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SCIENCE
A WHEKLY JOURNAL
DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE: S. NEwcomsB, Mathematics; R. 8S. Woopwarp, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING,
Astronomy ; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry ;
J. LE ConTE, Geology ; W. M. DAvis, Physiography ; HENRY F. OsBorN, Paleontology ; W. K.
Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology; 8. H. SCUDDER, Entomology ; C. E. BessEy, N. L.
BRITTON, Botany ; C. 8S. Minot, Embryology, Histology ; H. P. Bowpitcn, Physiology ;
J. S. Bruurnes, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ; DANIEL G. BRIN-
TON, J. W.. POWELL, Anthropology.
NEW SERIES. VOLUME IX.
JANUARY-JUNH, 1899.
ae Z
NATIONAL NWS:
/
—
NEW YORK
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1899
THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY,
41 NORTH QUEEN STREET,
LANCASTER, Pa.
CONTENTS AND INDEX.
N.S. VOL, [x.—JANUARY TO JUNE, 1899.
The Names of Contributors are Printed in Small Capitals.
ABBE, CLEVELAND, Catalogue for Meteorology, 871
ADLER, Cyrus, The International Catalogue of Scien-
tific Literature 761, 799
Age of the Earth, Lorp KELVIN, 665, 704; T. C.
CHAMBERLIN, 889
Allen, Alfred H., Commercial Organic Analysis, W.
A. NOYES, 63, 818
ALLEN, J. A., Birds, A. H. Evans, 647
‘American Association for the Advancement of Science,
28, 628, 881
Amerind— A Designation for the Aboriginal Tribes
of the American Hemisphere, 795
Ames, J. S., Text-book of Physics, Charles S. Hast-
ings and F. E. Beach, 545 ; Catalogue for Physics,
864
Anatomists, American, Association, D. S. LAMB, 320
Angot, Alfred, Météorologie, FRANK WALDO, 743
Anschiitz, R., Organic Chemistry, E. RENOUF, 749
Anthropological, Section of the American Association,
145 ; Society of Washington, J. H. McCoRMIcK,
218, 590
Anthropology, Current Notes on, D. G. BRINTON,
37, 117, 156, 185, 227, 266, 299, 338 ; Advances
in Methods of Teaching, FRANZ Boas, 93
Arc of Peru, Remeasurement of, 916
Astronomical Notes, WINSLOW UPTON, 36, 224; E.
C. PICKERING, 417, 456
Atomic Weights, FERDINAND G. WIECHMANN, 23 ;
Quarter Century’s Progress, F. P. VENABLE, 477
B., H. C., The Statistical Method in Zoology, 74
Bailey, L. H., The Principles of Agriculture, ELISHA
WILSON MORSE, 328
Bailey, Solon I., Peruvian Meteorology, R. DeC.
WARD, 715
BARROWS, FRANKLIN W., New York State Science
Teachers Association, 811
BaRus, CARL, The Objective Presentation of Har-
monic Motion, 385
BatTuHer, F. A., Zoological Bibliography, 154 ; The
Storage of Pamphlets, 720; Some Smithsonian
Publications, 775
BAvER, L. A., Trowbridge’s Theory of the Earth’s
Magnetism, 264
BEAN, TARLETON H., Fishes of the South Shore of
Long Island, 52; Identity of Common and Lab-
rador White Fish, 416
Beddard, F. E., Structure and Classification of Birds,
F. A. Lucas, 212; Elementary Zoology, CHAS.
WRIGHT DODGE, 329
Bell, Alexander Graham, on the Development by Se-
lection of Supernumerary Mamme in Sheep, 637
BERKEY, CHARLES P., Minnesota Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences, 623
Berry, Arthur, A Short History of Astronomy, DAvrp
P. Topp, 682
BESSEY, CHARLES E., 74, 226, 555, 689, 880; The
North American Potentillez, per Axel Rydberg,
548 ; The Evolution of Plants, D. Campbell, 618
Binet, Na L’ Année psychologique, 292
Biological, Stations of Brittany, JoHN H. GER-
OULD, 165 ; Society of Washington, O. F. Coox,
257, 486, 847; Fresh Water Stations of the
World, Henry B. WARD, 497; Text-Books and
Teachers, O. F. Cook, 541 ; Bulletin, 652
Biology, Section of the N. Y. Acad. of Sci., GARY N.
CALKINS, 718 ; FRANCIS E. Luoyn, 912 ; of the
Great Lakes, JACOB REIGHARD, 906
BLACKFORD, EUGENE G., Note on the Spawning
Season of the Eel, 740
Biss, C. B., Section of Psychology and Anthropology,
New York Academy of Sciences, 219, 376
Boas, FRANZ, Teaching of Anthropology, 93
Botton, H. CARRINGTON, and W. P. CUTTER, Cata-
logue for Chemistry, 867
Boston. Society of Natural History, SAMUEL HEN-
SHAW, 624
Botanical Club, Torrey, E. S. BURGESS, 33, 295, 520,
591, 819, 876; of Washington, CHARLES LoUIs
POLLARD, 291, 914 ; of the University of Chi-
cago, 413 ; Notes, CHARLES E. BESSEY, 74, 226,
555, 689, Bee Gazette, 376, 589, 620
BouTWELL, Ap , Geological Conference and Stu-
dents’ weer aif Harvard University, 33, 113, 335,
519, 591, 719, 752, 786
BRIGHAM, A. IRS Physical Geography, W. M. Davis
and H. W. Snyder, 410
BRINTON, D. G., Current Notes on Anthropology, 37,
76, 117, 156, 185, 227, 266, 299, 338
BRITCHER, H. W., Onondaga Academy, 114, 376
Brooks, W. K., Truth and Error, 121 ; The Wonder-
ful Century, A. R. Wallace, 511
Brunissure of the Vine, ALBERT F. Woops, 508
Bumpus, H. C., Marine Biological Laboratory, 228
BurGess, E. 8., Torrey Botanical Club, 33, 295, 520,
591, 819, 876
Burnside, W., Theory of Groups of Finite Order, F
N. CoLe, 106
Butler, A. W., Birds of Indiana, F. M. C., 66
C., C. G., Practical Astronomy, W. W. Campbell, 842
Oly F.C., ’ Physical Notes, 116, 378, 493, 555
C., F. M., Birds of Indiana, A.W. Butler, 66
C., H. W., Bacteriology, Ferdinand Hueppe, 513
Casont, FLORIAN, Carl Friedrich Gauss and his
Children, 697
CALKINS, GARY N., Biological Section of the New
York Academy of Sciences, 718
Iv SCIENCE.
CHAMBERLIN, T. C., Lord Kelvin’s Address on the
Age of the Earth as an Abode fitted for Life, 889
Campbell, D. H., The Evolution of Plants, CHARLES
E. BESSEY, 618
Campbell, W. W., Astronomy, G. C. C., 842
Card, Fred. W., Bush Fruits, B. D. HALSTED, 109
Catalogue, International of Scientific Literature, 187 ;
Cyrus ADLER, 761, 799; J. VicrToR CARUvSs, 825,
Physics, J. S. AMEs, 864, Chemistry, H. CAr-
RINGTUN BOLTON, W. P. CUTTER, 867 ; CLEVE-
LAND ABBE, 871; N.S. SHALER, 907 ; JACQUES
Lors, 908
CATTELL, J. MCKEEN, Degrees in Science in Harvard
University, 522
Cayley, Arthur, Collected Mathematical Papers,
GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED, 59
Chemical, Society of Washington, WILLIAM H. Krue,
32, 517, 622, 751; Society, American, DURAND
WoopMAN, General Meeting, 58 ; N. Y. Section
of, 258, 487, 654, 820, 913; Journal American,
151, 257, 451, 620, 718, 712
Chemistry, Notes on Inorganic, J. L. H., 71, 155, 185,
266, 297, 337, 457, 595, 623, 652, 656, 688 ; Phys-
ical, Journal of, 151, 293 ; Organic, The Revival
of, H. N. STOKES, 601
CLARK, WILLIAM BULLOCK, Geology, James D.
Dana, 147; Report of Official State Bureaus, 162
CLEMENT, FREDERIC E., Pflanzengeographie, A. F.
W. Schimper, 747
Climatological Ass. Amer., GUY HINSDALE, 774
CocKERELL, T. D. A., The Chinch Bug, F. M. Web-
ster, 175; North American Rhopalocera, Henry
Skinner, 373; A Date-palm Scale Insect, 417 ;
Color in Nature, Marion J. Newbiggin, 448
Cor, W. R., The Time of Breeding of some Common
New England Nemerteans, 167
CoE, F. N., The American Mathematical. Society,
57, 322, 684 ; Theory of Groups of Finite Order,
W. Burnside, 106
Cole, R. S., Photographic Optics, FRANK WALDO,
874
Collins, Joseph, Faculty of Speech, E. W. F., 745
Congdon, Ernest, A Qualitative Analysis, W. A.
NOYES, 26
CONKLIN, EDWIN G., Advances in Methods of Teach-
ing Zoology, 81
Cook, O. F., Biological Society of Washington, 257,
332, 468, 847; Biological Text-books and Teachers,
541
CRANDALL, CHARLES §., Storing Pamphlets, 115
CREIGHTON, J. E., The Groundwork of Science, St.
George Mivart, 147
Creighton, J. E., Logic, GEORGE REBEC, 779
Cummings John, WM. H. NILES, 24
CuTTER, W. P., and H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, Cata-
logue for Chemistry, 867
D., A. St. C., Notes on Physics, 225, 419, 655, 687
D., T., The Choice of Elements, 418
DALL, WM. H., Zoological Nomenclature, 221
Dana, James D., Revised Text-book of Geology, W.
B. CLARK. 147
DAVENPORT, CHAS. B., Specific Place Modes, 415
Davenport, Charles B., Experimental Morphology,
T. H. MorGAN, 648
Davis, W. M., and H. W. Snyder, Physical Geogra-
phy, ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM, 410
DAWSON, GEORGE M., Duplication of Geologic For-
mation Names, 592
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Day, WM. S., Section of Astronomy and Physics of
the New York Academy of Sciences, 653, 850
DEAN, BASHFORD, Amer, Morphological Soc., 311,
364 ; Lamprey Macrophthalmia Chilensis, 740
DEARBORN, G. V. N., The Origin of Nightmare, 455
DEGARMO, CHARLES, Talks to Teachers on Psychol-
ogy, William James, 909
Delage, Ives, L’ Année biologique, 292
Derventer, Ch. van, Physical Chemistry for Beginners,
Harry C. JONES, 750
Dewar, on Liquid Hydrogen, 914
DILLER, J. 8., Stalactites of Sand, 371 ; Latest Vol-
canic Eruptions of the Pacific Coast, 639
Discussion and Correspondence, 34, 70, 114, 154, 184,
221, 259, 297, 376, 415, 455, 488, 520, 553, 592,
624, 686, 720, 752, 787, 820, 850, 877
DODGE, CHARLES WRIGHT, Elementary Zoology,
Frank E. Beddard, 329
DopGE, RicHArD E., Rivers of North America,-
Israel C. Russell, 214; New York Academy of
Sciences, 452 ; Suggestions for Scientific Semin-
ars, 520
Doo.uitrxe, C. L., National Observatory, 471
Durand, J. P., Taxonomie générale, F. A. L., 150
DwiGut, THoMAs, Human Anatomy, Henry Morris,
27
EASTMAN, C. R., Plastiline, 211; Some New Amer--
ican Fossil Fishes, 642
Eel, Spawning Season of the, EUGENE G. BLACKFORD,
740 ; Larval Stage of the THEO. GILL, 820
EIGENMANN, CARL H., A Case of Convergence, 280
ELKIN, W. L., National Observatory, 475
Embouchure, N. A. Indian Flageolets, E. H. Haw-
LEY, 742
Entomological Society of Washington, L.O. Howarp,
181, 413
Evans, A. H., Birds, J. A. Allen, 647
Explosions caused by commonly occurring Substan-
ces, CHARLES E. MUNROE, 345
F., W. H., Industrial Electricity, Henry de Graffig-
ny, 374
F., W. S., Notes on Physics, 336, 378, 418, 457
FARRAND, LIVINGSTON, American Psychological As-
sociation, 249 ; Indians of Western Washington,
533
FARRINGTON, OLIVER C., Moon Model, 35
Fatigue, Mental, EDWARD THORNDIKE, 712
Furnt, A. 8., Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, 179
Folwell, A. P., Sewerage, M. M., 64
Food Adulteration, Senatorial Investigation of, 793
FOWKE, GERARD, Archeological Investigations on
the Amoor River, 539
FRANKLIN, W.S., The Sensation of Motion and its
Reversal, 70; Etherion, 297 ; Fundamental Law
of Temperature for Gaseous Celestial Bodies, 594
Fuertes, E. A., National Observatory, 475
FULLER, M. L., Rapidity of Sand-plain Growth, 643
G., J. E., Freezing-point, Boiling-point and Conduct-
ivity Methods, Harry C. Jones, 150
GALLOWAY, B. T., Enzymes as Remedies in Infec-
tious Diseases, 379
Ganona, W. F., Methods of Teaching Botany, 96 ;
Columbia Meeting of the Society for Plant Mor-
phology and Physiology, 169
GARDINER, Epw. G., Plymouth, England, and its
Marine Biological Laboratory, 488
NEw SERIES.
VoL. IX.
Gauss, Carl F iedrich and his Children, FLORIAN
CAJoRI, 697
Geological, Conference and Student’s Club of Harvard
University, J. M. BOUTWELL, 33, 113, 335, 519,
591, 719, 752, 786; Soc. of ‘Amer., J. F, KEMP,
100, 138 ; Soc, of Washington, Wm. F. MorseEtu,
152, 454, 551, 622; Survey, Publications, 177;
of Maryland, BAILEY WILLIS, 252; In Alaska,
W.F. M., 628; Club, University of Minnesota,
F. W. Sardeson, 412; Expedition to the Philip-
pines, W. F. M., 722°
Geologist, American, 111, 517.
Geology, ‘Journal of, 375, 783, 911; and Mineralogy,
Section of the 'N. Y. Acad. of Sci., ALEXIS A.
JULIEN, 719, 818.
GEROULD, JOHN pe The Biological Stations of Brit-
tany, 165
GIDDINGS, FRANKLIN H., The Psychology of So-
ciety, 16
GILL, THEO., Larval Stage of the Eel, 820
Gorvon, REGINALD, Section of ‘Astronomy and
Physics of the N. Y. Acad. of Sci., 219, 488
GRAFFIGNY, HENRY DE, Industrial Electricity, W.
H. F., 374
Groos, Karl, Die Spiele der Menschen, HrrRAm M.
STANLEY, 619
Guyer, MICHAEL F., Ovarian Structure in an Ab-
normal Pigeon, 876
H. J. L., Notes on Inorganic Chemistry, 71, 155,
185, 266, 297, 337, 457, 595, 623, 652, 656, 688
Hagen, J. G., Atlas of Variable Stars, 29
Hacun, ARNOLD, The Early Tertiary Volcanoes of
the Absaroka’ Range, 425
HALL, ASAPH, National Observatory, 468
HALuock, WILLIAM, Kirchoff’s Principle, 210 ; Re-
ception and Exhibition of the N. Y. Acad. of
Sci., 616
HALsteD, B. D., Bush Fruits, Fred. W. Card, 109
HALSTED, GEORGE BRUCE, Mathematical Papers, 59 ;
La vie sur les hauts plateaux, A. L. Herrera and
D. V. Lope, 255 ; Sophus Lie, 447 ; N. I. Lobat-
schefski, 813
HARSHBERGER, JOHN W., Transmitted Characteris-
tics in a White Angora Cat, 554
Hastings, Charles, 8.. and F. E. Beach, Text-Book of
General Physics, J.S. AMES, 545
Hawley, E. H., Embouchure in N. A. Indian Flageo-
lets, 742
Hay, O. P., Fossil Vertebrates, 593
Hellmann G., Wetter Prognosen, A. L. Rotcn, 910
Helmholtz, Hermann von, Brain of, 557
HENSHAW, SAMUEL, Boston Society of Natural His-
tory, 624
Herrera, A. L., and D. V. Lope, La vie sur les hauts
plateaux, GEORGE BRUCE HALSTEAD, 255
Hill, Robert T., Cuba and Porto Rico, WJ M., 65;
and T. W., Vaughan, The Lower Cretaceous
Grypheeas of the Texas Region, F. W. SIMONDs,
110 ; Geology of the Edwards Plateau and Rio
Grande Plain, FREDERIC W. Simonps, 481
HINSDALE, Guy, Medical Climatology, S. Edwin
Solly, 485 ; Amer. Climatological Association, 774
Hopes, WM. H., Science Club of the University of
Wisconsin, 875
Holland, W. J, The Butterfly Book, SAMUEL H.
SCUDDER, 66
HOLMAN, Siias W.,
Work, 154
Matter, Energy, Force and
SCIENCE. Vv
Holman, Silas W., Matter, Energy, Force and Work,
T. C. M., 24
Howarp, L. O., Entomological Soc. of Washing-
ton, 181, 413 ; Economic Status of Insects, 233
Hueppe, Ferdinand, Principles of Bacteriology, H.
W.C., 513
Huntington, Geo. S., Teaching of Anatomy, 85
JAMES, WILLIAM, Lehmann and Hansen on Tele-
pathy, 654 ; Telepathy Once More, 752
James, William, Talks to Teachers on Psychology,
CHARLES DEGARMO, 909
Jesup, North Pacific Expedition, L. FARRAND, 533;
HARLAN I. SMITH, 535 ; GERARD FOWKE, 539,
732
JOHNSON, ROSWELL, H., Two-headed snakes, 625
Jones, HArRy C., Physical Chemistry, J. L. R.
Morgan, 717; Physical Chemistry Ch. van Der-
venter, 750
Jones, Harry C., Freezing Point, Boiling Point and
Conductivity Methods, J. E. G., 150
JORDAN, DAvip STarr, A Sage in Science, 529 ;
A Posthom Phantom, a Study in the Spontan-
eous Activity of Shadows, 674
JORDAN, EDWIN O., Examination of Water, William
P. Mason, 548
Jupp, CHas. H., Sub-Section of Anthropology and
Psychology of the N. Y. Acad. of Sci., 553, 685
JUDD, SYLVESTER D., Birds as Weed Destroyers, 905
JULIEN, ALEXIS A., Section of Geology and Miner-
alogy of the N. Y. Acad. of Sci., 719, 818
KEELER, JAMES E., National Observatory, 476
KELVIN, Lorp, The Age of the Earth, 665, 704
Kelvin, Lord, Address on the Age of the Earth, Pro-
FEssoR T. C. CHAMBERLIN, 889
Kemp, J. F., Geological Society of America, 100, 138
KEYSER, C. J., Infinitesimal Analysis, W. B. Smith,
844
KRoEBER, A. L., Anthropological Section of the
American Association, 145
KRuG, WILLIAM H., Chemical Society of Washing-
ton, 32, 333, 517, 622, 751 i
L., F. A., The New York Zoological Park, 73 ; Taxo-
nomie, J. P. Durand, 150; Neomylodon Listai, 459 —
LAmp, D.8., Association of Amer. Anatomists, 320
LAWRENCE, RALPH E., Mercury Pump, 510
LEE, FREDERIC’S., Amer. Physiological Society,
286; Laboratory Exercises in Anatomy and
Physiology, J. E. Peabody, 331
Leland Stanford Jr. University, 916
Leroux, Ernest, Codex Borbonicus, M. H. SAVILLE,
746
Lie, Sophus, GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED, 447
LITTLEHALES, G. W., The Prospective Place of the
Solar Azimuth Tables in the Problem of Ac-
celerating Ocean Transit, 640
Lioyp, FRANCIS E., Section of Biology of the N.
Y. Acad. of Sci., 913
Lobatschefski, Nikolai Ivanovitsch,
HALSTED, 813
Lockwoop, M. H., and E. B. WHEPLER, On the
Action of the Coherer, 624 f
Locy, Wm. A., Northwestern University Science
Club, 31 ;
Logs, JACQUES, Catalogue for Physiology, 908
Loew, OSCAR, ‘What is the Cause of the so- -called™
Tobacco Fermentation, 376
GEORGE BRUCE
vi SCIENCE.
Loew, Oscar, Die chemische Energie der Lebenden
Zellen, ALBERT F. Woops, 409
LorinG, J. ALDEN, Virginia Opossum, 71
Lucas, F. A., Structure and Classification of Birds,
F. E. Beddard, 212; Nomenclature of the
Hyoid in Birds, 323 ; Biological Society of Wash-
ington, 785
Lusk, GRAHAM, Physiology, E. A. Schiifer, 291
M., F., Sanitary Engineering, Mansfield Merriman,
109
M. M., Sewerage, A. P. Folwell, 64
M., T.C., Metric System, 377 ; Matter, Energy, Force
and Work, Silas W. Holman, 24
M., W. F., Geological, Survey Work in Alaska, 628;
Expedition to the Philippines, 722
M., W J, Cuba and Porto Rico, Robert T. Hill, 65
MacDouaat, D. 'T., Physiology, Max Verworn, 650
MACFARLANE, ALEXANDER, Algebra, A. N. White-
head, 324
MACLOSKIE, GEORGE, Physiological Osmosis, 206 ;
Osmotic Solutions, 554
Marine Biological Laboratory, H. C. Bumpus,
228 ; of Plymouth, Eng., Epw. G. GARDINER,
488; A New, HuGH M SmiruH, 658; Wood’s
Holl, 721
MARLATT, C. L., Some Common Sources of Error in
recent Work on Coccidze, 825
Marr, J. E., Stratigraphical Geology, HENRY S. WIL-
_ LIAmMs, 547
Mars, the Planet, G. SCHTAPARELLI, 633
Marsh, Othniel Charles, J. L. WorTMAN, 561
Mason, William P., The Examination of Water,
EDWIN O. JORDAN, 548
Mathematical Society, The American, F. N. Cone,
57, 322; Transactions of, 375; Bulletin, 412,
450, 751
McCLENAHAN, Howarp, On the Wehnelt Current
Breaker, 753
McCormick, J. H., Anthropological Society of
Washington, 218, 590
MENDENHALL, T. C., National Observatory, 469
MERCER, HENRY C., Men of Science and Anti-Vivi-
section, 221
Mercury Pump, Ralph R. Lawrence, 510
MERRIAM, C. Hart, Zone Temperatures, 116
Merriman, Mansfield, Sanitary Engineering, M., 109
MERRITT, ERNEST The Discharge of Electricity
through Gases, J. J. Thomson, 289
Meteorology, Current Notes on, R. DE C. WARD, 72,
116, 298, 458, 627, 657, 787, 878 ; Catalogue of,
CLEVELAND ABBE, 871
Minnesota Academy, CHARLES P. BERKEY, 623
MINoT, CHARLES S., Anatomy and Histology of the
Mouth and Teeth, J. Norman Broomall, 216
Mivart, St. George, The Groundwork of Science, J.
E. CREIGHTON, 147
Morgan, J. L. R., Elements of Physical Chemistry,
HARRY C. JONES, 717
MorGan, T. H., Experimental Morphology, Charles
B. Davenport, 648
Morris, Henry, Human Anatomy, THomMas Dwiaut,
27
Morse, ELISHA WILSON, The Principles of Agricul-
ture, L. H. Bailey, 328
MOoRSELL, W. F., Geological Society of Washington,
152, 454, 551, 622
MUNROE, CHARLES E., Explosions Caused by Com-
monly Occurring Substances, 345
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
MUNSTERBERG, HuGo, Methods of Teaching Psychol-
ogy, 91; Physiological Basis of Mental Life, 442
Myers, G. W., National Observatory, 474
National Academy of Sciences, 621
Newbiggin, Marion J., Color in Nature, T. D. A.
COCKERELL, 448
NEWcomB, Simon, National Observatory, 467
Newcomb, Professor Simon, 851
NEWELL, W. W., American Folk-lore Society, 173
Newth, G. S., Quantitative and Qualitative Chemical
Analysis, HENRY Fay, 176
New York Acad. of Sci., Section of Astronomy
and Physics, W. S. Day, 653, 850; R. GorDoN,
219, 488; of Psychology and Anthropology,
C. B. Briss, 219, 376; C. H. Jupp. 553, 685 ;
of Biology, G. N. CALKINS, 718; FRANCIS E.
Lioyp, 912; of Geology and Mineralogy, A.
A. JULIEN, 719, 818; Annual Meeting R. E.
Dopar, 452; Reception and Exhibition, W1L-
LIAM HALLOCK, 616
Nives, Wo. H., John Cummings, 24
NoLan, EDWARD J., Philadelphia Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences, 68, 181, 336
Norris, JAMEs F., The Spirit of Organic Chemistry,
Arthur Lachman, 817
Noyes, W. A., Qualitative Analysis, Ernest A. Cong-
don, 26; Commercial Organic Analysis, Alfred
H. Allen, 63, 818; Industrial Chemistry, 160
O., C. A., Defective Eyesight, St. Jonn Roosa, 846
O., H. F., The Removal of Dr. Wortman to the Car-
negie Museum, 755
Observatory, The United States Naval, A. N. SKIN-
NER, 1, 857; A National, 465; Discussion of a, 467;
Stmon Nrewcomp, 468; ASAPH HALL, 468; C. A.
YouneG, 468; T. C. MENDENHALL, 469; R. S.
WoopwarD, 470 ; C. L. DooLirTLE, 471; W. H.
PICKERING, 472 ; ARTHUR SEARLE, 472 ; FRANK
W. Very, 473; Davip P. Topp, 473; G. W.
Myers, 474; E. A. Fuertes, 475; W. L.
ELKIN, 475 ; JAMES E. KEELER, 476
Opossum, Virginia, J. ALDEN LorIN@, 71
OsBoRN, HENRY F., Frontal Horn on Aceratherium
Incisivum, 161
OsBorN, H. L., A Remarkable Sun-dog, 521
OsBURN, R. C., Ohio Academy of Science, 180
P., T. S., Wild Animals I have known, Ernest Seton
Thompson, 26
PATRICK, G. T. W., Degeneracy, Eugene S. Talbot,
372
Patten, Simon N., The Development of English
Thought, R. M. WENLEY, 713
PEARSON, KARL, Reproductive Selection, 283
Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences, EDWARD
J. NOLAN, 68 ; Exposition of 1900, 649
Philosophical Society of Washington, E. D. PRESTON,
218, 296, 454, 621, 652, 686, 846
Physical Society, American, A. G. WEBSTER, 784
Physics, Notes on, 116, 225, 336, 377, 378, 418, 456,
493, 555, 655, 687; Club of New York, A. T.
SEYMOUR, 553 ; Catalogue for, J. S. AMES, 864
Physiological, Society, American, The N. Y. Meeting
of, FREDERIC S. LEE, 286 ; Basis of Mental Life,
HuGo MUNSTERBERG, 442
PICKERING, E. C., Astronomical Notes, 417, 456
PICKERING, W. H., National Observatory, 47
NEw SERIES
VoL. IX.
PIERPONT, JAMES, Analytic Functions, J. Harkness
and F. Morley, 586
Plant Morphology, and Physiology, The Society of,
W. F. GANONG, 169
POLLARD, CHARLES Louis, Botanical Club of Wash-
ington, 294, 487, 652, 914
PorTER, Wo. T., Methods of Teaching Physiology,
87
PoWELL, J. W., Reply to Critics, 259
Powell, J. W., Truth and Error, W. K. Brooks,
121 ; Lester F. WARD, 126
PRESTON, E. D., Philosophical Society of Washing-
ton, 218, 621, 296, 454,652, 686, 846 ; Geodetic
Operations in the United States, 305
PritcHETT, HENRY S., Magnetic Survey of the
United States by the Coast and Geodetic Survey,
729
Pumas of Western United States, WITMER STONE, 34
RAMALEY, FRANCIS, Scientific Society of the Uni-
versity of Colorado, 720
RAMSAY, WILLIAM, The Recently Discovered Gases
and their Relation to the Periodic Law, 273
Rauh, F., La psychologie des sentiments, H. M. STAN-
LEY, 683
REBEC, GEORGE, Introductory Logic, 779
REIGHARD, JAcoB, Biology of the Great Lakes, 906
RENovrF, E., Organic Chemistry, R. Anschitz, 749
Roosa, St. JOHN, Defective Eyesight, C. A. O., 846
Rorcn, A. L., Wetterprognosen und Wetterberichte,
G. Hellmann, 910
Russell, Israel C., Rivers of North America, RICHARD
E. DopGE, 214
SAFFORD, TRUMAN HeEnRy, On the Total Solar
Eclipse of May 28, 1900, 115
SARDESON, F. W., Geological Club of the University
of Minnesota, 412
SAVILLE, M. H., Codex Borbonicus, Ernest Leroux,
746
Schafer, E. A., Physiology, GRAHAM LUSK, 291
SCHIAPARELLI, G., Observations of Planet Mars, 633
Schimper, A. F. W., Pflanzengeographie, FREDERIC
E. CLEMENTS, 747
Schnabel, Carl, Metallurgy, J. STRUTHERS, 588
Science, Nebraska Academy of, 29; Club of North-
western University, WM. A. Locy, 31; and poli-
tics, S. W. WILLISTON, 114; Academy of St.
Louis, WILLIAM TRELEASE, 114, 220, 415, 488,
624, 720, 786; Onondaga Academy of, H. W.
BRITCHER, 114 ; Work, 152 ; Natural, 152 ; Ohio
Academy of, R. C. OsBuRN, 180; American
Journal of, 517, 652; Degrees in, at Harvard
University, J. MCKEEN CATTELL, 522; A Sage
in, DAVID STARR JORDAN, 529; American As-
sociation for the Advancement of, 628: Ab-
stracts, 784 ; Teachers Association of N. Y. State,
FRANKLIN W. BaArrkows, 811; Club of the
University of Wisconsin. WM. H. Hopss, 875.
Sciences, Natural, Philadelphia Academy of, EDWARD
J. NOLAN, 68; Minnesota Academy of, CHARLES
P. BERKEY, 623; Arts and Letters, Wisconsin
Academy of, A. S. FLINT, 179 ; Texas Academy
of, FREDERIC W. SIMONDS, 217 ; National Acad-
emy of, 621; New York Academy of ; Section of
Astronomy and Physics, R. GoRDON, 219, 488 ;
W.S. Day, 653, 850 ; of Psychology and Anthro-
pology, C. B. BLIss, 219, 376; C. H. JUDD, 553,
685 ; of Geology and Mineralogy, A. A. JULIEN,
SCIENCE.
vii
719, 818; of Biology, G. N. CALKINS, 718; An-
nual Meeting, RICHARD EH. DopGE, 452 ; Recep-
tion and Exhibition, WILLIAM HALLOCK, 616
Scientific, Books, 24, 59, 106, 147, 174, 212, 252, 289,
324, 372, 409, 448, 481, 511, 545, 586, 618, 682,
713, 743, 755, 813, 842, 872, 909 ; Journals and
Articles, 29, 67, 111, 151, 178, 217, 257, 293, 375,
450, 485, 517, 549, 589, 620, 718, 750, 783, 911;
Notes and News, 38, 76, 118, 157, 188, 267, 300,
339, 379, 420, 460, 494, 524, 557, 597, 628, 692,
724, 755, 788, 820, 851, 883, 917; Seminars and
Conferences, RICHARD E. DODGE, 520 ; Appoint-
ments under the Government, 523; Alliance of
New York, 550, 629 ; Society of the University
of Colorado, FRANCIS RAMALEY, 720
ScRIPTURE, E W., The Anesthetic Effects of a
Sinusoidal Current of High Frequency, 377;
Color-Weakness and Color-Blindness, 771 ; Cere-
bral Light, 850; Arousal of Instinct by Taste, 878
SCUDDER, SAMUEL H., The Butterfly Book, W. J.
Holland, 66
SEARLE, ARTHUR, National Observatory, 472
Seg, T. J. J., An Extension of Helmholtz’s Theory
of the Heat of the Sun, 737
SEyMmourR, A. T., Physics Club of New York, 553
SHALER, N.S8., Geology and Geography in the Inter-
national Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 907
SHARPE, B. F., A Double Instrument and a Double
Method for the Measurement of Sound, 808
Stmonps, F. W., The Lower Cretaceous Gryphzas
of the Texas Region, 110; Texas Academy of
Sciences, 217 ; Geology of the Edwards Plateau
and Rio Grande Plain, Robt. T. Hill and W. T.
Vaughan, 481
SKINNER, A. N., The U. S. Naval Observatory, 1
SMITH, EuGENE A., Alabama Industrial and Scien-
tific Society, 296
SmirH, Haran I,, Collections of the Provincial
Museum of Victoria, British Columbia, 156 ;
Archeological Investigations on the North
Pacific Coast of America, 535
SmitH, HuaH M., A New Marine Biological Labora-
tory, 658; Exploring Expedition to the Md-
Pacific Ocean, 796
Smith, W. B., Infinitesimal Analysis, C. J. KEYSER,
844
Societies and Academies, 29, 68, 112, 152, 179, 217,
257, 294, 332, 376, 412, 452, 486, 517, 550, 590,
621, 684, 718, 751, 784, 818, 847, 875, 912
Solly, S. Edwin, Medical Climatology, Guy H1ns-
DALE, 485
Solutions, M. A. W1ILLcox, 455 ; Osmotic, G. Ma-
CLOSKIE, 554 '
Sound, A Double Instrument and a Double Method
for the Measurement of, B. F. SHARPE, 808
Specific Place Modes, CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, 415
STANLEY, Hiram M., Artificial Dreams, 263 ; Evo-
lution of Modesty, 553; Die Spiele der Men-
schen, 619 ; La psychologie des sentiments, 683 ;
Totemism, 877
Steam-Engine, Theory of the, R. H. THURSTON, 659
‘Steam-gas,’ R. H. THURSTON, 753
StEvENS, W. LE Conte, Physics—Sound, J. H.
Poynting and J. J. Thomson, 872
STEVENSON, J. J., Our Society, 41
STILEs, CH. WARDELL, Tuberculosis Conference, 491
St. Louis Academy of Science, WILLIAM TRELEASE,
114, 220, 415, 488, 624, 720, 786
SrokeEs, H. N., Revival of Inorganic Chemistry, 601
vill
Srone, WitMER, Pumas of the Western United
States, 34
STRUTHERS, J.,
Schnabel, 588
Handbook of Metallurgy, Carl
T., E. W., Faculty of Speech, Joseph Collins, 745
T., Kk. H., Anti-Friction Alloys, 247; Automatic
Ship Propulsion, 915
Talbot, Eugene S., Degeneracy, G. T. W. PATRICK,
372
Thompson, Ernest Seton, Wild Animals
Known, T. 8. P., 26
TuHomeson, M. T., Breeding of Animals at Wood’s
Hole during the Month of September, 1898, 581
Thomson, J. J., The Dis:harge of Electricity through
Gases, ERNEST MERRITT, 289
THORNDIKE, EDWARD, The Dawn of Reason, James
Weir, 450; Mental Fatigue, 712; The Mental
Fatigue due to School Work, 862
Thorp, Frank, Industrial Chemistry, W. A. NoYEs,
150
Tuurston, R. H., The Suppression of Smoke, 55 ;
Professional Schools vs. Business, 207; Engineer-
ing and the Professions in Education, 407 ; Agri-
cultural Electro-technics, 480; Economics in
Manufactures, 583; Theory of the Steam Engine,
659; Thermodynamic Action of Steam Gas, 753
TITCHENER, E. B., Lehmann and Hansen on ‘the T: I-
epathic Problem,’ 36 ; Professor James on Tele-
pathy, 686 ; The Telepathic question, 787
Topp, Davip P., Discussion of a National Observa-
tory, 473; A Short History of Astronomy, Ar-
thur Berry, 682
Torrey Botanical Club, E. 8. BURGESS, 33, 295, 520,
591, 819, 876
'TRELEASE, WILLIAM, Academy of Science of St.
Louis, 114, 220, 415, 488, 624, 720, 786
Trowbridge’s Theory of the Earth’s Magnetism, L.
A. BAUER, 264 ; JOHN TROWBRIDGE, 265
True, A. C., Agricultural Experiment Stations, 199 ;
The Scientific Study of Irrigation, 798
I have
University and Educational News, 40, 80, 120, 160,
192, 271, 304, 341, 383, 424, 464, 496, 528, 559,
600, 631, 695, 728, 759, 791, 824, 856, 887
Upton, WINSLOW, Astronomical Notes, 36, 224, 492;
The Storing of Pamphlets, 184
VENABLE, F. P., Atomic Weights, A Quarter Cen-
tury’s Progress, 477
Verworn, Max, General Physiology, D. T. Mac-
Dougal, 650
VERY, FRANK, W., National Observatory, 473
WaALpo, FRANK, Météorologie, Alfred Angot, 743 ;
Photographie Optics, R. S. Cole, 874
Wallace, A. R., The Wonderful Century, W. K.
Brooks, 511
SCIENCE.
CONTENTS AND
INDEX.
Warp, Henry B., The Fresh-water Biological Sta-
tions of the World, 497
WARD, LESTER F., Truth and Error, 126
WARD, R. DEC., Current Notes on Meteorology, 72,
116, 298, 458, 627, 657, 787, 878; Peruvian
Meteorology. Solon I. Bailey, 715
WASHBURN, F. L., Hermaphroditism in Ostrea
Lurida, 478
Webster, F. M., The Chinch Bug, T. D. A. Cock-
ERELL, 175
WEEKS, F. B., Duplication of Geologic Formation
names, 490, 625
Weir, James, The Dawn of Reason, EDWARD THORN-
DIKE, 450
WENLEY, R. M., The Development of English
Thought, Simon N. Patten, 713
Whitehead, A. N., A Treatise on Universal Algebra,
ALEXANDER MACFARLANE, 324
WHITMAN, FRANK P., On the Brightness of. Pigments
by Oblique Vision, 734
WIECHMANN, FERDINAND, G., Atomic Weights, 23
WILDER, BurT G., Some Misapprehensions as to the
simplified Nomenclature of Anatomy, 566;
Two Corrections, 655
Willcox, M. A., The Making of Solutions, 455
Williams, Talcott, The Primitive Savage, 37
WILLIAMS, HENRY §., Stratigraphical Geology, J.
E. Marr, 547
WILLIs, BAILEY, Geological Survey of Maryland,
252
WILLISTON, S. W., Science and Politics, 114; Red-
Beds of Kansas, 221
WILLSON, FRED’K N., The Elements of Graphic
Statics, 515
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, A. S. FLINT, 179
Woop, R. W., The Diffraction Process of Color Pho-
tography, 859
WoopMAN, DURAND, The American Chemical So-
ciety, 58; N. Y. Section of the American Chem-
ical Society, 258, 487, 654, 820, 913
Woops, ALBERT F., Die chemische Energie der leben-
den Zellen, Oscar Loew, 409 ; Brunissure of the
Vine and other Plants, 508
WOODWARD, R. S., National Observatory, 470
WoopwortH, J. B., Kalendar fiir Geologen, K. Keil-
hack, 174
WortTMAN, J. L., Othniel Charles Marsh, 561
Wortman, Dr., H. F. O., 755
Youna, C. A., National Observatory, 468
Zone Temperatures, C. HART MERRIAM, 116
Zoological, Notes, F. A. L., 73; H. C. B., 73, 156,
266, 459; Bibliography, F. A. BATHER, 154;
Club, University of Chicago, MARY M. STURGES,
183; R.S. LILLIe, 183; MIcHAEL F. GUYER,
876 ; Station at Naples, 596
Zoo'ogy, Methods of Teaching, EDWIN G. CONKLIN, 81
SCIENCE
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE: S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WooDWARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING,
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THuRSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; O. C. MArsH, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks,
C. Hart MERRIAM, Zoology; 8S. H. ScupDER, Entomology; C. E. Bessey, N. L. Brirron,
Botany; HENRY F. OsBorRN, General Biology; C. S. Minot, Embryology, Histology;
H. P. Bownitcu, Physiology; J. S. Brnuinas, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL,
Psychology; DANIEL G. BRINTON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, JANUARY 6, 1899.
CONTENTS:
The United States Naval Observatory: PROFESSOR
PAVE NGG OKUUNINEDR irasncsteesscesesesestercsttceresssecscseas 1
The Psychology of Society: PROFESSOR FRANKLIN
Tay (GSUDDIENCIS) cedooababobslcascHoonbucaadeicn oosdcadacoc sere 16
Atomic Weights: DR. FERDINAND G. WIECH-
RVLAIIRY 9 nepsocsonsdoboppSudndoboenacoobdaconiEscqnn6sceqqn9H00 23
John Cummings: PROFESSOR Wm. H. NILEs...... 24
Scientific Books :—
Holman on Matter, Energy, Force and Work: T.
C. M. Congdon’s Qualitative Analysis; Muter’s
Manual of Analytical Chemistry: PROFESSOR W.
A. Noyes. Thompson’s Wild Animals I have
known: T. 8. PP. Morris’s Human Anatomy:
PROFESSOR THOMAS DWIGHT. Generdl.......... 24
Scientific Journals and Articles :.....sccceceeeeeeseeeeeeees 29
Societies and Academies :—
The Nebraska Academy of Sciences; Science Club
of Northwestern University: PROFESSOR W. A.
Locy. The Chemical Society of Washington:
WintiAM A. Krua@. Students’? Geological Club
and Conference of Harvard University: J. M.
BoOUTWELL. Torrey Botanical Club: E. 8. BuR-
GHUES) ccoscocodbandodasd daobegsdedadassndano snobagedecoougbo0d 29
Discussion and Correspondence :—
The Pumas of the Western United States: Wu1t-
MER STONE. The Schmidt-Dickert Moon Model:
OLIVER C. FARRINGTON. Lehmann and Hansen
on ‘the Telepathic Problem’: PROFESSOR E. B.
ALETENQORS TOAST, hoon denqnconsodpaddonooxdeasebocdonobadseds56060 34
Astronomical Notes :—
The November Meteors; Chase’s Comet (J. 1898) ;
Stellar Motions : PROFESSOR WINSLOW UPTON... 36
Current Notes on Anthropology :—
The American Hero-Myth ; The Primitive Savage ;
A Booklet on Ethnology: PROFESSOR D. G.
TSISVENEORT coocggonancadcosaabansosbbddossbooncoadseqcoonbqdes 37
ScientaficrNotesand News mcsssenaisvectsccsececsesss ene sees 38
University and E.lucational News........cscsceeeeeeeeeeees 40
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Profes-
zor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson N. Y.
THE UNITED STATES‘NAVAL OBSERVATORY.
ALTHOUGH much interest was shown by
individuals in the science of astronomy in
the early history of our country, this in-
terest did not culminate in the founding
of any astronomical observatories until
the third and fourth decades of the present
century. About 1835 Professors Olmsted
and Loomis observed Halley’s comet with
a five-inch telescope placed in the steeple
of one of the buildings of Yale College at
New Haven, Connecticut, but the observa-
tory erected by Professor Albert Hopkins
of Williams College, in 1836, was probably
the earliest establishment of the kind in the
United States. It was 48 feet long by 20
in breadth, and*consisted of acentral apart-
ment surmounted by a revolving dome and
flanked by two wings. The dome con-
tained an equatorially mounted Herschelian
telescope of 10-feet focus, and a 3.5-inch
transit instrument was set up in one of the
wings. Only two years later Professor
Loomis built a small observatory at Hud-
son, Ohio, and furnished it with a 4-inch
equatorial telescope and a 2.7-inch transit
circle. The longitude and latitude of this
observatory was determined by Professor
Loomis, and he observed five comets and
sixteen occultations in the brief intervals of
leisure left from his regular class work in
the Western Reserve College. Another
indication of the zeal of individuals in the
advancement of science by actual astro-
2 SCIENCE.
nomical observation is shown by a paper
published in the ‘Transactions’ of the
American Philosophical Society, New Series,
Vol. VII., pp. 165-213, detailing observa-
tions of nebulze made by H. L. Smith and E.
P. Mason at New Haven, Connecticut, with
a 12-inch reflector. This memoir contains
carefully executed plates of several nebule,
on which the stars are accurately plotted.
Among those in our country who re-
peatedly urged the foundation of an astro-
nomical observatory in the United States
was John Quincy Adams. While Secre-
tary of State, as early as 18238, he offered
personally to contribute $1,000 towards the
establishment of an astronomical observa-
tory in connection with Harvard College,
provided the requisite amount for complet-
ing the work should be raised within two
years, but this effort failed. In 1825, in his
first message to Congress after becoming
President of the United States, he made
recommendations for the establishment of
a national observatory, a uniform standard
of weights and measures, a naval academy,
a nautical almanac and a national univer-
sity. Party rancor prevented the carrying-
out of any of these far-reaching plans at
that time, but all of them) except that of a
national university, were executed by our
government at a later date. It was some
years after this notable message of Presi-
dent Adams before Emperor Nicholas, of
Russia, entered upon the preliminary steps
which culminated in the creation of the
celebrated Pulkowa Observatory.
Even after leaving the Presidential chair,
President Adams never once relaxed his
efforts towards the founding of a national
observatory. In 1838 our
England announced that he had received
the money bequeathed to the American peo-
ple by James Smithson for the increase and
diffusion of knowledge among men. Mr.
Adams immediately urged that this fund
should be devoted to the founding of an
Minister to.
[N. S. Vou. 1X. No. 210.
astronomical observatory and a nautical
almanac, and, as chairman of the select com-
mittee on the Smithson fund, he advocated
that plan on three different occasions be-
tween 1838 and 1842. It is interesting to
note that Senator Preston, of South Caro-
lina, violently opposed these recommenda-
tions of Mr. Adams, but that in 1842 Mr.
Preston gave the weight of his influence in
favor of the bill which finally created a
national observatory under the name of ‘ A
Depot of Charts and Instruments of the
Navy of the United States.’ Let us trace
the circumstances leading up to this event.
In 1830, under orders from the Navy De-
partment, Lieutenant Goldsborough estab-
lished a depot of charts and instruments in
the western part of the City of Washington,
in the square bounded by 24th and 25th
Streets, Pennsylvania Avenue and K Street
Northwest. Here, in a small circular build-
ing, on a brick pier with a foundation 20
feet below the surface, he mounted a 30-
inch transit instrument made by R. Patten,
of New York City. Goldsborough was suc-
ceeded in 1833 by Lieutenant Wilkes, who
removed the depot to a site on Capitol Hill,
on the west side of North Capitol Street,
between B and C Streets north, about 1,200
feet, north, 5° west, from the center of the
Capitol. The dimensions of the small ob-
servatory erected by Lieutenant Wilkes
were 14 feet by 185 feet, and 10 feet from
the floor to the eaves, and its outfit was
as follows: ses ajels = ste!sl* 0/’.84
And 55 per cent. of the corrections are less than. .0 .25
The probable error of the side Ibepah-
Nebo, depending on angular measures only,
is 1/280,000 of its length.
Heliotropes were continually employed,
and the angles were measured with a the-
odolite having a horizontal circle of 20”
diameter and a magnifying power of 83.
ASTRONOMICAL WORK.
Aside from the work in practical astron-
omy incident and necessary to the opera-
tions of every trigonometrical survey, at-
tention has been given to various other
phases of the subject. It has not alone
sufficed to point out and demonstrate the
utility of the method of equal zenith dis-
tances for latitude, and of the application of
the telegraph to longitudes. The Coast and
Geodetic Survey feeling the necessity of
better star places, arising from the use of the
methods just mentioned, has devoted some
of its energy to the perfection of star cata-
logues. It is probably no exageration to
say that the declinations given in our field
lists are the best attainable anywhere.
More than fifty of the best modern cata-
logues are corrected for their systematic
errors, and each is given weight depending
on the value of the work and number of
observations. A collection of all these data,
and their consolidation into one homoge-
neous result, eliminates as far as possible all
known sources of inaccuracy, and gives us
finally the most reliable positions. A list so
constructed of several thousand stars has
been already published, many of which are
especially adapted to southern work. The
average probable error of a declination may
be given as rather less than + of a second;
a degree of precision, which enables an ob-
server to determine his latitude from 20
pairs, in one evening, with an uncertainty
of only + 10 feet. Thisis sufficient for the
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 218.
purposes of geodesy. Incidental to regular
astronomic work, the Survey has equipped
and sent out no less than 35 parties for the
observation of solar eclipses and transits of
the inferior planets,which work has required
the occupation of stations in every conti-
nent and Polynesia. The variations of
latitude have been determined at three sta-
tions, each one having been occupied more
than a year.
MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS.
The legitimate field of investigation in a
geodetic service embraces many subjects
outside of those already specified. In the
execution of the task before us a free inter-
pretation has been given to the law author-
izing the work, and the kindred subjects of
Hypsometry, Magnetism, Gravity and Phys-
ical Hydrography have been pursued along
with others more strictly within our prov-
ince.
Five thousand miles (8,047 kilometers)
of precise levelling have been executed, in-
cluding four independent determinations of
the height of St. Louis. Two have been
made from the Atlantic at Sandy Hook,
and two from the Gulf of Mexico at Biloxi.
A comparison indicates that the surface
of the Gulf is somewhat higher than the
sea level at New York, and this has been
verified in character, although not precisely
in amount, by a line across the peninsula of
Florida, three times repeated. Other sub-
sidiary lines have been observed. The limit
of error has been that usually adopted in
similar work, viz..5mm../K. The heights
by spirit level have been supplemented and
controlled. by micrometric measurements
of zenith distances. In the determination
of elevations necessary to reduce the base
lines along the transcontinental arc to sea
level the latter method has been employed
across the Allegheny and Rocky Mountains.
The spirit levels are continuous from Sandy
Hook to Denver and Colorado Springs.
Marcu 3, 1899.]
They are checked by zenith distances from
the Chesapeake Bay to the Ohio River, and
supplemented by the same method from
Denver to the Pacific coast, where the spirit
levels are not yet completed.
Permanent magnetic observations have
been in operation at Philadelphia, Key
West, Madison, Los Angeles, and each one
has furnished records for five consecutive
years; with one exception a self-registering
apparatus has been continuously and ex-
cclusively employed in each locality. These
data added to records from 1,100 widely
distant points, many of which are secular
variation stations, furnish precious ma-
terial for the study of the earth’s magnet-
ism. The work of the Survey in the inves-
tigation of the force of gravity has been
carried on both within and without the
limits of the United States. Twenty-eight
foreign stations have been occupied, includ-
ing points in Europe, Asia, Africa, Aus-
tralia and many islands in both the At-
lantic and Pacific. New light on the
subject of volcanic formation, as well as on
the constitution of the earth’s crust, has
come from this work. Fifty nine-stations
have been observed at home, including a
line across the continent. Half-second
pendulums are now exclusively employed,
and the determinations are purely differen-
tial. The period of oscillation is usually
known to within a few millionths of a sec-
-ond.
In the field of Physical Hydrography
most comprehensive studies have been
made.
The exploration of the Gulf Stream, in-
cluding a study of its density, temperature
and currents, the geology of the sea bottom,
the establishment of cotidal lines, the de-
termination of the ocean depth from earth-
quake waves and other specialties in the
domain of hydrography, have been made a
part of the regular work. The hydrog-
raphy of the coast, to the head of tide-
SCIENCE.
309
water, has been developed side by side with
the triangulation and topography.
The practical results of the Survey are
shown in the publication of the annual re-
ports, the issue of charts, notice to mari-
ners (corrected monthly), coast pilots for
Atlantic, Pacific and Alaskan waters, tide
tables (now extended to foreign ports)
and various miscellaneous publications in
special lines of research.
PRESENT AND FUTURE OPERATIONS.
A resurvey of Chesapeake Bay, the meas-
urement of an are through the United States
on the 98th meridian, and the development
of Alaskan geography, are among the proj-
ects of Dr. Pritchett, the present superin-
tendent of the organization. All these
have been carried on during the last two
years. The line of transcontinental precise
levels is being pushed westward with all
available means. Primary triangulation on
the Pacific coast has been resumed, and will
soon be completed from San Francisco to
the Mexican boundary. Hydrographic sur-
veys are in progress along the Atlantic sea-
board, on the Pacific, and at the mouth of
the Yukon in Alaska. Numerous topo-
graphic, astronomic and magnetic parties,
are employed in the interior.
An extension of the great arcs_of the
United States into Mexico and the British
possessions has been proposed by Dr.
Pritchett, and diplomatic representations
between the interested governments look-
ing towards concerted action in the near
future have already been made. This will
give to North America an additional me-
ridian are of about 55° and an oblique one
of 88°. Together with existing arcs, the
proposed material will practically exhaast
our contribution to the determination of the
earth’s figure.
In the ordinary prosecution of the field
work since 1895 about fifty parties have
been employed during the course of each
310
year. Added to this, the purely hydro-
graphic work has been carried on by a fleet
of sixteen vessels, of which ten are steamers.
The operations have been widely distribu-
ted, extending as far as the Pribilof Islands
in the Bering Sea. A longitude determi-
nation was made from Sitka, of Kadiak
and Unalaska, in which twenty-one chro-
nometers were carried on four successive
trips. The probable error of the resulting
longitudes was 0°.20 for the former and
0.21 for the latter. A tidal indicator,
similar to the one in New York, has been
erected at Philadelphia, and one is in proc-
ess of construction at San Francisco. The
mechanism, actuated by the tide, furnishes
the navigator at any moment, at a dis-
tance of one mile, with necessary informa-
tion as to the character and amount of the
tide.
Among the auxiliary duties of the service
may be mentioned the establishment of trial
speed courses for ships of the Navy (a num-
ber of which have been recently laid out);
the exploration of oyster beds; the fauna of
the Gulf Stream ; the administration of an
Office of Standard Weights and Measures,
from which prototypes are issued to the dif-
ferent States ; meteorological researches for
the use of the coast pilot; the study of as-
tronomical refraction ; mathematical inves-
tigations on the theory of projections, on
the equations of steady motion, on errors of
observations ; and finally, in experimental
researches in engraving, electrotyping and
lithography ; all of which knowledge finds
application in the various fields of activity
now covered by the Coast and Geodetic
Survey.
WORK OF THE UNITED STATES ENGINEERS.
Geodetic surveys have also been carried
on by the Corps of Engineers of the United
States Army. That of the Great Lakes was
completed in 1882. The work was reor-
ganized in 1892, and resurveys and exten-
SCIENCE. [N. &.
Vou. IX. No. 218.
sions thereto are now in progress. Changes
in the original plan have been introduced,
chiefly in the direction of rapidity of execu-
tion. Fewer positions on the circle are now
used for horizontal angles, and adjustment
is effected by separate small figures, rather
than through any extended scheme. In the
measure of the Mackinaw base three tapes
were used, each a kilometer in length. Each
section of the tape was compared with a
standard length of 100 meters established
on the ground. This standard length was
determined by means of an 8-meter bar
packed in ice, which in turn was compared
with the Repsold meter, R 1878.
The Engineer Corps of the Army has
also had charge of the Mexican boundary
survey, and of the work done by the
Missouri and Mississippi River Commis-
sions. The report on the Mexican bound-
ary is already in type, but is not ready for
distribution.
The Missouri River Commission has
completed a triangulation from St. Louis
to Three Forks, in Montana, a distance of
2,551 miles. The work follows the river
and covers the valley from bluff to bluff.
Precise levels have been run over 807 miles
of it, and ordinary levels cover the remain-
der. Ten base lines have been measured
with a standardized steel tape.
The Mississippi River Commission, utiliz-
ing some work already done by the Lake
Survey and the Coast and Geodetic Survey,
has now a complete connection from the
Gulf of Mexico to St. Paul,in Minnesota.
The total distance is about 1,600 miles.
Twenty-seven bases have been used, of
which eighteen have been measured by the
Commission with a steel tape 300 feet long.
The work has been adjusted by quadri-
laterals employing the method of least
squares.
E. D. Preston.
EXECUTIVE OFFICER TO SUPERINTENDENT
U. S. Coast AND GEODETIC SURVEY.
MARrcH 3, 1899. ]
THE AMERICAN MORPHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Te
Tue ninth meeting of the Society was
held at Columbia University, New York
City, on December 28th, 29th and 380th. Pro-
fessor H. F. Osborn was in the chair; Dr.
G. H. Parker, Secretary. In the course of
his introductory remarks, Professor Osborn
welcomed the Morphologists to the new
zoological laboratories at Columbia, and es-
pecially congratulated the Society upon the
rapid progress which morphology in all its
branches is making in this country. He
spoke of theimportant part which had been
played by the Jowrnal of Morphology during
the past eleven years, and the debt owed
by American zoologists to Mr. Allis for his
generous support. This journal now re-
quires for its maintenance the financial
support of all morphologists of this country,
all of whom should assist by subscribing.
One of the marked features of recent
progress is the rapid development of fresh-
water and marine biological stations, all of
which are contributing to our detailed
knowledge of American fauna, and in some
cases extending even tothe study of impor-
tant foreign types. The greatest defect in
recent work is the tendency to prolixity.
‘ Brevity is the soul of wit,’ and the very
expansion of zoological literature necessi-
tates as condensed a style of writing as is
consistent with completeness and clearness.
The recently collected papers of Huxley
prove that it is possible to present the most
important results in very condensed form.
In the business session the following are
the more important transactions : A resolu-
tion expressing the grateful acknowledg-
ments of the Society to Mr. Edward Phelps
Allis, Jr., for his munificent gifts towards
the founding and maintenance of the Journal
of Morphology during the first ten years of
its existence; the election to membership
of F. W. Bancroft, C. L. Bristol, G..N. Cal-
kins, J. J. Hamaker, Samuel Henshaw, C.
SCIENCE.
311
F. W. McClure, C. B. Wilson and M. A.
Wilcox; and the election of officers: Pres-
ident, E. G. Conklin ; Vice-President, W.
M. Wheeler; Secretary and Treasurer,
Bashford Dean; Executive Committee, J.
P. MeMurrich and G. H.Parker.
Forty-five papers were presented before
the scientific sessions, of which the greater
number are here given in summary in the
order in which they were read.
Notes on the Development of a Myxinoid.
Basurorp DEAN.
PARTICULAR reference was made to the
horn-like egg membrane as maternal in
origin ; it is traversed by pore-canals analo-
gous to those of the radiata of teleostomes.
The anchor filaments represent the greatly
specialized end-bulbs of the radial elements
of theshell. Early segmentation is confined
to a small but definite hillock of germinal
protoplasm subjacent to the micropylar
canal. In early blastula stages the cell cap
extends downward to the region of the
opercular ring. Gastrulation is noted when
a downgrowth takes place on one side ; here
the head of the embryo shortly appears, and
the trunk is laid down longitudinally as the
blastoderm progresses, now symmetrically,
toward the vegetative pole. Neural folds
are early apparent, and the brain is tubu-
lar and relatively of great length. In some
cases the tail buds out when the downgrowth
of the blastoderm has enveloped scarcely
more than the anterior half of the egg. In
others the outgrowth of the tail is notably
retarded. A primitive streak is present,
terminating behind in an ovate yolk plug;
the latter is latest apparent near the vege-
tative pole. There is no evidence of a
greater number of gill slits than the normal
number.
On the Reproductive Habits and Development
of the Californian Land Salamander, Autodax.
W. E. Rirrer. (Presented by G. H.
Parker. )
312
Tur subterranean egg-burrow of this sal-
tatory urodeles resembles somewhat closely
that of Ichthyophis. The eggs are retained
in a cluster and attended and kept moist-
ened, probably with urine, by the female.
A series of embryos taken from a single bur-
row will shortly be described.
New Facts regarding the Development of the Ol-
factory Nerve. W. A. Locy.
Tue early embryonic history of the olfac-
tory nerve is known. ‘There has been little
advance in this direction since the appear-
ance of Marshall’s paper in 1878, who gave
the history of the nerve prior to the forma-
tion of the lobe and anticipated by sugges-
tion most of the views since expressed re-
garding its nature and relationships. The
chief advances have been made. in deter-
mining the source of the fibers (His, Disse
and others), and in the minute structure of
the olfactory lobe, ganglion, ete. (Cajal,
Retzius and others). But, in the meantime,
the early embryonic history has not been
elucidated, and, even to-day, we do not
possess the complete history of this nerve in
any one animal.
This paper presented in outline the his-
tory of the olfactory nerve in Acanthias
from its earliest appearance to adult condi-
tions, embracing (a) the embryonic history
of the olfactory nerve prior to the formation
of the lobe, and (b) the formation of the
olfactory lobe, its various transformations,
and the subsequent history of the nerve.
The chief point of interest consists in dem-
onstrating a hitherto unrecognized olfac-
tory nerve, and determining its history and
relationships to the olfactory bundle. The
new nerve arises from the summit of the
forebrain near the median plane, and passes
laterally into communication with the main
olfactory and thence into the olfactory cup.
It is the first one to appear and may, there-
fore, be primitive. It is ganglionated. It
was discovered by dissections of very small
SCIENCE,
[N. S.. Vou. IX. No. 218.
embryos—it lies in such a position that its
relationships would not be appreciated by
study of sections made in any of the con-
ventional planes.
There are two distinct, widely separated
connections existing simultaneously be-
tween the olfactory epithelium and _ the
brain-wall, one is dorsal and median (the
new nerve) and the other is lateral. The
latter is complex, consisting of two main
divisions. The new nerve can be demon-
strated in specimens, as early as 6-8 mm.
in length. The two brain connections are
well seen in embryos 16 mm. and upwards ;
they are very evident from 20mm. forwards,
The lobe begins in specimens about 25mm.
long; it is still small at 38mm., but well de-
veloped at 44 mm. and upwards. The fibers
of the new nerve were traced into the ol-
factory epithelium. It was also shown to
perish in the adult.
Review of Recent Evidence on the Segmentation
of the Primitive Vertebrate Brain. W. A.
Locy. (Read by title.)
The Metameric Value of the Sensory Compo-
nents of the Cranial Nerves. C. JUDSON
HERRICK.
THE primary segmental or branchiomeric
nerve is conceived as comprising four com-
ponents : somatic motor, viscero-motor, so-
matic sensory (general cutaneous) and
viscero-sensory (communis). No cranial
nerve of any gnathostome vertebrate has
retained all these components.
In the head each sensory component, as
a physiological adaptation, has been con-
centrated so that all its fibers tend to be
related to a single center in the brain—the
fasciculus communis (f. solitarius) and
chief vagus nucleus in the ease of the vis-
ceral sensory and the spinal fifth tract and
related nuclei, chief sensory trigeminal n.
and n. funiculi, in the case of the somatic
sensory. This involves reduction of each
component in some segments and hyper-
Marci 3, 1899. ]
trophy in others. Thus, the somatic sen-
sory is represented only in the V and X
nerves and the visceral sensory in the typ-
ical branchiomeric nerves, X, IX, VII.
Now when in course of vertebrate evolu-
tion specialized sense organs appear in ad-
dition to the two primary components, their
nerves and intra-cranial centers will appear
sporadically, depending upon the distribu-
tion of the specialized sense organs in ques-
tion. These nerves will in general follow
the courses of the previously existing so-
matic or visceral nerve trunks wherever
possible, hence the formation of complex
nerve trunks containing several of the com-
ponents. Each of these cenogenetic systems
of sense organs, like the palingenetic sys-
tems, tends to be related to a single intra-
cranial center. At present we may enu-
merate the following such systems:
1. Taste buds related to the fasciculus
communis (f. solitarius) and its associated
nuclei, the chief vagus nucleus (lobus vagi
of fishes).
2. Terminal buds of the outer skin; ter-
minal relations as in the last case, plus in
some fishes the lobus facialis.
3. Lateral line organs, or neuromasts,
related to the tuberculum acusticum and
cerebellum, plus in some fishes the ‘lobus
lineze lateralis.’
4, Ear; central connection as in the last
case.
5. Eye; related to the mesencephalon.
6. Nose; related to the primary prosen-
cephalon.
7. Pineal organ; related to the dien-
cephalon ?
Diagrams were exhibited illustrating the
actual relations of these components as de-
termined by reconstruction from serial sec-
tions in the bony fish, Menidia; and em-
phasis was laid upon the necessity of taking
these qualitative differences in the nerves
into account before trying to work out their
metamerism.
SCIENCE.
313
The Maxillary and Mandibular Breathing
Valves of Teleost Fishes. Utric DAHLGREN.
Tue discovery of a pair of membranous
valves placed just inside of the teeth and
working automatically to prevent water
from leaving by the mouth while they per-
mit its free entrance, has enabled the act
of breathing in fishes to be clearly described.
These valves complete the pump-like struc-
ture of the oral cavity, the other pair, or
posterior valves, being the branchiostegal
membranes.
In breathing, but two muscular forces
must be applied, one to expand the oral
cavity by moving the opercular frames out-
ward and another to contract the oral cav-
ity by moving them inward ; when expand-
ing, water comes in through the mouth,
being prevented from entering through the
gill clefts by the branchiostegal membranes,
which act automatically and independently
of and contrary to the opercular frames to
which they are attached ; when contracting,
water is forced out of the gill clefts, but is
prevented from leaving through the mouth
by the valves in question, which act automat-
ically. While breathing, itis true, the fish
opens and shuts its mouth somewhat, but
this is due not to its effort to prevent a
regurgitation of the respiratory stream, but
to the relation of its mandible to the oper-
cular frames.
