showed clearly the existence of allo- tropic forms of iron. Professor Ewing ex- hibited a magnetic balance for permeability tests of iron. It is a new apparatus de- signed to afford an easy means of judging of the magnetic quality of iron or steel, SCIENCE. [N.§. Vou. VII. No. 178. with special reference to its suitability for use in dynamo magnets. An attractive exhibit was that of Mr. Joseph Goold’s experiments in relation to resonance, which were harmonies, sub-har- monics, and compound harmonies illustrated by the action of forced vibrations in paper discs, thin metal plates, ete.; also vibration- tops, which spin by contact with vibrating surfaces, and vibrating dust-heaps bursting into whirling nebule and condensing into gravitating systems of circular mounds. Those who attended the meeting of the British Association last year were inter- ested in Professor Poulton’s Canadian in- sects and Dr. Armstrong’s colored photo- graphs of the Yellowstone Park. The series of models illustrating the composi- tion of vertebree in the various groups of vertebrata, exhibited by Dr. Gadow and Mr. W. F. Blandford, were highly instruc- tive. The ‘naturographs’ shown by Mr. R. B. Roxby were beautiful specimens of Dr. Selle’s process of photography in natural colors. Every one was naturally interested in the exhibit by Professor Herdman and Pro- fessor Boyce of healthy and unhealthy oysters, showing the causes of coloration and the connection between oysters and disease. The exhibit by the Marine Bio- logical Association of the adaptation of marine animals to their environment, illus- trated by living examples of the higher crustacea, was highly instructive and in- terested many. ‘There were several other interesting biological exhibits and demon- strations. It is impossible even to mention many other exhibits, some of them of at least equal scientific importance to those referred to. During the evening, besides Sir Norman Lockyer’s eclipse exhibit, shown by means of the electric lantern, Dr. Sorby showed some cleverly mounted slides illustrating marine animals. May 27, 1898.] ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. THE sixty-ninth Anniversary Meeting of this Society was held yesterday at their offices 3 Hanover Square W. The chair was taken at 4 p. m., by Sir William H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S., President of the Society. After the Auditors’ report had been read, a vote of thanks accorded to them, and other preliminary business had been transacted, the report of the Council on the proceedings of the Society during the past year was read by Mr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., the Secretary. It stated that the number of Fellows on the 31st of December, 1897, was 3,158 showing an increase of 60 during the past year. The number of Fellows’ names upon the So- ciety’s books was at that date larger than it had been at any period since the year 1885. The occurrence of the Queen’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897, together with the very favorable weather experienced during the summer and autumn of that year, had drawn a large number of visitors to the Society’s Gardens, and the total income of the Society had consequently reached the large amount of £28,713, being £1,631 more than in 1896, and greater than that of any year since the year 1884. The ordinary expenditure of the Society for 1897 had amounted to £25,329, which was an increase of £1,541 over that of the year 1896. Besides this a sum of £2,375 had been paid, and charged to extraordinary expenditure, having been mainly devoted to new works and new buildings. A further sum of £1,000 had been placed to the Society’s Deposit Account (which now amounted to £3,000), and a balance of £1,074 had been carried forward to the benefit of the present year. The usual scientific meetings had been held during the year 1897, and a large num- ber of valuable communications had been ‘ xeceived upon every branch of zoology. SCIENCE. — 741 These had been pnblished in the annual volume of Proceedings, which contained 1,013 pages illustrated by 57 plates, Parts 3 and 4 of the 14th Volume of the Society’s Quarto. Transactions had also been published in 1897. The 33d Volume of the Zoological Fecord (containing a summary of the work done by zoologists all over the world in 1896), edited by David Sharp, F.R.S., had been likewise published, and issued to the subscribers in November last. The Library, containing upwards of 20,- 000 volumes, had been maintained in good order throughout the year and had been much resorted to by working naturalists. A large number of accessions both by gift and purchase had been incorporated into it. The principal new building opened in the Society’s Gardens in 1897 had been the new ostrich and crane-house which had been commenced in autumn of 1896. The final balance due to the contractors for its erection (£1,188) had been paid to them in 1897 and charged to extraordinary ex- penditure. — During the past summer also a new glass- house for the reception of the Society’s col- lection of tortoises had been built, adjoining the reptile house, at a total cost of £464, — and likewise charged to extraordinary ex- penditure. This amount, however, had been lessened by the sum of £150 which the Hon. Walter Rothschild, F. Z. S., who is especially interested in these animals, had kindly contributed towards it. A third new building erected in the gardens during the past year, and recently opened to the public, was a new lavatory which had been built near the refreshment rooms specially for the accommodation of visitors resorting to that department of the gardens. Since the last anniversary a serious loss had been caused to the Society’s staff by the death, on the 7th of May last year, of Mr. A.D. Bartlett, for 38 years Superintendent of the Society’s Gardens. In the report 742 made to the general meeting on the 19th of May last the Council had already recorded their deep sense of the services rendered to the Society by the late Mr. Bartlett during the long period for which he had held his post, and of their full appreciation of the skill, energy and faithfulness with which he had discharged the multifarious and dif- ficult duties of his office. On the present occasion the Council could do no more than repeat the sentiments expressed at that meeting, which they were sure would be fully concurred in by all the Fellows of the Society. The vacancy thus caused had been filled by the appointment, as Su- perintendent, of Mr. Bartlett’s second son, Mr. Clarence Bartlett, who had been in the Society’s service for 36 years as his father’s assistant. The number of visitors to the Gardens in 1897 had been 717,755, being 52,751 more than the corresponding number in 1896. The number of animals on the 31st of December last had been 2,585, of which 792 were mammals, 1,362 birds, 431 reptiles and batrachians. ; Amongst the additions made during the past year, 17 were specially commented upon as being of remarkable interest and in most cases new to the Society’s collection. The report concluded with a long list of donations to the Menagerie received in 1897. A vote of thanks to the Council for their report was then moved by Sir John Lub- bock, Bt., F.R.S., seconded by Mr. R. Ly- dekker, F.R.S., and carried unanimously. The meeting then proceeded to elect the new members of the Council and the officers forthe ensuing year. The usual ballot hav- ing been taken, it was announced that Frank E. Beddard, Esq., F.R.S.; William T. Blanford, Esq., L.L.D., F.R. S.; Richard Lydekker, Esq., F.R.S.; Howard Saunders, Hsq., and Charles §. Tomes, Esq., F.R.S., had been elected into the Council in the SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 178. place of the retiring members, and that Sir William H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S., had been re-elected President; Charles Drum- mond, Hsq., Treasurer, and Philip Lutley Sclater, Hsq., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., as Sec- retary to the Society for the ensuing year. CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY. PRIMITIVE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. TuHE study of musical instruments begins with two sticks which are rubbed together, or hit one against the other, to make a noise. Such are found among the Austra- lians and the Pueblo Indians. In Louisiana. the jawbone of a mule is scratched rapidly with a stick to elicit folk-lore music. The study of this art in early conditions is the theme of an excellent article by Dr. Wal- laschek in the Proceedings of the Anthro- pological Society of Vienna for February. He inserts a number of illustrations from specimens.in the Ethnographic Museum of Vienna. In this connection, I would suggest that. the human bones, with incisions crosswise, which are described by Drs. Lumholtz and Hrdlicka in Vol. 10 of The Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, and which they are at a loss to explain, were in- tended for just such primitive musical in- struments. Several similar specimens were exhibited in the Mexican department of the Columbian Exposition at Madrid. (See my ‘Report,’ p. 27.) PRE-COLUMBIAN LEPROSY IN AMERICA. Tue question of the existence of leprosy in America before Columbus occupied the Berlin Society of Anthropology at several of its meetings last year. The inquiry was: started by the investigations of Dr. A. S. Ashmead, of New York City. He had noted on old Peruvian pottery deforma- tions of the face and extremities, resem- bling those produced by that disease. The discussion in Berlin was shared by May 27, 1898.] several members. Some doubted the an- tiquity of the pottery; others said the repre- sentations were from a patient suffering under a local disease called llaga. In sum- ming up, Professor Virchow concluded that the pottery was authentic and that the le- sions shown were pathological, but that whether from leprosy or some other disease must be left for further investigation. THE THROWING-STICK IN AMERICA. At the last meeting of the French Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science Mr. Henri Michel brought sufficient evi- dence from new finds to show that the throwing-stick was in use in some parts of Peru. He ealls attention to the Eskimo throwing-stick described by the traveler Pinart as in use in the Kadiak Archi- pelago, and also that found in very ancient deposits in France. It is gratifying to see that, instead of arguing that Peruvians, Eskimo and Cave- men borrowed one from the other, he pointed out that these are examples of in- dependent invention. Hvidently, it is not surprising to come across it again in the old village sites of Florida (Cushing), and it is equally needless on this recurrence to found any theory of the affinities of the ancient key-dwellers. I may add that Mr. Michel is not the first to observe the presence of the atlatl in Peru. D. G. Brinton. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. NOTES ON INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Tue large quantities of compounds of the the rare earths accumulated by the Wels- bach Light Company, at Gloucester, New Jersey, under the direction of Mr. Waldron Shapleigh has been alluded to in ScreNce. Of these earths none are rarer than neodym- ium and praseodymium, the two elements into which Auer von Welsbach separated what had been previously considered the SCIENCE. 743 element didymium. It is pleasing to chronicle that Mr. Shapleigh has put gen- erous quantities of salts of each of these elements in the hands of Professor Harry C. Jones, of Johns Hopkins University, for atomic weight determinations, and the re- sults are published in the last American Chemical Journal. More than two kilo- grams of the ammonium neodymium nitrate, and nearly as much praseodymium, were used as the basis of a careful series of puri- fications. Twelve determinations were made with each metal, and the atomic weight results are praseodymium = 140.45 and neodymium = 143.6. It is curious that these results are almost the reverse of those found by the discoverer, von Wels- bach, 143.6 and 140.8, and almost suggests a question as to whether the discrepancy does not arise from a typographical error in von Welsbach’s work. From the fact that the stable oxids are Pr,O, and Nd,O, the higher weight might be anticipated for neodymium, but the placing of these elements in the periodic system is yet a problem. In a recent voyage from the Cape of Good Hope to England samples of water were drawn daily from the ocean and analyzed. The results are published by ©. J. S. Makin in the Chemical News, and compared with the results from the Chal- lenger expedition. The average total solids was 36.31 grams per thousand, the quan- tity being slightly greater in the North Atlantic than in the South, as was found in the Challenger samples. In general the results correspond to those of the Chal- lenger, but the amount of sodium chlorid was found slightly less (76.9 as against 77.76 parts per hundred of total salts), while the amount of magnesium chlorid (11.4 to 10.88) and calcium sulfate (4.23 to 4.07) was slightly greater. Free ammonia was found 0.19 milligrams per liter; am- monium salts 0.36, and albumenoid am- monia 0.56. J. L. H. 744 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS. THE RUMFORD MEDAL. AT the annual meeting of the American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences held in Boston on May 11th the report of the Rumford Committee which was there presented contained the fol- lowing important statement and recommenda- tion : ‘¢ The committee has also considered at length the question of an award of the Rumford medal. The claims of various investigators and inven- tors have been considered with great care, and more than one among them appeared to be de- serving of such recognition. After prolonged consideration the Rumford Committee has voted at two separate sessions (in accordance with long-established custom) to recommend to the Academy an award of the medal to Profes- sor James HE. Keeler, now Director of the Lick Observatory, for his application of the spectro- scope to astronomical problems, and especially for his investigations of the proper motions of the nebule, and the physical constitution of the tings of the planet Saturn, by the use of that instrument.’’ The report of the Committee was presented by the Chairman, Professor Cross, who ex- plained at some length the particular nature and merit of the investigations of Professor Keeler for which the award of the Rumford premium was proposed, after which the Acad- emy voted unanimously to adopt the recom- mendation of the Committee. The last previous award of the medal was to Mr. T. A. Edison, in1895. Among others who have recently received it are Professors Picker- ing, Michelson, Langley and Rowland. THE COMING MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSO- CIATION IN BRISTOL. WE take from the British Medical Journal the following particulars in regard to the prepara- tions for the meeting of the British Association in Bristol from September 7th to 14th. The latest published list of subscriptions shows that over £3,400 has been promised, that the execu- tive need not fear being short of the prime necessity that makes such a visit asuccess. The Victoria Rooms are to be fitted up for the re- ception room, the large hall being used for that SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 178. purpose and the small hall as a smoking room. The sectional meetings will be held in the school room of the Victoria Chapel, the Fine Arts Academy, the museum lecture room, Uni- versity College, the Blind Asylum Hall, the Hannah More Hall, the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, and the Park Place Schools. The Drill Hall will be fitted up as a lounging room, a band (the Royal Horse Artillery) pro- vided, and various objects of interest shown ; this will be open to all members and associates of the Association free during the afternoon, but in the evening the hall will be open to the public at a charge. The President’s address and the lectures will be given in the Colston Hall, as will also be the soirée given by the General Committee. The other soirée will be given in the buildings and grounds of Clifton College on the invitation of the Bishop of Here- ford, the Headmaster, and Mrs. Glazebrook. In the Zoological Gardens will bea biological exhibition at which many objects of great scien- tific interest willbe shown. Arrangements have been made with the authorities of the Marine Biological Station at Plymouth to show some of their mostinteresting tanks. A large number of excursions have been arranged to various places of interest—namely, Wells, Glastonbury and . the lake villages, Cheddar Cliffs and Caves; Bath, where the corporation will show the mag- nificent baths recently opened; Bradford-on- Avon, with its Saxon church and Norman bridge; Tortworth, on the invitation of Lord Ducie; possibly Salisbury and Stonehenge; the works at Swindon; the docks at Avonmouth, with a trip down the river to visit the Channel Fleet, if the Admiralty will allow it to come; and many others of interest to geologists, engineers and botanists. A new feature will be introduced in short bicycle rides personally conducted to many of the Roman or British camps around Bristol. The literature usually distributed is in a for- ward state, and the handbook will, it is hoped, be the most complete ever given out at a meet- ing of the Association. The articles are now all in the printer’s hands. Hight gentlemen have kindly consented to give garden parties, and Clifton College masters will entertain a large party on September 12th. The invitations, May 27, 1898.] issued a month or two ago, have been largely responded to, and many foreigners from the Continent are expected, as well as a strong contingent of scientific men from the Dominion. During the week the International Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity will hold its meetings in association with Section A (Mathematics and Physical Sci- ence). There will be no Section I (Physiology), as the international meeting will be held at Cambridge only a short time previous. LIQUID HYDROGEN. AccoRDING to the London Times Professor Dewar liquefied hydrogen on May 10th at the Royal Institution and exhibited the liquid to Lord Rayleigh, who was fortunate enough to be on the premises at the time. Hydrogen has been liquefied before—in theory, but Professor Dewar has actually produced the liquefied gas to the amount of half a wine-glassful in five minutes, by a process which would equally have produced a pailful had the requisite supply of pure hydrogen been forthcoming. This is a unique and unprecedented feat. Liquid hydro- gen in quantity is not only of enormous scien- tific interest in itself, but is also of immense importance as placing a new and potent instru- ment in the hands of investigators who have hitherto found their progress barred by its ab- sence. The boiling point of the liquid may be placed at from thirty to thirty-five degrees of absolute temperature, or, in other words, at about 240 degrees below zero on the Centigrade scale. Some conception of the degree of cold attained may be gathered from the fact that a tube closed at the lower end, when emersed in the liquid, was almost instantaneously filled with solid air. It may be observed, as a matter of scientific interest, that the density of the liquid far exceeds that arrived at by calculation. There is reason to believe that it will be found to be about 0.6, water being unity. Thisresult would agree very closely with the density of hydrogen when occluded by palladium, as es- tablished by Professor Dewar 25 years ago. Helium is a rare gas which has hitherto resisted all attempts to effect its liquefaction. It is stored in considerable’quantity at the Royal In- stitution, and was also liquefied on Tuesday by SCIENCE. 745, the use of the liquid hydrogen. Its boiling point appears to lie not very far from that of hydrogen itself. Liquid hydrogen will never be as cheap as liquid air, because nature does not supply the gas in equal abundance. But nothing except the cost now stands in the way of producing liquid hydrogen in any quantity , that science may require, whether for investi- gation of its own properties or for the prosecu- tion of various lines of research into the con- stitution of matter in general. GENERAL, THE Council of the Royal Geographical So- ciety have awarded one of the two Royal medals to Dr. Sven. Hedin for his work in Central Asia, and the other to Lieutenant E. A. Peary, Uni- ted States Navy, for his explorations in North- ern Greenland. The Council have also made the following awards: The Murchison grant to Mr. H. Warington Smyth”for his several journeys in Siam ; the Back grant to Mr. George P. Tate for his survey work in Afghanistan, Beluchistan, especially Makran, Aden and on the Indus; the Gill memorial to Mr. Edmund J. Garwood for his geographical work in Spits- bergen during two seasons, in company with Sir Martin Conway ; the Cuthbert Peek grant to Mr. Poulett Weatherley for his exploration of the region between Lakes Mweru and Bang- weolo. The following foreign geographers and travellers have been elected honorary corre- sponding members: Don Marcos Jimenes de la Espada, Don Francisco Moreno, Buenos Ayres ; Marquis of Rio Branco, Brazil; Dr. Thoroddsen, of Iceland ; Professor Ratzel, of Leipzig. Portraits of Mr. Frederick Fraley and of Professor J. Peter Lesley were presented to the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, on May 20th. Mr. Fraley, who has long been President of the Society, and is about to cele- brate his 94th birthday, was present. Professor A. H. Smith, of the Central High School, stated that the Society now possessed portraits of all its Presidents, beginning with Franklin. In ac- cepting the portrait of Professor Lesley, Mr. W. A. Ingram dwelt upon his services to geology and geodesy. Professor Lesley has been for many years one of the Vice-Presidents of the So- ciety and had previously filled the offices of Li- 746 brarian and Secretary. The portraits, both of Mr. Fraley and Professor Lesley, were painted by Mrs. Margaret Lesley Bush Brown, daughter of Professor Lesley. Mr. C. S. Tomss, F.R.S., has been admitted a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. LIEUTENANT ROBERT E. PEARY, U.S. N., was the guest of honor at the Geographical So- ciety’s annual dinner in Philadelphia on May 18th. THERE is a vacancy in the position of Photo- grapher in the United States Naval Observatory at Washington, for which an examination chiefly based upon practical questions in photography and experience in the subject, will be held on June 7th. The salary of this position is $1,200 per annum. THERE is also a vacancy in the grade of aid, Department of Biology, United States National Museum, with a salary of $50 per month, for which an examination will be held on June 15th. The subjects of the examination can be obtained by addressing the United States Civil Service Commission, Washington. PROFESSOR E. O. KENDALL has presented to the University of Pennsylvania his mathemat- ical library of about one thousand volumes. THE New York Medical Record quotes a re- port that Mrs. Caroline Croft left $100,000 to Drs. Henry K. Oliver and John Collins Warren, of Boston, for the purpose of making investi- gations to ascertain some method of curing cancer, consumption and other diseases which are now regarded as incurable. Aw Audubon Society for the State of Indiana was organized at Indianapolis on April 26th. The meeting was addressed by the Governor of the State, the President of the University of Indiana and others. THE regular spring field meeting of the Indi- ana Academy of Science was held at Blooming- ton, April 28th-30th, under the auspices of the Faculty of Sciences of Indiana University. Among the excursions was one to the caves east of Mitchell, the blind fish of which have been described by Professor C. H. Higenmann. THE House Committee on Interstate and SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 178. Foreign Commerce has favorably reported the Senate bill appropriating $350,000 for the Com- mercial Museums’ Exposition at Philadelphia, THE Presidents of the Institute of Chemistry, the Society of Chemical Industry, and the So- ciety of Public Analysts, London, have issued invitations toa reception on Tuesday, May 24th. THE Royal Colonial Institute, London, will hold its annual conversazione at the Natural His- tory Museum, Cromwell-road, on June 29th. THE Lord Mayor of London gave a banquet on May 4th to the medical profession at the Mansion House. Speeches were made by Sir Samuel Wilkes, President of Royal College of Physicians ; Sir William MacCormack, President of the Royal College of Surgeons ; Sir William Turner, Lord Lister and others. THE Organizing Committee of the Thirteenth International Medical Congress, held its first meeting on April 23d. The officers of the Committee are: President, Professor Brouar- del; Vice-Presidents, Professors Bouchard and Marey; General Secretary, Professor Chauffard ; Treasurer, M. Duflocg. The formal opening of the Congress has been provisionally fixed for August 2, 1900. THE Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain held its spring meeting in the Hall of the In- stitution of Civil Engineers, London, on May 5th and 6th. The President, Mr. E. P. Martin, occupied the chair, and a number of interesting papers were presented. The autumn meeting of the Institute will be held in Sweden. WE have noted the donation made to Aber- deen, by Miss Cruickshank, of asum of £15,000, for the formation of a botanic garden. We learn from the British Medical Journal that this sum it to be handed over to trustees, who will also form the Board of Management. These trustees are the Principal and the professors of botany and mathematics in the University. The money is to, be employed by them in the laying out and maintaining of a botanic garden, with all the necessary appurtenances, including provision for the teaching and study of botany as apure science, and as applied to arts and industries, and, in their discretion, the provis- ion of a house as a residence for the keeper of the garden. The keeper may, if the trustees May 27, 1898.] think proper, be the professor of botany in the University. It is especially provided that this bequest is to be in addition to the sum already spent by the University and other bodies on the teaching of botany. The garden is to be known as the Cruickshank Botanical Garden, in memory of the donor’s late brother, Dr. Alexander Cruickshank, and it is to be held by the trustees in all time for the use, enjoyment and behoof of the University of Aberdeen and of the general public, without any preferable right on either, except as it may be thought right by the trustees to set apart class-rooms and laboratories for the use of either body. Professor Trail, the professor of botany, in his opening address to his class at the beginning of the summer session, on April 25th, alluded to this gift, and to the great advantage which it would be to the botanical department at the University. He also touched on the changes which the last few years had worked in this de- partment, and on the great facilities which were now offered to botanical students, especially since the opening of the handsome new labora- tories and class-rooms last year. A LETTER addressed to the London Times by ‘ A Kew Student’ protests against opening the gardens to the publicin the mornings, as follows: As holder of a student’s ticket which will be rendered practically useless by the change, may I be allowed to explain how the proposed opening of the gardens at 10 a. m. will affect students at Kew? The difficulty does not lie in the large or small number of visitors, but in a rule—namely, that students must abstain from handling plants after the ad- mission of the public. Iam informed that this regulation is so far necessary by way of exam- ple that it is observed by the authorities them- selves. The public recognize a working gar- dener, but if one stranger were seen to inter- fere with plants others would naturally see no harm in doing the same. Where the conven- ience of the public is concerned, individual pro- tests appear selfish and ridiculous, but I am in- formed that there are 800 students upon the books, and surely their interests deserve con- sideration, inasmuch as Kew-gardens are in- tended to be used for scientific purposes. As an individual I should have been satisfied and SCIENCE. TAT very grateful if students had been permitted to retain certain mornings of the week, and I shall be glad if you will allow me to point out that the recent decision has caused disappointment and vexation to at least one worker. My ticket carries the privilege of gathering certain speci- mens for botanical research ; it will be difficult for students, who like myself live in London, to use the gardens before 10 a. m., and it is out of the question that I, or any other student, should collect plants out of doors or work in hothouses during public hours. AT a meeting of the Zoological Society of Lon- don on April 19th a communication was read from Dr. Bashford Dean, describing further evi- dence of the existence of possible paired fins in the problematical Devonian organism Palzo- spondylus. He maintained his former views, as opposed to those of Dr. R. H. Traquair ex- pressed in a former communication to the So- ciety. Mr. Smith Woodward, in communica- ting this paper, remarked‘that he was inclined to agree with Dr. Traquair’s interpretations of the markings on the stone round the skeletons of Palzospondylus as entirely due to inorganic agencies. In support of this view he exhibited the specimen from Dr. Traquair’s collection noticed by Dr. Dean. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS. THE new buildings of the University of Vir- ginia will be dedicated in June, the exercises beginning on the 12th. It is expected that three Presidents of the United States, Mr. Me- Kinley, Mr. Cleveland and Mr. Harrison will take part in the ceremonies. THE building for the museums of the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania is now nearing com- pletion, and plans are being drawn for a build- ing for the departments of physiology, pathol- ogy and pharmacology. A BUILDING for the College of Agriculture of Ohio State University has been completed dur- ing the present year at a cost of $70,000. CONGREGATION, at Oxford, passed, on May 4th, a decree which will require the ratification 748 2 of Convocation, authorizing the expenditure of $7,500 in removing and reconstructing the iron laboratory at the University Museum, at present occupied by the Linacre professor of compara- tive anatomy, and in erecting, on or near to the site of that laboratory, a new laboratory and lecture-room for the joint use of the Sherardian professor of botany and the Linacre professor of comparative anatomy. By the will of the late Dr. Elizabeth H. Bates, of Port Chester, N. Y., the University of Mich- igan will receive $125,000, the income from which is to be used in establishing a chair for the diseases of women and children, to be known as the Bates professorship. THE will of the late Mrs. Annie S. Paton, of New York, leaves $100,000 to Princeton Uni- versity, subject to an interest for life of her two sons. The bequest is to found a fund for an endowment for Paton lectureships in ancient and modern literature. THE Troy Times, in its supplement of April 2d, devotes its whole space of 24 large pages to a description of Cornell University by ex-Goy- ernor Cornell, President Schurman and mem- bers of the Faculty, with many illustrations of the campus, the adjacent country and grounds and buildings, and with excellent portraits of prominent founders, heads of leading depart- ments and lecturers. The issue constitutes the best and most complete popular account of a great educational institution that, perhaps, has ever come from the press of even our leading newspapers. It is a most admirable tribute to higher learning, as well as to the university which is its subject. THERE are this year four hundred and thirty- eight candidates for degrees at Cornell Univer- sity, of which twelve are for the A.M. and twenty-six for the Ph.D. degree. TuE American fellowship of the Association of Collegiate Alumnz has been awarded to Miss Caroline Ellen Furness, a graduate of Vassar College and now assistant in the Vassar College observatory. Miss Furness has also won the scholarship in astronomy and mathe- matics offered by Barnard College. She will study at Columbia University. THE following fellowships have been awarded SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 178. at Bryn Mawr College: Mathematics—Louise D. Cummings, of Canada, A.B., University of Toronto ; Fellow, University of Pennsylvania, 1896-97, now graduate student University of Chicago. Chemistry—Margaret B. MacDonald, of Virginia; Graduate in Science, Mt. Holyoke, where she was for two years assistant in the laboratory before coming to Bryn Mawr, has been studying at Bryn Mawr during this year as graduate scholar. Biology—Annah Putnam Hazen, of Vermont, B.L., Smith College, 1895 ; M.S., Dartmouth College, 1897 ; graduate stu- dent, Bryn Mawr College, this year and grad- uate scholar. PROFESSOR EDWIN BRANT Frost, of Dart- mouth Oollege, has been elected professor of astrophysics at Yerkes Observatory. The Chi- cago University Record states that after gradua- ting from Dartmouth in 1886 Professor Frost took Professor Young’s course in practical as- tronomy at Princeton, and returned to Dart- mouth as instructor in physics and astronomy. In 1890 he went to Germany and spent one semester at Strassburg, where he intended to continue his studies. But the opportunity of becoming voluntary assistant at the Imperial Astrophysical Observatory in Potsdam, which is but rarely accorded, took him to that cele- brated institution, where he assisted Professors Vogel and Scheiner in their important spectro- scopic researches on the motion of stars in the line of sight. A year later he was appointed assistant on the regular staff, and undertook his well-known investigations on the thermal radiation of sun-spots and the solar surface. The results of this work have cast grave doubts on the validity of the long accepted idea that sun-spots are cavities in the photosphere. In 1892 Mr. Frost was elected assistant professor of astronomy in Dartmouth College and Di- rector of the Shattuck Observatory. Three years later he was advanced to a full professor- ship. His best known work since his return from Germany is his translation and revision of Scheiner’s ‘ Astronomical Spectroscopy,’ which everywhere takes precedence over the original as the standard treatise on the subject. At the Yerkes Observatory Professor Frost will devote special attention to a photographic study of stellar spectra with the large telescope. May 27, 1898.] Prorrssor E. F. Nicwots, of Colgate Uni- versity, has accepted a call to the chair of phys- ics at Dartmouth College. Dr. C. M. BAKEWELL, of the University of California, has been appointed associate profes- sor of philosophy at Bryn Mawr College. THE Frank Small studentship in botany of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, will be vacant in June. It may be held for two or three years, and is of the annual value of £100. THE Aberdeen Universities Court has ap- pointed Mr. John Clarke, M.A., Aberdeen, to be lecturer in education for the term of three years, in succession to Dr. Joseph Ogilvie, whose term of office has expired. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE. SPIRITUALISM AS A SURVIVAL. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: The discus- sion in SCIENCE in regard to the occult phe- nomena supposed to be manifested by Mrs. Piper.induces me to recall a controversy I had with a distinguished psychologist who.expressed the belief that in Mrs. Piper he had, at last, en- countered evidences of a supernatural character. In a discussion with a very eminent English- man, a spiritualist, I found that he placed im- plicit faith in mediums who had been repeatedly exposed as most arrant humbugs. No intelli- gent seeker after evidences of supernaturalism would, for a moment, accept the manifestations of these frauds, and yet, with the blandness of an insane person, this eminent spiritualist re- ceived, without a reservation, the messages of these humbugs. In the Proceedings of the Society for. Psychical Research two eminent psychologists recount the remarkable perform- ances of a medium in Sicily, which they fully accepted as genuine, yet my distinguished psy- chologist above mentioned, with his keen method of penetrating frauds of all kinds, ex- posed this apparent wonder. Now he in turn encounters Mrs. Piper and, his limit of penetra- tion having been reached, he falls into line just as promptly as the rest. Here you have, then, a number of men with varying degrees of pene- trating powers. One set all agape with specu- lative wonder, as Huxley said of Bastian, ac- cepting stuff as genuine which many alert SCIENCE. 749 newspaper reporters had shown to be spurious ; another set, endowed with a modicum of com- mon sense, repudiating the peripatetic mediums yet snared by more skillful frauds ; still higher are others who are not deceived by these, but are in turn bamboozled by more deftly played tricks; and finally the highest intellects who, in an encounter with some exceedingly adroit female medium, are puzzled by the manifesta- tions and, not having that judicious calm which might frankly wait for more light, plunge into the regions of the occult for an explanation as readily as did their more ignorant confréres under. the capers of the charlatans. I think a fair explanation of this attitude of the human mind, which always excites more wonder ina rational being than do the séances of cunning mediums, is that we have clearly before us the evidences of survival. From a time when all believed in omens, portents, dreams, warnings, etc., what wonder that a sufficient number of molecules have been transmitted whose potency overrides common sense. In no other way can we explain why in the latter years of the nine- teenth century there are in our midst men, otherwise intelligent, who fully believe in as- trology. It is as utterly impossible to convince people thus afflicted as it would be to argue with inmates of an insane asylum. We may re- gard with interest, akin with pity perhaps, those who waste their phosphorus in trying to convince the world that they are right. Weare compelled to explain their attitude, not by significantly striking our head with the index finger as we contemplate them, but by insisting that they present most interesting examples of survival, and, if they did but realize it, how in- teresting they would be to themselves ! The conception of a flat world was at one time universal; to the masses, however, the demonstration that it was round or square or pyramidal induced no special mental disturb- ance—no more, indeed, than when it was shown that the air they breathed was composed of certain gases, had a certain weight, etc. The belief in dreams, omens, signs, etc., was an active one; it was invoked at all times; the mind, for centuries, was super-saturated with it, and hence its survival among children, to- day, among the masses and, rarer still, among 750 the highly gifted. The question of flatness of the world had, with the masses, hardly an ex- istence; no molecules of the brain were exer- cised by it; the disturbance occurred only among the learned. Is it for this reason that we find so few survivals, to-day, of those who believe the world is flat ? Epwarpb 8. Morse. SALEM, May 17, ’98. ‘THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY.’ To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: Professor Stan- ley’s interesting letter is timely and valuable ; it calls attention toa fundamental difference in standpoint between two schools of psychologists. This difference has been indicated by Professor Cattell in the following statement: ‘‘ As a sci- ence advances beyond the stage of crude obser- vation it tends to become either quantitative or genetic.’? The former tendency has pro- duced experimental psychology; the latter genetic psychology. The standpoint of experimental psychology— as far asI can understand the principles of its representatives—can be briefly stated as fol- lows: Given a group of phenomena, called ‘ phe- nomena of consciousness ;’ required a determina- tion of the laws according to which these phenom- ena are connected. This is a problem similar to that of astronomy, physics, meteorology, geology, biology, political economy—in fact, of all the sciences. In the early stages of a science the only solutions possible are those of ‘yes’ and ‘no;’ e. g., does the memory of an object improve with interest and the lapse of time? to which the answers are: ‘yes’ for the former and ‘no’ for the latter. The introduction of methods of meas- urement—which is the special achievement of the new psychology—renders quite a different solution possible. The question just stated be- comes : how does the memory of an object de- pend on interest and the lapse of time? The answer is as follows: Denote all the possible ' factors that may influence the memory by a, b, C,...,4,...,t,...,%. Keeping all the cir- cumstances except i constant, determine the rela- tion of dependence of the memory on 7, which is simply a roundabout method of saying: Let a, b, c,. . .=const. and find_M=f(i), where SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 178. Mis the accuracy or uncertainty or some other property of memory in the particular case. The method of solution, familiar to all experimental- ists (see p. 77 of ‘ New Psychology’), consists in varying ¢ quantitatively and measuring the re- sulting variations in 17; the results when prop- erly treated give a formula connecting the two ; this is known asa law of memory. The fun- damental necessity for such work is the method of measuring the quantities considered. Professor Stanley remarks: ‘‘ We must first devise some method of measuring interest ;”’ it follows that we cannot determine this law of memory because such a method has not been found. This is quite true; the proper reply is to devise such a method—an undertaking not difficult to any one trained in psychological experiments. Wecan, however, measure time, and have in a number of cases (Wolfe, Ebbing- haus) determined the laws of various kinds of memory as depending on time or M=f(). The ideal solution—which Professor Stanley seems to expect at the start—is M—F (a, b, c,..., 4, .,¢,...,) or the determination of the complete law of memory as depending on every possible circumstance. Perhaps some day psychology will make some approximation to such a solution; at present it must remain content with determining single laws. Professor Stanley is quite wrong in assuming that this method is peculiarly a physical method. It belongs no more to physics than to chemistry (see the late works on mathematical chemistry), to political economy (Carnot, Jevons, Fisher), to biology (Pearson). Itis merely a fundamen- tal method of thought which is applicable wher- ever measurements can be made. In fact, we can reply to Professor Stanley that his science of genetic psychology must inevitably come to the use of this very method. Every single fac- tor influencing the life of an individual or a community acts to a degree depending on its intensity according to some law ; supposing all other factors to remain constant, this law is given by its action under those circumstances. By carefully measuring the action of each factor and its result on each property of mental life, the genetic psychologist could state the result as a series of laws of mental development. To be sure, this is rather a difficult task to propose, May 27, 1898. ] but we may confidently expect the beginnings of such a genetic psychology in the future. At any rate, in this field, as in most other fields, progress and profit are increased by greater ex- actness and care, by more accurate and conven- ient apparatus and by shorter and more definite methods. These elements are the ones which experimental psychology is trying to introduce into the exploration of mental life. The fact that these methods are somewhat new in psy- chological work gives us the right to call a system of them a ‘new psychology.’ Professor Stanley’s claim that biology is the main standpoint of psychology is quite justified —if ‘psychology’ means the science of mental de- velopment. It must be remembered, however, that there is a fundamental difference in aim and method which marks off experimental psy- chology from the other mental sciences. Its ob- ject is to determine the fundamental laws of mental activity in the adult human being under - ordinary circumstances. The change of the prob- lem to child-study, to the development of the individual or of the race, or to abnormal circum- stances, produces closely related sciences. All these sciences are inter-dependent. In fact, all these sciences—as Professor Stanley implies —are needed for a concrete, practical under- standing of mental life; nevertheless conven- ience and clearness sometimes require that at- tention should be concentrated on one of them at a time. EH. W. SCRIPTURE. New Haven, Conn., May 20, 1898. FOSSIL FULGUR PERVERSUM AT AVALON, N. J. ON page 682 of SclENCE the quotation from Captain Swain, of the Avalon Life Saving Station, N. J., with reference to the casting ashore of Fulgur perversum is slightly inaccu- rate. I now quote from his letter the passage Iread at the Academy that ‘‘ the conchs in ques- tion come ashore only during a strong north- west (not northeast) wind that happens imme- diately after a northeast or a southeast gale, a northwest wind is the only kind that will bring heavy substances ashore, it seems to make the surface current offshore, and this creates an under current on-shore.’’ I have no doubt that Fulgur perversum at the locality is raked out of SCIENCE, Tol a fossil bed a short distance offshore, and that this off-shore wind after the on-shore gales favors the tides and currents in doing so. LEWIs WOOLMAN. THE DEFINITION OF SPECIES. I HAVE stated in this JouRNAL(N.S., VI, 329) that I believe the quantitative study of varia- tion to be the most pressing problem of biolog- ical science. I have consequently read with great interest the papers by Professor Daven- port and Mr. Blankinship, on ‘A Precise Cri- terion of Species’ (page 685 above). It seems evident that for the definition of species we should not depend on a ‘type specimen,’ the one first found, in the best state of preserva- tion or the like, but should collate a consider- able number of specimens taken at random, and when the traits can be measured give the aver- ages and the mean deviations. Then, as Mr. Davenport explains, we have double-humped curves showing a tendency for the type to split up, and these are of the greatest possible interest to the student of the causes of the evo- lution of species. When, however, Mr. Davenport proposes to use a given’ relation between the height of the smaller hump and the depression between the humps*—namely 100 : 50—as a precise criterion * This relation depends not only on the distance between the apices, but also on the relative number of specimens of the two types, which, of course, has nothing to do with the difference between the types. There are other cases in Mr. Davenport’s paper where the statements seem scarcely to take account of the complexity of the problems. It is meaningless to say that ‘in some cases fifty per cent. or even more of the individuals will occur at the mode’ and that in this case the curve is steep. The number of indi- viduals at the mode depends on the unit of measure- ment selected, and the steepness of the curve is arbi- trary. The ‘half range,’ defined as three times the ‘standard deviation’ (error of mean square), is a theoretically impossible point, and could only be de- termined approximately from thousands of speci- mens. Thus in Mr. Dayenport’s Fig. 9 the ‘half range’ of the right-hand curve is tripled by a single specimen. In all these cases Mr. Davenport neglects the probable errors which when reckoned show that his distinctions between species and varieties have no validity whatever. The data of Fig. 9 can be ex- pressed by a curve with a single apex. 752 of species, I cannot follow him at all. Size and weight—the traits that can be measured—are especially dependent on the environment and variable within the same species. Varieties of dogs may not intergrade at all in size and weight, or in the relative dimensions of the skeleton, but this does not lead us to call them separate species. The cephalic index is one of the most important differentials in man, but the fact that it may not intergrade does not turn races into species. The conditions are far more complex than Mr. Davenport assumes them to be. A certain quantitative amount of intergrading may mean entirely different things under dif- ferent circumstances, and the various differen- tials of a species may intergrade to very dif- ferent degrees. It does not follow that the chief differential is that quantitative characteristic intergrading the least. It may be the teeth or the reproductive system or whatever serves most conveniently as a basis of classification. My excuse for writing on the definition of species is that I hold it to be a psychological problem. In pre-evolutionary days the natural- ist undertook to discover species that had been created ; now it is he who creates the species.* The problem is analogous to deciding how many colors there are in the spectrum; it may be held that there arethree, or four, or seven, or two- hundred. There are, indeed, various criteria that may be used in the separation of species, of which the most important seem to be: (1) the phylogenetic history when known; (2) heredi- tary stability and variability ; (8) the tendency to cross and the fertility of crosses, and (4) in- tergradation. The last named factor is not only quantitative, as in the cases given by Mr. Daven- port, but also qualitative, and here the natural- ist must try to use as his unit what the psychol- ogist calls the ‘just observable difference.’ The degree of distinctness that shall constitute a *T fear that I am here sailing under Dr. Merriam’s heavy guns. He has written: ‘‘The function of the naturalist is neither to create nor destroy species, but to recognize, describe and learn about those which nature has established.’? (ScrENCE, N.S., V., 124.) Innumerable coyotes, differing more or less, live or have lived, and Dr. Merriam, not nature, has estab- lished eleven species. Some other naturalist has created the coyotes. SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 178. species must, like the meaning of every word, depend on the best usage. As the usage of the best writers is compiled and given currency by dictionaries, so the usage of naturalists is com- piled and given currency in a work such as Das Thierreich. The criterion given prominence by Messrs. Davenport and Blankinship should be carefully studied, but it is only one of many factors, and these must be distinguished and adjusted by the powers of observation and judgment of the naturalist. The definition of species is, as I have said, a psychological prob- lem. J. McKEEN CATTELL. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Contribution towards a Monograph of the Laboul- beniacee. By ROLAND THAXTER. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sci- ence. 1896. Vol. XII., No. 3. Pp. 189- 429. 26 plates. This is the second important memoir by Dr. © Thaxter on Entomogenous fungi, the first being a monograph of the Entomophthorere. The very large number of these plants which are being brought to light by the keen observation and untiring industry of the author of this memoir is a surprise to any one acquainted with the literature of the subject. As Dr. Thaxter states in the introduction, his study of Entomogenous fungi was begun with the intention of embodying in a single mono- graph all species truly parasitic on insects. But the number of species of the Entomoythorez were sufficient for a monograph of considerable proportions, and now the hitherto insignificant family of Laboulbeniaceze has, under his ind- fatigable researches, grown to an order of for- midable proportions, while several other groups of insect fungi remain yet to be investigated. While a few of the members of the genus La- boulbenia have been known for nearly one-half a century, our knowledge of the development, sex- uality and formation of the spores has remained very imperfect. This, together with the diffi- culty of defining the position of the family in relation to other thallophytes, has probably had much to do with the almost universal absence of treatment of these forms from text-books of fungi. May 27, 1898.] The plants are remarkably peculiar in form and remarkably simple in structure, and prob- ably represent degraded remnants of a more complex ancestry. The environment which they meet because of the peculiar habitat must have had a powerful influence in reducing them to their present rather stereotyped morphology. For while it has now been shown that there are considerable variations in species, and a goodly number of both species and genera are represented, one is struck by the constantly re- curring facies running through many of the different genera. The members of the family are attached to the legs or bodies of insects, usually those in- habiting damp or wet localities. An individual consists of a simple stalk for attachment, which bears a simple elongate perithecium as a lateral appendage, or is terminated by the same, while the antheridia may terminate the plant, or oc- cur as a simple or tufted lateral growth. By studies of the development of a large number of species, and by the examination of a large ‘series of forms, the limits of specific variation have been quite well determined, so that a “fairly good basis has been established for the recognition of species and genera, and the sys- tematic arrangement of the known forms can ‘be presented with a good deal of confidence. The discovery by Karsten, as early as 1869, -of a trichogyne on the perethicium, and the fu- ‘sion with it of bodies resembling the sperm cells of the Rhodophycee, indicating sexuality in these plants, has been fully confirmed by Dr. Thaxter’s ‘studies, and we need now only the knowledge of the actual nuclear fusions in the different ‘steps of fertilization to show how the ascus orig- inates as a result. The female organ shows a striking resemblance to the trichophoric appa- ratus in certain of these alge, as suggested first by Karsten. These investigations serve to con- firm this view, and the conclusion is drawn that this family of ascomycetes has originated from the Florideze, and may possibly have been the point of origin of the ascomycetous fungi, ‘Twenty-eight genera and one hundred and fifty-two species are described and illustrated ; the larger majority of these are named by the author. Gro. F. ATKINSON. SCIENCE. 703 A Report on the Work and Expenditures of the Agricultural Experiment Stations for the Year Ended June 30, 1897. By A.C. Trur. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experi- ment Stations, Bulletin 50. 1898. Pp. 97. This valuable document should be perused by every friend of science in America. Dr. True, the Director of the Office of Experiment Sta- tions, has not only followed the work of the stations from his office in Washington for many years, but has himself visited and critically in- vestigated every one of them. Unlike many critics of station work, he has been slow in arriving at conclusions; erring, if at all, on the side of extreme caution rather than of haste. His natural bias of mind seems to be conserva- tive, and added to this is his evident sense of the responsibility of his position; so that we may be sure his criticisms and suggestions for reform are only those which he has felt forced to make in the face of overwhelming evi- dence. Yet we read these words (pp. 6-7): ‘‘In one respect the past year has been a period of un- usual discouragement to those who have the best interests of the experiment stations at heart. From changes in the constitution of the governing boards, due to legislative action, changes in the Governors having power of ap- pointment or removal of members of these boards, and other causes, the Directors of the stations in ten States and Territories have been changed since the last [annual] report was pre- pared. In several cases the Directors removed had had long and successful experience in the management of the stations and had made their work increasingly useful. In these and other cases the removal of the Director was accom- panied by a further reorganization of the station staff. * * * The numerous ¢ghanges in the station staffs recently made are calculated to shake faith in the wisdom of committing the stations so fully to the control of the local boards.”’ Taking the stations separately, we find : Idaho.—‘‘ The station has fallen behind in its publications; its finances have been in an un- satisfactory condition, and its operations have been very largely of a superficial character.”’ Kansas.—‘‘ Out of fourteen persons constitut- Tot ing the station staff, whose names were pub- lished in our official organization list, February, 1897, six are now on the staff, three of the officers retained being assistants. Our exami- nation of the expenditures, publications and work of the station has not revealed any good and sufficient reasons for this radical reorgani- zation.’’ North Carolina.—‘‘ The station has been weak- ened by the loss [%. e., dismissal] of successful and experienced officers and by the uncertain- ties attending a change of management and a somewhat dubious financial outlook.’’ North Dakota.—‘ The recent dismissal of the experienced veterinarian and the appointment of an untried man in his place has awakened fears that the influences which hitherto have hindered the progress of the station are still at work.’’ Oregon.—‘' The affairs of the Oregon Station during the past year have not been in a satis- factory condition. * * * At the close of the fiscal year the President and Director was re- moved after one year’s service. The Horticul- turist and Assistant Botanist were also re- moved.”’ West Virginia.—‘‘ After some nine years of faithful service, during which period he had managed the station successfully under unusual difficulties * * * the Director was dismissed by the board at its first meeting, though no charges affecting his personal or professional standing were preferred.”’ And so forth. Of course, it must not be imagined that all the stations are subject to these evils, nor would Dr. True admit for a moment that the stations as a whole are a fail- ure. On the contrary, the splendid work done by many of these institutions, such as those of Wisconsin, Ohio, New Jersey, Minnesota, Mas- sachusetts, Cornell University, etc., cannot be too highly praised or too warmly supported. These wisely-governed stations have demon- strated beyond question that the money spent under the Hatch Act may be made to yield handsome profits to the nation; that the ex- penditure of national funds for scientific re- search is one of the best means of preserving and increasing the wealth and reputation of the United States. Weare indebted for very much SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 178. to the laboratories of Europe ; but the time has. come when one can rarely open a recent European work on any branch of agricultural science without finding numerous and flattering references to the U. 8. Department of Agri- culture and Experiment Stations. If this is so, what are the people of the United States: about that they permit such golden oppor- tunities in many cases to be lost—muddled away by men of whom it is charitable to sug- gest that they are merely incompetent? What are the scientific men of this country thinking of, that they witness unmoved the desecration of the very temples of science? I do not sug- gest or know of anything worse than is plainly to be read in this report now before us, the work of a cautious scientific man, who has had every opportunity for ascertaining the actual facts. It is not necessary to go behind Dr. True’s deliberate statement to find grounds for an energetic movement in support of genuine scientific work and workers in the experiment stations. To merely contemplate the virtual loss of so many thousand dollars through bad manage- ment hereand there would give quite an erron-— eous impression. We can afford to lose the whole Hatch fund every year, if it must be, without serious detriment to the nation; but we cannot afford to lose the fruits of scientific research, which are worth an incalculable sum. If one sta- tion has produced good results, so canall, under proper control. There is probably not a station in which much good work has not been in prog- ress at one time or another; but in many in- stances the natural fructification of a research has been prevented, and in consequence past efforts rendered unavailing. The duty of scientific men in this matter is clear. They should, in the first place, seek to: become familiar with the good work of the sta- tions, so that they can appreciate what is being done, and realize how much more might be done. They should then make it their business to protest vigorously against every effort to in- terfere with competent workers, or interrupt the continuity of their work ; while at the same time educating the people to a sense of the pos- sibilities inherent in experimental work. If every man of science in this country would thus. MAY 27, 1898. ] work in the interests of his muse, instead of merely for his own selfish ends, the public would not be slow to appreciate scientific work more nearly in accordance with its merits. T. D. A, COCKERELL. Tl Codice Atlantico di Leonardo da Vinci nella biblioteca ambrosiana di Milano. Reprodotto e pubblicato dalla Regia Accademia det Lincei sotto gli auspice e col sussido del Re e del Governo. Milano, Utrico HoEpui, Editore Librajo della Real Casa e della R. Accademia dei Lincei. New York, G. HE. Stechert. 1894-8. 385 parts; 800 pages; 1750 draw- ings and illustrations ; folio. $240. This magnificent reproduction of the extra- ordinary works of one of the most wonderful men of genius known to history is a work for which the world has long waited. It is issued in parts to subseribers, and none are furnished to the trade or furnished as complimentary copies. Hach of its thirty-five parts contains 40 heliotype plates, reproducing the drawings and sketches of the great author, with double transcription of the text, and with notes. It is printed upon hand-made paper, 388 em. (15 in.) by 50 cm. (20 in.) in dimensions; and but 280 copies, it is stated, will be issued. The first 20 copies are supplied to the earliest sub- seribers, in order of date, at a discount of 20 per cent. Inspection is permitted of the first part before subscribing. The work has been performed under the direction of the Italian Ministry of Public In- struction, and with direct supervision of the Royal Academy, and the transcription was made by Dr. John Piumati—already distin- guished both for his learning and for his suc- cess in earlier and somewhat similar work— assisted by Lucas Beltrami, well known in connection with his work on the Vincian Codex of the Trivulzian Library. The work is in- tended to give as complete a reproduction as the existing remains permit of the collection of manuscripts of Leonardo, now almost four cen- turies old, which, since the death of Menzi, a half-century after their completion, have been dispersed. Pompeo Leoni gathered a large proportion of them together, somewhat later (1587), and pro- SCIENCE. 755 duced the ‘Codex Atlanticus’ of that time. Cardinal Frederic Borromeo ordered its tran- scription in 1626, and his Ambrosian Library became its possessor in 1637, meantime an of- fer of a thousand doubloons from Charles I. of England having been refused. During the last century Anthony David made a study of its collections in mechanics, and Balthasar Oltroe- cio, Governor of Ambrosian Library, made it the basis of a Life of Leonardo, later published by Amoretti. The Codex itself was captured by the French in 1796, and taken to Paris for the National Library, where Venturi found it and made it the source of his writings upon physics and mathematics, largely. Libri, Omodeo, Angellucci and others studied it in its old home, but the publication of the whole collection has only now been undertaken, The commencement of the enterprise here illus- trated was actually made with the issue of the ‘Saggio’ at the time of the inauguration of the monument to Leonardo, at Milan, in 1872 ; its twenty-four plates giving a foretaste of what was coming, so interesting and absorbing to collectors and admirers of the great soldier, poet, engineer, artist, and man of science, as to compel immediate assurance of the ultimate completion of the work. This splendid reproduction will throw new light upon the character and achievements of the man who has been mainly portrayed by his biographers as a sort of Admirable Crichton with a genius primarily artistic, and who have ob- tained their ideas from such biographies, rather than from a source giving a true account of his life and his work in all its various fields. Even a cyclopedia like Johnson’s, generally regarded as having a scientific rather than a literary or artistic character, gives prominence to his ac- complishments as artist, says little of his achievements as soldier, his talents as engineer, or his learning in science and in literature. His ‘Last Supper’ is given deserved attention ; a catalogue of his paintings is presented, and a good bibliographical list is submitted ; but its author says: ‘‘It is impossible, in the space at command, to give an account of Leonardo’s scientific labors ;’? and none is given, and but jittle is suggested, to indicate to the reader the fact that he was a great military engineer, a 756 talented inventor, a skilled mechanic, and per- haps the most learned scientific man of his age and nation. The fact is that it was Leonardo who re-im- ported, more than any other scientific man of his time, the sciences of the Saracens, after their migration from ancient Greece with the disciples of Aristotle and the Ptolemies, and their long residence in Egypt, their incorpora- tion with the older learning of the Orient and of the Arabs, and their purification and systema- tization by union with the mathematical, and especially the astronomical, sciences of those builders of its most solid foundations. It was Leonardo who made applied science systematic, who studied botany as a biologist, interpreted geology, laid the scientific foundation of pro- fessional engineering construction, and who, in his studies of the true theories of mechanics, and of their utilization in the arts of war and of peace, made of himself that type of the modern man of science now most characteristic of our own time, the man of science employing a combination of pure and applied science in the promotion of all the arts of the civilization of his time. These facts are not always even suspected by the reader of existing biographies, but a study of this unique collection of helio- typed plates, fac similes of his drawings, will bring the true character and the real life and habits of the man into view, and will throw into high relief the most important characteristics of his genius. This graphical autobiography is the story of the life and work and inmost thought of the man, without intermediary. It shows him constantly engaged in devising new machinery, usually of war, with new plans for the applica- tion of scientific learning, of reduction to prac- tice in the art of war, principally, of the then novel discoveries of science; utilizing the re- turning current of physical, chemical and me- chanical sciences; then recrossing the Mediter- ranean, never to be again lost to Hurope or the world. These singularly interesting drawings are re- produced with all the fidelity coming of the use of heliographic processes; and one of the interesting and curious evidences of the fact that they are made perfect fac similes, without SCIENCE. N.S. Vou. VII. No. 178. reference to their character, is seen in the in- scriptions, autographic incriptions by Leonardo, which must be read by the use of a mirror. The Italian is perfectly good and intelligible ; but, until it is noted that the plates are thus reversed, it is somewhat of a puzzle to the stu- dent of Leonardo’s sketches. The whole con- stitutes, that form of condensation of the in- vention and the arts for his time, which is simi- larly illustrated by Hero, the Greek author, many centuries earlier, in his ‘Pneumatica,’ and by Branca, by Leupold and by others'since, in other places and in more modern times. The work will have value from many points of view and will find its place in every library of im- portance. It should, and undoubtedly will, be- come familiar soon to all collectors, to all men of science, and to the professional poster- ity of Leonardo among members of the engi- neering professions. Its publication cannot. fail to add enormously to the fame of an already famous man who has rightfully been regarded, even in the absence of this testimony, as per- haps the most eminent example of the ‘uni- versal genius,’ in science, literature and art, and the arts as well, yet given a place in his- tory. Leonardo, the biologist, anatomist, botanist, hydraulician, geometrician, algebraist, mech- anician, optician, the inventor of the marble- sawing machine, a rope-making apparatus, of innumerable varieties of ballistic machines and ordnance, the seer of coming steam-engines and of steam-navigation and transportation, of steam-guns and breech-loading arms with the ‘modern’ screw-breech-block, of canals and other engineering works, the maker of un- counted plans, designs and inventions; in fact, this Leonardo is revealed, not in biogra- phies, but in his manuscript, of which even this great Codex constitutes only a fraction. Such widely distributed interests and such variety of talent could not be exhibited to-day, even by a man like Leonardo, of rare genius, un- equaled talent, indefatiguable industry and un- limited ambition ; and even in the sixteenth century this universality of genius was without rival among men of science, and Leonardo’s was the noblest mind of his time. R. H. THURSTON. SCIENCE EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE: S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WoopwARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING, Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry; J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MARSH, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology; 8. H. ScuDDER, Entomology; C. E. BrssEy, N. L. BRITTON, Botany; HENRY F. OsBorN, General Biology; C. S. Minot, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bowpitcu, Physiology; J. S. Bintinas, Hygiene; J. McCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology. Fripay, JUNE 3, 1898. CONTENTS: On a Flicker Photometer: PROFESSOR OGDEN N. IN(OO10) Cs noansosc0bboGoanonHDodgooSBSEqsEEODaaCAGoOd' uEdDGOo00 757 The New York Zoological Park: PROFESSOR EI NIRYe be OSBO BR Neeeteneceveteecniecserencccesescceceres 759 Engineering Notes : PROFESSOR R. H. THURSTON..764 Current Notes on Physiography :— Physical Geography of New Jersey ; Physiographic Types: PROFESSOR W. M. DAVIS...............-.. 765 Current Notes on Meteorology :— Cyclones of the Philippine Islands ; Physiological Effects of High Altitudes; Fog on the North At- lantic Ocean; Cloud Study and Photography: 18 IDOL W/Z occooonotinsoonasasonsogonoscobousou09B0bOCKD 766 Current Notes on Anthropology :— Ethnography of Western Asia; Bibliography of Peru; Tie Lump of the Eskimos: PROFESSOR DAG BRUNTON ereriseccceaseccacessasneseeceiasseacesee 767 Scientific Notes and News :— Summer School of the Illinois Biological Station ; The International Congress of Applied Chemistry ; CRG! cocedaosooodeqeapocodadeecuococnd nctooqcdadcacocoeaede 768 University and Educational News.........1-.-+++.s0+0+0+ 773 *\ Discussion and Correspondence :— Color Vision: C. LADD FRANKLIN. A Precise Criterion of Species: PROFESSOR C. B. DAVEN- PORT. Electrical Anxsthesia: DR. E. W. SCRIP- Scientific Literature :— Lockyer on the Sun’s Place in Nature: PROFES- SOR EDWIN B. Frost. Astronomy: PROFESSOR M. B. SNYDER. Kollmann’s Entwicklungs- geschichte des Menschen: DR. ALFRED SCHAPER. Titchener’s Primer of Psychology: PROFESSOR H. (Cs WWE RN donqpsddoeobe Heecboocodcoeoctocp oonodarieqaood 777 Scientific Tournals......-..ccececceseeesencsesensenecesenesens 782 Societies and Academies :— The Chemical Society of Washington: WILLIAM H. Krue. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia: DR. EDWARD J. NOLAN............ 782 MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Prof. J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y. ON A FLICKER PHOTOMETER. In the September number of the American Journal of Science for 1893 I described a photometric method founded on flickers which I had proved to be independent of color, and stated that there did not seem to be any reason why it should not be applied to ordinary photometric work. In January, 1896, Professor F. P. Whitman published, in the Physical Review, an account of a photometer with a revolving disc of card- board, in which this flicker method was utilized with more or less success. After- wards I constructed and experimented with five different forms of flicker photometers, and in November, 1896, read a paper on the subject before the National Academy of Sciences. I propose here to give a short account of one of these forms, and to mention a few experiments that were made with it by myself and others. The two sides of the white, upright, 90° prism, P, are illuminated with the lights to be compared, coming from the incandescent lamps L and L’, and the flicker is brought about by the rapid motion of the cylindrical lens, or biprism of small angle,C. This is caused to oscillate horizontally by a train of toothed wheels, W, which can either be turned by hand, or better by a small elec- tromotor, E, the speed of which is regu- lated by a friction break. When the ap- paratus is in action the two illuminated sides 758 of the prism, P, are presented rapidly in suc- cession to the eye placed at the aperture, O. The incandescent lamps, L, L', move over graduated bars or ‘ ways,’ the total length of which is 3.3 meters. A long light wooden rod with a square cross-section is employed to move one of the lamps, and to earry the filet of paper on which -the read- ings are registered, obviating the necessity of removing the eye from O. OL SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 179. lamps was determined by Dr. Tufts and myself on the same day, the results in each case being the mean of 15 readings. Dr. Tufts @, Jo 1B, 90.79 90.94 91.49 91.14 The difference between Dr. Tuft’s mean and my result being 2, of a per cent. [ ro) It is important that the edge of the prism where its faces meet should be sharp, and a satisfactory prism of this kind I have made from plaster of Paris cast in a pecu- liar mould, but unglazed paper stretched ‘over a well-made wooden prism answers tolerably well, when prepared with a pre- liminary vertical cut extending not quite half way through the paper. Inall the de- terminations given below, this arrangement was used, although it is certain that a prism with an invisible edge would have furnished still better results. The electro- motor was usually employed ; always when persons other than myself used the appa- ratus. In order to show the action of the photom- eter with white light some experiments by myself in company with other persons are given below. The relative illuminating power of two 16-candle power incandescent Three weeks later I made experiments, still using white light, with ladies, who saw the photometer for the first time. The figures obtained were: Miss L. Miss H. 92.47 ORs O. N. BR. 91.33 To test the action of the photometer with saturated colored light, the amount of light transmitted by a plate of red glass was directly determined, the result being that out of 100 rays of white light it transmitted 14.6. In this case the flicker was, of course, between almost spectral red and white light. A similar determination was made with a plate of green grass; it transmitted 8.4 rays.. Here the flicker was between almost spectral green light and white. These two plates of glass were then placed on opposite sides of the prism and the ratio of the amounts of light transmitted by them determined. In this case the flicker JUNE 3, 1898. ] was between spectral red and green. In the calculation of the results the amount of red light transmitted was taken as 14.6, and the amounts of green light calculated from the ratios obtained ; these were as fol- lows: 8.7 The mean of all the results was 8.9 8.78, instead of 8.4 per cent, as di- 8.7 rectly determined. 8.9 These measurements were made 9.4 by myself, but I thought it would be 8.6 interesting to see how nearly the 8.3 same result would be obtained by a 8.78 person wholly unused to the pho- tometer, and in general to photometric work. Miss L., after the nature of a flicker had been explained to her, at once obtained 9.07, which differs by ;3, of a per cent. from the mean of my more elaborate work. Results of equal or greater accuracy were obtained by myself and others using blue and red light, or green and blue light, all of them being intense or saturated. No trouble was found in causing the disappearance of the flicker when the speed of the motor was properly regulated, nor were the eyes more fatigued than in making ordinary optical observations ; of course, if the illumination is feeble the flicker becomes feeble ; conse- quently the lamps and their distances from the prism should be so chosen as to afford the best illumination possible under the given conditions. OGDEN N. Roop. CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Mucs# progress has been made during the past year by the Zoological Society of New York, and the establishment of the Park in the near future now depends solely upon the cooperation of the city government. Under the present city administration, and especially with the policy of economy which has been generally adopted, it appears pos- sible that the project may be somewhat de- SCIENCE. 709 layed, although the Park Commissioners are in hearty sympathy with the project of the Society. In the recently issued report of the Ex- ecutive Committee, the following are enu- merated as the chief results of the year’s work: A contract with the City of New York, unanimously adopted by the Com- missioners of the Sinking Fund, March 24, 1897 ; completion of the General Plan of the Park, and its unanimous approval by the Park Commissioners, November 22, 1897; subscription of the first $100,000 to- ward the gift of $250,000 from the Society to the city, completed February 15, 1898; preliminary plans of nine of the principal buildings, prepared and submitted for crit- icism to several American and European zoological garden specialists; increase of the membership of the Society from 118 to 600 active members. According to the agreement with the city, $125,000 is to be expended by the city in the preparation of walks, sewers, public comfort buildings, boundary fences, etc., and a large part at least of this prelimi- nary work is absolutely essential before the Society can judiciously expend any portion of its Park Improvement Fund of $250,000. During the next few weeks the matter will probably be decided, and in the meantime detailed plans for every division of work are being prepared with the greatest care. The preliminary plan of the Park pre- sented by Director Hornaday in 1896 was used as a basis for criticism and suggestion by various leading zoological experts of the country, especially by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Mr. George B. Grinnell and Mr. D. G. Elliott, who made a careful inspection of the Park and offered a number of valuable sug- gestions. The preliminary plan was then approved by the Executive Committee and a close topographical servey of the’ Park ordered. The next step was the combina- tion of the zoological or scientific with the 760 SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VII. SKETCH Map or New Yor«K City. Showing the Location of the proposed Zoological Park, and present Means of Access. - No. 179. JUNE 3, 1898. ] Jandscape and architectural features ; and an able committee of experts consented to serve, as follows: Mr. Thomas Hastings, of Carrere & Hastings (architects of the new public library); on engineering, Mr. W. Barclay Parsons (of the Rapid Transit Commission); and upon the general land- scape development, the late Park Commis- sioner, William A. Stiles. Professor Chas. S. Sargent, of Harvard University, also ac- cepted a place on this Advisory Commit- tee, but was subsequently prevented from serving. Messrs. Heins & La Farge were appointed architects, and began to develop the details of the plans, in constant con- sultation with the Director. Upon the general plans of the buildings for animals, Mr. Arthur E. Brown, Superintendent of the Zoological Garden at Philadelphia ; Mr. Carl Hagenbeck, of Hamburg; Dr. J. A. Allen, of the American Museum of Natural History, among others were consulted, and kindly gave their valuable time and advice. After several months of labor a final plan of the Zoological Park was completed, and on November 15th was formally approved by the Park Commissioners. The follow- ing memorandum accompanied the plan: The fundamental principles which the Zoological Society has observed in dis- charging its duty toward the City of New York and the general public in the plan- ning and the development of the Zoological Park, may be briefly formulated as follows : 1. The Zoological Park must be estab- lished on lines by which it can be made a complete success zoologically, and also satis- factory and beneficial to the public. 2. The very valuable tract of park land, consisting of 261 acres, assigned to the Society’s use as a site, must not be injured in any way, either permanently or tem- porarily, but must at all times he regarded as a trust. ; 3. Even of the area devoted to animal collections, the choice landscapes are to be SCIENCE. 761 preserved unharmed, by locating all the large closed buildings so that they will be unobtrusive, especially from the boundary boulevards. 4. In selecting suitable locations for the numerous collections of creatures that will be required to live in the open air all the year round, it is of paramount importance that such animals should have all the ad- vantages that are available in the nature of shade, shelter from westerly winds, dry situations, etc., in order that they may’ sur- vive as long as possible. 5. So far as it be possible, it is extremely desirable that all animals living in the open air should be so installed that their sur- roundings will suggest, even if not closely resemble, their natural haunts. 6. The fences for large animals in open ranges shall be of the lightest description consistent with the proper confinement of the animals, and all posts used shall be as unobtrusive as possible. 7. As far as possible, the general aspect of wildness which now characterizes South Bronx Park must be maintained. In other words, it is desirable that the Park should be maintained as a well-kept and accessible natural wilderness rather than as a conven- tional city park. 8. It is totally inexpedient and undesi- rable to have the area of the animals bi- sected in either direction by a carriage road- way, other than that projected to lead to the principal restuarant. 9. A single-track road for horseless car- riages, so laid out as to reach the principal buildings and collections, but without in- terfering with pedestrians, is not objection- able, and will probably become necessary. 10. In order to protect and control the Zoological Park, the area for the animals, west of the Boston road, must be entirely surrounded by .a light wire fence, save on the north side, where the water forms a natural barrier. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 179. SCIENCE. 762 ‘MUVd TVOINOTOOZ MXOK MAN ‘“ANVT XNOUG 10 aNG aWHdd() AH, JUNE 3, 1898. ] The 261 acres assigned to the Park is an especially beautiful and diversified area, combining open glades with thickets, heavy forest, natural streams and waterfalls, long areas of rocky cliffs, and traversed by the beautiful waters of the Bronx. It seems to the visitor hardly credible that such an area should have been preserved so close to alargecity. It is evident that it should be developed with the very greatest care, and it is believed that the final plan of the Zo- ological Park will preserve all the natural beauty of this tract, and greatly enhance its interest to the people of the City and State of New York. In regard to the zoological arrangement and the development of the plans of the buildings, the Director reports as follows : “Our final plan is believed to locate each species as nearly as possible where nature would design to have it placed ; to absolutely avoid all disfigurement of the site; to make the most of the shade which nature has pro- vided ; to enable the visitor to see the whole series of collections with the least possible amount of walking; to yield the greatest return for the money that is to be expended, and last, but not least, to yield something that is hardly to be found to an equal de- gree in any smaller zoological garden or park—a logical and fairly symmetrical zo- ological arrangement. ‘Tn the preparation of the plans for the buildings to be erected in the Zoological Park, the Director was required to furnish to the architects a series of preliminary ground plans, and the details of such other scientific features as cage arrangement and general assignment of space. In this con- nection it is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance that has been derived from cer- tain European zoological gardens, whose buildings have furnished points that have been incorporated in our own. “The plan of our Lion House contains several ideas drawn from the admirable SCIENCE. 763 London Lion House, but with one note- worthy improvement, by means of which the out-door and in-door cages are pro- vided with free communication. The plan of our Elephant House contains features derived from the well-nigh perfect ‘ Palais des Hippopotames’ in Antwerp. Our Ante- lope House contains many ideas borrowed from that in Frankfort. Our Reptile House copies several features from that in the London Garden, but many of its most important features are original. ‘“‘Qur Bird House, Monkey House, Sub- tropical House, Small Mammals’ House, Winter House for Birds, Administration Building, Bear Dens, Wolf and Fox Dens, Alligators’ Pools, Burrowing Rodents’ Quar- ters, Squirrel Installations, Beaver Pond and Aquatic Rodents’ Ponds all are fea- tures absolutely new, both in design and general arrangement.”’ The plans of nine of the principal build- ings have now been drawn with great care, but, with the exception of the Mon- key House and Reptile House, they are still in the formative stage of development. Although the principal work of the So- ciety during the past year has been devoted to securing a firm financial basis, and to the development of a thoroughly satisfac- tory plan, some of the other objects have been considerably furthered. It is our purpose to make especial provis- ions and facilities for artists and sculptors in the various buildings, in order to establish a school of animal painting and sculpture which shall be worthy of this city and country. As an object lesson for American cities, Director Hornaday has prepared a very careful and fully illustrated report upon ‘The London Zoological Society and its Gardens,’”’ which will be of interest to keepers and patrons of zoological gardens in all parts of this country. He has also made, by means of postal correspondence, an extended inquiry as to the destruction of 764 _birds and mammals in different parts of the United States. While results obtained in this way express opinions rather than exact statistics, the column showing the percent- ages of decrease in bird life during the last fif- teen years will be of value in arousing the national sentiment for the preservation of DECREASE IN BIRD LIFE IN THIRTY STATES. The shaded portions show the percentages of de- crease throughout the States named during the last 15 years, according to the reports made to the New York Zoological Society. Maine... ..... 2 EE) New Hampshire. . . 82% WERE 5 5 ooo 0D = Massachusetts... 0.27 7 Rhode Island... . .0% 2 _ ees 7 Connecticut... .... 