When the valves are cut, the fish is com-
pelled to use muscular force to prevent re-
gurgitation.
On the Early Development of the Catfish (.No-
turus). FF. B. SuMNER.
1. No horizontal cleavage takes place till
the 64-cell stage or after, and, when it oc-
curs, does not result in a definite two-layered
condition of whole germ-disc.
2. The blastomeres resulting from the
early cleavages retain their continuity with
the protoplasmic network of the yolk. No
sharp line of separation, such as Sobotta,
ol4
Behrens and Samassa describe for the Sal-
monidze, exists in the egg of the catfish.
3. After horizontal cleavage occurs, the
lower cells resulting from this division re-
tain their continuity with the yolk, as has
been described by Kowalewski, Hoffman
and Berent (Teleosts) and Dean (Ganoids).
These partial cells (merocytes) continue to
divide by mitosis both horizontally and ver-
tically. In the former case, the upper of
the products of division is added to the
germ-dise. This process of supplementary
cleavage continues until a late segmentation
stage, cells being added to the whole lower
surface of the germ-dise.
4. The periblast arises from the resid-
ual portion of the merocytes after supple-
mentary cleavage has ceased, being thicker
under the margin of the germ-disc, but
present elsewhere from the beginning.
5. The periblast is trophic in its function,
playing only an indirect part in cell-forma-
tion. Normal mitosis soon gives place to
abnormal and this in turn to amitosis.
Transitional forms occur.
6. The subgerminal space (segmentation
cavity) does not appear till about time of
origin of germ-ring. At close of segmenta-
tion, yolk and blastodise are in close con-
tact in well-preserved specimens, although
no longer continuous with one another.
Clefts which early appear between blasto-
meres or below them are probably artifacts.
If not, they disappear later.
7. The germ-ring (mesentoderm) arises
primarily as a marginal ingrowth due to
cell-proliferation from germ-wall (Rand-
wulst). The germ-ring also receives abun-
dant additions from the overlying primary
germ-layer, even at considerable distance
from the periphery. (See Reinhard, Arch.
f. Mikr. Anat., 1898.)
8. The whole germ-ring, extra-embryonic
as well as embryonic, contains both ento-
dermal and mesodermal elements (contra
H. V. Wilson and Samassa).
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. IX. No. 218:
9. Kupffer’s vesicle arises, as in the
Salmonide, as a cavity completely shut in
by cells from the first. It is at first much
compressed horizontally and distinctly bi-
lobed. Inembryos with a short tail it is still
to be seen near tip of the latter, strongly
suggesting neurenteric canal of Selachii.
A second vesicle, situated in yolk under the
posterior end of the embryo, appears slightly
in advance of Kupffer’s vesicle and reaches
a size exceeding the latter. It is bounded
by periblast and perhaps contains more fluid
yolk for service of the growing end of em-
bryo.
Respiratory and Breeding Habits of Polypterus
Bichir. N. R. Harrineton.
On physiological grounds Polypterus is as
fully qualified for a ‘lung-fish’ as are any
of the Dipnoans; it has also striking resem-
blances in its circulatory and respiratory
system to the Urodela. These points were
demonstrated by means of mounted prepara-
tions, the injecting of which had been done
in the field principally by Dr. Reid Hunt.
Beside the blood-supply to the lungs
(which is from the last branchial arch), the
dissections showed the very large glottis, or
ductus pneumaticus, by which the lungs
open ventrally from the cesophagus. Un-
like the swimming-bladder of fishes in an-
other respect, both the lungs are entirely
invested with peritoneum, although one
of them, the right, does occupy the normal
position for an air-bladder, viz., between
the aorta and kidneys, on the one hand, and
the alimentary canal, on the other. The
mesentery, however, in which the left lobe
should be suspended, has almost entirely
degenerated, and this somewhat smaller lobe
lies entirely free in the body-cavity.
Tt was pointed out that, while the strong-
est disproof of the Dipnoan ancestry of the
Amphibia lies in the paleontological evi-
dence which indicates that they are a par-
allel line, the same conclusion may be in-
Marcu 3, 1899. ]
ferred from the life habits of a form which
encysts during periods of drought. For
the ability to undergo suspended anima-
tion necessitates such specialization that
it is improbable that evolution operated
through such an encysting form (which is
absolutely helpless and inactive until it is
set free into the water), in bringing about
a vertebrate which breathed air the year
around. ‘
Reference was also made to the breeding
habits of Polypterus, and an accessory copula-
tory organ in the male—a modified anal fin
—was described. The breeding season fol-
lows the inundation of the Nile.
The general collections, some of which
were exhibited, brought back by the Senff
zoological expedition, are intended for
general distribution to qualified investiga-
tors, who can work up the material within
a reasonably short time. Aside from a
large collection of Nile fishes, there is ma-
terial preserved for researches in embryol-
ogy, electric organs, pseudo-electric organs,
neurology and Plankton.
The Coronary Vessels in the Hearts of Fishes.
G. H. Parker and F. K. Davis.
THE muscular substance of the heart in
mammals receives its blood from a pair
of coronary arteries which connect with
coronary veins opening into the right
auricle. The inner surfaces of the four
chambers of the mammalian heart have
upon them openings which lead into vessels
connecting with the coronary capillaries,
and especially with the veins. These ves-
sels are the veins of Thebesius. Is there a
similar system of vessels in fishes? Cor-
onary arteries were identified in the com-
mon skate, the sand shark and the mud-
fish (Amia). In the skate they may come
from various combinations of the efferent
branchial arteries of the second to the fifth
gill cleft; in the sand shark, from combina-
tions reaching from the first to the fifth
SCIENCE.
3) md
olo
clefts ; in the mudfish, from the second bran-
chial arch. In these three species coronary
veins occur, all of which open into the
venous sinus. On inflating these, bubbling
was observed from the natural inner sur-
faces of the auricles and sometimes from
those of the ventricles. These fishes, there-
fore, have veins of Thebesius.
Longitudinal Fission in Metridium margina-
tum. G. H. PARKER.
Ten animals with double mouths were
studied. Two had each two mouths on one
oral disc, and the pedal ends of their
cesophageal tubes were united. Eight had
each completely separate oral dises and
csophageal tubes. In six the mouths were
monoglyphic ; in three one mouth was mon-
oglyphic and one diglyphic, and in one one
mouth was monoglyphic and one aglyphic.
There were about twice as many pairs of
complete mesenteries as in single mouthed
individuals. Double specimens are not the
result of fusion, for the two partial indi-
viduals are strikingly similar in color, etc.,
a condition unlikely of occurrence in chance
combinations of so variable a species. They
may be monstrosities or dividing animals.
One specimen nearly divided was kept un-
der observation two months, but showed no
advance in the process. In good collecting
localities isolated pairs agreeing in color,
marking and sex may be found. This
evidence favors the view that IZ. margina-
tum reproduces, by longitudinal fission, a
process slowly accomplished, but it does not
exclude the possibility of some double speci-
mens being monstrosities.
Additional Characters of Diplodocus, HENRY
F. Osgorn.
Tuts is one of the three types of herbivo-
rous Sauropoda or Cetiosauria, represented
by a very considerable portion of the skele-
ton of one individual found by Barnum
Brown and the writer in 1897. Thescapula,
ilium, ischium and femur are associated with
316
a remarkable vertebral series extending
from the 5th dorsal to the end of the tail:
(1) The center of motion is the sacrum,
where three vertebree are completely coa-
lesced to the summits of the spines, besides
a fourth rib-bearing sacral with a free
spine. The sacro-iliac union is by means of
both ribs and neuropophysial plates. The
presence of such plates in all the anterior
caudals, as first described by the writer,
proves that the sacrum is reenforced by
additions from the anterior caudals. (2)
There are more than thirty caudals and
three distinct types of chevron, instead
of the single type to which Marsh ap-
plied the generic name Diplodocus. The
tail was undoubtedly a powerful swimming
organ and also a lever by means of which
the anterior portion of the body was ele-
vated, the acetabulum serving as a fulcrum,
while the trunk was immersed in water.
This power did not exist upon land as in
the Iguanodontia.
The Ossicula Auditus of the Mammalia.
Kinestey and W. H. Ruppics.
Srupies on embryo pigs and rats show
that the incus is the quadrate, the malleus,
the proximal end of Meckel’s cartilage.
These cannot be homologized with the
columellar chain of Sauropsida, since they
are in front of the spiracular cleft and in
front of the chorda tympani, while the
columella is behind the spiracle and
chorda tympani. The incus (quadrate)
articulates with the stapes in the mam-
mals, exactly as is the case in the urodeles.
Nothing similar occurs in the Saurop-
sida. Thisis regarded as additional evi-
dence that the mammals have had an am-
phibian ancestry. The quadrate cannot
have disappeared in the glenoid fossa, as
maintained by Albrecht and Cope, as this
would involve a translation of parts impos-
sible to explain. The mammalian lower
jaw articulates by means of the dentary
J.S.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 218.
rather than by means of the articulalare,
i. €., its articulation is not homologous with
that in lower groups. A. longer summary
of the paper will appear in the American
Naturalist for March.
Notes on Mammalian Embryology. C. 8. M1-
not. (Read by title.)
Professor O. van der Stricht’s Researches on the
Human Ovum. C.S. Minor. (Read by
title.) ;
Notes on the Morphology of the Chick Brain.
5. P. Gace.
A Specific Case’ of the Elimination of the Unfit.
H. C. Bumpus.
THE results of a comparative study of one
hundred and thirty-six English sparrows,
which were rendered helpless or actually
perished during the severe storm of Feb-
ruary last, was numerically expressed, and
it was shown that there was not only a
measurable but a striking physical differ-
ence between the birds which actually suc-
cumbed and those which survived the storm.
The birds which perished were longer,
heavier, possessed of shorter heads, shorter
leg bones, of less breadth of skull and of
reduced sternum, while those which sur-
vived tended toward the possession of char-
acters opposite to these.
While these average differences between
the two groups of birds were emphasized,
attention was also called to the fact that the
individuals of extreme variability occurred
most frequently among the birds which per-
ished. The longest bird and the shortest
bird in the entire collection perished. The
same is true of the one having the greatest
and the one having the least alar extent.
The heaviest bird died; the one with the
longest and the one with the shortest head
died, and the one with the shortest humerus,
the one with the longest femur, the one with
the longest and the one with the shortest
skull, and the one with the shortest keel to
/
MARCH 3, 1899. ]
its sternum—all died. The average oscilla-
tion of variation around an ideal mean was
also shown to be almost invariably in excess
for the birds which perished, and the con-
clusions arrived at were as follows:
The birds which perished were not simply
accidental sufferers from the severity of the
storm, but were birds which were physically
disqualified for enduring the intensity of the
New England climate, as expressed by the
storm of February Ist, and they were con-
sequently eliminated by natural agents.
The result of this elimination produced in
this particular locality a colony of birds
measurably different from those existing be-
fore the storm, that is, the action of natural
selection resulted in the elimination of the
unfit and the survival of the fit.
On the Anatomy of the Spermatozoon of In-
vertebrates. G. W. Fretp. (With demon-
stration of the apical body.)
Tue widest diversity in the form of the
spermatozoon is found among the different
groups of the invertebrated animals. Closer
examination shows that there is, however,
one type of form which obtains in by far
the greater majority of species, and that the
aberrant forms are peculiar to those species
which have either become parasitic, e. g.,
certain worms and arthropods, or which
have acquired specially modified secondary
sexual organs, e. g., lobster, crayfish, Lim-
ulus.
The common type is the familiar tailed
form, prevalent one in the groups Ccelen-
terata, Vermes, Echinoderma, Mollusca, Ar-
thropodaand Tunicata. The three general
divisions are usually distinct and readily
recognizable Rarely the spermatozoa of
all the species studied have a special struc-
ture or apical body at the anterior tip of
the head. It has been variously described
as (1) an adaptation for boring into the
egg; (2) a remnant of the cytoplasm ; (3)
fluid expressed from the nucleus upon
SCIENCE.
317
shrivelling; (4) a micropore surrounded
by ‘ Ringkorper;’ (5) an apical button
present in the unripe spermatozoon ; (6)
the sperm centrosome. The first five opin-
ions seem to have little importance when
considered in connection with the origin of
this apical body. While the opinion of
myself and others that it is the sperm cen-
trosome is refuted by the weight of evidence
that the sperm centrosome comes from the
middle piece of the spermatozoon, yet, so far
as I know, the function of this apical body
has not been noted by any of those who
have studied so successfully the fertiliza-
tion process. Since it has the same micro-
chemical reactions and the same. origin as
as the middle piece, it would appear as if
its fate must be of considerable consequence.
T have found this apical body in more than
forty species, representing all the groups
from the Celenterates to Amphioxus (in-
cluding Toxopneustes). By others it has
been found in upwards of twenty additional
species.
The fact that the apical body is present
in the spermatozoon of well-nigh every
species studied indicates that it has some
very special significance which should not
be overlooked by workers on the phenomena
of fertilization.
The Middle Piece of the Urodele Spermato-
J.H. McGrecor. (Read by title.)
The Origin of the Yolk in the Egg of Molqula.
Henry E. Crampron, JR.
Tue author presented the principal re-
sults of an extended study upon the early
history of the ascidian odcyte, considered
from a chemical as well as from a purely
morphological aspect, made by means of
carefully controlled aniline staining sup-
ported by artificial digestion and other
tests. It was found that the cell-body at
the beginning of enlargement of the primary
odcyte presents no albumen reaction.
There is, however, a small albuminous gran-
Zz00n,
O18
ular body formed just outside the nucleus,
which enlarges by the addition of granules
similar to those found in the nucleus, until it
becomes first a cap-shaped mass and finally
surrounds the nucleus.» Zst Period : Forma-
tion of the ‘ yolk-mass.’ This body then dis-
integrates, the constituent granules being
spread evenly throughout the now highly
vacuolated cell-body. The latter was shown
to be composed probably ofa pseudo-nuclein.
2d Period : Disintegration of the yolk-mass. The
ovum assumes its final character by the
progressive vacuolization of the cell-body,
and by the enlargement of the products of
disintegration of the ‘yolk-mass’ to form the
definite ‘deutoplasm’ spheres. 3d Period:
The original was considered to be of nuclear
origin, and is probably what has been
loosely homologized in some cases with the
“corps vitellin de Balbiani,’ ete.
Protoplasmic Movement as a Factor of Differen-
tiation. Epwin G. ConkKLIN,
Various factors have been suggested by
different persons as the causes of differen-
tiation, but so far no one has shown that the
active movements of protoplasm constitute
such a factor.
The polarity of the egg and the speciali-
zations of cleavage are two of the earliest
differentiations of the developing organ-
ism. In the gasteropod Crepidula both
of these differentiations are associated with
definite and orderly movements of the pro-
toplasm.
Before the maturation the germinal ves-
icle lies near the center of the egg and the
yolk is uniformly distributed. With the
appearance of the centrosomes and the for-
mation of the first maturation spindle the
nuclear membrane is broken opposite the
poles of the spindle, nuclear sap escapes
into the cell and at the same time the nu-
cleus, spindle and surrounding cytoplasm
are carried bodily toward the surface of the
egg. Coincidently with this migration of the
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. 1X No. 218.
nuclear constituents there is a segregation
of the cytoplasm at one pole (the animal)
and of yolk at the other (the vegetal). This
separation of yolk and cytoplasm goes on
during the second maturation division and
throughout all the stages of fertilization.
The movements of the germinal vesicle
and of the maturation spindles, the separa-
tion of yolk and cytoplasm and also the ap-
proach of the pronuclei during fertilization
seem to be due to protoplasmic currents.
In the cleavage of the egg the evidence
for such currents is much more abundant
and complete. Centrosomes and Zwischen-
korpern are preserved throughout the rest-
ing period following division, and by means
of the relative positions of these bodies at
different stages, as well as the relative po-
sitions of the nuclei, yolk and cytoplasm,
the direction and extent of these movements
can be accurately determined. During the
anaphase of the first cleavage the spindle
lies at right angles to the egg axis, and the
centrosomes, chromatic plates and Zwischen-
korper arein a straight line. In later stages
the Zwischenkdrper is carried down to the
center of the egg, the centrosomes are car-
ried up to the surface and move toward
each other until they come to lie on each
side of the first cleavage plane and imme-
diately under the polar bodies; the nuclei
are also moved upward and toward each
other until they are almost in contact on
opposite sides of the first cleavage wall, and
the cytoplasm moves down into the center
of the egg, the yolk at the same time moy-
ing up atthe periphery. Such movements
could be caused only by vortical currents
in the daughter cells moving up at the sur-
face and down through the center of the
egg; the cell wall forms where these oppo-
site currents meet.
Similar vortical currents occur in every
cleavage up to a late stage,and they offer
most important evidence not only as to the
mechanics of cleavage, but also as to the me-
Marcu 3, 1899. ]
chanics of differentiation. Of the four
commonly recognized features of differen-
tial cleavage—viz.: (1) inequality, (2) non-
alternation of directions, (3) qualitative dif-
ferentiation and (4) lack of rhythm—the
first three may be correlated with these
movements. Unequal cleavages are due to
movements which, beginning with the early
anaphase, carry the nucleus out of the center
of the cell. Non-alternation is due to the
absence of currents, alternation to the regu-
lar reversal of currents during each succes-
sive division. Certain qualitative differences
of the two daughter cells of every cleavage
are also due to these movements. The re-
mains of the centrosphere (idiosome of
Meves, mother periplast of Vejdovski) in
each blastomere is carried by definite rota-
tions of the protoplasm into one only of the
two daughter cells into which the blasto-
mere divides; there is thus produced by
protoplastic movement a visible qualitative
difference in the two daughter cells formed
at every division.
The Characteristics of Mitosis and Amitosis. S.
W ATASE.
On Hematococcus. F. H. Herrick.
OBSERVATIONS on Heematococcus began
with Girod-Chantrans in 1797 and have
been continued during the present century
by Agardh, Cohn, Braun, Rostafinski,
Butschli and others. The chief points of
contention lie in the supposed sexual char-
acter of this organism-and in the structure
and functions of the zoospores.
The following summary of results was
presented: (1) Resting cells after long sub-
mergence in water lose the power of devel-
opment. In one case, after being submerged
for two years, the cells have greatly thick-
ened walls, but no zoospores are formed. If
these cells are now dried, even for a short
time, and then returned to water develop-
ment rapidly follows. Hzematococcus has
thus become adapted to the alternation of
SCIENCE.
319
drought and moisture, so that desiccation or
something equivalent to this has become
necessary to bring about a normal response.
(2) Great variation not only occurs in the
form and size of the sporangium (developing
mother cell wall) and in the number of the
zoospores, but in the size of the zoospores
produced in the same sporangium. In re-
spect to size at least the terms ‘ macrozoo-
spore’ and ‘ microzoospore’ have no signifi-
eance. (3) The zoospores imbibe water
after liberation and undergo marked changes
in appearance. Before maintaining that all
zoospores have a similar structure, it may
be necessary to repeat and extend certain
experiments, but we are convinced that no
sexuality can be attributed to this form, and
that no true copulation has ever been ob-
served. (4) Monstrosities frequently occur
in the motile stage, such as twins and cells
with four or more ‘ heads’ (pairs of flagella)
in all cases due not to fusion, but to incom-
plete division of the mother cell. (5) Re-
production by internal cell division has
been observed in the motile stage in a few
cases, in one of which the zoospore-colony
consisted of four small cells freely moving
in the sac of the mother zoospore, which was
itself distinctly propelled by its own cilia.
The mother capsule soon burst setting the
young free. (6) When a motile cell comes
to rest its protoplasmic sac contracts and a
spherical resting cell is formed which secretes
its proper wall while still enclosed in the
evanescent wall of the zoospore. The flagella
break at the ‘beak,’ leaving two slender
rods united with the wall of the metamor-
phosed zoospore. These are probably elastic
cellulose tubes which serve to sustain the
flagella at the points where they pierce the
sac. (7) In the course of zoospore-forma-
tion in large cells endosmosis is very great
and the surface tension of the wall unequal.
The transparent sphere is blown out in a
‘form often resembling that of an incandes-
cent light bulb, with abundant room for the
320
active cells. The wall at the small end of
the bulb is still very thick, and at the mo-
ment of bursting suddenly contracts and
scatters the zoospores with a rush. (8)
Under various conditions direet develop-
ment of resting cell from resting cell seems
to occur. This looks like a process of ar-
rested development of zoospores, in which
cell division is complete, but the character-
istics of the motile cell do not appear.
Basurorp DEAN,
Secretary.
CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.
(To be concluded. )
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN ANATOMISTS.
Tue eleventh annual session was held in
New York City, December 28th-30th, in
conjunction with the ‘Naturalists’ and other
affiliated societies. Most of the meetings
were held at the Medical Department of
Columbia University. Forty-one members
attended and 20 new members joined, mak-
ing a total of 141, of whom 10 are honorary.
The localities and names of the new mem-
bers are as follows: From Ann Arbor, Pro-
fessor J. P. McMurrich, University of Michi-
gan; from Baltimore, Professors F. P. Mall
and L. F. Barker and associate R. G. Har-
rison, of the Johns Hopkins University ;
from Buffalo, Dr. N.S. Russell, assistant
in anatomy, University of Buffalo; from
Ithaca, Dr. L. Coville, lecturer and demon-
strator in anatomy, Cornell University Med-
ical College; from Montreal, Dr. J. G. Mac-
Carthy, senior demonstrator of anatomy,
McGill University; from New York City,
Professor J. D. Erdmann, of Bellevue Med-
ical College; Dr. Evelyn Garrigues, assist-
ant demonstrator of anatomy, Woman’s
Medical College; Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, asso-
ciate in anthropology, Pathological Insti-
tute of New York Hospitals ; and the fol-
lowing assistant demonstrators of anatomy
in Columbia University: Doctors G. E.
Brewer, C. Carmalt, H. D. Collins, G. W.
SCIENCE.
[N. Sv Von. IX. No. 218.
Crary, W. Martin, W. H. Rockwell and A.
8. Vosburgh ; from Philadelphia, Professor
J. C. Heisler, of the Medico-Chirurgical
College; from Savannah, Dr. E. R. Corson ;
from Washington, D. C., Dr. C. I. West,
demonstrator and lecturer in topographical
anatomy, Howard University.
The address of the President, Dr. Burt G.
Wilder, discussed, ‘ Misapprehensions as to
the Simplified Nomenclature ;’ the speaker
urged especially a fuller recognition of what
had been done by the English anatomists,
Barclay, Owen, Pye-Smith and T. Jeffery
Parker, and hoped the nomenclature of the
future would be called the ‘ Anglo-Ameri-
can.’
The Association voted that abstracts of
papers be required in advance, and that
brief abstracts be included in the program,
that the time for reading papers be limited
to thirty minutes; that the Secretary-Treas-
urer be allowed his railroad fare and ten
dollars toward his hotel expenses at each
meeting. The Association also accepted the
propositions of the editors of the (English)
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology as to
making that journal the official organ of
the Association, and nominated Professor
George S. Huntington as the American
editor. The details of the arrangement will
be given in a circular to be issued by the
Secretary of the Association. Dr. E. W.
Holmes, of Philadelphia, was elected mem-
ber of the Executive Committee, and the
President was authorized to fill the vacancy
in the Committee on Anatomical Nomen-
clature caused by the resignation of Dr.
Dwight.*
‘The subject assigned for discussion, ‘ The
Teaching of Anatomy in Our Medical
Schools,’ was opened by Dr. Holmes; ‘ The
Defects of our Present Methods,’ and further
considered under ten divisions, viz: (1) Pre-
paratory education. (2) The value and place
*Dr. E. C. Spitzka, of New York City, has since been
selected.
Marcu 3, 1899.]
of General Biology and Comparative Anat-
omy. (8) Histology and Embryology in the
medical course. (4) The relative value of
didactic methods. (5) Practical Anatomy
and how to teach it. (6) The order of topics.
(7) The correlation of structure and function
in teaching. (8) The use of charts and black-
boards. (9) The qualifications requisite for
a teacher of anatomy. (10) The desirability
of terminologic consistency ; by Dr. Gerrish
(4, 6 and 8), by Dr. Huntington (2, 3,5 and
6), and by Dr. Wilder (10). In view of the
extent and importance of the subject it was
suggested that at future meetings a smaller
number of divisions be more fully con-
sidered.
The following papers were read and dis-
cussed ; all were illustrated by specimens
and charts or photographs, and several by
lantern-slides or enlarged photographic
projections: By J. A. Blake, ‘ The roof and
lateral recesses of the fourth ventricle con-
sidered morphologically and embryolog-
ically ;’ by G. E. Brewer, ‘ Preliminary re-
port on the surgical relations of the duodenal
orifice of the common bile-duct ;’ by E. R.
Corson, ‘An X-ray study of the normal
movements of the carpal bones and wrist ;’
by F. Dexter, ‘ Morphology of the digestive
tract of the cat;’ by T. Dwight, ‘The
origin of numerical variations of the verte-
bree,’ and ‘The living model showing the
platysma in contraction ;’ by 8. H. Gage,
‘Further notes on the relation of the
ureters and great veins;’ by I. S.
Haynes, ‘An explanation of a new
method of cutting gross sections of the cad-
aver, with demonstration of the technique ;’
by Ales Hrdlicka, ‘The normal human
tibia ;’ by G. S. Huntington, ‘ Morphology
and phylogeny of the vertebrate ileo-colic
junction,’ ‘ Visceral and vascular variations
in human anatomy,’ and ‘the sternalis
muscle ;’ by W. Martin, ‘The czecum and
appendix in 100 subjects ;’ by J. J. Mac-
Carthy, ‘ The internal structure of the hip-
SCIENCE.
321
pocampus ;’ by B. B. Stroud, ‘ Note on the
staining of isolated nerve-cells,’ and ‘ Pre-
liminary account of the degenerations in
the central nervous system of frogs deprived
of the cerebrum ;’ by B. G. Wilder, ‘Some
current misapprehensions as to the objects
of the Cornell collection of brains.’ For
lack of time there were read by title only
Dr. Wilder’s paper, ‘Further tabulation
and interpretation of the paroccipital fissure
(occipital division of the intraparietal com-
plex);’ three papers by Dr. Huntington,
‘The genito-urinary system of the American
pit-viper,’ ‘ Contribution to the anatomy of
the reptilian vascular system,’ ‘ Cerebral
fissures and visceral anatomy of the Eskimo
from Smith’s Sound;’ and Dr. Haynes’ dis-
cussion of teaching.
Atits closing session, December 30th, the
Association adopted, without dissent, the
report of the Committee on Anatomical No-
menclature presented by the majority (Ger-
rish, Huntington and Wilder). It com-
prises four divisions, viz :
A. Brief statement of reasons for prefer-
ring certain terms (about fifty in number)
already adopted by the Association.
B. Recommendation of mesocelia as a
name for the cavity of the mesencephalon,
with reasons therefor.
C. Recommendation of 181 names of
bones (120) and muscles (61) identical
with those in the B. N. A. (Basel Nomina
anatomica ).*
D. Recommendation of 17 names of bones
and muscles differing from those of the B.
N. A.
D. S. Lams,
Secretary.
* Die anatomische Nomenclatur. Nomina anatom-
ica, Verzeichniss der von der Anatomischen Gesell-
schaft auf ihrer 1X. Versammlung in Basel angenom-
menen Namen. LEingeleitet und im Einverstindniss
mit dem Redactionsausschuss erlatitert von Wilhelm
His. Archiv. fiir Anatomie und Physiologie. Anat.
Abth., Supplement Band, 1895. O, pp. 180; 27 Figs.,
2 plates.
322 SCIENCE.
AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY.
Tue regular meetings of the Amer-
ican Mathematical Society were formerly
held at monthly intervals from Octo-
ber to May, the program being readily
disposed of ina single afternoon session. | : | ———
<= A th
Same Phases. +0 +0 +m +m —0 —0 | —™m mee
ea eae wash ie i oe | ae
Opposite Phases. On Ole ta 20e. —m || —0 +0 | —m +m
A as Paes i
<= |<= , => | SS
AN Hi Y
pee + 90°, Beas | +270° ceo ea ia OH Oba) eon t—me
ety EE EL Soest ve | tenes Eo oe ea || —_——|-_—||— | a
Front 70) eaL a | it _ = = —
iAGcle \ + 270°, ee + 90° ||} +0 +m +m 0 0 m m +0
Opposite Phases. +0 —0 +m —m —0 +0 —m +m
pound harmonic leave the origin with a
descending node, the head of the wave
(right semi-wave) being a crest. Absence
of phase difference in the component har-
monics of the particle at the origin will
occur for other cardinal positions of the
pointers, viz: front and rear pointers re-
spectively up and down (maxima, marked
+m), right and left or towards each other
(mean position marked — 0), and down
and up (minima, marked —m). These
follow each other on like clockwise rotation
corresponding particles of the front wave.
The pointers in their cardinal positions will
now be respectively left and down, up and
left, right and up, down and right to the
operator, etc., for successive additional rota-
tions of 90° each.
Beginning again with pointers away from
each other, 7. e., with both component, 8. H.
motions starting at the first particle, let the
front axle be rotated clockwise 90° rela-
tively to the other. The pointers in their
cardinal positions will now be up and right,
MARkcH 17, 1899. ]
right and down, down and left, left and up,
while the particles at the origin run through
all phases together. This case corresponds
to the preceding for 270°, ete.
All this is evident enough; but it is,
nevertheless, advisable to make a diagram
of the position of the pointers as here
shown, in order instantly to discern the
phases in which the initial particles meet in
any case. In the table the positions of the
pointers are designated by arrows; + m de-
notes maximum displacement, etc. Further
explanation will be given presently.
11. Space Waves.—The composition of two
simple harmonics at right angles to each
other will necessarily require special treat-
ment, for here the rear riders are at right
angles to those of the former case, and the
S. H. motion of the rear axle is not reversed
at the balls. If displacement up and for-
ward from the observer’s view be consid-
ered positive, then the null position or zero
of phase of the particles at the origin corre-
sponds to pointers left for the front axle and
up for the rear axle, as seen by the operator.
The compound simple harmonic of these
components is thus a linear vibration with
amplitude “2, as regards the equal com-
ponents, and making an angle of 45° to the
horizontal from the observer to the machine.
It thus lies in the first quadrant, as seen by
the operator at the crank.
Both component S. H. curves leave the
origin with a descending node.
Hence, if in the above table we shove the
first column of entries one row ahead, 7. e.,
if we begin for no phase difference with the
second row and continue in cyclical order,
the table will be adapted to the present case.
Pointers in opposite directions will thus
correspond to counter-clockwise circular
motion in the compound wave; pointers in
the same direction to clockwise circular
motion, as seen by the operator at the crank.
The first of these cases will, however, cor-
respond to a right-handed, the second to a
SCIENCE.
393
left-handed, screw when seen from the ori-
gin, since all waves move from left to right.
The table contains an entry relative to
the present case. It thus indicates 16 car-
dinal phase differences for plane and the
same number for space waves.
12. Effective Circles of Reference.—Finally,
a word may be said as to the position of the
circles of reference corresponding to the two
component §. H. motions. Clearly, the cen-
ters of the eccentrics (marked in Fig. 1) de-
termine the amplitude of theS. H. M. In
all phases, however, the riders are nearly
normally above or else to the rear of these
centers by a distance equal to the radius of
the eccentric, and, therefore, always in the
same kind of reciprocating motion which
corresponds to the amplitude and period of
the eccentric.
Hence the circle of reference of the ver-
tical 8. H. M. is on a vertical diameter and
tangent to the highest and lowest positions
of the edge of the eccentric on the same side
of the axle. The diameter prolonged passes
vertically through the cam axis, and its
length is twice the throw of the center of
eccentric. This circle of reference for the
horizontal S. H. M. of the riders (displace-
ment + rearward) is on a horizontal diam-
eter and tangent to the extreme right and
left positions of the edge of the eccentric on
the same side of the axle.
The amplitude of tbe vertical vibrations
is modified by the lengths given to the ex-
tensible levers. If 1 be the lever length
between the axles and /’ that beyond the
axles, and if a, a denote the front ‘and
rear amplitude at the eccentrics, then the
effective amplitude at the particles will be
a(l+l’) /Land al'/l, and their ratio
aati
a) UE
may be varied at pleasure from zero to
about 9/8, since U is the extensible part.
Usually the ratio one is desirable.
394
The amplitudes of the horizontal vibra-
tions do not admit of change without giving
useless complexity to the machine. Ad-
vantageous lever ratios will be given with
the experiments.
I. Component S. H. Motions Coplanar, of the
same Wave-Length. 13. Plane Polarization.—
Let cam axles each with two complete turns
be selected and the rear plate adjusted to
the vertical (Fig.3). For harmonic curves
this implies the same wave-length for the
coexisting 8. H. motions. With the cams
swinging nearly as 2:3, and lever ratios
(+l and U ($12) as 3:2, the occurrence
of no displacement along the line of parti-
cles may be looked for in case of opposite
phases. This furnishes a method of adjust-
ing the particles at the outset. Practically
the condition of no displacement is reached
with relatively short levers, say a meter
long. When the pointers on the initial
cams are away from each other the com-
ponents meet in the same phase, with the
first particle in the axis of motion just about
to start vibrating. The double amplitude
given by the machine to this compound
harmonic (25” long) of maximum displace-
ment is about 9’. Ifa beam of parallel
rays (sun light) be shot along the axis of
the wave, the shadow of the balls on a
screen normal to the axis necessarily be-
trays slight curvature ; the double ampli-
tude, instead of being vertical and straight,
is coneave toward the cams. But the
chord deviates from the are (9’’) by less
than 1/2” at the center, and hence with
balls 1/2’ in diameter the curvature is
negligible to the eye of an observer in front.
It must be remembered, however, that
curvature is Superimposed in all subsequent
higher figures.
If the front cam axle be dephased 90°
clockwise the amplitude of the compound
curve is diminished, the curve remaining
sinusoidal but beginning with 1/8 wave-
length. If the rear cam axle is also de-
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Von. IX. No. 220.
phased 90° clockwise the compound curve
of the first case is restored in the shadow
(maximum amplitude), but the phase of
the first particle has advanced 1/4 period
and the curve itself 1/4 wave-length, etc.
I allude to these points because of their
value ininstruction. (Cf. table,$10.) By
the very make-up of the machine a 8. H.
curve is seen to result when the phase dif-
ference of two particles varies as their dis-
tance apart. In drawing such a curve it is
simpler to place the circle of reference in
the plane of the harmonic; in the machine
the circle of reference is preferably placed
at right angles to the curve. The addition
of two such curves is another S. H. curve of
the phase and amplitude directly specified
by the machine.
14. Waves of Constant Amplitude.—Belting
the two equal pulleys and rotating uni-
formly, waves corresponding to each of the
harmonic curves produced in §13 may be
sent along the axis of motion. Thus making
the phase difference between two particles
proportional to their distance apart, and
then setting each particle in 8. H. M. ofa
common period and amplitude, is object-
ively seen to be the realization of simple
wave motion. The wave-length being fixed
by the apparatus, velocity and period must
vary reciprocally.
Particularly striking is the case for oppo-
site phases in the two wave cams. Both
component waves are seen travelling in the
same direction along the axes with full
vigor, whereas the compound effect at the
line of particles is permanently nil.
The warped surface of the levers now has
a linear directrix at the particle edge and a
sinusoidal directrix at the roller edge. It
should be noted that the case of maximum
amplitude in the compound harmonic pre-
sents an approach to a similar linear direc-
trix between the cam axles.
15. Waves of Vurying Amplitude.—Change
of amplitude is given to the levers by draw-
MARCH 17, 1899. ]
ing out the front tube (§12). Additional
change may be obtained by allowing colored
balls to ride on the levers. In case of equal
periods the result is chiefly interesting when
the amplitude varies from particle to parti-
ele. A linear variation is well represented
by a plane wave oblique to the direction of
the axles, and in action is very striking.
The more important wave with an ex-
ponentially varying amplitude is only given
when the axis of motion is along the corre-
sponding exponential curve horizontally,
but the effect to an observer at a little dis-
tance in front is none the less good.
II. Preceding Case (1) with Additional Ve-
locity Superimposed on Either Wave Train. 16.
Beats.—If the component waves are trans-
mitted in like periods or velocities* and
amplitudes, the compound wave is trans-
mitted unchanged in form; but if any of
these quantities vary, the compound wave
continually changes form. With the ap-
paratus as here adjusted the last case is
readily realized by sending on one wave
faster than the other. For instance, if the
component wave velocities be as 3:4 (rear
wave of greater speed), then in 4 complete
turns at the crank the original wave will
be reproduced, while all intermediate phase
differences between corresponding particles
are passed continuously in turn. All pairs
of cams are undergoing like continuous
change of phase.
The shadow picture of this case (sun-
light) shows a line elongating to maximum
displacement and then contracting to a
point in §. H. M. The slow change at
maximum elongation is in strong contrast
to the rapid change of length on passing
through the position of equilibrium. Sim-
ilarly in §14 the speed ratio must be care-
fully adjusted if the linear compound wave
is to persist.
*In the present ‘special case variation of one im-
plies the other ;,in the sequel, period and velocity
must be carefully distinguished.
SCIENCE.
- 395
The wave corresponding to this present
experiment is an excellent example of an
infinite beating wave train, two wave-
lengths of which are accessible at a given
place. The beats are due to a difference
of wave velocity and frequency together.
Though the two cases are usually gener-
ically different, the gross effect is here coin-
cident. Asa luxury a cam axle containing
a small fraction of a wave-length more than
two complete wave-lengths might be sup-
plied. This would then show beats due to
difference of wave velocity for the same
period or (with the proper pulley) beats
due to difference of period for the same wave
velocity. The specific difference is this,
that, whereas in one case (equal compo-
nent wave-lengths) the compound harmonic
is at every instant (for all pulley ratios)
sinusoidal, in the other case (slightly dif-
ferent component wave-lengths) it is at no
instant strictly so. The latter adjustment
thus admits of beats either when the com-
ponent periods alone or the component
wave velocities alone are not the same. In
the former both necessarily change together.
17. Déppler’s Principle.—If the beats are
obtained by a difference of wave velocity
the faster wave may be treated as having
an additional linear velocity virtually im-
pressed upon it in the direction of motion
from without. Its interference with the
wave not so affected is then an illustration
of Doppler’s principle.
III. Preceding Cases (I and IT) with the Ve-
locity of Hither Wave Train Reversed. 18. Equal
Velocities. Stationary Waves.—If one of the
component waves be passed along the axis
positively and the other in a negative di-
rection, 7. ¢., if one axle be rotated clock-
wise and the other counter clockwise by
cross-belting equal pulleys, the compound
wave is of the stationary type, since ampli-
tudes were made effectively equal and
periods are necessarily equal. The effect on
the machine is striking, since the nodes are
396 ° SCIENCE.
here indicated by stationary particles half
a wave-length apart, while the antinodes
vibrate 9’. In all positions the form of the
compound harmonic curve is at all times a
simple sinusoid, but its mode of motion as
compared with the same curve while both
components are direct is totally different.
Again, if the first pair of cams are in the
same null phase (pointers away from each
other) the first particle is a node, suc-
ceeded by four other nodes one-half wave-
length apart, and the wave is initially at
maximum amplitude. If the first pair of
cams are in opposite null phases (+0) the
initial harmonic curve is linear, the first of
four nodes one-fourth wave-length ahead,
ete.
Reflection.—The first of these cases cor-
responds to reflection from a denser, the
second to reflection from a rarer, medium
at the origin. Itis worth while to examine
the interpretation of both cases* for trans-
verse waves first, and thereafter, $26, to sim-
ilarly treat longitudinal waves.
If the direction of a wave is reversed,
particles without displacement (-- 0) are
changed half a period in phase (becoming
=. 0); particles at maxima or minima (+ m)
are not changed in phase at all, while
the phases of intermediate particles are
changed in the corresponding harmonic ra-
tio. This may be tested at once by sup-
posing the full wave, Fig. 12, to advance
first in direction d, thereafter in direction 7,
when the particles vibrating in the line ea
will respectively rise and fall, thus passing
between opposed phases ; etc.
The transverse wave advances through a
given medium at rest, with the zero of dis-
placement (=E0) in the wave front, so under-
stood. Hence to reverse the direction of a
wave is to reverse the phaseof the wave front.
If the transverse wave encounters a denser
medium this implies that the particles
therein situated are capable of reacting with
*Waves as here considered are essentially steady.
[N.S. Von. 1X. No. 220.
forces in excess of those corresponding to the
original medium. If the medium is quite
impermeable (as when the wave on an
elastic cord meets the peg) the reaction is
exactly equal and opposite to the action.
Thus if a wave advances toward the dense
medium with a crest or group of pulls up-
ward the medium itself must at every in-
stant react with equal pulls downward.
This reaction, which in its succession is
bound to be rythmic like the impinging
wave, is the impulse of the reflected wave,
which must all be returned into the first
medium (i.e., be reversed in direction) if
none can enter the new medium.
Now, let the particle in the wall aa (Fig.
12) be in the zero of phase (+0). The
direct wave advancing, as shown by d, is in
the act of increasing the displacement. It
is developing an increasing pull up. The
reflected wave (prolonged) r is simultane-
ously in the act of developing the counter
pull down ; it is,in like degree, tending to
decrease displacement: but, though the
phases impressed by the direct and reflected
wave are thus initially quite opposite, both
waves d and r momentarily constitute con-
tiguous parts of the same harmonie curve.
If this curve separates at aa, with the parts
d and r moving with equal velocity in op-
posite directions the condition for action
equilibrated by reaction at aais maintained
throughout all time.
The explanation is essentially the same
if the reaction is not complete (permeable
dense medium). In this case the amplitude
of 7 will be smaller, other conditions re-
maining the same.
Hence in the machine the pointers are to
be set for equal and opposite displacements
at the origin, beginning with the null
phases of each component wave—the case
of Fig. 12, where if d and r were moving
in the same direction, or the pulleys not
cross-belted, the two components would
meet in the same place.
= ee
MaARkcH 17, 1899.]
On the other hand, if the direct wave
meets a rarer medium at aa the reaction is
less than that of the original medium. The
pull up developed by the wave d in Fig. 12
is not resisted by an excessive pull down as
before. The reaction (which from its
rhythmic character develops the reflected
wave) is an additional pull up, such as
would correspond to a wave 7’ in Fig. 12.
Both waves r’ and d are in the same phase
as regards their effect on the initial particle
at aa, but they differ in direction of motion.
In other words, the direct wave d and the
reflected wave prolonged 7’, are not initially
contiguous parts of one and the same wave,
meeting without displacement at the wall.
Half a wave-length is necessarily lost at the
inception.
This determines the method of setting
the pointers of the machine for equal dis-
placements of the same sign at the origin,
beginning with opposite null displacements ;
for the two waves d and 1’ if traveling in
the same direction (cf. Fig. 12) would then
annul each other.
Summarizing; the reflected wave from a
denser plane boundary normal to the axis
is obtained from the incident wave by two
rotations of 180° each; one around the axis
of motion, the other around the trace of the
wave plane on the plane of the obstacle ;
these correspond respectively to the substi-.
tution of reaction for action, and of an op-
posed direction for the given direction of
motion—two reasons for change of phase.
The wave advancing crest on (crest fore-
most) returns trough on and vice versa.
The reflected wave from a rarer plane
boundary is obtained from the incident
wave by a single rotation around the trace
in question. The only reason for change
of phase is change of direction. The wave
advancing crest on returns crest on, and the
trough returns a trough. Cf. §26.
If the component amplitudes are made
unequal the nodes show a correspondingly
SCIENCE.
397
slight vibration, the case corresponding toa
medium at the origin neither absolutely im-
permeable nor absolutely rare.
19. Wandering Nodes.—If with equal am-
plitudes the velocities or periods of the com-
ponents be unequal in value and opposite
in sign the case becomes one of stationary
waves with continually drifting nodes.
Thus if the 3:4 pulley be cross-belted four
turns of the rear or faster cam axle will
continuously move the node half a wave-
length onward. The stationary character
is, nevertheless, very thoroughly retained.
In the extreme and transitional case where
the velocity of one wave is zero and the
other of any value a single turn at the
crank moves the nodes half a wave-length
and thus reproduces the original curve.
IV. Component S. H. Motions at Right
Angles to Each Other of the Same Amplitude
and Wave-Length. 20. Elliptie Polarization.—
Using cam axles with two waves each and
adjusting rear ends of levers (Fig. 4), while
the vertical riders Z engage the cams, two
simple harmonic curves are available to be
compounded at the particles. This is usu-
ally an elliptic helix. It is advisable to
tip the machine up in front with the object
both of relieving the work of the springs
and of exhibiting the wave symmetrically
with reference to a horizontal plane through
the axis.
In order that circular polarization may be
obtained, the amplitudes of the particles
must be equal. The rear cams contribute
their full swing independent of the levers.
The fore cams enter with an amplitude
which may be more than doubled, though
the fulerum of the levers is now at the
rollers. Thus the levers are to be shortened
from 1 meter to about 70 cm. to obtain cir-
cular paths 3” in diameter for the single
particles. Shorter levers would give oblate
ellipses, larger levers prolate ellipses, for
their central figures. Cf. §36.
The two 8S. H. motions will meet and
398 SCIENCE.
exist throughout in the same phase if the
pointer on the rear eccentric is 90° ahead of
the other, supposing, in accordance with the
above table, that directions upward and
rearward are positive. The zero of phase
thus begins with front pointer left and rear
pointer up. If the pointers are parallel and
in the same direction the front harmonic is
90° in phase ahead of the other. The com-
pound harmonic is circularly polarized and
the corresponding wave advances with
counter-clockwise rotation if seen in the
direction of advance, 7. e., from left to right
to the observer in front. Dephasing the
front axle 90° farther (180° advance) pro-
duces plane polarization at 135° to the hori-
zontal; 90° farther (total advance 270°)
finally a circularly polarized harmonic
curve with a wave advancing in the direc-
tion of the components with clockwise rota-
tion, as seen from the origin. All interme-
diate cases are elliptically polarized with
intermediate rotation.
The sunshine picture on a screen normal
to the axis with rays parallel thereto is in
general an ellipse with the appropriate
rotation discernible with remarkable clear-
ness.
V. Preceding Case (IV) with Component
Velocities or Periods Unequal. 21.—If the com-
ponent waves do not advance with the same
velocity (necessarily implying difference
of period in the present case) the differ-
ence of phase of the first pairs of cams is
continually changing, and the phase differ-
ence of all succeeding cams is changed in
like measure. Hence the compound wave
passes continuously through all the differ-
ent harmonic curves in turn. If the belt
be placed on the 3:4 pulleys four turns of
the rear axle restores the original form
through all intermediate forms, beginning,
for instance, with plane polarization at
45°, passing through circular clockwise
polarization (seen from the origin) into
plane polarization at 135°; then back with
[N.S. Von. 1X. No. 220.
counter-clock wise rotation into plane polar-
ization at 45°.
The sunshine shadow of this case is
identical with the Lissajous figures from
two tuning forks slightly different in pitch
but of the same amplitude. The directions
of rotation are particularly evident, en-
hancing the instructivenes of the figure.
VI. Preceding Case (IV.) with Hither Compo-
nent Velocity Reversed. 22.—If with equal am-
plitudes and wave-lengths the component
waves travel in opposite directions (pulleys
cross-belted) the compound wave is a pecu-
liar form of stationary wave in which the
form of vibration of all particles is sustained,
but in which the motion of each particle
differs uniformly in regard to the phase dif-
ference of its components, 7. ¢., in ellipticity,
from its neighbors. Thus a group of parti-
cles a wave-length apart are plane polarized
at 45°; particles midway between plane
polarized at 135° ; particles midway between
both groups circularly polarized with alter-
nately opposite rotations and all other par-
ticles correspondingly elliptically polarized.
The envelope of the harmonic curve would
be given by a thin tube 3” in diameter, com-
pressed at equal distances by a pair of
shears to lines at right angles to each other,
but alternately in the same direction. The
case is thus thoroughly different from the
case of unequal velocities in the same
direction, where all the particles under ob-
servation are instantaneously in the same
ellipticity.
23. Velocities Reversed and Unequal.—lIf the
two component waves of the same wave-
length have unequal velocities (and periods)
of opposite sign the plane polarized groups
wander. Thus if the 3:4 pulleys be taken
4 turns of the rear crank reproduces the
original wave. The transitional case is
again that in which one cam axle is sta-
tionary (wave velocity zero) while. the
other rotates. A single turn reproduces
the original figure.
MARCH 17, 1899. ]
/
VIL. Preceding Case (IV.) Adjusted for Ro-
tary Polarization. 24.—If a special axle be
provided with the cams alternately in op-
posite phase tothe normal occurrence, but
otherwise equal in amplitude and wave-
length, and if the corresponding balls be
painted red and white, the two circu-
larly polarized waves occur simultaneously.
Similarly, the two plane polarizations at 45°
and at 135° occur simultaneously; ete. The
former case is interesting in relation to ro-
tary polarization, as will be more fully indi-
cated below ; for the two circular motions
may be compounded by the device shown
in Fig. 10, and a harmonic curve plane po-
larized in the vertical or the corresponding
wave will result (ef. S40 et seq.).
To obtain rotation of the plane of polari-
zation by this method the alternate cams
on both the front and rear axle would have
to be set for some other wave-length in the
manner stated.
SCIENCE.
399
(vertical) axles of which are at the angles
of the cranks, as far apart as the cams,
and allarranged along a straight line paral-
lel to the cam axle. The short shanks of
the bell cranks now carry a series of 1’
balls, which, under present conditions,must,
therefore, vibrate nearly parallel to the cam
axles, i. e., longitudinally right and left in
the line of advance of the wave, whereas
the thrust of the levers* is harmonically to
and fro.
In practice the long shanks are open sec-
tors of wire, swung so as to clear each oth-
er’s axles. /
In this way the alternate compression
and rarefactions of such a wave are re-
markably well shown (cf. Fig. 11), the
sinuosity in the line of particles being
negligible at least to the observer in front.
The balls approach each other to about
5/8’’ between centers (all but contact in
the compressional phases), while they sepa-
Diagram. Wave advances from left to
Lever displacements positive rearward. Ball displacements necessarily re-
Fic. 11. Adjustment for compressional waves, seen from above.
right to an observer in front.
versed. °
VIII. Waves of Compression and Refraction.
25. Longitudinal VibrationWith the ap-
paratus arranged as in Fig. 4, let the levers
all be raised at the front ends, so as quite to
disengage them from the front cam axle.
This being, therefore, out of action, the rear
or horizontal harmonic of 3’ double ampli-
tude forward and rearward thrust is alone in
play, as shown in plan by the parallel lines
normal to theaxis in Fig. 11. Now, let the
ball ends of the levers (eylets) engage the
long shanks (6) of a series of horizontal,
rvight-angled bell cranks, the equidistant
rate to morethan about 12’’ in the rarefied
phases.
The great advantage of an arrangement
of this kind from the kinetic point of view
is the direct evidence furnished that each
ball in the first instance is actually inS. H.
M., and that the phase difference between
balls is proportional to their distance
* The reader should remember that Fig. 11 is seen
from above and that direction rearward in the trans-
verse harmonic (down in figure) is positive wave ve-
locity left to right in the machine, becomes right to
left in figure. Balls in front reverse their positive
motion,
400 SCIENCE.
apart, while the compression and rarefac-
tion of such a wave is an incidental phenom-
enon. This essential structural character
of the acoustic wave is not generally enough
insisted on.
In the same way any of the above or the
following complex plane polarized waves
may be converted into compressional waves
by using vertical bell cranks (horizontal
axes). For the case of stationary waves
this would be of some interest, but I have
not carried out the construction. Since
small displacements are wanted, the en-
gagement of levers should be located be-
tween the axles.
26. Reflection.—There is bound to be con-
fusion if the reflection of a compressional
wave from a denser or a rarer medium is
to be explained without reference to the
elementary S. H. M. of the particles of such
a wave. Relatively to § 12 and Fig. 12 it
follows that the explanation there given is
at once applicable to 8. H. M. in sound
waves, the only difference being that for
pulls up and’ reactions down we have now
pulls toward the right and reactions toward
the left, ete., which in no way modifies the
reasoning. A wave advancing toward the
dense medium ‘crest on’ returns ‘ trough
on’; advancing toward the rare medium
with a crest returns a crest. Let no one
suppose, however, that crest and trough.
mean compression and rarefaction. For it
is just here that a slough of despond awaits
the incautious interpreter. A glance at
Fig. 11, where the oscillations of particles
have all been marked, shows that the centers
of compression and of rarefaction are without
simple harmonic displacement (phases + 0) ;
that the maxima and minima of displacement
(=m) lie in air of normal density. If the
wave is to advance with particles in the
wave front in the zero of displacement it
must advance the center of a compression .
or the center of a rarefaction sharply into
normal air. Thus, the particles on one
[N. 8. Vou. IX. No. 220.
side only of the balls marked + 0 in Fig.
11 must indicate the status of an advanc-
ing sound wave; moreover, if the former
begins a crest, the latter (particles on the
other side of + 0) begin a trough, and vice
versa.
In this structural fact lies the gist of the
true explanation : If a compression meets a
denser medium it is reflected as a com-
pression surely enough, but the two com-
pressions are not the same. The sym-
metrical half of the incident compression is
returned. The two halves lie on opposite
sides of no displacement, and are the con-
tiguous halves of crest and trough required
by Fig. 12. So the two symmetrical halves
of a rarefaction become incident and re-
flected wave, initially meeting the plane of
reflection as contiguous trough and crest.
In both cases crest returns trough, and
trough crest, even though two compressions
or two rarefactions are in question.
If reflection takes place from a rarer
medium a compression returns a rare-
faction ; this, however, is the rarefaction
ending in a crest, while the given com-
pression begins one, and vice versa. In
other words, there are two crests advancing
in opposite directions ; or crest returns crest,
even though a half wave-length is initially
lost and though a compression returns a
rarefaction.
The agreement with $12 is thus complete
and the whole explanation logically simple
throughout.
IX. Component Simple Harmonics Coplanar,
with Wave-Length Ratio, 1:2. Harmonic
Curves. 27.—Replacing the front cam axle
by another containing a single wave-length
and 2” double amplitude, the plane com-
pound harmonics for period ratio 1:2, for
the same or different amplitudes and for
any difference of phase, may be exhibited in
succession. The cams are exchanged by
lifting all the levers above the front axle,
by aid of the notched swivelled cross-lath
Maxrcw 17, 1899. ]
(when an opportunity to show the rear har-
monic alone is afforded as the levers now
ride on a common fixed axle in front), after
which the single wave axle is easily inserted
and the levers dropped down upon it by
lowering the cross-lath.
Reference to the scheme of phases com-
piled in §10 shows that 16 generically dis-
tinct compound harmonies with an indefi-
nite number of intermediate curves are
obtainable. The variation is further en-
hanced by changing the component ampli-
tudes by drawing out the levers. Among
forms for equal amplitude the symmetric
types are distinctive. They are obtained
concave upward more or less W-shaped for
components meeting at the origin both at
maximum displacement (-++m), and more
or less M-shaped when both components
meet at the origin at minimum displacement
(—m). Similarly symmetrical forms are
seen when the components at the origin are
in opposite phases, viz., V-shaped when the
front harmonic is at +m and the rear har-
monic at —m, and ,4-shaped when the
front harmonic is at —m and the rear
at +m.
28. Waves. If these curves are to be
transmitted in a compound wave which does
not changeits form each component must
travel equally fast. Hence the rear axle
with two wave-lengths must be rotated
twice as fast as the front axle with one wave-
length (pulleys 2:1) The periods are now
also in the ratio of 1:2. Thus it appears,
that it takes two rotations of the rear axle
to exhibit the complete wave, or beginning
with a symmetric type, for instance, the W
and 4 curve together make a single har-
monic curve; whereas the Mand V curve
make another, in relation to waves; etc.,
for non-symmetrical forms. The character
of the wave is markedly progressive, each
little kink as well as large elevations or de-
pressions running along the axis in turn.
Referring again to the above table §10,
SCIENCE.
401
the present succession of phases is a march
along a diagonal passing from left to right
downward across the diagram.
29. Case LX. with Component Velocities Un-
equal.—If the component waves are trans-
mitted unequally fast the compound wave
continually changes form. Thus, ifthe 2:35
pulleys be used, it takes 3 turns of the rear
axle to reproduce the original form ; in 3: 4
pulleys, four turns; in 1:1 pulleys, but a
single turn. In the last instance the waves
produced are much like stationary waves,
with two nodes at the ends if the compo-
nents meet at the origin in opposite phases,
and one node in the middle if they meet in
the same phase, phase difference being
maintained constant at each cam. The
table, §10, shows that the passage is now
from left to right across the diagram, along
a single row.
If one axle alone rotates a single turn
again reproduces the original form, but the
wave has now a progressive character, which
is an inversion of the result in $28. In
other words, the Vand V types or the M
and 4 types of curvearesuccessive. Inthe
table of phases, §10, the present succession
for any single cam is given by a column
passed from top to bottom.
30. Case LX. with One Component Velocity
Reversed.—If the axles rotate with equal
velocity in opposite directions the wave
presents the succession of forms of the first
(normal) case, but its character is now non-
progressive, each particle retaining its pecu-
liar form of vibration, which differs regu-
larly from that of neighboring particles.
But half the full wave is represented at
once. No particle is permanently at rest
and the stationary character is less pro-
nounced than for the case in §29 with equal
pulleys. Particles at the end of the curve in
view are in like figures of vibration. In the
above table, $10, the passage for any single
pair of cams is now diagonally across the
diagram, but from right to left, downward.
402
X. Components Simple Harmonics at Right
Angles to Each Other, with Wave-Length Ratio,
1:2. Transverse Space Wave. 31. Harmonic
Curves.—With the preceding cam axles, let
the rear ends of the leaves be lifted upon
the horizontal back plate and adjusted for
the same component amplitude (Fig. 4).
Space waves of this and the following
kind may be conveniently termed Lissajous
waves, since their sunshine shadow on a
screen normal to the axis of motion is al-
ways the appropriate Lissajous figure.
Starting the waves with the initial eccen-
trics towards each other, the harmonic
curve has a meandering space form, char-
acterized, however, by its sunshine shadow,
which is the specific bow-shaped 1:2 Lissa-
jous, concave toward the cams. Dephas-
ing the rear axle +90° produces the sym-
metrical 8-shaped figure ; +90° farther the
bow-shape again, this time, however, convex
toward the axles of the cams; +90° far-
ther returns the 8-shape described in a di-
rection opposite to the preceding. The
intermediate cases are assymmetrical 8’s,
but not well given unless the balls are small
enough.
The harmonic curves themselves present
no marked complexity. Seen from above
they contain two wave-lengths ; seen from
the front but one wave, each in the appro-
priate phase at the origin. This gives a
very clear analysis of the occurrences. The
wave envelope in the bow-shaped cases is a
gutter.
32. Waves.—The waves corresponding to
the above space harmonics are instructive.
If the figure of the compound wave is to be
preserved, 7. ¢., if its shadow Lissajous is to
remain fixed, both component waves must
advance with rigorously the same velocity.
This implies double rotation (double fre-
quency ) for the rear waves of shorter wave-
length. The direction of rotation in the
shadow is particularly well marked. For
initially opposite or for like phases at the
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. EX. No. 220.
origin the figure is alike 8-shaped, but
when horizontal pointers on the front axle
correspond to down on the rear or up on
the rear the rotation is clockwise or coun-
ter-clockwise respectively in its upper half;
ete.
33. Case X. with Component Velocities Un-
equal.—lIf the velocities of the component
waves are unequal, but of the same sign
(pulley 2:3, for instance), the compound
wave continually changes form, as is best
shown by the sunshine shadow. This is
identical with the Lissajous curve for two
tuning forks of the same amplitude, but
with period ratios slightly different from
1:2. If the speeds of the two axles are
equal (pulleys 1:1) a single rotation of the
erank produces all the Lissajous between
two occurrences of the same figure.
If the component periods are equal, but
of opposite sign, stationary wave conditions
appear for this case. Particles at the ends
of the compound wave oscillate in any
fixed Lissajous; the intermediate particle
has the inverse figure. In general the perma-
nent vibration figures vary proportionally
to the distance apart of the particles. The
sunshine figure is reproduced for 1/2 rota-
tion at the crank. One may note the con-
trast that, whereas the particles themselves
vibrate in the elliptical Lissajous series, the
sunshine shadow produces the 2: 1 series.
If the component periods are unequal
and opposite in sign the figures drift as
above. The transitional case is given when
but one axle rotates.
XI. Component S. H. Motions Coplanar
with Wave-Length Ratio, 2:3. 34. Plane
Harmonics and Waves.—The front cam axle
is replaced by one containing 38 wave-
lengths, with adjustments as above (Fig.
3). The curves of this series are more
complex than the preceding, and if the de-
phasing be effected in steps of 90° each, 16
marked forms of curves may be exhibited.
Among these the symmetrical types are
Marcu 17, 1899. ]
best adapted for recognition. They corre-
spond respectively to like phases at the
origin with maximum or miminum dis-
placement of both components (JW- and M-
shaped forms), or to opposite phases at the
origin with maximum and minimum, mini-
mum and maximum displacements of the
components ( V- and 4-shaped forms).
If the component waves are to advance
with the same velocity the rear cam axle
rotates twice while the fore axle rotates
thrice, thus establishing a period ratio of
3:2. Hence each wave contains two of the
specified harmonic curves in succession, or
only one-half of it is seen at once. The
progressive character of these waves as
they dash along is singularly pronounced.
If the axles rotate equally fast in the
same direction the wave assumes a station-
ary type, with one node at the middle of the
component harmonics meeting at the origin
in the same phase. If the latter meet at
the origin in opposite phases, nodes occur
at the two ends with marked vibration for
intermediate parts of the compound wave.
If the cam axles rotate equally fast, but
in opposite directions, the compound wave
shows 6 nodes if the components meet in
opposite phases at the origin, and 5 nodes
under other conditions.
Finally, if the wave velocities are equal,
but opposite in sign, there is permanence in
the vibration form of each particle, with dif-
ference of phase between them, but no nodes.
XII. Component Simple Harmonics at Right
Angles to Each Other, with Wave-Length Ratio
2:3, 35. Transverse Space Waves.—The results
are similar to the above cases, only more
complex. Thesunshine shadow on the nor-
mal screen shows the 2:3 Lissajous figure
in permanent form if the axes are rotated
at angular velocities of 3:2. The compo-
nent waves are then transmitted with equal
velocity and the period ratio becomes 2: 3.
If the component waves are transmitted
with other velocities the compound wave
SCIENCE.
403
continually changes form, as does also the
Lissajous shadow curve. The rotation
within it is here again exhibited as to di-
rection, etc., with remarkable clearness.
To obtain steady results for this case the
balls must be small and the ratio workman-
ship of the machine accurate, otherwise the
inconmensurable cases supervene. Experi-
ments are made as above.
XIII. Component Harmonics Circular and
Vertically Simple Harmonic of any Wave-Length
Ratio. 36. Harmonie Curves for Equal Com-
ponent Wave-Lengths.—The present curves
are interesting, inasmuch as they present
an intermediate stage between the above
cases of S. H. composition and the next
cases relating to the composition of circular
motions. The wave machine is put into
adjustment, as shown in Fig. 5, with cam
axles and pulley ratios 1:1. The machine~
is tipped up in front.
Inasmuch as the 8. H. M. of the front
axle interferes with the vertical component
of the circular motion of the rear axle, the
phase difference is best specified in terms
of these coplanar vibrations. For like
phases, therefore, the Lissajous figure of the
compound curve is a tall vertical ellipse,
say 9” high and 3” broad. Advancing the
front phase +90° inclines this ellipse -to
the rear, shrinking it throughout. Advanc-
ing the front axle +90° farther produces
the simple harmonic curve in the ,horizon-
tal with a double amplitude of 3”. The
further advance of the front phase of +90°
expands the Lissajous figure into an oblique
ellipse inclining to the front, etc.
37. Waves.—The rotation in the waves is
always clockwise for a clockwise circular
component. In this and other respects
(pronounced prolateness combined with
horizontal plane polarization) they differ
from §20. 4
38. Waves and Curves for Other Component
Wave-Lengths—On replacing the front cam
axle with one of one or three waves to the
404
two of the rear axle, peculiar apparently
beknotted wave forms are obtained, well
adapted to give a notion of the complexity
resulting from simple compounding ; but it
is needless to refer to them further.