3 Dic New York. ..... .4% ass) WEG? SR A~56 6 5 5 3 S56 ——E—E Pennsylvania.....5% a7) OHIO 6 ey eens BS Indiana........0% ___ es > TUERACHS) 5 5°95 5 90 3 So hz ===, 7 Michigan 33 ES] WARCORSHN 5 5 5 6 4 5 0, Ez) UD 5 6 a0olo oo 7% —— Missouri... ......36 ==) REDE eon od oul 4 | =e | North Dakota... . .58% eee 4 District of Columbia .339 =a South Carolina... . . 32% ——k=a_ Gewyees soe sos o ot oridayy yc eaeaeieas 7 Mississippi ...... WOWISEME S55 5 5 ok INVEREAS 5 s0gn0 4 oF ARS, ga on b odo olf Indian Territory . . Montana. ...... .70% Colorado ue a eee eo ue) Idaho . Average of Above... SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VII. No. 179 our rapidly disappearing wild life. The correspondence is published in detail, and a large edition of this special paper in the Annual Report has been ordered for dis- tribution in various parts of this country where it will be of the most service. During the past year four honorary members have been elected to the Society as follows : Mr. Arthur Erwin Brown, Philadelphia Zoological Gardens. Professor Daniel Giraud Elliot, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Director of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washing- ton, D. C. Dr. Philip Lutley Sclater, Secretary of the Zo- ological Society of London. Public interest in this project has been stimulated by means of popular illustrated Bulletins. The Annual Report also is fully illustrated by engravings showing the Park as itis, and the London Zoological Gardens. A large colored map, executed by the Matthews-Northrup Co., of Buffalo, is included in report, and shows in detail the final plan as approved by the Society and the City. Henry F.. OsBorn. ENGINEERING NOTES. THE opportunity for further improvement in the manufacture of armor-plate and con- sequent reduction of cost and price is well seen in comparing prices of this class of steel with those of other and more familiar sorts. With rails costing but $15 to $17 a ton, ¢ cent a pound, to make and selling at fifty per cent. higher figures in the market, and armor-plate at the following quotations, say at 25 cents a pound, there is obviously a grand opportunity for the mills to make money to-day and the inventor and the breaker of the monopoly to make more money later. The figures which follow are taken from bids of various makers for armor-plate to be supplied the Russian JUNE 3, 1898. ] government recently. The first two firms are English; the next fourare French ; the next two German and Austrian, and the next two American ; the last is Russian: Allround Price. 9in. Sin. 7in. 6in. 5in, 4in. Vickers, Sons, and Miaximiueesseee see: 117 —- — — — —- — John Brown ...... 115 —- — — -— — — St Chamond ...... — 98 99} —— —— 108 110 Schneider et Cie... —— 100 —- 106 —— 111 114 SS) Chattillon........... —— 97}; 99} 1034 113 Marrel Fieres...... F. Krupp, Essen.. 112 —- —- —— —— —- Dillingen ........... 112 — — — —— — — Bethlehem Co. ... 106 — — —- — — —— Carnegie Co. ...... 108 —= == == =— == =— Witkowitz ......... 903 —- —- —— —— — — The highest figures are submitted by Eng- lish firms. The American bidders offer the lowest terms tendered by makers whose work is well-known and of the highest existing quality. They received the last Russian contract at their own figures and in spite of the lower offers of the French and Russian firms and the close figures given by Krupp. No award is yet announced for the present tender. Frenew buiiders and users of ‘motor cycles’ are apparently more active and en- thusiastic in that. new field of enterprise than are those either of the other European nations or of the United States. Fre- quent reports of competitions in which high speed and long routes have been distinguish- ing characteristics come to us, from Paris, particularly, and in some cases the reported results are exceedingly interesting and sug- gestive. The‘ Criterium des Motor Cycles,’ from Etampes to Chartres and return, oc- curred early in the present month. The run was 100 kilometers. There were fifty- three entries, twenty-eight actually taking part in the contest. In fine weather, but in a strong wind, M. Leon Bollée made the run in 1 hr., 57 min., 494 sec., his nearest competitor making the time 2 hrs., 20 min., SCIENCE. 765 532 sec. The winning vehicle had an 8 h. p- motor with two cylinders. The running speed of the victor was 51 kilometers (32 miles) an hour, unequalled by any road carriage to date, though closely approxi- mated by steam-carriage makers sixty years ago in Great Britain. This speed is, of course, regarded as much too high for safety, on the excellent highways of France, even. The overloading of the carriage with power ruled out the motor-cycle of M. Bollée, as it was found to be in excess of the limit of weight ; but this excess of power is consid- ered by the builder to be justifiable for car- riages intended to be employed in hilly countries. Rh. H. THurston. CURRENT NOTES ON PHYSIOGRAPHY. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NEW JERSEY. Tue Final Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey now reaches a fourth volume, which gives a serious discussion of the phys- ical geography of the State by Salisbury. It replaces the first volume of this final series (now out of print), in which the topography of the State was described by Vermeule, and forms a valuable text for advanced students. After a general account of the physical features of the State, their origin is explained by means of successive cycles of erosion. The first erosion cycle devel- oped the Schooley peneplain, now seen only in remnants on the even uplands of the Highlands, and in the long crestlines of Kittatinny mountain and of certain trap ridges. Next came the Cretaceous and Miocene submergences, separated by an erosion interval of small geographic import, and followed by the uplift which added the coastal plain to the State. An important cycle of erosion was thus introduced, dur- ing which a well-defined peneplain was de- veloped on the weaker strata, leaving the harder as embossed ridges. A late sub- mergence distributed the thin veneer of the 766 Pensauken gravels and sands over the drowned lowlands; and this was followed by an elevation in consequence of which the existing narrow valleys have been eroded in the ‘pre-Pensauken peneplain.’ The thoroughness of this volume only serves to emphasize the need of an elementary text, or series of brief explanatory tracts, that might go to the public schools along with the relief map of the State, already noticed in SCIENCE. PHYSIOGRAPHIC TYPES. THE first folio of the Topographic Atlas of the United States, published by the U. S. Geological Survey, is entitled Physio- graphic. Types. well-chosen typical regions, with explana- tory text by H. Gannett. The Red River plain represents a young surface ; the West Virginia plateau, a maturely dissected sur- face ; the uplands of Kansas, an old surface, reduced nearly to a plain of denudation ; Shasta is taken as a young volcano; Wis- consin affords examples of moraines and drumlins ; the lower Mississippi gives the type of part of a flood-plain; Maine illus- trates a drowned coast; and New Jersey, a sand-reefed coast. The policy indicated by the lucidity of the text that accompanies the geological folios is here well maintained. Great educational advantage must follow from it, not only in the better understand- ing of the Survey publications by their ma- ture readers to-day, but even more in lead- ing the younger generation towards a fuller comprehension of this large and growing store of material. The aid thus indirectly given by a great national organization to- wards the improvement of the position of geography and geology in the schools must everywhere be heartily welcomed. The authority that this series of folios will exercise in matters of explanation and terminology makes it desirable that the greatest care should be exercised in their SCIENCE. It includes the maps of | [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 179. preparation. There are some points in the first number that do not reach the desirable standard. For example, ‘ relief’ is first defined in the sentence: “The land features, commonly called the relief, include all the variations of the surface * > 7? Tt is correctly defined afterwards : ‘‘The relief, 7. ¢., the difference in height between the stream beds and the divides.” More direct evidence for the denudation of the piedmont region of Virginia is found in the deep-seated origin of the rock structures now at the surface, and in the discordance between structural arrangement and sur- face form, than in the great age of the rocks. The ‘snag’ explanation of drumlins is given a greater prominence than it deserves. The account of the Maine coast is erroneous in several respects. Glacial erosion is over- estimated, and there are many exceptions to the statement that the thin soil of southern Maine is chiefly derived from postglacial dis- integration ; the soil is often deep, consist- ing of glacial drift, glacial gravels and sands, and marine clays now revealed in an irregu- lar coastal plain which the farmers there know very well. ‘Ocean currents also bear sand along precisely as rivers do, de- positing it where their force is checked,’’ is a generalization that may mislead many an uninformed reader. It is unfortunate that a term so well understood as ‘ ridge’ should be used to name the almost invisible swell of a river flood-plain, particularly in the publications of a Survey that is elsewhere so careful not to exaggerate the vertical scale of its sections. W. M. Davis. CURRENT NOTES ON METEOROLOGY. CYCLONES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. From the Observatory of Manila, which has already given meteorology many valu- able publications, comes a report upon the cyclones of the Philippines, written, as Father Algué, its author, tells us in the in- JUNE 3, 1898. ] troduction, amidst rumors of wars and war- like preparations Baguios 6 Ciclones Fili- pinos. Estudio Teérico-practico. ‘This mono- graph of over 300 pages is the first complete publication upon the cyclones of the Philip- pines. It is of especial importance just at the present time, when the Philippines, long of peculiar interest to meteorologists, are becoming of interest to the general public of this country as well. The origin, structure, movement, paths, meteorological characteristics, and prognostics, are fully considered, and detailed accounts of certain special cyclones are given. Fifteen figures accompany the report, including a chart showing the average. tracks of cyclones in ‘the East, based on the international ob- servations from 1878 to 1888, and ou the Manila observations from 1865 to 1896. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF HIGH ALTITUDES. A sHoRT paper by Douglass on the Effects of High Mountain Climbing (Appalachia, Vol. VIII., No. 4, 1898) summarizes the more important symptoms of mountain sickness as noted by previous climbers, and adds a few notes from the author’s own ex- periences. The author is of the opinion that in trips which require two days to reach the summit of the mountain, as, e. 9., the ascent of Popocatepetl and Orizaba, the night should be passed at an altitude where mountain sickness is not likely to prevent sleep, that is, at about 13,000 ft. The in- creased discomfort from mountain sickness during the night, and the fact that all the symptoms become exaggerated with in- creasing elevation above sea level, make it advisable to sleep at as low an altitude as possible. FOG ON THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. On the Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean for May, 1898, a new scheme for in- dicating the probable prevalence of fog is adopted for the first time. Instead of show- ing the regions of fog in one shade of color- &CIENCE. 767 ing, as has been done hitherto, the present scheme gives a much more detailed fore- cast. Seven different styles of blue shading are now used, indicating seven degrees of probable duration of fog, in percentages. These percentages are as follows: 10%—- 20%, 20%-30%, 30%-40%, 40%-50%, 50%-60% ,60%-70%, and over 70%. That this more detailed forecast of fog duration will be very acceptable to mariners there can be no doubt. CLOUD STUDY AND PHOTOGRAPHY. Aw attractive little book of eighty pages, entitled ‘La Photographie et l’étude des nuages,’ by Boyer, presents, in four chap- ters, an account of the classification of clouds according to the International System ; of the application of photography to cloud study, and of the calculation of cloud heights and velocities from the photo- graphs. There are several good illustra- tions of cloud forms, reproduced from the cloud sheet of our Hydrographic Office, from the ‘ International Cloud Atlas,’ and from photographs taken at the Observatory at Trappes. R. DEC. Warp. HARVARD UNIVERSITY. CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY. ETHNOGRAPHY OF WESTERN ASIA. Tue races of western Asia were the sub- ject of an important communication by M. Chantre to the French Association for the Advancement of Science at its last meeting. His conclusions were based upon about 25,- 000 measurements, including those of 100 women of high cast taken by Madame Chantre. They were altogether derived from 16 different stocks. They differed widely, showing that the population is from very varied sources. In reference to the cephalic index, for example, we have, on the one hand, the Kurds with an average index of 72, and on the other the Baktiars, 768 whose index averages about 90. On the whole the broad-skulled type predominates, being, as compared to the long-skulled type, in the proportion of 8 to 3. The complete publication of these important results has not yet been made. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PERU. Tue 23d publication of the Field Colum- bian Museum is a ‘Bibliography of the Anthropology of Peru,’ by Dr. George A. Dorsey. It is a neat octavo of 206 pages and must contain nearly 3,000 titles. This is proof enough of its value to students, and we venture to hope that it will not be the last work of the kind by its author, though in his preface he says it will be. How impossible it is, however, to reach completion in such a task! Confining myself to the works in my own library, I find that Dr. Dorsey does not mention the papers on Peruvian mummies by Schuch and Cornalia, nor that on Peruvian gems by Blondel, nor any by the distinguished collector, Dr. Contzen, nor the valuable archeological catalogue of Macedo, nor the essays on Peruvian mythology by Lafone, and, more painful to relate, he says nothing of my articles on the Puquina language, omitting also those of Grasserie on the same tongue. This merely shows that the great- est care sometimes fails. THE LAMP OF THE ESKIMOS. Ir has been noted that no form of lamp (with one doubtful exception) was known in ancient America south of the Eskimos. These possessed one from time immemorial. They could not, indeed, live without it. A study of it is presented in the Ameri- can Anthropologist for April by Mr. Walter Hough. He considers it an independent invention. The rudest are merely stones collected on the beach with natural con- cavities in which the fats or oil can be poured and the wick laid at. the side. Other stones were hollowed out to imitate SCIENCE, [N.S. Von. VII. No. 179. these. At St. Lawrence Island lamps of pottery are frequent. The size and form of the lamps curiously enough bear so distinct a relation to the isothermal lines that it is possible by comparison to assign the geo- graphic position to any specimen. D. G. Brinton. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS. SUMMER SCHOOL OF THE ILLINOIS BOTANICAL STATION. A SUMMER school of biology will be held at the Illinois Biological Station, Havana, Illinois, under the auspices of the University of Illinois, adapted to the purposes of university students ; the instruction will also be carefully adjusted to the needs of teachers of biology wishing an opportunity for personal studies, in field and laboratory, of the plants and animals of a pecu- liarly rich and interesting situation and of the methods of modern biological station work. Four regular courses will be offered to organ- ized classes, two in zoology and two in botany ; and in addition to these opportunity will be given to students of experience to take inde- pendent work on special subjects, and to visit- ing investigators to pursue their personal re- searches at the station with the use of its equipment. The regular courses will be open to all who satisfy the management of their ability to do the work. The session will begin June 15th and continue four weeks, but mem- bers of classes may continue their work inde- pendently until August Ist. Visiting investi- gators may come at any time and remain until September 15th, and teachers may enter at any date preceding July 1st. Visiting investigators will be given tables on the floating laboratory of the biological sta- tion. They will find in the locality a very rich fauna and flora ina greatly varied environment. Exceptional opportunities are offered for work on the lower algze and the fleshy fungi. Over ninety species of Mycetozoa occur at Havana during the summer months. The abundance of Protozoa, Rotifera, Entomostraca, aquatic insects, planarians, oligocheete and parasitic worms, Mollusca—especially Unionide and JUNE 3, 1898. ] Bryozoa—and the ease with which material can be obtained, greatly facilitate morphological, experimental or systematic studies upon these forms. Havana is also an important fishing point, and the common fish and turtles of the Mississippi Valley can be obtained in abundance. The library facilities of the University and of the State Laboratory of Natural History will be open to investigators. This makes available the leading morphological journals and an ex- ceptionally complete collection of the literature of fresh-water fauna and flora. Necessary laboratory equipment of glassware and reagents will be provided, though visitors are requested to furnish their own microscopes, expensive re- agents, and alcohol for collecting purposes. Lists of literature and other desiderata should be in our hands by June 10th. The equipment of the Biological Station—steam-launch, row- boats and collecting apparatus—will be avail- able for field work. For the general objects, methods and organ- ization of the school the Director of the Biolog- ical Station, Professor S. A. Forbes, is primarily responsible. The session will be under the im- mediate management of Dr. C. A. Kofoid, Superintendent of the Station and assistant professor of zoology at the University, who will also supervise and provide for the work of advanced students and investigators. The reg- ular zoological courses, major and minor, will be taught by Professor Frank Smith, assistant professor of zoology at the University, and the botanical courses by Mr. Charles F. Hottes, University instructor in botany. The services of other members of the Station staff and of the University biological departments will. be drawn upon for instruction in the special lines with which they are most familiar. A fee of $10 a month will be charged each student and each occupant of a biological sta- tion table. Membership in the regular classes will be limited to fifty students and the num- ber of visiting investigators to twelve. Those purposing to attend will secure their places and confer a favor upon the management by making early application, accompanied by a statement of their preparation for the work. Other things being equal, college and university stu- dents and teachers of biology in the public SCIENCE. 769 schools will be given the preference. Further particulars may be obtained from Professor S. A. Forbes, Urbana, III. THE THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AP- PLIED CHEMISTRY. Dr. H. W. WILEY, Chairman of the Ameri- can Committee of Organization for the Third International Congress of Applied Chemistry, to be held at Vienna beginning on July 28th, writes that the Organization Committee requests the American chemists wishing to send contri- butions to that Congress, either papers or reports of any description, to transmit the full title, to- gether with an abstract of the papers, as soon as possible, to Professor Dr. F. Strohmer, IV/2 Schonburgstrasse Nr. 6, Wien, Austria. It is desired to publish the full program of the papers to be presented in the near future, and Ameri- can chemists are earnestly requested to send forward their contributions without delay. A local committee has been formed at Vienna for the purpose of securing agreeable and cheap dwelling places for foreign members during the continuance of the Congress. Those wishing to engage such places should address: Wohuungs- comite des III internationalen Congresses fir angewandte Chemie, Wien IV/2 Schénburg- strasse 6. American chemists are also informed that, on account of the Jubilee Exposition to be held in Vienna from the 7th of May to the 8th of Octo- ber, this year, the Austrain railroads are pré- pared to furnish round-trip tickets to all points in Austria-Hungary at greatly reduced prices. A further communication from the Railroad Committee will be made to American chemists in a short time concerning this matter. The North German Lloyd Steamship Company has also made reductions in fares to members of the Congress, regarding which further information may be obtained from Dr. Wiley. GENERAL. ARRANGEMENTS have now been made for the day to be spent at Harvard University during the Boston meeting of the American Associ- ation for the Advancement of Science. The various buildings and departments of the Uni- versity will be opened for inspection. A 770 luncheon will be served in Memorial Hall, and later in the afternoon the corporation will give a garden party and tea in the Hemenway Gym- nasium. At eight o’clock in the evening Presi- dent Eliot will address the Association in Saunder’s Theatre. ; A CIRCULAR has been issued by Professor Foster, President of the Fourth International Congress of Physiologists, which meets at Cambridge from August 21st to 26th, giving information regarding accommodations. Many of the colleges have offered rooms for the use of members which will be furnished free of charge, beyond a small sum for attendance. Ladies cannot, however, reside in the colleges, but lodgings in the town are provided at a cost of less than $1.00, including light and attend- ance, and meals can be taken in the college halls. Those wishing to secure lodgings or ho- tel accommodation should address Dr. Shore, the Local Secretary, at the Physiological Labo- ratory, Cambridge. THERE will be held, as we have already noted, a biological exhibition in connection with the visit of the British Association to the city of Bristol. It is proposed to hold this exhibition in the gardens of the Bristol and West of Eng- land Zoological Society, and to offer as complete an exhibition as possible of recent investiga- tions into the life history of animals and plants. A working committee has been formed and Sir John Lubbock has consented to open the ex- hibition. AT a meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, held on May 27th, nineteen new mem- bers were elected. Most of these were nomi- nated by a committee acting on behalf of the Medical Society of the District of Columbia, recently added to the group of affiliated scien- tific societies represented in the Academy. A TRIO of eminent German travelers and anthropologists are now in this country for the purpose of study. Dr. Karl von den Steinen, widely known through his travels in South America, and his two important works and minor publications relating thereto, has recently reached the eastern United States after a trip through the Southwest. Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, of Berlin, is now in New York en route to the SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 179. Pueblo country. Dr. Albrecht Wirth, of Frankfort, known through researches in East- ern Africa, and more recently through a work on Formosa, has just returned from the Far Hast, through Corea and Siberia. He is now in Washington. Dr. F. W. TRUE and Professor W. H. Holmes, of the United States National Mu- seum, have recently gone to Omaha to super- vise the final installation of the Smithsonian exhibit and to attend the formal opening of the Exposition. The Smithsonian exhibit at Omaha is rather more limited than were the displays at Nashville and Atlanta, owing to limitations in space and funds; but the arrange- ment is considered highly effective and satis- factory. THE Geological Department of the Johns Hopkins University has just closed an encamp- ment of several weeks near Cumberland, Mary- land, in the heart of the Appalachian Moun- tains. Work was suspended in Baltimore during the period of the camp, special courses being given at Cumberland, both by the regular corps of instructors and by lecturers secured from the scientific bureaus in Washington. Complete instrumental outfits employed in geological, topographical, climatological, hy- drographical and agricultural investigations were installed at the camp, special lectures being given upon their uses. In addition to practical work along geological and topo- graphical lines, meteorological observations were taken twice daily by the students under the direction of an observer detailed by the United States Weather Bureau, the streams were gauged and the velocity and volume of their outflow determined, and the conditions of the soils in their temperature and moisture con- tents were examined daily under competent supervision, Among those who were present at the camp and who aided Professor Clark and his associates in the work of instruction were Messrs. Bailey Willis, H. M. Wilson, O. L. Fassig, E. G. Paul and C. W. Dorsey, of the Washington bureaus. It is planned to con- tinue practical field work in this manner in subsequent years. THE fourth annual address before the Botan- JUNE 3, 1898.] ical Seminar of the University of Nebraska was given by Dr. Charles R. Barnes, of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, on Saturday evening, May 21, 1898. The Conjugate and higher Bryo- phyta were cited as illustrations of ‘ Evolution- ary Failures,’ the subject of the address. The Seminar will publish the address in the near future. THE department of botany of the University of Nebraska has prepared two ‘ Laboratory Units’ for high school botanical laboratories, for exhibition in the Trans-Mississippi Exposi- tion. Hach includes those pieces of apparatus which are absolutely necessary for the student in the high school who is preparing to enter the University. The first ofthe ‘units’ is supplied by an American maker for $23.00, and the sec- ond is imported duty free by another dealer for $20.00. School officers can thus readily de- termine what to purchase and what the expense will be. Dr. HERMANN SCHAPIRA, professor of mathe- matics at the University of Heidelberg, died at Cologne on May 9th, at the age of fifty-seven years. The death is also reported of Mr. Mau- rice Hovelacque, Secretary of the Geological So- ciety of Paris. Mr. ArtHurR E. KENNELLY has been elected President, and Mr. Ralph W. Pope has been re-elected Secretary, of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. PROFESSOR KALKOWSKY has been appointed Director of the Mineralogical, Geological and Ethnological Museum in Dresden. PROFESSOR MAX VON PETTENKOFER, of the medical faculty of the University of Munich, has been elected a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. PRoFEsSOR W. Roux, who holds the chair of anatomy at Halle, has been elected a cor- responding member of the Turin Academy of Sciences. Dr. EDWARD STRASBURGER, professor of botany at Bonn, has been elected a foreign member of the Danish Academy of Sciences. AN address and some yaluable plate were presented to Sir William Stokes on May 7th, on the occasion of the completion of the twenty- SCIENCE. 771 fifth year of his professorship at the College of Surgeons, Dublin. In the evening Sir William Stokes was entertained at dinner. THE Philosophical Faculty of the University of Gottingen has awarded the Otto Vahlbruch prize for the greatest advance in science dur- ing the past two years to Professor Rontgen, of Wurzburg. This prize was founded in 1896 and is of the value of 9,200 Marks. Dig Senckenbergische Naturforschende Ge- sellschaft, of Frankfort, has awarded its Stroebel prize to Dr. Camerer, of Urach, for a book on the Metabolism of the Child. THE Berlin Society for the Advancement of Industry offers several prizes for work to be submitted prior to November, 1898. One of these is a silver medal and six thousand Marks, for electrolysis applied to mining, and one a first prize of 4,000 Marks and a second prize of 3,000 Marks for a method of measuring the amount of steam passing through a pipe. The Society further offers in 1899 the Tornow prizes (5,000, 3,000 and 2,000 Marks) for a history of the metals, which must not exceed 200 pages in length. WILLIAM WESLEY & Son, London, have issued a catalogue offering for sale a large number of works on astronomy from the li- braries of Rey. A. Freeman, M.A., F.R.A.S.; A. Marth, F.R.A.S., and J. R. Hind, F.R.A.S., late Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac Office, London. WE are glad to note that at the annual meet- ing of the London Anti-vivisection Society the Chairman said that many felt disheartened at the slow progress of the movement; that the society had to struggle against want of sym- pathy ; that they deplored the apathy of the public in the matter, and a resolution was passed expressing unqualified dissatisfaction with the existing act regulating vivisection, and with its administration by the Home Office. Tue Iowa Health Bulletin publishes letters given by ‘ doctors of medicine’ in support of ap- plications for pensions, of which the following are examples: , June 8, 1896. Dear Sir, Yours received I treted Wm. Akens after he cum Hoam from the serfis for polypup in his nosee and 172 Running soar in his pastur. The polypup from the nite are and exposure the wonde cum from the cick of a hoars. , M.D. , February 30, 1897. Sur, I surtify I treted the sed sojer fum 18888 to Date — foarmerly his stumik tub was jined to his nervi- ous sistem but now it air rotted off cosing grate ex- pectoring and hard of breth. Your Obt. servent , M.D. AN examination will be held to fill a vacaney in the grade of Chemist at the New York cus- tom house on June 9th. The salary of this office is $2,400. Tur New York Library Association held its annual meeting at Utica, N. Y., on May. 25th and 26th. THE 86th University Convocation will be held at Albany on June 27th, 28th and 29th. Among the subjects proposed for discussion are: Exten- sion of elective system in high schools and acad- emies. Should the four-year high school course be enforced as the minimum prerequisite for all degree courses? Should a minimum for confer- ring degrees be fixed by law? How low may admission requirements be made without for- feiting the right to the name college? What recognition should colleges and universities give to diplomas of State normal schools? What, if any, college studies should be regarded as con- stants to be pursued in every course? In courses leading to liberal arts degrees what credit should be given for studies in engineer- ing, music and fine arts? Should high schools regularly offer instruction in domestic science and in business, or should this training for par- ticular callings be relegated entirely to special schools? Educational functions of wall pictures, photographs and lantern slides as coordinate with books in giving either information or in- spiration. The influence on boys and girls of reading daily newspapers. In connection with the reception in the State Library on June 27th a new Indian Museum will be opened for in- spection. In noting the appointment of Professor Kee- ler to the Lick Observatory The Revue Scien- tifique pays the following compliment to the atmosphere of Pittsburg : ; L’Observatoire d’Allegheny ayant un ciel: plus SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 179. transparent que celui du Mont Hamilton, M. Keeler avait offert de rester \ la téte du premier de ces étab- lissements si de généreux amis de la science souscriv- aient un million de francs pour agrandir et doter l’Observatoire. Tuer third meeting of the Pan-American Medical Congress is to be held in Caracas, Venezuela, in Christmas week, 1899. In an interesting article in the May Forum, Professor Willis L. Moore states that the Weather Bureau intends to establish tenta- tively fifteen or twenty stations between the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains during the present spring, and to make special effort to secure observations at the same hour at a high level from all the stations, so that the meteor- ological conditions at that altitude may be compared with those prevailing at the surface of the earth. If we are successful in attaining the desired altitude at enough of our stations each day to give the data from which a synop- tie chart can be constructed we shall then be able to map out not only the vertical gradients of temperature, humidity, pressure and wind velocity, but also the horizontal distribution of these forces at two levels—one at the earth’s surface and the other at the height of one mile. It may be that after this work is done only negative knowledge will be acquired, but even then the work will not have been in yain, It will be an instructive study to note the de- velopment and progression of storms and cold waves at this high level. At that altitude the diurnal variations cease; there is but little change between the heat of midday and that of midnight, so that storm conditions may be , measured without the confusing effects due to immediate terrestrial radiation. THE Botanical Club of Barnard College has handed to the Treasurer $500 to form the nucleus of a fund for the equipment of a botan- ical laboratory to be known as the Emily L. Gregory Botanical Laboratory. Mr. Joun Nicwots has added the sum of $45,000 to the $200,000 which he gave about two years ago for a library building for the city of Providence. THE State Institute for Serum Research is being removed from Berlin to Frankfort, that JUNE 3, 1898. ] city haying undertaken to erect a building for the Institute at a cost of 125,000 Marks. THE annual horticultural exhibition was held in Paris from the 18th to the 25th of May and a Congress of Horticulture met in conjunction with the Exposition on May 20th and 21st. The Royal Botanic Society, London, held an exhibition of plants and flowers in their gardens at Regent’s Park on May 11th. We learn from Natural Science that Mr, Ed- ouard Foa has travelled across Africa by the basin of the Zambesi, Lake Tanganyika and the Congo, and has brought back numerous specimens of anthropological interest from the region of the great lakes. Dr. Hugo Biicking and Dr. lL. van Werneke have started for an eight months’ expedition to the Netherland East Indies on behalf of a Dutch Society. WE receive monthly the Sei-i-kwai Medical Journal, edited and published by the Society for the Advancement of Medical Science in Japan, the articles of which, partly in Eng- lish and partly in Japanese, are doubtless in- structive to the Japanese, while those in English are certainly amusing to the English reader, The general style may be gathered from the following : : “Diseases of the animal sphere (or the nerves, senses and muscles). Regarding Japanese patholog- ical constitution the writings of medical and elthno- graphic authors are not lacking in general remarks which are meant to express in the usual sense, * * * * It would also be an essential task of the surgeon to separate such easings of the treatment of wounds as really are due to censtitutional causes, from the consequences of the possibility that perhaps the causes of infection working against the healing art is some way different extra Huropean countries. * * * * The spleen is all malarial, typhus, variola diseases and in those called xa «’Soxyv splenetid diseases, the seat of strong swelling and all corresponding symp- toms. Let us observe here that unusually great swellings of the spleen are seldom found, either in post-mortion or clinical examination.’’ UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS. Ir is said that Mrs. Phoebe Hearst will erect a building for mining engineering for the Uni- versity of California at a cost of $300,000. Mr. Henry WILDE, F.R.S., has proposed to SCIENCE. 773 endow in Oxford University a readership and a scholarship in mental philosophy. They are to be designated the Wilde readership and the John Locke scholarship. Hopart CoLuecn, Geneva, N. Y., received $6,000 for a scholarship by the will of Mrs. Augusta M. Williams, of Newport, R. I. THE appointments for the coming year in the botanical department, Cornell University, are as follows: Dr. E. J. Durand is reappointed instruc- tor in botany and assistant curator of the Cryp- togamic Herbarium, and Mr. K. M. Wiegand, assistant in botany and assistant curator of the Phaneogamic Herbarium. Mr. B. M. Duggar, now assistant cryptogamic botanist tothe Ex- periment Station, hasbeen appointed instructor in botany, with special reference to experimental plant physiology, his time to be divided between instruction and work in the Experiment Sta- tion. Two graduate assistantships in botany have been established, the holders to divide their time between assistance and investigation. Mr. W. A. Murrill, B.S., A.M., the present scholar, and Mr. G. T. Hastings have been ap- pointed to these positions for the coming year. Besides these, a fellow, or scholar, is appointed in the department. THE second summer session of the New York State Library School, Albany, of which Mr. Melvil Dewey is Director, began this year on May 30th, and will continne in session for five weeks. AmonG the docents who have recently qualified are Dr. Fischer in anatomy and Dr. Mayer, of Vienna, in chemistry at the Ger- man University at Prague; Dr. Formanek in applied medical chemistry in the Bohemian University at Prague, and Dr. Haussner in mathematics in the University at Giessen. DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE. COLOR-VISION. Ir is not often that a letter appears in Scr- ENCE that presents the particular combination of characteristics of one of the recent communi- cations on Color Vision. Professor Titchener says expressly that until the recent papers of Miiller in the Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie on Her- 774 ing’s theory of Color Vision he has been content for several years to know the subject only in the compendiums of Helmholtz, Wundt and Hermann, and in the original paper of Hering of 1874, and yet he finds himself able to lay down the law in an ea-cathedra fashion that one would usually not be willing to indulge in, in regard to a confessedly undecided question, after a long devotion to the subject. That his reading has been cursory, and has been ap- parently to a certain extent forgotten, is evident from his making in a few lines such mistakes as to attribute the idea of the shift of excitability in photo-chemical substances to Konig, and to refer to the Helmholtz theory as a three-fibre theory. Fick is usually and not improperly credited with the idea of the ‘shift - of excitability,’ as it is he who first made much of it in the explanation of color-blindness, but the idea is originally due to Helmholtz himself, and occurs already in the first edition of his ‘ Op- tics.’ To say, therefore, of Helmholtz’s theory that ‘its original and most attractive simplicity has been given up in favor of Kénig’s shift of excitability ’ is to show a rather unusual degree of ignorance of the facts of the case. It is also doing much injustice to the Helmholtz theory to designate it as a three-fibre theory ; the as- signment of the three chemical substances to three separate fibres was, in the first edition of the ‘Optics,’ expressly stated to be merely a mode of facilitating speaking about them, and since the time of its experimental disproving in Helmholtz’ own laboratory it has naturally been abandoned by hin. The present discussion of color-vision in SCIENCE has been occasioned by Professor Pat- ten’s having had the temerity to bring out an entirely new theory, the main feature of which is that it is an endeavor to take account of a peculiarity of the structure of the retina which is certainly there, and which as certainly does not exist without having some function. Pro- fessor Patten’s full paper on the subject has not yet appeared; when it does it will no doubt re- ceive a due measure of attention from the physiologists and the anatomists, to whom it makes its chief appeal; any great psycholog- ical inadequateness is hardly to be looked for, at the hands of its author, in view of the full dis- SCIENCE, [N.S. Von. VII. No. 179. cussion which considerations of this sort have re- ceived in recent years. But it seems hardly cour- teous to condemn a theory before it has had a chance to be heard; any new theory, from the na- ture of the case, makes its appeal to those only who have the leisure and the open-mindedness (or the idle curiosity, as it may turn out to have been) to give it a fair share of attention. For a fresh theory to be set down as unneces- sary and absurd is no new experience; the most recent (and classical) example of the sort is the notice with which Kolbe greeted Van ’t Hoff’s conception of the different positions of atoms in space, which has since assumed such fundamental importance for chemistry. He said: ‘‘If any one supposes that I exaggerate this evil [of erratic speculation] I recommend him to read, if he has the patience, the recent fanciful publication of Van’t Hoff and Her- mann ’’ (Hermann being the German translator). It cannot, therefore, be looked upon as alto- gether a bad omen that the first feeling excited by a new theory is one of irritation and im- patience. My own theory met with the great good luck that, at the end of a year after it was brought out, the President of the British Association happened to take, as the subject of his presiden- tial address, a topic which included color-vision; after full and careful discussion of the sub- ject, he stated that the known facts in the case (and especially those recently discovered) were best explained by my theory. It isa piece of good fortune, again, that the physiologists of this country have happened just at this time to bring out a large and important general work on Physiology ; this has given Professor Bowditch occasion to give my theory generous space and a very fair showing. As a Vice-President of the American Association, Professor Le Conte Stevens has also happened to have color-vision for the subject of his inaugural address ; and the author of the best English compendium on sight, Professor Joseph Le Conte, has happened to bring out a new edition of his little book; I have to thank them both for the courteous treatment which they have given my attempt to account for the phenomena of the sensation of light. All this I regard as a piece of good fortune, such as does not always attend upon JUNE 3, 1898. ] merit in this toc busy world, and I hope that Professor Patten, if he happens to have hit upon a fruitful idea, will have an equally early op- portunity to secure a hearing. While my theory has had much good luck in the way of a favorable reception, it has hitherto been rather lacking in the honor of being at- tacked. Iam, therefore, very glad of the oppor- tunity which is now given me for elucidating some of its features. Professor Titchener dis- poses of my hypothesis in summary fashion by saying, first, that my assumed molecules have a suicidal tendency, and, second, that there is experimental evidence against the theory. The reply in the case of both of these counts is very simple. I take the second one first : 1. There is no experimental evidence against my theory. There is experimental evidence against the four-color component theory of Don- ders, but it does not hold against my theory, in which there are not two different kinds of white-sensation. Moreover, the attempt which has been made to show that this same evidence does not hold equally against the four-color theory of Hering can hardly be said to be successful. 2. It is incorrect to say that I assume, among the properties of my photo-chemical substance, a suicidal tendency ; it should be said at most that it has a semi-suicidal tendency. The photo-chemical substance which I assume is as stable as any other physiological substance in its first estate; itis only that it becomes un- stable after it has suffered a partial decomposi- tion. As a matter of fact, after we have had a vision of blue for a certain length of time we find that it is followed, even though the eyes be closed, by an after-vision of yellow. This is a marked defect in the optical apparatus with which nature has provided us, and a de- fect from which we do not suffer (to any ap- preciable extent) in the case of the other senses ; the sound-sensation of a given note is not followed by an after-clap of a definite other note. Nature might have done much better for us if she had provided some light- process which was not open to this source of error, but as she has not we must do the best we can to make out the character of the process which she has given us. Whatever SCIENCE. 775 that process may be, it is plainly something such that, after the external world has sent in to us information regarding a given colored surface, retinal equilibrium has to be restored by a subjective vision of the complementary color, even at the cost, if the eyes be open, of making objects which are really white take on a deceptive appearance of being colored. This fact of nature is mirrored in my theory by supposing that after having undergone a partial decomposition the photo-chemical substance concerned becomes unstable and breaks down completely. This is zweckméissig, because the retina becomes in this way a tabula rasa, and is thus able to give us correct information regard- ing the color that next impinges uponit. It had not occurred to me that the idea of a chemical compound which, on kheing partly decomposed, left an unstable residue was so recondite a con- ception as to need to be fortified by authority or by example, and, upon consulting the chem- ists whom I have access to, I find that I am right in this view. But if examples are needed they can easily be given in any quantity. Many unstable phenols, as pyrocatechin and pyrogallic acid, form stable compounds when treated with acid chlorides as benzoyl chloride or acetyl chloride. When these compounds are decomposed, so that benzoic acid or acetic acid, as the case may be, is formed, and the stable acids are removed, the very unstable phenol is left in solution. And it is not even necessary to go so far as to organic chemistry to find in- stances. So elementary a process as the re- moval of an atom of oxygen from sulphuric acid leaves an unstable remainder which grad- ually separates into water and sulphurous an- hydride. ; It cannot be too much insisted upon that the after-image which follows the vision of a colored surface is something peculiar and consequently demands something swi generis in the chemical conception which is to account for it. Miller, in fact, points out that, if the after-image is to be explained by the play of assimilation and dissimilation, the evident objection presents it- self that corresponding after-effects ought to occur in other regions of the animal mechanism as well, The only way he has of meeting this objection is to say that any explanation of the 776 visual process which was based upon general properties of the nervous substance would be open to the same objection. This is true, and it applies to Miuller’s own explanation of the phenomenen in question with peculiar force. But the conclusion to be drawn is not that one visual theory is sure to be just as good as another, but rather that that theory which posits a chemical process whichis not exactly like what goes on everywhere else in the body has by so much the advantage over another theory. The idea of a photo-chemical sub- stance which is unstable after a partial dissocia- tion, which it is as far as possible from being a remote idea to the chemist, is just as far re- moved from our conception of other physiolog- ical processes as it must be, in a well-devised theory, in order to account for anything so ex- tremely distinctive as is the visual after-image. But even though it had been necessary to go very far afield for the conception of a semi-sui- cidal chemical substance, this could not have been counted, by any one who had given a mo- ment’s consideration to the subject, as a point of superiority on the part of Hering’s theory over mine; for his assumed photo-chemical substance is ‘suicidal’ from the start. If blue is the color of assimilation, then after we have looked at a blue surface for a few moments there has been piled up in the retina, according to Hering, a large amount of the blue-yellow substance, and it is the going to pieces of this immediately afterwards which is the cause of the after-image; this assumed process is not in itself an objection to the theory, but it is ‘suicidal’ to the last degree. Professor Miller’s recent papers in the Zeit- sehrift fiir Psychologie are a monument of learn- ing and acumen, as I have already said in the pages of The Psychological Review. How far they are from substituting for the original theory of Hering a theory which can lay any claim whatever to being considered an adequate account of the phenomena of color-vision I am about to show in connection with a general dis- .cussion of color theories. Meantime I rejoice in the fact that Professor Titchener has renewed his study of the subject of color. It is to be hoped that this will lead him to remodel the brief statements regarding color which are found SCIENCE. [N. S. Vox. VII. No. 179. in his book on Psychology ; what he says there (while it is not incomprehensible to one who has the clue to his secret meaning) must seem con- tradictory and confusing in the extreme to the ordinary reader, and certainly constitutes a serious blemish in a book which is otherwise not simply a good text-book, but a valuable contribution to the science of psychology. C. LApD FRANKLIN. BALTIMORE. A PRECISE CRITERION OF SPECIES. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: I thank you for the suggestions contained in your kind discus- sion in SCIENCE, No. 178, of Mr. Blankinship’s and my paper on a ‘Precise Criterion of Species.’ Our paper was concerned with a method which, if applied, will constitute a small, but, we think, important, step toward giving greater precision to the defining of par- ticular species and to the distinguishing of varieties from species. To my mind the only important objection urged so far, an objection which was anticipated, is that it is impractica- ble to use in systematic work so great precision as our method calls for; it takes too much time and too large a number of individuals. A priori argumentation cannot dispose of this for- midable objection; only the demonstrated ad- vantage of the method in practice can avail against it. I should like to urge anthropolo- gists, mammalogists, ornithologists, ichthyol- ogists, malacologists and others who have al- ready gone some way in the direction of applying statistics to species to put the method to practical test. Mr. Blankinship and I are doing so. I should be very glad to assist those who meet with difficulties in the application of the method, as, for example, in the measure- ment of color and complex forms. The inge- nious naturalist will find, however, as anthro- pologists have found, few, if any, specific differentize which are not measurable. C. B. DAVENPORT. ELECTRICAL AN ZSTHESIA. To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: While making some experiments on the sensations derived from sinusoidal currents I noticed (April 12, 1898) that anesthesia of the tissues resulted JUNE 8, 1898. ] from currents of high frequency, the condition lasting for some time after the removal of the electrodes. While in this condition the finger could be pricked with a pin without any re- sulting sensation except that of dull contact. Sensitiveness to cold was also removed. The investigation has been continued and has shown the possibility of employing a sinu- soidal current of high frequency as an anes- thetic. Full details as to the requisite fre- quency and intensity will be published later. E. W. SCRIPTURE. YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, Conn., May 25th. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. The Sun’s Place in Nature. By Str NorMAN Lockyer. London and New York, The Maemillan Company. 1897. Pp. 360. Price, 12 shillings. The character of this latest work of its emi- nent author might, perhaps, be misunderstood from its title. It discusses the Sun’s place in the order of evolution of the stars, and not in relation to the solar system. Itis, therefore, to be classed as a book on stellar astronomy, and is to a considerable extent based upon a course of lectures recently delivered by the author at the School of Mines in London. The nature of the work may best be shown by quoting in full the conclusion: ‘‘I am not aware that any more crucial test than the foregoing can be ap- plied to the rival schemes of stellar classifica- tion, and, as I hold that the result of its appli- cation is entirely in fayor of the one which as- sumes the existence of some stellar bodies which are increasing their temperature while others are reducing it, the Sun’s place in Nature must be regarded as near that occupied by Arcturus and Capella, and very far separated from that occupied by a Cygni, y Cygni, and « Tauri. Nor is this all, the origin of the Sun in a nebula not exclusively gaseous, but only containing gases among its constituents, is greatly strengthened by the extended study of the classification problem which has occupied the last few chap- ters. Along all lines, then, the fundamental requirements of the Meteoritic Hypothesis have been strengthened by the later work.”’ The book may be regarded, then, as a sequel SCIENCE. Cd to ‘ The Meteoritic Hypothesis,’ which appeared in 1890, and is intended to reply to the criti- cisms of the earlier work, as well as to present the author’s view of the bearing on that hypoth- esis of the relevant discoveries in the interven- ing years. Itis, therefore, not a book for the instruction of the general reader, unless he has a taste for argumentative reasoning, adduced in behalf of a theory which has not met with general acceptance. It is written in Sir Nor- man’s easy style, and may readily carry the reader who is not critical along to the conclu- sions of the author. An interesting account is given of the dis- covery of terrestrial helium and the investi- gations of its spectrum from various minerals, in which the researches of the author were early and important. Some seventy minerals were examined in his laboratory at South Kensing- ton, and the D, line of helium was detected in the spectrum of sixteen of them. It is an essential feature of the Meteoritic Hypothesis that nebule are meteoritic in their nature, and that they pass into the stage of ‘stars’ as the meteoric ‘swarms’ become more condensed. Accordingly considerable space is devoted to the chemistry and nature of the nebula and their relation to stars. Professor Lockyer has himself obtained very successful photographs of the Orion nebula, and he gives a list of 54 lines on a plate taken in 1890. If there is any connection between nebule and meteorites it would certainly be expected to reveal itself in some resemblance of their spec- tra. Asa matter of fact, however, aside from hydrogen and helium, which are abundantly represented by lines, the only elements which Professor Lockyer identifies are calcium (three lines), iron, carbon and magnesium (one line each). Now Keeler’s measures have demon- strated that the chief nebular line does not coincide with the magnesium line, and still less do the remaining lines agree in wave-length with the lines of the elements mentioned. Thus it appears that there is an entire absence of spectral similarity between nebule and meteorites, except that both contain the uni- versally prevalent hydrogen. The references made to the work of Dr. Huggins, especially in connection with the 778 spectrum of the nebule, can hardly be accepted as fair to that eminent investigator and pioneer in that line. An interesting account is given of the ap- pearances of the temporary stars, or ‘ Nove,’ with their spectroscopic history, in which the observations of the author properly take a prominent place. Chapter XIY. is entitled ‘How the hypothesis has fared,’ referring more particularly to the bearing of the recent work on Nova Aurige upon the meteoritic hypothe- sis. The last quarter of the work discusses the problem of stellar classification. The principal contention of the author is that a spectral classi- fication should provide both for stars that may be growing hotter as well as for those that may be growing cooler. The implication is that the adoption of this principle requires the accept- ance of the meteoritic hypothesis, an implica- tion recurring in other partsof this work. The necessity is, however, by no means obvious. In the diagrams to show the difference in the spectra of stars considered by the author to be of increasing, and those of decreasing tempera- ture, it would seem quite possible to exchange the labels under the cuts without seriously affecting the plausibility of the reasoning. With that part of the final conclusion, already quoted, that locates the sun in close spectral proximity with Arcturus and Capella, no doubt all astronomers will agree. The process illustrations of the book are not in keeping with its otherwise admirable typo- graphical appearance, and are distinctly inferior to the excellent engravings in the earlier ‘ Me- teoritic Hypothesis.’ EpWIN B. FRostT. Astronomy. By AGNES M. CLERKE; A. Fow- LER, A.R.C.S., F.R.A.S. ; J. ELLARD GORE, F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A. New York, D. Apple- ton & Co. It is of supreme importance to a science that the popular writing representing it before the world of culture should be alike a graceful and an accurate exponent of the special subject. Astronomy seems in many instances to have been not too fortunate in the character of the literature promulgated as ‘popular astronomy.’ The unfortunate experience of this science leads SCIENCE. [N. 8. Vou. VII. No. 179. one then the more nervously to examine the credentials of a new recruit, and the more gratefully to welcome into popular astronomical literature a book of the honorable purpose and generally praiseworthy execution of the pres- ent volume. ‘Astronomy’ is divided into four chapters. In the first Miss Clerke submits a concise ré- sumé of the history of astronomy ; then follows a chapter on spherical, practical and gravitational astronomy expounded according to simple geometrical considerations by Professor Fowler ; the third, also by Miss Clerke, reviews concisely our present knowledge ofthe solar system ; the fourth and last is a concise treatise on the sidereal heavens by Professor Gore. The prime question naturally suggested by the tripartite authorship is whether a triple responsibility is really necessary in connection with a book whose aim is for the most part popular. A superficial examination would also incline one at once to challenge so ambitious a combination of authors in a book of but 565 pages. Closer examination, however, seems fully to justify the threefold authorship. Asa volume of ‘The Concise Knowledge Library’ it evidently aims both at great conciseness, scientific accuracy and freshness; and hence with the vast domain of astronomical science to be condensed into a moderate-sized volume it was clearly an advantage to have the work thus apportioned among several writers, each facile in the descriptive art and each faithful to the cause of scientific astronomy. Considering the scope of the facts to be pre- sented and the plan adopted, it would be beyond expectation to find a performance of this sort altogether blameless. Attempt at the required conciseness, coupled with an assignment of spe- cial subjects to each author under strict limita- tions, has seemed to exercise too restraining an influence. Subjects like modern astronomical spectroscopy and celestial photography have, taking the book as a whole, scarcely infused their full inspiration. The extreme brevity of the reference to far-reaching topics like ‘tidal evolution’ is almost tantalizing. Perhaps the character whose absence one misses most is di- rect discussion of astronomical methods and results from the standpoint of the active ob- JUNE 3, 1898.] server. The flavor, while sufficiently literary, lacks a certain essence to be caught up only from the activities of the observatory. And yet it was expected that a volume count- ing Miss Clerke, the graceful, accurate and forceful author of ‘A Popular History of Astronomy during the Nineteenth Century,’ among its sponsors would not be lacking in vital interest. Her contributions to ‘ Astron- omy’ have not fallen below her former high standard, except in very few particulars. Es- pecially noteworthy and able are the pages on the history of the achievements of gravita- tional astronomy of the period immediately succeeding Newton. But by the time the modern stage of spectroscopic astronomy is reached one feels a lack of the former easy swing of her pen, and one also regrets to no- tice a trace of that peculiar English tendency to ignore foreign scientific achievement. How the judicious pen of Miss Clerke could refrain from setting in artistic relief the grand achievements of a Kirchoff, while it does en- thusiastic and just homage to a Huggins, is inexplicable except on grounds of excessive brevity. Truth to say, Miss Clerke has always seemed to repudiate insularity in all of her astronomical writings, and one would not tax her here with anything more than an uncon- scious bias, in certain particulars, toward her own countrymen, nor indeed generally with anything less than a most fascinating and pow- erful presentation of the thrilling discoveries and stupendous facts of astronomical science. Professor Gore’s review of the science of the stellar universe gives ample evidence of a de- termination to bring before the cultured public science fresh from its primal sources. Nearly every page bears evidence of faithful apprecia- tion of the original contributions of astronomers and of a consistent assimilation of the vast mass of material. Although lacking somewhat in that vivacity of style characteristic of Miss Clerke, one is impressed with the conscientious fervour and decisive grasp of Professor Gore’s presentation of subjects bristling with number- less suggestive facts and insuperable difficul- ties. For Professor Fowler, the accomplished prac- tical astronomer, so favorably known by his SCIENCE. 119 successful observational work, was reserved the more or less thankless task of furnishing the more mathematical side of the book. Ever since Laplace, under an unlucky star, rashly attempted to put mathematics into words, in the celebrated Systéme du Monde, we have become convinced of the necessary inadequateness of ordinary language, and even of ordinary geom- etry, to the expression of this class of ideas. We cannot, therefore, harshly set forth the weak points which necessarily inhere in an attempt to compress all the marvels of mathematical astronomy into less than two hundred pages of a popular account. Rather would we express the genuine surprise which one experiences in following the author’s ingenuity in presenting the difficult geometrical and dynamical con- ceptions of the astronomer. Most interesting is the complete and accurate though condensed review of the instrumental appliances charac- teristic of modern astronomy. It would be a graceless act to close this brief review of a valuable addition to the popular side of astronomy without at once complimenting the American publishers on the fair typography, and condoling with them on the binding of a book of this character in a style bereft of every element of propriety and good taste. M. B. SNYDER. Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Men- schen. Von PROFESSOR J. KOLLMANN. Jena, Fischer. 1898. 8vo. Pp. xii + 658. Embryological literature has been again enriched by a valuable text-book by Professor Kollmann (Basel, Switzerland). As the title indicates, the work deals preeminently with human embryology, comparative-embryological facts being adduced only in so far as desirable for a better understanding of corresponding processes in man. The book is furnished with a considerable number of good illustrations, of which a great many are original and entirely new. Preference is given to illustrations taken from ‘plastic reconstructions’ and so- called ‘combined drawings.’ Such illustrations are, of course, especially valuable for demon- strating complicated morphological structures which in the single sections of a series are only shown in fragments. It needs, however, to be 780 mentioned that a few of those plastic figures are somewhat unclear, apparently due to a fail- ure in the execution of the original drawing. The arrangement of the contents is very con- venient. We find in the first part, according to the generally accepted plan, the description of the ovum, maturation, fertilization, cleavage, formation of the germiayers and the fundamen- tal processes in development of the embryonic body, and finally the foetal membranes. The following chapter contains an exhaustive and very useful account of the growth and external development of the human fcetus, especially dur- ing the first two months, together with some data on measurement and the determination of age. The second part of the book deals with the development of the special organs. In arranging this material the author follows the customary method of systematic anatomy, describing first the development of the skeleton and the mus- cular system, and then going on with that of the intestinal tract, the circulatory apparatus, the nervous system, and finally the skin and the sensory organs. Such an arrangement has many advantages and is obviously adapted especially for medical students. Scattered through the descriptive text we find also some theoretical discussions which are _ usually marked off from the main text by smaller type. These discussions touch upon questions of special interest for a better appreciation of certain points in human ontogenesis. In criticising the treatment of the material in Professor Kollmann’s text-book one deficiency in the reviewer’s opinion seems to be rather serious—that is, the almost absolute neglect of the histological differentiation of the tissues in general as well as of the different organs, to- gether with a lack of figures illustrating these processes. These processes are not only of in- terest for the professional embryologist, but also to a high degree for the medical student, in so far as an adequate knowledge of them is of preeminent importance for a satisfactory un- derstanding of so many physiological and path- ological processes of the organs. Hence it seems to the reviewer that in a modern text- book of embryology this important part of development should not be entirely omitted, SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 179. all the more as recent investigations have thrown more light upon these very com- plicated processes, and as the field of cellular embryology will be more and more cultivated. These deficiencies, however, in Kollmann’s text-book do not interfere with its peculiar excellence, which lies in the exact anatomical treatment of the developing organism, together with the elucidation of the text by numerous very instructive illustrations. It is in this es- pecially that the book forms a valuable addition to our embryological literature and deserves to be highly recommended. The different chap- ters are in general well balanced. The text is concise and clear. Print and reproduction of illustrations are according to the high repu- tation of the publisher. ALFRED SCHAPER. A Primer of Psychology. By EDWARD BRAD- FORD TITCHENER. New York and London, The Macmillan Co. 1898. Pp. xvi+314, - Price, $1. As the scientific claims of psychology are more widely recognized, there is an increasing demand for elementary text-books on the sub- ject. Professor Titchener has in mind the diffi- culties of the beginner, and while there is more science and less glitter in this Primer than is common in courses of ‘science made easy’ it can scarcely fail to interest the novice as well as instruct him. The fundamental concepts are defined with unusual clearness, and every diffi- cult point, as soon as it comes up, is carefully explained, often with the help of illustrations taken from literature or the physical sciencese The Primer is not intended primarily as a course in experimental psychology. The body of the text is rather analytic, although the chief results of ‘experimental research, such as Weber’s Law, are given much space. As would be expected in a work by Professor Titchener, the whole treatment of the subject is largely influenced by this branch. Among the many practical exercises found at the end of each chapter, as much in the way of experimen- tal demonstration is included as is practicable for classes with only a limited supply of appa- ratus at command. When on debated ground the author generally adheres to the theories JUNE 3, 1898. ] most widely accepted among leading psycholo- gists, in preference to his own as expounded elsewhere. For example, he does not attempt to treat the idea as a centrally initiated sensa- tion, but allows it a separate place in the anal- ysis. The arrangement of chapters is certainly log- ical, though it will probably not appear so to the beginner. The complexity of the subject is not adequately set forth, and (except on the active side) no analysis is given, such as would show the successive degrees of complexity. Thus the pupil is led, first through sensation, feeling and attention, then to perception, idea, emotion and simple action, and finally to memory, thought, sentiment and complex ac- tion. Unless. his attention be specially called to the matter, he may easily fail to notice the close relation existing between sensation, per- ception and thought; or that between feeling, emotion and sentiment. A general scheme of these relations would have done much to clear up the subject in the mind of the novice. The psychology of action is admirably treated, considering the difficulty of the subject. In the prominence given to attention, and the re- jection of innervation feelings, Professor Titch- ener follows the trend of recent discussion. The question of the exact relation of action to con- sciousness is very properly avoided. On the other hand, impulse, reflex movement, instinc- tive action, etc., are thoroughly discussed, and this prepares the way for a scientific treatment of selective action and volition in a later chap- ter. The problem of the freedom of the will, which could scarcely be avoided in a volume of this character, is clearly set forth, and the dis- cussion limited to its psychological aspect. Perhaps the most noticeable departure from the accepted mode of treatment is found in the chapter on thought. The author makes judg- ment the primary thought-process. But he ap- parently limits the term ‘judgment’ to the first instance in which any particular judgment (as ordinarily defined) is made. ‘‘Judging,’’ he says, ‘‘is a process of rare occurrence in con- sciousness, * * * Every generation receives a heritage of judgments from the preceding gen- erations. * * * Even if we wish to judge for ourselves, there are so many past judgments SCIENCE. 781 on record in books, and so many others to be had for the asking from our elders, that independent thought is difficult—it follows from all this that propositions like ‘The grass is green’ are not judgments atall; they do not express results which we have gained laboriously by active at- tention. That they have the form of judgment may be due either to the fact that they were judgments once, generations ago, or merely to the fact that we cannot utter more than one word ata time, and must, therefore, give the parts of our idea successively. It is only when * * * a total idea is actively divided up that true judgment occurs.’’ (P. 217.) ‘‘The ‘ma- terial’ which is worked over and divided up by the attention in judgment” is the ‘‘ aggregate idea.’? ‘*A predicate which is common to sey- eral judgments is termed a concept. * * * The concept is always a word.’’ (Pp. 218-219.) Again, he says: ‘‘ Thinking is active imagina- tion carried on in words.’’ (P. 213.) Through- out the discussion one feels that too great emphasis is laid on words. Professor Titchener distinguishes sharply between imagination (im- aging in kind) and thought and conception (symbolization in words); whereas the general position of psychological text-books would make it appear that the image is closely asso- ciated with the word, and accompanies it, as a ‘fringe,’ at least, in every process. This is not the place to discuss the theory, but it may prop- erly be noted that the author departs here from his own rule that the generally accepted views should be adhered to in an elementary text- book. The chapter on abnormal psychology includes sleep and dreams, hypnotism and insanity. The chief matters of interest to the beginner in these departments are well summed up; it would be impossible to give more than a sum- mary in twenty pages. In the concluding chapter the province and methods of child psychology, comparative psychology, etc., are pointed out, and the relation of psychology to ethics, logic and pedagogy touched upon. At the end of each chapter throughout the volume are references to passages in other general works where fuller treatment of the topics can be found, while references in the body of the text to physiological and physical works enable 782 the reader to supplement the necessarily brief discussion of such topics. The apparatus for experimental work is well selected, and gives opportunity for typical demonstrations on al- most every problem, with a minimum of cost, while many additional exercises are given, for which no special apparatus is needed. H. C. WARREN. SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS. Journal of Physical Chemistry, May. ‘The Transference Number of Hydrogen:’ by Doug- las McIntosh. An attempt to determine the transference number for hydrogen in different circles by the Helmholtz method, using gas electrodes, but it was found that the method is ‘not applicable to gas cells, probably owing to the solubility of the electrode in the electrolytic solution. ‘Single Differences of Potential :’ by Hector R. Carveth. The conclusion is drawn that the values given by drop electrodes does not give true single differences of potential. ‘ Acetonechloroform :’ by Frank K. Cameron and H. A. Holly. EpwArpD THORNDIKE. PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY, CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. Tue American Society of Mechanical Engineers held their spring meeting at Niagara Falls, May 31st to June 3d, in- elusive. The reception was initiated by Mayor Hastings in an interesting and cordial address, and by Mr. Coleman Sel- lers, and Mr. W. A. Brackenridge, who de- scribed with lantern-illustrations the work of the Cataract Construction Company. In addition to Society business, the time was given to visits to points of professional in- terest, at Niagara and at Buffalo and ad- jacent towns, and, later, at Dunkirk and at Toronto. Some very important papers were read, Mr. Barrus madea‘ Plea for a Standard Method of Conducting Engine Tests’ ; in- tending particularly tests of mill-engines ; the Society having already, through special committees, established precise methods of engine trial for steam pumping engines and locomotives, and of steam-boilers, which SCIENCE. [N.S. Vou. VII. No. 181. have been accepted as models, almost uni- versally. A standard is now proposed that shall be general and cover the whole field. Mr. Bryan Donkin, an English member of the association, proposes an extension of these systems into other countries. The American Society having led the way in instituting such formal programs, steps should be now taken to secure general adop- tion throughout the world. Mr. James See presented a very concise discussion of the principal points to be con- sidered in patenting new devices. Mr. W. H. Bryan discussed ‘Relations Between the Purchaser, the Engineer and the Manu- facturer,’ a phase of economics which is at- tracting much attention among members of the engineering profession. Mr. G. A. Lowry gave an interesting outline of the development of the industry of ginning and baling cotton, and of the inventions which have brought about its remarkable prog- ress. Messrs. Woolson, Baker, Norton, Cole, Johnson and others discussed the con- struction, setting and details of steam-boiler practice. Mr. Benjamin detailed results of investigation of the strength of cast-iron cylinders, and Professor Carpenter reported the outcome of the extensive Sibley Col- lege researches on the properties of the aluminum alloys, with the various other useful metals and experiments upon the value of a remarkable new seamless tube. Dr. Thurston illustrated a variety of novel “Graphic Diagrams and Glyptic Models,’ employed for representation of the laws of variation of strength of materials of engi- neering and the economics of the steam engine, mainly of his own devising for use in his researches in these departments. R. H. Tuurston. BOTANICAL NOTES. BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. In the Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Society for the Pro- JUNE 17, 1898. ] motion of Agricultural Science, just re- ceived, several of the papers have consider- able botanical interest. W. R. Lazenby, in a paper on the ‘ Annual Growth of Forest ‘Trees,’ makes the ‘statement that “the greatest annual increase in diameter took place on the side most fully exposed to the light, but the greatest growth in length of ranches was often on the side not fully exposed.” R. C. Kedzie, in ‘The Ash of Epiphytes,’ answers the question of the supply of mineral matter to epiphytes by first calling attention to the economical use of the supply on hand. In speaking of the orchids he says: ‘‘ Note the thin and papery remains of their leaves, and see how carefully mineral matter has been removed from these cast-off clothes of the plant, and how they differ from the leaves of terres- trial plants.’’? He then enumerates the fol- lowing sources of mineral plant food: (1) soil water with which the plants are often watered; (2) winds which carry consider- able amounts of mineral matter; (3) the bark of trees which supports the epiphytes and also the pottery, etc., used for supports in conservatories ; (4) very often in nature the roots of orchids grow in a mass of de- eaying leaves which have fallen from the trees and lodged about the plants. B. D. Halsted contributes some ‘Notes upon Bean and Pea Tubercles,’ which are due to the presence of a parasite, Rhizobium legu- minosarum. It was found that larger crops resulted from plantings upon ground known to be infested with these parasites. PAPERS ON THE DISEASES OF PLANTS. From Erwin F. Smith we have a paper on ‘Wakker’s Hyacinth Bacterium (Abstract in Proc. A. A. A.S. 46: 274) confirming fully the conclusions reached by Wakker in 1882-5, and extending quite materially our Knowledge of the organism which is the cause of the disease. The same author’s Jecture on ‘The Spread of Plant Diseases,’ SCIENCE. 825 before the Mass. Hort. Society and pub- lished in its Transactions, is an excellent popular statement of our knowledge of the means by which certain parasites succeed in getting from one plant to another. He groups them under the following heads: (a) spread by insects ; (b) spread by slugs and snails; (c) spread through the manure pile; (d) spread by way of the soil; (e) spread by way of seeds, seedlings, buds, tubers, cuttings and nursery stock. Ina - third paper the same author discusses (Trans. Peninsular Hort. Soc. 1898: 142) ‘Some Bacterial Diseases of Truck Crops,’ noticing the ‘ wilt’ of the cucumber, ‘ Brown Rot’ of the potato, and ‘ Black Rot’ of the cabbage. W. T. Swingle discusses ‘The Grain Smuts’ in Bull. 75, U. S. Dept. Agricul- ture, describing the stinking smuts of wheat (Tilletia foetens and T. tritici), loose smut of wheat ( Ustilago tritici), loose smut of oats (Ustilago avenae), barley smuts (Ustilago hordei, U. nuda), rye smut ( Urocystis occulta) and maize smut ( Ustilago maydis). Directions for treating the seed and grain, including corrosive-sublimate, copper sulphate, for- malin, potassium sulphide, and ‘sar’ solu- tion, all of which are intended to kill the spores by poisoning are given. Jensen’s hot-water treatment, also, is described and recommended for certain species. F. C. Stewart in Bull. 138 of the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station records his re- sults, which show that the popular opinion that the plowing under of green rye will prevent potato scab (Oospora scabies) is erroneous. He concludes, also, that the potato-stem blight is not due to the pres- ence of fungi or bacteria, but that, on the contrary, it is a pathological condition, not communicable. The practice of some flo- rists of spraying carnations to prevent carnation-rust (Uromyces caryophyllinus) is shown to be useless ; the salt application neither prevents the rust nor gives the 826 plants a more vigorous growth. The effi- cacy of spraying cucumbers with Bordeaux mixture to prevent attacks of Downy Mil- dew (Plasmopara cubensis) was demonstrated by an extensive experiment. Incidently Mr. Stewart records a new host, Cucumis moschata (winter crook-neck squash) for this mildew. C. 8. Crandall in Bull. 41 of the Colo- rado Expt. Station discusses ‘ Blight and other Plant Diseases,’ bringing together in compact form the history of the investiga- tion of blight, culminating with the discov- ery of the bacterium, Micrococcus amylovorus (Bacillus amylovorus), by Burrill in 1878-80, and the demonstration that this organism is the active cause, by Arthur in 1884-5. CHARLES E. Brssry. THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. CURRENT NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY. THE ARYAN QUESTION. In the Revue Mensuelle for February, Dr. Zaborowski, a high authority, sums up the result of his long researches into the origin of the Aryans. At the beginning of the neolithic period, he tells us, the blond, long-skulled energetic Aryans of primitive stock occupied the plains of the center and north of Kurope. They extended gradually to the west and the British Isles (peoples of the ‘long barrows’), and to the east into Asia (Ossetes of the Caucasus, ancient Persians, etc.). Their migratory move- ments were accelerated during the neolithic period by the constant pressure of short- skulled Turanian tribes from northern Asia, who by their settlements and intermixture of blood have left profound traces in the present European peoples. It was during the early neolithic period that the division of the primitive Aryan tongue into its numerous dialects and languages took place under complicated conditions of tribal minglings. SCIENCE. [N. S. Vou. VII. No. 18t. POLYANDRY AMONG THE SEMITES. THERE is a frequently quoted passage in Strabo which attributes a condition of the polyandry to the Semitic tribes of southern Arabia. This assertion has remained open to doubt for lack of supporting evidence, although the Israelitic proper name Ahab, ‘brother of his father,’ and that of the daughter of Sargon, Achat-Abi-sha, ‘ wife of her father,’ indicate such a custom. In the Proceedings of the Berlin Anthropolog- ical Society for January, Dr. Hugo Wink- ler gives the translation of a Mineean in- scription (Halévy, 504) which leaves no doubt of the correctness of Strabo’s state- ment. From these facts he concludes that polyandry in its most extended form, that in which the communal wife belonged at the same time to both fathers and sons, ‘ was generally prevalent.’ It is well known that an allied method of marriage still obtains in various parts of the world, and even among the comparatively civilized inhabitants of Tibet. THE ‘ FOLK-MIND.’ In the Beilage to the Miinchener Allgemeine Zeitung (No. 76, 1897) the writer, Max Buchner, undertakes a general onslaught upon the works and the teachings of the eminent anthropologist Adolf Bastian. It were scarcely worth while to take serious. notice of this feuilletonist, who humorously quotes some of the brain-twisting para- graphs of the ‘ Altmeister’ as specimens of his style; but the main aim of the article is to overthrow the notion of the ‘ Vol- kergedanke,’ as so often and diffusely pre- sented by Bastian. This is an integral and indispensable part of his anthropological edifice and must not be given up lightly. That each human group (nation, folk) has. its own peculiar way of looking at things and taking in ideas cannot be disputed. Upon this way its fate in the world’s his- tory largely depends. Such a folk-mind JUNE 17, 1898.] arises from well-recognized and inflexible causes (environment, heredity, etc.). It is, therefore, a reality, not a closet creation. Herr Buchner has by no means destroyed it in his amusing attack on the great Berlin professor and his many books. D. G. Brinton. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. NOTES ON INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Tue use of coke ovens which permit the recovery of by-products has become estab- lished on the continent of Europe, and several plants have been established in this country. In the Proceedings of the Alabama Industrial and Scientifie Society, Wm. H. Blauvelt gives a description of the Semet- Solvay oven at Ensley, Ala. The coal is coked in retort ovens, the usual change being 44 tons. The time of coking is twenty-four hours. The amount of gas given off is eight to ten thousand cubic feet per ton, a part of which is used to heat the retort and for steam to operate the plant, leaving considerable gas available for heat- ing and lighting purposes. The ammonia recovered is 16 to 22 pounds per ton, calcu- jated as sulfate, and the yield of tar from 70 to 80 pounds. The yield of coke (75 per cent.) is ten per cent. higher than that obtained by the old beehive ovens. The cause of this is that the evolved gases, which are more or less completely burned in the beehive, are to some extent decom- posed in the retort oven, graphitic carbon being deposited on the coke. In the bee- hive oven too some of the coke is consumed by the air present. The quality of the coke is pronounced equal to that produced in the . old ovens, and some coals are available for coking which cannot be successfuly used with the beehive oven. In the American Manufacturer, W. B. Phillips gives the results of the Otto-Hoff- man coke ovens at Jefferson Co., Ala. Here, using washed coal, the yield is: SCIENCE. 