XIV. Component Harmonics Both Circular,
of any Wave-Length Ratio and Opposite in
Direction. 39. Remarks on the Machine-—
After the description of the machine and
the remarks already made in the successive
paragraphs above, it is not necessary to
enter at length into a consideration of the
present experiments. As to matters of ad-
justment in Fig. 6, I may note that the
common horizontal locus of the centers of
the approximate circles described by the
free ends of the levers (they are really
curves of the 6th degree), and the respec-
tive cam axles, must be equidistant from
the perforated cross laths, Uand V. In
the given apparatus the effective lever
length is about 18”. In this case the lever
ends describe curves which do not differ
more than 1/8’ from circular circumfer-
ence, a departure not discernible with 1/2”
balls. Nevertheless, the angular velocity
in the quasi-circles is not uniform, a circum-
stance which from symmetry is without
bearing on the vertical compound vibra-
tions, but becomes more marked in propor-
tion as the vibration is twisted around into
the horizontal. The latter, therefore, ap-
pears somewhat convex downward unless
very long levers are chosen. The adjust-
ment in § 24, where the circles are nearly
quite perfect, is thus in many respects to be
preferred, though the levers are necessarily
farther apart and the lever ends incapable
of resisting much tension. There is incon-
venience, however, in constructing special
pairs of front and rear cam axles.
To find whether the circles at the lever
ends have a common cylindric envelope
the cam axles should be rotated in like di-
rection. Coincident ends should then re-
main nearly coincident throughout. The
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 220.
cross laths, U and V, are adjustable with
this test in view.
40. Rotary Polarization. Equal Component
Wave-Lengths.—Let the front cam axle be a
left-handed, the rear axle a right-handed,
screw (Fig.6). Let them be equal in wave-
length and amplitude. Then the compo-
nent harmonics (loci of the lever ends or
eyelets) will be respectively right and left
circular helices, otherwise equal. The vibra-
tion lines of the particles, W, in Fig. 10,
will all be coplanar, the plane being parallel
to the cam axles at any angle to the hori-
zontal depending on the phase difference of
the initial cams. The compound harmonice,
or longitudinal arrangement of the particles
in the plane stated, is a simple harmonic,
curve whose amplitude is the common
diameter of the component circular har-
monics.
This case has already been referred to in
$24 and there exemplified. The compound
curve, as constructed by the machine, is on
a scale of one-half.
If the cam axles are rotated with the
same velocity, opposite in direction (cross-
belt), the corresponding plane-wave will
result, unchanged in obliquity. One may
note in passing that, whereas, in all the
above compounding, plane-waves were ob-
tainable in one or two special altitudes
merely, they may now be obtained in all
altitudes.
41. If the axles are rotated with un-
equal velocities, components of equal wave-
length differ in period and velocity. The
plane of the compound wave will, there-
fore, rotate about the axis of the component
circles. Hence, if the oscillation of the
first particle be put back into the same line
after each oscillation (in general, continu-
ously), 7. ¢., if oscillation is continually
supplied at the origin in this line, the amount
of rotation resulting will be proportional
to the distances between particles. The
rotary polarization so produced is due toa
MARCH 17, 1899. ]
difference both in the period and the velocity
of the component circular waves of like
wave-lengths.
42. Unequal Component Wave-Lengths.—
With the front and rear cam axles still
respectively left and right, if more turns be
put on one than on the other, the harmonic
curves will become helical. In other words,
the compound of two plane simple har-
monic curves of the same wave-length ratio
and phase difference at the origin will now
be inscribed on a regular helix. If the
axles be rotated with the same angular
velocity in opposite directions the compo-
nent harmonics have the same period, but
differ in velocity. The vibration lines in
the compound wave remain fixed for each
particle, but their directions differ in alti-
tude proportionally to their distance apart.
The rotary polarization so obtained is due
to a difference in the velocities of the circular
components. The helix may be rotated as
a whole by dephasing the initial particles.
43. If the axles are turned with unequal
velocities the helical compound wave must
rotate as a whole about the common axis of
the component circles, in consequence of
the continuous and like dephasing at all
cam pairs. Rotary polarization is again
due both to difference of velocity and of
period, as in § 41. If, however, the period
of rotation at the cam axles is proportional
to the wave-lengths of the helices the
velocities of the components will be tlie
same and the continuous rotation occurring
due merely to difference in the periods of
the components. Hence,if the oscillation
in the first particle of the compound wave
is always supplied parallel to a given line
the rotary polarization obtained will be due
simply to the difference in the periods of the
components.
44, Right-Handed Circular Component Har-
monics.—The same amount of rotation as in
the last cases will be obtained when the
wave-length of one of two equal right and
SCIENCE.
405
left cam axles is increased and that of the
other decreased by half the stated increase
of the single axle in § 42. It will even be
obtained when both cam axles are right-
handed screws or both left-handed screws,
alike in all respects but differing in
phase by 180°, subject as before to counter
rotation (cross-belted). But, whereas the
rotary polarization in the preceding case,
§ 42, is due solely to normal advance of
the circular waves, it is now due to the
independent counter rotations impressed by
outsideagency. The two right-hand helices
specified, being opposite in phase, constitute
a series of stresses in equilibrium and pro-
duce no displacement.
If the cam axles of equal wave-lengths
rotate with the same velocity the compound
wave is a helix, but with each of its par-
ticles in thesame phase. The neutral posi-
tion is thus a line of balls in the common
axis encircled by the lever ends, and this
may be used as a test on the adjustment.
Each particle persists in its line of vibration,
and their locus is a helix which expands
and contracts in diameter rhythmically.
45. If the two axles rotate unequally
swiftly the component circular waves ad-
vance unequally swiftly and the line of vi-
bration of each particle or the contractile
helix as a whole rotates around the common
axis.
46. Finally, in two right-handed cam
axles of equal amplitude, but different
wave-length, the resultant harmonic curve
will be the compound of corresponding
plane harmonics, but inscribed on the cor-
responding helix. For rotations of the same
angular velocity (equal periods) the helical
wave will not rotate as a whole. For un-
equal periods it will so rotate.
Some of these cases are more important
than others. Their application is a question
of optics. Cary Barus.
BROWN UNIVERSITY,
PROVIDENCE, R. I.
406
THE WORK OF THE U. 8S. FISH COMMISSION.
THE report of the U. S. Commissioner of
Fish and Fisheries for the year ending June
30, 1898, shows an increase in the propaga-
tion and distribution of food-fishes of about
40 per cent. over the work of any previous
year.
The number of adult and yearling fishes,
fry and eggs distributed in public and
private waters or transferred to the State
authorities was about 857,000,000, of which
the largest number represented important
commercial species, like the shad, cod,
whitefish and salmon. There were thirty-
three hatching stations and sub-stations in
use, the steamer Fish Hawk being also uti-
lized for shad-hatching in Albemarle Sound
and the Delaware River.
The extension of the salmon-hatching
work on the Pacific coast was especially
gratifying, as the enormous annual drain
on the salmon streams of that region makes
it very important that the supply should be
kept up by artificial means. At the sub-
station situated on Battle Creek, a tributary
of the Sacramento River, the largest collec-
tion of the salmon egg (48,000,000) in the
history of fish-culture was made in the fall
of 1897.
Particular attention was also paid to the
hatching of young lobsters, owing to the
steady decline in the lobster fishery, and as
a result of these efforts no less than 95,-
000,000 fry were turned loose.
There is little doubt but that the future
success of the lobster industry depends on
the possibility of artificial propagation, and
the same may be said of the salmon fisheries
of the Pacific coast. What may be hoped
for is shown in the steady increase of shad
in the eastern United States.
In 1880 the catch was only about 18,000,-
000 pounds, and the catch steadily decreased
until 1885, when the results of artificial
propagation became observable. By 1888
the catch had doubled, and in 1896, the
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Von. IX. No. 220.
last year for which there are accurate data,
the catch amounted to 50,866,368 pounds,
with a market value of $1,656,711, the
value of the increased catch for that year
alone being something like $800,000 in ex-
cess of the total cost of all shad propaga-
tion up to that date. Extended tables show
the output of the different hatcheries and
the details of the distribution of the eggs
and fry of the various species.
The Division of Inquiry respecting food-
fishes has made various investigations re-
garding the oyster, including a survey of
the oyster grounds of Louisiana and a re-
examination of the much-vexed question as
to the origin of the color of green oysters.
In regard to this the report states that in
the United States it has been repeatedly
demonstrated by the Commission that the
green color is due to vegetable matter which
serves as food, and that there is no impair-
ment of the edible qualities of the oyster.
The reason for the color of the ‘ red oysters’
noted during the season of 1896-97 is un-
known, as no opportunity was given to in-
vestigate the problem, but it is suggested
that it may be due to the presence of the
infusorian Peridiniwm.
In view of the scarcity of mackerel,
which has extended over a longer period
than ever before in the history of this fish-
ery, special study has been given to the em-
bryology, natural spawning and artificial
propagation of this species. Its practical
propagation is still an unsolved problem,
and it is noted that under existing condi-
tions the number of eggs obtainable is too
small to produce any appreciable effect,
while suggestions are given for enlisting the
aid of the fishermen. The principal work
of the Division of Statistics has consisted of
canvasses of the more important fisheries of
certain of the New England and Middle
Atlantic States and of the Great Lakes, the
information thus collected being made im-
mediately available by the publication of
Marcu 17, 1899. ]
single-sheet bulletins. It is proposed to
continue the issue of these from time to time
whenever there is information of special
interest. Attention is called to the fishery
resources of the Yukon River, which so far
have been utilized only by the Indians for
their immediate needs, but which it is be-
lieved may afford a food supply to the
miners and traders who have been attracted
to that region, and ultimately to the coun-
try at large. Full statistics are given of
the sections covered by the report, and it
may be noted that at Gloucester and Boston
there has been a falling-off in the aggregate
receipts of fish since 1896, while the South
Atlantic States as a whole show an increase
in the product, the amount of capital in-
vested and the number of persons em-
ployed in the fisheries.
What strikes one very forcibly in glanc-
ing over this report is the many discourage-
ments the fish culturist is called upon to
face and the large number of serious losses
due to unavoidable, often seemingly trivial
and sometimes inexplicable, accidents. A
few degrees of temperature, more or less, a
heavy shower, the lingering of ice or an
unfavorable wind may cause heavy damage
and almost bring to naught the labor of
weeks. Another thought is to what extent
should the general government undertake
the propagation and distribution of the
more strictly game fishes, such, for example,
as black bass and trout? The investiga-
tion of the best methods for the accomplish-
ment of such work should undeniably lie
with the United States, but these once dis-
covered, its continuance should rest with
States and individuals. What may be done
by individual effort is shown by the fact
that a large number of the many ponds of
Plymouth county, Mass., have been stocked
with black bass by the simple process of
carrying a few fish in pails from one pond
to another. It may be said that the estab-
lishment of many of the trout hatcheries has
SCIENCE.
407
been due to the efforts of members of Con-
gress and not to any desire of the Commis-
sioner of Fisheries. The propagation of such
widely-spread and all-important species as
cod, shad, the Pacific salmon and the lobster
is quite another matter and should properly
be carried on by the United States.
The statistical as well as the strictly scien-
tifie work of the Fish Commission is again
of national importance, and the special
omission of fishery statistics from the com-
ing census bears testimony to the value of
the work done by this division.
Tt is gratifying to learn that the appro-
priation for scientific work has this year
been materially increased, for, from past ex-
perience, we know that what to-day appears
to be a purely scientific problem to-morrow
becomes an all-important practical matter.
In this connection Dr. Smith urges the ap-
pointment of an expert in fish pathology,
calling attention to the large mortality which
often prevails among fish, both under natural
and artificial conditions, and for which
there is at present no known cause or
remedy. Theannnal losses at the hatcheries
of the Commission, while not excessive, are
still great enough to demonstrate the need
of skilled investigation, and the present ex-
penditure of a few thousand dollars may
yield subsequent returns of millions.
Last, but not least, it may be again noted
that under the present Commissioner it has
been arranged to keep the laboratory at
Wood’s Hole under the scientific direction
of Professor Bumpus open throughout the
year.
ENGINEERING AND THE PROFESSIONS
IN EDUCATION.
Tue receipt of the annual volume of Pro-
ceedings of the ‘ Society for the Promotion of
Engineering Education’ * is a reminder of
* Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the
Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education,
Vol. VI. Published by the Society. 1898. 8vo. Pp.
xxvii + 324
408
the extent to which all departments of edu-
cation are becoming systematized and or-
ganized in the United States. Hitherto, in
all countries, there had been observable a
very serious lack in this respect, even in
Germany, where the central government,
and the authorities of every kingdom alike,
control and direct the education of all
classes from central organized bureaux.
With us primary and secondary educa-
tion have had consistent and authoritative
direction, not always wise or expert, but al-
ways earnest and well-intended ; for the
common school has been recognized, from
the first, as the strongest bulwark of our
institutions, political and social. Profes-
sional education and training, however,
have, like all higher learning, been sustained
mainly by private, sporadic and unsystem-
atic, unauthoritative, support and aid.
Education, in a true sense and on the lower
levels, has been fairly well-cared for; pro-
fessional training, that education which is
rather a noble form of apprenticeship to a
noble vocation, finds even yet almost no
public and little private recognition. Of
late the schools of engineering are secur-
ing some attention from investors in this
form of higher security and from the State
Legislatures and expert educators and pro-
fessionals. In the West, particularly, the
schools of the vocations are attracting more
and more attention as their relation to and
bearing upon the social condition of the
people is coming to be generally appre-
ciated.
The volume before us contains the pro-
ceedings of a single meeting of a representa-
tive association of this class, and presents a
very excellent picture of the purposes and
methods of such an institution. The So-
ciety, about five years old, numbers 244
and includes practically all of the leaders
in the development of this branch of tech-
nical educational work in the country, and
representatives from nearly all recognized
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX No. 220.
professional schools in this field. Twenty-
nine papers are published, together with
lists of officers and members, the constitu-
tion of the Society, its rules and its pro-
ceedings at the Boston meeting of 1898.
The leading paper is the address of Presi-
dent Johnson, a discussion of the topic:
‘A Higher Industrial and Commercial
Education as an Essential Condition of our
Future Material Prosperity.’ This is a
most interesting and impressive statement
of the needs of the United States in this
direction, and of the dangers that threaten
a nation neglecting to systematize its indus-
trial system and the education of the ‘ In-
dustrial Classes’ for their life and work in
presence of a competition which is coming
to be more constant and more dangerous
as the means of communication and of
transportation become more extended and
more perfect. The foreign ‘ Mono-technic
Schools’ are held up to our view as models
of a type of school which is almost unknown
in this country, and as having proved the
salvation of the Germanic peoples. The
establishment of high-grade mono-technic
and commercial schools is urged as the
most promising and desirable of all visible
modern improvements in education and
training for the industrial classes.
A full evening was given to a paper ‘On
the Organization of Engineering Courses
and on Entrance Requirements for Profes-
sional Schools,’ in which the writer, follow-
ing a somewhat similar line of thought,
developed the theory of professional educa-
tion, exhibited the logical differences be-
tween the real ‘education’ of the academic
colleges and the primarily vocational train-
ing, the ‘ higher apprenticeship’ of the pro-
fessional schools ; showing that while the
one should offer a ‘ladder from the gutter
to the university,’ as Huxley said, the other
lets down a ladder from the profession to
the people, the two thus demanding radi-
cally different methods of construction of
MARCH 17, 1899. ]
their curricula, as well as different methods
of prescription of entrance requirements.
The one supplements the schools, and must
build smoothly up from below; the other
builds down from the profession, and must,
at all hazards, make its junction at the
upper end effective, while its entrance re-
quirements must be such as will least em-
barrass the aspirant while satisfying the
proper demands of the profession. Each
curriculum, however, must be constructed
by experts in its own field, and the profes-
sional must be relied upon to perfect the
courses and prescribe the requirements of
the technical school, as must the expert in
academic education be expected to be given
a free hand in the upbuilding of general
education.
Shorter papers on laboratory work, on
details of educational apparatus, ‘ thesis
work,’ courses of instruction in various
departments and reports of committees, fill
the volume with a mass of material hitherto
unparalleled in this line, and which must
deeply interest, not only workers in this
field, but all educators, and particularly all
who are interested in the promotion and
improvement of our still defective and in-
adequate educational provision for the best
interests of the industrial classes, and in the
advancement to still higher planes of our
professional schools. The careful study, not
of this volume only, but of the series, be-
ginning with the organization of the As-
sociation at the Educational Congress at
Chicago, in 1893, in connection with the
Columbian Exhibition, cannot but well re-
ward every one interested in the modern
and current movements in this politically,
as well as socially, important department of
the scheme of national education, the per-
fection of which is so vital an element in
determining what shall be the political and
the moral and intellectual status of our
country in coming generations.
R. H. Tuurston.
SCIENCE.
409
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
Die chemische Energie der lebenden Zellen. DR.
OscaR LoEw. Munich, Dr. E. Wolff, pub-
lisher. 1899. Pp. 170.
This publication gives the results of a series
of observations on the chemical characteristics
of living matter. It is proved that the proteids
of living matter are of very labile nature and
different from those of the dead matter, into
which they are transformed by atomic migra-
tions in the molecules. It is also demonstrated
that in many plants a labile reserve-protein
occurs which is not yet organized, but is changed
by the same conditions as kill the cells. The
book contains the following chapters :
1. Views on the causes of the vital activity.
2. General characteristics of living matter.
3. Chemico-physiological characteristics of living
matter.
4. The essential concomitants of protoplasm.
. The character of the biochemical work.
. On the formation of protein in the lower fungi.
On the formation of protein in the green plants.
. Theory of protein formation.
. A labile protein as reserve material in plants.
10. Chemical characteristics of the labile proto-
protein.
11. Lability and activity in the protoplasm.
12. Theory of respiration. Chapters 9 and 10 give
the results obtained in conjunction with Th. Bokorny.
CO DIADM
The most modern progress of theoretical
chemistry has been brought to bear in this
work. The theories advanced in the work and
the suggestions which they contain will make
the book invaluable to students of bio-chemistry
and physiology. Doctor Loew has concluded
his work with the following brief summary :
“It may be briefly recapitulated in a few
words how much the theses put forth corre-
spond or coincide with the observations made.
In the first place, it should be remembered that
the living substance shows a great resemblance
to a chemically labile body and that the dying
process of the protoplasm is suggestive of the
transition of a labile into a stable modification
of organic compounds. According to the
theory developed in the eighth chapter con-
cerning the formation of albumin, the lability
of the plasma-protein is due to the simultaneous
presence of aldehyde and amido groups. The
410
toxicological facts reported in the eleventh
chapter, indeed, support this view.
The further inference from the theory, that
very labile but not yet organized protein sub-
stances possibly occur in plants, has also been
verified. An exceeding labile reserve protein
of an aldehyde nature was proved by Bokorny
and myself to exist in many kinds of plants ;
its characteristics are described in the ninth and
tenth chapters.
Labile substances contain kinetic chemical
energy; they contain certain loosely bound
atoms, which under the influence of heat be-
come more mobile than in case of a more stable
arrangement. As a result chemical reactions
are caused, the energy of these atoms being
transferred to certain susceptible substances
(sugar, fatty acids), which are thus drawn into
a state of higher reactive power, especially with
the otherwise indifferent oxygen of the atmos-
phere. In other words, catalytic actions are
produced through a charge with chemical en-
ergy. The proteins of living substances ap-
pear as relatively firm structures in which sepa-
rate labile atoms perform great oscillations.
This conception is essentially different from
that of Pfliger and Detmer, both of whom as-
cribe to all atoms in the plasma-proteins such
an intense state of motion that a dissociation
results, to be followed by a similarly energetic
regeneration. Pfligersays:* ‘‘I do not ex-
pect to meet with any opposition if I consider
the living matter as not only being astonish-
ingly changeable, but steadily decomposing.’’
Yet, when we consider that a minimal attack
of extremely small quantities of a poison will
produce the death of a cell, one may well
doubt whether such a metabolism as Pfluger
assumes would not sooner lead to death than to
a possibility of regeneration. Neither can we,
therefore, agree with Verworn when he says: +
‘“‘The life process is the sum-total of all pro-
cesses connected with the building-up and de-
struction of the ‘biogens,’ or, ‘‘ life consists in
the metabolism of the albuminous bodies.’? A
more correct definition would be the following:
Life is the sum-total of the effects made possible
by the labile nature of the plasma-proteins and
* Pfliger’s Archiv 10, p. 311.
} Allgemeine Physiologie, 2d edition, p. 509.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 220.
their respiratory activity, and governed by the
specifie tectonic of the energides and of the ac-
tive paraplastic structures. *
The nature of the living matter is in the first
place determined by lability and organization,
that is, by a systematic kind of motion in a
structure (tectonic) of labile proteins. The
principle of organization is not yet known.
Even if we assume with Pfluger that the pro-
cess of organization consists merely in a poly-
merization, the complicated details in genera-
tion and karyokinesis, would still defy explana-
tion, and the genetic differentiation would not
become better intelligible. Difficult problems
are here facing us.. Still it may be considered a
slight advance to know at least a little more
about the cause of respiration and the chemical
energy of the cells than formerly. It is the
lability of the plasma-proteins, which, sup-
ported by the effects of light, leads to the build-
ing-up of the carbohydrates in the green plants
out of carbon dioxide and water with separa-
tion of oxygen. It is also this lability which
assists in combining the organic substances
with oxygen and renders the obtained energy
applicable to physiological work.
In addition to the well-known fact that all
life functions are based upon the energies of the
sun, it must be inferred that the lability of the
plasma-proteins is necessary to transform this
sun energy into vital action.
ALBERT F, Woops.
DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PA-
THOLOGY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Physical Geography. By WuILuLIAM MorRIs
DAVIs, assisted by WILLIAM HENRY SNYDER.
Boston, Ginn & Company. 1898. Pp. 431.
Professor Davis well states in his preface the
central principle of this volume: ‘‘ Physio-
graphic facts should be traced back to their
causes and forward to their consequences.’’
We find thus the widest departure from the
piecemeal description and recital of facts, of
most works in physical geography. We should
expect this from one who has long been eminent
as a student and teacher of the science and who
* Kupfter designates ‘the contractile substance of
the muscular fibrille, the nervous fibre and the red
blood corpuscles as ‘ paraplastic’ formations.
Marcu 17, 1899.]
has not ceased to magnify the causal notion and
the consequent educational value of geography.
It cannot hereafter be said that the materials
of the new geography are not available to the
rank and file of teachers, as was conceded in
the report of the Committee of Ten. The
limits of a secondary text-book forbid anything
like a full discussion, and it is to be hoped that
a manual or college text-book may come from
the author’s hand. He has discarded, for the
most part, technical terms. Thus the doctrine
of the peneplain is elucidated in the text, but
the name appears only once, and that in a foot-
note.
of geology, but this has been done in a simple
fashion which obviates the necessity of a pre-
vious course in that subject for the pupil,
though the teacher would find such knowledge
all but indispensable. T'o dwell for a moment
longer on the pedagogical aspects of the volume,
the vital teacher need not hesitate to use it,
though he be deficient in preparation, but it is
emphatically a book for the best, and only such
can wholly do it justice. It wisely joins itself
to the present state of knowledge, but leads
well out among the ideals and possibilities of
the science.
The illustrations are profuse and well se-
lected. Especially useful are many diagrams
which combine surface relief and vertical sec-
tion, thus relating geographic form and geolog-
ical structure. The appendix contains valuable
bibliographic lists and a short catalogue of the
best maps, whose use and importance are every-
where emphasized.
The Earth as a Globe, the Atmosphere, the
Ocean and the Lands are the four main sub-
divisions of the book. All but the last are
briefly treated, offering an outline of the chief
facts in mathematical geography, meteorology
and oceanography, terms which we think, for
the present purpose, wisely discarded.
The lands are treated with greater fullness,
the discussion occupying 273 pages. The chap-
ter headings will best show the general charac-
ter of this section. They are: The Lands,
Plains and Plateaus, Mountains, Volcanoes,
Rivers and Valleys, The Waste of the Land,
Climatic Control of Land Forms, and Shore-
lines. The origin of these forms and their con-
The rational geography makes large use
SCIENCE.
411
sequences upon organic and especially human
life are never lost from view, and thus is real-
ized the highest definition of geography as a
study of the ‘physical environment of man.’
No separate sections are devoted to the races
of man or the distribution of animals, but a
reader of the whole volume will discover that
these subjects have not been neglected, but
have been treated in an intimate and educa-
tional fashion.
The principle of change of form by erosion
and by change of relation to sea-level is early
stated and receives manifold elucidation to the
end. The Plain offers a good example of the
author’s method. We have first the formation
of a coastal plain by deposition of land waste
and uplift of marginal sea-bottom, with subse-
quent dissection by land streams. There log-
ically follows the broader, higher, older and
more dissected coastal plain, the eastern Caro-
linas serving as an example. The favorable
conditions for artesian wells form here a natu-
rally related topic. Embayed coastal plains show
the effect of the later, partial submergence, the
Chesapeake being used asa type. Such use of
physiographic types, as a means of seeking and
classifying examples in all parts of the world,
is a favorite and important principle with our
author. Similar plains of very ancient origin,
as in central-southern Wisconsin and western
New York, are then described and connected
with the younger, less modified types, but with-
out involving the difficult ideas or nomencla-
ture of historical geology.
The plateau, or uplifted plain, appropriately
follows. Thus we have young plateaus, as in
Arizona; mature and well-dissected plateaus, as
in the Catskill-Allegheny-Cumberland belt, and
old plateaus, as recognized in the buttes, mesas
and table-topped mountains of the West.
The treatment of mountains is, for the space,
equally thorough and interesting. The various
kinds are described—block mountains in various
stages of maturity ; folded and domed moun-
tains, with such fruitful subtopics as climate of
mountains, mountains as barriers, valleys
among mountains, and inhabitants of lofty
mountains.
The chapter on Rivers and Valleys well illus-
trates the strides of physiographic science dur-
412
ing the last score of years, as will appear from
an outline of the chief topics. Thus we have
young rivers, with lakes, falls and rapids as
marks of immaturity ; graded rivers and the
development of valleys; meanders and the
shifting of divides ; mature and old rivers; re-
vived, antecedent, engrafted and dismembered
rivers, the causal or historical notion appearing
at every stage of the discussion.
The general reader who desires to cultivate
an appreciation for natural scenery will find
help in Professor Davis’s volume, and the stu-
dent to whom most of the materials are familiar
will find a convenient and systematic summary
of the important facts and doctrines of a great
and growing science.
ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM.
COLGATE UNIVERSITY, February, 1899.
GENERAL.
The Bulletin of the American Mathematical So-
ciety states that advices from the Vatican an-
nounce that Abbé Cozza Luzzi, assistant libra-
rian, has found Galileo’s original manuscript
treatise on the tides. The manuscript is in
Galileo’s handwriting and concludes with the
words: ‘Written in Rome in the Medici Gar-
dens on January 8, 1616.’ The currently ac-
cepted text, the original of which was supposed
to have been lost, differs considerably from that
of the manuscript just found. Pope Leo XIII.
has taken the greatest interest in the discovery
and has ordered the manuscript to be published
in an elegant edition at the expense of the
Vatican.
THE London Times announces that it will pre-
pare a supplementary volume to the ninth edi-
tion of the Encyclopedia Britannica. This edi-
tion was published between 1875 and 1889. It
is well known that the treatment of scientific
subjects are in many cases the best accessible to
English students, being prepared by leading
English men of science. It is unfortunate that
a new edition of the Encyclopedia cannot be
prepared, as the last twenty-five years have
brought many changes in all the sciences, but a
supplementary volume will be of some service.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
A Handbook of Medical Climatology. S. EDWIN SOLLY.
Philadelphia and New York. 1897. Pp. xii + 470.
SCLENCE,
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 220.
Minerals in Rock Sections, LEA MCILVAINE LUQUER.
New York, D. Van Nostrand Co. Pp. vii + 117.
Die Medial-Fernrohre. UL. SCHUPMANN.
Tuebner. 1899. Pp. iv + 145.
Leipzig,
Mark 4.80.
Die Lehre vom Organismus und ihre Beziehung zur
Sozialwissenschaft. OSCAR HERTWIG. Jena, Fischer.
1899. Pp. 36. Mark 1.
Regeneration und Entwicklung. HH. STRASSER. Jena,
Fischer. 1899. Pp. 29. Mark 1.
Elementary Physiology. BENJAMIN MoorRE. New
York, London and Bombay, Lorgmans, Green &
Co. 1899. Pp. ii + 295.
Primer of Geometry. JAMES SUTHERLAND. London,
New York and Bombay. 1898. Pp. 117.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
THE GEOLOGICAL CLUB OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
MINNESOTA.
AT a meeting of the Club on February 25th
Professor C. W. Hall discussed the extent and
distribution of the Archean in Minnesota.
First, accepting the Archean as that original
‘crust,’ or solidified portion of the earth, which
is postulated in every existing view of the be-
ginning of the geological record, he defined it
as an era of igneous origins whose rocks repre-
sent the original crystallization of earth matter
added to from below by successive solidifica-
tion and many subsequent intrusions. By
this definition all overlying clastics or irrup-
tions into or through the clastics are excluded
from the Archean. If the base of the clastics
can be found there certainly should be found,
locally, at least, the rocks upon which they lie.
Such underlying rocks, the Archean, are be-
lieved to occur in Minnesota in two quite sep-
arated districts, the northern and the south-
western.
Along the international boundary most geol-
ogists have grouped all the rocks from Bass-
wood Lake to Lake of the Woods as Archean,
even when clastics have been clearly recognized
and eruptives found breaking through them.
Lack of care in delimiting the Archean up-
wards has caused much confusion. Lawson
set an example in distinguishing between clas-
ties, ‘agglomerate schists’ and the rocks under-
lying, though not necessarily those from which
the clastics are derived. Structurally the
Marcu 17, 1899. ]
Archean of the Lake of the Woods forms a
series of troughs—four is the number given—
in which the Keewatin schists now lie. [Com-
pare Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur., Canada, N.
Ser., Vol. I., 1885, C. C., pp. 10 et seq.] Al-
though there are no sharp unconformities to be
seen, yet, as Lawson observes, ‘‘ the fact that
we find in the Keewatin series the first un-
doubted evidences for this region of aqueous
sedimentation and also of volcanic action, while
in the underlying Laurentian gneiss of the re-
gion we find evidence of neither, more than
suggests that the Keewatin series had a totally
different kind of origin from that of the
gneisses and must, therefore, be in unconform-
able relation to them”’ [Ibid., p. 84].
At Rainy Lake H. V. Winchell and Grant
found a series of granites and granite gneisses
beneath the other rocks (i. e., Archean) and
eruptive into them. Since these authors did
not think best to distinguish between under-
lying and eruptive granite rocks their work
is of but little taxonomic value. [Geol. and
Nat. Hist. Surv., Minn., 23d An. Rep., 1895,
p. 53.]
Between Rainy Lake and Lake Superior there
are several belts of schists with alternating
granites and other rocks having a general
northeast-and-southwest trend. Concerning
one of these, Irving noted in 1886 ‘‘ that we
have among the rocks * * * two types, in one
of which the crystalline structure is com-
plete and in which there is little or none of an
original fragmental structure, while in the other
the fragmental texture is still distinct and the
alteration has progressed to a smaller degree.’’
He then adds ‘‘ that the supposed older one of
the two groups of schists in the Vermilion Lake
belt is intricately penetrated by the granites of
the great areas north and south of the belt.’’
[7th An. Rep. Director U. 8. Geol. Sur., 1885-
86, p. 437.] Hence areas of Archean lie north
and south of these older schists.
In the Minnesota River Valley lies the most
carefully studied series of granite gneisses,
gneisses and gabbro schists of the State. These
rocks occur quite continuously from New Ulm
to Ortonville and beneath the glacial drift
stretch westward into South Dakota and disap-
pear beneath the Dakota sandstone. At New
SCIENCE.
413
Ulm they clearly underlie a quartzite conglom-
erate regarded as Huronian (whether lower or
upper is not determined). This Archean series
is divided, for purposes of study, into a lower
and upper; the former is named the Ortonville
group of augite, hornblende and biotite granite-
gneisses, and the latter the Granite Falls group
of hornblende and biotite gneisses and asso-
ciated gabbro schists. [Hall, Syllabus of Geol-
ogy, 1897, p. 83. ]
F. W. SARDESON,
Secretary.
THE BOTANICAL CLUB OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
CHICAGO.
AT a recent meeting of the Club, Dr. Otis W.
Caldwell gave the results of his study of Lemna
minor. The following is an abstract of his
paper: Owing to the greatly reduced body of
the sporophyte of the Lemnacee there has been
much interest in its morphology, and in the
question as to the effect of the reduction upon
the gametophyte. The investigations show
that the sporophyte body is neither stem nor
leaf, as often contended, but a shoot undiffer-
entiated except at the basal or foot region and
at the nodal region from which the root, the
new shoots and the flowers arise. The root
originates from a small group of hypodermal
cells on the lower side of the node. The epi-
dermis develops a temporary root sheath, while
the persistent root cap is developed from the
meristem, which is never many-celled and in a
few cases was seen to be unicellular. Flowers
are rarely formed, and frequently when they
have begun to develop they are crowded out by
vegetative buds which are produced in great
abundance. Even when not encroached upon
by vegetative shoots the flowers do not often
sueceed in forming seeds. The pollen grains
usually become fully formed, but the structures
of the ovule and embryo-sac may disorganize at
any stage in their growth. Although the chief
stages in ordinary embryo-sac development
were found, such were shown by very few
preparations ; while in most of the preparations
embryo-sacs were disorganizing, the disorgani-
zation first affecting the antipodals, then the
polar nuclei or primary endosperm nucleus, the
ege being the last to succumb to the unfavor-
414
able conditions. Cases were observed in which
the upper polar nucleus, failing to fuse with the
lower one, had proceeded unassisted to the
production of endosperm. Few embryos were
found.
In the young stamen but one archesporial
mass appears. After this has enlarged some-
what a plate of sterilized tissue divides it into
two regions, each of which is again divided in
a similar manner, thus constituting the four
archesporial masses of the anther. The four
loculi of the anther are four parts of one spo-
rangium, and not four sporangia, as reported
usually for other spermatophytes. The primary
tapetal layer is not differentiated until after the
archesporium is separated into four masses.
The tapetum may be derived either from the
sporogenous tissue or from the adjacent sterile
tissue. The cells of the tapetum frequently di-
vide and push out into the cavity of the loculus,
where they assist in nourishing the spore
mother cells. Some of the latter are nourished
also by other mother cells whose growth has
ceased. The microspore germinates while
within the sporangium. The generative cell
remains closely applied to the wal] of the spore
for a considerable time before dividing to pro-
duce the male gametes.
The ‘winter buds’ seem to be summer buds
which are not sufficiently vigorous to develop
the necessary air spaces to keep them afloat.
When conditions become favorable growth is
renewed, air spaces develop in abundance, and
the buds rise again to the surface.
It seems clear that Lemna minor has de-
scended from terrestrial forms. The entire
body of the diminutive plant, as evidenced by
the disappearing root, the system for aeration,
and the devices properly to relate the chloro-
plastids to the light, indicates attempts toward
adaptation to the water habitat. It has not
succeeded in working out such appropriate de-
vices for pollination as are found in most water
plants. The water environment also seems es-
pecially injurious to the embryo-sac structures
of this plant, and the ease with which vegetative
buds are produced, and the fact that some of
these buds may serve to perpetuate the plant
from year to year, reduces the necessity of seed
production.
SCIENCE. [N. Ss.
Vou. IX. No. 220.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
UNDER the head of ‘Short Notes and Ex-
hibition of Specimens,’ Mr. Benton stated that
on January 22d he had found brood honey bees
in all stages of growth and new adults, indi-
cating egg laying the last of December. This
is a very early instance.
Mr. Matthis exhibited specimens of what he
takes to be Boreus brumalis Fitch, which he had
caught upon the snow in the Rock Creek Val-
ley after the recent blizzard. He showed for
comparison specimens of a Boreus which he had
caught last October at a high elevation on the
Big Horn Mountains. This was a larger and
darker form than B. brumalis and has not been
specifically identified.
Dr. Dyar showed a blown larva of Apatela
clarescens Gn., previously undescribed. The
larva nearly resembles that of A. hamamelis ;
indeed, from the mature larva alone no constant
differences can be pointed out, but Dr. Dyar
has observed certain differences in the earlier
stages of these larvee, which will be more fully
worked out at the next opportunity. In this
connection, he also presented a list of Apatela
by Professor A. R. Grote, with generic and sub-
generic types, which had been prepared by
Professor Grote on request, and which is sup-
plemental to the monograph of the genus re-
cently published by Smith and Dyar. Dr.
Dyar stated that he was pleased with Professor
Grote’s erection of a subgenus for A. funeralis,
since this was definable on larval character, as
are all the other subgenera of Apatela, except
Tricholonche as compared with Lepitoreuma.
Mr. Schwarz exhibited some very dry and
hard pulp of the giant cactus, taken by Mr.
Hubbard in the autumn of 1897 and containing
specimens of the extraordinary Scolytid, Cacto-
pinus hubbardi Schwarz. He had examined
this pulp in January, 1897, and found the bee-
tles alive, with no indication of oviposition. He
moistened it somewhat at that time and showed
the same beetles still alive, thus indicating that
they may live in the adult condition for two
years.
Mr. Howard showed a remarkably clear and
beautiful photograph of Phasgonophora sulcata
Westwood, which had been taken by Mr. M.
V. Slingerland, and spoke briefly of the ad-
Marc#H 17, 1899.]
vantage of photography in entomological illus-
tration, expressing the opinion that a fair photo-
graph reproduced by the half-tone process is in
many instances better than a poor drawing,
but that the best photographs he had seen re-
produced in this way were by no means equal
to drawings made by competent artists. Such
a photograph as the one exhibited, however,
marks a great advance on previous efforts of
the kind and would be invaluable at least as an
aid to the artist, and if transferred by photog-
raphy to a wood block and then handled by a
competent wood engraver would obviate all
necessity for drawing and would produce the
most satisfactory results which could be ob-
tained, since the slight failures in details could
be easily rectified by the engraver.
Dr. Gill mentioned the resemblance of cer-
tain coleopterous larvze to certain Trilobites,
especially among the Staphylinide. He said
he had been struck by this resemblance in a
figure of a Silpha larva, even the antenne re-
sembling the antennae of Trilobites as recently
discovered by Beecher. He mentioned the
figure of Fluvicola, an Isopod crustacean, in
De Kay’s volume on the ‘Crustacea of New
York, and Le Conte’s conclusion that it was the
larva of Psephenus, and asked for further in-
formation as to this resemblance.
Mr. Schwarz said that this wonderful resem-
blance extends through several families of
Coleoptera. He instanced Micropeplus among
the Staphylinide, a genus of Scydmenide fig-
ured by Meinert, various genera of Endomy-
chide, groups of species in the old genus Silpha
Psephenus and Helichus among the Elmide, and
various genera of the Dascyllide and Lam-
pyride. The resemblance is largely caused by
the exfoliation of the sides of the body. What
its function is he did not know, some of the
larvee possessing it being aquatic, some sub-
aquatic and some terrestrial.
The first paper of the evening, by Dr. Dyar,
was entitled ‘On the Fluctuations of the Post-
spiracular Tubercle in Noctuid Larvee.’
The second paper included a continuation of
Mr. Hubbard’s letters from the Southwest, pre-
sented with notes and comments by Mr.
Schwarz. The letters read at this time related
to the Colorado Desert and to Salton Lake and
SCIENCE.
415
its insect fauna. Some discussion ensued on
the question as to whether the Colorado Desert
has been occupied at any modern period by an
arm of the sea, Messrs. Vaughan, Schwarz and
Gill taking part.
L. O. Howarp,
Secretary.
THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS.
At the meeting of the Academy of Science
of St. Louis of March 6, 1899, Professor J. H.
Kinealy described some experiments on lifting
water by means of compressed air, as is done
by the Pohle air-lift pump, and discussed the
efficiency problems of the use of apparatus of
this description. Three persons were elected
to active membership.
WILLIAM TRELEASE,
Recording Secretary.
DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ESTABLISHING SPECIFIC
PLACE- MODES.
To THE EDITOR OF SclENCE—(Sir: I use the
word ‘place-mode’ to embody a well-known
idea, namely, that a species has a different
mode (i. e., a different prevailing condition of
size, color, etc.) in different localities. The
person who seeks to determine a place-mode
determines the prevailing dimension of the
principal measurable qualities (and practically
all qualities of organisms are measurable) of a
species as it occurs in the locality in question.
The importance of this work is as follows:
It fixes the condition of a species in a particular
locality at a particular time ; it affords a base
from which we may measure any change which
the species has undergone in the same locality
after a certain number of years. That species
in nature do undergo changes within a man’s
lifetime is recognized by some conchologists
who find that certain shells of the seashore have
undergone within a half century an evident
change of index (ratio of length to breadth).
A case of especial interest because of the exact
measurements which have been made is that of
the rock crab of Plymouth, England, the frontal
breadth of whose carapace has diminished year
by year at a measurable rate (1 to 2 per cent.
in five years), a result explained by certain
416
changes in the physiography of the region
(Weldon). Such facts indicate that species
are changing in essential specific characters
and sometimes rather rapidly changing. The
changes are not sufficient to be detected in cases
where the descriptions are wholly qualitative
or based upon the observation of a few indi-
viduals. But where a large number of. in-
dividuals, taken at random, are measured the
modes may be used as standards for reference.
With the aid of such standards we can observe
not only the fact of change, but the rate and the
direction, and draw conclusions concerning the
causes of specific change. If two modes occur
in a species in one locality we can determine
whether they separate farther and farther from
each other, and the rate of such separation. A
careful correlation of the facts of separation of
modes with changes in environment will give
us an insight into the causes of specific differ-
entiation. In a word, the establishment of
these place-modes for various species in various
localities is the first sure step toward the solu-
tion of the problem of the Origin of Species.
The methods of this work are very simple.
They involve the measurement of size, of pro-
portions and other elements of form, and of
color, by the color wheel;* they involve also
counting repeated organs. The measurements,
or counts, are to be grouped into classes on the
basis of size. The means of measurement will
naturally be fonnd ; but, most important of all,
far more significant than the mean, is the mode
or the most frequented class. The mode gives
the typical condition of the lot of individuals
measured,
The end of the old century or the beginning
of the new one is a convenient time for making
a number of these determinations, and it is on
this account that I write to suggest to field
naturalists that for a year or two they bend
their efforts to the determination of place-modes.
I am so convinced of the importance of this
work that Iam planning, with the cooperation
* The color wheel is an instrument for determining
the percentage of constituent elementary colors in any
compound color. A small, cheap and convenient
form of this instrument—called the color top—with
standard colors may be bought for six cents of The
Milton Bradley Company, Springfield, Mass.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. 1X. No. 220.
of students, to work on this subject at the labo-
ratory at Cold Spring Harbor during the com-
ing summer, and I hope that simultaneous co-
operative observations may be made at Woods
Holl and other marine laboratories as well as at
the various inland stations and by private col-
lectors elsewhere. There is no fear of duplica-
tion of work, for two persons will hardly study
the same species in one and the same locality.
Cuas. B. DAVENPORT.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY, March 2, 1899.
IDENTITY OF COMMON AND LABRADOR WHITE-
FISH.
THE Common Whitefish of the Great Lakes
was first very imperfectly described by Dr.
Samuel L. Mitchill, in The American Monthly
Magazine and Critical Review for March, 1818.
The description, in fact, is so unsatisfactory that
his contemporaries and later ichthyologists for
more than fifty years supposed it to refer to the
Cisco, or Lake Herring, Argyrosomus artedi. A
good account of the Whitefish was published
by Richardson in 1836, under LeSueur’s name
of Coregonus albus, a name published only a few
weeks later than that of Mitchill; but, like
Mitchill’s, unaccompanied by a sufficient de-
scription.
In 1836 Richardson established a new species
of Coregonus upon a dried specimen which he
received from Musquaw River, that falls into
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, near the Mingan
Islands, giving it the name Salmo (Coregonus)
labradoricus. This has been retained in the
literature as a distinct species up to the present
time, although its close relationship to the
Common Whitefish has sometimes been ob-
served without recorded comment.
Systematic ichthyologists have found it diffi-
cult to show clearly the differences between\the
Common Whitefish and the Labrador Whitefish,
as may be seen by referring to the monographs
upon the Whitefishes by Jordan and Gilbert,
Bean, and Evermann and Smith. They have
been forced to rely, finally, upon a single char-
acter, the presence of several rows of teeth on
the tongue to distinguish the two forms, and
this was supposed to be constant and in-
fallible.
The writer has recently had occasion, while
Marco 17, 1899. ]
studying the fishes of the State of New York,
to examine numerous specimens of the Common
Whitefish from the Great Lakes and interior
lakes of New York and of the so-called Labra-
dor Whitefish from lakes of New York and New
Hampshire and from rivers in New Brunswick
and Labrador. As a result of these investiga-
tions he is forced to the conclusion that Rich-
ardson’s species, Coregonus labradoricus, is
identical with the Common Whitefish, Core-
gonus clupeiformis, there being no characters
by which the two can be distinguished. Every
individual of the Common Whitefish, young
and old, was found to have teeth on the tongue
and to possess the other characters by which
Richardson’s species has hitherto been sep-
arated.
This conclusion has an important bearing
upon fish cultural operations by the States and
the United States, as it will tend to simplify
the work of artificial propagation and, perhaps,
extend its scope.
TARLETON H,. BEAN.
WASHINGTON, D. C., March 3, 1899.
A DATE-PALM SCALE INSECT.
Dr. A. 8. PACKARD writes from Biskra, Al-
geria, January 23,1899: ‘‘I find myself in this
oasis of the northern edge of the Sahara, where
there are 170,000 date palms. In a beautiful
garden I found a date palm, indeed several, af-
fected by Coccids, which I enclose.’? The Coc-
cids are crowded on the pieces of leaf and prove
to be Aonidia blanchardi, Targioni-Tozzetti,
Mém. Soc. Zool. France, 1892, Vol. V., p. 69.
The insect, however, is not an Aonidia, but be-
longs to Parlatoria, and must’be called Parlatoria
blanchardi. It was originally found in the oasis
of Ourir, and has never, I believe, been noticed
since its original description until now redis-
covered by Dr. Packard.* The figures of Tar-
gioni-Tozzetti represent it well, except that in
one of them (Fig. 3) there is an impossible lobule
between the median interlobularsquames. The
female turns bright olive green on being boiled
in caustic soda. There are four small groups of
circumgenital glands. This insect is likely to
* Unless Maskell’s P. proteus var. Palme, found in
Australia on date palms imported from Algeria, is the
same, as indeed seems likely.
SCIENCE.
417
be of some economic importance, as it is allied
to, though easily distinguished from, Parlatoria
victriz, Ckll.; which, introduced from Egypt,
has proved a pest on date palms in Arizona,
California and Queensland. The manner of
the infestation is quite the same in the two
species.
T. D. A, CoCKERELL.
MESILLA PARK, N. M., February 16, 1899.
THE CHOICE OF ELEMENTS.
To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: Once upon a
time, according, I believe, to Messrs. Gilbert
and Sullivan, a magnet hanging in a shop win-
dow fell in love with a silver churn, but, to its
great distress, was unable to awaken any re-
sponse. Its pathetic plaint ran :
“Tf I can wheedle
A nail or aneedle
Why not a silver churn.”’
T used to think the magnet very unreasonable,
because I supposed the atoms of iron and steel
were necessarily drawn to it willy nilly, while
there was no such tendency in the silver atoms,
which were consequently quite unable to re-
spond toits call. Major Powell (SctENcE, Feb-
ruary 17th) puts the matter in a new light,
which awakens my sympathy for the magnet. It
appears that the particles have choice. Both
common sense and the dictionary tell us that
choice is the power of choosing. Thus it
was not of necessity, but of their free will,
that the nails and needles were so responsive.
The silver churn evidently considered the mag-
net ineligible. The case of the latter is a truly
sad one, worthy of all serious commiseration,
for if,as Major Powell tells us, the particles
have intelligence, why should they not have
love also? True, the magnet as a whole does
not know, but what can assuage the grief of
each of its myriad particles? Is there any hope
that in time the silver will think better of it?
ARDY,
HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, February 27th.
ASTRONOMICAL NOTES.
TUTTLE’S COMET.
THIS comet was discovered by Méchain at
Paris in 1790. Only a few observations were
418
taken, however, and the comet was rediscovered
by Horace P. Tuttle at the Harvard College
Observatory, January 4, 1858.
Johannes Rahts, of Koénigsberg, made the
most complete discussion of the orbit, combin-
ing the observations of 1858 and 1871-2, having
regard also to the perturbations. His value of
the period is 18.7 yrs. The comet was next
seen in 1885, and was expected during the pres-
ent year. An ephemeris was accordingly dis-
tributed from Kiel, and it was probably by
means of this that a faint comet, supposed to
be Tuttle’s, was discovered March 5th, by Dr.
Wolf, as already announced. This ephemeris,
as corrected by Dr. Wolf’s observation, is
given below.
Ephemeris.
G. M. T. R. A. Dec.
1899. Mar) 5.5° 12 16™. 397 + °31° 36"
CHa a Sib Gili Sali tis)
135i 46 St 30 AG
aly aye eyes Absa bys reeds) iesth)
HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY,
March 8, 1899.
A NEW STAR IN SAGITTARIUS.
From an examination of the Draper Memorial
photographs, Mrs. Fleming has discovered a
new star in the constellation Sagittarius. Its
position for 1900 is: R. A. = 18"56.2™, Dec. =
—13°18’. It was too faint to be photographed
on eighty plates taken between October 18,
1888, and October 27, 1897, although stars as
faint as the fifteenth magnitude appear on some
of them. It appears on eight photographs
taken while it was bright. On March 8, 1898,
it was of the fifth magnitude, and on April 29,
1898, of the eighth magnitude. A plate taken
this morning, March 9, 1899, shows that the
star is still visible, and is of the tenth magni-
tude. Two photographs show that its spectrum
resembles those of other new stars. Fourteen
bright lines are shown, six of them due to hy-
drogen. The entire number of new stars dis-
covered since 1885 is six, of which five have
been found by Mrs. Fleming.
KE. C. PICKERING.
HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY,
March 9, 1899.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 220.
NOTES ON PHYSICS.
ELECTRIC WIRE WAVES.
THE theory of electric waves along wires has
been worked out very completely by J. J.
Thomson for the case of a wire surrounded by
a cylindrical conducting shell. candle per
square centimeter.
Instead of determining the brilliancy of a
light source by dividing its measured brightness
(candle power) by the measured area of its
luminous surface, making due allowance, of
course, for irregular distribution in so far as this
is possible, Mr. Jenko illuminates a screen of
known area by a light of measured brightness,
distance being measured. The intensity of the
illumination of this screen is then known. He
then compares upon a photometer bar the light
given off by this screen with the light given off
by the source of which the brilliancy is to be
determined. He then measures the luminous
area of the source and calculates its brilliancy
in terms of the brilliancy of the illuminated
screen, using an obvious relation between brill-
iancies, brightnesses and distances along the
photometer bar ! W.S. F.
THE MAGNETIZATION OF IRON.
In Wied. Ann., Band 66, No. 18, pp. 859-953,
Max Wien communicates the results of a most
careful and elaborate investigation upon ‘The
Magnetization of Iron by Alternating Currents.’
The first part of the paper contains a general
résumé of the literature of the subject, with a
useful set of references to the original articles.
Following this comes a discussion of the mag-
netization of iron by alternating currents, in
which it is shown that for a coil containing an
iron core and having a purely sinusoidal E. M.
F. applied to it, neither the induction nor the
magnetizing force will be a simple sine function
of the time, but will contain higher harmonics,
on account of the varying permeability of the
core, and that also the apparent resistance of
such an electro-magnet is greater than the re-
sistance of its windings, while its apparent is
less than its true self inductance.
A full description of the experimental ar-
rangements and necessary corrections for Fou-
cault currents, upper harmonics, etc., is then
given together with the values obtained for the
induction and hysteresis for irons of various
qualities, using magnetizing currents having
frequencies of 128, 256 and 520 per second.
420
The paper concludes with a general discus-
sion of the experimental data, which may be
summarized as follows:
The permeability and induction are always
smaller for an alternating field than for a steady
one, the difference reaching a maximum for
low values of the magnetizing force, while near
saturation the difference is small. For low
values of the magnetizing force the differences
are the same for all frequencies. The softer
and less subdivided the iron, and the higher the
frequency, the greater the difference (amount-
ing in one case for very soft iron to 40%).
Tn moderate and strong fields, for equal values
of the induction, the hysteresis is greater for
alternating magnetization, than the value ob-
tained by the usual static methods, the increase
being greater the nearer saturation is ap-
proached, the higher the frequency and the softer
the iron. The opposite is true for weak fields.
The only explanation which can be given is
that the magnetism of the iron is unable to keep
up with a rapidly varying field and consequently
the hysteresis loop is broader and lower than
it would be if determined for slow changes of
the field. AGES Tar Cre.
GENERAL.
H. BECQUEREL (Comptes Rendus, t. CX XVIL.,
p. 899 and t. CXXVIII., p. 145) has been able
to prove and study the existence of abnormal dis-
persion in sodium vapor. He finds that the
effects of the D, and D, lines in causing ab-
normal dispersion are superposed and that for
certain rays the refractive indices are less than
unity.
On account of its importance in the theory of
atmospheric electricity the question as to
whether the vapor of an electrified liquid is
itself electrified is of great interest. It cannot
be said that the subject has not received atten-
tion, but the results obtained by different inves-
tigators are not in accord. Pellat (Comptes
Rendus, t. CXXVIII., p. 169) has lately re-
investigated the subject and finds that the
rate of loss of charge from an_ insulated,
electrified, metal vessel is greater when it
contains water than when empty. Applying
this result to the phenomena of atmospheric
electricity he comes to the conclusion that it can
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 220.
only explain a part of the observed facts and
further knowledge will reveal some as yet un-
known cause acting. A. Sr. C. D.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.
Mr. Henry GANNETT, Geographer of the
Geological Survey, who was the political and
statistical geographer of the last census, has been
asked to take charge of the same work for the
coming census. The Director of the Census,
Mr. Merriam, has announced that all applica-
tions for positions will receive consideration, and
that examinations will be held as rigid as those
before the Civil Service Commission. The 300
Supervisors are to be appointed after consulta-
tion with Senators and Representatives of the
separate States, but without regard to party
affiliations.
THE professors of geology in the University of
California and in Stanford University have or-
ganized a geological club, to be called the ‘Cor-
dilleran Geological Club.’ It is intended to
include all the geologists of the Pacific and ad-
jacent States, and its object is by occasional
meetings to stimulate geological work. Whether
it shall remain an independent organization or
shall be affiliated with any other scientific body
is left for future decision.
PROFESSOR RAY LANKESTER has been elected
Foreign Correspondent of the Paris Academy
of Sciences for the Section of Anatomy and Zo-
ology. Twenty-seven votes were cast for Pro-
fessor Lankester and eight for Professor Van
Beneden, of Liége. M. Lortet, professor of
medicine, of Lyons, has been elected National
Correspondent for the same Section.
Lorp Lister, London, and Professor Koch,
Berlin, have been elected Foreign Associates of
the Paris Academy of Medicine.
PROFESSOR RAY LANKESTER, London ; Pro-
fessor L. Cremona, Rome, and M. Alexander
Karpinsky, St. Petersburg, have been elected
Associates of the Belgian Academy of Sciences.
THE address in medicine at the next Yale
commencement exercises is to be delivered by
Professor Charles Sedgwick Minot, of the Har-
vard Medical School. The title of the address
has not yet been announced, but we are in-
MAnc# 17, 1899.]
formed that Dr. Minot will present some new
aspects of medical education.
PROFESSOR GEORGE T. LADD, of Yale Univer-
sity, will be given a year’s leave of absence at
the close of the present academic year, and will
lecture on philosophical subjects before the Uni-
versities of Japan and India.
Dr. WittiAM T. Harris, United States
Commissioner of Education, has been given an
honorary doctorate of philosophy by the Uni-
versity of Jena.
Mr. W. E. D. Scotr has been appointed
curator of the ornithological collection in the
School of Science of Princeton University.
Mr. A. KE. Bostwick, Librarian of the New
York Free Circulating Library, has been elected
Librarian of the Brooklyn Public Library.
THE Permanent Secretary of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Dr. L. O. Howard, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C., would be glad to receive
information of the present addresses of the
following: Mr. William J. Lewis, Mr. Frank
McClintock, Miss Mary A. Nichols, Mr. Charles
M. Rolker and Mr. Carl H. Schultz.
Stenor Ropotro LANcIANI, D.C.L., LL.D.,
professor of ancient topography in the Uni-
versity of Rome and Director of the Italian
School of Archeology, has been appointed
Gifford lecturer in the University of St. An-
drews for the next two academical years. The
subject of his lectures will be the ‘ Religion of
Rome.’
WE learn from Nature that at the anniversary
meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society,
Mr. Frank McClean, F.R.S., was awarded the
gold medal of the Society for his photographic
survey of stars in both hemispheres, and other
contributions to the advancement of astron-
omy. A prize of 500 frances, founded by
Augustin-Pyramus de Candolle for the best
monograph on a genus or family of plants, is
offered in competition by the Société de physique
et d’histoire naturelle de Genéve. The mono-
graphs may be composed in Latin, French,
German, Italian or English, and must be sent
to M. Pictet, the President of the Society, be-
fore January 15, 1900. Members of the Society
SCIENCE.
421
are not permitted to compete. The Belgian
Royal Academy has awarded prizes of 600 franes
to M. Georges Clautriau, of Brussels, for his
memoir, on the macro- and micro-chemistry of
digestion in carnivorous plants, and to Professor
L. Cuénot, of Nancy, for his essay on the ex-
cretory organs of Mollusca.
WE regret to record the death of Sir Douglas
Galton, F.R.S., the eminent sanitary engineer.
Born in 1822, he was educated at Rugby and
Woolwich, and received a commission in the
Royal Engineers in 1840. He subsequently
served in many important capacities as Inspec-
tor of Public Works, visiting the United States
to inspect the railways in 1856. He was the
author of books on ‘Healthy Dwellings’ and
‘Healthy Hospitals.’ Sir Douglas Galton was
for twenty-five years the General Secretary of
the British Association, and on his retirement,
in 1895, was elected President. It will be
remembered that his presidential address at
Ipswich was published in this JouRNAL.
Str JOHN STRUTHERS, emeritus professor of
anatomy in the University of Aberdeen, died
on February 24th, aged 75 years. He was the
author of numerous papers on human and com-
parative anatomy, and exercised much influence
on the improvement of anatomical teaching in
Scotland.
THE deaths are also announced of Dr. Dareste
de la Chavanne, the French anthropologist, and
Dr. Franz Lang, a Swiss zoologist and geolgist.
A GRANT of £300 from the Worts Travelling
Scholars’ Fund, Cambridge University, has
been made to Mr. W. W. Skeat, M.A., towards
defraying the expenses of his scientific expedi-
tion to the Malay peninsula, on the condition
that the results of the investigations made by
the expedition be reported by him to the Vice-
Chancellor in a form that may hereafter be
published. Mr. Skeat is accompanied by two
zoologists, Messrs. Evans and Annandale, of
Oxford, and by Mr. Gwynne-Vaughan, bot-
anist.
News of the safety of M. Bonin, the French
explorer, who has been missing in Thibet and
the interior of China, has reached Shanghai.
He arrived at Yachow, Sye Chuen district, after
many exciting experiences, and will make his
4 or)
a4
way to the coast by the river route. Witha
few Chinese companions he has travelled
through the greater portion of Thibet and made
a trip from the Siberian line to Tong King.
Srpps have been taken by the British gov-
ernment to guard against undue destruction
of wild animals in Africa, by the issue of game
regulations. The German government has
been consulted, and it is proposed to hold an in-
ternational conference on the subject in London
in the spring.
THE New York Post-Graduate Hospital has
received $100,000 from Mr. Harris Fahenstock
for a training school for nurses.
PROFESSOR R. W. Woop, of the University of
Wisconsin, has discovered a new method of pho-
tographing in natural colors. He reproduces
the colors by diffraction, and, though at present
the production of the first finished picture is
somewhat tedious, duplicates can be printed as
easily as ordinary photographs are made The
pictures are on glass, and are not only color-
less, but almost invisible when viewed in ordi-
nary lights, but when placed in a viewing
apparatus, consisting of a convex lens ona light
frame, show the colors of nature with great brill-
iancy. The principle is that the picture and
the lens form spectra which overlap and the
eye placed in the overlapping portion sees the
different portions of the picture in color depend-
ing on the distance between the grating lines at
that place. Professor Wood says the finished
picture isatransparent film of gelatine with
very fine lines on it, about 2,000 to the inch
on the average. The colors depend solely
on the spacing between the lines, and are
pure spectrum colors, or mixtures of such, the
necessity of colored screens or pigments, used
in all other processes except that of Lippman,
having been overcome. The pictures can be
projected on a screen by employing a suitable
lantern, or can be viewed individually with a
very simple piece of apparatus consisting of a
lens and perforated screen mounted ona frame.
A peculiarity of the process is that there is no
such thing asa negative in it. Half-a-dozen pic-
tures have been printed in succession, one from
another, and all are positive and indistinguish-
able from each other.
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Von. 1X. No, 220.
THE record for kite-flying for scientific pur-
poses has again been broken at the Blue Hill
Observatory ; 12,440 feet above the sea-level
was reached on February 28th by a recording
instrument attached toa string of tandem kites.
This is 366 feet higher than the preceding best
record, made at the same place on August 26th.
The flight was begun at 3:40 p. m., Tuesday,
the temperature at the surface being 40° and
the wind seventeen miles an hour. At the high-
est degree the temperature was 12° and the
wind velocity fifty miles an hour. Steel wire
was used as a flying line, and the kites, four in
number, were of an improved Hargreave pat-
tern, with curved surfaces, made after the pat-
tern of soaring birds’ wings. The upper kite
carried an aluminum instrument weighing four
pounds, which recorded graphically tempera-
ture, wind velocity, humidity and atmospheric
pressure. The combined kites had an area of
205 square feet and weighed twenty-six pounds,
while the weight of the wire was seventy-six
pounds. The upper kite remained above two
miles for about three hours, and was reeled in
by a steam windlass, constructed for that pur-
pose. When within half a mile of the ground
the fastening on one of the kites slipped, and
this carried it up to the one above, the added
pull snapping the wire and sending three kites
adrift. A search for the lost kites was begun on
Wednesday, and two of them were found at the
Milton town farm, about two miles away,
but the third was not recovered until later,
when it was found at Field’s Corner, over six
miles north of the Observatory, or more than
half the distance between that point and the
State House. The recording instrument was
found uninjured. This was the last of a series
of five high flights made on successive days,
Sunday excepted. The average height reached
was 10,300 feet, or nearly two miles. The
temperature at 10,000 feet on February 23d was
5°; on the 24th, 1°; on the 25th, 11°, and on
the 28th, 20° above zero.
THE British Iron Trade Journal attributes the
remarkable expansion of the iron and steel in-
dustries of the United States to the following
favorable changes in economic conditions: (a)
‘Intensive’ production, reducing costs gener-
ally; (0) Reduced costs of ores and develop-
Marcu 17, 1899. ]
ment of the deposits of fine mineral in the dis-
trict adjacent to the Great Lakes ; (c) Reduction
of salaries through technical progress and
changes in systems of administration ; (d) Re-
markably low cost of fuel; (e) Concentration
of production with unlimited capital; (/)
Mainly, however, to reduced cost of transpor-
tation. This last factor more than all others
together has brought about this great change
and placed the United States in its present re-
lation to the world’s markets.
In a note by M. Considére, published in the
Moniteur Industrielle, recently, there are given
the data of tests of mortars and cements in
structures, their resistance being reinforced by
the introduction of iron straps and ‘ arma-
tures,’ which show that, as he states, these sub-
stances may be thus caused to sustain tensions
twenty times as great as when not thus rein-
forced.
Ir appears that the Nernst light, the scientific
principles of which we recently described, is
likely to rival the are lamp for general use.
Companies have been organized in Germany,
Great Britain and America with capitals ex-
tending into the millions of dollars. The
English company values its rights at about
$1,800,000, and it is to be hoped that Professor
Nernst receives the greater part of this sum.
Knowledge states that a site has been secured
at Kemp Town, overlooking Queen’s Park,
Brighton, for the Gardens of the recently
founded Zoological Society for Brighton and
Hove. Some sixty years ago Brighton possessed
a small zoological garden situated north of The
Level, on the Lewes Road. The institution did
not flourish owing to the ignorance of its orig-
inators, who had no notion of the proper
method of dealing with captive specimens.
The consequence was a very high death-rate
and a brief career for the institution. The new
garden will not be likely to fail from the causes
which produced the collapse of its predecessor,
for it will be managed by competent zoologists
who have experience in the treatment of animals
of all kinds. Moreover, the encouragement
held out to the projectors by residents and per-
sons of distinction in Brighton is such as to
warrant us in believing that the undertaking
SCIENCE.
423
will prove to be a success in all respects. A
special feature in the new institution will be
the regular delivery of courses of instructive
popular lectures for the benefit of the numerous
schools in Brighton and Hove. Among those
who have enrolled their names as patrons of the
Society are several of the foreign Ambassadors,
the Duke of Fife, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Ed-
ward Sassoon, the Earl of Chichester and the
Hon. Walter Rothschild. The managing-di-
rectors are the Earl of Landaff and Mr. F. W.
Frohawk.
THE New York Medical Record states that the
Japanese parliament has passed a bill authoriz-
ing the free distribution of vaccine virus and
rendering vaccination compulsory. It is pro-
vided that a child must be vaccinated within
ten month of its birth, and that, if the vaccina-
tion does not take, it must be repeated within
a period of six months, and yet again within a
similar period if it be again unsuccessful.
Further, all children must be re-vaccinated at
the age of six and once more at the age of
twelve. Thereafter vaccination becomes occa-
sional, and may be declared compulsory at any
time of threatened or actual epidemic, the
power to order it being vested in local goy-
ernors.
A CouRSE of nine lectures upon science and
travel has been arranged by the Field Colum-
bian Museum, Chicago, for Saturday afternoons
in March and April at 3 o’clock. The lectures
are as follows:
March 4—‘ Cuba and the Cubans,’ Dr. R. 8. Mar-
tin, Chicago.
March 11—‘Blind Fishes of North American
Caves,’ Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann, Director, Biological
Station, Bloomington, Indiana.
March 18—‘ Religious Ceremonies of the Hopi In-
dians of Arizona,’ Dr. George A. Dorsey, Curator,
Department of Anthropology, Field Columbian Mu-
seum.
March 25—‘Colors of Flowers and Fruits,’ Pro-
fessor W. H. Dudley, Wisconsin State Normal
School.
April 1—‘ Russia and the Russians,’ Professor A.
M. Feldman, Armour Institute of Technology.
April 8—‘ The Bad Lands of South Dakota,’ Pro-
fessor O. C. Farrington, Curator, Department of Geol-
ogy, Field Columbian Museum.
April 15—‘ Extinct Vertebrates of the Bad Lands,’
424
Mr. E. S. Riggs, Assistant Curator of Paleontology,
Field Columbian Museum.
April 22—‘ Animal Messmates and Parasites,’ Pro-
fessor H. M. Kelly, Cornell College, Mount Vernon,
Towa. ;
April 29—‘ Aboriginal Methods of Manufacturing
Weapons and Implements,’ Professor George L. Collie,
Beloit College, Wisconsin.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS.
Mr. W. F. R. WELDEN, F.R.S8., professor of
zoology of University College, London, has
been elected Linacre professor of comparative
anatomy at Oxford, in succession to Profes-
sor Ray Lankester. Professor Welden, Pro-
fessor Love, whose appointment to the Sedleian
chair of natural philosophy we announced last
week, and Mr. Stout, recently appointed to the
Wilde lectureship of mental philosophy, were
all Fellows of St. Johns College, Cambridge.
THE following promotions have been made
at Princeton University: Assistant Professor
Herbert S. S. Smith to be professor of applied
mechanics in the School of Science; Assistant
Professor Walter Butler Harris to be professor
of geodesy in the School of Science, and In-
structor Ulric Dahlgren to be assistant profes-
sor of histology in the academic department.
E. L. THORNDIKE, Pu. D. (Columbia), instruc-
tor in Western Reserve University, has been
appointed instructor in genetic psychology in
Teachers College, Columbia University.
THE Isaac Newton Scholarship of Cambridge
University for the encouragement of study and
research in astronomy has been awarded to Mr.
G. W. Walker, B. A. Scholar of Trinity Col-
lege. The scholarship is of the annual value
of £200, and is tenable for three years.
Miss CAROLINE HAZARD, of Peacedale, R. L.,
has been elected President of Wellesley College.
PROFESSOR SNELLEN will retire at the close
of the present semester from the chair of oph-
thalmology at the University of Utrecht.
AT a recent meeting of the Council of New
York University Chancellor MacCracken re-
ported that endowments amounting to nearly
$50,000 had been received, of which $20,000
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 220.
will be devoted to the School of Applied
Science.
A CHAIR of English Literature has been en-
dowed in Princeton University with $100,000,
on condition that the Rev. Dr. Henry Van
Dyke, of New York City, be the first incumbent.
Princeton University has also received $65,000
for the academic department.
THE German-American citizens of New York
are collecting a fund of $20,000 in honor of Mr.
Carl Schurz, whose seventieth birthday was re-
cently celebrated. The money will be used to
endow a fellowship and a Library of Germanic
Literature in Columbia University.
THE following further gifts have been made
during the week to educational institutions :
$50,000 to the Catholic University by the Na-
tional Council, Knights of Columbus, to estab-
lish a chair for historical research ; $20,000 to
Hobart College for the foundation of scholar-
ships by Miss Catherine L. Tuttle; $10,000 to
University of Virginia for books on the history
of Virginia, and $5,000 from various donors to
Syracuse University.
AT congregation at Cambridge University
on March 2d the report of the General Board of
Studies recommending the establishment of a
department of agriculture in the University
under the direction of a professor was approved.
The offers made to the University by Sir Walter
Gilbey, the Board of Agriculture, certain county
and borough councils and the Drapers’? Com-
pany were gratefully accepted.
Tue plans for the Cornell Medical School,
New York City, have been filed. The entire
frontage on First avenue, between Twenty-sev-
enth and Twenty-eighth streets, is to be occu-
pied by the building, which will cost $500,000.
Erratum: In the abstract (p. 312 above) of Profes-
sor Wm. A. Locy’s paper before the American Morpho-
logical Society, ‘New Facts Regarding the Develop-
ment of the Olfactory Nerve,’ the first sentence should
read: ‘The early embryonic history of the olfactory
nerve is very imperfectly known,’ instead of ‘is
known,’ and the closing sentence should read: ‘It was
also shown to persist in the adult,’ instead of ‘ to per-
ish in the adult.’ Credit should also be given to the
Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund for providing the
material upon which the research was conducted.
OrunteL CHARLES MArsu, Professor of Paleontology in Yale University, President
of the National Academy of Sciences from 1883 to 1896, President of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in 1878, and one of the editors of this
JourNAL, died at New Haven on March the eighteenth, in his sixty-eighth year.
SCIENCE
EDITORIAL ComMITTEE: S. Newcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WooDWARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THurRston, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; W. K. Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology;
S. H. ScuppER, Entomology; C. E. Brssry, N. L. Brirron, Botany; HENRY F. OsBoRN,
General Biology; C. S. Minor, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bowpitcn, Physiology;
J. S. Brutinas, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRIN-
TON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, Marcu 24, 1899.
CONTENTS:
The Early Tertiary Volcanoes of the Absaroka
Range: ARNOLD HAGUE.........0.:ecccsseceeeseee 4R5
The Physiological Basis of Mental Life: PROFESSOR
HIUGO MUNSTERBERG.......0.cssceeecerenesescnsceeees 442
Sophus Lie: PROFESSOR GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED 447
Scientific Books :—
Newbigin on Color in Nature : ‘Proressor T. D.
A. COCKERELL. Weir on the Dawn of Reason :
DR. EDWARD THORNDIKE........cc0ccceeeeescseees 448
Societies and Academies :—
The Annual Meeting of the New York Academy
of Sciences: PROFESSOR RICHARD E. DODGE.
~ The Philosophical Society of Washington: E. D.
PRESTON. The Geological Society of Washing-
ton: DR. WM. F. MORSELL..........:ecsceeeeeeees 452
Discussion and Correspondence :—
On the Making of Solutions: PROFESSOR M. A.
Wittcox. The Origin of Nightmare: G.
Astronomical Notes :—
A New Satellite of Saturn: PRoressor E. C.
IPI CKWREN Gis cecccievacseccetanacciiseatiecsase suri astro 456.
Notes on Physics :—
The Nernst Lamp ; Pyroelectricity and Piézoelec-
tricity ; The Rotary Converter; The Telescope-
Mirror-Scale Method: W. 8. F......... ..- 456
Notes on Inorganic Chemistry: J. L. H...........000 457
Current Notes on Meteorology :—
The Theory of Cyclones and Anticyclones ; Car-
bonie Acid in Death Gulch: R. DEC. WARD... 458
Zoological Notes :—
Neomylodon Listai: F. A. Lu..scececeeeseenee phono 459
Scientific Notes and News........s.sccooveseecseereeceseeees 460
University and Educational News . 464
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
tor review should be sent to the responsible editor, Profes-
sor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson N. Y.
THE EARLY TERTIARY VOLCANOES OF THE
ABSAROKA RANGE.*
Ir is, I suppose, accepted by many geol-
ogists that volcanic energy has played an im-
portant part not only in bringing about the
present configuration of the Rocky Moun-
tains, but in building up the entire northern
Cordillera, stretching from the Front Range,
along Colorado, Wyoming and Montana,
westward to the Pacific Ocean. Over this
wide area the volcanic phenomena of Ter-
tiary time present a varied and complex
mode of occurrence, offering from different
points of view many problems of geological
interest. These problems have been vigor-
ously attacked both in the field and in the
laboratory, and something has been accom-
plished tending toward their final elucida-
tion. The literature upon the subject is
already voluminous, being scattered widely
through the publications of official reports,
both State and National, and in the pro-
ceedings of scientific societies. While I de-
sire to call your attention to some of these
features, I do not propose to summarize the
work that has already been done in this
direction in a manner which is perhaps
usual on occasions like the present. Neither
do I wish to review the field from my own
standpoint, possibly because, although much
has been accomplished, such a vast amount
of work remains to be done that the broad
*Address of the President before the Geological
Society of Washington, February, 1899.
426
field seems even yet scarcely explored. I
prefer, therefore, to place before you some
results of personal observation in a region
in which I have worked for several years
and in which I have become deeply inter-
ested.
The Absaroka Range lies along the east
side of the Yellowstone Park. Several of
its higher peaks and its long western spurs,
sloping gradually toward the Park, lie
within the national reservation. During
several successive summers, while engaged
in geological observations in the Park, I
found it necessary to penetrate beyond its
boundaries into the higher encircling moun-
tains. My first excursion into the Absa-
rokas was undertaken in the summer of
1885, and thereafter for several years I made
long and protracted journeys into this rug-
ged and at that time almost unknown re-
gion, studying its geology, and returning
each year more and more profoundly im-
pressed by its many marvels. In the year
1893, and again in 1897, the greater part of
the summer was occupied in exploration of
the wild recesses of the Absarokas.
The range, which lies wholly in the State
of Wyoming, stretches from the Beartooth
and Snowy ranges, on the north, southward
to the Owl Mountains. In width it is less
sharply defined, certain outlying plateau-
like areas, such as Mirror and Two-Ocean
plateaus, being separated from the main
body by deep valleys. Geographically they
may be considered as distinct physical fea-
tures. Geologically, from their mode of oc-
currence and the nature of the rocks, they
are intimately associated with the central
mass, and for the purposes of this address
they may be considered as forming a part
of the Absaroka Range. As thus defined,
the range measures 80 miles in length by
50 miles in width, covering an area of nearly
4,000 square miles.
From one end to the other the Absarokas
present a high, imposing plateau, with ele-
SCIENCE,
(N.&. Von. IX. No. 221.
vations ranging from 10,000 to over 12,000
feet above sea level. This entire mass is
made up almost exclusively of Tertiary
igneous rocks. Near the northern flanks
Archean schists and gneisses crop out from
beneath the overlying rocks. Resting upon
the Archean, upturned Paleozoic limestones
and sandstones having a considerable thick-
ness come to the surface, and along the
eastern borders of the range, exposed by
erosion in the broader valleys, occur Cre-
taceous rocks. With these exceptions, the
range consists of a vast accumulation of ag-
glomerates, tuffs, lava flows and intrusive
masses.
Degradation of the mass has taken place
on a grand scale. Vast quantities of vol-
canic ejectamenta have been removed from
the summit, but no reliable data exist by
which the amount can be estimated even
approximately. All the higher portions
have been sculptured by glacial ice. Enor-
mous amphitheatres have been carved out
of the loose agglomerates, and peaks, pin-
nacles, and relics of great tablelands testify
in some measure to the forces of erosion.
The plateau is scored by a complete network
of deep valleys and gorges, which dissect it
in every direction and lay bare the structure
of the vast volcanic pile.
Nowhere in the northern Rocky Moun-
tains do I know grander and more rugged
scenery than ‘can be found in the Absarokas.
But few natural passes lead across the
mountainous tract, and these are high and
difficult to scale. For years the range stood
as an impassable barrier to the earlier ex-
plorers in their attempts to reach the sources
of the Yellowstone from the east; and even
to-day the region is seldom penetrated to its
inmost recesses except by those engaged in
scientific exploration of the country, by the
prospector in search of precious metals, or
by a few adventurous sportsmen in pursuit
of the big game of the Rockies. Much of
this region is covered by a dense growth of
Marcu 24, 1899. ]
coniferous forest, and the greater part of
the forests lying east of the Yellowstone
Park belong to the Yellowstone timber re-
serve, the first of the forest reservations set
aside by proclamation of the President under
the Act of Congress approved March 1, 1891.
Rightly to understand the true position
of this voleanic area it is necessary to re-
view briefly the geological history of the
surrounding region before the piling-up of
the eruptive material. The Absarokas are
hemmed in, both to the north and to the
south, by high ranges with approximately
east and west trends. On the north are the
Beartooth Mountains, presenting a broad
elevated Archean mass culminating in some
of the highest peaks to be found in Montana;
while to the south are the Owl Mountains,
consisting of an Archean nucleus capped
and for the most part concealed by an arch
of Paleozoic beds highly inclined along the
outer’ edges. Between these two ranges
lies a depressed basin, and resting uncon-
formably upon the Archean are sediments
of great thickness, derived in large part
from the earlier continental areas.
These sediments,slowly deposited through-
out a long period, represent nearly all the
great divisions of Paleozoic and Mesozoic
time. Beginning with the Cambrian, in
their order of sequence, come the Silurian,
Devonian, Trias, Jura and all the epochs
of the Cretaceous recognized in Wyoming
and Montana including the Dakota, Colo-
rado, Montana and the Laramie standstone
at the top, with its frequent fluctuations of
sea level, foreshadowing changes in the de-
velopment of the pre-existing continental
area.
With the close of the Laramie sandstone
the long-continued deposition of Mesozoic
and Paleozoic sediments finally came to an
end. In this region unconformity of sedi-
ments by deposition has not as yet been
recognized, and in this sense alone they
may be said to be conformable from Middle
SCIENCE. 427
Cambrian time to the summit of the Lara-
mie. Stupendous orogenic movements
took place, and the surrounding country
became one of mountain building on a grand
scale, accompanied by plication, folding
and faulting. The evidence all points in
one direction—that this uplifting was con-
temporaneous in all the ranges of the
northern Rocky Mountains. For this
reason, and owing to its great geological
significance, being one of the most impor-
tant in Rocky Mountain geological history,
the uplifting has been designated as the
post-Laramie movement.
Along the west side of the Absarokas,
and lying within the Yellowstone Park, ex-
tend north and south ridges of faulted and
crumbled strata consisting mainly of highly
inclined Cretaceous sandstone, the Laramie,
nearly 10,000 feet above present sea level.
From this ridge region eastward for fifty
miles stretches this broad volcanic mass,
finally dying out upon the plain over which
the earliest lavas spread, resting on hor-
izontal sandstones at an elevation of about
6,000 feet above sea level. After a very
considerable erosion of the uplifted Meso-
zoic continental land area began the earliest
of these volcanic eruptions, which later
displayed such marvelous energy over this
entire region of country, and which were
closely related to the post-Laramie move-
ment. This eruptive material, forcing its
way upward, followed lines of least resist-
ance along or near planes of faulting, or
wherever the strain had been greatest upon
the weakened strata.
The Absaroka Range was formed by the
piling-up of successive accumulations of
volcanic ejectamenta, with occasional inter-
bedded flows of lava, burying everything
beneath them to a depth of several thous-
and feet. Volcanic breccias, agglomerates
and extrusive lavas, or those that have
been poured out and cooled near the sur-
face, constitute the bulk of the mountains.
428
These breccias and lavas were ejected from
numerous fissures, vents and centers of ex-
plosive energy. Infinite detail as regards
mineral composition and texture, and great
complexity in mode of occurrence, may be
observed. Viewed in a broad way and re-
duced to its simplest terms, the Absaroka
Range consists of an uplifted volcanic
region, presenting from one end to the
other great uniformity, and even simplic-
ity, in its main geological features. It
is essentially a dissected plateau, deeply
trenched by incisive gorges, offering ex-
posures varying from 2,000 to 5,000 feet of
nearly horizontal or only slightly inclined
lavas. To this there are, of course, some
exceptions, as is natural in any volcanic
region. Notwithstanding the varied and
complex manifestations of the eruptive
breccias from many sources of outflow, this
entire body of extrusive material has been
divided broadly into six epochs, based upon
their relative age and general sequence of
lavas. They represent, in the geological
history of the mountains, as many distinct
phases of volcanic eruption. Beginning
with the earliest in the order of eruption,
they have been designated as follows:
early acid breccia, early basic breccia, early
basalt sheets, late acid breccia, late basic
breccia, late basalt sheets.
Briefly stated, the interpretation of this
history, as I understand it, is somewhat as
follows:
So far as is known, the oldest volcanic
rocks recognized in the Absarokas consist of
a series of eruptives made up almost en-
tirely of fragmental material, usually light
in color, varying from grayish white to
purple. In mineral composition they range
from hornblende-andesite to hornblende-
mica-andesite. Some of the siliceous varie-
ties have developed phenocrysts of quartz
in sufficient amount to be classed as dacites.
These breccias appear to have been thrown
out with violent explosive action from nu-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. 1X. No. 221.
merous centers, but from none of them was
any large amount of material piled up; at
least if it was thrown out it was subse-
quently worn down by atmospheric agencies.
In no instance do they attain great eleva-
tion, the exposures being due to extensive
erosion and deep trenching of narrow can-
yons. They are known only in the northern
end of the range, and there in limited area,
being buried beneath vast accumulations of
still later material. These centers appear
to be independent of later eruptions.
Overlying these acid breccias is a vast
amount of volcanic ejectamenta, with here
and there interbedded basaltic flows, the en-
tire body having accumulated in many places
to a height of several thousand feet. They
occur far more widely distributed over the
mountains than any other group of breccias,
stretching both in its length and breadth
from one end of the range to the other.
They constitute nearly all the northern
portion of the Absarokas, as well as the
northeast corner of the Park. Unlike the
early acid breccia, they are usually dark
colored, owing to the amount of ferro-mag-
nesian minerals present. The material
consists largely of hornblende-pyroxene-
andesite, proxene-andesite and __ basalt.
Constant modifications and transitions oc-
cur, but over the entire area the prevailing
rock is pyroxene-andesite, passing into.
slightly less basic rocks carrying horn-
blende on the one hand and into basaltic
forms on the other. By far the greatest
portion of this eruptive material is formed
of coarse agglomerates, sombre in color,
held together by varying amounts of ce-
menting ash and silts of similar composi-
tion. The prevailing colors are black and
brownish gray, while the finer silts and
mud flows free from large bowlders are
light brown, in strong contrast to the mass
of the breccia.
It is difficult to describe in few words
such volumes of volcanic material scattered
Marcu 24, 1899.]
over broad fields and thrown out under
varying conditions. Frequently these basic
breccias present a rough and ropy surface,
like ordinrry scoria irregularly heaped to-
gether, but the bulk of it indicates indistinct
bedding. A tumultuous heaping-up of ag-
glomerate by explosive action characterizes
this breccia, which not infrequently carries
andesitic and basaltic bowlders. measuring
5 and 6 feet in length and often double that
size. In one or two localities huge bowlders
of crystalline gneisses and schists are also
embedded in the lavas.
Scattered over the area occur the thin in-
terbedded flows, apparently poured forth
from numerous fissures and vents. These
flows increased in frequency and thickness
until finally massive outflows of basalt cov-
ered a considerable portion of the earlier
series of breccias. Over how large a field
they at one time may have extended cannot
now be told, erosion having certainly re-
moved them from large tracts, but they may
never have been spread over extensive re-
gions. It is somewhat curious that this
continuous broad field of basalt has a north-
west-and-southeast trend and
obliquely across the summit of the range
from Mirror Plateau to Needle Mountain,
whereas the body of the breccia in general
has a north-and-south trend. The basalts
lie upon the uneven surfaces of the breccia
and occur piled up in a succession of flows,
which in places near their sources have at-
tained an aggregate thickness of 1,500 feet,
although over large areas they measure
about 1,000 feet, thinning out to a few hun-
dred, while in certain places they appear to
be wanting. Individual sheets range in
thickness from 5 to 50 feet without showing
any material change in the physical charac-
ters of successive flows. The greatest accu-
mulation of flows appears to be along the
trend of the basaltic body, thinning out
both to the northeast and to the southwest,
indicating that the eruptions had followed
stretches -
SCIENCE. 429
a fissure or system of fissures. Of course,
this can be said only in a general way, as
basaltic outflows may occur anywhere along
the range. As regards mineral composi-
tion, they are usually fine grained, with but
few well-developed megascopic constituents,
mainly augite, olivine and plagioclase. In
chemical composition they show within re-
stricted limits considerable variation, with
accompanying changes in mineral develop-
ment, analyses determining a large amount
of the alkalies and a correspondingly low
percentage of silica. Numbers of these
flows have built up, from vents, rounded
bosses of basaltic rocks characterized by a
development of orthoclase, in several in-
stances associated with leucite. They are
the extrusive equivalents of intrusive rocks,
designated as absarokites in distinction
from normal basalts. Reference will be
made to them later, in speaking of certain
intrusive masses. So far as our present
knowledge goes, they belong chiefly to this
period of eruptions. Many of these indi-
vidual sheets stretch out for long distances,
but others show great lack of continuity,
thinning and thickening in different direc-
tions and often overlapping one another, in-
dicating numerous sources of eruption and
varying force and duration of flows.
In their topograpic configuration the ba-
salts stand out in marked contrast to the
loosely compacted breccias, owing to great
uniformity of flows and to differences in
weathering. To these basalts the name early
basalt sheets has been given, and they are
here treated as a geological unit, since they
mark a distinct period in the history of
voleanic eruption. It is quite possible, and
even probable, that they covered this entire
region and were subsequently removed by
erosion, but of this there is no direct evi-
dence. If they did, the country must at
one time have presented a gloomy, sombre
field of basalt, poured forth in a molten
condition after a long period of fragmental
430
eruptions. How long the basalt period
lasted cannot now be told. In determining
the sequence of lavas these early basalt
fields play an important part, as they over-
lie the early series of acid and basic brec-
cias and underlie a somewhat similar series
of eruptive material designated late acid
breccia and late basic breccia and flows.
Following the basalts come the late acid
breccias. They occur less widely distrib-
uted than the early acid breccias, and for
the most part lie within the Yellowstone
Park. Unlike the earlier breccias, they are
less deeply buried beneath later eruptive
material, but are piled up in successive
layers one upon another, forming the sum-
mits of several prominent peaks and broad,
plateau-like ridges. Over considerable areas
they lie spread out in thin sheets over the
basalt flows. Their centers of eruption
occupy a restricted area and seem to be in
every way quite independent of the earlier
breccias and basalts. In mineral composi-
tion they closely resemble the early acid
breccias, consisting of hornblende-andesite
and hornblende-mica-andesite, in places
mingled with a good deal of pyroxene-
andesite, both augite and hypersthene be-
ing recognized, sometimes one and some-
times the other predominating. Much of
the brecciated material is similar in mineral
composition to the Ishawooa intrusive
bodies, which will be discussed later.
Nearly all of this material is fragmental,
and the greater part of it is made up of
coarse and fine tuffs. Frequently the con-
tact between the light-colored acid breccia
and the still later basic breccia is sharply
drawn, the latter filling up depressions and
levelling the accidented surfaces of the
former, which occur at varying altitudes.
In most instances the line of demarcation
is not so sharply drawn, and not infre-
quently there is a mingling of material, as
if there had been a pouring-out of the
later rock before the complete cessation and
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 22%.
closing-up of the more acid centers of
eruption. Occasionally these light-colored
rocks, from what appear to be local centers,
lie directly upon basic breccia made up of
basaltic bowlders and cementing tufts of
the earlier series, without the intervening
basalts. Overlying these acid breccias
there poured forth from numerous yents a
second great volume of basic rocks and
agglomerates, 2,000 to 3,000 feet in thick-
ness, bearing a close resemblance to the
earlier basic rocks. They are found over
the southern portion of the Absarokas,
usually resting upon the basalts, the late
acid breccias being, as before mentioned,
restricted to a limited region of ‘country.
Indeed, the second series of breccias forms
the top of nearly all the high plateaus and
the summits of the more prominent points.
Cross-sections exposed in deep canyons re-
veal grand escarpments of both breccias,
with intervening monotonous sheets of ba-
salts. Viewed in a broad way, these two
series of breccias are singularly alike, and
apparently the conditions governing their
eruptions were much the same. If we are
to draw any distinctions, it may be said
that the early breccias are apt to be sco-
raceous and slaggy and more chaotic in
their tumultuous accumulation. The later
breccia is more regular and distinctly
bedded, and is almost wholly made up of
both coarse and fine fragmental material,
carrying large bowlders that could not have
been thrown a great distance from the dis-
charging vents. Bowlders weighing a ton
or more are by no means uncommon. In
general, it may be said of these later brec-
cias that the coarsest material lies near the
present crest of the range, and is seen to
grow finer and more uniform, with distinct
bedding, as one travels either east or west.
To this rule, however, there are marked
exceptions.
Following the late basie breccia, basalt
tables are found here and there capping the
MARkc# 24, 1899. ]
crest of the main ridge along the southern
portion of the range. Probably they are all
remnants of one continuous flow. They
are best observed when seen eastward from
Mountain Basin, when they present a cas-
tellated appearance, capping the coarser
and lighter-colored rocks. In general habit
they resemble the earlier basalt sheets, and,
except for their position, have little to dis-
tinguish them from other similar flows.
The part they play in the present configura-
tion of the plateau is insignificant. The
interest lies in the fact that these basalts
complete a second cycle of eruption, which
built up the Absarokas by the accumula-
tion of successive flows of extrusive lavas,
and that with them, so far as we have any
positive record, the last phase of a long-
continued series of eruptions came to a
close.
That the piling-up of this eruptive ma-
terial lasted through a long period of time
is clearly established. In the first place,
the early acid breccias show evidences of
considerable denudation before the pouring-
out of later lavas which now occupy the
eroded areas. Notinfrequently depressions
may be seen filled with water-laid silts and
fine gravels, which were afterwards covered
by fresh outflows of breccia. Similar water-
laid deposits may be observed in all the
breccias, but they especially characterize
the early basic series along the east side of
the range, where the former existence of
large lakes and ponds is manifest, with
sediments of volcanic material over 200
feet in thickness deposited in comparatively
quiet waters. In certain localities the
basalts appear to be the result of fitful dis-
charge and slow building-up from numer-
ous vents. The thinning and thickening of
beds in various directions, the overlapping
of thin beds from different centers, and
the frequently chilled surfaces of vesicular
basalt, all point to a slow accumulation of
the ejected lava. Occasionally in basaltic
SCIENCE. 431
cliffs between lava sheets may be seen thin
beds of volcanic sands and gravels, wind-
strewn over an exposed surface before be-
ing buried beneath fresh flows. Nowhere
were interbedded layers of clay or earthy
beds of decomposed rock observed, but such
deposits are, I think, exceptional in most
basalt areas.
While the gradual building-up of the
plateaus from fresh accumulation was
steadily in progress, erosion was constantly
at work upon the surface; and, although
volcanic fires ceased long ago, erosion has
been going on steadily ever since. One of
the most remarkable and puzzling features
of the country are the areas of undoubted
water-worn volcanic material, with its
smooth and polished bowlders. Accumu-
lations through floods and freshets abound ;
and, besides the evidence of ancient lakes
and ponds found dotted over the surface,
there are strong grounds for the belief that
upon the upland existed broad rivers which
carried the water-laid material across the
plateau to the plain below. All this re-
quired a long time for its accomplishment.
Turning now to the land vegetation, con-
vincing arguments are found not only for
determining the age of the rocks, but for
demonstrating that the eruptions lasted
throughout a long continued period of ac-
tivity. It is doubtful if any other known
region in the world offers such a promising
field of research, showing the relationship
between plant life and volcanic eruptions,
as is to be found in the Absarokas. In
solving these problems the geologist is
greatly indebted to the paleobotanist. From
time to time extensive collections of fossil
plants have been made, indicating a rich
and varied flora. Portions of the region
have been visited by our distinguished fel-
low members, Professor L. F. Ward and
Professor F. H. Knowlton. All of the col-
lections have been referred to Professor
Knowlton, who has made an exhaustive
432
study of the material, and his researches
are now in press. For specific determina-
tions of these plants I refer you to his mon-
ograph. Already over 150 species of plants
have been identified.
The early acid breccias have yielded a
terrestrial vegetation regarded as of earlier
age than that obtained from the superim-
posed lavas. It has furnished a grouping
of species so closely allied to the flora found
in the Fort Union beds, near the junction of
the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, that
the two floras are regarded as identical
in age, and consequently referred to the
Kocene period. From these acid breccias
eighty species have been identified, and
twelve of them were previously only
known as belonging to the Fort Union hori-
zon. Still others are common to both
localities, but are found elsewhere as well.
About one-half of the species are new to
science, but according to Professor Knowl-
ton their biological affinities relate them
closely to the Fort Union flora. A second
grouping of fossil plants, designated for
convenience the intermediate flora, flour-
ished at a time when the early acid breccia
had about ceased to be emitted; at least
they occur near the base of the lower basic
breccia in beds indicating a mingling of
both types of rock. In all probability they
represent a flora which flourished in quies-
cent times, during a transition period from
one series of eruptions to another, but fore-
shadowing a period of basic eruptions. This
flora is of the highest geological signifi-
ance, since it indicates a great duration of
voleanic activity, with a change of cli-
matic and physical conditions. This inter-
mediate flora embraces about thirty species,
of which only two or three are as yet known
in the acid breccias. About the same num-
ber have been recognized as common to the
basic breccias, but the evident affinities of
the grouping are such that the flora asa
whole is apparently more closely allied to
SCIENCE,
[N. 8S. Vou. IX. No. 221.
the overlying than to the underlying rocks.
For this reason it is referred to the base of
the Miocene period and is regarded as older
than the flora of the auriferous gravels of
California.
The vegetation which flourished during
the period of the basie breccias was, like
the breccias themselves, widely distrib-
uted over the mountains wherever mud
and silts were present to furnish a suitable
soil. Nowhere can it be better studied
than at the fossil forest of Specimen Ridge,
in the Yellowstone Park, first explored by
Professor W. H. Holmes over twenty-five
years ago. Since that time other localities
have been discovered, and quite recently
beds holding leaf impressions of a similar
flora have been found on the east side of the
mountains. At the fossil forest precipitous
walls expose nearly 2,000 feet of horizontal
beds of breccias, silts and mud flows, in
part laid down by floods and freshets and
in part deposited by quiet waters. From
base to summit at frequent intervals a ter-
restrial vegetation has sprung up and flour-
ished, only in turn to be destroyed by re-
newed lava streams. In one of these buried
forests a stump of a still-standing coniferous
tree measures 10 feet in diameter and is
surrounded by many fallen logs long since
preserved by silicification. If one considers
the length of time it takes for any vegeta-
tion to spring up on an arid lava field and
the great age of many of these trees, the
time necessary to build up a series of such
forests one above another can hardly be
overestimated. That there were long
periods of rest between the outpourings of
the lava seems evident. Throughout this
2,000 feet of erupted material it has been
found impossible as yet to discriminate be-
tween vegetation found at the base of the
cliffs and that interbedded with the lavas
at the summit. This implies similar cli-
matic conditions during the time demanded
to renew and develop a varied flora between
Marcu 24, 1899. ]
successive layers of tuffs and muds. It
may be well to state that all this probably
took place before the period of basalt erup-
tions. This flora has yielded seventy spe-
cies, and is regarded as markedly different
from that of the earlier breccia, and of later
age. As a grouping it shows the closest
affinity to the auriferous gravels of Califor-
nia, many of the species being identical,
while still others have the closest resem-
blance to species found only in the gravels.
It has been named the Lamar flora, and
referred, like the auriferous gravels, to the
upper Miocene period. Both the late acid
and the late basic breccias have recently
yielded, well-preserved leaf impressions,
proving the existence of a more or less
luxuriant flora in all the great periods of
breccia eruptions. Such fragmentary ma-
terial as has been found in these later rocks
agrees with plants preserved in the early
breccia at Fossil Forest, and, therefore, has
been correlated with the Lamar flora of
upper Miocene age. It was a vegetation
essentially characterized by deciduous foli-
age. Several species of magnolias, aralias
and other equally important groups which
are marked features of the auriferous
gravels flourished on these volcanic slopes.
Specimens of Aralia notata occur widely dis-
tributed, and the leaves of some of them
are supposed to have measured 3 feet in
length by 2 in breadth. Associated with
them are leaves provisionally referred to
the genus Artocarpus, indicating the pres-
ence of the breadfruit tree. According to
Professor Knowlton, this flora is extra-
tropical and may be compared in many
ways to the vegetation as seen to-day in
southern Mississippi and the Gulf coast.
He says: ‘It is obvious that the present
flora of the Yellowstone National Park has
comparatively little relation to the Tertiary
flora and cannot be considered as a descend-
ant of it. It is also clear that the climatic
conditions must have greatly changed. The
SCIENCE.
Tertiary flora appears to have originated,
or at least to have had its affinities, at the
south, while the present flora is evidently
of northern origin.”
On the slopes of Overlook Mountain, in
the center of the range, nearly 11,000 feet
above the present sea level, occurs a pros-
trate log, preserved by silicification, meas-
uring 2 feet in diameter at its base. Not
far distant other logs are found, and in the
silts occur impressions of deciduous leaves.
From this locality four species of plants
have been determined as identical with
species found in the fossil forest, among
them an Aralia notata.
In a personal communication Professor
Ward informs me that in his opinion the
flora of this region grew virtually at sea
level. While I recognize his eminent
authority in such matters, I am hardly pre-
pared to accept such a radical view, but I
cordially welcome this expression of opin-
ion because it in a measure corroborates my
own belief that the silts and ashes on which
the flora of Overlook Mountain flourished
were laid down at a much lower level than
that at which they are now found.
Briefly summarizing the facts brought out
by a study of the fossil flora and their bear-
ing upon the geology, it is, I think, indis-
putable that the flora affords abundant evi-
dence of a great range of Tertiary time
during the period of volcanic eruptions, even
if geologists do hesitate to accept the pre-
cise determinations of the age of the differ-
ent floras and their geological sequence.
This luxuriant terrestrial vegetation, de-
veloped through thousands ‘of feet of lava
beds, tends to confirm the view that the
accumulation of this erupted material was
an exceedingly slow process. Again, the
character of the vegetation lends a forcible
argument to the belief that the entire region
must have been elevated since the develop-
ment of so varied an extra-tropical vegeta-
tion. For my part, I desire to pay tribute
434
to the great value of the fossil flora as an
aid in deciphering the geological history of
the Absarokas. Its interest and impor-
tance cannot be overestimated.
Only brief allusions have been made as
yet to the intrusive bodies, although they
play a most important part in the build-
ing-up of the Absarokas. Although such
bodies in the form of dikes probably cut the
breccias from time to time, it is clearly
evident that all the large intrusions, to-
gether with the greater part of the dikes,
were forced upward and into the breccias at
two well-defined periods of eruption. The
first of these periods was in part contem-
poraneous with the early basalt flows, and
in part followed them. The second fol-
lowed the late basic breccia and basalts,
and, so far as can be told, completed the
final chapter in the geological history of
the immediate region. It is possible that
later eruptions took place and that the
material ejected was removed by erosion,
but of this there is no positive record other
than a few isolated patches of rhyolite
which do not bear directly upon the prob-
lems before us and which may be regarded
as outliers of the rhyolite of the Park
plateau. It does not follow that the in-
trusions of either period were contempora-
neous in age, but simply that they belong
to a certain phase of the eruptive energy.
Dikes may cut an earlier series of intru-
sives, and subsequently other dikes may
intersect those which preceded them.
For the purpose of clearly discriminating
between these two groups of rocks, the one
that followed*the early basic breccia has
been named the Sunlight intrusives, from
their remarkable exposures along Sunlight
Creek and valley, while the later group
has been named the Ishawooa intrusives,
from the canyon of that name, where the
complexity of their occurrences forms one
of the most striking features of that impres-
sive gorge. In mineral composition the
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 221.
Sunlight intrusives range from a quartz-
augite-andesite, through transition forms
of syenite and diorite, to orthoclase-gabbro.
The large body at the head of Sunlight
Creek is mainly a syenite with associated
monzonites and diorites. On Closed Creek,
in Crandall Basin, the intrusive body con-
sists for the most part of orthoclase, gabbro
and diorite. The series as a whole shows
an association of the minerals augite, plagio-
clase and orthoclase, with quartz and
biotite in its more siliceous members, and
olivine and hypersthene in its basic mem-
bers. In general, the Sunlight intrusives
are more diversified in chemical composi-
tion than those of the Ishawooa group.
The latter are more siliceous, carrying less
of magnesia and alkalies, and the coarsely
crystalline masses are much more like
normal diorite, diorite-porphyry, granite,
granite-porphyry and andesite-porphyry.
Of the Sunlight intrusive bodies the one
situated near the source of Sunlight Creek,
in the central portion of the range, is the
most impressive, and at the same time the
most typical in its occurrence. It measures
nearly 3 miles in length and occupies the
basins of all the deep glacial amphitheatres
on the north side of Stinkingwater River,
while all the high intervening ridges sepa-
rating the basins consist of indurated
breccia. Similar rocks are exposed in the
Silvertip Basin, on the south side of the
peak, and in all probability they form part
of one continuous body.
The Crandall Basin stock, under Hur-
ricane Mesa, exposed by the erosion of
Closed Creek, has far less lateral ex-
pansion, but rises for nearly 3,000 feet
above its base. Dikes radiate from all
the large intrusive bodies, but nowhere else
is their number so great and the part they
play so strongly marked as in the region of
the Sunlight stock. These dikes are by no
means all connected with the large stocks
seen at the surface, but may be observed in
Marcu 24, 1899.7
great force at a number of localities in the
early breccia along the east side of the range,
far removed from any recognized crystalline
body. Wherever these early breccias occur
dikes are apt to be a marked feature of the
country, in contradistinction to the country
occupied by the latter breccias.
These dikes consist mainly of orthoclase
basalts, which Professor Iddings, from his
microscopical studies, has divided into ab-
sarokites, shoshonites and banakites, de-
pending upon their varying mineral and
chemical composition. In the field it seems
impossible as yet to differentiate between
them, and so far as can be told they present
the same mode of occurrence. For most
geological purposes they may be grouped
together under the general term of absaro-
kites. They form a connecting link be-
tween many of the eruptions in the early
basalt sheets and the Sunlight intrusives.
They are closely related to the syenites and
monzonites of the Sunlight intrusive stock.
Both these dikes and sheets occur over ex-
tensive areas.
Leaving for the present the Sunlight in-
trusives, let us take up the Ishawooa in-
trusives, which I select in order the more
easily to bring out in detail certain facts
bearing upon the origin of both types of in-
trusive rocks. Of the many intrusive
bodies, Needle Mountain, in the southern
end of the Absarokas, is the most imposing
and instructive of them all. At the base
runs the Shoshone River, through one of
the most rugged and picturesque canyons
to be found in northern Wyoming. This
great stock, which stretches along the val-
ley for nearly four miles, rises abruptly
4,000 feet above the stream bed, from an
elevation of 7,000 feet above sea level. It
is overlain by 1,000 feet of partially in-
durated and metamorphosed breccia. From
the rounded summit of this commanding
peak the breccias may be seen stretching
far to the west on the opposite canyon wall,
SCIENCE. 435
thence across Thoroughfare Plateau and
on to the higher regions of Wind River
Plateau, where they lie nearly horizontal
at an elevation approximately the same as
that of Needle Mountain itself. Upon this
latter plateau the Shoshone River finds its
sources, and in its rapid descent of 5,000
feet before reaching Needle Mountain ex-
poses large, irregular stocks of indefinite
outline piercing the breccias.
Looking eastward from Needle Moun-
tain, the breccias extend as far as the eye
can reach in the direction of the broad,
open plain beyond. The massive stock of
Needle Mountain consists essentially of
diorite, quartz-diorite and diorite-porphyry,
cut by numerous narrow dikes of appar-
ently differentiated products of the same
molten magma. Offshoots and apophyses
from the parent stock pierce the surround-
ing breccia, and a number of small dikes
penetrate the overlying breccia. From
these dikes sheets of granite-porphyry
stretch out into the breccias, and on the
spurs of the mountain erosion has worn
them bare, leaving them exposed as the
surface rock. The stock is found on the
opposite side of the canyon, rising high
above the stream and capped by the ever-
present breccia. Bordering the diorite
stock the breccias are indurated, crushed,
and so altered that not infrequently it is
impossible to discriminate between breccias
and intrusive stocks without the aid of the
microscope. Dr. Jaggar has shown that
many of these fine-grained rocks are al-
tered mud and silts and metamorphosed
breccias.
From Needle Mountain to Mount Chit-
tenden, in the Yellowstone Park, a dis-
tance of over fifty miles, there extends in
a northwest direction a remarkable and
probably a continuous belt of intrusive
rocks. These intrusive bodies occur: as
stocks, sheets, bosses and dikes, varying
from irregular-shaped masses of stupen-
456
dous proportions, two and three miles in
width and several thousand feet in height,
to narrow dikes and seams traceable along
the canyon walls for only a few feet and
often disconnected at the surface from
any other body. A short distance north
of Needle Mountain, but on the opposite
side of the canyon, another great stock
rises precipitously above the stream bed,
and it is clearly evident that its rela-
tion to the breccias are in every way
similar to those observed at Needle Moun-
tain. Between these two massive bodies
smaller outcrops of diorite and diorite-
porphyry are exposed in lateral ravines on
the mountain sides, and the network of
dikes trending in every direction points
conclusively to the fact that these intrusive
bodies belong to one and the same stock.
Dislocated and indurated bodies of breccia
are found upon the mountain spurs, but
the overlying capping of breccia peacefully
crowns it all.
From this point northward, following
along the line of the powerful intrusions,
each dissecting canyon, where it cuts the in-
trusive masses, lays bare numerous expo-
sures of crystalline rocks which have forced
their way upward into the breccias, and,
following lines of least resistance, have
spread out in all directions with a marvel-
ous complexity of form and outline. Some
of the stocks penetrating the breccia have
attained elevations slightly above the pres-
ent level of the plateau, but most of them
failed to reach so high a position. Wherever
they have reached the top of the plateau
their tendency is to spread out in sheets,
which now form the exposed surface of
spurs and ridges. Many of these inter-
bedded sheets are directly connected with
some of the larger stocks, but others show
no such relationship at the surface and
stand out quite independently of them. Oc-
casionally the sheets bulge up with irreg-
ular outline; others are dome-shaped, de-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. 1X. No. 221.
veloping laccolithic form. Vertical dikes
cutting the interbedded breccias pass into
sheets, and later again assume the condi-
tions of normal vertical dikes. The vari-
able character of the breccia, sometimes
compact and uniform and at others made
up of an incoherent mass of silts and ash,
tends to constant change in the upward
movement of the molten magma.
The gorges of both Cabin Creek and Can-
yon Creek expose similar rocks, with ac-
companying phenomena of strain and rup-
ture. Ishawooa Canyon, one of the most
rugged of these incisive trenches, presents
varied modifications of eruptive energy, a
bold stock, Clouds Home, piercing the brec-
cias with an irregular outline from the
bottom of the canyon to the top of the
plateau. One of the finest examples of a
massive interbedded sheet extends for a
mile or more along the canyon wall. Sim-
ilar phenomena present themselves in
Wapiti Canyon, where four tributary
streams, uniting to make the river, have
cut down in the intrusive masses in a most
instructive manner. Near the sources of
Eagle Creek diorite and andesite-porphyry
are again laid bare, and thenee, trending
across the crest of the range, extend as far
as Sylvan Pass, where coarsely crystalline
diorite and diorite-porphyries come to the
surface for the last time in an exposure
nearly a mile in length. Beyond this point
eruptive energy gradually dies out, and is
only shown by the presence of a few power-
ful dikes noticeable for their uniformity and
persistency. (
A distinctive feature along this entire
line of intrusive rock is the belt of indurated
breccia which accompanies it. Near the
larger stocks the alteration of the breccia
is especially noticeable, and not infre-
quently it is difficult to discriminate be-
tween the stock masses and the metamor-
phosed material. The mode of weathering
is so unlike that of the ordinary breccia,
Marcu 24, 1899. ]
and the transitions are so gradual, that it is
by no means easy to define the outlines of
the intrusive masses without personal in-
spection. Although never haying been
followed as a continuous body, owing to
the nature of the topography, the zone of
induration is one of the marked features of
the region, and under favorable conditions
may be traced in the canyon walls for fifty
miles, with a width in places of more than
one-half mile. Another important and
significant feature is the inclination of the
breccias away from some well-defined axis
or central ridge. They do not as a rule
arch over any single powerful protrusion,
but present every indication of a broad
anticlinal structure, with the piled-up lavas
inclined toward the west and southwest on
one side and toward the east and northeast
on the other. Between the more massive
bodies that have been forced upward to
elevations above the general level there
may be found areas of indurated breccia,
traversed by a labyrinth of dikes and veins
in their efforts to force their way upward.
Without entering into petrographic de-
tails, a few words in addition to what has
already been said seem necessary. Granites
and diorites are seldom met with other
than in connection with the large uniform
stocks. As most of these stocks are only
partially exposed, their volume can only be
a matter of conjecture, but in all the larger
bodies, such as Needle Mountain, the rock
is essentially that of a medium-grained
diorite or diorite-porphyry. A true granitic
structure is by no means uncommon. Most
of the powerful intrusions, as regards their
crystalline structure, may be classed as
granular. The great bulk of these crystal-
line rocks apparently carry some little
groundmass. Porphyritic structure, with
little groundmass, is a characteristic feature,
with transitions into andesite-porphyry and
andesite. Many similar bodies of indefinite
outline, only partially exposed by erosion
SCIENCE.
437
of the canyon walls, areandesites. Indeed,
all the relatively small bodies are andesitic
in habit, and the same is true of the many
outlying bodies away from the general north-
west-southeast trend of the intruded rocks.
A field study of these rocks of vary-
ing degrees of crystallization shows clearly
that they were all exposed to virtually the
same degree of pressure of overlying rock,
and that their structural differences were
not dependent primarily upon pressure
from above. Many of these andesitic
masses are much smaller than the diorite
bodies and occur at much lower levels below
the superimposed load. All observations
upon the geological relations of these in-
trusives to the breccias tend to show that
their structural differences are dependent
far more upon the chilling effect of the sur-
rounding rock and the rate of cooling than
upon the pressure of the overlying rock.
Geologists and petrographers have been for
a long time investigating the structural
differences and mineral variations of igneous
rocks. Of these philosophical investigators
Professor Iddings stands in the foremost
rank. Juan exhaustive petrographic study
of the Crandall Basin intrusive body and
its complex system of radial dikes of vary-
ing composition he reaches the conclusion
that they have all been derived from the
same parent molten magma, but crystal-
lized under different conditions. With this
conclusion I heartily agree. Dr. Jaggar,
who has been at work upon a petrograph-
ical study of the intrusive rocks of the rest
of the Absaroka Range, has reached a
similar conclusion as regards the Ishawooa
intrusive stock and associated sheets and
dikes, and believes that they were derived
from a common molten magma, which is
quite in accord with geological observations
in the field. From these observations,
thus briefly and imperfectly stated, the
conclusion seems inevitable that the Isha-
wooa intrusive, for its entire length of fifty
438
miles, represents a continuous ridge, the
result of the consolidation of a molten
magma intruded into the breccias. Erosion
has as yet laid bare only the more elevated
portions and some of the connecting links.
If a trained geologist were to stand on
any one of the more prominent points in the
Absarokas his attention would, first of all,
be attracted by the vast amount of frag-
mental ejectamenta lying with apparent
horizontality in every direction. Closer
observation would impress him with the
bedded nature of much of this material and
the action which running water had played
in disintegrating the lava and rounding the
andesitic and basaltic bowlders. If, by
chance, he had acquainted himself with the
huge stocks exposed in the canyons, know-
ing the power of dense crystalline rocks to
withstand atmospheric agencies better than
the easily disintegrating breccias, he would
be surprised to find that none of the larger
ones towered above the plateau in com-
manding peaks. At one or two localities
they attain the present level of the plateau,
but do not rise much above it, and usually
give evidence of the dying out of the energy
which forced the magmaupward. As these
intrusive stocks are overlain by breccia
sometimes 1,000 feet in thickness, it is diffi-
cult to see how they ever could have been
centers of powerful extrusive eruption.
In an address delivered before the British
Association for the Advancement of Science
in September, 1893, Professor Iddings took
the ground that the Crandall Basin stock
was the core of a grand volcano, from
which issued the breccias, silts and tuffs
which have built up the north end of the
range, while the gabbros and diorites repre-
sent the coarsely crystalline development of
that portion of the magma which cooled at
great depths beneath the surface. He re-
constructed a voleano to a height of 10,000
feet above the plateau, and subsequently re-
moved by erosion every vestige of the
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 221.
volcano down to the summit of Hurricane
Mesa, the present level of the plateau. He
likens it, in magnitude and in the processes
by which it was built up, to the volcanoes
of Autna and Vesuvius. An abstract of the
address was. published in the Journal of
Geology for September and October, 1893,
and in a forthcoming report on the geology
of the Yellowstone National Park a detailed
description of the Crandall stock will be
found, together with the results of his ad-
mirable petrographic studies of the rocks,
to which allusion has already been made.
After what has been said, it seems hardly
necessary to add that with these geological
views of Professor Iddlings I do not agree.
My interpretation of the history of this re-
gion may possibly call forth the friendly
criticism that this address is an account of
the early Tertiary volcanoes of the Ab-
sarokas with the volcanoes left out. For
such criticism there may be some slight
ground ; but, while I fail to see any evi-
dence of the building-up of such volcanic
piles as Vesuvius and /Mtna, or, as I should
prefer to put it, volcanoes of the type of
Rainier, Hood or Shasta, there was dis-
played intense explosive energy accom-
panied by immense volumes of steam and
the piling-up of a vast block of lavas from
many centers of activity. Instances of such
explosive energy may be seen at Chaos
Mountain, but the material thrown out
yielded readily to atmospheric agencies and
soon became spread out over the entire re-
gion. The whole area of the late acid brec-
cia suggests several powerful vents for the
ejectment of fragmental material and the
partial wearing-away of mounds and ridges
of the heaped-up accumulations. It is pos-
sible that before the Sunlight and Ishawooa
intrusives were forced upward volcanoes
existed, but that any one or two of them
dominated the region and influenced the
topographical configuration of the Absaro-
kas is exceedingly doubtful. There is noth-
Marcu 24, 1899.]
ing to indicate the characteristic slopes of a
great voleano.
Within the Yellowstone Park and just
west of the Absarokas occurs a fine example
of a voleano, situated near the intersection
of the prolongation of the Ishawooa intru-
sive body and the fault along the southern
slope of the Snowy Range. Mount Wash-
burne is the culminating point of the vol-
cano, which consists almost wholly of
fragmental early basic breccia. From a
well-recognized crater, since partially filled
with rhyolite, the erupted material has been
thrown out in every direction, building up
true voleanic slopes encircling a central dis-
charging vent. Such a structure I have
never been able to recognize in the Absa-
rokas. Mount Sheridan, in the Park, is an-
other large volcano, but this is a Pliocene
eruption consisting wholly of rhyolite, and
is one of the sources of the great body of
rhyolite which built up the Park plateau
probably long after the Absarokas ceased to
be a center of volcanic action.
Of all known regions of eruptive energy
within historical times, Iceland in many
ways affords the best field for comparison
of the voleanic phenomena of to-day with
conditions as they existed during the early
Tertiary time in the Absarokas. Iceland
is one of the active centers of eruption on
a stupendous scale. It offers a continuous
voleanic history throughout Pleistocene
time, and dates back to the early Miocene,
as is indicated by its fossil flora. In early
Tertiary time the island was a region of
profound faulting, and it is supposed to
have been separated from the mainland
during that period. Dr. Thoroddsen, the
Icelandic geologist, has published in Euro-
pean scientific journals most interesting
accounts of his explorations over the less-
known regions of the island. The most
complete and instructive of these accounts
which has come to my attention was pub-
lished by the Stockholm Society of Science
SCIENCE. 439
in 1888. Notwithstanding the volcanoes of
majestic proportions which contribute so
much to the scenic grandeur of Iceland,
and which must give to all geologists who
have seen them a profound sense of the
power of volcanic energy, Dr. Thoroddsen,
who has lived among them, protests against
the idea that they were built up like Vesu-
vius or Aitna. He says: ‘‘The vast lava
waste of Odadahraun was produced by the
eruption of over twenty volcanoes, and per-
haps many of the oldest centers of eruption
that contributed to the formation of this
desert Lave become obliterated by later
lava streams. When one recalls geological
text-book descriptions of modern volcanoes
and their activity, it is nearly always Vesu-
vius that everywhere turns up like a spectre,
whereas the regular voleanic cone composed
of alternating lavas and tuffs is rather rare
in Iceland.”
The country which he is describing may
be about one-half the size of the Absaroka
Range, but I have no maps or accurate data
for determining the area. Again, later, he
says: ‘Only a few old volcanoes are found
having this form. In Iceland it is very gen-
erally found that the fissure has not given
rise to the formation of any real volcano.
The lava there has sometimes welled out
along the entire length of the fissure with-
out the formation of a crater, but mostly
there has been formed a series of low slag
cones at the points where the magna, by
reason of the form of the fissure or for some
other cause, found it easiest to break forth.
Such rows of craters are found in all vol-
canic regions of Iceland.’”’ Another notice-
able feature, even in the active regions of
Iceland, is the ease with which sources of
eruption may become obliterated by fresh
flows from neighboring vents of discharge.
According to Dr. Thoroddsen the famous
Heckla itself is a long ridge built up by a
chain of small craters along a line of fissure.
Sir Archibald Geikie, in his admirable
440)
work on the Ancient Volcanoes of Great
Britain, in comparing the voleanic phenom-
ena of the Icelandic eruptions with those
exhibited by the basalt plateaus of the
British Isles, remarks: ‘It is, therefore, to
the Icelandic types of fissure eruption, and
not to great central composite cones, like
Vesuvius or Avtna, that we must look for
the modern analogies that would best serve
as commentary and explanation for the
latest chapter in the long voleanic history
of the British Isles.”
In comparing volcanic areas of Iceland
with the phenomena exhibited in the Ab-
saroka Range there is one striking differ-
ence to be noted. In the former thé ex-
travasated molten magma consists largely
of basaltic flows, while in the latter one is
constantly impressed by the enormous
amount of brecciated rock emitted. It is
estimated that four-fifths of these extrusive
rocks which make up the range consist of
coarse and fine breccias, silts and related
ejectamenta. Dead Indian Peak, one of
the dominating points of the range, rises
more than 6,000 feet above the valley, pre-
senting layers of breccia which in the ag-
gregate measure nearly one mile in thick-
ness. It is a very conservative estimate to
place the volume of breccia at one-half mile
in thickness over the entire region under
discussion, which, it should be remembered,
embraces not much less than 4,000 square
miles. This only allows for erosion an
amount equal to the highest plateau sum-
mit, but it is sufficient to give one an idea
of its vast bulk. That the denudation from
the top of the existing plateau was very
considerable is unquestioned, but there
exist, I think, no reliable data upon which
to base even an approximate estimate of
the amount. Possibly the country was at
one time covered with a mantle of basalt,
which, withstanding erosion, would, of
course, protect the friable volcanic material
throughout a long period.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 221.
It is evident that the granular rocks re-
quired for their uniform crystallization an
overlying load of greater or less depth. For
my own part, 1am more or less skeptical as
to the need of an immense thickness of over-
lying material to develop such uniform con-
solidation as is generally supposed to be
necessary to produce the so-called plutonic
rocks. At Needle Mountain the medium-
grained granular diorite for the entire 4,000
feet of rock face is apparently the same
throughout, whereas only a short distance
from the mass and ata lower level small
bodies of rock in cooling have developed a
characteristic andesitic structure.
It must be borne in mind that all this
material, of varied mineral composition,
grouped together under the designation of
breccias, was congealed and crystallized be-
fore it was hurled out by explosive action.
This means stupendous crushing and
crunching of the mass as it was forced up-
ward, and disturbances of the first magni-
tude, which must have had their origin in
great crustal movements. Whence came
this enormous mass of brecciated rock ?
Twice during the long period of their
eruptions these breccias had been
vaded by enormous bodies of granular rock
which had elevated the entire Absaroka
Range, an elevation that was phenomenal
in its nature and formed a part of the great
series of orogenic movement which uplifted
the northern Cordillera. This uplift was
closely related to the post-Laramie move-
ment, which was one of the most profound
and far-reaching orogenic disturbances any-
where recognized by geologists.
Throughout this address the large in-
dividual protrusions into the breccia have
been alluded to as stocks, but I regard
them as the more elevated portions of a
great complex of crystalline rocks under-
lying at least a large part of this region of
country. Where the underlying molten
magma was subjected to the severest pres-
in-
MARCH 24, 1899. |
sure the material was squeezed upward to
higher levels, following lines of least resist-
ance, and consolidated at greater or less
depths beneath the surface. This upward
movement was probably coincident with the
crustal movements that elevated the entire
Absaroka Range. +The line of Ishawooa
intrusives marks the trend of one such up-
ward movement of molten magma, which
for the most part congealed without finding
egress to the surface. That a portion of
the magma may have been pushed upward
through fissures and vents and discharged
as surface flows of andesite is possible, but
of such flows, if they existed, no positive
evidence remains.
Conditions somewhat similar to those
found in the Absarokas are described by Pro-
fessor Adolph Stelzner as occurring in the
Andes of Argentina. He describes granites,
diorties and syenites as penetrating the
andesitic tuffs and lavas of Tertiary age, and
as cooling under a heavy load of superim-
posed material. He does not regard these
massive crystalline bodies as conduits of vol-
canoes, but as large stocks formed independ-
ently of such vents. He refers to them as
taking part in the great orogenic uplift which
elevated the Cordillera of South America,
an uplift which began in Jurassic time,
lasted through the Mesozoic, and continued
through the greater part of the Tertiary.
In the discussions of voleanic phenomena
found throughout geological literature, cir-
cular vents of great depth seem to be re-
garded as indispensable and are supposed to
furnish an open door for the molten mag-
mas, permitting them to take a straight
shoot from the eternal depths to daylight.
In this way geologists certainly avoid many
perplexing physical problems which con-
front us in the case of stocks and laccoliths
penetrating sedimentary rocks and stopping
far short of the surface. In speaking of
areas of igneous rocks, one almost hesitates
to use the term laccoliths, so universally is
SCIENCE.
441
it referred to in its relation to sedimentary
rocks. For my part, it seems far more
reasonable to look for such intrusive bodies
in areas of igneous rock than in regions of
sedimentation. That large intrusive bodies
came to a standstill without any surficial
manifestations, in the Absarokas, is, I
think, fairly well determined.
Two years ago it was my good fortune to
cross the Cascade Range at a number of
localities and to climb far above timber line
_ the slopes of Mount Rainier, in Washing-
ton; Mount Hood, in Oregon, and Mount
Shasta, in California. From these com-
manding points comprehensive panoramic
views were obtained over a broad field of
igneous rock. Majestic and impressive as
are these volcanoes, and grand in their iso-
lation, I could but feel that back of them
all lay earlier chapters in the Tertiary his-
tory of voleanic energy on the Pacific side
of the Cordillera ; that these powerful vol-
canoes were but a late expression of the
intensity of the eruptive energy, and that
still earlier volcanic masses had in some
way taken part in the orogenic disturbances
of an earlier Tertiary time. So, on the
east side of the great Cordillera, the early
Tertiary fires long since ceased to glow in
the Absarokas, and the center of volcanic
energy moved westward and built up on
different lines the broad rhyolite plateau of
the Yellowstone Park, a plateau strongly
contrasted with the Absarokas in the al-
most entire absence of breccias. The work
of such investigators as Emmons and Cross
in Colorado and Weed and Pirsson in Mon-
tana is slowly but surely solving the prob-
lems of the post-Cretaceous uplift in the
northern Cordillera, and, it will, I think,
finally be shown that the crystalline rocks
consolidated below the surface have played
an important part in bringing about the
Cordilleran revolution.
On a bright crisp autumnal day in 1897
I left the Absarokas by the way of that
442
most interesting of valleys, Clark’s Fork of
the Yellowstone, still impressed with the
many unsolved problems connected with
the geology of the range. JI at first visited
the region in the expectation of finding a
partially submerged range of Paleozoic and
Mesozoic sediments. If ever such range
existed, it had completely disappeared by
profound subsidence. I then looked for the
roots of some powerful dominating volcano
which had been the source of the varying
breccias, but this also I failed to discover.
In its stead, if I interpret the facts cor-
rectly, I found penetrating the breccias the
towering domes and pinnacles of granular
and porphyritic rocks, which in some far-
distant day, when denudation has removed
a greater part of the overlying mass, may
be found to form one connected body which
erosion has already so far laid bare as to
indicate that they all form a part of one
broad complex of coarsely crystalline rock
of early Tertiary age.
ARNOLD HAGUE.
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WASHINGTON, D. C.
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF
LIFE.*
Ir we demand a physiological process cor-
responding to every possible variation of the
content of consciousness the structure of
the brain seems far too uniform to furnish
a sufficient manifoldness of functions. The
mere number of elements cannot be de-
cisive ; if they are all functionally coordi-
nated they can offer merely the basis for co-
ordinated psychical functions. If we have
psychical functions of different orders it
would not help us even if we had some
millions more of the uniform elements. It
would be useless to deny that here exists a
great difficulty for our present psychology ;
the only question is whether this difficulty
really opposes the demands and supposi-
MENTAL
*Read before the joint meeting of the Psycho-
logical Association and the Physiologicai Society.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 221.
tions of psychophysical parallelism or
whether it means that the usual theories of
to-day are inadequate and must be im-
proved. It seems to me that the latter is
the case, and that hypotheses can be con-
structed by which all demands of psychology
ean be satisfied without the usual sacrifice
of consistency. The situation is the follow-
ing:
The whole scheme of the physiologists
operates to-day in a manifoldness of two
dimensions: they think the conscious phe-
nomena as dependent upon brain excite-
ments which can vary firstly with regard to
their localities and secondly with regard to
their quantitative amount. These two
variations then correspond to the quality of
the mental element and to its intensity. In
the acoustical center, for instance, the dif-
ferent pitch of the tone sensations corre-
sponds to locally different ganglion cells,
the different intensities of the same tone
sensation to the quantity of the excitement.
Association fibers whose functions are not
directly accompanied by conscious experi-
ences connect these millions of psychophys-
ical elementary centers in a way which is
imagined on the model of the peripheral
nerve. No serious attempt has been made
to transcend this simple scheme. Certainly
recent have brought many
propositions to replace the simple physio-
logical association fiber which connects the
psychophysical centers by more complicated
systems—theories, for instance, in regard
to the opening and closing of the connecting
paths or in regard to special association cen-
ters or special mediating cell groups—but
these and others stick to the old principle
that the final psychophysical process corre-
sponds to the strength and locality of a
sensory stimulation or of its equivalent re-
production, whatever may have brought
about and combined the excitements.
Tt is true that it has been sometimes sug-
gested that the same ganglion cell may go
discussions
Manrcn 24, 1899. ]
over also into qualitatively different states of
excitement, and thus allow an unlimited
manifoldness of new psychophysical varia-
tions. But it is clear that to accept such
an hypothesis means to give up all the ad-
vantages of brain localization. The com-
plicatedness of the cell would be in itself
sufficient to give ground to the idea that its
molecules may reach some millions of dif-
ferent local combinations, and if every new
combination corresponds to a sensation all
the tones and colors and smells and many
other things may go on in one cell. But,
then, itis,of course,our duty to explain those
connections and successions of different
states in one cell, and that would lead to
thinking the cell itself as constructed with
millions of paths just like a miniature brain;
in short, all the difficulties would be trans-
planted into the unknown structure of the
cell. If we, on the other hand, do not
enter into such speculations the acceptance
of qualitive changes in the cell would bring
us to the same point as if we were satisfied
to speak of qualitative changes of the brain
in general. It would not solve the problem,
but merely ignore it, and, therefore, such an,
additional hypothesis cannot have weight.