827 gas, 9,600 feet per ton, of which about 3,000 feet are available after all required on the plant; ammonium sulfate, 23.6 pounds ; tar, 90 pounds; coke, 70 per cent. It is an encouraging sign to see the adoption in this country of industrial methods which have for their aim the saving of by-products. In an article on Aluminum as a reducing agent, in the Chemiker Zeitung, Léon Franck gives the following summary: Aluminum decomposes phosphates at high tempera- ture, with evolution of phosphorus ; in the presence of silica the liberation of phos- phorus is almost quantitative. Aluminum forms several different compounds with phosphorus, Al,P;, Al;P;, Al,P and AIP, all of which are decomposed by water with evolution of phosphin, PH;. Carbon dioxid, carbon monoxid and carbonates are decom- posed by aluminum with liberation of free carbon. Metallic oxids are decomposed giving the metal; sulfates, giving sulfur and sulfids ; chlorids, giving the metal. A mixture of aluminum powder and sodium peroxid moistened with water burns spon- taneously with a brilliant light. There are many possibilities of the development of the use of aluminum powder along techni- cal lines. Ay Jo Wy 181; SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS. VASCO DA GAMA CELEBRATION. THE festivities at Lisbon in commemoration of the discovery of India by Vasco da Gama began on May 15th. There were illuminations and fétes both in the city and on the warships of various nations assembled in the harbor. The commemoration was also celebrated in Great Britain at a meeting of the Geographical Society on May 15th, at which addresses were made by the Prince of Wales, Lord George Hamilton, the Portuguese ambassador and by the President of the Society, Sir Clements Markham, who read a paper on ‘Vasco da Gama,’ in the course of which he said, accord- ing to the report in the London Times, that they were assembled to commemorate one of the 828 greatest events in the history of the world—the discovery of the ocean route to India by the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama completed the mighty enterprise on the day when the ghats of India were sighted from the deck of his ship just 400 years ago. The credit of this discovery was due to the Portuguese people, to their con- stancy and heroic perseverance, even more than to the skill and ability of their leaders, and he thought that many of the illustrious navigators of Portugal were equal in merit and should be equal in renown. They contem- plated the perseverance of this people and the continuity of their work during a century and a half of mighty effort rather than a single stroke of genius. Yet it was right that Vasco da Gama, who forged the last link, should have the first place which Camoens has assigned to him, primus inter pares. Prince Henry the Navigator gave the first impetus. Athis death the work was continued, with almost equal zeal, by the Kings—his nephews—Alfonso the African, Joad the Perfect Prince, Manoel the Fortunate. The Da Gamas came of an an- cient, valiant and loyal house, their ancestors haying fought by the side of Alfonso III. in the conquest of Algarve from the Moors and by the side of Alfonso V., ‘the Brave,’ at the battle of Salado. Estevan da Gama, their father, was chief magistrate of Sines, and here Vasco da Gama was selected by King Manoel to com- mand his famous expedition when he was 28 years of age. His eldest.brother, Paulo was equally fitted for the post, and he insisted upon accompanying and serving under Vasco, in command of the second ship. They both looked upon Nicholas Coelho, who was captain of a third ship, the Berrio, as their brother. The expedition sailed on Saturday, July 8, 1497; there were about 160 souls all told. The fleet was accompanied by the great navi- gator Bartholomew Diaz as far as the Cape Verde Islands. He was going outina fast earayal to take up his command of the new Portuguese settlement of Lamina, on the coast ofGuinea. In December the expedition reached Rio do Infante, the farthest point of Bartholo- mew Diaz, on the eastern side of Africa, and en- tered upon new ground. There was a mutiny at this critical time. The men feared to pro- SCIENCE. (N.S. Vou. VII. No. 181. ceed farther, and wanted to return, according to Correa, who added that Vasco da Gama put the master and pilot in irons for giving the same advice and threw all their instruments over- board. His brother Paulo induced his crew to obey orders by argument and persuasions and interceded for Vasco’s prisoners. The first ex- perience of the explorers on entering the previ- ously unknown ocean was the force of the cur- rent, so strong that they feared it might frustrate their plans, until a fresh stern wind sprang up, which enabled them to overcome it. This Agul- has current was first scientifically investigated by Major Rennell in 1777. Vasco da Gama passed the coast which was named by him ‘Natal,’ on Christmas Day, and was well re- ceived by the natives of Delagoa Bay. He was at Quilimane in January, 1498, at Mozambique in March, and he reached Melinde on April 15th. There was a terrible outbreak of scurvy off Mo- zambique and again on the way home, and then it was that Paulo da Gama proved the guardian spirit of the expedition, giving up all his own private stores for the use of the sick, minister- ing to them, and warding off despondency by his words of encouragement and by his example. The King of Melinde supplied the Portuguese with an Indian pilot, a native of Gujarat, and on April 24th the voyage was commenced across the Indian Ocean from the east coast of Africa to Malabar. REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. Ga Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-2II Third Avenue, New York. The Properties of Living Plants. By Professor J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, and Professor D. T. MacDOUGAL, University of Minnesota. A timely book of 12 independent chapters, viz: The special senses of plants, development of irritability, universality of consciousness and pain, compass plants, sensitive plants, opposing factors of increase, influence of cold, significance of color, chlorophyll and growth, history of leaves, the right to live, and compari- sons between plants and animals. The subjects included are treated from new points of yiew with original illustrations. The language is non-technical, and the book will be of interest to the general reader as well as to the biologist. Printed on enamelled paper with marginal sub-titles, 30 illustra'ions, 210 pp., 8vo, bound in cloth. Price, $1.25 ppd. BAKER & TAYLOR, 5 ano 7 East 16TH St, New York. MORRIS & WILSON, Minneapotis, Minn. Rare Minerals. THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the sulphate, silicate and carbonate of calcium with 42 per cent. of water. An excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents, CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 84-inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE crystals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, a great noyelty, postpaid, 11c., 16c., 22c. and 27c. 124-page Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25¢c. in paper ; 50c. in cloth. 44-page Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York. SCIrENCE NEw SERIES. Sm 5 Vou. VII. No. 167. Fripay, Marce 11, 1898. pga $5.00. QUEBEN & CO. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. Maximum and Aneroids MG aes for Ze Thermometers, Altitude, Re Standard Standard ( Barometers Thermometers, en ae or Laboratory, Anemometers. REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. Ga Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-2iI Third Avenue, New York. Complete Mineral Catalogue. 186 pages, 40 splendid engravings. Con- tains a table giving name, composition and form of all known minerals, with a supple- ment bringing the work uptodate. Metallic classification showing what minerals contain each element. Alphabetical index ofnames. Lists giving the specimen values of minerals, ete., etc. For teachers, students, collectors, mining experts, chemists, and others. DR. A. E. FOOTE, 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. A. COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS FOR STUDY OR REFERENCE. Postpaid ; Paper, 25 cents; Cloth, 50 cents; Calf, interleaved, $1.00.. Established 1876 CABINET SPECIMENS, GEMS. Rare Minerals. THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the sulphate, silicate and carbonate of calcium with 42 per cent. of water. An excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents,. CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 34-inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE crystals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, a great novelty, postpaid, 11c., 16c., 22c. and 27¢. 124-page Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25c. in paper ; 50c. in cloth. 44-page Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York. SCIENCE SINGLE COPIES, 15 CTs. NEW SERIES. Vou. VII. No. 171. FRIDAY, APRIL 8, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. THE UNIVERSITY. GLASGOW. ‘Mork is” 98 Yuriy > ales Reseeng Urea aie in There a fur day 290 ype Geese) Ee Ca Beart howto} ~matale. QUEEN & Co., Incorporated, Optical and Scientific Instrument Works, N. Y. Office, 116 Fulton St. 1010 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. i SCIENCE.—AD VER TISEMENTS. Harvard University Summer School. For descriptive pamphlet apply to M. CHAMBERLAIN, Cambridge, Mass. LEMCKE & BUECHNER Formerly B. WESTERMANN & Co. Established 1848 Foreign Booksellers # Importers 812 BROADWAY, NEW YORK SIXTH EDITION. THE MICROSEOP AND MICROSCOPI- Cal METHODS. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figuresin the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. Indigeshon Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases. arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive- of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet-- ened.” Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. 1. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. Longmans, Green & Co.’s New Books. The Principles of Chemistry. By D. MENDELEEEF, Professor of Chemistry in the University of St. Petersburg. Translated from the Russian by GEORGE KAMENSKY, A.R.S.M. of the Imperial Mint, St. Petersburg, and edited by T. A. Lawson, B.Se.( Lond.), Ph.D., Examiner in coal-tar Products to the city and Guilds of London Institute. New Edition. 2vols. Illus- trated. 8vo. (1897.) $10.00. This book is one of the Classics of Chemistry; its place in the history of the science is as well assured as the ever- memorable work of Dalton. In it is developed the great generalization which is known undezx the name of Periodic Law. a generalization which is casting a profound influence on the development of chemical research in all countries in which its study is actively prosecuted. Elements of Astronomy. By Sir R. 8. BALL, LL.D., F.R.S.. With 130 Wood- cuts. New Edition, thoroughly Revised. 483 pages. $2.00. Popular Readings in Science. By JOHN GALL, M.A., LL.B., late Professor of Math-. ematics and Physics, Canning College, Lucknow, and DAVID ROBERTSON, M.A., LL.B., B.S.C., for- merly one of the Assistant Masters, University College School, London. Third Edition. Crown> 8vo. 392 pages. $1.50. “A collection of twelve essays on widely-vary ng topics . which should be of interest to every intelligent person, es- pecially when he finds them condensed in such readable- form as these before us.” —Journal of Education, Boston. Magnetic Fields of Force. An Exposition of the Phenomena of Magnetism, Elec-- tromagnetism, and Induction, based on the Con- ception of Lines of Force. By H. EBERT, Professor~ of Physics in the University of Kiel. Translated by C. V. Burton, D.Se. Part I. With 93 Illus- tions. 8vo. $3.50. The Arrangement of Atoms in Space. By J. H. VAN ’THOFF. Second, Revised, and Enlarged Edition. CENuS, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Leipzig ; With a Preface by JOHANNES WISLI-- and an Appendix, ‘‘Stereochemistry among Inorganic Substances,’’? by ALFRED WERNER, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Zurich. Translated and Edited by ARNOLD EILOART. Crown 8vo, $1.75. LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., 91-93 Fifth Ave., New York. SCIENC NeEw SERIES. K SINGLE CoPIEs, 15 cts. VoL. VII. No. 172. FRIDAY, APRIL 15, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 GENERAL ELECTRIC Co.’s NEW X-RAY TUBE WITH AUTOMATIC VACUUM REGULATOR. Simple. Efficient. Long-lived. Cannot run too high in vacuum. CASCASCADUHELDED Roentgen Ray Apparatus, catalogue No. 9,050. Minia- ture, Candelabra, Decorative Lamps, catalogue No. 9,044. CASASA OCHA Edison Decorative and Miniature Lamp Department, (GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY,) HARRISON, N. J. 186 pages, 40 splendid engravings. Con- a tains a table giving name, composition and 0 it e e i i if ra a a 0 U fi form of all known minerals, with a supple- § ment bringing the work uptodate. Metallic classification showing what minerals contain each element. Alphabetical index of names. Lists giving the specimen values of minerals, etc., etc. For teachers, students, collectors, mining experts, chemists, and others. Postpaid; Paper, 25 cents; Cloth, 50 cents; Cal/, interleaved, $1.00. DR. A. E. FOOTE, 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A. Established 1876 COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS FOR STUDY OR REFERENCE. CABINET SPECIMENS, GEMS. MAX KOHL, Chemnitz, Germany, FIRST EUROPEAN MAKER OF Physical and Electrical Instruments Special Manufacturer of Roentgen X-Ray Outfits. Apparatus for Experiments with Currents of High Frequence and Tension. Apparatus for the Experiments according to Hertz. Apparatus for Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy. Price List No. 10 of Physical Instruments; nearly 400 pages and more than 1300 engravings (in German, English and French). Special List of X-Ray Apparatus containing numerous testimonials as well as estimates tor complete outfits, explicit directions for use, etc., in English language. ka- REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. @a Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-2iI Third Avenue, New York. il SCIENCE.—AD VERTISEMENTS. SCIENTISTS needing temporary or perma= nent assistance of accurate stenographer, able to edit manuscripts, etc., should address EXPERIENCE, Care of ‘‘ Science,’’ 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. Harvard University Summer School. For descriptive pamphlet apply to M. CHAMBERLAIN, Cambridge, Mass. SIXTH EDITION. THE microscope AND MICROSCOPI- Cal METHODS. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. indigestion Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner,. Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.”’ Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. ETUDES SUR LES GRAPTOLITES DE BOHETIE. par le Dr. PERNER, assist. au Musée d’hist. natur. 4 Prague. . Suite de l’ouvrage. I. Part. II. Part. III. Part. Systéme silur ien du centre de la Bohéme, par rT. Barrande. Structure microscopique des geares Monograptus et Retialites. 15M. Monographie des graptolites de l’étage D (silurica inférieur). 15 M. Monographie des graptolites de UV’ étage H, des colonies et de Vétage F-f (silurica supérieur) : Section a., Zones: inférieures, 15 M., Section b., Zones supérieures (4 paraitre). IV. Part. Etudes générales stratigraphiques et comparatives sur la distribution et l’ordre de succession des graptolites en Bohéme et dans les contrées étrangeéres (4 paraitre). RAIMUND GERHARD, Libraire-éditeur 4 LEIPZIG (Saxe). PHYSICAL, GHEMICAL, MIGHUSCOP COMPLETE LABORATORY EQUIPMENT OF OUR OWN MANUFACTURE. X-RAY APPARATUS AND CROOKE’S TUBES A SPECIALTY. 1894, ZIEGLER ELECTRIC CO., Established 1882, Catalogue P Free to School Officials and Science Teachers. 141 Franklin St.. CAL AND ELECTR GAL APPARATUS, Incorporated “ Duty Free’’ Importations from BOSTON, MASS. Foreign Manufacturers. SSSSS535S853382: See 35SSSSSSSSSSSSSN Gira eee eee BBB Cee It Will Interest You ~2222222222222 uN in I published it for no other reason. On April 1st I published the first number of my little monthly : — ee 3 : Biddle’s Bulletin @ as It contains information of use to scientific men, professional or amateur. It is not solely devoted vA gy to my business, but I try to make it interesting apart from that. The subscription is 50 cents a v a year, but if you will send me your name and the line in which you are interested, you shall have @ Hs it FREE FOR THREE MONTHS. Write now. wo Gs JAMES G. BIDDLE, Publisher, 4 a 909 Drexel Building, Phila. ¥ ®& We Bs Sy fini, => 16 Ove SCLENC New SERIES. SINGLE COPIES, 15 CTs. Vou. VII. No. 173. B FRIDAY, APRIL 22, 1898. ANNUAL Spicenenoe, $5.00. GENERAL ELECTRIC Co.’s NEW X=RAY TUBE WITH AUTOMATIC VACUUM REGULATOR. Simple. Efficient. Long-lived. Cannot run too high in vacuum. SASASGAGYLALSYD Roentgen Ray Apparatus, catalogue Ne 050. Minia- ture, Candelabra, Decorative Lamps, catalogue No. 9,044. BASASA BOLO ULAUD Edison Decorative and Miniature Lamp Department, (GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY,) HARRISON, WN. J. ) THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the Rare Minerals. sulphate, silicate and carbonate of calcium with 42 per cent. of water. —$$$_$$————————— —————————_ An excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents, CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 34-inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE crystals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, g great novelty, postpaid, 11c., 16c., 22c. and 27c. eee Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth 44-page Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Cireulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York. MAX KOHL, Chemnitz, Germany, FIRST EUROPEAN MAKER OF Physical and Electrical Instruments Special Manufacturer of Roentgen X-Ray Outfits. Apparatus for Experiments with Currents of High Frequence and Tension. Apparatus for the Experiments according to Hertz. Apparatus for Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy. Price List No. 10 of Physical Instruments; nearly 400 pages and more than 1300 engravings (in German, English and French). Special List of X-Ray Apparatus containing numerous testimonials as well as estimates for complete outfits, explicit directions for use, etc., in English language. &G- REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. @a Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-2II Third Avenue, New York. il SCIENCE —AD VERTISEMENTS. SCIENTISTS needing temporary or perma- nent assistance of accurate stenographer, able to edit manuscripts, etc., should address EXPERIENCE, Care of ‘‘ Science,’’ 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. Harvard University Summer School. For descriptive pamphlet apply to M. CHAMBERLAIN, Cambridge, Mass. McGill University, [Montreal CHAIR OF PHYSICS The Board of Governors is prepared to receive ap- plications for one of the W. C. McDonald Chairs of Physics, vacant by the recent appointment of Prof. Callendar, M.A., F.R.S., to the Quain Chair of Phys- ics in University College, London. Salary, $2,500 perannum. Applications, accompanied by any testi- monials which candidates may desire to submit, should reach the undersigned on or before the 20th June next. W. VaucHan, Secretary, McGill Uniy ersity, Montreal. NEW CATALOGU E. We have recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. Anceson Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases. arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive: of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.”’ Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. SIXTH EDITION. THE MIG -ROSCOP AND MICROSCOPI- CaL METHODS. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1. 50, postpaid, COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. CONSTIPATION In ADULTS AND CHILDREN. With special reference to Ha- bitual Constipation and its most successful Treatment by the Mechanical Methods. By HENRY ILLOWAY, M.D., Formerly Professor of the Diseases of Children, Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery ; formerly visiting phy- sician to the Jewish Hospital, Cincinnati, ete. ; Member~ of the Medical Society of the County of New York, of t e New York County Medical Association, ete. With many Plates and Illustrations 8vo. Cloth. Price, $4.00 net. PUBLISHED BY THE TIACrIILLAN COPPANY,,. 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. ETUDES SUR LES GRAPTOLITES DE BOHEME. par le Dr. PERNER, assist. au Musée d’hist. natur. 4 Prague. Suite de louvrage. I, Part. II. Part. III. Part. Systéme silurien du centre de la Bohéme, par T. Barrande. Structure microscopique des geares Monograptus et Retialites. 15M Monographie des graptolites de l’étage D (silurica inférieur). Monographie des graptolites de l’élage H, des colonies et de l’ étage FS (silurica supérieur) : 15 M. Section a.,’Zones. inférieures, 15 M., Section b., Zones supérieures (4 paraitre). IY. Part. Etudes générales stratigraphiques et comparatives sur la distribution et l'ordre de succession des graptolites:en Bohéme et dans les contrées étrangéres (a paraitre). RAIMUND GERHARD, Libraire-éditeur 4 LEIPZIG (Saxe). is lé o¢ pCLENCE New SERIES. ¢ SINGLE COPIES, 15 CTs. Vi@is Vane NOES Fripay, APRIL 29, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 GENERAL ELECTRIC Co.’s NEW X=RAY TUBE WITH AUTOMATIC VACUUM REGULATOR. Simple. Efficient. Long-lived. Cannot run too high in vacuum. BCASASABSUEPALALS Roentgen Ray Apparatus, catalogue No. 9,050. Minia- ture, Candelabra, Decorative Lamps, catalogue No. 9,044. BACACAGLALALS EAison Decorative and sliniature Lemp Dearie (GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY,) HARRISON, N. J. e THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the Rare Min erals. Sulphate, silicate and carbonate of calcium with 42 per cent. of water. Ar excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents, CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 34-inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE crystals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, a great novelty, postpaid, 11c., 16c., 22c. and 27c. 124-page Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25c. in paper ; 50c. in cloth, 44-page Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York. MAX KOHL, Chemnitz, Germany, FIRST EUROPEAN MAKER OF Physical and Electrical Instruments Special Manufacturer of Roentgen X-Ray Outfits. Apparatus for Experiments with Currents of High Frequence and Tension. Apparatus for the Experiments according to Hertz. Apparatus for Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy. Price List No. 10 of Physical Instruments; nearly 400 pages and more than 1300 engravings (in German, English and French). Special List of X-Ray Apparatus containing numerous testimonials as well as estimates for complete outfits, explicit directions for use, etc., in English language. i> REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. -E& Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-21! Third Avenue, New York. i SCIENCE.— ADVERTISEMENTS. SCIENTISTS needing temporary or perma= nent assistance of accurate stenographer, able to edit manuscripts, etc., should address EXPERIENCE, Care of ‘‘ Science,’’ 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. TMcGill University, Montreal CHAIR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING The Board of Governors is prepared to re- ceive applications for the W. C. McDonald Chair of Electrical Engineering. Salary, not less than $2,000, per annum. Applications, accompanied by any testimonials which candidates may de- sise to submit, should reach the undersigned on or before 20th June next. W. VAUGHAN, Secretary, McGill University, Montreal. TMcGill University, Montreal CHAIR OF PHYSICS The Board of Governors is prepared to receive ap- plications for one of the W. C. McDonald Chairs of Physics, vacant by the recent appointment of Prof. Callendar, M.A., F.R.S., to the Quain Chair of Phys- ics in University College, London. Salary, $2,500 per annum. Applications, accompanied by any testi- monials which candidates may desire to submit, should reach the undersigned on or before the 20th June next. W. VAUGHAN, Secretary, McGill University, Montreal. THE MICROSCOPE *t2,mczoseor- By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figuresin the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. NEW CATALOGUE. We have recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. Indigeshon Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.”’ Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. HOUGH’S “AMERICAN WOODS” A publication illustrated by actual specimens. WOODS FOR THE STEREOPTICON Enabling you to show upon the screen characteristic structures projected from nature itself. WOODS FOR THE MICROSCOPE Sections 1-1200 in. thick showing three distinct views grain under each cover-glass. WOOD SPECIMENS FOR CLASS USE Nothing equals these for use in the class-room. VIEWS OF TYPICAL TREES From nature, photographs and stereopticon views. WOODEN CROSS-SECTION CARDS Perfectly adapted to printing (with type or steel plate), painting, India ink work, etc. If you are interested in wood or trees in any way send tor our circulars and sample specimens. Address R. B. HOUGH, Lowwville, N. Y. SCIENCE NEw SERIES. i SINGLE CopPriEs, 15 CTs. ‘VoL. VII. No. 175. FRIDAY, May 6, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. GENERAL ELECTRIC Co.’s FLUOROSCOPES Platino-cyanide of Barium, or Tungstate of Calcium Screens. NEW X-RAY TUBE vr yacuum REauLator. SIMPLE. — EFFICIENT. LONG=LIVED. ROENTGEN RAY APPARATUS of all kinds. Catalogue No. 9050. Candelabra, Miniature and Decorative Lamps. Catalogue No. 9044. Edison Decorative and (Miniature Lamp Department, (GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY,) HARRISON, N. J. MODELS OF BRACHIOPODS exov UE iurcarr. \ EMBRYONIC STAGES of Cistella neapolitina in ten models from the protem- \\ bryo to the phylembryw. \\ DORSAL WALWES of ten important genera showing hinge structure, arm supports, etc., averaging 214 inches in diameter. Price of Complete Series in handsome case, $70; without case, $60; Dorsal Valves, $50; Embryonie Stages, $12. WARD'S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, 18-28 College Ave., Rochester, N.Y. MAX KOHL, Chemnitz, Germany, FIRST EUROPEAN MAKER OF Physical and Electrical Instruments Special Manufacturer of Roentgen X-Ray Outfits. Apparatus for Experiments with Currents of High Frequence and Tension. Apparatus for the Experiments according to Hertz. Apparatus for Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy. Price List No. 10 of Physical Instruments; nearly 400 pages and more than 1300 engravings (in German, English and French). Special List of X-Ray Apparatus containing numerous testimonials as well as estimates for complete outfits, explicit directions for use, etc., in English language. 8G- REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. “Ga Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-211 Third Avenue, New York. i SCIENCE.—AD VERTISEMENTS. SCIENTISTS needing temporary or perma= nent assistance of accurate stenographer, able to edit manuscripts, etc., should address EXPERIENCE, Care of ‘‘ Science,”’ 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. SIXTH EDITION. THE MICROSCOPE *x2."eaueee" CAL METHODS. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated . by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. McGill University, Montreal CHAIR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING The Board of Governors is prepared to re- ceive applications for the W. C. McDonald Chair of Electrical Engineering. Salary, not less than $2,000, per annum. Applications, accompanied by any testimonials which candidates may de- sise to submit, should reach the undersigned on or before 20th June next. W. VAUGHAN, Secretary, McGill University, Montreal. NEW CATALOGUE. We have recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. CONSTIPATION IN ADULTS AND CHILDREN. With special reference to Ha- pitual Constipation and its most successful Treatment by the Mechanical Methods. By HENRY ILLOWAY, M.D., Formerly Professor of the Diseases of Children, Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery; formerly visiting phy- sician to the Jewish Hospital, Cincinnati, etc. ; Member of the Medical Society of the County of New York, oft e New York County Medical Association, ete. With many Plates and Illustrations Svo. Cloth. Price, $4.00 net. PUBLISHED BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. Indigeshon Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases. arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.” Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. HOUGH’S “AMERICAN WOODS” A publication illustrated by actwal specimens. WOODS FOR THE STEREOPTICON Enabling you to show upon the screen characteristic structures projected from nature itself. WOODS FOR THE MICROSCOPE Sections 1-1200 in. thick showing three distinct views grain under each coyver-glass. WOOD SPECIMENS FOR CLASS USE Nothing equals these for use in the class-room. VIEWS OF TYPICAL TREES From nature, photographs and stereopticon views. WOODEN CROSS-SECTION CARDS Perfectly adapted to printing (with type or steel plate), painting, India ink work, ete. If you are interested in wood or trees in any way send for our circulars and sample specimens. Address R. B. HOUGH, Lowville, N. Y. SCIENCE NEw SERIES. I SINGLE Copies, 15 cTs. VoL. VII. No. 176. FRIDAY, May 13, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. NEW PUBLICATIONS QUEEN & CO. Inc Manual of Engineering Instruments, their use and adjustment. 186 pp. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, $1.00. Manual of Practical Draughting. 70 pp. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 75 cents. Catalogue of Engineering Instruments. 162 pp. Free. Catalogue T. Electrical Test Instruments. 117 pp. Free. Catalogue I-90. Instruments for Electric Light Stations, including Ammeters, Voltmeters, Testing Sets, etc. 44 pp. Free. ‘Catalogue I-20. Physical Laboratory Supplies. 175 pp. Free. Catalogue of Microscopes and Biological Laboratory Supplies. 160 pp. JAR, Circular No. 274. New Physical Apparatus. 16 pp. Free. ‘Circular No. 364. The Queen Acme Portable Testing Sets. 20 pp. Free. Circular No. 244. Cable Testing Apparatus. 44 pp. Free. Circular No. 284. Apparatus manufactured by Société Genevoise. 16 pp. Free. QUEEN & CO.,, Inc. OPTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT WORKS, 59 Fifth Ave., New York. 1010 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. il SCIENCE.— ADVERTISEMENTS. LEMCKE & BUECHNER Formerly B. WESTERMANN & Co. Established 1848 . Foreign Booksellers #@ Importers 812 BROADWAY, NEW YORK SIXTH EDITION. THE MICROSSOP AND MICROSCOPI- CAL METHODS. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. lMcGill University, Montreal CHAIR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING The Board of Governors is prepared to re- ceive applications for the W. C. McDonald Chair of Electrical Engineering. Salary, not less than $2,000, per annum. Applications, accompanied by any testimonials which candidates may de- sise to submit, should reach the undersigned on or before 20th June next. W. VAUGHAN, Secretary, McGill University, Montreal. Indigestion Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable- remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.” Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. : PHP F TPF ttt etter e tres teste teeters: COMPLETE SETS OF VALUABLE JOURNALS. | JOURNAL OF MORPHOLOGY. Vols. 1-14, of which Vols. 1-8 are handsomely 1 bound in 3 Morocco (red), uncut edges, . . BIOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT. bound in 4 Morocco, uncut edges, colored titles 2 ? > a ? t } ANATOMISCHER ANZEIGER. of which Vols. 1-7 of the Journal and 3 of the Supplement, are handsomely bound in 3 Morocco, uncut edges, colored titles,. . . SAMUS MCh totic dene aoa, Iouka! Ios <6 $125.00 18 Vols., of which Vols. 1-12 are handsomely Ome -decen) DUOMO Skeoran ois $50.00 14 Vols. and 8 supplementary volumes, 22 in all, Suse e NENG sgn Oy td. ao wiahio. utd: 10" © $50.00 The Three Sets will be sold together at a reduction. Opposite 3 i + CAMBRIDGE BOTANICAL SUPPLY CO., 1286 Massachusetts Ave., coutegs Library, Cambridge, Mass. : pete tee Embryonic Stages, $12. MODELS OF BRACHIOPODS pior Ue neoree. EMBRYONIC STAGES of Cistella neapolitana in ten models from the protem- bryo to the phylembryo. DORSAL WALWES of ten important genera showing hinge structure, arm supports, etc., averaging 214 inches in diameter. Price of Complete Series in handsome case, $70; without case, $60; Dorsal Valves, $50; =< _/ WARD'S NATURAL SCIBNGE ESTABLISHMENT, 18-28 College Ave., Rochester, YY. Rare Minerals. CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 34 THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the sulphate, silicate and carbonate of calcium with 42 per cent. of water. An excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents, -inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE crystals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, a great novelty, postpaid, llc., 16c., 22c. and 27c. 124-page Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth, 44-page Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York.. BoCLENCE aan om “ies Fripay, May 20, 1898. SINGLE CoPiEs, 15 cTs. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. GENERAL ELECTRIC Co.’s NEW X=RAY TUBE WITH AUTOMATIC VACUUM REGULATOR. Simple. Efficient. Long-lived. Cannot run too high in vacuum. CACACASULARULOUD Roentgen Ray Apparatus, catalogue No. 9,050. Minia- ture, Candelabra, Decorative Lamps, catalogue No. 9,044. BSASASABLOLAYLS Edison Decorative and flintaturé Lamp Department, (GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY,) HARRISON, N. J. 186 pages, 40 splendid engravings. Con a tains a table giving name, composition and 0 A rd a a 0 ue, form of all known minerals, with a supple- men bringing the work up to date. Metallic I c assification showi ing what minerals contain each element. Alphabetical index ofnames. Lists giving the specimen values of minerals, etc., ete. For teachers, students, collectors, mining experts, chemists, and others. Postpaid ; Paper, 25 cents; Cloth, 50 cents; Calf, interleaved, $1.00. DR. A. E. FOOTE, 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A. Established 1876 COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS FOR STUDY OR REFERENCE. CABINET SPECIMENS, GEMS. So as ane AanUARERLERERLaR Ona meRemeCemaRe nee COMPLETE SETS OF VALUABLE JOURNALS. | JOURNAL OF MORPHOLOGY. Vols. 1-14, of which Vols. 1-8 are handsomely Donal tin Mioawen (em), mA, 54 5 oe Oe ec $125.00 BIOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT. 18 Vols., of which Vols. 1-12 are handsomely t bound in } Morocco, uncut edges, colored titles, .......-.......-.-. $50.00 ANATOMISCHER ANZEIGER. 14 Vols. and 8 supplementary volumes, 22 in all, of which Vols. 1-7 of the Journal and 3 of the Supplement, are handsomely bound in 4 Morocco, uncut edges, colored titles,. . ... 2... .+.2s--+-+s-e-s $50.00 The Three Sets will be sold together at a reduction. : t CAMBRIDGE BOTANICAL SUPPLY CO., 1286 Massachusetts AVe., couse? tivrary, Gambridge, Mass. AAAI EPP PEP PP PPD PLP P LEIP PAA PLP DTPA PEPE L PLP L i SCIENCE.—AD VERTISEMENTS. LEMCKE & BUECHNER Formerly B. WESTERMANN & Co. Established 1848 Foreign Booksellers s Importers 812 BROADWAY, NEW YORK THE MICROSCOPE *2,wcsossee" By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. NEW CATALOGUE. We have recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. Indigestion Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.” Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. MAX KOHL, Chemnitz, Germany, FIRST EUROPEAN MAKER OF Physical and Electrical Instruments Special Manufacturer of Roentgen X-Ray Outfits. Apparatus for Experiments with Currents of High Frequence and Tension. Apparatus for the Experiments according to Hertz. Apparatus for Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy. Price List No. 10 of Physical Instruments; nearly 400 pages and more than 1300 engravings (in German, English and French). Special List of X-Ray Apparatus containing numerous testimonials as well as estimates for complete outfits, explicit directions for use, etc., in English language. tg- REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. “Gh Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-2iI Third Avenue, New York. PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, MIGROSGOPICAL- AND ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. Established 1882, Catalogue P Free to School Officials and Science Teachers. 141 Franklin St.. COMPLETE LABORATORY EQUIPMENT OF OUR OWN MANUFACTURE. X-RAY APPARATUS AND CROOKE’S TUBES A SPECIALTY. ZIEGLER ELECTRIC CO., Incorporated 1894. “Duty Free ’’ Importations from BOSTON, MASS. Foreign Manufacturers. Rare Minerals. THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the sulphate, silicate and carbonate of calcium with 42 per cent. of water. An excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents, CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 34-inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE crystals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, a 8reat novelty, postpaid, 11c., 16c., 22c. and 27¢c. 124-page Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth, 44-page Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York. SCIENCE NEw SERIES. Z SINGLE COPIEs, 15 cTs. Vou. VII. No. 178. FRIDAY, May 27, 1898. ANNUAL Suny gus, $5.00 NEW BOOKS ON ELECTICAL SCIENCE. THE STORAGE BATTERY. By A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE AUGUSTUS TREADWELL, Jr. CONSTRUCTION, THEORY AND USE OF SECONDARY Cloth, 12mo, $1.75, xed. BATTERIES. A complete history of the development of the Storage Battery and its uses with a table giving data of the storage batteries in use to-day and the great number of charge and discharge curves for the most prominent types. EARLIER ISSUES OF INTEREST TO EVERY ELECTRICIAN. Electro-Physiology The Principles of the Alternative Currents and By W. BIEDERMAN , Transformer Alternative Current Professor of Physiology, Jena. By FREDERICK BEDELL, Ph.D., Machinery ‘Translated by Frances A. Welby, Asst. Prof. Physics, Vol. 1, $5.50 net. Cornell University. By D. E. ann J. P. JACKSON. Vol. Il, $5.50 net. Cloth, 8vo. Price, $3.50 net. Cloth, [2mo., $3.50 net. PUBLISHED BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, New York City THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the e Rare Minerals. sulphate, silicate and carbonate of eaten With 42 per cent. of water. An excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents, CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 24-inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE cry stals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, a great novelty, postpaid, lic., 16c., 22c. and 27c. 124-page Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth, 44-page Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York. ! COMPLETE SETS OF VALUABLE JOURNALS. | JOURNAL OF MORPHOLOGY. Vols. 1-14, of which Vols. 1-8 are handsomely 3 iboundbinis Morocco (red))s;uncut edges, = 2 o3 ga 1e) ce cis yenill oo cueweeulcereis Netter. $125.00 BIOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT. 18 Vols., of which Vols. 1-12 are handsomely bound in 4 Morocco, uncut edges, colored titles; .........+..+.4+.4.-. $59.00 ANATOMISCHER ANZEIGER. 14 Vols. and 8 supplementary volumes, 22 in all, of which Vols. 1-7 of the Journal and 3 of the Supplement, are handsomely bound in 4 Morocco, uncut edges, colored titles,. ..-....-.----+.7..-+-+.-- $50.00 The Three Sets will be sold together at a reduction, PEEP EEEEE EEE ETE EEE EEE H EE EEE HH E Ed + CAMBRIDGE BOTANICAL SUPPLY CO., 1286 Massachusetts Ave., couse? tinsry, Cambridge, Mass, | EEE FFP E EE EFI PEEP FFE PI EPP PTL IELD TIES APES PIPES D, 4 ii SCIENCE.—AD VERTISEMENTS. LEMCKE & BUECHNER Formerly B. WESTERMANN & Co. Established 1848 Foreign Booksellers s Importers 812 BROADWAY, NEW YORK SIXTH EDITION. THE MICROSCOPE *ca.'netHoos. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. NEW CATALOGUE. We haye recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. RARE MINERALS. THAUMASITE, from Paterson, N. J., asulphate. silicate and carbonate of calcium, pure white, 25c. EKDEMITE, bright yellow on red wulfenite, Arizona, 50c. NATIVE ARSENIC, Japan, 44 to 34-inch crsytallized balls, 25c, 35c. Collections for Schools. ALPHA COLLECTION, twenty-five specimens in trays, con- tained in a neat wooden box and accompanied by a 46- page guide book (XIII., Guide for Science Teaching, Bos- ton Society of Natural History). Price, complete, $1.00. CABINET COLLECTIONS, 100 specimens, small size, $5.00. 100 specimens, large size, $10.00. These specimens are each accompanied by a label giving name, system of crystallization, chemical formula, and locality, and make a good working collection for a student. EXCELSIOR COLLECTION for high schools and colleges, 200 specimens, nicely mounted on wooden blocks, with beveled fronts for receiving labels. Price, packed, $100.00. School Bulletin just out. Loose Crystals. Small packages of free crystals for crystallographic study may be sent for inspection by mail at small cost. Ap- proyal boxes of cabinet specimens by express or freight. ROY HOPPING, MINERAL DEALER, 5 and 7 Dey Street, NEW YORK. Indigestion — Horsford’s Acid Phosphate.’ || Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases. arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.” Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations, For sale by all Druggists. Now READY. Light, Visible and Invisible. By SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Se., FRS., MRI, Principal of, and Professor of Physics in, the City and Guild’s Technical College, Finsbury, London. With Numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth. pp. xii+ 294. Price $1.50. CONTENTS OF THE VOLUME: Light and Shadows. The Visible Spectrum and the Eye. Polarization of Light. The Invisible Spectrum (ultra-violet part). The Invisible Spectrum (infra-red part). Rontgen Light. This yolume brings up to date the late discoveries andi theories, and it will be found invaluable both to the student and to the general reader. The subject is treated in a sim- ple, masterly, and, at the same time, popular way. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. BOrE NCE 1898 SINGLE COPIES, 15 CTs. Oo. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 GENERAL ELECTRIC Co.’s FLUOROSCOPES Platino-cyanide of Barium, or Tungstate of Calcium Screens. NEW X-RAY TUBE yacuum REGULATOR. SIMPLE. EFFICIENT. LONG=-LIVED. ROENTGEN RAY APPARATUS of all kinds. Satelegue No. 9050, NEw SERIES. < Le Vou, VII. No. 179. FRIDAY, JUNE 3, Candelabra, Miniature and bacanetre Lamps. Catalogue No. 9044. Edison Decorative and Miniature Lamp Department, (GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY,) HA RRS ON: N. J. Agates, polished, 15 to 50c.; Malachite, aaueieel, 20c. to $1. e r Labradorite, polished, 25 to 75c. Cut Stones suitable for mount- a e ing. Garnets, deep ruby red color, $1 to $2. oonstones, 50c. to $1.50, Sapphire (blue), $1 to $5. Turquois, 2 25c. to $2. Variscite, 75c. to $l. Opals, 50c. to $3. LORS Agate, 35c. to $1. Chrysoprase, io 1.25. Amethyst, 35c. to $2. Aquamarine, 35c. to $ Citrine, $1 to $3.50. Crocidolite, $ 5 Our stock of Min- erals both massive and cry stallized for either cabinet or museum purposes is unequi nlled. Write for anything you may need in the mineral line, and we will promptly quote you prices and full particu- lars. Send for Circulars. Mineral Cats vlogue, 159 pages, 20c. WARD’S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, 18-28 College Ave., Rochester, N.Y. NEARILBY READWDY Electric Furnaces, Generators and Burners By WILLIAM E,. GIBBS, M.E,. CONTENTS: Introduction—Acetylene—Dangers of Acetylene: Explosiveness, Acetylide of Copper, Toxic Properties, Effects on the Eyes—Electric Furnaces: Intermittent Furnaces, Continuous Furnaces— Generation of Acetylene—Impurities of Carbide and Purification of Acetylene—Generators—Acetylene Lamps—Acetylene Burners—Author’s Experiments —Conclusion—Fire Regulations—List of U. 8. Patents. 12mo. Cloth. Ilustrated. Price, $1.50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Publisher, 23 Murray and 27 Warren Sts., New York *,% Copies sent by mail and express on receipt of price. il SCIENCE. —AD VERTISEMENTS. LEMCKE & BUECHNER Formerly B. WESTERMANN & Co. Established 1848 Foreign Booksellers # Importers 812 BROADWAY, NEW YORK SIXTH EDITION. THE MICROSCOP AND MICRO0SCOPI- CaL METHODS. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figuresin the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. CONSTIPATION In ADULTS AND CHILDREN. With special reference to Ha- bitual Constipation and its most successful Treatment by the Mechanical Methods. By HENRY ILLOWAY, M.D., Formerly Professor of the Diseases of Children, Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery ; formerly visiting phy- sician to the Jewish Hospital, Cincinnati, etc.; Member of the Medical Society of the County of New York, oft e New York County Medical Association, etc. With many Plates and Illustrations Svo. Cloth. Price, $4.00 net. PUBLISHED BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. - Indigestion Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.”’ Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. gesssesasceee Biddle’s Bulletin for June wosaepasoean, In many respects I believe my methods of conducting these relations are unique, and My connections are extensive, so that to keep in touch with my JAMES G. BIDDLE, Publisher, Nh 3 My business is to act as an intermediary between the manufacturer and purchaser of Scientific “A gx Apparatus. Ww A I know that they are successful. W a customers—to explain periodically what Iam doing—I have started the publication of an 8-page g @ monthly. It is sure to be interesting to a large proportion of those who read thisad. Consequently v 8 I want you to write now for a sample copy of the June number. ¥ ay -s Subscription, 50 cents a year. os a Electrical and Scientific Instruments, 4 ay Psychological Apparatus, ‘i ay Projection Lanterns, etc. W &® VSSSESSSSSSSSSSSS SSS SSS ESS SSS ESS SESS SSS SS SSe SeeececeeceeeeeeeeeeS 909 Drexel Building, Philadelphia. = a Complete Mineral Catalogue. each element. — collectors, mining experts, chemists, and others. Con- tains a table giving name, composition and form of all known minerals, with a supple- ment bringing the work uptodate. Metallic classification showing what minerals contain 186 pages, 40 splendid engravings. Alphabetical index of names. Lists giving the specimen values of minerals, ete., etc. For teachers, students, Postpaid ; Paper, 25 cents; Cloth, 50 cents; Cals, interleaved, $1.00. DR. A. E. FOOTE, 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. A. COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS FOR STUDY OR REFERENCE. Established 1876 CABINET SPECIMENS, GEMS. Rare Minerals. THAUMASITE from West Paterson, N. J., a unique compound of the sulphate, silicate and carbonate of calcium with 42 per cent. of water- An excellent, attractive, cabinet size specimen, postpaid for 14 cents, CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC from Japan, in balls 3g to 34-inch diameter, postpaid, 16 cents. CONTACT TWINS OF QUARTZ, postpaid, $1.00. TWISTED STIBNITE crystals and groups, 28 cents, postpaid. MOUNTAIN LEATHER, a great novelty, postpaid, llc., 16c., 22c. and 27c. 124-page Catalogue, describing every mineral, 25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth, 44-page'Price-List, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York. SCIENCE NEW SERIES. : SINGLE Copiss, 15 cTs. Vou. VII. No. 180. FRIDAY, JUNE 10, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 Our Comparison New Catalogue t= B. M. of invited NCTos ove and between this i Supplies for instrument and Work (160 pp.) those by the will be best forwarded to European any Makers. address upon. application. Cee QUEEN CONT. MICROSCOPE I. QUEEN K Co., ico caaeiees Optical and Scientific Instrument Works, ; 59 Fifth Ave., New York 1010 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. Laboratory iL SCIENCE.—AD VERTISEMENTS. JUST ISSUED. CRELLE, Calculating Tables. First English edition giving products of every two numbers from 1 to 1000. Holio} clothybound yaya anni earl ann $5.00 LEMCKE & BUECHNER, 812 Broadway, _New York. THE MICROSCOPE *2.wososzer- By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. NEW CATALOGUE. We have recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. Indi Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Is the most effective and agreeable remedy in existence for preventing in- digestion, and relieving those diseases arising from a disordered stomach. D. W. W. Gardner, Springfield, Mass., says: ‘‘I value it as an excellent preventive of indigestion, and a pleasant acidulated drink when properly diluted with water and sweet- ened.” Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. For sale by all Druggists. MAX KOHL, Chemnitz, Germany, FIRST EUROPEAN MAKER OF Physical and Electrical Instruments Special Manufacturer of Roentgen X-Ray Outfits. Apparatus for Experiments with Currents of High Frequence and Tension. Apparatus for the Experiments according to Hertz. Apparatus for Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy. Price List No. 10 of Physical Instruments; nearly 400 pages and more than 1300 engravings (in German, English and French). Special List of X-Ray Apparatus containing numerous testimonials as well as estimates for complete outfits, explicit directions for use, etc., in English language. ig> REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. 2% Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-211 Third Avenue, New York. PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, MICROSGOPICAL AND ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. Established COMPLETE LABORATORY EQUIPMENT OF OUR OWN MANUFACTURE. Incorporated 1882, X-RAY APPARATUS AND CROOKE’S TUBES A SPECIALTY. 1894. Representative : Catalogue P Free to School “ Duty Free’? Importations from Officials and Science Teachers. Foreign Manufacturers. ZIEGLER ELECTRIC C@., EXTRA FINE CABINET SPECIMENS. RARE SPECIES. LOOSE CRYSTALS. —_ - CHEAP EDUCATIONAL SPECIMENS. BLOwWPIPE MINERALS By THE POUND. Our Stock greatly enriched by Mr. English’s Recent Tour of Europe. Write for full particulars, and for free Price Lists and Bulletins. 124 pp. Catalogue (87 cuts) describing every species, 25c. in paper, 50c. in cloth. 141 Franklin St.. BOSTON, MASS. SYSTEMATIC COLLECTIONS. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 E. 12th St., New York, oo Z ;- }é > 7 » 7 o dam SCIENCE NEw SERIES. SINGLE COPIES, 15 CTS. ‘Vou. VII. No. 181. FRIDAY, JUNE Wt, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00 GENERAL ELECTRIC Co.’sS NEW X=RAY TUBE WITH AUTOMATIC VACUUM REGULATOR. Simple. Efficient. Long-lived. Cannot run too high in vacuum. CASASASLHLOLS Roentgen Ray Apparatus, catalogue No. 9,050. Mlinia- ture, Candelabra, Decorative Lamps, catalogue No. 9,044. CASASEABSEH LAD ECison Decorative and (Miniature Lamp Department, (GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY,) HARRISON, WN. J. 186 pages, 40 splendid engravings. Con- 5 tains a table giving name, composition and 0 1 Pe iefa a a if} ue form of all known minerals, with a supple- ¢ ment bringing the work uptodate. Metallic classification showing what minerals contain each element. Alphabetical index ofnames. Lists giving the specimen values of minerals, etc.,etc. For teachers, students, -collectors, mining experts, chemists, and others. Postpaid; Paper, 25 cents; Cloth, 50 cents; Cal/, interleaved, $1.00. DR. A. E. FOOTE, 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A. Established 1876 COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS FOR STUDY OR REFERENCE. CABINET SPECIMENS, GEMS. gpe222eeese< Biddle’s Bulletin for June 299299998, a ) iN Y a My business is to act as an intermediary between the manufacturer and purchaser of Scientific Y ay Apparatus. In many respects I believe my methods of conducting these relations are unique, and Y 48 T know that they are successful. My connections are extensive, so that to keep in touch with my w as w 2 customers—to explain periodically what Iam doing—I have started the publication of an 8-page M4 @\ tonthly. It is sure to be interesting to a large proportion of those who read thisad. Consequently % 4 J want you to write now for a sampl f the J b wy vi y ple copy of the June number. wy ah Subscription, 50 cents a year. v R Electrical and Scientific Instruments, JA MES G. BIDDLE, Publisher, Me ay Psychological Apparatus, ae z x 17 =f Projection Lanterns, etc. 909 Drexel Building, Philadelphia. % Ne WEESSSESES SESS SESE SS ES SSSSE SSE SESE SEES CESSES SEC CECE RR RECESS abt SCIENCE. —AD VERTISEMENTS. JUST ISSUED. CRELLE, Calculating Tables. First English edition giving products of every two numbers from 1 to 1000. Folio, cloth bound, « « « » $5.00 LEMCKE & BUECHNER, 812 Broadway, New York. SIXTH EDITION. THE MICROSCOPE “cau'netHoos. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figures in the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. NEW CATALOGUE. We have recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. Delicious Drink Horsford’s Acid Phosphate with water and sugar only, makes a de- licious, healthful and invigorating drink. Allays the thirst, aids digestion, and relieves the lassitude so common in midsummer. Dr. M. H. Henry, New York, says: ‘‘ When completely tired out by prolonged wakefulness and overwork, it is of the greatest value to me. As a beverage it possesses charms beyond any- think I know of in the form of medicine.”’ Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. Now READY. Light, Visible and Invisible. By SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Se., F.R.S., M.R.I., Principal of, and Professor of Physics in, the City and Guild’s Technical College, Finsbury, London. With Numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth. pp. xii-+ 294. Price $1.50. CONTENTS OF THE VOLUME: Light and Shadows. The Visible Spectrum and the Eye. Polarization of Light. The Invisible Spectrum (ultra-violet part). The Invisible Spectrum (infra-red part). Rontgen Light. This volume brings up to date the late discoveries and theories, and it will be found invaluable both to the student and to the general reader. The subject is treated in a sim ple, masterly, and, at the same time, popular way. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 66 Fifth Avenue, New York HOUGH’S “AMERICAN WOODS” A publication illustrated by actual specimens. WOODS FOR THE STEREOPTICON Enabling you to show upon the screen characteristic- structures projected from nature itself. WOODS FOR THE MICROSCOPE Sections 1-1200 in. thick showing three distinct views grain under each cover-glass. WOOD SPECIMENS FOR CLASS USE. Nothing equals these for use in the class-room. VIEWS OF TYPICAL TREES From nature, photographs and stereopticon views. WOODEN CROSS-SECTION CARDS Perfectly adapted to printing (with type or steel plate),. painting, India ink work, ete. If you are interested in wood or trees in any way send tor: our circulars and sample specimens. | Address R. B. HOUGH, Lowville, N. Y« SCIENCE NEw SERIES. ; SINGLE CopPiEgs, 15 cTs. WO Ville NCa tee FRIDAY, JUNE 24, 1898. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. NEW TEXT-BOOKS ON SCIENCE Published by THE MACMILLAN COMPANY A Text-Book of Entomology Bye wns DACKAR DS M:D> seh. D: Professor of Zoology and Geology, Brown University. Author of ‘‘ Guide to the Study of Insects,”’ etc., etc. INSECTS Cloth. 8vo. $4.50 net. i At the end of each section is a carefully prepared OE WISTS ACC UMEN EE AVRED BEACON LNG ‘bibliography of the preceding topic, an important SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES AS WELL AS ‘feature of the volume for those who wish to continue FOR THE WORKING ENTOMOLOGISTS. unyestigations, general or specialized. A Text-Book of Zoology By alt: J. PAR KER, ID. Se., E.R.S. “We believe that it will be found an invaluable aid not only to special students of zodlogy but also INCLUDING THE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, EMBRYOLOGY AND METAMORPHOSES OF Author of ‘‘ Elementary Lessons in Biology,”’ etc., to a large number of those whose main interest lies in other branches of scientific study. Written with a clear- AMSID ness, accuracy and method that bespeak the prac- ticed teacher, it is admirably illustrated with a pro- WM. A. HASWELL, D.Sc. fusion of figures—there are nearly twelve hundred in TWO VOLS. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. all—of the highest excellence. . . . In all these ’ respects the book offers a model which cannot be too Cloth. 8vo. $9.00 net. highly praised.’’—E. B. W. in Science. A Text-Book of Physiology eeu EN For ADVANCED STUDENTS. ea SCE AEE R, ILILE ID). F.R.S. By LEADING BRITISH PHYSIOLOGISTS each of whom Professor of Physiology, University College, London. deals with some branch of the subject to which he has Cloth. 8vo. $8.00 net. given special attention. ; A Text-Book of Botany By Dr. EDW. STRASBURGER ‘‘The volume in its German dress is so well known to botanists that it is quite needless to speak of its and Drs. Nott, ScHENcK and ScHIMPER merits. Perhaps no man living is better prepared than Dr. Strasburger to undertake the presentation of Eee ee the portion of ine wonle which deals with the internal H. C. PORTER morphology of plants. Certainly no man has a better University of Pennsylvania. knowledge of the structure of the cell, and the many 5 4 changes which it undergoes in constitution and form.”’ Price, complete in one volume, $4.50 net. ©) Part I. Morphology and Physiology, $2.50 net. With over 500 illustrations, in part colored. Part II. Cryptogams and Phanerograms, $2.50 net. In Two Volumes. 8vo. Cloth. Send for a circular describing the above more fully. Address THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, New York City ii SCIENCE.—ADVERTISEMENTS. JUST ISSUED. CRELLE, Calculating Tables. First English edition giving products of every two numbers from 1 to 1000. Folio, cloth bound, ............... « . $5.00 LEMCKE & BUECHNER, 812 Broadway, New York. SIXTH EDITION. THE MICROSCOPE “tru'netHoos. By SIMON HENRY GAGE, Professor of Microscopy, His- tology and Embryology in Cornell University and the New York ' State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y., U.S A. Sixth edition, rewritten, greatly enlarged, and illustrated by 165 figuresin the text. Price, $1.50, postpaid. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING CO., Ithaca, N. Y. NEW CATALOGUE. We have recently issued a new edition, revised and en- larged to 64 pages, of our catalogue of Books on Chemistry, Chemical Technology and Physics. It is arranged by subjects, and includes all the standard books in Chemical and Physical Science, as well as the re- cent literature up to date. A copy of this Catalogue will be sent free by mail to any address. D. Van Nostrand Company, Publishers and Importers of Scientific Books, 23 Murray St. and 27 Warren St., New York. Delicious Drink Horsford’s Acid Phosphate with water and sugar only, makes a de- licious, healthful and invigorating drink. Allays the thirst, aids digestion, and relieves the lassitude so common in. midsummer. Dr. M. H. Henry, New York, says: ‘‘ When: completely tired out by prolonged wakefulness. and overwork, it is of the greatest value to me. As a beverage it possesses charms beyond any- think I know of in the form of medicine.” Descriptive pamphlet free on application to Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. I. Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. and French). WMAX KOHL, Chemnitz, Germany, FIRST EUROPEAN MAKER OF Physical and Electrical Instruments Special Manufacturer of Roentgen X-Ray Outfits. Apparatus for Experiments with Currents of High Frequence and Tension. Apparatus for the Experiments according to Hertz. Apparatus for Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy. Price List No. 10 of Physical Instruments; nearly 400 pages and more than 1300 engravings (in German, English Special List of X-Ray Apparatus containing numerous testimonials as well as estimates for complete outfits, explicit directions for use, ete., in English language. aa REFERENCES FROM LEADING EXPERTS. “Ga Representative: Messrs. EIMER & AMEND, 205-2II Third Avenue, New York. Complete Mineral Catalogue. 186-pages, 40 splendid engravings. Con- tains a table giving name, composition and form of all known minerals, with a supple- ment bringing the work uptodate. Metallic- classification showing what minerals contain each element. Alphabetical index ofnames. 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