The only theory which brings in a really
new factor is the theory of innervation
feelings. This well-known theory claims
that one special group of conscious facts,
namely, the feelings of effort and impulse,
are not sensations and, therefore, not par-
allel to the sensory excitements, but are
activities of consciousness and parallel to
the physiological innervation of a central
motor path. Atthis point, of course, comes
in at once the opposition of the philo-
sophical claim that every psychical fact
must be a content of consciousness, and
made up of sensations, that is, of possible
elements of idea, to become describable and
explainable at all. The so-called active
consciousness, the philosopher must hold,
has nothing to do with an activity of the
SCIENCE.
445
consciousness itself, as consciousness means,
from the psychological standpoint, only the
kind of existence of psychical objects. It
cannot do anything, it cannot have differ-
ent degrees and functions, it only becomes
conscious of its contents, and all variations
are variations of the content, which must
be analyzed without remainder into ele-
ments which are theoretically coordinated
with the elements of ideas, that is, with the
sensations, while consciousness is only the
general condition for their existence. But
also the empirical analysis and experiment
of the practical psychologist are in this case
in the greatest harmony with such philo-
sophical claims and opposed to the innerva-
tion theory. The psychologist can show
empirically that this so-called feeling of
effort is merely a group of sensations like
other sensations, reproduced joint and
muscle sensations which precede the action
and have the réle of representing the im-
pulse merely on account of the fact that
their anticipation makes inhibitory associa-
tions still possible. It would thus from
this point of view also be illogical to think
the psychophysical basis of these sensations
different in principle from that of other sen-
sations. If the other sensations are accom-
paniments of sensory excitements in the
brain the feelings of impulse cannot claim
an exceptional position.
But are quality and intensity really the
only differences between the given sensa-
tions? Can the whole manifoldness of the
content of consciousness really be deter-
mined by variations in these two directions
only? Certainly not; the sensations can
vary even when quality and intensity re-
main constant. Asan illustration we may
think, for instance, of one variation which
is clearly not to be compared with a change
in kind and strength of the sensation ;
namely, the variation of vividness. Vivid-
ness is not identical with intensity ; the
vivid impression of a weak sound and the
444
unvivid impression of a stronge”sound are in
ho way interchangeable. If the ticking of
the clock in my room becomes less and less
vivid for me the more I become absorbed in
my work, till it finally disappears, it can-
not be compared with the experience which
results when the clock to which I give my
full attention is brought farther and farther
away. The white impression, when it
loses vividness, does not become gray and
finally black, nor the large size small, nor
the hot lukewarm. Vividness is a third di-
mension in the system of psychiéal’ eles
ments, and the psychologist who postulates
complete parallelism has the right to de-
mand that the physiologist show the cor
responding process. .There are other sides
of the sensation for which the same is true ;
they share with vividness the more subjec-
tive character of the variation, as, for in-
stance, the feeling tone of the sensation or
its pastness and presentness. Other varia-
tions bring such subjective factors into the
complexes of sensations without a possibility
of understanding them. from the combina-
tion of different kinds only ; for instance,
the subjective shade of ideas we believe or
the abstractedness of ideas in logical
thoughts. In short, the sensations and
their combinations show besides kind,
strength and vividness still other varia-
tions which may best be called the values
of the sensations and of their complexes.
Is the typical theory of modern physiolog-
ical psychology, which, as we have seen,
operates merely with the local differences
of the cells and the quantitative differences
of their excitement, ever able to find physio-
logical variations which correspond to the
vividness and to the values of the sensa-
tions?
An examination without prejudice must
necessarily deny this question. Here lies
the deeper spring for the latent opposition
which the psychophysiological claims find
in modern psychology. Here are facts, the
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 221:
opponents say, which find no physiological
counterpart, and we must, therefore, ac-
knowledge the existence of psychological
processes which have nothing to do with the
physiological machinery. The vividness,
for instance, is fully explained if we accept
the view that the brain determines the kind
and strength of the sensation, while a phys-
iologically independent subject turns the
attention more or less to the sensation.
The more this attention acts the more vivid
the sensation ; in a similar way the subjec-
tive acts would determine the feeling tone
of the sensation by selection or rejection,
and so on. » While the usual theory reduces
all to the mere association of locally sepa-
rated excitements, such a theory thus
emphasizes the view that the physio-
logically determined functions must be sup-
plemented by an apperceiving subject which
takes attitudes. We may call the one the
association theory, the other the appercep-
tion theory. We have acknowledged that
the association theory is insufficient to solve
the whole problem, but it is hardly neces-
sary to emphasize that the apperception
theory seeks the solution from the start in
a logically impossible direction, and is thus
still more mistaken than the association
theory.
The apperception theory, whatever its
special label and make-up may be, does not
see that the renunciation of a physiological
basis for every psychical fact means resign-
ing the causal explanation altogether, as
psychical facts as such cannot be linked
directly by causality, and that resigning the
causal aspect means giving up the only
point of view which comes in question for
the psychologist. If those apperceptive
functions are seriously conceived without
physiological basis they represent a mani-
foldness which can be linked merely by the
teleological categories of the practical life,
and we sink back to the subjectifying view
which controls the reality of life, but which
MAnRrcH 24, 1899. ]
is in principle replaced by the objectifying
view as soon as the experience of the sub-
ject is acknowledged as a series of psycho-
logical objects.
But does this bankruptcy of all varieties
of apperception theories necessarily force us
back to the association theory? I do not
think so. The demand of the association
theory that every psychosis should be ac-
companied by a neurosis cannot be given
up, but this neurosis may be thought in a
richer way than in the scheme of the asso-
ciationists. It seems to me, indeed, that
the physiological theory works to-day with
an abstract scheme with which no observa-
tion agrees. We do not know of a cen-
tripetal stimulation which does not go over
into centrifugal impulses. The studies on
tonicity and actions of voluntary muscles,
on the functions of glands and blood vessels,
on tendon reflex centers, and so on, show
how every psychophysical state discharges
itself into centrifugal functions. And yet
these perceivable peripheral effects are, of
course, merely a small part of the centrif-
ugal impulses which really start from the
end stations of the sensory channel, as most
of them probably produce only new disposi-
tions in lower motor centers without going
directly over into movement, and others
may fade away in the unlimited division of
the discharge in the ramification of the sys-
tem. Those milliards of fibers are not
merely the wires to pull a few hundred
muscles ; no, the centrifugal system repre-
sents certainly a most complex hierarchy of
motor centers too, and the special final mus-
cle impulse is merely the last outcome of a
very complex cooperation of very many fac-
tors in the centrifugal system. Manifoldas
the incoming nerve currents must be, thus,
also the possibilities of centrifugal dis-
charge, and the dispositions in the nervous
motor system determine the degrees in
which the ganglion cells can transform the
centripetal into centrifugal stimulation. It
SCIENCE.
445
is thus not only the foregoing sensory pro-
cess, but in exactly the same degree also the
special situation of the motor system, its
openness and closedness, which governs the
process in the center. Whether the special
efferent channel is open or plugged implies
absolutely different central processes in spite
of the same afferent stimulus.
Here we have, then, a new factor on the
physiological side which is ignored in the
usual scheme that makes the psychical facts
dependent upon the sensory processes only
and considers the centrifugal action of the
brain as a later effect which begins when
the psychophysical function is over. There
is no central sensory process which is not
the beginning of an action too, and this cen-
trifugal part of the central process neces-
sarily varies the accompanying psychical
fact also. As here the action of the center
becomes the essential factor in the psycho-
physical process, we may call this view an
action theory as over against the association
and apperception theories of the day. ‘The
action theory agrees, then, with the asso-
ciationism in the postulate that there is no
psychical variation without variation on the
physiological side and with the appercep-
tionism in the conviction that the mere as-
sociation of sensory brain processes is in-
sufficient to play the counterpart to the
subjective variation of the psychical facts
as vividness and values of the sensations.
Tt tries to combine the legitimate points in
both views, and claims that every psychical
sensation as element of the content of con-
sciousness is the accompaniment of the
physical process by which a centripetal stim-
ulation becomes transformed into a centrif-
ugal impulse.
This central process thus clearly depends
upon four factors: firstly, upon the local
situation of the sensory track ; secondly,
upon the quantitative amount of the in-
coming current; thirdly, upon the local
situation of the outgoing discharge ; and
446
fourthly, upon the quantitative amount of
the discharge. The first two factors are, of
course, determined by the incoming current,
which can be replaced by an intracortical
stimulation from an associated center, while
the last two factors are determined by
the dispositions of the centrifugal system.
The association theory, which considers
the first two factors alone, thinks them
parallel to the kind and strength of the
sensation. The action theory accepts this
interpretation and adds that the two other
factors determine the values and the
vividness of the sensation—the values par-
allel to the local situation of the discharge,
the vividness to the openness of the cen-
trifugal channel, and thus to the intensity
of the discharge.
If the centrifugal discharge is inhibited,
the channel closed, then the sensory process
goes on as before, but the impression is un-
vivid, unperceived, while it may become
vivid later as soon as the hindrance of the
discharge disappears. The inhibition of
ideas which remains unexplainable to the
associationists would then mean that a
special path of discharge is closed, and thus
the idea which needs that discharge for its
vividness cannot come to existence; the
hypnotizer’s words, for instance, close such
channels. Only discharges, actions, can be
antagonistic and thus under mutual inhibi-
tion ; ideas in themselves may be logically
contradictory, but not psychologically, while
one action makes the antagonistic action, in-
deed, impossible, and the inhibition of ideas
results merely from the inhibition of dis-
charges. If this view is correct it is clear
that while we strictly deny the existence
of special innervation sensations we can
now say that every sensation without excep-
tion is physiologically an innervation sensa-
tion, as it must have reached some degree
of vividness to exist psychologically at all.
With regard to the local situation of the
motor discharge the manifoldness of pos-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. LX. No. 221.
sibilities is evident. The channels may be
closed in one direction, but open in others ;
the actually resulting discharge must be
the product of the situation in the whole cen-
trifugal system, with its milliards of rami-
fications, and the same sensory stimulus
may thus under a thousand different condi-
tions produce a thousand different centrifu-
gal waves, all, perhaps, with the same in-
tensity. The vividness would then be
always the same, and yet the difference
of locality in the discharge must give new
features to the psychical element. A few
cases as illustrations must be sufficient.
We may instance the shades of time-direc-
tion ; the same idea may have the subjec-
tive character of past, present and future.
It corresponds to three types of discharge :
the discharge which does not include action
on the object any more appears as past ; that
which produces action as present, and that
which prepares the action as future. In
this group belong also the feeling tones: the
pleasurable shade of feeling based on the
discharge towards the extensors ; the un-
pleasant feelings based on the innervation
of the flexors. Here belong the differences
between mere perception and apperception,
as in the one case the discharge is deter-
mined by the impression alone, in the other
case by associations also. Here belong
the characteristics of the abstract concep-
tion which may be represented by the
same sensational qualities which would
form a concrete idea and yet has a
new subjective tone because the cen-
trifugal discharge is for the concrete idea
a specialized impulse, for the conception a
general impulse which would suit all objects
thought under the conception. Here be-
longs, also, the feeling of belief which
characterizes the judgment; the judgment
differs psychophysically from the mere idea
in the fact that the ideas discharge them-
selves in a new tonicity, a new set of the
lower motor centers, creating thus a new
MARcH 24, 1899. ]
disposition for later reactions. To be sure,
many of these discharges lead finally to
muscle contractions which bring with them
centripetal sensations from the joints, the
muscles, the tendons, and these muscle and
joint sensations themselves then become a
part in the idea, for instance, of time, of
space, of feeling. But the new part only
reinforces the general tone which is given
in the general discharge, and gives to it
only the exact detail which gets its charac-
ter just through the blending of these sen-
sations of completed reactions with the
accompaniments of the central discharge.
A consistent psychology thus may start
with the following principles: It considers
all variations of mental life as variations of
the content of consciousness, and this con-
tent as a complex object, including in this
first presupposition a complicated trans-
formation of the real inner life, a transfor-
mation by which the subjectifying view of
real life is denied for the causal psychological
system. Every content of consciousness is
further considered as a complex of sensa-
tions, that is, of possible elements of per-
ceptive ideas. Every sensation is con-
sidered as having a fourfold manifoldness,
varying in kind, in strength, in vividness
and in value. The physiological basis of
every sensation, and thus of every psychical
element, is the physical process by which a
centripetal stimulation becomes transformed
into a centrifugal impulse, the kind depend-
ing upon the locality of the centripetal
channel, the strength upon the quantity of
the stimulus, the value upon the locality of
the centrifugal channel, and the vividness
upon the quantity of the discharge.
Huco MUNSTERBERG.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
SOPHUS LIE.
On the eighteenth of February, 1899, the
greatest mathematician in the world,
Sophus Lie, died at Christiania in Norway.
SCIENCE.
447
He was essentially a geometer, though
applying his splendid powers of space cre-
ation to questions of analysis. From Lie
comes the idea that every system of geom-
etry is characterized by its group. In or-
dinary geometry a surface is a locus of
points ; in Lie’s Kugel-geometrie it is the ag-
gregate of spheres touching this surface.
By a simple correlation of this sphere-
geometry with Pluecker’s line-geometry, Lie
reached results as unexpected as elegant.
The transition from this line-geometry to
this sphere-geometry was an example of
contact-transformations.
Now contact-transformations find appli-
cation in the theory of partial differential
equations, whereby this theory is vastly
clarified. Old problems were settled as
sweepingly as new problems were created
and solved.
Again, with his Theorie der Transforma-
tionsgruppen, Lie changed the very face and
fashion of modern mathematics.
A magnificent application of his theory
of continuous groups is to the general prob-
lem of non-Euclidean geometry as formu-
lated by Helmholtz. To this was awarded
the great Lobachévski Prize. Not even
this award could sufficiently emphasize the
epoch-making importance of Lie’s work in
the evolution of geometry.
Moreover, the foundations of all philoso-
phy are involved. To know the non-Eu-
clidean geometry involves abandonment of
the position that axioms as to their concrete
content are necessities of the inner intui-
tion; likewise abandonment of the position
that axioms are derivable from experience
alone.
Lie said that in the whole of modern
mathematics the weightiest part is the
theory of differential equations, and, true
to this conviction, it has always been his
aim to deepen and advance this theory.
Now it may justly be maintained that in
his theory of transformation groups Lie has
448
himself created the most important of the
newer departments of mathematics.
By the introduction of his concept of con-
tinuous groups of transformations he put
the isolated integration theories of former
mathematicians upon a common basis. The
masterly reach of Lie’s genius is illustrated
by his encompassment of the fundamentally
important theory of differential invariants
associated with the English names Cayley,
Cockle, Sylvester, Forsyth.
Thirteen years ago Sylvester announced
his conception of ‘ Reciprocants,’ a body of
differential invariants not for a group, but
for a mere interchange of variables. A
number of Englishmen thereupon took up
investigations about orthogonal, linear and
projective groups, groups in whose trans-
formations interchanges of variables occur
as particular cases, and whose differential
invariants are consequently classes of re-
ciprocants, and of the analogues of recipro-
eants, when more variables than two are
considered.
Now all these investigations were long
subsequent to Lie’s consideration of the
groups in question as leading cases of a
general conception. Thus they were merely
secondary investigations !
Again, the theory of complex numbers
appears as a part of the great ‘Theorie der
Transformationsgruppen.’ Indeed, this con-
tinent of ‘transformations’ opened up and
penetrated with such giant steps by Lie
represents the most remarkable advance
which mathematics in all its entirety has
made in this latter part of the century.
Sophus Lie it was who made prominent
the importance of the notion of group, and
gave the present form to the theory of con-
tinuous groups. This idea, like a brilliant
dye, has now so permeated the whole fabric
of mathematics that Poincaré actually finds
that in Euclid ‘the idea of the group was
potentially pre-existent,’ and that he had
‘some obscure instinct for it, without reach-
SCIENCE, :
[N.S. Vou. IX. No, 221.
ing a distinct notion of it.’ Thus the last
shall be first, and the first last.
In personal character Lie was our ideal
of a genius, approachable, outspoken, un-
conventional, yet at times fierce, intractable.
His work is cut short; bis influence, his
fame, will broaden, will tower from day to
day.
y GEORGE BrucEr Hatsrep.
AUSTIN, TEXAS.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. #
Colour in Nature: A Study in Biology. By
Marton J. Newsiern. London, John
Murray. 1898. Pp. 344.
On page 300 of this work we read: ‘‘We
have now completed our general survey of the
colours and colouring-matters of organisms.
« * * That the survey as a whole is halting
and incomplete must be obvious to all. We
have seen that it is as yet impossible to classify
pigments in a logical manner ; that most of the
problems connected with the subject are en-
tirely unsolved.’’ These statements are indeed
true; and yet the book is an interesting and
valuable one, and will be of real assistance to
the working biologist.
The whole subject of color in animals and
plants has suffered from the fact that it con-
cerns the chemist and physicist as well as the
biologist, and in these days of intense special-
ization it is hard to find anyone competent to
treat the matter in all its aspects. Dr. New-
bigin has endeavored, with some success, to
take all the more important facts into consider-
ation; but it is practically impossible for any
one individual to have that intimate acquaint-
ance with the vital phenomena of every group
of living organisms which is necessary for a
satisfactory discussion of their coloration. It
was Darwin’s method to seek the assistance of
numerous specialists in different branches, who
supplied him with information which he brought
together and interpreted in a masterly manner.
It may be that Dr. Newbigin has not yet felt
justified in asking for such help, but now that
she has fairly won her spurs (if one may use
such a phrase in regard to a lady) it is not un-
reasonable to hope that she will adopt the
Darwinian system, and eventually provide us
MarcH 24, 1899. ]
with an account of animal and plant coloration
which will cover the ground as completely as
the knowledge of the day permits. In the
meanwhile, we may be grateful to her for a
work which will at any rate serve as an excel-
lent introduction to the subject, and as more or
less of a revelation to those whose studies have
been confined to a limited field.
Attention is drawn to the interesting analogy
between natural color-variations of organisms
and the changes which can be induced in their
pigments by suitable reagents. This is a mat-
ter which, though well known, has not received
the attention it deserves, partly because those
aware of the chemical reactions have not usu-
ally been familiar with the natural variations,
and vice versa. It may be permissible, by way
of illustration, to cite two new instances of this
among the Coccideze which have just come to
the writer’s notice. Icerya rileyi has a pure
white ovisac, which is turned bright primrose
yellow by chloroform, but regains its white
color when the chloroform evaporates, A
closely related form, Icerya littoralis, var.
mimose, has the whole ovisac naturally of a
delicate primrose yellow. The second case is
more instructive. Mytilaspis concolor has ordi-
narily a white scale, but on February 5, 1899,
Mr. P. J. Parrott discovered a variety (IM. con-
color var. viridissima, Ckll. and Parrott, ined.)
in which the scales of both sexes are of a lively
emerald green. This was on the campus of
the Agricultural College, Mesilla Park, at the
bases of stems of Atriplex canescens. The
female insect itself, removed from beneath the
scale, was found to be of a dark purple color,
with a bright yellow patch in the anal region,
and suffused crimson spots at intervals round
the margins of the hind end. The purple
color, when the insect was placed in caustic
soda, immediately became green, but was changed
back to purple by acetic acid. Now, it is evi-
dent in this case that the insect must have had
an acid reaction, but the pigment transferred
to the scale had apparently been turned green
by the ‘alkali’ salts which are known to occur
in the soil at Mesilla Park. This at once re-
calls the cheetopterin pigments described by Dr.
Newbigin on pp. 89-91 of her work, and it may
be that we have a new member of that series,
SCIENCE.
449
On pp. 161-162 it is suggested that the re-
semblance between certain Heliconian butter-
flies and their Pierid mimics may be due, at
least in part, to their relatively low organiza-
tion and simple plan of coloration. In the
Transactions of the Entomological Society of
London, 1891, Mr. H. H. Druce published a
paper on the Lycenid genus Hypochrysops,
which inhabits Australia and the Malay Archi-
pelago. To this paper are appended two beau-
tiful colored plates, and the present writer was
surprised to find that he could nearly match a
number of very diverse species figured, as to
color and pattern, ‘among a series of Lycenide
collected in Jamaica! The resemblance per-
tained only to the upper surface of the wings,
the lower surfaces of the Jamaican insects being
quite unlike Hypochrysops. Now the Lycenide
show splendid ‘ optical’ colors, and are cer-
tainly not simply organized as regards their
coloration, so the suggestion made with regard
to the Heliconians and Pierids would not hold.
Neither, of course, is there any true mimicry,
since the two sets of butterfiies occur on oppo-
site sides of the world. Cases of this sort have
been quoted as destructive to the theory. of the
utility of mimicry among insects, but to the
writer they seem only to remove the difficulty
which was felt in accounting for the origin of
genuinely mimetic resemblances.
In a work of the kind now under review
there must necessarily be details which could
be adversely criticised. The writer had begun
to take note of such, but it hardly seems worth
while to dwell upon them. Botanists will un-
doubtedly complain that the space devoted to
the colors of plants is much too short, and that
several of the statements therein are too general
or too sweeping. It will probably be thought
by many readers that if Dr. Newbigin had
made more or closer observations of living
animals she would have had greater respect for
natural selection. And, finally, some will
wonder how it is that one who has enjoyed the
beautifully pure colors of living creatures can
have permitted her book to be bound in such a
muddy and unpleasing blue.
T. D. A. CoCKERELL,
MESILLA PARK, New MEXIco,
February 27, 1899.
450
The Dawn of Reason, or Mental Traits in the
By JAMES WEIR, M. D.
Pp. xiii+
Lower Animals.
New York, The Macmillan Co.
234. Price, $1.25.
Dr. Weir has evidently been a close observer
of animal life for many years, and his zeal has
given him wider opportunities for useful obser-
vation than most amateurs and many profes-
sional naturalists have had. His book contains
the more important of his own original observa-
tions of the intelligent activities of animals,
some interesting verifications of the results
gained by other observers, and his opinions
about the nature of animal consciousness.
Everything is purposely put in as simple lan-
guage as possible, and this perhaps is a suffi-
cient reason for the utter neglect of many ob-
servations, experiments and opinions which
oppose his views. Lloyd Morgan, for instance,
is nowhere mentioned, not even in the bibliog-
raphy.
The popular nature of Dr. Weir’s exposition
prevents any discussion here of his observations
on the morphology of the sense-organs of
various animals, e. gy., jelly-fish, grasshoppers,
beetles. He finds the marginal bodies of jelly-
fish to be visual, not auditory organs, locates the
auditory organs of grasshoppers in the anterior
pair of legs, finds those of the Diptera to be the
‘balanciers’ of Bolles Lee, and those of the
Cerambyx beetle to be in the maxillary palpi.
It would certainly seem worth while for Dr.
Weir to present his data in complete form soon,
so that those competent may judge of the
soundness of his conclusions. He gives no
drawings.
One cannot help lamenting the mental atti-
tude which served as the inspiration to Dr.
Weir’s observations of the intelligent activities
of animals. He craves a high development of
inentality for the animals and has his eyes open
only to possible evidence of it. He likes to
find keen senses better than dull ones, reason-
ings than instincts, knowledge than ignorance.
He psychologizes about animals as a lover
might psychologize about his beloved. The
disadvantages are obvious. On the other hand,
there are some advantages, at least in the en-
thusiasm and patient labor which perhaps are
due to the eulogizing temper. Anyone inter-
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 221.
ested in the progress of comparative psychology
must wish well to a man who, without the in-
centives of the professed naturalist, makes it a
labor of love to watch animal life. I, for one,
shall welcome such observations, even though
they are more one-sided than Dr. Weir’s. His
favoritism toward animals, though it has de-
prived us of any records of unintelligent con-
duct and perhaps prevented the repetition of
some tests and even distorted facts, has still
failed to injure a very considerable number of
suggestive and important observations. It will
pay any student of animal psychology to read
the book for the sake of these. They furnish
interesting, and we hope reliable, data about the
adaptive reactions of micro-organisms, the for-
mation by insects of new associations in re-
sponse to new situations, the formation by
reptiles of habits due to the association of novel
sights and sounds with certain reactions, about
‘play ’ among insects, strange ‘friendships’ be-
tween animals, letisimulation, the activities of
the harvesting ants, ete. A sample of Dr.
Weir’s keenness is his theory that the con-
tinual barking of dogs at night is explainable
by the supposition that they bark at an echo.
This hypothesis he supports by some very
striking facts.
Of Dr. Weir’s opinions about the meaning of
his facts there is little to be said. His mind does
not move freely and surely among psycholog-
ical terms or theories or deductions. Reason
means for him the source of all performances
above the level of instinct, and his only basis of
discrimination is the difference between high
and low. His only theoretical problem is as to
whether or not the human mind has developed
from the brute mind. It will be a birthday for
animal psychology when naturalists realize
that this is among the least of its problems.
EDWARD THORNDIKE.
WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND ARTICLES.
THE December number of the Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society contains an ac-
count of the October meeting of the Society,
by the Secretary, Professor F, N. Cole; ‘ Con-
cerning a Linear Homogeneus Group in C,,,,
Variables Isomorphic to the General Linear
MARCH 24, 1899. ]
Homogeneous Group in m Variables,’ by Dr.
L. E. Dickson; ‘A Second Locus Connected
with a System of Coaxial Circles,’ by Professor
Thomas F. Holgate ; ‘ Reciprocal Transforma-
tions of Projective Coordinates and _ the
Theorem of Ceva and Menelaos,’ by Professor
Arnold Emch; ‘Notes’ ; ‘New Publications.’
The January number of the Bulletin contains a
report on the ‘ Theory of Projective Invariants :
The Chief Contributions of a Decade,’ by Pro-
fessor H. S. White; ‘Reye’s Geometrie der
Lage,’ by- Professor Charlotte Angas Scott ;
‘Burkhardt’s Theory of Functions,’ by Pro-
fessor Maxime Bécher; ‘ Darboux’s Orthogonal
Systems,’ by Professor Edgar Odell Lovett ;
‘The New Mathematical Encyclopedia,’ by
Professor James Pierpont; ‘ Errata’ ; ‘ Notes’ ;
‘New Publications.’ The February number of
the Bulletin contains an account of the Fifth
Annual Meeting of the Society, by the Secre-
tary ; ‘The December Meeting of the Chicago
Section of the Society,’ by Professor Thomas
F. Holgate; ‘Report on Recent Progress in
the Theory of Groups of a Finite Order,’ by
Dr. G. A. Miller; ‘ Note on Burnside’s Theory
of Groups,’ by Dr. G. A. Miller; ‘On a Regu-
lar Configuration of Ten Line Pairs Conjugate
as to a Quadric,’ by Professor F, Morley ;
‘Shorter Notices,’ by Professors Ernest W.
Brown, Edgar Odell Lovett, J. W. A. Young,
Alexander Ziwet ; ‘ Notes’; ‘New Publications.’
American Chemical Journal, March: ‘On the
Rearrangement of Imido-Esters,’ by H. L.
Wheeler and T. B. Johnson. ‘On an Isomer
of Potassium Ferricyanide,’ by J. Locke and
G. H. Edwards. By treating potassium ferri-
cyanide with potassium chlorate and hydro-
chloric acid an isomer of this salt was obtained.
An isomeric silver salt was also prepared and
the reactions studied, In some cases the re-
actions of the isomers are so different that the
author doesnot hesitate to accept this substance,
which he calls potassium /-ferricyanide, as a
new form. ‘Reaction of Orthodiazobenzoic
Acid with Sulphurous Acid and Copper Pow-
der,’ by W. E. Henderson. Experiments were
carried out to test the statements so generally
found in text-books that sulphonic acids are
formed from the decomposition of diazo com-
pounds by sulphurous acid in the presence
SCIENCE.
451
of copper powder. The results showed that,
under ordinary conditions, sulphonic acids
were not formed. ‘Direct Nitration of the
Paraffins,’ by O. A. Worstall. The author
finds that the results as given in his earlier
paper on the action of nitric acid on the
paraffins hold for all the paraffins studied.
‘Higher Primary Nitroparaffins,’ by R. A.
Worstall. ‘The author has continued the study
of the derivatives of the higher paraffins on the
line suggested by Victor Meyer in his study of
the lower members of the series. ‘The Action
of Ethylic Oxalate on Camphor,’ by J. B. and
A. Tingle. ‘Liquid Acetylene Diiodide,’ by
E. H. Keiser. A second form of the three
theoretically possible ones has been obtained in
liquid form. ‘A Simple Color Reaction for
Methyl Alcohol,’ by S. P. Mulliken and H.
Scudder. The alcohol is converted into formic
aldelyde by plunging a hot copper wire into it.
Resorcin and sulphuric acid are then added and
a characteristic color reaction follows. ‘ Re-
actions for the Detection of the Nitrogroup,’ by
S. P. Mulliken and E. R. Barker. The first
method depends on the reduction to hydroxy-
lamine and the test for this with silver nitrate,
and the second on the conversion into rosa-
niline. J» ELLIOTT GILPIN.
THE Osprey, for January, has for its first article
some interesting ‘ Notes on Eugenes fulgens’ by
F. C. Willard, accompanied by a fine plate
showing four nests. Next comes descriptions
of the ‘Nesting of the Alaska Bald Eagle,’ by
George G. Cantwell, followed by descriptions
of the habits in captivity of Great Horned
Owls, Barn Owls and young Short-eared
Owls respectively, by M. A. Carriker, D. A.
Cohen and Ludwig Kumlien. ‘A Visit to
Pelican Island, Indian River, Florida,’ is de-
scribed by L. W. Brownall, and the ‘ Nesting
of the Black-and-White Warbler,’ by J. Warren
Jacobs. Other brief articles, editorials, notes
and reviews complete the number.
THE leading article of the Journal of the Bos-
ton Society of Medical Sciences is a series of ‘ Ob-
servations upon the Elastic Tissue of Certain
Human Arteries,’ by George B. Magrath.
Richard M. Pearce has a paper on ‘Scarlet
Fever; its Bacteriology, Gross and Minute
452
Anatomy,’ and Horace D. Arnold one on the
‘Weight of the (Normal) Heart in Adults,’
the conclusion being that the average weight
for males is 290 grams and for females 260
grams. The final article, ‘A Study of the Encap-
sulated Bacilli,’ by Lawrence W. Strong, finds
that the gas production of these bacilli affords
a valuable aid for their study and identification.
THE Electrical World and the Electrical Engi-
neer will be issued, hereafter, as one publication,
to be known as the Electrical World and Engi-
neer, under the editorship of T. Commerford
Martin and W. D. Weaver. W. J. Johnston,
former editor of the Hlectrical World, has retired.
Dr. W. P. Wynne, F. R.S., has been elected
editor of the Journal of the British Chemical
Society.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
OF THE NEW YORK
1899.
THE ANNUAL MEETING
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, FEBRUARY 27,
AFTER the reading of the minutes of the last
annual meeting, the reports of the officers for
the year just closed were called for by the Pres-
ident, Professor Henry F. Osborn.
The Corresponding Secretary reported briefly
that he had succeeded in correcting and revis-
ing the list of honorary and corresponding
members, after a considerable amount of cor-
respondence, and that the corrected list would
be published in Part I. of the volume of Annals
for 1899. The Recording Secretary then pre-
sented the following report, summarizing the
progress and work of the Academy during the
preceding year:
The last year of the Academy has been ex-
tremely satisfactory, and its affairs are in a
much more promising condition than heretofore.
Interest in our meetings has increased during
the year, and the number of people cooperating
in our work is much larger than ever before.
During the last fiscal year there have been
thirty-one meetings of the several sections,
three public lectures and one public reception.
The sections now organized are those of As-
tronomy and Physics, Biology, Geology and
Mineralogy, and of Anthropology, Psychology
and Philology. The latter section has been
SCIENCE,
[N.S. Vou. LX. No. 221.
divided into two sub-sections, for economy of
effort, Particular mention should be made of
the good work and increased interest in the
sub-section of Anthropology and Psychology,
largely due to the personal and persistent ef-
forts of Dr. Boas.
During the year a total of ninety-four papers
has been presented before the Academy, thirty-
seven new members have been elected, twelve
have resigned, leaving a total of three hundred
and thirty-five on the Secretary’s list, including
six new life members. The Fifth Annual Recep-
tion held in April last was in some ways the
most successful in the history of the Academy.
During the year the by-laws have been very
completely revised, simplified and made work-
able, particularly in such a way as to give the
individual sections and sectional officers more
importance in the program, and so as to reduce
the number of business meetings at which the
Academy must be formally organized for gen-
eral business to one each month. The public
lectures have been more firmly established than
heretofore, and have been assigned to the
various sections so that each department may
be popularly represented. The printed pro-
gram of the year’s meetings has been an-
nounced in advance, and has been found very
helpful.
The publications of the Academy have been
greatly improved as to quality, appearance and
dignity, by the change incorporated in January
last, when the Transactions were abolished.
The thanks of the Academy are certainly due
to our enthusiastic and very careful editor,
Mr. van Ingen, for the great amount of work
and care that he has put upon the publications.
It is through the publications only that we are
known abroad in the world, and it is very nec-
essary that we should thus appear in the most
favorable manner possible.
The Academy is in great need of more money
for publication, and our efforts should be de-
voted as fully as possible to the securing of
contributions for such work. We are con-
tinually obliged to decline valuable scientific
papers by our members because of a lack of
funds for printing. This is a condition of af-
fairs which should not be allowed to continue
long.
Marcu 24, 1899. ]
It is a great pleasure to the Academy to feel
that certain of the scientific wants of the city
are soon to be met, owing to the encouragement
given by one of our Patrons, who has always
been interested in the Academy. I refer par-
ticularly to the gift to the Scientific Alliance,
of which the New York Academy of Sciences
is the original member, of $10,000 for a scientific
building, donated by Mrs. Herrman. During
the coming year it is hoped to bring the several
sections in touch, so as to have a uniform policy
of procedure, and the manner of printing the
proceedings will be simplified and unified.
The report of the Treasurer showed the
finances to be in a promising condition, but
that the expenses too nearly equalled the in-
come, and that endowments are very necessary
if the work is to be increased as it should be.
One of the most interesting features of the
meeting was the report by the Editor of the
Annals concerning the details of his work dur-
ing the last year in printing the volume just
finished according to the new plan as to typog-
raphy, pagination, illustration and general
form, which was adopted a year ago and which
has proved extremely successful and gratifying.
The last official report was a brief one by the
retiring Librarian concerning the present con-
dition of the library, which is now housed in
a large room in Schermerhorn Hall, of Colum-
bia University, and available for reference by
ail working scientists and members of the
Academy.
The following list of honorary and corre-
sponding members was then elected, and seven-
teen resident members were made Fellows be-
cause of their attainments in scientific work:
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Lord Rayleigh, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Royal Institution of Great Britain, Albemarle St.,
Piccadilly, N. W., London.
George Howard Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., Trinity
College, Cambridge, Eng.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Dr. Louis Dollo, Musée d’Histoire Naturelle, Brus-
sels, Belgium.
Dr. Otto Jaekel, Kgl. Museum fiir Naturkunde,
Invalidenstr. 43, Berlin.
Professor Dr. Eberhard Fraas, Kgl. Naturalien
Kabinet, Stuttgart, Germany.
SCIENCE.
453
Professor Qr. Charles Depéret, Faculté des Sciences,
Lyons, France.
Dr. C. W. Andrews, British Museum of Natural
History, London, England.
Dr. Max Schlosser, Palaeontologische Sammlung
des Staates, Alte Akademie, Munich, Germany.
G. H. Boulenger, British Museum, London, Eng-
land.
Professor G. B. Howe, Normal College of Science,
S. Kensington, London, England.
Dr. Walter Innes, School of Medicine, Cairo,
Egypt.
Dr. A. Liversidge, Sydney, New South Wales.
Professor Mansfield Merriman, Lehigh University,
South Bethlehem, Pa.
Dr. Stuart Weller, University of Chicago, Chicago,
Il.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann, University of Vienna,
Vienna, Austria.
Professor P. LaCroix, Musée d’Histoire Naturelle,
Paris, France.
Dr. A. Smith Woodward, British Museum of Nat-
ural History, London.
Professor Dr. Fried. Kohlrausch, Physikalish Tech-
nische Reichsanstalt, Charlottenberg, Marshstrasse 25,
Berlin.
Professor R. H. Traquair, Museum of Science and
Art, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Professor W. C. Brégger, Christiania, Norway.
J. G. Baker, Royal Gardens, Kew.
Professor Wilhelm Ostwald, University of Leipzig,
Leipzig, Germany.
The list of officers given below was then
elected by ballot :
President, Henry F. Osborn.
Ist Vice-President, James F. Kemp.
2d Vice-President, Chas. L. Bristol.
Corresponding Secretary, William Stratford.
Recording Secretary, Richard E. Dodge.
Treasurer, Charles F. Cox.
Librarian, Bashford Dean.
Councillors, Franz Boas, Charles A. Doremus, Wil-
liam Hallock, Harold Jacoby, Lawrence A. McLouth,
L. M. Underwood.
Curators, Harrison G. Dyar, Alexis A. Julien,
George F. Kunz, Louis H. Laudy, William D.
Schoonmaker.
Finance Committee, Henry Dudley, John H. Hinton,
Cornelius Van Brunt.
The formal work of the evening was followed
by the annual address of the President. Pro-
fessor Osborn took for his title ‘The Succession
of Mammalian Faunain America,compared with
that in Europe during the Tertiary Period.’
454
The formal meeting was followed by refresh-
ments and a social gathering, which lasted until
a relatively late hour.
RicHARD E. DopGE,
Recording Secretary.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
THE 497th meeting of the Society was held
on March 4th, at 8 p. m., in the assembly room
of the Cosmos Club. The first paper was by
Professor F. H. Bigelow on ‘The Influence of
Electricity on Vegetation.’ It was stated that
vegetation under the Aurora belt shows re-
markable developments, due not to the length
of the summer day, but to the electric cur-
rents. Experiments indicate that static elec-
tricity, supplied by machines, when applied to
plants increases their growth about 40 per
cent. Extensive trials in many places and
under different conditions generally confirmed
this result.
The second paper was by Surgeon-General
Sternberg on ‘Some Sanitary Lessons of the
Late War.’ An abstract of this very interest-
ing and instructive address has not yet come to
hand. E. D. PRESTON,
Secretary.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
AT the 89th meeting of this Society, held in
Washington, D.C., on March 8, 1899, Mr. Ar-
nold Hague, U. 8. Geological Survey, exhibited
a geological relief map of the Yellowstone Park
and of the Absaroka Range, in northwestern
Wyoming, showing some of the physical fea-
tures of the latter region by means of lantern
illustrations. The map is constructed on the
scale of one mile to an inch, the area represented
being approximately 75 miles square. The
base of the model is taken at 5,000 feet above
sea level, from which rise several dominating
peaks showing elevations of over 12,000 feet
above sea level. It requires about forty dis-
tinct colors to represent the different geological
formations into which the sedimentary and ig-
neous rocks have been divided. All the geysers
and hot springs areas are delineated, together
with the regions of extinct hydro-thermal ac-
tion. In the model a sharp contrast between
the rhyolite plateau of Yellowstone Park of
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 221.
Pliocene age and that of the eroded and dis-
sected plateau of the Absarokas of Miocene age
is clearly brought out. Mr. Hague stated that
he hoped the map would be sent to the Paris
Exposition next year. The lantern slides were
selected to illustrate the manner in which the
Absarokas were built up by the gradual accu-
mulation of breccias, agglomerates and basalt
flows, forced upwards from numerous fissures
and vents during a long period of time, and the
elevation of the range by the intrusion of pow-
erful stocks of gabbro, syenite, diorite, diorite-
porphyry and granite-porphyry. The character
of the different breccias, the incisive trenching
of the deep canyons, and the stocks, together
with their associated sheets and network of
dikes, were discussed.
Mr. F. B. Weeks, U. S. Geological Survey,
gave some observations made last summer in
the course of a reconnaissance in Jackson
Basin, northwest Wyoming. :
The Jackson Basin, he said, occupies a de-
pression within the Rocky Mountains, of Wy-
oming, of 5 to 8 miles in width and 45 miles in
length. The Teton range forms a lofty, pre-
cipitous barrier along its western side. The
valley has an elevation of 6,200 to 6,800 feet,
and the Tetons rise 7,000 feet above it. The
Tetons are noted for their wonderful Alpine
scenery. Jackson Lake and several smaller
lakes occur within the valley—all of glacial
origin. The northeastern portion of the basin
is covered with numerous morainal ridges and
hillocks. The eastern side is buried beneath a
great mass of material brought down by glacial
streams. They have the forms of huge deltas,
spreading out from the foothills in fan-shaped
areas, several miles long and as many miles in
width where they reach the Snake River.
Along some of the main streams terracing has
been well developed. The streams flowing
over these deltas follow well-defined courses,
but have a tendency to spread laterally instead
of widening and deepening their beds. The
Upper and Lower Gros Ventre buttes are prom-
inent outliers of the Gros Ventre range. They
are formed, in large part, of Paleozoic rocks,
and are probably directly connected with the
main range. The heavy mantle of débris makes
it impossible to trace a definite connection.
MARcH 24, 1899. ]
The meeting closed with some remarks by
Mr. W. Lindgren, U. 8. Geological Survey, on
the Boise Folio (No. 45, of the Geol, Sury.),
recently published.
Wm. F. MoRsELL.
DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE.
ON THE MAKING OF SOLUTIONS,
To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: A remark in a
recent paper by Professor Macloskie calls my at-
tention afresh to a curious error which, so far as
I know, is universally current in our zoological
laboratories. Professor Macloskie remarks (Scr-
ENCE, Vol. IX., p. 206) ‘‘a 1% solution of cane
sugar in water, * * * thatis 342 prams, * * *
dissolved in 34,200 grams of water.’’ In other
words, a 1% solution is made by mixing 1
part of the substance to be dissolved with 100
parts of the solvent. In this conception the
zoologists appear to be at one. It is sufficient
to refer to any of the well-known text-books :
Marshall and Hurst, ‘ Practical Zoology,’ 4th
ed., p. 464; Gage, ‘The Microscope,’ 6th ed.,
p. 179 ; Dodge, ‘ Elementary Practical Biology,’
p. 391. Like many other text-books, Huxley
and Martin’s ‘ Practical Biology’ (revised ed.,
p. 496), does not directly commit itself to the
error, but gives directions tomake the ‘normal
saline solution’ by mixing 7.5 grams of salt with
a liter of water. That the normal saline solu-
tion is a $% solution is directly stated by Whit-
man (‘ Methods of Research,’ etc., edition of
1885, p. 207), and Lee (The Microtomist’s
Vade-mecum, 4th ed., p. 263.),
These citations abundantly prove that Pro-
fessor Macloskie’s conception of a 1% solu-
tion corresponds with that of other zoologists.
If, however, we ask a chemist how such a solu-
tion is made, the reply willbe: ‘‘ Dissolve one
part of salt, sugar, or whatever the substance
may be, in ninety-nine parts of the solvent.’’
And that this is logically correct becomes self-
evident upon amoment’s thought. A 1% solu-
tion of HCl, as all will agree, consists of one
part of the acid to ninety-nine parts of water.
Why should the fact that in one case we deal
with a solid, in the other with a liquid, alter the
case ?
It would seem that unless, or until the zoolo-
gists come into agreement with the chemists,
1
SCIENCE. 455
every investigator in publishing his researches
should make a point of preventing ambiguity
by stating whether his 1%, 5%, 20% solutions
of solids are compounded on the logical or the
zoological plan. INTAEAM CURE Gon
WELLESLEY COLLEGE, March 6, 1899.
THE ORIGIN OF NIGHTMARE.
OVER and over again when a child I was for
years the victim at night of a certain form
of mild nightmare, so that it came to be to my
fearful imagination no insignificant part of
my unpleasant experiences. This nightmare
always took the form of a great wave of some-
thing gradually rolling towards me and finally
engulfing and oppressing me to a painful ex-
tent. It would roll up a huge shapeless mass
of no particular material, but always irresist-
ibly towards me helpless and overwhelmed.
Most often it finally appeared to be a huge
soft pillow or even formless feather bed, but
without color or other qualities save that of
engulfing and terrifying. At its worst on vari-
ous occasions this mass as it rolled up became
a huge fat boar, defined as such, however, only
subconsciously, but always dreadful in its power
to overwhelm me. All this was years ago.
One night recently, as I was falling asleep in
bed in alighted room, I became gradually aware
of that sensation which compression of a nerve
produces, a vague and quite indefinite sense of
discomfort localized only in the region about my
head and arms, but in my state of somnolence
only a growing sensation of discomfort press-
ing on my consciousness. Increasing steadily,
it finally began to awaken me, and I then
became distinctly conscious of the well-remem-
bered nightmare of my childhood beginning
to approach. With the noise in the room I was
now sufficiently awake to be interested in this fa-
miliar visitor, and I lay still deliberately. Grad-
ually the mass rolled up towards me exactly as
of yore, with no terror in its coming now, until
finally it was upon me and all about me op-
pressively. .I very slightly moved my arm
(upon which my head was lying), and the night-
mare was for the moment lost sight of in the
sensations now localized there. I opened
my eyes and instantly the whole experience
vanished, closed them and it instantly returned
456
in allits force and peculiarities. Over and over
again this little experiment was performed with-
out variation in its results, until, finally, satis-
fied, I moved my head off my arm and
stretched my arm out of its cramped position,
and felt no more this béte noir of earlier days,
now again returned, bringing with it emphatic
and unmistakable explanation of its cause.
Give:
ASTRONOMICAL NOTES.
A NEW SATELLITE OF SATURN.
A NEW satellite of the planet Saturn has been
discovered by Professor William H. Pickering
at the Harvard College Observatory. This
satellite is three and a half times as distant
from Saturn as Iapetus, the outermost satellite
hitherto known. The period is about seventeen
months, and the magnitude fifteen and a half.
The satellite appears upon four plates taken at
the Arequipa Station with the Bruce Photo-
graphic Telescope. The last discovery among
the satellites of Saturn was made half a century
ago, in September, 1848, by Professor George
P. Bond, at that time Director of the Harvard
College Observatory.
EDWARD C. PICKERING.
HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass., March 17, 1899.
NOTES ON PHYSICS.
THE NERNST LAMP.
THE electric lamp recently invented by
Nernst, as has been stated in this JOURNAL, con-
sists of a small rod of magnesia which is heated
to brilliant incandescence by an electric current
which is pushed through it by an electromotive
force of several hundreds of volts. The rod
must be heated nearly to a red heat by a blow-
pipe or other independent means before it passes
sufficient current to operate.
A number of these lamps have been made in
the Physical Laboratory at Bethlehem, Pa. It
has been found that a rod of pure magnesia can
scarcely be started even with 1,000 volts anda
good blow pipe. The surrounding air becomes
electrically too weak to withstand the high elec-
tromotive force at a temperature lower than
SCIENCE,
[N.S. Voz. IX. No. 221.
that required to make the rod a sufficiently good
conductor. This is true even when the rod has
been heated to softness beforehand in a tem-
porary mounting.
The conductivity of the rod may be com-
pletely controlled by mixing with the magnesia
varying amounts of silica and of fusible silicates.
A satisfactory lamp is made as follows: Pure
calcined magnesia (heavy) is thoroughly mixed
with two or three per cent. of powdered silica,
one or two per cent. of magnesium sulphate, and
one per cent. or less of sodium or potassium
silicate (water glass). The mixture is dried
until it is just moist enough to pack under pres-
sure. A small piece of brass tubing is lined
with aroll of several thicknesses of stiff writing
paper, and the mixture is tamped into this tube.
The tube is then baked until the paper is
burned, when the rod of magnesia may be re-
moved. This rod is then laid upon a bed of
magnesia (powdered lime would, perhaps,
answer) and by means of carbon terminals an
alternating current is passed through the rod,
heating it first to redness by a blow pipe. With
some care avery hard and compact rod of mag-
nesia is thus formed which is then ground to a
thin rod with large grooved ends. Platinum
wire is wound on these grooved ends and, if de-
sired, cement made of water glass and powdered
magnesia may be used to cover the platinum.
The two platinum wire terminals may then be
bound to the sides of a small glass tube as a
support. A lamp made in this way may be
started easily, although its resistance rises slowly
with continued use, owing, perhaps, to the vol-
atilization of the potassium or sodium silicate.
~ Calcium silicate would, perhaps, be more satis-
factory in this respect.
A very striking experiment may be performed
with a piece of glass tubing several inches long
wound with copper terminals at its ends. The
tube begins to pass considerable current at a
low red heat, with a few hundreds of volts, and
is quickly melted by the current. A thin-walled
tube half an inch or more in diameter is best,
and it should be heated along one side only so
that the cool portion of the tube may for a short
time serve as a support for the hot conductive
portion.
W.S. F.
Manrcw 24, 1899. ]
PYROELECTRICITY AND PIBZOELECTRICITY.
W. Vorer (Wiedemann’s Annalen, No. 18,
1898) shows that the electrification of certain
crystals by heating (pyroelectricity) and the
electrification by deformation (piézoelectricity)
are in general one and the same phenomenon,
and that it is only in such a crystal as tourma-
lin, which has a single axis distinguished from
all other axes by characteristic physical proper-
ties, that pyroelectricity is not due wholly to the
deformation accompanying arise of temperature.
Professor Voigt also points out that a plate of
tourmalin can be used to generate accurately
known electric charges by subjecting it to
measured compression, and he gives the results
of a determination of an electrostatic capacity
based upon the known charge generated by a
tourmalin plate and the known e. m. f. of a
standard cell. W.S. F.
THE ROTARY CONVERTER.
In two short articles in the Electrical World,
for December 17th and 24th, Mr. C. P. Stein-
metz gives a quite complete discussion of the
theory and action of the rotary converter, a
machine used to convert alternating current into
direct current, mainly in connection with long
distance transmission. Mr. Steinmetz’s papers
are, almost without exception, very difficult to
read for the reason, chiefly, that he always
gives a great deal of precise information about
difficult subjects not generally understood. The
present paper cannot, of course, be abstracted,
but it is mentioned for the reason that Mr. Stein-
metz deserves to be more generally known as
one of the foremost electricians of our time ; that
he is ascientific electrician isa matter of course.
W.S. F.
THE TELESCOPE-MIRROR-SCALE METHOD.*
Proressor 8. W. HoLMAN has given in the
Technology Quarterly, for September, 1898, a
most complete and usable discussion of the tele-
scope-mirror-scale method for measuring angu-
lar deflections. Almost at the very beginning
of the paper a list of the fourteen instrumental
errors is given, together with directions for
making the adjustments which are necessary
*Published separately by John Wiley & Sons, New
York. Price, 75 cents.
SCIENCE.
457
to reduce each error to a prescribed value,
Following this is a general discussion of each
error of adjustment and a derivation of the
error in angle due to each. Most physicists
have, of course, looked into the detailed theory
of the telescope-mirror-scale method in spite of
the fact that the literature on the subject is not
generally accessible, but the habitual use of the
method for rough measurements makes one
lose sight of a dozen or more of the adjustments
and precautions which are necessary in accurate
work, and, therefore, almost every physicist
will find this pamphlet of Professor Holman’s
a useful reminder when the need arises to use
the method with all the precision it is capa-
ble of. IWayooneky.
NOTES ON INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Some time ago a committee was appointed by
the German Chemical Society to formulate an
atomic-weight table which should serve as a
basis for practical use in analytical calculations.
This committee consisted of Professors Landolt,
Ostwald and Seubert, and has recently brought
in areport which has been widely published.
With three exceptions, the decimals in the
atomic weights are given only as far as the last
figure is practically correct. The weights as
far as given agree in general with those pub-
lished by Professer F. W. Clarke. The most
interesting point in connection with the table is
that the basis used is the atomic weight of
oxygen = 16. It is now a number of years
since Dr. F. P. Venable and others in this
country and abroad uttered strong protests
against the use of hydrogen = 1 as a standard,
especially since the atomic weights with few
exceptions are determined with reference to
oxygen, and at that time the ratio between
hydrogen and oxygen was uncertain. Now
that this ratio has been, thanks to Professor
Morley, rendered almost certain to three decimal
places, it is still unnecessary and unscientific to
bring in even this little uncertainty, which in
the elements of high atomic weight amounts to
quite an appreciable quantity. Professor Seu-
bert has been one of the strongest advocates of
the basis H = 1, and it is noteworthy that he
has agreed to the committee report. In the
report Seubert says that, while H =1 is in
458
principle the most correct and natural, he agrees
to the report chiefly because with O = 16 many
of the weights most frequently used in calcula-
tions are represented by whole numbers, and
hence these numbers are most conveniently
used. Landolt adds that he hopes this report
will lead to an international agreement as to
the figures used.
In arecent paper in the Journal fiir praktische
Chemie, W. Hidmann describes the action of
metallic magnesium upon compounds contain-
ing nitrogen, especially upon the cyanids. At
a red heat almost all compounds, inorganic and
organic, which contain nitrogen are decomposed,
generally with the formation of magnesium ni-
trid, Mg,N,. The cyanids of the alkalies and al-
kaline earths are decomposed without explosion,
the carbid of the metal being formed. This, Eid-
mann says, shows that the ordinarily accepted
formula of the cyanids, e. g., Bat mi is
correct. In the case of those cyanids which
decompose at a red heat, as those of zinc,
nickel, lead, copper, etc., the reaction with mag-
nesium is more violent and decomposition into
magnesium nitrid, carbon and the metal ensues.
In the case of those cyanids, as those of silver
and mercury, which decompose below ared heat
the liberated cyanogen reacts with magnesium
with explosive violence. ~
A SERIES of analyses of waters from wells
near the sea-shore are published by P. Guichard
in the Bulletin Société Chimique. The water in
these wells rises and falls with the tide, while
the composition of the water leads to the con-
clusion that there is no direct connection be-
tween the wells and the sea, and, hence, it fol-
lows, according to the author, that subterranean
waters must be affected by the moon, even as
the ocean. This conclusion will, doubtless, find
many to dissent from it.
A DESCRIPTION is given in the Pharmaceu-
tische Zeitung by Alfred Zucker of the manu-
facture of whitelead by electrolysis, at Dell-
briick, according to the Luckow process. The
electrolyte is a 13% solution of 80% sodium
chlorid and 20% sodium carbonate. The
anode is soft lead, the kathode hard lead. The
current is 0.5 ampére per square centimeter at
SCIENCE.
fur.
[N. 8. Von. IX. No. 221.
2 volts. Water and carbon dioxid are carefully
added as the electrolysis proceeds. With care
as to the strength of the electrolyte, a purity of
whitelead is obtained not hitherto reached.
The hygienic regulations of the factory are
worthy of mention. Every operative receives
daily one liter of fresh milk, and at the conclu-
sion of his daily work must clean very thor-
oughly his hands, finger nails, ete. In addition
he receives Glauber’s salts, and every fortnight
must take a complete warm bath in water
which contains a certain amount of liver of sul-
By these precautions all cases of satur-
nine poisoning have been avoided for several
years.
ALTHOUGH not under the head of inorganic
chemistry, mention may be permitted of a de-
scription of the manufacture of artificial silk in
arecent number of the Zeitschrift fiir Angewandte
Chemie from the pen of H. Wyss-Naef. The
first practical.use of the process was in 1889.
The raw material is carded cotton which is first
converted into nitrocellulose by a bath of strong
nitric and sulfuric acids. After washing and
drying it is dissolved in a mixture of alcohol
andether. This collodion is then spun through
openings .08 mm. diameter. The alcohol and
ether evaporate almost instantly on spinning
and the material is carefully dried. It is then
treated by a secret process to reduce the nitro
groups, ammonium sulfid being probably the
reducing agent used. The silk is then bleached
with chlorin and is ready for the market.
J. L. H.
CURRENT NOTES ON METEOROLOGY.
THE THEORY OF CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES.
A PUBLICATION of unusual interest, contain-
ing conclusions of the greatest importance in
meteorology, has been issued as Bulletin No. 1
(1899), of the Blue Hill Meteorological Obser-
vatory (‘Studies of Cyclonic and Anticyclonic
Phenomena with Kites,’ by H. Helm Clayton).
This is a study of the results obtained during
the kite flights of September 21st—24th and of
November 24th—25th last, and it will aid ma-
terially towards once more strengthening belief
in the older Ferrel, or convectional theory of
cyclones and anticyclones, as opposed to the
newer Hann, or driven theory. Lack of space
Marcu 24, 1899. ]
prevents mention of many of the striking facts
set forth in this Bulletin. The flights of Sep-
tember 21st-24th brought down records from
altitudes of 2,000 to 3,400 meters, ina well-
marked anticyclone, and in a succeeding cy-
clone which followed the same track. The
temperature near the center of the anticyclone
was the same at 2,100 meters as at 1,200 meters,
and the humidity at the greater altitudes was
. excessively low. These results agree with those
previously found in similar conditions. The
axis of the anticyclone was inclined backwards,
the high pressure occurring later at high than
at low levels. Up to 3,000 meters the temper-
ature of the air was higher on the day of the
cyclone than on the day of the anticyclone—a
normal condition at Blue Hill, as previous kite
ascents have shown. A further notable discovery
is that cyclonic and anticyclonic circulations
observed at the earth’s surface in this latitude
do not seem to embrace any air movement at
greater altitudes than 2,000 meters, except in
front of cyclones. Above 2,000 meters there
seem to be other poorly developed cyclones and
anticyclones, with their centers at entirely dif-
ferent places from those on the earth’s surface,
and with different wind circulations.
On November 24th—25th the kite meteoro-
graph was sent up near the center of a cyclone
and in a succeeding anticyclone. From sea-
level to 2,800 meters the temperature was
13°-24° F. higher on the day of the cyclone
(November 24th) than on the following day.
The results of the observations on November
24th-25th also go to show that when the cold
in the rear of asurface cyclone is exceptionally
severe, the axis of the cyclone is inclined back-
ward so sharply that the circulation breaks
into two or more systems. Thus there come
to exist asurface cyclone, a mid-air cyclone and
an upper-air cyclone. On November 25th,
at 3,000 meters, there existed a cold-center cy-
clone, in which the air had a descending com-
ponent of motion, as indicated by the low
humidity.
The results of the careful study made by Mr.
Clayton lead him to the view that the convec-
tional theory of cyclones isthe trueone. This
Bulletin again bears evidence to the admirable
work which is being done by the staff of the
‘ited Tierra del Fuego in 1896.
SCIENCE. 459
Blue Hill Observatory, and to the important
contributions which Mr, Clayton and his assist-
ants, with Mr. Rotch’s liberal support, have
made to meteorology.
CARBONIC ACID IN DEATH GULCH,
THE amount of carbonic acid in the atmos-
phere, which, under ordinary conditions, aver-
ages about 0.03%, may, in exceptional circum-
stances, attain a considerably higher percentage.
In certain volcanic districts the amount of car-
bonic acid may be large enough to cause the
death of animals which stray into the hollows
where, owing to its density, the gas collects.
The Grotto del Cane, near Naples, is a region
of this sort. Another is Death Gulch, in the
Yellowstone National Park. In an account of
a recent trip in the Park, in Appleton’s Popular
Science Monthly for February, Jaggar reports
his discovery, in Death Gulch, of the carcasses
of eight bears, all of which had doubtless been
asphyxiated by the excessive amount of car-
bonic acid in the air.
R. DEC. Warp.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
ZOOLOGICAL NOTES.
NEOMYLODON LISTAI.
Dr. EINAR LONNBERG describes at length *
some portions of skin found in a cave at Eber-
hardt, near Last Hope Inlet, 51° 35’ 8., 72° 38”
W., in the Territorio de Magallanes, Chile, and
obtained by the Swedish expedition which vis-
The cave, lo-
cated a few kilometers from the coast and about
500 feet above sea-level, was about 600 feet deep
and 150 feet wide at the entrance. It was dis-
covered by some farm laborers, who promptly de-
stroyed the human skeletons found in the cave,
although they fortunately preserved some pieces
of thick, strange-looking skin, and the sheath
of a claw found partly imbedded in the stalag-
mitic deposit of the floor. The claw and two
pieces of skin were secured by Nordenskjold ;
the smaller piece measured about 715 cm.;
the larger, irregular in shape, 50 > 76 cm., is be-
lieved to be from the left fore leg. The small
* Reprint from Wissenschaftl. Ergebnisse Schwedischen
Expedition nach den Magellanslindern unter leitung von
Otto Nordenskjold.
460 SCIENCE.
fragment of skin is 1 em. thick covered, exter-
nally with coarse, dirty yellowish hair, and in-
ternally so thickly set with rounded ossicles as
to suggest a cobblestone pavement. The inner
surface of the larger piece does not show any
ossicles, but in the freshly-cut margin they are
apparent, although small and completely im-
bedded in the skin; the hair on this fragment
is from 5 to 9 cm. long. Under the microscope
a transverse section of this hair is seen to be
solid, lacking the central pith usually present,
and on comparison with the hairs of various
South American edentates its greatest likeness
is found in the central axis of the hair of
Bradypus. The microscopical structure of the
ossicles, which is described at length by Dr.
Lonnberg, is strikingly like that of the ossicles
of the true fossil Mylodon. The claw, 104 mm.
long by 34 wide, is considered to belong to Neo-
mylodon, as there is no existing South American
mammal provided with similar claws, and is be-
lieved to have belonged on a hind foot. The
animal is estimated to have been at least 6 feet
long and 4 feet or so high at the shoulder. After
a careful consideration Dr. Lonnberg comes to
the conclusion that, while Neomylodon was con-
temporaneous with early man and was used as
food, it certainly does not exist at present, be-
cause it is absolutely impossible for it to have
eluded the sharp eyes of the native Indians;
neither is it identical with the animal that
Ramon Listai is said to have shot at. It will
be noted that the conditions under which the
skin was preserved are very similar to those
which led to the preservation of portions of the
skin and feathers of Dinornis.
MSVAS Tu:
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.
THE, Second International Conference on a
Catalogue of Scientific Literature requested the
delegates from the countries represented to
take steps for the formation of committees to
study the various questions relating to the Cata-
logue, and for the United States the following
committee has been named: Dr. J. 8. Billings,
Professor Simon Newcomb, Dr. Theodore N.
Gill, Professor H. P. Bowditch, Dr. Robert
Fletcher, Mr. Clement W. Andrews and Dr.
Cyrus Adler. Different universities and scien-
[N. 8. Vou. IX. No. 221.
tific societies have been invited to form com-
mittees to report upon the questions involved.
THE appointment of Mr. Herbert Putnam as
Librarian of the National Library will be wel-
comed by all friends of science and learning.
It is well known that Mr. Putnam has excel-
lently administered the Public Library of Min-
neapolis and the Boston Public Library, and
will undoubtedly make the National Library
what he has himself said it should be, ‘‘ the fore-
most library in the United States, a national
library, the largest in the United States, a
model and example of assisting the work of
scholarship in the United States.’? Men of
science are directly interested in this appoint-
ment, as the great collection of scientific books
of the Smithsonian Institution is deposited in
the Library.
Dr. THOMAS J. SEE, recently appointed pro-
fessor of mathematics in the Naval Observa-
tory, has been designated as Chief of the Nau-
tical Almanac.
PROFESSOR PATRICK GEDDES, of Edinburgh,
is at present visiting the United States with a
view to sociological and other studies. Profes-
sor Geddes is well known for his accomplish-
ments and versatility in biological science and
for his efforts to improve sociological conditions
in Edinburgh.
Mr. G. F. Stout, recently appointed Wilde
lecturer on mental philosophy at Oxford, and
Mr. Charles Stewart, Curator of the Museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, have
been given the degree of LL.D. by the Univer-
sity of Aberdeen.
THE Stockholm Society for Geology and
Geography has awarded its Vega medal to
Professor Georg Schweinfurth, of Berlin.
THE Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche
Akademie der Naturforscher, of Halle, has
awarded the Cothenius gold medal to Dr. F.
Zirkel, professor of mineralogy in the Univer-
sity of Leipzig.
Proressor A. H. SAYCE, of Oxford Univer-
sity, has been appointed Gifford lecturer in
Aberdeen University for 1900-1902.
® PROFESSOR BURDON SAUNDERSON gave the
Croonian lecture before the Royal Society on
MARCH 24, 1899. ]
March 16th, on ‘The Electric Concomitants of
Motion in Animals and Plants.’
PROFESSOR JEBB, of Cambridge, will deliver
the Romanes lecture at Oxford, June 7th, his
subject being ‘Humanism and Education.’
THE following Friday evening discourses are
being given before the Royal Institution, Lon-
don: March 10th, ‘Measuring Extreme Tem-
peratures,’ by Professor H. L. Callendar, F.R.S.;
March 17th, ‘The Electric Fish of the Nile,’ by
Professor Francis Gotch, F.R.S8.; and on March
24th, ‘Transparency and Opacity,’ by Lord
Rayleigh, F.R.S.
Proressor C. C. GEoRGESON, of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, has left Washington for
Sitka to superintend investigations in experi-
mental agriculture. A building will be erected
at Sitka this year which will contain offices for
the experiment station and for meteorological
observations.
Tue Lord Mayor of Liverpool entertained, on
March 4th, Professor Oliver J. Lodge, in recog-
nition of his haying received the Rumford
medal, which is awarded biennially by the
Royal Society for the most important discov-
eries in heat or light. Speeches were made by
the Lord Mayor; Professor Fitzgerald, of Dub-
lin; Sir John Brunner ; Professor Myers, of
Cambridge; Professor Ricker and Sir W.
Crookes. It was announced at the dinner that
Sir John Brunner had offered £5,000 towards a
new building for the physical laboratory for
-University College, Liverpool, which is under
Professor Lodge’s direction.
A STATUE in bronze of the late Dr. William
Pepper, of Philadelphia, will be erected in the
plaza before the City Hall.
PROFESSOR JOHN COLLETT, for many years
State Geologist of Indiana, died at Indian-
apolis, on March 15th, aged 71 years.
Dr. W. HANKEL, professor of physics in the
University of Leipzig, died on February 18th,
at the age of 84 years.
Dr. Francis M. Macnamara died on March
5th, at the age of 57. He was formerly pro-
fessor of chemistry at the Calcutta Medical Col-
lege and chemical examiner to the Governor of
India, where he made important investigations
SCIENCE,
461
on the spread of cholera by water and on the
distribution of disease.
ConGREsS, in its closing hours, passed a bill
containing the stipulation, ‘‘ That before Jan-
uary 1, 1903, the fence around the Botanical
Garden shall be removed, provided that at the
first session of the Fifty-sixth Congress the Joint
Committee on Library is directed to report a bill
embodying a plan for removing the Botanical
Garden to another location.’”? The Botanical
Garden in Washington has done little for sci-
ence, being administered by a Joint Committee
on the Library of Congress. It is proposed to
remove the Garden to a place where a larger
area can be secured, and establish there a Na-
tional Botanical Garden, which will probably
be placed under the charge of the Department
of Agriculture.
THE New York City Board of Estimate and
Apportionment authorized, on March 17th, an
issue of bonds to the amount of $500,000, the
proceeds to be used in defraying the cost of re-
moving the Forty-second street reservoir and
in laying the foundations for the building for
the New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and
Tilden foundations. Mayor Van Wyck is re-
ported to have said: ‘‘ The original request was
for $150,000. We looked the matter over care-
fully and concluded that such a sum would
suffice only for the demolition of the reservoir.
It was suggested that the first requisition for
bonds under the act authorizing the construc-
tion of the library be large enough to cover the
cost of the foundations for the structure. The
trustees of the library agreed to this, and the
plans were accordingly amended. With $500,-
000 it will be possible within nine or ten months
to raze the reservoir and lay the foundations.
Then we shall be ready to order another issue
of bonds and to prosecute the work to an early
completion.’? The New York City Board of
Estimate and Apportionment has also set aside
$63,000 for work on the Zoological Garden in
Bronx Park.
Mayor VAN Wyck has given a public hear-
ing on the bill passed by the Legislature author-
izing the Board of Estimate and Apportionment
to increase the annual appropriation for the
American Museum of Natural History from
462
$90,000 to $130,000. Professor Albert 8. Bick-
more, representing the Museum, and Senator
Plunkitt, the introducer of the bill, declared
that, on account of recent additions to the
building, more money was required for its
maintenance, the present allowance being in-
adequate. The Mayor did not publicly declare
his intentions towards the bill, but it is believed
that he will sign it.
THE Joint Committee of the Royal Society
and the Royal Geographical Society, appointed
to promote a National Antarctic Expedition,
made application some time ago to the Council
of the Royal Society and the Council of the
British Association for grants of money in aid
of the proposed expedition. The Treasurer of
the Royal Society has applied, on behalf of the
Council, to the Government Grant Committee
for a grant of £1,000, and the Council of the
British Association will recommend to the next
meeting of the General Committee that a like
sum be contributed by the Association. The
scientific societies in Australia are moving in
the matter with a view to influencing the Prem-
iers of the different colonies.
THE Navy Department expects to make a
hydrographic survey of the Philippines. The
Vixen, now on its way to Manila, will begin the
work as soon as it can be spared, and it is ex-
pected that the Yosemite, after making surveys
about Guam, will proceed to the Philippines for
this purpose.
Dr. W. H. Furness and Dr. H. M. Miller
have returned from an expedition to Florida,
where they have been collecting fossils for the
Wistar Institute of Anatomy, University of
Pennsylvania. They have made collections
from the limestone quarries and phosphate
mines, where Dr. Leidy secured many valuable
specimens.
THE will of the late Herbert Stewart gives
$2,000 to the American Society of Engineers
for a library fund and $500 to the Engineers’
Club of New York City towards its building
fund. The residue of the estate, subject to life
annuities, is left to the Sheffield Scientific School
of Yale University for Scholarships. The
amount is estimated at $40,000.
A CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION examination
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 221.
will be held on April 11 and 12, 1899, for the po-
sition of Soil Chemist, Division of Soils, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, at a salary of $1,400 per
annum. The subjects and weights are as follows:
Physicalichemistnypeemwisiecicaiscedetsictelcietesets sale 20
PNOrgsanic Chemis biysetets clonelpolsysieleten eteleiereietets 20
OrganicichemIstrysseseicletatestetsmieei elses 20
Analy ticalym ethodsiteie: sects re Netaveterepaleysi seals 20
Deiterabure Of SOs! jcc sctariercictays eteiiereisiclarseststel« 10
Brenchiand! Germans c-)cjejsfetetcisiie syateceeiola = 10
MObale estate wietsrcjarsisier states cieletel slap el cfsitoretor chokes 100
On the same days an examination will be
held for the position of Special Crop Culturist
(Department of Agriculture). The subjects
will be weighted as follows:
Basis examination (first grade)............. 10
English composition and general training and
CX PETLENGO rests ascyaec ste creniaiesterstaecataleveuelsreds 10
Agriculture and horticulture (general prin-
ciples and practice of agriculture and horti-
culture, including crop rotation, selection
and breeding of variety, agricultural Chem-
istry, fertilizers, treatment of plant diseases
ANG INSECEEPESES) jeriersrcicievs ofeloretehaietelelercletelelese 20
French (translation into English of a selec-
tion relating to the cultivation of field
CLOPS) Wey stenscpeperevvereesreverskeitaveca est overs eeetana coke 10
Field crops (treatment of miscellaneous and
little known field crops, including import
SEALISEICS)) sare creuescncteserosatere sjatene rages etetenteeerete 30
IPTOOLTEA CITI G sis reteyarets/aleta)ctarote etsisvsieyareverereheteletete 10
Typewriting (tabulating, copying and spac-
ing, and writing from dictation)........ 10
Totalicrecstersicinvscslorsro stat anovereinsieentvarerectets 100
WE have already called attention to the
Volta commemoration to be held at Como dur-
ing May of the present year. Como has ap-
propriated $100,000 for the preliminary ex-
penses. An electrical exhibition will be opened
on May 14th. <10-* amp. gives
easily readable Morse signals in an ordinary
telephone, this being double the audible current
(this presumably for a frequency of 400). He
then finds that in the above case, but with fre-
quency equal to 400, there is 12 10~° amp.,
and that hence the readable signals could be pro-
duced with 250 kgm. of copper. - For satisfac-
tory audible signals the frequency must be at
least as high as 400, and here the undetermined
effect of absorption of these waves by the ma-
terial of the earth comes in. If this proves
serious it may be necessary to use lower fre-
quencies and other forms of receivers. A re-
ceiver is described consisting of a tuned rec-
tangle of wire, vibrating in a strong field, or,
better, two rectangles vibrating synchronously,
but in opposite directions. Such instruments
are being used at Lavernock and Flat Holm as
494 SCIENCE,
relays to close call-bell circuits. They are of
iridio-platinum wire, 3 mils diameter and 2 by 4
em. dimensions; they have a frequency of 16
per second, and with a clearance of 2 mils
.001 erg. per second is required to bring them
into contact. This can be used at a distance of
10 kilometers with 4 ton of copper and would
be little affected by the absorption; it has not,
however, been adapted to the transmission of
Morse signals. The power used by the tele-
phone is more than 600 times the power used
by the rectangle in this case. BiG.
THE BEQUESTS OF THE LATE PROFESSOR
MARSH.
THE will of the late Professor Marsh leaves
his entire estate to Yale University, with the
exception of $10,000 to the National Academy
of Sciences. Its provisions are as follows: 1.
The library which he had collected is to be
placed in the Yale library, and all duplicates
are to be given to the library of the Peabody
Museum. 2. His home and the land surround-
ing it, nearly three acres on Prospect Hill, is
given to the University to be used exclusively
as a botanical garden ‘and for no other pur-
pose.’ The garden is to be under the custody
of a regularly appointed curator at a salary of
$2,000. The house is either to be used as the
residence of the curator or as a botanical lab-
oratory, as his executors may see fit. In case
the corporation does not wish to accept the
house and grounds for this purpose Professor
Marsh orders that they be sold and the pro-
ceeds added to the residuary estate. 38. His
executors are ordered to sell all his pictures,
paintings, furniture, bric-a-brac, silver and
Oriental collections, the proceeds to be turned
over to the University. 4. The gift is made
to the University of a collection of 2,000 orchids
and of all of his greenhouse plants. If not needed
by the University these may be sold for the bene-
fit of the estate. 5. The bequest is made of all
of his scientific collections in paleontology, geol-
ogy, zoology and archeology, to be kept in Pea-
body Museum. 6. He gives to the National
Academy of Sciences of Washington $10,000 as
a trust fund, ‘the income to be used and expended
for promoting original research in the natural
sciences.’ 7. The sum of $30,000 which, by the
[N. S. Vou. IX. No. 222
terms of the will of George Peabody, Professor
Marsh was authorized to dispose of in his will,
is left to the corporation of Yale ‘ to be expended
by the trustees of Peabody Museum in preparing
for publication and publishing the results of my
explorations in the West.’ 8. All the rest, resi-
due and remainder of the property and estate
real and personal, is given to Yale University
to be used and expended by it for ‘ promoting
original research in the natural sciences.’
The value of Professor Marsh’s estate is said
to be about $100,000, but may not prove to be
as much. It will be remembered that some-
what more than a year ago Professor Marsh gave
his extremely valuable collections in paleon-
tology and other sciences to the University. It
is estimated that these were secured at a cost
of about $250,000. The Peabody Museum was
given by Mr. George Peabody, Professor
Marsh’s uncle, through his influence. It should
also be remembered that Professor Marsh never
accepted any salary from Yale University.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.
THE first Hodgkins gold medal given by the
Smithsonian Institution has been conferred on
Professor James Dewar, F.R.S., for his work on
the liquefaction of air.
PROFESSOR HELMERT, of Berlin, has been
elected a foreign correspondent of the Paris
Academy of Sciences for the Section of Geog-
raphy and Navigation. In the same section
Pére Colin, founder and director of the observa-
tory at Tananarivo, Madagascar, was elected a
corresponding member.
THE Paris Academy of Medicine has awarded
its Lecaze prize (10,000 fr.) to Dr. Widal for his
serum method of diagnosing typhoid fever.
Ir is proposed, says the London Times, that a
portrait of the late Dr. John Hopkinson should
be placed in the Hopkinson Memorial Wing of
the Engineering Laboratory at Cambridge Uni-
versity, the cost to be defrayed by subscription.
A chimney piece which Mrs. Hopkinson has
presented for use in one of the principal rooms
contains a panel in which such a portrait could
appropriately be placed. Mr. T. B. Kennington,
who painted a portrait of Dr. Hopkinson some
years ago, has suggested that instead of simply
4
MARCH 31, 1899. ]
copying that picture he could produce a better
representation of Dr. Hopkinson as he was
shortly before his death by painting an original
portrait based on a recent excellent photograph
and following the coloring of the previous por-
trait. Subscriptions are limited to two guineas,
in the expectation that a considerable number
of Dr. Hopkinson’s friends not resident in the
University, as well as residents, will wish to
contribute. Among those who have already
subscribed are the Vice-Chancellor, the Master
of Peterhouse, the Master of Trinity, Sir
Benjamin Baker, Sir J. Wolfe Barry, Sir Fred-
erick Bramwell, Sir Douglas Fox, Sir James
Kitson, Sir G. G. Stokes, Sir William White,
Lord Kelvin, Lord Rayleigh and Lord Lister.
Professor Ewing ig treasurer of the fund, and
he will receive subscriptions, or they may be
paid to the Hopkinson portrait account at Bar-
clay & Co., Cambridge.
THE statement sent from Washington to the
press to the effect that Dr. Thomas J. See had
been designated Chief of the Nautical Almanac
is incorrect. Dr. See has been assigned to duty
as Assistant in the Naval Observatory, but has
nothing whatever to do with the Nautical
Almanac office.
THE funeral services of the late Professor
Marsh were held in Battell Chapel, Yale Uni-
versity, on March 22d. President Dwight con-
ducted the ceremonies, and Professor George
F. Fisher, of the Theological School, read the
commemorative address. The pall-bearers were
Charles D. Walcott and Arnold Hague, of
Washington ; Professor Asaph Hall, Cambridge;
Professor H. A. Barker, University of Penn-
sylvania; and Professors William H. Brewer,
Addison van Name, Edward S. Dana and Mr.
George F. Eaton, of Yale.
Dr. Poitier J. J. VALENTINI, a student in
ancient Mexican and Central American history,
and author of numerous publications, died
March 16th, at St. Luke’s Hospital, New York.
Dr. Valentini’s interpretation of the Mexican
Calendar Stone placed him among the foremost
American archeologists. He was born in Ber-
lin in 1828, and received a careful training in
philology from his father, an Italian teacher of
languages and author of the first German-
SCIENCE.
495
Italian dictionary. In 1854 Dr. Valentini went
to Costa Rica, and there founded the seaport of
Puerto Limon government auspices.
Learning of the obscurity of the Spanish coloni-
zation of Costa Rica, he returned to Ger-
many to search for manuscript historical evi-
dence. His first results in this line brought
for him the recognition of Ph.D. from Jena.
Later Dr. Valentini returned to Central Amer-
ica, where, continuing his investigations, he
made many expeditions to Guatemala and
other parts of Central America. In this work
he received government encouragement, but
political disturbances prevented his Spanish
and German texts from being published by the
government. Recognizing that to thoroughly
understand Spanish conquests the pre-Colum-
bian peoples must be studied, he began work
upon the glyphs of the stone monuments and
codices. Thirty years ago he came to New
York to make use of the greater library facili-
ties here, and since that time has been promi-
nent among students of Americana. The
American Antiquarian Society of Worcester
has published many of his papers. His most
recent publication is ‘ A Study of the Voyage of
Pinzon,’ printed in German in 1898. The
major part of his notes and MSS. remain un-
published.
under
HARLAN I. SMITH.
Dr. OLIVER Marcy, professor of natural
history in Northwestern University, and dean,
died at Evanston, Ill., on March 19th. He was
a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, a
member of the American Ornithologists’ Union,
and of other scientific societies.
PROFESSOR GUSTAV WIEDEMANN, professor
of physics and chemistry in the University of
Leipzig, well known for his contributions to
electricity and magnetism, has died.
Masor J. Evans, professor of pathology in
the Calcutta Medical College, died on March
13th from the plague. He is believed to have
contracted the disease while engaged upon the
post-mortem examination of a plague patient.
AMERICAN men of science should see that the
decimal system of weights and measures is
maintained in Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philip-
pines. It is the first principle of colonial gov-
496
ernment to respect the customs of the native
peoples, and we certainly should not fail to do
this in a case where their customs are better
than our own.
AN appropriation of $170,000 has been passed
by the Massachusetts House for the extermina-
tion of the Gypsy moth.
THE German Reichstag has made a grant of
60,000 Marks for Professor Robert Koch’s ap-
proaching expedition to the tropics to investi-
gate the nature and origin of malaria.
Ir is said that Mr. Andrew Carnegie is pre-
pared to give the Pittsburg Carnegie Library
$1,000,000 endowment and $500,000 additional
for improvements when the city authorities
have appropriated $3,500,000 for Shenly Park.
By the death of Mrs. A. H. Colson a bequest
of $25,000 for the library of Stafford, Conn.,
becomes available.
THE Ohio State University announces for the
summer of 1899 the maintenance of a lake lab-
oratory at Sandusky, the purpose of which is
to provide laboratory facilities to any who may
wish to engage in the study of the numerous
forms of life there accessible. No courses of
instruction are designed and no laboratory fees
are charged, the special purpose being to pro-
vide opportunities for investigation. Still, the
opportunities for mutual improvement among a
circle of earnest workers, by comparison of
methods, discussion of results and exchange of
ideas, are too evident to need mention. The
variety of life accessible is unsurpassed, as the
lake, river, extensive bays and marshes afford
a basis for life conditions of great richness.
The laboratory is provided with tables, aquaria,
boat and other essentials, and necessary seines,
dredges, nets, etc., will be available when
needed. Rooms and board may be had con-
venient to the laboratory at very moderate
prices, and as, aside from the attractive loca-
tions along shore, the beauties of Kelley’s, and
Put-in Bay Islands are readily accessible by
boat the opportunities are most favorable to
combine a few weeks of earnest study with the
recreations of a summer outing. Each investi-
gator will be expected to provide his own mi-
croscope, microtome and such special appli-
ances as he may need in his particular investi-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 229.
gation, unless otherwise arranged, but will be
supplied with the usual reagents, glassware,
etc., and will be given entire freedom in the
matter and method of his investigation, except
for such necessary arrangements concerning use
of boat, assignment of table aquaria, etc., as
may be necessary to secure equal advantages to
all. The laboratory will be open from June
15th to August 15th, or, possibly, till September
Ist, if desired by a number of workers. Ad-
vanced students, instructors or any persons
qualified to use the facilities offered are cordi-
ally invited to avail themselves of the oppor-
tunity here provided. Further particulars may
be had by addressing Professor Herbert Osborn,
Department Zoology and Entomology, Ohio
State University, Columbus.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS.
WE recently announced that Mr. Robert S.
Brookings had offered to give $100,000 to Wash-
ington University, St. Louis, on condition that
$400,000 be subscribed by others. This sum
has now been given and the $500,000 has been
added to the endowment fund of the under-
graduate department. Thisisin addition to the
$450,000 given for buildings within the past six
weeks as described recently in this JOURNAL.
THE Woman’s College, of Baltimore, will
receive between $25,000 and $50,000 as the re-
siduary legatee of the late George R. Berry, of
that city.
Tue Teachers’ College, Columbia University,
will erect, at a cost of $350,000, a bulding for its
model school, the Horace Mann School. This
will give, in its present buildings, more ample
accommodations for the regular courses.
Srx new scholarships of $100 each have been
established in the Sheffield Scientific School of
Yale University. They will be awarded to
members of the graduating class who stand
highest in scholarship.
Mr. W. J. BLANKINSHIP has been appointed
professor of botany in the Agricultural College
of Montana. |
Mr. R. C. MAcCLAURIN, Fellow of St. John’s
College, Cambridge, has been called to the chair
of mathematics in Victoria College, New Zea-
land.
SCIENCE
EpITORIAL CoMMITTEE: S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WoopWARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; W. K. Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology;
8S. H. ScuppER, Entomology; C. E. BressEy, N. L. Brirron, Botany; Henry F. Oszorn,
General Biology; C. 8S. Minot, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bowpitcn, Physiology ;
J. S. Bruuinas, Hygiene ; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRIN-
Ton, J. W. PoweEtL, Anthropology.
Fripay, Aprit 7, 1899.
CONTENTS:
The Fresh-Water Biological Stations of the World :
PROFESSOR HENRY B. WARD............0:00c0000 497
Brunissure of the Vine and other Plants: DR. AL-
BER TPH pWiOODSasaeresescencccesensstentessaceecesses ses 508
An Automatic Mercury Pump: DR. RALPH R.
IPANWARIEN CRistresneaciencentsccsscrstarseatenctnacte scares: 510
Scientific Books :—
Wallace on the Wonderful Century : PROFESSOR
W. K. Brooks. Hueppe’s Principles of Bacteri-
ology: H. W. C. Hoskins on The Elements of
Graphic Statics: PROFESSOR FREDERICK N.
WILSON. General. Books Received............... 511
Scientific Journals and Articles.......0.0.ccccececeeseees 517
Societies and Academies :—
Chemical Society of Washington: WILLIAM H.
Kruc. Geological Conference and Students’ Club
of Harvard University: J. M. BOUTWELL. Tor-
rey Botanical Club: E. S. BURGESS...............4. 517
Discussion and Correspondence :—
Some Suggestions for Scientific Seminars and
Conferences: PROFESSOR RICHARD E. DODGE.
A Remarkable Sun-dog : PRoressor H. L. Os-
BORN. Degrees in Science at Harvard Univer-
sity : PROFESSOR J. MCKEEN CATTELL.......... 520
Scientific Appointments under the Government........ 523
Scientific Notes and News.........1..scsecsesseeceeees . 524
University and Educational News.. . 528
MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended
tor review should be sent to the responsible editor, Profes-
sor J. McKeen Cattell. Garrison-on-Hudson N. Y.
THE FRESH-WATER BIOLOGICAL STATIONS
OF THE WORLD.*
Away back at the beginning of the inves-
tigation of minute forms of life, which fol-
lowed upon the invention of the microscope,
* Annual address of the President before the Ne-
braska Academy of Sciences at Lincoln, November
25, 1898.
or shall I say discovery, for it seems to
have been historically an accident, the
early students searched the ditches and
ponds and lakes for the organisms which
constituted the objects of their study.
Anton von Leeuwenhoek, whose name is
familiar to you as one of the most zealous
early workers among microscopic objects,
enriched science by a long series of new
organisms of this character. Roesel von
Rosenhof, whose careful investigations on
various fresh-water animals, published un-
der the title of ‘Insect Diversions’ are
still standard sources of information con-
cerning the habits and structure of these
forms, together with Swammerdam, Tremb-
ley, O. F. Muller, and a whole host of
others, devoted their attention almost ex-
clusively to the fresh-water fauna. But
this movement seems to have culminated
with the appearance, in 1838, of Ehrenberg’s
famous volume ‘The Infusion Animalcules
as Complete Organisms.’
Extended investigations had already im-
pressed zoologists with the richness of
the marine fauna. Numerous animal
groups of common occurrence in the
sea were apparently entirely wanting in
fresh water, and the astounding richness of
the sub-tropical and tropical oceans with
which the European investigators came
early in contact on the shores of the Medi-
terranean, and in the expeditions to the
new lands of the Tropics, entirely over-
498
shadowed the life that had hitherto been
found in pond or ditch. It is, in my opinion,
also no small factor that many of the ma-
rine forms which were brought to the at-
tention of scientists were dazzling in their
beauty of form and in the brillianey of
their coloring. The quieter, more unas-
suming forms of lacustrine life in temperate
regions could make no corresponding im-
press on the minds of the observers. So
the scientific world went to the sea-shore
for study and everywhere along the coast
of Europe, and even in the islands of the
Tropics were to be found the vacation re-
sorts of scientists.
This diversion of attention from the
study of fresh-water life was undoubtedly
aided by the fact that fifty years ago all
centers of education and investigation
were comparatively close to the ocean, and
so it was easy for the scientist to reach the
point, where, as he had learned from the
reports of others, life was most abundant
and varied, and at the same time, appealed
to his esthetic sensibility as nothing did
that he saw about him. The concentra-
tion of interest on the life of the sea led to
the foundation of marine stations, among
which that at Naples was the first in point
of time, as it always has been and is to-
day, first in point of strength. But the
development of educational institutions
through the large continental areas and
the limitations which their location imposed
upon investigators connected with these
institutions, together with the natural
efforts of man to find a field for investiga-
tion which should afford him a_ better
chance than already overcrowded territory,
have led again to the investigation of fresh-
water life. So it was that Fritsch, in Bo-
hemia, entered upon lacustrine investigation
as early as 1871, while about the same time
Forel, in Switzerland, was carrying on those
studies published between 1874 and 1879
in a series of papers on the ‘ Fauna of the
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Von. IX. No. 223.
Swiss Lakes’ culminating in the crowned
memoir of the Academy of Sciences on the
‘Abyssal Fauna of the Swiss Lakes,’ that
brought to the knowledge of the scientific
world a hitherto unsuspected type of exist-
ence and offered a new and enticing field
for investigation.
It was also in the same year, 1871, that
Stimpson, one of the enthusiastic members
of the old Chicago Academy of Sciences,
conducted some dredging expeditions in the
deep water of Lake Michigan, while about
the same time Hoy, Milner and Forbes en-
tered upon investigations at other points
on these same lakes. The Chicago Academy
and its collections, together with valuable
manuscripts of Stimpson, were destroyed
in the great fire, the U. S. Fish Commis-
sion, under whose auspices the work of Hoy
and Milner was inaugurated, did not pur-
sue further the investigations on the lakes,
and for years Forbes was the only investi-
gator who occupied himself in this country
with the study of lacustrine life. To his
work and influence we owe beyond a doubt
in our own country the awakened interest
in limnobiology, and under his direction
also was established the first general fresh-
water biological station on this continent,
of which more in another connection.
The impulse toward the investigation of
fresh-water life which was inaugurated by
these men, gradually attracted to itself
workers, slowly at first, but approximately
a decade ago, with a sudden start the ranks
of such were rapidly filled up. An enor-
mous number of ponds and lakes, large
and small, scattered over the surface of the
continents, afforded an almost unlimited
field for investigation, and many early
studies were, to say the least, decidedly de-
sultory. There were few workers who were
content to confine themselves to a single
locality, or to a well-defined problem. A
scanty collection was made to serve as the
basis of a faunal list supposed to charac-
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
terize the body of water in question, and
the enumeration of species was regarded as
the ne plus ultra of many investigators.
Like the spiritless systematic zoology,
which, in the work of many minor investi-
gators, followed upon the example set by
the great Linnaeus, so lacustrine investiga-
tors in considerable number, were appar-
ently satisfied to describe, as the results of
brief sojourns, the fauna of a lake or lake
regions, or, perhaps, even from a couple of
vials of material collected by some rich
patron in the course of a journey around
the world, to discuss monographically the
fresh-water fauna of the Fiji Islands, for
instance. Under such circumstances there
could be no biological study. The chief
aim seemed to be to cover as much ground
as possible ina short time. And what Lau-
terborn said five years ago is even truer to-
day in the light of our more extended ex-
perience: ‘‘For the question as to the
distribution of organisms, the methods so
cherished even up to the present day of
fishing in the greatest possible number of
lakes (which recalls, in many respects, the -
chase after new summits on the part of
our modern high climbers—Hochtouristen !),
really have only limited claim to scientific
value, since through them but a very incom-
plete picture of the faunal character of a
water basin can be obtained.”’
The earlier investigators whose work has
already been mentioned, Fritsch in Bohemia,
and Forel in Switzerland, had been pursu-
ing a single problem or investigating a lim- -
ited locality for nearly twenty years, and
they were among the first to emphasize the
necessity of a modification of the prevalent
tendency, and of a more formal character
for lacustine work, if valuable scientific re-
sults were to be expected from it. Forel
was first to publish, in outline, a plan for the
precise formal investigation of a body of
water, in which emphasis was laid upon the
necessity also of continuous and extended
SCIENCE.
499
investigation, before satisfactory conclusions
could be hoped for. This programme has
suffered some modification in detail at the
hands of various students, but, in its general
features, remains the aim and desire of
workers everywhere. With the apprecia-
tion that such work must needs be formal,
continuous and extended, came naturally
the desire that stations of a permanent char-
acter should be established at various points
for the realization of the idea. And the
first of these that were founded were of a
general character, concerned with the bio-
logical investigation of water as a problem
of general scientific interest and importance.
But almost immediately other influences
made themselves felt which have led to the
extension of the general idea along particu-
lar lines of economic importance. Im-
proved methods of fish catching and larger
demands for fish food had brought various
countries to the point where the drain on
this kind of food supply was becoming very
evident. The fish were being destroyed
more rapidly than natural means could re-
store their numbers, and it was felt that
something must be done by governmental
agency to replenish the depleted waters.
The first expedient of collecting and keeping
under satisfactory conditions large numbers
of fish eggs until they should be hatched,
and the young fry distributed through the
waters, was not so successful as had been
hoped. ‘The problem was too large to be
attacked in such a superficial manner, and
the further knowledge, which it became
clear was absolutely necessary for proper
handling of the question, must needs be
sought through some means for the investi-
gation of the conditions and determination
of the steps necessary for the solution of
the problem, and for carrying into effect
the measures which might afford the de-
sired relief. This led, first in Europe, to be
sure, in connection with private enterprises
for fish culture, to the establishment of bio-
500
logical experiment stations with the fish
hatcheries, very much as chemical labora-
tories are now necessary adjuncts of various
manufacturing interests, or agricultural ex-
periment stations are connected with the
higher development of agricultural possi-
bilities. There is, however, a still further
demand which has led to the formation of
institutions of the general type which we
are considering. The water supply of our
cities has always been a serious problem,
and one of increasing interest in connection
with crowded conditions in the more thickly
settled countries of the world, and the bio-
logical examination of the water, undertaken
of necessity, has led to the organization of
biological laboratories connected with the
water systems of great cities, both on the
continent, and in our own country.
Having thus discussed the causes which
have led to the establishment of limnobiolog-
ical stations, we may now consider, briefly,
the types which they present, and the par-
ticular results which may be expected from
a given sort. Of course all probable vari-
ations may be found, and it is difficult to
make any classification which is complete
or even just, and yet, for convenience, we
may divide these enterprises into a few
great groups, recognizing the fact that cer-
tain of them do not belong singly to any
one class, but combine features of different
types. But before outlining this classifica-
tion, let me say that Ido not regard the
existence or non-existence of a building or
structure devoted to the purpose of investi-
gation as a necessary mark of a biological
station. Some of the most valuable contri-
butions to general and special questions in
this field have come from investigators or
groups of investigators who have had no
abiding place, while, on the other hand,
stations well equipped with buildings and
apparatus have in some instances, so far
as can be ascertained, contributed noth-
ing even after several years’ existence, to
SCIENCE. [N.
Vou. IX. No. 223.
the progress of scientific knowledge. Ma-
terial equipment is valuable, and, in gen-
eral, conduces to better results, and yet it
is the results themselves which finally de-
termine the character of any enterprise and
the position which it should hold in the
esteem of the world.
For the purposes of this discussion I pro-
pose dividing biological stations into, first,
individual resorts, second, periodic resorts,
and third, permanent stations. Individual
resorts are such as are characterized by the
work of one or more individual investi-
gators, working for the most part independ-
ently, and solving their problems by virtue
of their individual investigations. There
are, of course, a large number of such places
where some investigator has made sporadic
or single efforts at the determination of the
faunal character of a water basin, or has
paid a number of occasional visits to such
a locality for the same purpose. On the
whole, these stations have accomplished
comparatively little, although we find strik-
ing contradictions of the general statement.
They may also be of a more regular and
definite character, and some of these per-
sonal investigations have been most valuable
in extending our present knowledge of fresh
water life. It may be noted here that the
permanence or regularity which contributes
to the success may be either in the location
of the point at which the investigations
are carried out, or in the definiteness of
the purpose which is followed; thus Im-
hof’s investigations on the pelagic fauna of
the Swiss lakes were permanent in their.
value, and Zschokke’s investigation of the
biological character of elevated lakes carried
on at numerous points in the Alpine chain,
has resulted in fundamentally important
contributions to the lacustrine fauna of high
altitudes. Yet neither of these was at all
confined to a single locality, though limited
by a definite purpose.
Periodic resorts are those to which groups
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
of individuals are accustomed to go for a
certain portion or season of the year, most
commonly for a vacation period in accord-
ance with which they are denominated
summer or winter laboratories. The larger
number of the investigators tends towards
securing a more complete idea of the bio-
logical problem as a whole, so that the re-
sults obtained from such stations are of
evident value. Yet, at the same time, it
must be noted that they are distinctly in-
ferior, even to many individual resorts, since
during the larger portion of the year no in-
vestigations are carried on and the results
obtained are necessarily partial and incom-
plete in their character, and hence unavail-
able for the decision of the broader and more
fundamental biological questions.
Permanent stations are those at which
operations are conducted throughout the
entire year by a definite corps of observers.
The continuity of their work renders their
results valuable for the decision of general
biological problems, and, at the same time,
the permanent force which, in part, at least,
is indispensable in such an institution, im-
plies that the undivided attention of the
observer is devoted to these problems; from
this we may then expect justly that greater
results will be obtained than in the case
even of the best of individual resorts, since
the investigators who are carying on opera-
tions at these are, so far as I know, without
exception, connected with educational or
scientific institutions which demand at least
a part of their time, and to that extent di-
vide their interest and their energy.
It is furthermore clear from what has
been previously said that such permanent
stations are of two distinct classes. First,
those which may be denominated general,
even though their work is of the greatest
value for specia! purposes, and second, those
which are distinctively technical by virtue
of their association with specific enterprises.
It is but natural that the different conti-
SCIENCE.
5O1
nents are very unequally represented with
regard to the number of stations that have
been established upon them, and with re-
spect to the knowledge that has been gained
in reference to their fresh-water fauna and
flora. Thus, our knowledge of the Aus-
tralian fresh-water fauna is confined, at pres-
ent, to the report of collections made by
travelers, and to the investigation of speci-
mens raised by Sars from dry mud which
had been sent to him. Of Africa we know
that fifteen years agoan expedition brought
word from Lake Tanganyika that while
rowing across its waters they encountered
swarms of jelly-fish, while many of the
gastropod shells which were brought back
with them showed, in an equally striking
way, their marine character. These reports
have been confirmed by an expedition that
has just returned, and the strikingly ma-
rine complexion of the fauna of the lake
ean hardly be doubted. This appears all
the more strange since collections made at
Lake Nyassa, which lies decidedly nearer
the sea, show nothing but what is specif-
ically lacustrine. Such facts point, of
course, to the importance of the African
fresh-water stations of the future.
From various lakes of Asia, all the way
from Ceylon to Siberia, numerous more or
less extensive collections have been made
by travelers, though there is hardly any-
thing sufficiently extended to warrant the
statement that a station has been located,
even for a limited time, at any point, espe-
cially since the collections have not been
investigated by men who had made them,
but have been turned over as alcoholic ma-
terial to European investigators for study.
We do know, however, that Lake Baikal,
which is situated almost in the center of
the continent, harbors a rich mollusean and
crustacean fauna that is characteristically
marine in its form, and is further distin-
guished by possessing many sponges clearly
of marine fype, and at least one species of
502
seal (Phoca), a genus which is typically
oceanic. A discussion ou the meaning of
these features lies far from the purpose of
the present paper, but certainly such facts
do point out most strikingly that the field
of limnobiological investigation is not lack-
ing in topics of extreme interest.
From South America reports concerning
the fresh water fauna are perhaps most
scanty of all. Frenzel, a German investi-
gator who lived many years in Argentine
Republic, has published some interesting
studies made while there on the Protozoa;
a few isolated notices of the lacustrine
fauna from various regions complete the
list.
From these statements it is apparent that
the work done thus far outside of Europe
and North America is exceedingly limited,
and that for our judgment of the results in
formal limnobiological investigations, we
must look to the laboratories of these two
continents. Among all European countries,
Switzerland has furnished perhaps the great-
est number of investigators and stations for
limnobiology, together with the most ex-
tended and valuable results, although even
yet there is not in that country, so far as I
can ascertain, a building exclusively devoted
to the purposes of this investigation. First
and foremost among these investigators may
be mentioned Forel, of the University of
Lausanne,* to whom reference has already
been made. His investigations have been
carried on for more than thirty years on
Lake Geneva; to him we are indebted for
the first knowledge of the abyssal fauna of
a fresh-water lake, for the first extended
program and plan for the investigation of
such a lake, and for the first effort towards
the realization of such a plan, which finds
its full expression in his ‘Lac Léman,’ a
monograph at present in the course of pub-
* In a sense the laboratory of the University, which
is located near the shore of the lake, is the building of
the station, as in Wisconsin, mentioned below.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. IX. No. 223.
lication ; the volumes which have appeared
thus far treat of physical, chemical, and
meteorological conditions on the lake, and
are to be followed by others which will com-
plete, with the flora and fauna, the entire
limnologic investigation. The series will
make a magnificent and permanent contri-
bution to lacustrine investigation, and will .
serve as a model for the work of all times.
The work of Zschokke, professor at the
University of Basel, has been directed as
already mentioned towards the elucidation
of the faunal aspect of elevated lakes.
It has been carried on through many
years at differents points, including the
lakes of the Jura to the westward, as well as
those in various regions of the Alps proper,
and his papers on the fauna of elevated
lakes contain the only general statement
of the problem as well as of the char-
acteristic features of such localities that
has yet appeared. Lake Constance has
been the scene in recent years of the work
of numerous investigators under the guid-
ance of an association for the investigation
of the lake, which has its headquarters at
Lindau. The published accounts of these
investigations have thus far been prelimi-
nary in character, and I am unable to learn
whether there is a building devoted to the
purposes of investigation, and whether the
work is carried on throughout the entire
year.
This lake was the scene of early investi-
gations by Weismann in 1877, and the pres-
ent work which was inaugurated about
1893 is under the direction of Hofer, of the
University of Munich.
To Bohemia belongs the honor of having
had the first definite building for lacustrine
investigations in the form of the Bohemian
Portable Laboratory which was constructed,
in 1888, under the direction of Professor
Fritsch, of the University of Prague. Refer-
ence has already been made to the early
work of this investigator, who, in 1871,
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
reported to the Academy of Sciences, in
Prague, the results of the investigations of
Black Sea, a small body of water in the
Bohemian forest, with reference to the dis-
tribution of animals according to the depth
of the water and their reiation to the shore.
These investigation which were extended
to other lakes in the same year, are, I be-
lieve, the first at least’ to be recorded that
were carried. out in this way. It was, how-
ever, in 1888 before Fritsch sueceeded in ob-
taining funds for a small portable zoological
laboratory having some twelve square me-
ters of floor surface. Thestation remained
at its first location four years, and was re-
placed by a permanent structure when it
was removed to another locality. This
portable laboratory has been regularly
visited at brief intervals of time by the di-
rector and his associates in the three locali-
ties at which it has been situated during
the last ten years, and the contributions
from this work constitute most valuable
studies on the lacustrine biology of Bohemia.
In Finland there exists the laboratory of
Esbo-Lofo, on one of the small islands which,
though primarily a marine station, is so
favorably located with reference to bodies
of fresh water that it has devoted a consid-
erable portion of its energy to the investi-
gation of the fresh water fauna with valua-
ble results. This laboratory has beeu
maintained since 1895 under the direction
of Professor Levander. Its contributions
are published in the ‘ Acta Societatis pro
Fauna et Flora Fennica.’ One of its
workers, Dr. Stenroos, has for several years
individually visited Lake Nurmijarvi, one
of the small inland lakes with which Fin-
land is so plentifully supplied, a body of
water, which though itis about two and five-
tenths kilometers in length by one in width,
has a maximum depth of only one meter;
he has given us a very complete faunistic
and biologic study of its life.
Russia has recently established a station
SCIENCE.
503
on Glubokoe Osero, or Deep Lake, in the
Province of Moscow, under the patronage
of the Imperial Russian Society for Fish
Culture. The station is under the direction
of Professor Zograf, of Moscow University,
whose contributions to lacustrine investi-
gation, have been made known especially in
a paper on the lake regions of Russia from
_the biologic standpoint, which was read
before the International Zoological Congress
in 1893. I infer that the station is a per-
manent one, though probably of technical
character, although precise information on
these points has not been obtained. Hun-
gary has maintained for some years a lacus-
trine station on Lake Balaton, one of the
largest fresh-water bodies of Europe, hav-
ing an area of over 266 square miles, though
its maximum depth appears to be only 11
meters; it is surrounded by enormous
marshy areas which give thus varied con-
ditions for the development of life. Several
parts of the report on these investigations
have already been published. In France
there exists a lacustrine laboratory near’
Clermont-Ferrand, which seems to have
been organized in 1893; no reports or con-
tributions from the station are recorded in
the bibliographical records. At Paris, Drs.
Richard and de Guerne have investigated
collections from a large number of lakes
not only in France and neighboring coun-
tries, but even from Algeria, Syria, the
Azores and other points, and have pub-
lished valuable contributions on the distri-
bution of fresh-water crustacea, as well as
systematic monographs of various groups.
In Germany all types of stations are
represented, as might be expected, from the
importance of scientific study in that na-
tion. Individual investigators, not a few,
have examined various lakes or lake re-
gions, most prominent among them being
undoubtedly Apstein, whose studies on
Holstein lakes have extended over many
years, and whose work on fresh-water plank-
504
ton is the first general statement of the
problems and of the methods used by Hen-
sen in the investigation of the marine life
with such success, and by Apstein first ap-
plied to lacustrine investigation. Prob-
ably the best known fresh-water station in
the world is that on Lake Ploen also in
Holstein. This was the first permanent
general fresh-water station to be established
in the world. It owes its inception to the
energy of its present director, Dr. Zacharias,
whose plan was to establish for fresh water
an institution similar to the Naples marine
biological station. The station opened in
1891, and since that time it has been in
continuous operation, and has afforded
opportunities for investigation to a large
number of scientific workers both German
and foreign. It is the most pretentious of
all fresh-water stations, having a building
two stories in height, with numerous labo-
ratory rooms and equipped with abundant
apparatus for collecting and investigating.
From it has been published yearly, since
1893, a volume of studies, and the director
has also contributed largely to other jour-
nals on these problems. Two other stations
in Germany owe their inception to the
fishery problem, and have for their purpose
more particularly the investigation of those
limnologic questions which deal particularly
with the life of the fishes. One of these is
located at Miggelsee, near Berlin, and is
conducted under the auspices of the Ger-
man Fishery Association. The other, at
Trachenberg, is under the auspices of the
Silesian Fisheries’ Association. Both have
made important contributions to the bio-
logical questions concerned in fish culture.
All the North American stations which are
known to me lie within the limits of the
United States, and they represent all the
various types of such institutions. A con-
siderable number of workers have reported
isolated investigations of lakes in all parts
of the country from Maine to California.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. 1X. No, 223.
Among the most important of these occa-
sional observations are those made by
Forbes on the fauna of elevated lakes in the
Rocky Mountains. The observations which
he has recorded were made in the course of
a preliminary investigation of these lakes
by the United States Fish Commission, and
constitute the only information on record
with reference to the lakes of the country
west of the Missouri river. There are but
two localities which may be listed, however,
as individual resorts sufficiently regularly
visited to entitle them to more particular
mention in this place. Green Lake, in
Wisconsin, has been carefully studied by
Professor Marsh, of Ripon College, and his
work has yielded valuable information with
reference to the vertical distribution of the
erustacea and with regard to the deep water
fauna of the lake. Here he was able to
confirm the observation of Stimpson, on
Lake Michigan, that there are found in the
deep waters of our large lakes crustacea of
a purely marine type. At Lake Mendota,
in Wisconsin, on the shores of which is lo-
cated the State University, a careful inves-
tigation, extending over a very considerable
number of years, has been carried on by
Professor Birge of the University. The re-
sults which he has obtained with reference
to the distribution, both vertical and sea-
sonal, have been published by the Wiscon-
sin Academy and are not only the most
extensive, but beyond all comparison the
most precise investigation which has been
made on this problem.
Of course, in one sense, this station has
no building, but the scientific laboratory of
the University, standing within a stone’s
throw of the shore of the lake, affords op-
portunities which are not surpassed at any
fresh-water station in the world.
Quite a number of periodic resorts of the
type of summer laboratories are to be found
in various parts of the country. Some of
these are merely summer schools, such as
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
the biological laboratory of the Chautauqua
College of Liberal Arts, on Lake Chautau-
qua. Others are both for teaching and for
investigation, while only a small number
are exclusively devoted to the investigation
of limnologic problems from one standpoint
or another. The University of Minnesota
has maintained at Gull Lake, near the cen-
ter of the State, a laboratory for summer
work by members of the University, and for
the prosecution of the natural history sur-
vey of the State under the direction of
Professor Nachtrieb, of the University. The
State University of Ohio has conducted,
since 1896,a lake laboratory near Sandusky,
on Lake Erie. It occupies one of the State
fish hatcheries, and is supplied with the
necessary apparatus by joint action of the
University and State Fish Commission.
Its purpose is to afford a convenient point
of work for the members of the University,
and also to aid in the prosecution of the
State Biological Survey, which is being car-
ried on by the Ohio Academy of Sciences.
The immense stretches of shallow water,
marshy regions, and protected areas, to-
gether with the varied character of shore
and the open lake within. easy reaching dis-
tance, serve to make Sandusky perhaps the
most favorable place on Lake ‘Erie for the
study of the fresh-water fauna and flora.
The station was closed a year ago, owing to
the death of the Director, Professor Kelli-
cott.
In 1895 the University of Indiana opened
a Biological Station on the shore of Turkey
Lake in the northern part of the State, un-
der the direction of Professor Eigenmann of
the University; a constantly increasing
number of students has visited the station
each summer. The majority of them have
been teachers of the State engaged in the
prosecution of work to equip them for their
teaching, but others have also assisted in
carrying out a general survey of the lake
fauna and in the collection of material to
SCIENCE,
505
illustrate annual variation and associated
problems. For comparison, collections have
been made from adjacent lakes connected
with other water basins. In the coming
year the station is to be moved to the shores
of Winona Lake, some 18 miles from the
present location, where two building are to
be constructed for its use by the Winona
Assembly. The contributions from the
laboratory have been published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Indiana Academy.
For a number of years the Michigan Fish
Commission maintained a force of a few
scientific investigators and assistants in con-
ducting a biological examination of the in-
land lakes of the State, under the direction
of Professor Reighard of the University of
Michigan. In 1893 it was determined to
transfer the seat of operations from inland
waters to one of the Great Lakes, and by
virtue, both of its convenient location and
of its importance as a famous spawning
ground of the lake fish, which had, how-
ever, almost ceased to visit it, Lake St. Clair
was decided upon as the locality for the
first year and the laboratory was located on
a small bay at the northwest shore of the
lake. The party consisted of half a dozen
scientific workers whose attention was ex-
clusively devoted each to his particular
field, and the results of the survey were
published in bulletins of the Michigan Fish
Commission. In 1894 the station was moved
to Charlevoix, a famous fishing region on
the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, and,
owing to the absence of Professor Reighard,
in Europe, I was requested to take charge
of the work. The scientific force and the
methods of work were similar to those of
the preceding year, but the location brought
us in contact, not only with shallow waters,
but also with the deeper regions of Lake
Michigan, and the party made investiga-
tions and collections of a precise character
in the deepest fresh water which has as yet
been investigated by such methods. The
506
results of the summer’s work were published
in a bulletin of the Commission. Unfavor-
able financial conditions compelled the sus-
pension of the work on the part of the
Michigan Fish Commission, but American
investigators owe much to the impetus
which has been given to such work through
their agency.
For many years the U.S. Fish Commis-
sion has been urged to establish on the
Great Lakes a biological station similar to
that which has long been maintained on
the ocean, at Woods Hole, Mass. Finally,
a year ago,a prelininary survey was under-
taken with a view to deciding the advisa-
bility of such a movement and Professor
Reighard was requested to assume the
leadership of the enterprise. The U. 5S.
Fish Hatchery at Put-in-Bay, a small island
in the center of the west end of Lake Erie,
was selected as the seat of operations and
a party of scientific workers spent two
months in studying the fauna and flora of
the adjacent waters. It is to be hoped that
this work may develop into a permanent
experiment station on the Great Lakes.
Among permanent American stations of a
technical character, the Experimental Filter
Station of the Massachusetts Board of
Health, located at Lawrence, is the best
known as it is also, perhaps, the most
famous of its kind in the world. It has
been in continuous operation since 1887
and has conducted extended experiments
on the biological examination of drinking
waters; the methods worked out in con-
nection with them are now standard for
such purposes. Similar technical labora-
tories are in operation in Boston, Lynn,
Worcester and other cities ; but in most of
them the biological examination of waters
is only a secondary function. The Mount
Prospect Laboratory, organized recently in
connection with the Brooklyn Water Works,
and placed under the direction of Mr. G.
C. Whipple, whose contributions to limno-
SCIENCE.
[N.S.)) Von. DX. “No! 223:
biologic questions are well known, is more
particularly devoted to the investigation of
questions connected with the character of
the water supply. Numerous samples
taken from all the sources of the city’s sup-
ply are subjected each week to physical,
chemical, microscopical, and bacteriological
examinations, and the quality of the water
controlled thereby, since the reports made
to the chief engineer serve to guide him in
the choice of the sources from which the
water isdrawn. The results of such studies
are also of great importance in general lim-
nologic questions.
The University of Illinois was extremely
fortunate in having associated with it, by
statute, a state laboratory of natural his-
tory which has been engaged for many years
in a natural history survey of the State.
Under the direction of Professor Forbes,
whose pioneer work on the lake fauna has
already been noted, particular attention was
paid to such questions as the food of fresh
water fishes, and the distribution of various
groups of fresh water organisms, so that both
by preliminary work, and in the person of
its director, the state laboratory was pecu-
liarly fitted for the successful inauguration
of an Illinois Biological Station which be-
came possible under state grant in 1894.
The laboratory secured a permanent super-
intendent in the person of Dr. Kofoid a year.
later, and work has been carried on continu-
ously by a permanent force since that date.
The laboratory was unique in its inception
since the director, Dr. Forbes, conceived the
idea of locating it on a river system rather
than as all previous stations on a lake, and
it was not only the first in the world, but
is yet the only station which has peculiarly
attacked the problems of such a system.
The Illinois river and its dependent
waters were selected as the field of opera-
tions and Havanna, Ill., as the center of
work. The river here presents in its cut-
offs, bayous, shallow, marshy tracts, sandy
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
areas with wooded margins and regions of
spring fed waters, and with the enormous
extent of land covered at high water, a va-
riety of conditions which it must be con-
fessed could not be surpassed, and hardly
equalled elsewhere.. The abundance and
variety of the flora and fauna, both in the
higher and lower forms of life, demonstrate
the good judgment exercised in the choice
of locality. A noteworthy feature in the
equipment of this station, and so far as I
know, one that is unique, is the floating
laboratory which enables an easy transfer
of operations to other points, where work
can be carried on for comparison or contrast,
with equipment and environment as satis-
factory as that which exists ina permanent
building, but with the flexibility and facility
of movement which characterizes field
studies. The work has been conducted un-
interruptedly for more than three years,
and the results include studies on the in-
sects and their development, on the earth-
worms, on the Protozoa and rotifers, on
various groups of crustaceans and general
investigations on plankton methods and on
the distribution of the plankton, while some
work has also been done on the plant life
of water. These studies have been pub-
lished in the Bulletin of the Illinois State
Laboratory of Natural History.
Let us consider, in conclusion, the func-
tion and future development of these insti-
tutions. It is perfectly clear that the work
of the different types of fresh-water sta-
tions will vary somewhat with the class,
and Zacharias has outlined carefully the
differences in the work of the fixed and of
the movable stations. But these are, after
all, minor differences. All stations, whether
fixed or movable, have really three objects :
teaching, investigating, experimenting, ob-
jects which may be subserved directly or
indirectly, or in both ways, by each one of
them. It is unquestionably true that the
tendency within recent years has been to
SCIENCE.
5O7
make the university trained scientist a lab-
oratory man, unacquainted with work out
of doors and among living things. This
has reacted unfavorably upon his teaching
powers, and thus indirectly upon the entire
schoolsystem. Not that subjects in natural
history are not better taught in our second-
ary schools than they were twenty years
ago, when, in truth, they were hardly taught
at all, but that the naturalist to-day is not
trained as an outdoor observer and is little
capable of handling himself and his work
in a new environment. As Forbes says:
“Tt is, in fact, the biological station, wisely
and liberally managed, which is to restore
to us what is best in the naturalist of the
old school united to what is best in the lab-
oratory student of the new.’’ Thus, both
through the influence of the investigators
in the case of those stations which do not
carry on directly any educational work, and
through the teaching of those which do
conduct summer instructional courses, new
life will be instilled into the teaching of
natural history throughout our country.
In the second place, the fresh-water sta-
tion is a center for investigation with all its
stimulating effects on the individual thus
brought in contact with problems of Nature
and efforts for their solution, and in the
contributions to the advancement of knowl-
edge which are the fruits of a careful work
on the part of its attachés. All that has
been said of the advantages of marine sta-
tions applies equally well to fresh-water
laboratories, together with the added ad-
vantages that their accessibility brings these
advantages to considerable regions which
would otherwise be entirely without them
by virtue of their distance from the sea. It
is unnecessary that I should emphasize
further this phase of the question, or dwell
upon the greater simplicity of biological
conditions in fresh-water over those which
exist in the ocean. These factors have been
forcibly presented by many writers.
508
Finally, the fresh-water station should
be above all things an experimental one,
and in this direction the most valuable re-
sults are to be looked for, both from the
general scientific and from the technical
standpoint. To thescientist, this needs no
demonstration ; but it is essential that the
importance of such work, especially for fish
culture, be more widely understood. The
advance in agricultural methods in the
United States is unquestionably due in
large part to the development of a splendid
series of agricultural experiment stations in
which agricultural problems have been sub-
jected to intensive experimentation. Con-
trasted with this, conditions in fish culture
present almost the opposite extreme. Fish
eggs have been hatched in enormous num-
bers, but what is known of their subsequent
history or what has been done to insure the
safe development to maturity of the fish ?
Present methods have reached their limit
and the subject must be attacked from a
different standpoint. Fish culture should
receive by the liberality of state and nation
the same favors that have been extended to
agriculture, the use of permanent and well-
equipped experiment stations where trained
workers shall devote their time and energy
to the solution of its problems. 'horough-
ness and continuity are essential, for these
problems really deal with all conditions of
existence in the water. Of what does the
food of each fish consist, where is it found
and in what amount, how may it be in-
creased and improved ; to what extent and
how can the number of fish be multiplied,
and how far is this profitable ; what are the
best kinds of fish and what new varieties
can be produced? These are a few of the
many questions to be solved.
The problems outlined are indeed vast,
and yet we may be confident that their so-
lution lies easily within the power of the
human intellect, for they are all paralleled
in the history of the agricultural develop-
SCIENCE,
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 223.
ment of the race; and man, relying upon
his success in the past, may go forward
with supreme confidence to the attainment
of their solution in this new field.
Henry B. Warp.
ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA.
BRUNISSURE OF THE VINE AND OTHER
PLANTS.
Since the publication, in 1892, of the pa-
pers by Viala and Sauvageau describing
Brunissure of the Vine and the California
Vine disease as due to Plasmodiophora vitis
(Viala et Sauv.) and P. californica (Viala
et Sauv.) much interest has been mani-
fested in these supposed new parasites. F.
Debray and A. Brive in Revue de Viticul-
ture, 1895, claimed to have found the para-
site in a large number of plants belonging
to numerous families and genera. They
made a new genus for the organism calling
it Pseudocommis vitis. By far the best work,
however, has been done by Viala and Sau-
vageau. A full discussion of their work
with bibliography may be found in ‘ Les
Maladies de la Vigne, par Pierre Viala, Tro-
isiéme édition 1893, pp. 400-413. Any
one who has observed for himself the pecu-
liar structures described would most likely
decide at once that they must belong, or be
at least closely related, to the genus Plas-
modiophora. The peculiar vacuolate plas-
modium-like structures may be best studied,
following the directions of Viala (in Mal-
adies de la Vigne), by slowly clearing the
sections or tissues in dilute eau de javelle.
The protoplasm of the host cell is said to be
dissolved, while that of the plasmodes re-
mains for a long time unattacked. The
plasmodes may then be colored with iodine
or other stains, bringing out their structure
very sharply. I have recently repeated
these experiments very carefully and find
everything described by Viala and Sau-
vageau in Vitis and also as described by
APRIL 7, 1899.]
‘Debray in other plants. In fact, the phe-
nomena can be produced in all plants so far
as I have examined, whether healthy or dis-
eased, especially in cells containing chloro-
phyll. I obtained the plasmode structures
readily in leaves and stems of Vitis, Ialiwm
harrisii, Tobacco, Tomato, Rose and Hyacinth
and in Spirogyra cells. If one watches the ac-
tion of eau de javelle closely under the mi-
croscope a slight plasmolysis of the cells is
first seen which may increase or afterwards
- disappear. The chloroplasts swell and be-
come colorless and unite with each other,
and usually with the rest of the protein,
into an amorphous mass almost transpar-
ent. This mass after a time contracts into
a single vacuolate plasmodium-like struc-
ture or into several such structures in each
cell. These become highly refractive and
remain without much change for several
hours or disappear, according to the strength
of the reagent. In this stage the plasmodes
may be coagulated with alcohol or iodine
and stained and permanently mounted in
glycerine containing alcohol or iodine. If
dilute glycerine or pure water is added be-
fore coagulation the plasmode structures
swell, lose their high refraction and _ be-
come amorphous. In coagulation these
formations behave like any albuminoid
substance. Their formation, however, is
entirely different from the separation of
active albumen in the cell by the addi-
tion of an aqueous solution of caffeine as
described by Dr. Loew. This difference
will be discussed in a fuller paper now in
preparation. The action of the eau de ja-
velle is most likely an oxidation in the pres-
ence of an alkali. Changes of the kind de-
scribed are not produced by a mixture of
sodium chloride 5% and sodium hydrate
1% or of either of these acting alone. A
phenomenon quite similar, however, is pro-
duced in the Lily if the tissues are first
soaked in peroxide of hydrogen till discol-
ored and sections then mounted in sodium
SCIENCE.
509
chloride 5% and sodium hydrate1%. The
cell contents then quickly swell and be-
come amorphous, and highly refractive-
plasmode structures separate out. These
gradually disappear if not coagulated with
iodine or alcohol. In the latter case they
behave as do the similar structures pro-
duced by the eau de javelle. If the theory
is correct that these changes are pro-
duced by an oxidation of the chloroplasts
and other cell contents in an alkaline me-
dium it explains why such structures, or a
reticulate form of them, usually appear in
cells which slowly die and become brown
around the punctures of aphids in the leaf
of the Bermuda lily. Numerous tests made
by the writer have shown that plants which
react in this manner to aphis punctures
contain much larger quantities of oxidizing
enzyme than plants which do not so react.
The presence of the substance injected into
the wound by the aphis probably causes the
neighboring cells to increase still more in
oxidizing enzyme until the presence of the
latter in excessive quantity destroys or oxi-
dizes the chloroplasts. The cell slowly dies,
and the rest of the cell contents may then
be attacked. A brownish shrunken amor-
phous mass is left. On the addition of
dilute potassium hydrate or sodium hydrate
to sections from such spots the oxidized
protoplasm in the cells which have turned
brown swells up and becomes a reticulated
or vacuolate mass, such as is often obtained
with the eau de javelle or the peroxide of
hydrogen and sodium hydrate. It is quite
likely, therefore, that plasmode structures
would be formed by an alkali in any cells
that had previously become oxidized either
from the presence of oxidizing enzyme in
themselves or from any other cause. These
observations indicate quite decidedly that
the supposed Plasmodiophora vitis or
Pseudocommis vitis are nothing but micro-
chemical reactions, brought on by oxidations
and the influence of an alkali upon the en-
510
tire protein contents of cells, especially upon
chloroplasts. ;
A complete account of the work with il-
lustrations will be published soon.
Apert F. Woops.
DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY
AND PatHoLtocy, U. 8. Dept. AGRICULTURE.
AN AUTOMATIC MERCURY PUMP.
AurHoucH there is nothing especially
new in regard to the pump proper, the
method of electrical control may be suffi-
ciently novel to warrant a brief description.
410 Volts
The pump proper is a modification of a
common form of Geissler pump. It con-
sists of a long glass tube, about 14 inches
in diameter, which has a mercury trap and
a small glass valve at the top. The bottom
of the tube is drawn down and dips into a
SCIENCE.
°
[N.S. Vou. LX. No. 223.
flask filled with mercury. A tight joint is
made between the flask and pump by a rub-
ber stopper. This stopper also serves asa
flexible support for the body of the pump.
The exhaust tube is sealed into the pump
just above the point at which the pump
passes into the flask. The arrangement is
best shown by the figure.
The tube to be exhausted is attached to
the pump, through a drying bulb filled with
anhydrous phosphorie acid, by a simple
ground joint with a mercury seal. The
valve at the top of the pump is ground to
<= >
|
Trop made of capillary tube tanan bore
Vatue,
Fr fecth
Drying Rute,
Gyound jars uath antreury seal
Refay
Solenoid.
Three urany coche
tonmyuaod>d
fit its seat and so weighted by filling with
mercury that it closes, leaving sufficient
mercury above it to form a tight joint. Di-
mensions which give very satisfactory re-
sults are shown on the figure, Suction is
applied permanently to the top of the pump
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
above the valve. The mercury in the pump
is raised or lowered by applying atmos-
pheric pressure or suction to the flask. The
suction necessary to operate the pump is
obtained by a small watbr-jet pump giving
a vacuum of about 28 inches. A pump
with the valve alone will work fairly well,
except that occasionally, when the quantity
of air taken out at each stroke becomes
small, a little bubble will cling to the valve
and refuse to pass out of the pump. To
avoid this, a trap is added below the valve
to prevent any air which might fail to pass
the valve from returning to the pump.
The only requisite to make the pump
automatic is to have some means of con-
trolling a three-way cock which will apply
either pressure or suction to the flask. This
control is obtained electrically by making
and breaking a circuit in the valve at the
top, and in a float in the flask at the bottom.
A permanent electrical connection is made
with the mercury in the flask at the bottom.
A platinum wire sealed into the tip of the
valve serves to connect electrically the
mercury in the valve with that in the
pump. Aniron wire dips into the stem of
the valve and serves as a final contact. The
mercury rising in the pump first makes
contact with the inside of the valve through
the platinum wire. As it continues to rise
the valve opens floats and ompletes the
circuit by the iron wire. It will be seen
that the final contact is made in the valve,
and any sparking that may occur can in no
way foul the mercury in the pump. When
the mercury in the pump reaches its lowest
level a float in the flask similar to the
valve at the top closes another circuit.
These two circuits control a relay which in
turn controls a solenoid connected to the
three-way cock. The solonoid is wound
for 110 volts and takes only a small current.
One or two Leclanché cells are sufficient
for the relay. The electrical connections
are shown in the figure.
SCIENCE. 511
A pump of this form has been in use at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
for over two years, and has proved very
satisfactory. It works quickly, and will
give high Crookes vacuum without trou-
ble.
In starting the pump, the pump and
whatever may be attached to it are first
exhausted by the water pump to about two
or three inches’ pressure. For the first few
strokes, which are make by hand, the mer-
cury is allowed to rise only part way in the
pump. After this the necessary electrical
circuits may be closed and the pump will
take care of itself. In this way the dan-
gerous hammering of the mercury occurring
when the quantity of air taken out at each
stroke is large can be avoided.
I am indebted to Mr. C. L. Norton for
valuable assistance in developing this
pump.
Ratrg R. LAWRENCE.
RoGERS LABORATORY OF PHYSICS,
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
The Wonderful Century. By ALFRED RUSSELL
WALLACE.
As the human mind is more wonderful than
anything else that we find in nature, so the
greatest and most significant difference between
the ‘ Wonderful Century’ and all that had gone
before is an intellectual difference.
It is not invention and discovery and the ex-
tension of man’s dominion over nature, but the
establishment of the conviction that we know
no limit to this movement, that is the chief dis-
tinction of our century.
Among those who have, in our day, guided
the thoughts of men to this conviction, future
historians will. give the highest place to Lyell,
and Wallace and Darwin; for no one in our
century has done more than they to assure us
that the scientific method is adequate; even if
successive generations of ‘ philosophers’ still
continue to teach that the very top and perfec-
tion of human wisdom is the assertion that we
know, and can know, nothing.
512
With modesty which some hold to do him
less than justice, Wallace believed that Darwin
so much surpassed him in strength and wisdom
and in acquaintance with nature that it became
his duty to devote his life to the assistance of
Darwin in his efforts to extend the province of
human knowledge into regions that had been
declared closed. The intellectual revolution
has come about, nor will the thoughtful permit
Wallace’s part in bringing it about to be for-
gotten; nor can we forget the generous devo-
tion which chose the advancement of truth
before the natural desire for recognition and dis-
tinction. Noonecan suspect that such a man as
Wallace has proved himself will ignore or de-
preciate the share of anyone in this great work,
and few chapters of his book on ‘ The Wonder-
ful Century’ are more interesting than the one
in which he touches, very gently and tenderly,
upon the part which the ‘ philosophers’ have
had in the progress of natural science.
It is one thing to show that there is no logical
basis for belief that species are immutable, but
it is quite a different matter to show what
modifies species. It was by finding out, and not
by exposing the weakness in the logic of those
who asserted that we never can find out, that
Wallace and Darwin passed the bounds where
they had been told that natural knowledge
ends.
Lamarck, and Chambers, and Herbert Spen-
cer, and many others, even Wallace himself,
had shown that there is no reason to doubt that
species are mutable; but all had failed to show
how the changes take place ; and many eminent
men of science, as well as the general public,
refused to consider beliefs which were as yet
beliefs and nothing more.
What educated public opinion was before the
publication of the ‘Origin’ is shown, says
Wallace, by the fact that neither Lamarck nor
Herbert Spencer nor the author of the ‘ Ves-
tiges’ had been able to make any impression
upon it. The very idea of progressive develop-
ment of species from other species was held to
be a ‘heresy’ by such great and liberal-minded
men as Sir John Herschel and Sir Charles
Lyell; the latter writer declaring, in the earlier
editions of his great work, that the facts of
geology are ‘ fatal to the theory of progressive
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 223.
development.’ The whole literary and scientific
worlds were violently opposed to all such theo-
ries, and altogether disbelieved in the possibility
of establishing them. It had been so long the
custom to treat species as special creations, and
the mode of their creation as the ‘ mystery of
mysteries,’ that it had come to be considered
not only presumptuous, but almost impious, for
any individual to profess to have lifted the veil
from what was held to be the greatest and most
mysterious of Nature’s secrets.
Wallace tells us, ‘ The Wonderful Century,’
p. 139, that after he had studied what had been
written, and even after he had himself written
about the mutability of species: ‘‘I had no
conception of how or why each new form had
come into existence with all its beautiful adap-
tations to its special mode of life; and though
the subject was continually being pondered
over, no light came to me till three years
later (February, 1858), under somewhat peculiar
circumstances. I was then living at Ternate,
in the Moluccas, and was suffering from a
rather severe attack of intermittent fever, which
prostrated me for several hours every day dur-
ing the cold and succeeding hot fits. During
one of these fits, while again considering the
problem of the origin of species, something led
me to think of Malthus’ Essay on Population
(which I had read about ten years before), and
the ‘positive checks’—war, disease, famine,
accidents, etec.—which he adduced as keeping
all savage nations nearly stationary. It then
occurred to me that these checks must also act
upon animals, and keep down their numbers;
and as they increase so much faster than man
does, while their numbers are always nearly
or quite stationary, it was clear that these
checks in their case must be far more powerful,
since a number equal to the whole increase
must be cut off by them each year. While
vaguely thinking how this would affect any
species, there suddenly flashed upon me the
idea of the survival of the fittest—that the indi-
viduals removed by these checks must be, on
the whole, inferior to those that survived.
Then, considering the variations continually oc-
curring in every fresh generation of animals or
plants, and the changes of climate, of food, of
enemies always in progress, the whole method
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
of specific modification became clear to me,
and in the two hours of my fit I had thought
out the main points of the theory.’’
If this had been only a fortunate guess it
would have little interest, for no one cares to
ask whether Empedocles, or Wells, or Mathew,
or Darwin, or Herbert Spencor, or Wallace
first had this happy thought. It was because
Wallace had spent years of hard work in gath-
ering facts and in pondering them that he was
able to see that this sudden product of his ‘ fit’
was worthy of further examination, and be-
cause he devoted the rest of his life to its ap-
plication to new discoveries that he is held to
be the joint discoverer of the law of Natural
Selection.
The origin of species by means of natural se-
lection is now universally accepted as a demon-
strated principle. ‘‘This,’’ says Wallace, ‘is,
of course, partly due to the colossal work of
Herbert Spencer; but for one reader of his works
there are probably ten of Darwin’s, and the es-
tablishment of the theory of the Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection is wholly Darwin’s
work. That book, together with those which
succeeded it, has so firmly established the doc-
trine of progressive development of species by
the ordinary processes of multiplication and
variation that there is now, I believe, scarcely
a single living naturalist who doubts it. Prob-
ably so complete a change’ of educated opinion,
on a question of such vast difficulty and com-
plexity, was never before effected in so short a
time. It not only places the name of Darwin
on a ievel with that of Newton, but his work
will always be considered as one of the greatest,
if not the very greatest, of the scientific
achievements of the nineteenth century, rich
as that century has been in great discoveries in
every department of physical science.”’
To this we must add that, so long as the
‘ Origin of Species’ holds its place on the shelves
of students, close beside it we shall find the
‘Malay Archipelago ;’ for the writer of this
review has.no doubt that Wallace will be one of
those to whom future generations will say:
‘Friend, Go up higher.’’
W. K. Brooks.
JOHNS HopKINS UNIVERSITY,
BALTIMORE.
SCIENCE,
515
The Principles of Bacteriology.
NAND HUEPPE.
By Dr. FErpI-
Translated by PROFESSOR
E. O. JorDAN. Chicago, The Open Court
Publishing Co. Pp. 455.
American bacteriologists certainly owe a debt
of gratitude to Professor Jordan for putting
into clear English this valuable contribution to
the science of bacteriology of Professor Hueppe,
of Prague. Hueppe’s contribution to bacteri-
ology in this volume is no ordinary one. The
book is not simply a review of facts, but is de-
cidedly original. From the first to the last the
author and his opinions are decidedly in eyi-
dence. Whether or not one is inclined to
agree with him in all his conclusions, no one
will question the force of the arguments with
which he upholds his opinions.
After giving some general information in re-
gard to bacteria (in which the author accepts
the conclusion that the tuberculous bacillus is
not a bacterium at all) he deals in successive
chapters with the vital phenomena of bacteria,
pathogenic bacteria, the cause of infectious dis-
eases, cure by combating the cause, immunity,
prevention and history. The chapter upon
vital phenomena of bacteria is especially valu-
able, since it treats, ina comprehensive manner,
of the somewhat obscure subject of the chem-
istry of bacterial poisons and bacterial nu-
trients.
But the most suggestive part of the work be-
gins with the chapter upon the cause of infec-
tious disease. Here he sets himself in opposi-
tion to the school of Koch by denying that
bacteria can in any proper sense be regarded as
the cause of disease, and especially repudiating
the idea that definite species of bateria are the
‘specific’ cause of ‘specific’ diseases. No one can
question Hueppe’s thorough acquaintance with
the facts of modern bacteriology, and it seems a
little strange that he can hold a position so gener-
ally at variance with that of most bacteriolo-
gists. But we soon learn that his position is
not so different from that of Koch as at first ap-
pears, and perhaps not so different as Hueppe
triesto make it appear. Hueppe is, of course,
fully aware that diseases are produced in ani-
mals by inoculating them with certain bacteria
cultures. His criticism is simply against the
claim that they are the cause of the disease and
514 SCIENCE.
that definite species cause definite diseases.
That they provoke diseases he recognizes ; that
they cause them he denies. His own position
is essentially as follows: Disease and health
alike are attributes of the activity of living
cells.
Health is the result of the normal activity and
disease of the abnormal activity of these cells,
and it is hardly more correct to say that dis-
ease is caused by bacteria than to say that
health is caused by their absence. Disease is a
process, not an entity, and is really caused by
some condition of the living cells which makes
them liable to act abnormally when stimu-
lated. No disease can appear in the body
except such as are predisposed in the living
cells. The bacteria serve as a stimulus just
as the spark serves as a stimulus for gun-
powder. The spark is not the cause of the
explosion, though it may excite it. There isa
certain amount of resistance to be overcome
before the cells will start to act abnormally, and
the bacteria simply overcome this resistance.
We are learning to appreciate more and more
fully that one animal may be predisposed to a
disease while another is more resistant, a fact
in itself which shows that we are speaking very
loosely when we say that the bacteria cause
the disease. According to Hueppe disease is
the result of a number of factors of unequal
weight. External conditions constitute one
factor, the condition of the body cells a second,
and the presence of certain bacteria a third.
When together they produce disease. Break
the chain as one link and there is no disease.
The school of Koch has paid attention to one of
these links, the school of Virchow to the sec-
ond, while Petinkoffer is trying to study the
third, 7. e., external conditions. Hueppe in-
sists that neither one causes the disease, but all
three together. Disease is a vital activity, and
while bacteria are needed to stimulate it they
don’t properly cause it.
This conception, of course, largely deter-
mines the position which Hueppe takes in the
other topics considered. The question of com-
bating the disease by combating the bacteria
is only one side of the matter. Prevention in-
volves something more than simply looking
after the bacteria. Hygienic measures are mis-
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 223.
directed if they look simply toward the destruc-
tion of bacteria. The disinfecting mania which
developed a few years ago he regards as exag-
gerated and largely needless. Hygienic measures
in the past have been very useful and produced
a decided improvement in public health, but
this has not been because they have destroyed
the ‘specific’ bacteria. Rarely do we succeed
in this object. Sanitariums for tuberculosis pay
little attention to the matter of germs. The
success has resulted from the fact that hygienic
measures and cleanliness, together with fresh
air and sunlight, have improved the general
health, given the cells greater vitality and made
the individual less disposed to acquire the dis-
ease. They are successful because they have
been directed to the second link in the chain
rather than the third.
It is a question whether his position is quite
so much at variance with generally accepted
belief as Hueppe is inclined to think. In de-
nying that distinct bacteria are ‘specific’ he
fails satisfactorily to reconcile this position
with the fact that definite species do provoke
definite diseases. He fails to make it clear just
how the bacteria act to produce distinct dis-
eases if they are not specific. It is a somewhat
curious position to assume that the silk worms
have always had a special predisposition to
pebrine, but that this disposition only appeared
when the pebrine organism made its appear-
ance, especially as it appears that all individuals
yield to the attacks of this germ. But appar-
ently Hueppe would assume that the animals
have had this predisposition to a disease which
never had a chance to develop until the proper
organism produced the stimulus. Hueppe has
perhaps just as truly overdrawn the case from
his point of view as Koch did from his own
standpoint. But certainly all bacteriologists
may read with profit this somewhat new set-
ting-forth of the problem of bacterial diseases,
and Hueppe is certainly to be thanked for bring-
ing forward so forcibly the part which the vital
activity of the organism plays in the matter of
disease. He has certainly done a valuable ser-
vice in pointing out that the problem of the
physician and bacteriologist is to be directed
toward the man and not the bacterium.
H. W. C.
APRIL 7, 1899.]
The Elements of Graphic Statics. By L. M. Hos-
KINS, Professor of Applied Mechanics in the
Leland Stanford Jr. University. New York,
The Macmillan Company. 1899. Revised
Edition. Pp. viii + 199, and eight plates.
The character of works under the head of
Graphical Statics varies between that extreme
of which Cremona’s treatise may be regarded as
typical, in which the name can be regarded as
scarcely more than a peg on which to hang a
large amount of theoretical projective-geometry
matter, and the opposite extreme, where we
may place the work before us, characterized,
as it is, by intense practicality and general
avoidance of everything of merely theoretic or
historic interest. The favorable impression
made upon one by the mechanical excellence
of Professor Hoskins’ book is further confirmed
by a careful examination of the text.
Avoiding the error of Culmann in presuppos-
ing too much information on the part of his
students as to projective relations and graphic
methods, the author lays his own foundation on
which to build, treating the subject more, how-
ever, as a branch of mechanics than of geometry.
To this his Part I. is devoted, and it would seem
impossible to set forth the fundamentals more
clearly and concisely than in the fifty pages de-
voted thereto.
Familiarity with analytics and the calculus
is assumed for the remainder of the work.
Bow’s convenient system of notation is em-
ployed throughout.
Excluding entirely from the book any con-
sideration of structures whose discussion in-
volves the theory of elasticity, the hundred
pages constituting Part II. are devoted to the
usual problems of beams and of bridge and roof
trusses. We have not at hand a copy of the
original edition for comparison with the
revision, but as Professor Hoskins’ preface in-
dicates that the principal changes are in this
section we state them in this connection in his
own words: ‘‘In the present revised edition
no change has been made in general plan, and
few changes in the treatment adopted, except
in the portions relating to beams and trusses
carrying moving loads. These portions have
been wholly re-written. It is believed that a
substantial improvement has been made upon
SCIENCE. 515
the methods hitherto used, particularly in the
criterion for determining the position of a given
load-series which causes maximum stress in any
member of a truss. The improvement consists
in generalization, which is believed to be gained
without sacrifice of simplicity. The graphical
method of applying the criterion in the case of
trusses with parallel chords has been fully
treated by Professor H. T. Eddy. The method
here given applies without the restriction to
parallel chords. The algebraic statement of
the same criterion, as given in Art. 152, is also
believed to be a useful generalization of the
methods hitherto used. Whether the algebraic
or the graphical treatment is preferred, a method
is useful in proportion to its generality, pro-
vided this does not involve a loss of simplicity.
There is a decided advantage in the use of a
single general equation applicable to any mem-
ber of any truss, instead of several particular
equations, each applicable to a special member
or to aspecial form of truss.’’ That this general-
ization will be cordially weleomed and availed
of by the profession may safely be predicted.
Part III. gives graphic methods of determin-
ing centers of gravity and the moments of in-
ertia of plane areas, witha discussion of inertia-
curves, carried as far as the practical engineer
will ordinarily need. Eight clear, double-page
plates complete the work, and one’s only re-
gret in viewing them is that they cannot face
the text describing them, to the saving of the
student’s time and temper.
We notice that the author uses a term,
‘complanar’ (whether he suggests it or not is
not evident), which we trust will not supplant
the generally accepted ‘con-plane,’ which is con-
sistent with the other equally self-explanatory
terms con-focal, con-axial, etc., and needs no
modification.
The book is a thoroughly good one preém-
inently for the class-room, and a course in it
should be a pleasure alike to pupil and in-
structor. Frep’x N. WILLson.
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.
GENERAL.
PROFESSOR MARTIN’S books on The Human
Body are in many ways models in the presenta-
516
tion of a difficult subject. We are glad to re-
ceive ‘The Briefer Course’ (Holt), revised by
Professor G. W. Fitz, of Harvard University,
and to commend it cordially. The book has
been corrected throughout and a chapter added
on growthand nutrition. The three apendices,
which occupy nearly one fourth of the book, are
all open to criticism. They are on ‘Emer-
gencies,’ ‘ Alcohol and Tobacco’ and ‘ Demon-
strations and Experiments.’ ‘ Emergencies’
make up part of the examination in physiology
which may be taken for entrance to Harvard
College, but it is not evident that a school boy
will profit intellectually or practically by being
told how to treat apoplexy. The demonstra-
tions and experiments, also part of the Har-
vard examination, may in their present form
be useful for the teacher, but scarcely for
the student. The reviser states that the
appendix on narcotics is retained against
his judgment. The injurious effects of nar-
cotics must by foolish laws be taught in
most public school courses on physiology; but
it would be possible to prepare a statement that
would be scientifically correct, even though its
teaching might be ethically obnoxious. The
statements in this book are not exactly incor-
rect, but they would produce false impressions
on young students. The results of excess are
pictured, and the boy is left to infer that the
final state of his father, who drinks a glass of
wine for dinner, will be delirium tremens. But
the boy will be more likely to conclude that
physiology is not an ‘exact’ science.
Minerva, ‘A Yearbook of the Learned
World,’ is indispensable to the editor and useful
to every one who wishes to keep informed on
the progress of edyeation and science. As is
well known, the book contains accounts of uni-
versities, libraries, museums, learned societies,
etc., throughout the world. The names of
over 25,000 officers of these institutions are
given, and with an accuracy that is truly re-
markable. The eighth volume, 1899, which
reaches us from Messrs. Lemcke and Buechner
(12 Broadway, New York City), is thoroughly
revised from official sources, and is enlarged
and improved in several respects, including the
addition of a number of Canadian institutions.
Programs of the various international scientific
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 223:
congresses are promised for next year. The
importance of the great universities of the
world cannot be judged from the number of
students, as the data are not comparable, but
in this respect the order of the first ten is given
as follows : Paris, 12,047 ; Berlin, 10,306; Mad-
rid, 6,143 ; Vienna, 5,710; Naples, 5,103; Mos-
cow, 4,461; Budapesth, 4,407; Munich, 3,997 ;
Harvard, 3,674; St. Petersburg, 8,615. Asa
matter of fact, Harvard, with over 5,000 stu-
dents all told, is probably now the fourth in
size of the universities of the world, being sur-
passed only by Paris, Berlinand Vienna. There
are thirty universities having over 2,000 stu-
dents, and, of these, nine are in the United
States, four in Russia and in Great Britain,
three in France, in Germany and in Austria-
Hungary, two in Italy and one in Spain and in
Greece.
ANOTHER useful work of reference is Who's
Who? edited by Mr. Douglas Sladen and pub-
lished by Black in London and by Macmillan in
New York. It contains brief bibliographies of
people talked about in Great Britain, including
all the leading men of science and a complete
list of the members of the Royal Society.
Americans are also noticed, but only in small
numbers. Presidents Gilman and Harper are
included, but not President Eliot. The late
Professor Marsh is the only American man
of science whose name we have noted.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
Report of the Seventh Meeting of the Australasian Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, held at Sydney.
Edited by A. LIVERSIDGE. Sydney, Published by
the Association, Pp. lii+1161. 10s. 6d.
Eléments de Botanique. PH. VAN TIEGHEM. Paris,
Masson et Cie. 1898. 3d edition, revised and
enlarged. Vol. I., pp. xvi+559. Vol. II., pp.
xv+ 612.
The Fairy Land of Science.
New York, D. Appleton & Co.
252.
How to Know the Ferns. FRANCIS THEODORA PAR-
sons. New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1899.
Pp. xiv+210. $1.50.
Papers and Addresses.
lege, 1896-1898. Ithaca, N. Y.
ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY
1899. Pp. x+
N. Y. State Veterinary Col-
1898.
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
GrorG Hor-
1899. Pp. 118.
Die Continuitiit der Atomverkettung.
MANN. Jena, Gustav Fischer.
Mark 3.
Text-Book of Physies—Sound. J. H. PoyntTrine and
J. J. TuHomson. London, Charles Griflings &
Company ; Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.
Pp. x+163,
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND ARTICLES.
THE American Journal of Science contains the
following articles :
Glacial Lakes Newberry, Warren and Dana, in
Central New York, H. L. FAIRCHILD.
Rapid Method for the Determination of the Amount
of Soluble Mineral Matter in a Soil, T. H. MEANS.
New Type of Telescope Objective especially adapted
for Spectroscopic Use, C. S. HASTINGS.
Phenocrysts of Intrusive Igneous Rocks, L. V.
PIRSSON.
Occurrence, Origin and Chemical Composition of
Chromite, J. H. PRATT.
Influence of Hydrochloric Acid in Titrations by
Sodium Thiosulphate, J. T. Norton, Jr.
Rock-forming Biotites and Amphiboles, H. W.
TURNER.
One Little Known and one Hitherto Unknown
Species of Saurocephalus, O. P. Hay.
Some American Fossil Cycads, G. R. WIELAND.
THE American Geologist for April opens with
an extended article by Professor William M.
Davis on the peneplain, being a reply to an
article by Professor Tarr in a previous issue of
the journal. Professor Davis writes from
Cannes, France. Following are articles: By
Professor George E. Ladd, on the Cretaceous
Clays of Middle Georgia; by Professor H. N.
Winchell, on the optical characters of Jackson-
ite, and by Professor C. H. Hitchcock, giving
an account of his observations in Australasia.
THE Journal of the Boston Society of Medical
Sciences contains a paper by Dr. Franklin G.
White on ‘Blood Cultures in Septicemia, Pneu-
monia, Meningitis and Chronic Disease,’ in
which, among the conclusions reached, is that
the detection of specific bacteria in the blood in |
cases of sepsis and pneumonia gives an un-
favorable prognosis. A brief but interesting
article by E. H. Bradford treats of the ‘Move-
ment of the Front ofthe Foot in Walking ;’ and
Dr. John Dane follows with a ‘ Report of Some
Studies upon the Arch of the Foot in Infancy, ’
showing that this arch is present in infants but
is masked by a sustaining pad of fat.
SCIENCE. 517
THE frontispiece of the Osprey for February
isa plate of the Hairy Woodpecker by Fuertes ;
the first article, ‘ Notes from North Dakota, ’
by E. S. Rolfe treats of egg collecting in the
vicinity of Devil’s Lake. Mr. Geo. F. Bren-
inger has an article on ‘Gambel’s Quail;’ and
Rev. W. F. Henninger discusses ‘ The Scourge
of Egg Collecting’ in a manner perhaps a little
over-zealous, but with an array of facts that
merit serious consideration. The feature of the
number is Dr. Gill’s long letter headed ‘A
Great Work Proposed,’ wherein he lays before
the readers at some length a number of sugges-
tions for a new history of North American
birds. The publication of the Osprey for March
brings this magazine down to date; Julia 8.
Robins contributes an article on Wilson enti-
tled ‘Behind the Wedding Veil,’ and Witmer
Stone follows with a too short paper on ‘An Old
Case of Skins and its Associations,’ being notes
on one of the earliest ornithological collections
in the United States. In ‘Snap Shots with Pen
and Camera,’ E. S. Rolfe gives us half a dozen
views of birds and nests, with accompanying
text. ‘The Gourdheads in the Cypress Swamp
of Missouri,’ by Otto Widmann, tells of the
habits of the Wood Ibis, gourdhead being a
local name for this bird. W. B. Davis has some
suggestive notes on ‘Odd Actions of Birds Un-
explained,’ and the customary notes, editorials
and reviews complete this unusually good
number.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
THE regular meeting was held on February
i), alii he)
The first paper of the evening was read by
Mr. F. D. Simons, and was entitled ‘The De-
tection of Caramel Coloring Matter in Spirits
and Vinegar,’ by C. A. Crampton and F. D.
Simons.
The paper states that the two principal
tests given in the books for the detection of
caramel coloring matter are, first, the reduction
of Fehling’s solution, and second, the precipita-
tion of the caramel by means of paraldehyde.
Neither of these tests has given satisfactory re-
sults in the hands of the authors.
518
It was found that fuller’s earth had a se-
lective affinity for caramel coloring matter in
spirits, while the natural color derived from
wood was but slightly affected. The test is
made by beating up twenty-five grams of the
earth with fifty ec. of the sample to be tested,
allowing it to stand for thirty minutes at room
temperature, and filtering. The color before
and after treament is observed by means of
Levibond’s tintometer or other form of good
colorimeter, and the amount of color removed
ascertained in this way.
The test was applied to all the samples of
spirits available in the laboratory of internal
revenue, positive results being obtained in all
eases. A series of 40 samples known to be
naturally colored gave an average of 14.6 per
cent. of color removed, while 18 samples of
spirit known to be colored with caramel aver-
aged 44.7 per cent. of color removed.
The test was also applied to a few samples of
vinegar, with good results.
The second paper of the evening was read by
Dr. David T. Day, and was entitled ‘ Charac-
teristics of Iridosmium in the United States.’
A demand has lately arisen for this mate-
rial as a source of osmium, with which it is pro-
posed to impregnate the filaments of incandes-
cent lights, with most beneficial results as to the
amount of light supplied by a given current and
the increased life of the lamp. The problem, of
supplying a large amount of osmiridium is a most
fascinating one and has led to much study in the
localities of the West where platinum metals
have been found. The results show that plat-
inum is much more generally distributed through
‘the western placer mines than was supposed
and that there are localities containing so-called
crude platinum, in which osmiridium is found.
A sample sent from the Oregon beach contained
as high as 99 per cent. of osmiridium. The
Hay Fork District, in Trinity county, California,
Junction City, and more especially the whole
Pacific Coast beach, isa most interesting field of
search because the platinum is mixed with much
osmiridium. It can be said in general that
nearly all the crude platinum sand contains os-
miridium in greater or less quantity, according
to the analyses of a great number of sands made
by Dr. Waldron Shapleigh, for the Welsbach
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von, LX. No. 223.
Light Company. An interesting exception is
the Granite Creek District, of British Columbia.
A curious form of osmiridium was noted at the
Chapman Mine, near Junction City, California,
where nuggets } inch in diameter, when treated
with warm dilute nitro-hydrochlorie acid, yield
platinum in solution and flakes of osmiridium.
The separation of the platinum from the os-
miridium is readily accomplished by means of
nitro-hydrochloric acid, and the separation of
osmic acid from the residue is quite simple by
the ordinary process of passing chlorine over the
osmiridium mixed with salt. The purification
of the osmie acid is now effected by redistilla-
tion, but it is probable that these methods will
be much improved within the next few months.
It is probable that 2,000 ozs. of the material will
be obtained during 1899.
The last paper of the evening was read by Dr.
Day, and was entitled ‘Uses of Fuller’s Earth
as a Filtering Medium.’
In 1892 an effort was made by the Owl
Cigar Manufacturing Company at Quincy,
Florida, to manufacture brick from a peculiar
cream-colored clay found on their property.
Instead of baking hard, it exfoliated in a pecu-
liar manner and caused some comment from an
Alsatian cigar-maker in the employ of the com-
pany, who noticed this clay and called atten-
tion to its close resemblance to German fuller’s
earth. This led to an inquiry as to its value as
fuller’s earth, at a time when the lubricating oil
companies were looking for domestic fuller’s
earth to replace animal charcoal as a means of
lightening the color of lubricating oils by filtra-
tion. The earth proved very suitable, and its
use extended in this direction as well as to some
extent in the bleaching of vegetable oils. But
for the latter purpose the imported fuller’s earth
is still approved. The number of samples of
clays which have been called fuller’s earth and
sent to the consumers for examination since
that date is almost beyond belief. It has been
shown that fuller’s earth is quite widely scat-
tered in the northwestern counties of Florida
and the adjacent counties of Georgia. In the
latter region the fact that it grades into chalce-
dony makes it more probable that the fuller’s
earth isa chemical precipitate, and thisis further
indicated by the replacement of calcium car-
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
bonate by the silica in many shells found asso-
ciated with the fuller’s earth.
The Florida and English fuller’s earth dif-
fer greatly in appearance and to some extentin
chemical composition. English fuller’s earth
has found its analogue in the material discoy-
ered at Fairburn, near Rapid City, South Da-
kota, and Valentine, Nebraska. It is altogether
probable that further developments will make
' the material from these places an important
article for use in bleaching cotton-seed oil.
There is an interesting difference in the methods
of testing the Florida fuller’s earth as compared
with the English. It isthe constant practice of
the lubricating oil companies simply to fill large,
slightly conical cylinders with the fuller’s
earth, ground to about 40 mesh, through which
the oil is filtered at about the temperature equal
to that of boiling water. At first the filtrate is
perfectly colorless and, strange to say, lighter
in specific gravity and more fluid than the un-
filtered oil, a fact which will probably be made
use of in chemical separations of the future. Dr.
Day is now using this in investigating oils. Ful-
ler’s earth is used for bleaching refined, golden
cotton-seed oil to a light straw color. When
the resultant is to be used for white products,
such as lard substitutes, the fuller’s earth is
ground to a fine powder and stirred into the oil
slightly above the temperature of boiling water.
After a thorough mixing by agitation for a few
moments the bleached oil is simply filtered
through bag presses. Perhaps the most inter-
esting feature of this use of fuller’s earth is the
very slight difference in the two varieties of
fuller’s earth in regard to their bleaching ca-
pacity, which leads to their acceptance or re-
jection. Little regard is paid to chemical anal-
ysis, but the tests made by filtration, on a small
scale, are most severe.’’
WILLIAM H. KRrua.
GEOLOGICAL CONFERENCE AND STUDENTS’ CLUB
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
Students’ Geological Club, February 28, 1899.
In considering the ‘ Law of the Migration of
Divides,’ Mr. J. M. Boutwell developed this law
as stated by Cambell (Journal of Geology,
TV, 580), and discussed the amendment to it
SCIENCE.
519
which has been offered by Smith (18th Annual
Report, U. S. Geological Survey, Part II., 472).
Mr. H. T. Burr described ‘A Drainage Pe-
culiarity in Androscoggin, Maine.’ Andros-
coggin Lake, the last of a chain which drain
into Androscoggin River near North Leeds,
Maine, contains a unique delta, which is situated,
not at the head of the lake, but at the outlet.
The preglacial valley which the lake occu-
pies is blocked just below the foot of the lake
by glacial débris, which forces the outlet stream
to flow backward, against the slope of the
country, into the Androscoggin. Thus the fall
between the lake and the Androscoggin is so
small that at times of flood this main river
rises so high as to reverse the flow of the out-
letstream, At such times a flood of mud-laden
water pours into the lake and deposits its load.
Under normal conditions the outflow is incom-
petent to remove the material thus brought in.
Accordingly the delta has grown, and is still
growing, against the normal course of the cur-
rent.
Geological Conference, March 7, 1899. Pro-
fessor J. E. Wolff communicated his discovery
of ‘Hardystonite, a New Mineral from Frank-
lin Furnace.’ The specimen of ore containing
the mineral came from a new working of the
Parker Shaft, at about the nine-hundred-foot
level. The mineral is tetragonal, and its gen-
eral formula is ZnCa,Si,0;.. A complete descrip-
tion will be given in the Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Dr. Charles Palache described ‘ A Method of
Enlarging Diagrams,’ which has been devel-
oped in the Harvard Mineralogical Laboratory
within the last few months. It purpose is for
preparing large diagrams, from small, straight-
line, text diagrams, for lecture use. The instru-
ment used is a megascope made by Fuess. This
consists of two sets of three mirrors, which con-
centrate light upon the diagram. From that the
light is reflected through a double-convex lens,
which projects the image upon a screen. The
diagram is then obtained by tracing the image,
thus enlarged to any desired size, and by inking
in this tracing. This method possesses a double
advantage over photographic enlargements in
that it affords a far more satisfactory product
and is much cheaper.
520
Dr. A. S. Eakle presented ‘ Notes on Some
Rocks from the Fiji Islands.’ The collection,
which included both igneous and sedimentary
rocks from about twenty of the smaller volcanic
islands, was made by Mr. Alexander Agassiz
during his recent studies in that region. The
specimens of eruptive rocks were found to in-
clude hornblende andesites, augite andesites,
hypersthene andesites and basalts.
J. M. BouTWELL,
Recording Secretary.
TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB, JANUARY 95, 1899.
Dr. N. L. Brirron presented a report on the
progress of the New York Botanical Garden,
with exhibition of photographs. Dr. Britton
said that during 1898 the species cultivated in
the Garden at Bronx Park have reached 2,119,
a gain of 700 on the previous year. The fru-
ticetum, on the plain northeast of the Museum
building, was begun in October, and now in-
cludes 195 species. The arboretum has been
increased to 178 species, including those native
to the tract. A viticetum is in preparation, to
be planted next spring, including rock-ledges,
and a rustic arbor about 600 feet long, now
nearly completed. An additional nursery space
near the southern corner of the tract was pre-
pared in the spring, and planted partly with
Siberian cuttings. Border screens are now
planted around the entire tract except to the
south. A complete record of all plants grown
is kept by means of a card catalogue. From
every plant which flowers on the ground an
herbarium specimen is made; and these are
classified in a special herbarium, useful already
in satisfying inquiries. The use of the green-
house on the Columbia University grounds at
Morningside Heights was granted in 1896, and
is still very important to the Garden. This is
the old greenhouse built in 1857 by Mr. S. Hen-
shaw for the Bloomingdale Asylum, and is one
of the oldest greenhouses still standing in the
United States. .
Progress on the Museum building has been
active, and it is thought it will be ready for oc-
cupation by midsummer. The Power House is
nearly ready to put into operation. A sub-
way from this to the Museum is under construc-
tion. A stable, toolhouse, etc., have been
SCIENCE.
{N.S. Vou. IX. No. 223.
finished. The range of horticultural houses is
planned to contain 18 houses; the contract for
7 of these has been signed, and ground was
formally broken for them on January 8,
1899. Important work has been done toward
improving the drainage of the Herbaceous
Grounds, and a great deal of grading, and the
terraces about the Museum have been begun.
The Lorillard Mansion is now used as a police
station-house, occupied by more than 65 offi-
cers, making a new and wholesome water-sup-
ply necessary. This has now been finished.
The Hemlock Forest remains in healthy con-
dition ; only three trees have died in the last
three years.
The Museum is planned to provide in the
basement a lecture-room seating 900; on the
first floor a collection of plant-products, with
models and photographs ; on the second, a sci-
entific collection for expert use, including a
mounted collection of the local flora on swing-
ing panels; followed by herbarium and laborato-
ries on the top floor.
The herbarium already includes 30,000 speci-
mens. Through the liberality of Mr. Cornelius
Vanderbilt, Mr. and Mrs. Heller are now mak-
ing collections in Porto Rico. Messrs. P. A.
Rydberg and Ernest Bessey made collections in
1897 in Montana, through the liberality of Mr.
W. E. Dodge. The results will soon appear as
a Flora of Montana, forming the first volume
of the Memoirs of the New York Botanical
Garden.
E. 8. BuRGEss,
Secretary.
DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE.
SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC’ SEMINARS
AND CONFERENCES.
TO THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: I feel that an
experience of several years as a respectful and
regular listener to scientific papers by young
and old students, at college seminars or confer-
ences, and at annual or periodic meetings of
societies, gives me the basis for certain general-
izations, without leaving me open to the criti-
cism of judging from insufficient data.
The principal generalization I should like to
offer is to the effect that our scientific students
in colleges and professional schools do not re-
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
ceive sufficient training in the public presenta-
tion of their ideas, whether those ideas be
original or borrowed. Most advanced scientific
students in our colleges are obliged to attend
and take part in seminars or conferences, at
which their colleagues and teachers are sup-
posed to criticise any scientific papers that may
be presented. So far as my experience goes,
the criticism is apt to be almost wholly as to
scientific accuracy, with but little thought of
several other points that are of vital impor-
tance. I fear teachers and professors are too
apt to tolerate poor order, poor English and a
‘dead-and-alive’ manner of speaking, thinking
the unfortunate beginner will gain wisdom by
experience.
Judging from my own experience and the
comments of others, I would say that our
scientific workers often fail to carry their point
and to win public sympathy for their work and
cause because in their public utterances they
do not follow rational lines of procedure. They
are very apt: (1) to present an unorganized and
apparently unrelated series of facts—their plan
is rambling; (2) not to choose and emphasize
the important points, probably because of lack
of training in measuring the comparative worth
of facts; (8) to use poor and inexcusable Eng-
lish; (4) to speak in a dazed sort of way, as
though they themselves were not thoroughly
convinced, as yet, of the truth of their results ;
(5) not to address the audience, a map or a
blackboard under their influence being as in-
spiring as the audience, and much less embar-
rassing ; (6) not to divide their time so as to
complete their presentation within reasonable
limits, thus causing weariness and restlessness
on part of audience ; (7) not to make good use
of illustrative material in the way of maps,
diagrams, specimens, lantern slides, ete.
Now the remedy for these serious failures
that few men can outgrow seems to me to be
largely in the hands of our college and scientific
school teachers, and I would like to see a plan
adopted in college seminars that would not
allow a student to appear before his colleagues
and masters until his plan of procedure had
been censored, along the lines I have suggested,
by some one of experience in public utterance.
The student should also receive criticism
SCIENCE. 521
after his paper, so as to bring out the weak
points in his argument or manner, thus min-
imizing the possibility of an equal failure at
his next appearance. Such criticism does not
kill individuality, but strengthens it, and cer-
tainly gives the student a greater confidence in
and respect for his teachers. Should our col-
leges and scientific schools uniformly adopt
such a method of training, our scientific gather-
ings ten years hence would not be so largely
composed of specialists and those who attend
from duty and with considerable sacrifice. It
would also be much easier to secure public sup-
port for scientific work were more of our lead-
ers able to win the interest of the public, with-
out becoming merely ‘popular lecturers,’ by
whom scientific accuracy is apt to be sacrificed
for the sake of impressiveness.
Such work as I have suggested for our teach-
ers takes much time and energy and seems at
first not to pay ; but immediate returns are not
always the best, and there is no work on the
part of a teacher that can give greater satisfac-
tion in the long run than that which has helped
beginners to make the most of their latent
powers.
RIcHARD E. DODGE.
TEACHERS COLLEGE,
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.
A REMARKABLE SUN-DOG.
THE appended diagram is an attempt to record
the appearance presented by a rare and remark-
able ‘sun-dog’ seen at Hamline, Minnesota, at
9:50 a. m., on February 10th. It was a very
Sic wate an eas
&
522
cold and damp morning; the air was not clear,
and there was a film of thin clouds over all the
sky. The weather records at St. Paul Observa-
tory, five miles distant from Hamline, indicated,
S. E. 6 miles per hour for the wind, 29.50 as the
Barograph reading of the barometric pressure,
and 20 degrees below zero as the thermograph
reading of the temperature. The two ‘sun-dogs’
proper were g and h of the figure and were so
brilliant that it was painful to look at them,
and a line of intense light stretched from them
outwards toward dandc. There were two cir-
cles surrounding the sun ; one, the inner one, was
complete; the other was nearly so, but dipped
below the horizon. There were arcs of two cir-
cles turned from the sun at a and 5b, and at
these points there was a display of prismatic
colors. The large outer circle looked much like
a rainbow, especially near the horizon. This
latter fact seemed connected with the fact that
there was almost moisture enough in the air to
constitute a very fine snow.
H. L. Osporn.
HAMLINE UNIVERSITY, St. PAuL, MINN.,
February 20, 1899.
DEGREES IN SCIENCE AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY conferred for the first
time last year the degree of ‘ Master of Science.’
As the creation of this degree appears at first
sight to be a new recoguition of science, it may
be desirable to point out that there are aspects
under which it is, in fact, harmful to science
and a retrograde movement in that university
to which we look for guidance. It is, indeed,
logical to have a degree between the S. B. and
S. D. parallel to the A. M., but it would be
equally logical and,in my opinion, far better to
abolish the S. B. and 8. D.
The composition of the Lawrence Scientific
School of Harvard University is not made less
heterogeneous by giving all its graduates the
same degree. Some of the students are pursu-
ing studies in applied science exactly parallel to
those of the schools of medicine, law and theol-
ogy, and should on graduation be given a tech-
nical degree signifying the profession that they
have been trained to practice, i. e., C.E., civil
engineer, etc. Others of the students are follow-
ing the same scientific studies as may be elected
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Von. IX. No. 223.
by students of the college who receive the A.B,
The difference is that the Lawrence Scientific
School may be entered with an inadequate prep-
aration. Fortunately, plans have been adopted
that will gradually raise the requirements for
admission to the Scientific School to substantial
equality with those of the college. At present
consequently the 8. B., in its sense of a liberal
education based upon science, means, as com-
pared with the A. B. for the same studies, an
inadequate preparation ; later it will signify a
secondary education without Latin.
Students of Harvard College, as of the Great
English universities, may now take the A.B.
without any study of Latin or Greek at the
University. This freedom of election has, as
President Eliot points out in his last annual re-
port, maintained at Harvard the relative nu-
merical importance of the traditional degree
better than in any other American institution.
The A.B.is becoming almost obsolete in our great
State universities. Thus at California last year
among 191 bachelors only 380 were in arts, at
Wisconsin among 173 only 13, ete. I regard
this as unfortunate as the Ph.B. and 8.B. at
these universities means simply a liberal edu-
cation without Greek or without Latin and
Greek. It seems to me more consistent to give
the A.B. for liberal studies as is done at Har-
vard, Johns Hopkins, Columbia, Cornell and
the English universities. But of these univer-
sities only Cornell is sufficiently logical to ad-
mit that a liberal education is possible without
‘small Latin’ inthe preparatory school. Presi-
dent Eliot will anticipate the course of educa-
tional progress, as he has so often done, if he
will transfer the required study of English to
the preparatory school, as he aims to do, and
will secure the admission of students to Har-
vard College without Latin. The S.B., S.M.
and §.D. would then be superfluous as degrees
for liberal studies. I regard them as useless
altogether, except that it might’ be desirable to
give the Sc.B., simultaneously with a technical
scientific degree and to maintain Sc.D. and
Litt.D. as honorary degrees. In the English
universities Se. refers to science, while B.S.
and M.S. refer to surgery, consequently Sc.
rather than 8. should beused. -
At Harvard the A.M. and the Ph.D. are
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
given for advanced work to Bachelors of Arts,
and the 8.D,, and since last year the $.M., to
Bachelors of Science. The S8.D. is given for ex-
actly the same, scientific research and study as
the Ph.D., and means the same thing, except
that it is in addition a certificate of a poor pre-
paratory education. It isno wonder that it is
not popular, having been awarded only once in
the past three years, while the Ph.D. has been
awarded sixty-nine times. If a student comes
to Harvard from a Western university, having
studied Latin throughout his college course and
received a Ph.B., he is apparently not eligible
for the Ph.D. What would be done with a stu-
dent coming with the A.B. from Cornell, but
never having studied Latin, I do not know.
The maintenance at Harvard of the 8.M. and
$.D. as second-rate degrees appears to be a
needless limitation of the usefulness of its
graduate school, and a wounding of science in
the house of its friends.
. J. McKEEN CATTELL.
CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.
SCIENTIFIC APPOINTMENTS UNDER THE
GOVERNMENT.
WE have received notice of civil service ex-
aminations as follows:
On May 9th for Assistant Chief, Division of
Agrostology, Department of Agriculture. (Salary
$1,800 per annum.) The subjects and weights
are as follows:
EPA OTOSLOLONViaueccsseecssecsacccescestesieessneecsrerercns
2. Replies to letters on agrostology
3. German and French translation
4. Botany (major), or Chemistry (minor), (See Sec-
tion 67, ‘ Assistants, Department of Agriculture,
Departmental Service,’ page 45 of the Manual of
Examinations, revised to January 1, 1899)......... 20
At the same time an examination will be
held for the position of Assistant in the Division
of Agrostology at a salary of $1,200. The sub-
jects and weights being :
PAO TOStOl OO Vamesasaasdsaccccnectooccatereerses BEE CORREE EE 50
2. Translation from one foreign language (Spanish,
French, German, or Italian)
SweWabinmpLranslatlonwercedemessescecsecessnceascsererses
4. Botany (minor), (See section 67, ‘ Assistants,
Department of Agriculture, Departmental Service,’
SCIENCE.
523
page 35 of the Manual of Examinations, revised to
January 1, 1899)............0...cececnecesscecenccerseeenecess 15
5. Education and experience ............---eeeeeeeees 15
On May Ist an eligible register will be estab-
lished for the position of Irrigation Expert,
office of Experiment Stations, Department of
Agriculture, at a salary of $2,500 per annum.
Subjects and weights are as follows :
1. A statement of the education, training and
technical experience af the competitor.........-....-++ 30
2. A statement of the competitor’s experience asau
administrative officer, with special reference to irri-
gation laws and regulations. .........02-.0:eseeeeeeeeeee eee 30
3. A thesis of not less than three thousand words
ona topic relating to irrigation .............-seeeeeeeee ees 20
4. A statement of not more than three thousand
words setting forth a plan of irrigation investigations
in the arid regions of the United States for the benefit
of the farmers of those regions...........sseeesee essere eee 20
Tt will not be necessary for applicants to ap-
pear at any place for examination, but the
statements and theses required may be prepared
by the competitors at their homes upon forms
which will be furnished by the United States
Civil Service Commission upon request. Com-
petitors will be required to furnish sworn state-
ments as to the integrity of the work submitted
by them.
Under similar conditions and on the same
day an eligible register will be established for
the position of tobacco expert to the Department
of Agriculture. The subjects and weights are
as follows:
1. Experience, including complete statement of per-
sonal experience in connection with the development
of the tobacco industry of Florida............-..-.....6+ 30
2. Administrative ability, including a full state-
ment of personal experience in the administration of
work connected with the growth, purchase, manipu-
lation and marketing of the Florida tobacco.......... 30
3. Two theses, of two thousand to four thousand
words in length, on subjects relating to the tobacco
AN GUSH Yee essa sae esas nenet ae teSeeceastlestereseuetneat sats 40
On May 9th and 10th an examination will be
held for the position of computor in the Nauti-
cal Almanac office, the subjects and weights
being :
mA re brasessstsacscueesccteaccecpssheansecncenetce se acae 15
BOE NES TOT NGL 8 anes ponicporidodsuaddubdeoooponodopucdotmbEnads 10
3. Plane and spherical astronmy................-+. 20
4, Elements of differential and integral calculus 10
524
Dem LOPATILD IMS jeanerersestrcsecuecs sseeiecassieacee se snes 25
6. Spherical astronomy........5..2....ecssesceeesceees 20
Further information regarding these positions
and blanks for applications may be obtained
from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Wash-
ington, D. C.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.
THE National Academy of Sciences will hold
its stated annual meeting, beginning on Tues-
day, April 18th.
AT the annual meeting of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific on March 25th the sec-
ond award of its Bruce Gold Medal was an-
nounced. It was conferred upon Dr. Arthur
Auwers, of Berlin.
Srk WILLIAM TURNER, professor of anatomy
in the University of Edinburgh, has been elected
President of the British Association for the
Bradford meeting of 1900.
Ir is announced that Mr. Llewellyn W.
Longstaff, a member of the Royal Geographical
Society of London, has contributed $125,000
towards the fund for the British Antarctic ex-
pedition.
Dr. L. L. HUBBARD has resigned the position
of State Geologist of Michigan. The American
Geologist states that he has taken this action
owing to the delay of the State Board of Audi-
tors in authorizing the publication of the Re-
ports of the Survey.
Dr. E. V. WILLCox has resigned his position
as zoologist and entomologist in the Montana
Agricultural College and Station to accept a
position in the office of Experiment Stations in
the place of Dr. F. C. Kenyon, resigned. Dr.
Willcox will have charge of the departments of
zoology, entomology and veterinary science of
the Experiment Station Record.
Mr. LE GRAND Powers, of Minnesota, has
been appointed Chief Statistician in charge of
agricultural statistics, and Mr. William C.,
Hunt, of Massachusetts, has been given charge
of the statistics of population in the twelfth
census. Mr. Hunt held the same position in
the census of 1890. Mr. Powers is Chief of the
Minnesota Bureau of Labor.
M. Frinou has been elected an associate of
the Paris Academy of Medicine in the place of
SCLENCE,
[N.S. Vou. IX. No 223.
the late Dr. Worms. M. Filhol is a member of
the Paris Academy of Sciences, and has pub-
lished important memoirs in anatomy, zoology
and paleontology.
Proressor Lurci CREMONA, professor of
mathematics at the University of Rome, and
Professor Alexander Karpinski, St. Petersburg,
Director of the Russian Geological Survey,
have been elected foreign members of the Bel-
gian Academy of Sciences.
Dr. T. Gricor Bropre, lecturer on physi-
ology at St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School,
has been nominated by the Laboratories Com-
mittee of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and
Surgeons to be Director of the Research Lab-
oratories on the Thames Embankment.
Mr. E. E. GREEN, the well-known Ceylon
entomologist, has been appointed Government
Entomologist on the staff of the Agricultural
Department of that island; with residence at
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. He
is about to visit England, and will return to
Ceylon to take up his work about September.
For many years Mr. Green has been doing ad-
mirable work on the insects of Ceylon, with
especial regard to injurious species, and a better
selection could not have been made for the new
position.
Dr. WALTER R. HARPER, of Sydney, New
South Wales, starts this month on a trip in the
New Hebrides to investigate the somatology
and folk-lore of that group. We are informed
by him that the museums of Australia, although
new, have already secured some remarkable
collections representative of Australian eth-
nology. The museum at Sydney, under the
curatorship of R. Etheridge, and the one at
Adelaide in charge of Dr. Stirling, are especially
good owing to the interest of their curators in
ethnology. Lately the Western government
sent a collecting party into the interior under
the leadership of Mr. Alex. Morton, Curator of
the Tasinanian Museum. This expedition was
successful and secured among other things a
series of carved bull-roarers, which are sacred
objects there. Lack of funds hampers the work
in Australia as elsewhere, and the field is yet
largely unknown. Much valuable material re-
mains to be investigated even in the Eastern
APRIL 7, 1899. ]
colonies, while Northwest Queensland is es-
pecially rich.
Mr. HJALMAR LunpBoHM, of the Geological
Survey of Sweden, is now in the United States,
with a view to studying the deposits of iron
ore.
Dr. BENJAMIN M. DvuGGAR, instructor in
botany (plant physiology) at Cornell Univer-
sity and Assistant Cryptogamic Botanist of the
Experiment Station, sailed on March 22d from
New York for Hurope. He will spend the
year abroad in study, principally with Dr.
Pfeffer in the laboratories for plant physiology
at Leipzig, and with Dr. George Klebs. He
will attend the meeting of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science during
September. Mr. Duggar received the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy at Cornell University
last June. He will return in a year to resume
his work at Cornell.
A MARBLE bust of the late I. H. Lapham,
the geologist, was, as we learn from the Amer-
ican Geologist, unveiled in the public museum
of Milwaukee on March 7th. It was presented
by Mr. John Marr. Several addresses were
made, including one on the life and work of
Lapham by Mr. John Johnston.
A MONUMENT to Pasteur will be unveiled and
a Pasteur Institute opened at Lille on April 9th.
A MONUMENT will be erected in October to
Charles Mare Sauria, said to be the original in-
venter of lucifer matches, at St. Lothair, a
small village in the Jura, where he spent his
life as a country physician.
Dr. ANGELO KNorR, docent in the Veteri-
nary School of Munich, died on February 22d,
from acute glanders contracted in the course of
an experimental research on mallein.
Miss ELIZABETH Brown, of Cirencester, Eng-
land, who made valuable contributions to as-
tronomy, died on March 6th. She observed
the total eclipses of the sun in 1887, 1889 and
1896, and had published both scientific and
popular accounts of the solar phenomena.
WE regret also to record the deaths of Dr.
Wilhelm vy. Miller, professor in the Institute of
Technology and member of the Academy of
Sciences of Munich; of Dr. Friedrich y. Lih-
SCIENCE.
525
mann, the mathematician, at Stralsund ; of Dr.
Charles Fortuun, the mineralogist, in London,
and of P. y. Alfr. Feuilleaubois, known for his
researches on fungi, at Fontainbleau.
A REUTER dispatch, dated March 16th, states
that the steamer ‘Southern Cross’ has ar
rived at Port Chalmers from Victoria Land,
where she landed M. Borchgrevink and the
other members of the Antarctic expedition.
The explorers are 11 in number.
Mr. A. W. AnTHONY and his party, who
have been making collections for the Smith-
sonian Institution, have been wrecked off the
coast of Lower California. No lives were lost,
but the collections could not be saved.
THE Union Pacific Railway offers to trans-
port geologists and paleontologists without
charge from Chicago or San Francisco to Wy-
oming, for the purpose of making explorations
during the coming summer.
AN expedition under Lieutenant Koslow is
being sent by the Russian Geographical Society
to make explorations in Central Asia. It will
cross the Nanschu Mountains and explore the
upper waters of the Yellow River.
M. H. R. Dumonr has left to the Paris So-
ciety of Geography a travelling fund that will
yield 1,000 fr. per annum.
A RADIOGRAPHIC institute has been opened
at Madrid under the direction of Dr. Mezquita.
It is said to have cost $400,000.
THE French Congress of Learned Societies
met at Toulouse on April 4th under the presi-
dency of M. Levasseur.
AT the March meeting of the French Astro-
nomical Society M. Cornu made an address on
the applications of physics to astronomy. M.
Flammarion, the Secretary, reported that a
number of astronomers had written saying
that they had seen the phases of Venus with
the naked eye, the possibility of which has
been denied. The air throughout Europe has
been unusually clear for a long time.
THE first international congress of physicians
connected with life insurance companies will
be held at Brussels from the 25th to the 30th of
next September. All Europe and the United
States will be represented at this congress,
526 SCIENCE.
which proposes to establish universal formulas
for the examination of persons desiring to be
insured.
ON March 18th the Austrian Society of Engi-
neers celebrated its jubilee in the Municipal
Council Chamber, Vienna, under the presi-
dency of Mr. F. Berger. Nature says that
there was a large attendance of members, and
representatives of sixty six kindred societies
presented addresses. Congratulatory speeches
were delivered by the Austrian Minister of Rail-
ways; the Minister of Commerce; the Governor
of Lower Austria; the Secretary of the Iron
and Steel Institute, London; the Secretary of
the French Society of Civil Engineers, Paris,
and the Secretary of the Society of German
Engineers, Berlin. A paper was then read by
Mr. A. Ricker on the part taken by the
Austrian Society of Engineers in the technical
progress of the past fifty years. The Austrian
Society is a very influential one. Atits founda-
tion in 1848 it numbered seventy-nine mem-
bers ; at the present time there are 2,388.
THE inaugural course of the Charles F.
Deems lectureship foundation will be given by
Professor James Iverach, D.D., of Aberdeen,
on Mondays and Wednesdays at 10:30 a. m.,
beginning on April 3d at University Building,
Washington Square. The endowment of $15,-
000 given by the American Institute of Christian
Philosophy to the New York University pro-
vides for lectures on science and philosophy in
their relation to religion.
Mr. Rircuiez, President of the British Board
of Trade, received at the House of Commons on
March 22d a deputation of representatives from
the Decimal Association, chambers of commerce,
educational institutions and trade unions, who
urged upon the government the compulsory
adoption of the metric system of weights and
measures on January 1, 1901. The importance
of this measure was urged by Sir Samuel Mon-
tague, Sir Henry Roscoe, Sir E. S. Hill and
others. Mr. Ritchie in reply said that the gov-
ernment had done much by making the metric
system legal and by introducing it in the schools,
but did not think that public opinion warranted
its compulsory adoption. The resolutions passed
by the associated chambers of commerce was as
[N.S. Von. 1X. No. 223.
follows: ‘‘ That, in view of the time wasted in
teaching a system of weights and measures
which, according to the First Lord of the
Treasury, is ‘arbitrary, perverse and utterly
irrational,’ and in the opinion of Her Majesty’s
Consuls is responsible for great injury to British
trade, this association urges Her Majesty’s gov-
ernment to introduce into and endeavor to carry
through Parliament as speedily as possible a
bill providing that the use of the metric system
of weights and measures shall be compulsory
in this country within two years from the pass-
ing of the bill, and suggests that meanwhile the
system should be adopted in all specifications
for government contracts.’’
THe Eclipse Expedition to Japan under
Professor Todd, two years ago, founded at
Esashi a publie library, in return for courtesies
shown the expedition. Professor Todd is now
sending to this library, through the legation at
Washington, acollection of books part of which
have been given by a number of representative
American publishers.
THE original manuscripts of surveys of Van
Diemen’s Land, made between 1821 and 1836,
were sold recently at the rooms of Messrs.
Hodgson, London, for $250.
Tue Companie Générale Transatlantique is
establishing a service of carrier pigeons, which
it is believed will announce the arrival of steam-
ships twelve hours earlier than is at present
possible.
Nature states that a dinner which took place
at the Fishmongers’ Hall on March 14th pos-
sesses especial interest on account of the fact
that it was given in honor of science, and that
the guests included a great number of scientific
men, among them being the Presidents of the
following societies and scientific bodies: Royal,
Royal Horticultural, Royal College of Phy-
sicians, Royal Geographical, Dermatological,
Royal Microscopical, Victoria Institute, Royal
Statistical, Royal College of Surgeons, Royal
Astronomical, Zoological, Linnean, Chemical,
Entomological, Philological and Clinical. The
toast of the evening was ‘Science,’ and was
proposed in an eloquent speech by the Prime
Warden, Mr. J. A. Travers, who pointed out
the great advance science had made in the last
APRIL 7, 1899.]
twelve years; he recommended, further, the
special study of preventive medicine, to ensure
for Great Britain a safer footing in foreign
climates. Lord Lister responded to the toast,
and urged City Companies to support pure sci-
ence; he referred also to the help they had
rendered the Jenner Institute. Sir William
MacCormaec then proposed the health of the
Prime Warden. is
THE Railway and Engineering Journal reports
that the War Department is arranging to make
a test of the Marconi system of wireless teleg-
raphy. The two experimental stations se-
lected are the roof of the State, War and Navy
Building and Fort Myer, across the Potomac,
the distance being six miles. The government
has purchased the necessary instruments and
experiments will be conducted by Col. James
Allen and Lieut. George D. Squire.
AT a recent meeting of the Royal Geograph-
ical Society a paper on ‘Exploration in the
Canadian Rockies: A Search for Mount Hooker
and Mount Brown’ was read by Professor Nor-
man Collie, F.R.S. According to the London
Times Professor Collie’s paper dealt with two
journeys taken during 1897 and 1898 through
that part of the Canadian Rockies that lies be-
tween the Kicking Horse Pass on the south and
the source of the Athabasca River on the north.
The most interesting problem connected with
the first journey which presented itself to Pro-
fessor Collie and his party was whether a lofty
mountain—probably 14,000 ft. to 15,000 ft.—
seen from the slopes of Mount Freshfield, from
which it lay distant about 30 miles in a north-
westerly direction, might be Mount Brown or
Mount Hooker, which were supposed to be
16,000 ft. and 15,000 ft. high respectively. Pro-
fessor Coleman, in 1893, starting from Morley,
had arrived at the true Athabasca Pass, found
the historic Committee’s Punch-bowl, and his
brother had climbed the highest peak on the
north, presumably Mount Brown. This peak
he found to be only 9,000 ft. The question pre-
sented itself: Could he have been mistaken or
was it possible that there existed two Athabasca
Passes ? Professor Collie and his companion re-
turned to their camp on the Saskatchewan Pass
without having solved the question of either
SCIENCE.
527
Mounts Brown or Hooker, or the Committee’s
Punch-bowl. It was finally settled on the re-
turn to England by reference to the journal
of David Douglas, the naturalist, dealing with
his journey over the Athabasca Pass. From
the authentic account of the two mountains
there given it was seen that the credit of hay-
ing settled with accuracy the real height of the
peaks belonged to Professor Coleman. For
nearly 70 years they had been masquerading in
every map as the highest peaks in the Rocky
Mountains. No doubt now remained as to
where Brown and Hooker and the Punch-
bowl were. That Douglas climbed a peak
17,000 ft. high in an afternoon (as narrated
in his account) was impossible; the Mount
Brown of Professor Coleman, 9,000 ft. high,
was much more likely. There was only one
Athabasca Pass, and on each side of its sum-
mit might be found a peak—Mount Brown,
1,000 ft. high, on the north—the higher of the
two—and Mount Hooker on the south. Be-
tween them lay a small tarn, 20 ft. in diameter
—the Committee’s Punch-bowl. The peaks to
the south, amongst which the party wandered
last August, were, therefore, new, and they
probably constituted the highest point of the
Canadian Rocky Mountain system.
THE British Medical Journal states that the
tenth meeting of the International Congress of
Hygiene will be held in Paris in August, 1900.
The division of hygiene will comprise seven
sections as follows: 1. Microbiology and Para-
sitology applied to hygiene. M. Laveran is
President and M. Netter Secretary of this Sec-
tion, in which the questions to be discussed are
the measurement of the activity of serums; the
prophylaxis and preventive treatment of diph-
theria; meat poisoning, its causes and the
means of its prevention; pathogenic microbes
in soil and water (cholera, typhoid fever and
other diseases); the part played by water and
by vegetables in the etiology of intestinal hel-
minthiasis. 2. Chemical and veterinary sciences
applied to hygiene; alimentary hygiene, in
which the questions to be discussed are tinned
provisions and the means of preventing acci-
dents ; unification of international control ; the
establishment of a general and uniform system
of inspection of slaughter houses, etc. 38. En-
528
gineering and architecture applied to hygiene,
in which the question to be discussed is the pro-
tection of water supplies. 4. Personal hygiene,
in which the question to be discussed is conta-
gious patients from the hospital point of view.
5. Industrial and professional hygiene. 6. Mili-
tary, naval and colonial hygiene, in which the
question to be discussed is the means of ensur-
ing the purity of water from the point of view
of colonial hygiene. 7. General and interna-
tional hygiene (prophylaxis of communicable
diseases ; sanitary administration and legisla-
tion), in which the questions to be discussed are
the prophylaxis of tuberculosis in regard to in-
dividuals, families, etc.; the compulsory notifi-
cation of communicable diseases, its necessary
consequences (isolation, disinfection) and its re-
sults in different countries ; the prophylaxis of
syphilis; and the international prophylaxis of
yellow fever.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS.
Mr. Joun D. ROCKEFELLER has offered
$100,000 to Denison University, Granville, O.,
if the friends of the institution will, within the
next year, raise the sum of $150,000.
Mrs. Simon Rerp, of Lake Forest, has ex-
pressed her intention of giving to Lake Forest
University a chapel and a library.
THE further sum of £25,000 has been offered
for the Birmingham University on condition
that £225,000 are obtained within a year. The
amount already promised is £135,000.
Proressor Louis F. HENDERSON, professor
of botany in the University of Idaho, at Moscow,
Idaho, has recently donated to the botanical
department of Cornell University a complete
set of his duplicates of the phanerogams and
ferns of Idaho. Over 900 species were con-
tained in the collection, making it one of the
most valuable single local collections that the
University has received. Professor Henderson
is an alumnus of Cornell University, class of
7A.
PROFESSOR W. v. BrANCOo, of Hohenheim,
has been called to the chair of geology and
paleontology in the University of Berlin, as
successor to Professor Dames.
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 223.
CHARLES EDWARD ST. JOHN, PH.D., has been
appointed to the professorship of physics and
astronomy in Oberlin College.
Mr. JosrepH BARCROFT has been elected Fel-
low of King’s College, Cambridge. His chief
work has been in physiology.
ALEXANDER ANDERSON, professor of natural
philosophy in Queen’s College, Galway, has
been appointed President of the institution.
Ir is said that the candidates for the chair of
physiology at Edinburgh, vacant by the death of
Professor Rutherford, include Professor E. A.
Schafer, Dr. William Stirling, Dr. D. N. Paton,
Dr. E. Waymouth Reid, Dr. E. W. W. Carlier
and Dr. G. N. Stewart.
M. Henri MoissAn has published for the
Council of the University of Paris a report on
its work during the year 1897-8. The increase
in the number of students at periods of six
years is shown in the accompanying table :
1885-86. 1891-92. 1897-08.
MedICINGtscensraesieaccies 3.696 4.250 4.494
Tid Wiseaseersnescscseacarase 3.786 4.111 4.607
(Pharmacyeaerssecscesnsase 1.767 1.547 1.790
etbersit veto tescee tun. 928 1.185 1.989
SClEMCES Re ctesccseseseese 467 655 1.370
Protestant Theology... 35 36 95
eTOba lem acunetasicase 10.679 11.784 14.346
It will be noticed that the growth in the num-
ber of students of science is the greatest, and
the increase has been more than maintained
during the present year, being 127 as compared
with 85in letters. It should be recollected that
there are many important institutions for higher
education in Paris—The Collége de France,
The Museum of Natural History, The School of
Mines, the Normal College, The Polytechnic
Institute, The School of Fine Arts, The Pasteur
Institute, etc.—not included in the University.
Paris is thus’ certainly the world’s largest
educational center, but the provincial universi-
ties are less important than the corresponding
institutions in other countries. The gifts to
the university during the year, about $30,000,
appear small in comparison with those to
American institutions. There are only 202
scholarships, which: is also relatively fewer than
in America and in Great Britain.
SClgNCE
EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE: S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WooDWwARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THuRsTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LE Conte, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; W. K. Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology;
§. H. ScuppER, Entomology; C. E. BessEy, N. L. Brirron, Botany; HENRY F. OsBorN,
General Biology; C. 8. Minot, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bowprrcu, Physiology;
J. 8S. Brutines, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRIN-
TON, J. W. Powe, Anthropology.
Fripay, Aprit 14, 1899.
CONTENTS:
A Sage in Science: PRESIDENT DAVID STARR
JJ} BDA pocobododbonosacandancd oaodongoraneadoncocbadnunals 529
Field-Work of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition
in 1898 :— ;
The Indians of Western Washington: DR. Liv-
INGSTON FARRAND. Archeological Investiga-
tions on the North Pacific Coast of America:
HARLAN I. Smiry. Archeological Investiga-
tions on the Amoor River: GERARD FOWKE......- 532
On Biological Text-Books and Teachers: O. F.
(IO caso docsoacao sdonodasound dadandcoddocaacnanpdce Haborotod 541
Scientific Books :—
Hastings and Beach’s Text-Book of General
Physics: PROFESSOR J. 8. AMES. Marr’s Prin-
ciples of Stratigraphical Geology: PROFESSOR
Henry 8. WILLIAMS. Mason on the Exami-
nation of Water: PROFESSOR EDWIN O. JoR-
DAN. in
our Proceedings (15-388) and in Screncg, IIT.,
January 17,1896; was mentioned in several
journals and listed in the ‘ Literatur’ in
the Anatomischer Anzeiger. Yet in Septem-
ber, 1898, practically an entire number of
that periodical, twenty-five pages, was oc-
cupied by an article on that subject pur-
porting to tabulate and discuss the methods
employed in all parts of the world. The
whole United States is credited with an
article by Mall (Anzeiger, 1896, 769-775)
and (in a footnote) a ‘ Note’ by Keiller
in the Texas Medical Journal, 1891-2, VE, p.
425.
VIII. That terms consisting of a single word
each constitute even the majority of the names
preferred by me or adopted by this Association a
year ago.—Whatever their abstract prefer- ‘
ences, the members of the Committee realize
the impossibility of framing such a nomen-
clature. Two years ago (‘Neural Terms,’
§ 153 et seq.) I showed by statistics the
baselessness of the misapprehension and
characterized it as a ‘terminologic phantasm
erected by the Germans between themselves
and the American Committees.’
More recently, however, the same notion
has reappeared in several reviews of a text-
book of nervous diseases, commonly with
approval, expressed or implied, of the sup-
posed condition. The impression was prob-
ably gained from the fact that the author of
the book, like myself, prefers single-word
APRIL 21, 1899. ]
names for as many as possible of the parts
most frequently mentioned. Nevertheless,
the misapprehension on this point ought to
be corrected. The facts are :
First, out of about 540 neural terms in the
B. N. A. at least 40, about one-fourteenth,
are mononyms.
Secondly, in the ‘Majority Report’, in
Tables C and D, are enumerated 274 terms
differing more or less from those adopted
by the Gesellschaft; the mononyms num-
ber only 103.
IX. That eminence as an anatomist neces-
sarily implies either the capacity or the dispost-
tion to deal wisely with questions of nomencla-
ture.—Upon this point I quote from ‘Con-
cluding Remarks’ in ‘Neural Terms,’ p. 329:
Caution in Publishing New Terms.—It is true that
words needlessly introduced into anatomy have no
such embarrassing permanency as is conventionally
assigned to synonyms in systematic zodlogy. Never-
theless, for a time at least, they encumber current
publications and dictionaries. Hence, however neces-
sary and legitimate they may seem to the framer,
neither a new term, nor an old one in a new sense,
should be actually published without prolonged con-
sideration, and consultation with at least four indi-
viduals representing as many categories of possible
critics: (qa) an investigator of the same general sub-
ject; (0) an experienced teacher; (c¢) an earnest stu-
dent; (d) a philologic expert whose admiration for
the past has not blinded him to the needs of the pre-
sent and the future.
Method of Introduction of New Terms.—As urgently
recommended by the A. A. A. S. Committee on Bio-
logical Nomenclature, whenever a technical word is
used for the first time the author should give in
a special note: (a) the Latin form; (b) the etymol-
ogy; (¢) the proper adopted form or paronym for his
own language, with the adjective, etc., when applica-
ble; (d) as concise and precise a definition as pos-
sible.
X. That among the terms included in the
‘ Majority Report’ any considerable number
have been specifically condemned by the Anatom-
ische Gesellschaft or its authorized representa-
tives.
XI. That the grounds of such objections as
have been offered are really sound and sufficient.
SCIENCE.
569
XII. That the condemnation of a term by an
anatomic authority disproves either its intrinsic
fitness or its promise of vitality.—On this point
there need be adduced only the cases of
radius and ulna, which Robert Hunter de-
nounced as ‘ ridiculous.’
XIII. That the anatomy of the future is to be
based upon the structure and erect attitude of the
human body.—The anatomists of the future
will be zodtomists first and anthropotomists
afterward.
XIV. That every anatomic term should be an
absolute idionym, 1. €., perfectly explicit in itself.
—Since this requirement is implied in the
objections to aula, etc., by Koélliker, and to
medipedunculus by His,* there may be prop-
erly adduced from the B. N. A. the follow-
ing terms, whose explicitness is conditioned
upon either the context or the actual addi-
tion of the words here set in brackets :
clivus [occipitalis], and [sphenoidalis]; pro-
cessus coronoideus [ulne] and [mandibule];
processus styloideus [radii], [ulne], and [ossis
temporalis]. Unless, indeed, it be granted
that a certain degree of explicitness is
afforded by the context, every one of the
thousands of names of the parts of the
human body should be increased by the
phrase corporis humant.
XV. That the occasional employment, by a
member of an Association, or even by a member of
its Comittee on Nomenclature, of terms other
than those adopted by them is, in itself, evidence
of deliberate intention.—For example, after
using conariwm for fifteen years in place of
‘pineal body,’ etc., now that the argu-
ments of Spitzka and H. F. Osborn have
converted me to epiphysis, conarium occa-
sionally gets itself spoken. Indeed, it is
easy for me to understand that an unin-
tended but familiar word may be written,
re-written, and even overlooked in the proof.
The frequency of such lapses could be
shown, if necessary, by letters from numer-
*As stated and briefly discussed in ‘ Neural Terms,’
pp. 282-289.
570
ous correspondents in reply to the query,
free from all critical or proselytic tenor, as
to whether a given term was used inten-
tionally or by inadvertence.
XVI. That there is ‘imminent danger of the
formation of a peculiar anatomic vocabulary
in America such as seriously to impede scientific
intercourse with other countries..—The unsub-
stantiality of the grounds of this misappre-
hension may be recognized in the impartial
discussion by the brothers Herrick a year
ago.* They conclude that there is no rea-
son for serious alarm on this score.
XVII. That the fundamental principles and
characteristic features of the simplified nomencla-
ture can be attributed to any individual in such
degree as to warrant calling it by his name.—In
correcting this misapprehension no false
modesty shall lead me to belittle what I
have done. On the contrary, to the ‘ Sum-
mary of my terminologic progress,’ already
published in ‘Neural Terms,’ etc. (pp.
227-237), there shall be added here two
items overlooked when that was printed :
1. That the defects of encephalic ter-
minology had been recognized by me as
early as 1878 may be seen from the follow-
ing paragraph in a popular lecture on ‘ The
brain and the present scientific aspects of
phrenology,’ delivered January 21st, before
the ‘ American Institute,’ and reported in
the New York Tribune of January 22d and
in the ‘ Tribune Extra,’ No. 3:
“CAs if these natural hindrances were not enough,
the old anatomists fenced in the parts of the brain
with the most fanciful and prodigious titles. Cere-
drum is well enough ; the cerebellum, being only one-
eighth as large, has a longer name, while medulla ob-
longata, hippocampus minor, tubercula quadrigemina,
processus e cerebello ad testes, and iter e tertio ad ventricu-
lun quartum represent such insignificant parts of the
brain as to suggest a suspicion that the nomenclature
was established upon no other principle than that of
in inverse ratio between the size of an organ and the
length of its title. At any rate, these fearful names
* Inquiries regarding tendencies current in neu-
rological literature ;) Jour. Comp. Neurology, VIL.,
162-168, December, 1897.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 225.
are stumbling-blocks to the student and an almost
perfect hindrance to popular knowledge of the brain ;
no doubt this pleases the ghosts of the old anatom-
ical fathers, and is equally agreeable to many of the
present day, both in and out of the profession, with
whom Latin is a synonym for learning, and ponder-
osity of words for profundity of wisdom.”’
2. My actual efforts toward the simplifica-
tion of the nomenclature of the brain com-
menced in 1880, in the preparation of a
paper read before the American Association
for the Advancement of Science on the 28th
of August. The paper was never written
out in full, and apparently no abstract was
furnished for publication in the Proceedings.
Somewhat inadequate and erroneous re-
ports were printed in the Boston Daily Ad-
vertiser of August 30th, and in the New
York Medical Record of September 18th. But
here is a duplicate of the abstract furnished
in advance to the Secretary of the Associa-
tion, and I venture to read it as a contribu-
tion to the history of the subject now before
us:
‘PARTIAL REVISION OF THE NOMENCLATURE OF
THE BRAIN.
‘A. Introductory: The progress of anatomy is im-
peded by the defects of nomenclature. These defects
have been admitted by several anatomists, and a few
have endeavored to remedy them. As stated by Pye-
Smith, ‘the nomenclature of the brain stands morein
need of revision than that of any other part.’
‘©B. Nature of the Defects: (1) General. In com-
mon with that of the rest of the body, the nomencla-
ture of the brain lacks precision as to the position
and direction of parts. (2) In particular the number
of synonyms is very large. Most writers employ some
names which are vernacular or merely descriptive.
Most technical names are compound ; many of the
single ones are inconveniently long, and some of them
are indecent.
“CG. Special Obstacles to a Reform: (1) The difficulty
of ascertaining the priority of terms. (2) The ten-
dency of each nation to adopt purely vernacular
terms which have been proposed or incidentally em-
ployed by eminent anatomists of that nation.
“TD. Principles Forming the Basis of this Revision :
(1) Technical terms are the tools of thought, and
the best workman uses the best tools. (2) Terms of
classical origin are to be preferred. (3) Priority of
APRIL 21, 1899. ]
employment is to be regarded, but should not over-
bear all other considerations. (4) Of two terms
equally acceptable in other respects, to select the
shorter. (5) Preference for names of general appli-
cation over those which have an exclusive application
to man or the other primates. (6) To convert some
compound terms into simple ones, either by dropping
unessential words or by the substitution of prefixes
for adjectives. (7) For terms of position, to discard
all which refer to the horizon or to the natural atti-
tude of man, and to adopt those which refer to the
longitudinal axis of the vertebrate body. (8) For
terms of relative position and direction, to employ
those used for position with the termination ad.
““E. The Paper Will Indicate: (1) The terms pro-
posed and their abbreviations. (2) The principal
synonyms. (3) The originators of the terms and
synonyms and the dates of their first employment
so far as ascertained. (4) The terms which should be
wholly discarded. (5) The new terms for new parts,
the new terms for parts already known, the new
forms of old terms. (6) The subordination of parts
to wholes by differences in the kinds of type.”’
There were present Harrison Allen, Simon
H. Gage, Charles 8. Minot and probably
other members of this Association ; the sur-
vivors will recall that on cloth sheets were
written in parallel columns certain names in
common use, together with those which were
proposed to replace them. Amongst these
were pons for ‘pons Varolii;’ insula for ‘in-
sula Reillii ;’ thalamus for ‘thalamus opti-
cus ;’ callosum and striatum for ‘ corpus eal-
losum’ and ‘corpus striatum ;’ precommis-
sura for ‘commissura anterior ;’ myelon for
‘medulla spinalis,’ and cornu dorsale, for
‘cornu posterius.’ This paper constituted
the proton (the primordium, or ‘ Anlage,’ if
you prefer) of my own subsequent contribu-
tions, and likewise, so far as I knew at the
time, of the simplified nomenclature in
America.
Proud as I am of these early propositions,
and glad as I should be if they and their
subsequent elaborations had been at once
unprecedented and sufficient, nevertheless
truth, justice and the peculiar conditions
now confronting us alike impel me upon
this occasion to insist even more distinctly
SCIENCE.
Ok
Or
than hitherto upon the extent to which the
ideas and even the specific terms had been
anticipated by four other anatomists in this
country and in England.
Already in the spring of 1880, although
quite unknown to me, there had been pub-
lished a paper by E. C. Spitzka, ‘The
Central Tubular Gray’ (Journal of Nervous
and Mental Disease, April, 1880), containing
(p. 75, note) the following pregnant para-
graph:
“Tt would add much to the clearness of our ter-
minology, in my opinion, if the adjectives anterior
‘and posterior were to be discarded. Physiologists
and anatomists are so often forced to deal with the
nerve axes of lower animals, in whom what is with
man the anterior root becomes inferior, and what is
in the former posterior becomes superior, that they
have either been confused themselves or have written
confusedly, or finally have, to avoid all misunder-
standing, utilized the terms applicable to man alone
also for quadrupeds. The nervous axis, however, oc-
cupies one definite position, which should determine
the topographical designations. What in man is the
anterior, and in quadrupeds the inferior, root or cornu
is always ventral; while what in the former is poste-
rior, and the latter superior, is always dorsal. The
present treatise is not the proper place for renovating
nomenclature, but I have thought it well to call at-
tention to the matter in passing, and in anticipation of
a work on comparative neural morphology which I have
in preparation.’’ ,
The concluding words are italicized by
me in order that there may be the more
fully appreciated the generosity, indeed
self-abnegation, exhibited in Dr. Spitzka’s
commentary* upon my longer paper} of the
following year :
“Tt is with mingled pleasure and profit that I
have read the very suggestive paper on cerebral no-
menclature contributed to your last issues by Profes-
sor Wilder. Some of the suggestions which he has
made have been latent in my own mind for years,
* Letter on nomenclature, SCIENCE, April 9, 1881.
Also in Jour. Nerv. and Mental Dis., July, 1881, 661—
662. ;
{+A partial revision of anatomical nomenclature,
with especial reference to that of the brain, SCIENCE,
II., 1881, pp. 122-126, 133-138, March. Also Jour.
Nerv. and Mental. Dis., July, 1881, 652-661.
572
but I have lacked the courage [time ?] to bring them
before my colleagues. Now that he has broken
ground, those who prefer a rational nomenclature to
one which, like the present reigning one, is based
upon erroneous principles, or rather on no principles
at all, will be rejoiced at the precedent thus set for
innovations. * * * He who has himself been com-
pelled to labor under the curse of the old system, the
beneath, below, under, in front of, inside, external, be-
tween, etc., will look upon. the simple ventral, dorsal,
lateral, mesal, cephalic, proximal, caudal, distal, ete.’
as so many boons. I have no hesitation in saying
that the labor of the anatomical student will be di-
minished fully one-half when this nomenclature shall
have been definitely adopted. * * * In proceeding
to comment on some of the terms proposed by Pro-
fessor Wilder, I wish it to be distinctly understood
that I do so merely tentatively and to promote dis-
cussion ; in so doing I feel certain that I am carrying
out that writer’s wishes. It is but just to state that
the majority of the terms cannot be discussed ; they
are perfection and simplicity combined.’’
Had Dr. Spitzka completed his proposed
work he would doubtless have called atten-
tion to our three British predecessors, John
Barclay, Richard Owen and P. H. Pye-
Smith.
The first, as long ago as 1803, in ‘A New
Anatomical Nomenclature,’ proposed the un-
ambiguous descriptive terms, dorsal, lateral?
proximal, with their adverbial forms, dorsad,
laterad and prowimad, and thus laid the
foundation for an intrinsic toponymy.
In 1846 Owen published (‘ Report on the
Vertebrate Skeleton,’ p. 171) what I have
elsewhere (‘ Neural Terms,’ § 51) called the
‘immortal paragraph,’ wherein the various
phrases for the spinal portion of the central
nervous system were replaced by the single
word, myelon. Twenty years later he ut-
tered (‘ Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ I., 294) a
declaration which some of us are disposed
to regard as an inspired prophecy :
‘“ Whoever will carry out the application of neat
substantive names to the homologous parts of the en-
cephalon will perform a good work in true anatomy.’’
In the third volume of the same work (1868, p. 136)
is a list of the cerebral fissures designated, in most
cases, by adjectives of asingle word each, e. g., sub-
frontal.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 225
The paper of Pye-Smith (fortunately
still spared to us) was entitled ‘Suggestions
on Some Points of Anatomical Nomencla-
ture,’ and appeared in 1877 (Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology, XII., 154-175, Oc-
tober, 1877). After enunciating certain
sound general prnciples, he declared that
‘the nomenclature of the brain stands more
in need of revision than that of any other
part,’ and made several specific suggestions
some of which have been adopted by the
three American Associations and the Ana-
tomische Gesellschaft :
“The term optic thalamus is a misleading and cum-
brous abbreviation of the proper name thalamus ner-
vorum opticorum, and the name thalamus, without
qualification, is at once distinctive, convenient, and
free from a false suggestion as to the function of the
part. * * * Of all the synonyms of the Hippocampus
minor (Ergot of Morand, eminentia unciformis, collicu-
lus, unguis, calcar avis) the last is the most distinc-
tive, and brings it at once into relation with the cal-
carine fissure. The Hippocampus major may then drop
the adjective, as well as its synonym of cornu am-
The pineal and pituitary bodies are more con-
veniently called conariuwm and hypophysis. * * * The
word Pons ( Varolii) might well be restricted to the
great transverse commissure of the cerebellum. * * *
Insula is a far more distinctive name than any pro-
posed to replace it.’’ Pye-Smith also prefers vagus to
‘ pneumogastricus.’ (p. 162).
Those who have done me the honor to read
any one of my longer papers on this subject
will recall my repeated acknowledgments of
indebtedness to these three English anato-
mists. Not to mention earlier publications,
in 1889, in the article ‘ Anatomical Termi-
nology’ (‘Reference Handbook of the
Medical Sciences,’ VIII. , 520-522), Profes-
sor Gage and I collected from all sources
accessible to us ‘ Aphorisms respecting No-
menclature;’ the most prolific sources were
the three just named. At the third meet-
ing of this Association, in Boston, December,
1890, I read a paper the title of which was
“Owen’s Nomenclature of the Brain,’ and
which included this paragraph :
‘Tn none of the above-designated publications or
in those of other anatomists does it now seem to the
monis.
APRIL 21, 1899.]
writer that there has been adequate recognition of the
terminological precepts and examples that occur in
the works of Professor Richard Owen, and the writer
takes this opportunity to express his constantly in-
creasing sense of obligation in this regard ; had space
permitted he would gladly have increased the num-
ber and length of the selections from Professor
Owen’s writings which are embraced among the
‘ Aphorisms respecting Nomenclature’ on pp. 520-522
of the article ‘ Anatomical Terminology.’ ”’
In this connection may appropriately be
mentioned two later but highly significant
British contributions toward a simplified
and international system of nomenclature.
1. The Latin names for the encephalic
seginents.—In the seventh edition of Quain’s
‘Anatomy’, edited by William Sharpey, Al-
len Thompson and John Cleland, in Vol.
II., dated 1867, the five ‘fundamental parts’
{corresponding to what I have called ‘defini-
tive segments’) are named prosencephalon,
diencephalon, mesencephalon, epencephalon, and
metencephalon; and in a foot-note these
terms are declared to be ‘‘adopted as appli-
cable to the principal secondary divisions
of the primordial medullary tube, and as
corresponding to the commonly received
names of the German embryologists, viz.,
Vorderhirn, Zwischenhirn, Mittelhirn, Hinter-
hirn, and Nachhirn ; or their less-used Eng-
lish translations, viz., forebrain, interbrain,
midbrain, hindbrain, and afterbrain.’’
Notwithstanding several public requests
for information as to the source of the Latin
segmental names, the historic facts recorded
in the above extract were ascertained by me
only within the past week; I prefer to be-
lieve that they were unknown to the No-
menclatur Commission and to the Anatom-
ische Gesellschaft at the time of the selec-
tion and adoption of the Latin names for
the encephalic segments as given in the B.
N. A. Even, then, however, since the
same Latin terms were repeated in the sub-
sequent editions of Quain (1877-1882), I
am compelled to regard the transference of
metencephalon from the ultimate segment to
SCIENCE.
573
the penultimate, and its replacement by
myelencephalon, as constituting a violation of
scientific ethics that merits the severest rep-
robation. *
2. Mononymic designations of the en-
cephalic cavities.—In August, 1882, wholly
unaware of my prior suggestion to the same
effect (Screncr, March, 1881), the late T.
Jeffery Parker, professor in Otago Univer-
sity, New Zealand, proposed compounds of
the Greek zo:Aéa, with the prepositions, etc.,
already employed in the segmental names ;
e. g-, mesocele, prosocele, ete. Our mutual
gratification and encouragement at the ap-
proximate coincidence led to a cordial cor-
respondence that continued until his death.
Besides the publications enumerated in the
Bibliography of‘ Neural Terms,’ Parker
used celian compounds in two papers on the
Apteryx (1890 and 1892) and in the ‘Text-
book of Zoology’ by himself and Professor
Haswell (1897).
XVIII. That, even in its earliest and cru-
dest form, the ‘system’ sometimes called by my
name could fairly be characterized as ‘generally
repulsive’ and as having ‘not the slightest chance:
of general adoption.’ {—On this point it is
sufficient to introduce the following letter f
from Oliver Wendell Holmes, whose point
of view was at once that of the literary
critic and the experienced teacher of anat-
omy in a medical school :
‘* Boston, May 3, 1881.
‘DEAR Dr. WILDER: I have read carefully your
paper on Nomenclature. I entirely approve of it as
an attempt, an attempt which I hope will be partially
successful, for no such sweeping change is, I think,
ever adopted asa whole. But I am struck with the
* The intrinsic merits of various segmental names
have been discussed by me in ‘Neural Terms,’ etc.,
326-328, and in the Proceedings of this Association for
the ninth session, May, 1897, 28-29.
+ These phrases occur in the ‘Minority Report.?
{As a whole or in part this notable document has
been printed previously in SCIENCE, May 28, 1881 ; in
‘The Brain of the Cat,’ Amer. Philos. Soc., Proceedings,
XIX., p. 530, 1881; ‘Anatomical Technology,’ 1882,
p. 11; ‘Neural Terms’, p. 237.
574
reasonableness of the system of changes which you
propose, and the fitness of many of the special terms
you have suggested.
“The last thing an old teacher wants is, as you
know full well, a new set of terms for a familiar set
of objects. It is hard instructing ancient canine in-
dividuals in new devices. It is hard teaching old
professors new tricks. So my approbation of your
attempt is a sic vos non vobis case so far as I am con-
cerned.
‘What you have to do is to keep agitating the sub-
ject ; to go on training your students to the new terms,
some of which you or others will doubtless see reasons
for changing ; to improve as far as possible, fill up
blanks, perhaps get up asmall manual in which the
new terms shall be practically applied, and have faith
that sooner or later the best part of your innovations
will find their way into scientific use. The plan is
an excellent one ; it isa new garment which will fit
Science well, if that capricious and fantastic and old-
fashioned dressing lady can only be induced to try it
on.
‘* Always very truly yours,
‘“OLIVER WENDELL HoLMEs.”’
XIX. That, at the present stage of the sub-
ject, it is possible for any individual, however
impartial and well informed, to wholly avert the
possibility of misapprehension or even injustice, in
attempting to indicate the attitude of living anat-
omists toward the simplified nomenclature. —My
impartiality may perhaps be challenged,
but I am at least familiar with current lit-
erature in this respect; moreover, since
1880 I have preserved all letters in which
the matter is considered. Probably no one
agrees with me absolutely and in every re-
spect. On the other hand, even some frankly
avowed opponents now assent to what they
would have regarded as quite heretical a
few years ago.*
XX. That whatever misapprehension may ex-
ist in this country or abroad as to the degree in
which the terms or principles advocated by me are
indorsed by others can be justly ascribed to either
unfounded declarations or intimations on my part,
or to the omission of definite efforts to avert or
*In the verbal presentation of a paper at this
meeting Professor Dwight designated the costiferous
vertebra as thoracic rather than dorsal, with a consist-
ency both gratifying and encouraging.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 225.
remove such misapprehension.—The enumera-
tion of the conditions that led to the prepa-
ration of ‘ Neural Terms’ included (p. 217)
the following sentence: ‘I particularly de-
sire to free the committees, their individual
members, and the associations which they
represent, from responsibilities not yet as-
sumed by them.” More or less explicit and
emphatic affirmations to the same effect oc-
cur on pp. 278, 295, 299 and 301.*
XXI. That ‘ most scholars are repelled by’ my
‘ fantastic terms and defects of literary form.’—
This assertion occurs in the ‘review’ (No.
6), and presumably refers to the ‘system’
in its present or recent state. The position
taken is apparently impregnable, since for
every one who has declared his adhesion
there might be named a score who have said
nothing about it. Seriously, however, it is
not easy to discuss such a proposition with-
out adducing evidence that might fairly be
challenged by one side or the other. At
any rate, in the present connection I shall
omit my more or less intimate friends and
correspondents, living and dead ; Harrison
Allen, W. R. Birdsall, Oliver Wendell
Holmes, Joseph Leidy, and E. C. Seguin ;
William Browning, Joseph Collins, Elliott
Coues, H. H. Donaldson, F. H. Gerrish,
*At the meeting of the American Medical Associa-
tion in Philadelphia, June, 1897, the Section on Neu-
rology and Medical Jurisprudence adopted the follow-
ing resolution, recommended by the Committee on the
Address of the Chairman, W. J. Herdman :
“ Resolved, That the Section of Neurology and
Medical Jurisprudence endorse the neural terms
adopted by the American Neurological Association,
the Association of American Anatomists, and the
American Association for the Advancement of Science,
and so far as practical recommend their use in the
work of the section.
C. K. MILs,
C. H. HUGHEs,
HAROLD N. MoyvER.’’
Since the action above recorded was taken in June,
1897, it does not, of course, apply to the subsequent
adoptions by this Association at the tenth and eleventh
sessions ; Dec., 1897, and Dec., 1898.
APRIL 21, 1899. ]
George M. Gould, the brothers Herrick, G.
S. Huntington, C. K. Mills, W. J. Herd-
man, H. F. Osborn, C. E. Riggs, D. K.
Shute, Sorenson, Spitzka, O. S. Strong, W.
G. Tight, C. H. Turner, A. F. Witmer and
R. Ramsay Wright; also past or present
pupils or colleagues, T. E. Clark, P. A. Fish,
S. H. Gage, Mrs. Gage, G. 8. Hopkins, O. D.
Humpbrey, A. T. Kerr, B. F. Kingsbury,
W. C. Krauss, T. B. Stowell and B. B.
Stroud. I have now, I think, eliminated
all whose more or less complete adoption or
approval of my ‘system’ might be ascribed
in some degree to personal considerations.*
There has lately been afforded me, how-
ever, the desired opportunity of collating
the impressions of asomewhat homogeneous
group of scholars, quite unlikely to have
been influenced by a disinclination to antag-
onize my views. Through the courtesy of
*Curiously enough, in the single instance of the
apparent operation of personal influence, the indi-
vidual was of German descent and we had met
put once. Prior to our meeting in December,
1895, I prepared a typewritten list of the neural
terms that had been adopted earlier in the year
by the Anatomische Gesellschaft, and in parallel
columns added those preferred by me. Copies of
this list were sent to members of the Association ag
a basis for the anticipated discussion. In January
the late Dr. Carl Heitzmann, in acknowledging his
copy, accounted at the same time for his absence from
the meeting: ‘‘My intention was to urge the ac-
ceptance of the nomenclature adopted by the German
Anatomical Society, deficient as it is, simply to ob-
tain uniformity. * * * Personally I cannot vote
against you; hence I rather abstain from coming to
the meetings till this matter will be settled.’’
My response was as follows: ‘‘ Your letter affects
me deeply, and were my efforts toward the improve-
ment of anatomical nomenclature for my own sake or
for the present at all it would go far to deter me from
further persistence. But I never lose sight of the fact
that we of to-day, and even the honored workers of
the past, are few and insignificant as compared with
our successors, and I do not mean to be reproached by
them for failing to do what Ican. Do not refrain
from writing, publishing or voting against me accord-
ing to your convictions. It will come out right in
the end.”’
SCIENCE.
575
the author of a recent American text-book
on ‘The Nervous System and its Diseases,’
in which the simplified nomenclature is
fully and expressly employed, I have been
enabled to read all the reviews of it that
have thus far appeared. For the sake of
homogeneity I have excluded two non-med-
ical journals, the Revue Newrologique, which
says nothing on the subject of nomencla-
ture, and the Journal of Comparative Neurol-
ogy, which, upon the whole, is favorable.
This leaves thirty reviews of a book in-
tended for students; reviews written by
practitioners, some of them well-known ex-
perts and also teachers of neurology. As
such, upon general principles, any modifica-
tion of the current terminology must be more
or less unwelcome to them.
Upon the basis of their attitude toward
the simplified nomenclature the reviews fall
naturally into four groups, viz.: A, those
that ignore the subject (8, about 27 per
cent.) ; B, those that merely mention it (6,
20. per cent.) ; C, those that condemn the
introduction of the simplified terms more or
less decidedly (6, 20 per cent.) ; D, those
that commend it (10, 33 per cent.). With-
out going so far as to reverse the Scriptural
saying and claim that ‘he who is not against
us is with us,’ we may infer that the four-
teen reviewers in groups A and B were at
least not ‘repelled’ by the simplified terms;
on the contrary, many of them call atten-
tion to the clearness and accuracy of the
anatomic and embryologic sections of the
book where, of course, the terms are most
conspicuous.
In category C I have included one that
might, without réal unfairness, have been
left in category B; in the Colorado Medical
Journal, after characterizing the anatomic
portion of the work as ‘ especially excellent,’
Dr. Eskridge simply expresses the ‘ fear
that the new nomenclature will not meet
with general favor.’
The six antagonistic reviews are con-
576
tained in the Pacific Record of Medicine and
Surgery, the London Lancet, the Colorado
Medical Journal, the American Journal of In-
sanity, the New York Medical Record and the
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. I
quote from the last two as highly influential
and representative. The Record says:
“There is to be found an ample, clear and thor-
oughly scientific treatment of the anatomy of the
nervous system. * * * Weare not in thorough
sympathy with nomenclatural cataclysms, and feel
that frequently the old and familiar is clothed in new
terms for the sake of lending an air of novelty and
apparent gloss of ‘science.’ Still in the biological
sciences nomenclature forms one of the most impor-
tant landmarks of progress, especially when by it new
and wider conceptions are gained. We believe, how-
ever, that in the adoption of the Wilder terminology
the author has departed from a healthy historical
conservatism, but this is, perhaps, an academic mat-
ter after all.”’
The foregoing contains so many qualifi-
cations as to leave its purport somewhat in
doubt ; indeed, one may imagine its writer,
as he finished it, exclaiming, with the Con-
gressman, ‘ Where am I at?’
The remarks of Dr. B. Sachs in the Jour-
nal of Nervous and Mental Disease are more
explicit, and I should be glad to reproduce
them in full; on the present occasion ex-
tracts must suffice:
“‘Ttis to be feared that the student will not be
grateful for the introduction of the new cerebral ter-
minology of Wilder and Gage. While recognizing
the full merits of the new nomenclature and appre-
ciating the benefits conferred upon the comparative
anatomist and the comparative embryologist, the
truth is, the student of neurology does not need it.
* * * * Tt has been suggested that children should
begin the study of brain anatomy. The plan is a
good one with reference to this nomenclature ; the
only way to acquire it is to acquire it early in life,
when the cortical cells are ready for the reception of
any and all auditory impressions. We have no doubt
that in the course of time some of these names will
be adopted by general consent ; but it will be well
along in the next century before the system, as a
whole, will come into use.’’
Upon the whole I find myself less de-
pressed by the objections of Dr. Sachs than
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 225.
encouraged by his almost startling forecast.
He is young enough for me to venture the
prediction that ‘ well along in the next cen-
tury’ he will be surrounded by colleagues
and pupils who, according to my plan,*
commenced the practical study of the brain
in the primary school, and who, by the aid
of the simplified nomenclature, learned
twice as rapidly as ourselves.
Among the ten favorable reviews the
most elaborate is in the Journal of the Amer-
ican Medical Association (August 20, 1898).
That in the New York Medical Jowrnal (May
21, 1898) concludes thus:
“We are very glad that the author has
had the courage to introduce these terms,
believing, as we do, in their correctness
and in the need of their becoming familiar.”’
I refrain from reading the other reviewst
in Group D, mainly because the expressions
therein complimentary to myself are em-
barrassingly numerous and emphatic. In
view of this evidence those who contend
that ‘most scholars are repelled by my fan-
tastic terms and defects of literary form’
would seem called upon to either withdraw
that claim as a misapprehension or to mod-
ify materially the commonly accepted defi-
nition of medical and scientific scholarship.
XXII. That ‘barbarisms’ constitute an ob-
jectionable feature of my ‘system.’—Upon the
supposition that by barbarisms are here
meant hybrid words, this point was some-
what fully discussed in ‘ Neural Terms,’ p.
290. Since the criticism was offered by the
* The desirability and feasibility of the acquisition
of some real and accurate knowledge of the brain by
precollegiate scholars. Amer. Soc. Naturalists Records,
p. 31, 1896 ; ScrENCE, December 17, 1897.
+ The St. Lowis Medical and Surgical Journal ( April,
1898); (Portland, Oregon) Medical Sentinel (April,
1898); (Detroit) Medical Age (April 11, 1898); Can-
ada Lancct (May, 1898); Richmond (Va.) Journal of
Practice (May, 1898); Buffalo Medical Journal (June,
1898); University (of Pa.) Medical Magazine (Septem-
ber, 1898); North Carolina Medical Journal (Septem-
ber, 1898).
APRIL 21, 1899.]
chairman of the Nomenclatur Commission,
Professor Kolliker, it might naturally be
inferred that the list of terms adopted by
that body is free from hybrid words. Yet
not only does the B. N. A. contain several
such, but certain of them are less eupho-
nious than most of those for which I am
responsible. Comparison is invited between
the Greco-Latin combinations in the two
following groups, the first from my list, the
second from the B. N. A.; in each case the
Greek element is printed in italics: Meta-
tela, diatela, paratela, metaplexus, diaplexus,
paraplexus, ectocinerea, entocinerea, hemice-
rebrum, hemzseptum ; epidurale, mesovaricus,
parumbilicales, parolfactorius, suprachoriot-
dea,* pterygopalatinus, pterygomandibularis,
phrenicocostalis, sphenopalatinum, sphenodc-
cipitalis, occipitomastoidea, squamosomas-
toidea. ;
XXIII. That progress toward the right so-
lution of the questions involved is really facili-
tated by general denunciations of a given system
or its advocates.—The attitude of some may
be likened to that of the child in the lines :
“*T do not love thee, Dr. Fell,
The reason why I cannot tell,
But this alone I know full well,
I do not love thee, Dr. Fell.”
History will record whether such con-
servatives shall rank with heroic defenders
of law and order, or be rated among the
Canutes of science, their utterances, in re-
spect to nomenclature, remembered mainly
as ‘things one would rather have left un-
said.’
History will likewise record whether
some others, including, of course, the fra-
mers of the ‘ Majority Report,’ shall be meta-
phorically ‘hanged, drawn and quartered’
*In Table IV., p. 290 of ‘Neural Terms’ (likewise
in Biological Lectures, p. 158) suprachorioidea was
printed without the first (and, as it seems to me,
superfluous) 7; also, most regrettably, there was in-
cluded in the list perichorioideale, a wholly Greek
combination.
SCIENCE, 577
as rebels, or, notwithstanding errors of
judgment, credited with leaving the path-
way of future students of anatomy smoother
than they found it themselves.
XXIV. That the English-speaking anatomists
who have been laboring long for the simplification
of nomenclature are called wpon to submit in-
definitely to animadversions based wpon inertia,
lack of information, misapprehension, or undue
deference to the adverse pronunciamentos of scien-
tific potentates abroad.—Speaking for myself
alone, the spirit in which I prefer to meet
hostile criticism is fairly exemplified in my
reply (NV. Y. Medical Record, Oct. 2, 1886,
389-390) to an article in a leading medical
journal containing an egregious and inex-
cusable misstatement that might readily
have led uninformed readers to question the
soundness of allmy proposals. That article,
however, although upon the editorial page,
was evidently prepared in haste. But such
extenuation will scarcely be urged in the
case of the publication numbered 6 in the
list in the note on p. 566. This is a review
of an article (no. 5), and to avoid confu-
sion I shall speak of the ‘article’ and its
‘author,’ of the ‘review’ and the ‘re-
viewer.’
The review contains this passage:
‘Some of the peculiarities of the Wilder
system are then briefly discussed [in the
article], attention being called to its disre-
gard of the ordinary principles of language
formation as exemplified by Ist. The muti-
lation of words as by using * * * hippo-
camp * for hippocampus major.”’
*JIn the original this is ‘chippocamp’. The re-
viewer promptly assured me that the mistake was the
printer’s and that it would be ‘corrected wherever
possible’. I assume that the copies of SCIENCE sent by
him to others were emended like that received by
me. But, so far as Iam aware, no public correction
has been made. Under some circumstances this might
be regarded as superfluous. But it must be borne in
mind that unjustifiable verbifaction constituted the
very substance of the indictment; hence the situation
was as if John Doe accused Richard Roe publicly of
578 SCIENCE,
It may be doubted whether scientific
literature can furnish a single sentence of
equal length containing so many erroneous *
statements and implications. For clear dis-
crimination the several points shall be put
in the form of questions:
1. In the article purporting to be the
source of the criticism quoted is there men-
tioned either the word hippocamp or any
other word representing a comparable ety-
mologic category ?
In that article, beyond the reproduction
of reports including the words hippocampus
and hippocampus major, the single reference
is as follows (translated) :
‘‘Wilder holds that there is no longer ground for
retaining avis with calcar, a term which is to be used
in place of hippocampus minor. If this be granted,
then naturally the major of hippocampus major ean be
dropped. ‘The writer approves of these changes.’’
2. Is the reviewer himself on record as
preferring the apparently alternative term,
‘hippocampus major,’ to hippocampus ?
The reviewer, as a member of our Com-
mittee on Anatomical Nomenclature, signed
the first report, in 1889, which recom-
mended the replacement of ‘hippocampus
major’ by hippocampus. . Since this change
was also adopted in 1895 by the Anatom-
ische Gesellschaft, I have not supposed that
its abandonmert was embraced within the
proposition of the ‘ Minority Report’ that
the Association should ‘ reconsider its acts
from the beginning.’
3. Has the word hippocamp ever been used
or proposed by me in any other status than
passing counterfeit money; as if the nature of one of
Roe’s occupations at the time rendered it particularly
desirable that his character be unimpeached; as if
part of the evidence against him were a spurious coin
that had been dropped into his pocket accidentally by
an employee of Doe himself; and, finally, as if Doe
held adequate reparation to be made by confining the
admission of the mistake to the officers of the law and
his personal friends. Nevertheless, in order that the
issues before us may be kept free of all points upon
which there may beroom for diversity of opinion, this
mischance shall be hereafter ignored.
[N.S. Vou. IX.. No. 225.
that of a national, English form (Anglo-
paronym) of the international, Latin hip-
pocampus ?
The negative answer to this may be found
in various publications during the last
fifteen years. Among the fuller and more
accessible presentations are these passages
from ‘Neural Terms’ (pp. 231-232, 226):
‘* Each anatomist prefers to employ terms belonging
to his own language ; at the same time he prefers
that others should employ Latin terms with which he
is already familiar. Sea horse, Cheval marin and See-
pferd are synonyms (in the broader sense, 742), but
to either an Englishman, a Frenchman or a German,
two of them are foreign words and unacceptable.
Hippocampus is distinctly a Latin word, and the fre-
quent occurrence of such imparts a pedantic charac-
ter to either discourse or written page. Hippocamp, |
hippocampe, hippocampo, and Hippokamp are as dis-
tinetly national forms of the common international
antecedent (not to invoke the original Greek
inroxaproc), and are readily recognized by all, while
yet conforming to the ‘genius’ of each language.’’
4. Does the reduction of hippocampus to
hippocamp represent a group of cases so nu-
merous in even my complete list of neural
terms as to constitute a prominent feature
of what is called my ‘ system ?’
The list embraces about 440 terms; besides
hippocamp there are just two cases in which
I have been apparently the first to Angli-
cize Latin words by dropping the last sylla-
ble, the inflected ending; viz., myelon, myel,
and encephalon, encephal (and its com-
pounds).
5. If, finally, every one of the 440 Latin
terms happened to consist of a single word
ending in either a, ma, us, on, is, wm, or tum,
and if I had proposed that English-speak-
ing anatomists should customarily omit
those syllables, would that render the ‘ sys-
tem’ open to the charge of ‘mutilation of
words’ or ‘ disregard of the ordinary prin-
ciples of language formation ?’
For a negative answer to this question we
need not look beyond the limits of the re-
view itself, the language of which is pre-
(
ri)
APRIL 21, 1899.]
sumed to be sanctioned by the authoritative
journal in which it is printed. All of the
following English words occurring therein
differ from their Latin (or Latinized) ante-
cedents in the omission of the inflected
syllable: Form, system, barbarism, act,
public, defect, subject, natural, official, dis-
tinct, historic, artificial, peculiar, human. If
to these be added a few equally familiar, viz.,
arm, aqueduct, oviduct, tract, exit and stomach,
it will be conceded, I trust, that hippocamp
is in irreproachable etymologic company.
Indeed, we may now adopt the affirma-
tive attitude and declare that among all the
principles of language formation no one is
better established or more generally recog-
nized by scholars than that certain Latin
words may be Anglicized by the elision
of the ultima.*
I gladly forbear further direct and specific
comment upon the case of hippocamp, but its
more general aspects may be indicated in
the three following queries :
1. Does scientific comity (which is com-
parable in some respects with what is called
“senatorial courtesy ’) render it incumbent
upon the author of an article to refrain from
disavowing responsibility for unjust state-
ments wrongly attributed to him by a re-
viewer ?
2. Should editorial regard for the privi-
leges of writers tolerate the publication of
unsound linguistic allegations that bring
discredit upon American scholarship ?
3. Is it probable that further assaults
upon the simplified nomenclature from the
etymologic standpoint will redound to the
advancement of knowledge or the credit of
the assailants ?
* This is simply one of several well-known ways
of converting Latin words into English ; others are
enumerated in ‘ Anatomical Terminology ’ ( Reference
Handbook of the Medical Sciences, VIII., 527) ; for
all such processes of word-adoption the term pa-
ronymy (from tapwvuuia, the formation of one word
from another by inflection or slight change) was pro-
posed by me in 1885.
SCIENCE. 579
XXV. That, saving perhaps in the case of
such German anatomists as read English with
difficulty, the amount and nature of the informa-
tion contained in the article numbered 5 in the
note to p. 566 over and above what was already
accessible to them in my own publications com-
pensates for the misapprehensions likely to be oc-
easioned by it.
XXVI. That efforts toward the establishment
of an international nomenclature should be
abandoned because of the arrogance of individ-
uals or committees of particular nations,—As an
evidence of the existence of a real discour-
agement in this respect I quote from a re-
cent private letter from a well-known nat-
uralist :
“‘T am nota believer in international codperation,
since it generally means that one nation has it all its
own way.’’
If we read between the lines and recall
the epigram, ‘Man and woman are one, but
the man is the one,’ it may be imagined
that my pessimistic correspondent adum-
brates the doctrine, ‘As to Anatomic No-
menclature all nations are one—but Ger-
many is the one.’
XXVIII. That, in estimating the probability
of the soundness and eventual adoption of my
terminologic proposals, there should be taken into
account only on even mainly the terms that are
new or otherwise less acceptable, rather than those
respecting which my adoption antedates that of
the Anatomische Gesellschaft.—Let us grant,
for the sake of argument, that my aula,
porta, cimbia, mesocelia, metatela, metaporus
and the like are doomed to ‘innocuous
desuetude ;’ shall the folly of their vain in-
troduction outweigh the evidences of sane
prevision exhibited between’ the years of
1880 and 1895 in the deliberate and inde-
pendent choice, among abundant and per-
plexing synonyms, of, for example, the
following: Palliwm, gyrus, fissura, insula,
centralis (rather than Rolandi), collateralis,
calearina, paracentralis, praecuneus, cuneus,
hippocampus, fornix, thalamus, hypophysis, di-
580
encephalon, tegmentum, vermis, nodulus, floccu-
lus, pons, lemniscus, obex, oliva, clava and
vagus 2°
XXVIII. That the originality of the B. N.
A. (the Nomenclature adopted at Baselin 1895
by the Anatomische Ctesellschaft) is to be meas-
ured by the manifestation therein of non-ac-
quaintance with what had been proposed or ac-
complished by English-speaking anatomists.—To
be more explicit, I repeat here a paragraph
from ‘Neural Terms’ (§ 276) referring to
the action of American Committees between
1889 and 1892 :
“ Although the specific terms included in these
recommendations are few, they exemplify all the
commendable features of the German report. Indeed,
T fail to discover in the latter any general statement,
principle, rule or suggestion that had not already been
set forth with at least equal accuracy, clearness and
force in the writings of British and American anato-
mists prior to 1895.”’
XXIX. That-indijference or even hostility to
terminologic improvement, especially wpon the
part of the older generation, should be thought
either surprising or discouraging.—The first
point was conceded by me in 1881:
‘The trained anatomist shrinks from an unfamiliar
word as from an unworn boot; the trials of his own
pupilage are but vaguely’ remembered ; each day
there seems more to be done, and less time in which
to do it ; nor is it to be expected that he will be at-
tracted spontaneously toward the consideration that
his own personal convenience and preferences, and
even those of all his distinguished contemporaries,
should be held of little moment as compared with the
advantages which reform may insure to the vastly
more numerous anatomical workers of the future.”’
The second point is covered by the review
in the Philadelphia Polyclinic, which I have
included in Category B (xxi.):
“« While some of our friends across the Atlantic may
possibly consider this too radical a departure from
long-established customs, the author of the book be-
lieves that time and familiarity with the terms will
justify the course he has followed.’’
XXX. That action upon the general subject
should be indefinitely postponed.—This is the
hour and you are the men. Let not the
SCIENCE.
[N. 8. Vou. IX. No. 225.
‘ fools rush in, because the ‘angels’ of this
Association ‘fear to tread.’
XXXI. That it is incumbent upon this As-
sociation to decide immediately upon the names
for all parts of the body or even for all parts of
the central nervous system.—In a matter of
such moment precipitation is to be avoided.
XXXII. That there are contemplated by the
majority of the Committee, or by any member
thereof, with regard to the names of the other
parts of the body, changes comparable in num-
ber and extent with what have been proposed for
the central nervous system.*
XXXIII. That members of the Association
shouid content themselves with simply awaiting
the operation of the law of the survival of the
jittest.—Upon this point I quote again the
brothers Herrick. The conclusion of their
article, ‘Inquiries,’ etc., reads:
“The unification of our nomenclature is to be ac-
complished, if at all, by a process of survival of the
fittest among competing terms at the hands of our
working anatomists rather than by legislative enact-
ment. Yet the international discussions now in prog-
ress may do much to further this end.’’
I trust they will pardon me for attaching
the greater significance to the final conces-
sion. The subject before us is preéminently
one that concerns mind rather than mat-
ter; and its determination should be reached
not so much through the operation of
numbers or force as by the exercise of the
highest human qualities, deliberation, self-
restraint, and consideration for others.
XXXIV. That members of this Association
should defer to what is called ‘general usage.’—
Of all so-called leaders, the most incapable,
blundering, and dangerous is ‘ General
Usage’. He stands for thoughtless imita-
tion, the residuum of the ape in humanity;
for senseless and indecorous fashions, the
caprices of the demi-monde; for superstition
and hysteria, the attributes of the mob; for
*See, for example, the report submitted and
adopted at this session ; SCIENCE, March 3, 1899, p.
321; also, Phil. Med. Journal, Feb. 25th, and Jour.
Comp. Neurology, ix., No. 1.
APRIL 21, 1899. ]
slang, the language of the street hoodlum
and of his deliberate imitator, the college
‘sport’; and, finally, in science, for the
larger part of the current nomenclature of
the brain. As scholarly anatomists it is at
once our prerogative and our duty to scru-
tinize and reflect, and to deal with the
language of our science in the same spirit
and with the same discrimination that we
maintain in regard to the parts of the body
and the generalizations concerning them.
It may be that a crisis has been reached ;
that this is the turning-point. If defeat
awaits us, let there be no doubt as to my
attitude. Let me be regarded as the chief
offender, and let the group of terms advo-
cated by me be derided as ‘ Wilder’s Scien-
tific Volapuk.’ But if, rather, despite errors
and reverses, we are in the end to overcome
inertia and prejudice, then I trust that the
labors and sacrifices of so many English-
speaking anatomists for the simplification
of anatomic nomenclature may be recog-
nized in the designation: ‘The Anglo-
American System.’
Indeed, whatever be the fate of any par-
ticular set of terms, of this I am assured :
that system will ultimately prevail which
is approved and used by anatomists of the
English-speaking race—the composite, all-
absorbing, expanding, dominating race of
the future.
In no spirit of national self-glorification,
much less with any personal animosity, but
rather as a friendly injunction to prepare
for the inevitable, I shall not object if por-
tions of this address (for all of which, be it
understood, I alone am responsible) are in-
terpreted as a declaration of intellectual
independence ; as a claim for the recogni-
tion of what is done in England and Amer-
ica upon the basis of its intrinsic value ;
and as a protest against an indifference
which in some instances has seemed to lack
even that semblance of consideration which
at least was commonly maintained during
SCIENCE.
581
the manifestation, a generation ago, of what
an American scholar characterized as a
‘certain condescension observable among
foreigners.’
Let me conclude with a passage in more
cheerful vein:
‘“‘ When the first little wave of the rising
tide comes creeping up the shore the sun
derides her, and the dry sand drinks her,
and her frightened sisters pull her back-
ward, and yet again she escapes; and
still her expostulating sisters cling to her
skirts, and the rabble of waves behind
cry out against her boldness, and all the
depths of the ocean seem rising to drag her
down. And now the second rank of waves,
who would have died of shame at being the
first, have unwillingly passed the earlier
mark of the little wave that led them ; and
now you may float in your ship, for lo! the
tide is full. So it is with all systems of re-
form; though the pioneers be derided, the
great needs of humanity behind push on to
triumphant acquisition of the new order of
things.”’
Burt G. WILDER.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY.
THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS AT WOODS
HOLE DURING THE MONTH OF SEP-
TEMBER, 1898.
Wirs the month of September the record
of the breeding habits of the summer fauna
practically closes. Very few of the species
continue to breed into October. The auf-
trieb, though less rich in species, is at the
beginning of the month similar to that of
late August, but after the first week the
number of forms steadily decreases. It
consists for the most part of crustacean
larvee, the bulk of the material being brachy-
uran and eupagurid.
The temperature of the water was con-
stant at 72° F. for the first week. It then
fell steadily until the 25th, when it reached
65° F., and remained at this point until the
582
close of the month.
from 1.0208 to 1.0225.
Vertebrata. The fishes present no fea-
tures of special interest, as the summer
forms are still present, and no species is
breeding. The surface skimmings show a
few fry at intervals. On the 20th one or
two larval flatfish, in which the eyes had
just begun to migrate, were taken. About
the 25th three smooth dogfish, Galeus canis,
which had been confined in the ‘ Pool,’ were
killed, and twenty-seven embryos, 10 to
11 cm. long, were found in the oviducets.
Crustacea. None of the adult brachyura
examined were breeding. Zoéz were con-
spicuous in the auftrieb during the early
part of the month, and later various mega-
lops were abundant.
The zoéa of Callinectes hastatus was the
most abundant form, lasting about two
weeks. The megalops of this species was
plentiful at all times, particularly on the
18th. Specimens in the laboratory changed
to the beautifully-spotted ‘first adult’ on
September 27th, 29th, and October 3d. An-
other zoéa (which I have not identified) was
very abundant in the latter part of August
and the first week of September, disappearing
about the 11th. It resembles the zoéa of
Callinectes, but has a longer rostrum and
dorsal spine, and the exopodite of the
antenna is a straight blade as long as the
rostrum.
Among the Anomura, the larvee of Hippa
had disappeared on September 4th. Eupa-
gurid zoéze swarmed in August and the
first week in September, and were present
in decreasing numbers throughout the
month. The ‘glaucothoé-stage’ was abun-
dant at all times. Data relating to the
breeding of Eupagurus bernhardus and E.
pollicaris are scanty, but the few females of
the latter species which were examined
were without eggs. LH. annulipes was brought
in on the 4th, when a few were bearing eggs
in early stages of development. Females of
The density varied
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. IX. No. 225.
E. longicarpus with eggs were taken as late
as the 13th.
Among the Macroura, specimens of Vir-
bius zostericola had eggs in the later stages
on the llth. Larve and young adults,
ranging in length from 5 mm. to 10 or
15 mm., were present in the skim-
mings. Those of small size persisted
throughout the month. Palemonetes vul-
garis was not breeding, but the larve
(mostly the ‘fifth’ and ‘sixth’ stages of
Faxon) were occasionally taken, and to-
ward the end of the month several of the
‘first adult stage ’ were found. A specimen
of Crangon vulgaris with eggs was obtained
on the 19th. Heteromysis, dredged at Vine-
yard Haven on the 12th, and off Nobska
Point about a week later, had well-ad-
vanced eggs in the brood-pouch.
No adult Isopoda were examined, but
immature IJdotea robusta and I. irrorata,
ranging in length from 2 mm. upward,
frequently appeared in the skimmings.
Among the Amphipoda, a minute form,
apparently a species of Montagua, was very
common among the hydroids. On Septem-
ber 21st nearly all were carrying eggs in
various stages of development. Many Ca-
prelle obtained at the same time bore em-
bryos approaching maturity.
Squilla larvee (5 mm. long) appeared at
intervals throughout the month. Copepods
were abundant at all times. Diastylis was
taken in the evening and is apparently at-
tracted by any artificial light. On the 12th
a number of ‘Goose Barnacles’ had eggs
in all the later embryonic stages, and some
began to liberate nauplii about this date.
Mollusea. Sceycotypus continued to de-
posit its ‘ege-strings’ during the first two
weeks of the month. The breeding period of
Crepidula fornicata hadclosed, but onthe19th
I found a few specimens of Crepidula plana
with eggs in early cleavage stages. The
breeding period of Littorina littorea in Ameri-
can waters is not known. On the 20th great
APRIL 21, 1899. ]
numbers of young, about one millimeter in
diameter, were found on the rocks at Nobska
Point. During the latter part of August
and the early part of September, Veligers,
all apparently of one species, were conspicu-
ous in the surface skimmings ; these disap-
peared at about the time that the young
Tittorina were found.
Vermes. Mr. R. H. Johnson found Bugula
turrita liberating embryos, even after the
middle of the month.
Small specimens of Nereis limbata and cer-
tain allied forms occurred sparingly in the
auftrieb. _ On the evening of the 30th
Autolytus was still fairly abundant, and
many of the females were carrying eggs in
early stages of development. Rhyncobolus
and Diopatra were not breeding.
Celenterata. With the exception of one
or two minute forms, no Medusze were
found. Gonionemus was abundant in the
Eel Pond, and specimens brought into the
laboratory about the middle of the month
extruded eggs. The greater part of these
eggs did not reach the blastula, and none de-
veloped beyond this stage. Ctenophores
Mnemiopsis, very conspicuous in late August,
appeared inincreasing numbers during Sep-
tember. Obelia, with a few ripe gonangia,
was obtained on the.21st. Pennaria tiarella
formed the bulk of the abundant hydroid-
growths on the Fish Commission wharves,
although a Erudendiuwm, probably E. ramo-
sum, was plentiful. Here and there small
patches of Plumularia tenella were found.
East Chop and Edgartown were visited on
the 12th. At the former place there were
few colonies of Pennaria, but a great abun-
‘ dance of Eudendrium and Plumularia. At
Edgartown I did not find either Pennaria or
Eudendrium, but Plumularia occurred in
dense masses, which literally covered the
submerged woodwork of the wharves.
At Woods Hole the colonies of Plumularia
were small and sterile, while at the other
localities they were large and provided with
SCIENCE.
583
gonangia in the various stages of develop-
ment.
The Hudendrium and Pennaria bore me-
dusa-buds in all stages, and the latter
species remained in fruit as late as the 21st,
and perhaps later.
M. T. THompson.
ECONOMICS IN MANUFACTURES.
One of the most difficult problems in
practical economics, in the whole range of
modern industrial systems, is that of se-
curing a just and satisfactory method of
insuring fair exchange of labor for capital
or wages where large bodies of workmen
are to be employed. Cooperation and in-
numerable plans of‘ piece-work ’ and ‘profit-
sharing’ have been proposed, and none
have, in practice, been found either in the
abstract entirely equitable or wholly satis-
factory to the employer as securing sufficient
output from his always burdensome invest-
ments, profit on his sales, or a contented and
fair-minded relation between himself and
his employés; nor has any system been
found which fully satisfies the workman in
either extent of total compensation, oppor-
tunity to secure compensation proportioned
to his exertions and ability, or in abstract
equity in distribution of profits.
One of the most promising of the later
plans for a fair and honest and satisfactory
distribution of profits and a very effective
stimulus of the right spirit in both em-
ployer and employé was described, as a first
experiment, to the American Society of
Mechanical Engiueers, some years ago, by
Mr. F. A. Halsey, then or earlier manager
of the Canadian Rand Drill Co., at Sher-
brooke, Quebec, Canada. Mr. Halsey called
his plan ‘The Premium Plan of Paying for
Labor,’ and the title is indicative of its na-
ture.*
The author of this system now reports
the outcome of a considerable number of
* Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng’rs ; Vol. XII.
584
experiments in its employment, some by
important and famous manufacturers of
various mechanical devices, from the steam-
engine to the machine-tool. The following
abstract is based upon his account of these
later experiences, as given in the American
Machinist, with extended tables of data and
results.*
The plan has been in use eight years, and
has come into use, ina number of establish-
ments, sufficiently to give ample experience
in is workings. Curiously enough, how-
ever, although devised for the benefit of
the workmen, mainly and primarily, and
invariably promising them gain, it has as in-
variably been received with suspicion and
reluctance by them, and in at least one
case has been opposed by the trade-unions
of the place. In all but a single case, how-
ever, it has proved entirely successful in the
accomplishment of its purpose—the promo-
tion of the wage-earning power of the men
and of the dividend-paying power of the es-
tablishment ; sharing profits while stimula-
ting ambition and increasing output. It
gives the workman increased day’s wages ; it
gives the employer increased output from
his works, at reduced cost and increasing
profits, shared with those who make them
possible. The workman gains directly, day
by day; the employer not only gains, di-
rectly, by increased output from the same
number of men, but also indirectly and in
an exceedingly important degree, often,
through the increased earning power of his
capital, invested in plantand in funds.
Piece-work has not been wholly success-
ful, and in too many cases the selfishness
and greed of the employer, seeking to mo-
nopolize all the profit, compels the work-
man to accept a rate which makes his day’s
work no more profitable to him when work-
ing under high-pressure than when doing
an ordinary day’s work at fixed wages at
such a rate that he can sustain that amount
* March 9, 1899.
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 225.
of production indefinitely. Where properly
adopted and adjusted, it is a vast improve-
ment upon the older plan. Mr. Halsey’s
plan puts a premium upon increasing pro-
duction, in such manner that both employer
and employé are inevitably alike advan-
taged, and skill and industry and steady
work secure proportional reward. It in-
volves something of the principle of the
common bargain by which a salesman is
given a fixed and moderate salary plus a
stated percentage on sales. Under this new
plan the employer offers a workman a
premium, perhaps ten cents, for each hour
by which the production of a certain piece
is reduced below that of the observed nor-
mal average or below an assumed period of
time ; the day’s wage being that of the time
and place, as fixed by ordinary circum-
stances in the market, and without control,
usually, by either party to the bargain.
Suppose that pay to be three dollars a
day and an hour to be saved in a piece
ordinarily requiring just a day’s work for
its production. The proprietor gains the
hour and his thirty cents otherwise paid as
wages for the hour; he loses ten cents
premium ; he gains in rate of output of the
establishment, and so makes it possible to
secure larger returns through more effec-
tive use of all other capital than the ‘ wages
fund’ The workman gains his ten cents
and the privilege of adding an extra hour’s
work on a new ‘job.’ Thus both parties
gain. Had the premium been fifteen cents
the money-gain would have netted both
equal amounts, fifteen cents, per day. Thus,
as in Table I., we sometimes actually find
enormous gains possible through the in-
genuity of the workman in finding ways of
reducing time of production, as by increased
personal activity, or by securing deeper
cuts and higher speed of cutting, or less
time in putting the piece in place or in
replacing it by its successor, etc. The
writer has known of a case in which the
APRIL 21, 1899.]
cost of an important machine was reduced
by such expedients from $250 to about $75,
TABLE I.—OPERATION OF THE PREMIUM PLAN.
1 2 3 4 5
d| 8 é|#ut \agst
Sse pee sere scl ak sis S
8 se gure ae? SoS a
S| AA ooh al
Hours. liaise
10 $3.00 $0. $3.00 $0.30
9 2.70 -10 2.80 dll
8 2.40 -20 2.60 .320
uf 2.10 30 2.40 || 343,
6 1.80 -40 2.20 366
5 1.50 50 2.00 -40
Table II. is taken from the books of one
of this establishments actually employing
this ‘premium plan,’ and shows a gain of
more than one half, in this particular in-
stance, in time of production—in produc-
tivity, in fact—in the works, of just
double wages for the workman, per piece
produced, and a net increase in day’s wages
of eighteen per cent.; while the gain to the
company was very much greater through
its operation upon the interest and mainte-
nance accounts.
SCIENCE.
585
In another actual case where the parts
reported upon all belonged to a single con-
tract, and comprised the whole contract,
the gains of the workmen were 29 per cent.
on the day’s wages, 25 per cent. on the
piece, and the time of production of each
piece averaged a reduction of 63 per cent.
These figures are astonishing; but they
mark the enormous difference between the
productivity of a man working under the
old conditions of the day’s-work plan, with-
out incentive to either good work or to
doing his best in continuous labor, and the
premium-system, which is likely to give
ambition, energy and productiveness to the
most stolid. In this table Cases 41 to 44 are
records made where both parties doubted
the possibility of any gain at all One case
was made by an apprentice boy and the
standard was based on the work of an ex-
perienced workman. Another case gives
illustrations of successive gains with prac-
tice on successive pieces. All illustrate
large and equitably-shared gains over the
old system of day’s wages.
Everything depends, however, upon an
equitable basis of inauguration. It is bet-
TABLE II.—RESULTS OF APPLYING THE PREMIUM PLAN TO MISCELLANEOUS WORK.
RATIOS OF TOTALS.
Newtime 44
New wages per piece 50
New wages per day _ 118
Old time 100
Old wages per piece
100 Old wages perday. 100
RATIOS OF TOTALS WITH 46 OMITTED.
New time 76
New wages per piece 88
New wages perday _ 118
Old time 100
_ production of over 900 pieces by each method.
Old wages per piece 100 100
Note that while this table deals with small parts it also deals with large lots.
The ratios at the bottom compare the
pie Mais PREMIUM PLAN | ola | New | ola | New
f TORK i ai _| wages | Wages wages|wages
NATURE OF WORK. Operation wae per| Nowotl mime ney No. of |cost per|cost per per per
pes. in i pes. in| piece | piece ay ay
piece lot piece lot
Hours Hours
41. Long T-shaped piece cast-iron. -|Chuck, Drill & Ream 125 300 089 300 | $ .0275 | $ .0258 $2.82
42. Parker size cast-iron 6 remarraima 178 200 112 200 -0492 -0317 2.84
A) ic ane 8 | i fi ch 275 | 100 175 100 | 0605} .0533| 2.20| 3.06
44, Md corre CSth damibee x S KolaiecHamtoe 366 100 -183 100 0805 -0624 | 2.20) 3.41
45. Cast-iron wedge. Plane 3.5 2 8.25 4 805 “792 2.30 2.44
46. Box-shaped castii Oblique planing b 1 21. 1 14.00 6.25 2.50 2.98
47. Cast-iron wedge |Plane 8.75 2 2.62 4 825 727 2.20 | 2.76
48. Small pulleys, ca: Chuck Drill& Ream 18 100 : 3 100 045 0417 2.50 3.20
49. Spindle steel.. Grind 3 sizes 6_ 50 -36 50 144 09 2.40 2.50
50. Small head sto .|Mill 8 operations 45 50 +32 50 1237 -0925 | 2.75] 2.90
ALG AIK) acdpedeqoapeocodonen) — |b" 1 ceadaaadéage §5:424" | oc eee 28.239 |||\'slonise $16.1604| $8.1664 $24.45 |$28.91
Totalseomittin SAG he cle3. The ques-
tions in natural science refer to: (1) the geolog-
ical formations at Comblain au Pont, and
whether these are Devonian or Carboniferous ;
(2) the physical modifications produced in min-
erals by pressure ; (3) the organization and de-
velopment of the platoda ; (4) the presence of a
nucleus in the Sehizophyta; (5) the Devonian
flora of Belgium.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS.
ASSISTANTS IN PHYSIOLOGY IN HARVARD MED-
ICAL SCHOOL.
Two of the four positions offered by the Har-
vard Medical School to properly qualified men
desirious of training in physiological research
SCIENCE,
631
and in the management of large laboratory
classes in experimental physiology are not yet
filled for the next collegiate year. Holders of
these positions give more than half the day to
research. The remaining time is spent during
the first four months in learning laboratory
methods and during the last four months in di-
recting the laboratory work of the medical
students, two hundred of whom work from two
to three hours daily for sixteen weeks in ex-
perimental physiology. The fundamental ex-
periments in physiology done by two hundred
men working at one time present every variety
of results and impart a training in observation
and administration not to be acquired in other
ways.
Much too may be learned by association ;
from six to ten men are constantly engaged in
research in the laboratory of physiology, and
in the departments of anatomy, histology,
pathology, physiology and physiological chem-
istry, all of which have their laboratories in the
medical school building, are more than thirty
instructors. No charge of any kind is made,
either for the training in physiological research
and in teaching or for the use of animals and
other material. Four of the eight investiga-
tions already made by holders of these positions
have appeared in the American Journal of Physi
ology, and the others will be published shortly.
In addition to these opportunities the school
gives each assistant four hundred dollars for
superintending the class work in experimental
physiology three hours daily during sixteen
weeks.
Applications for these positions should be
made to Dr. H. P. Bowditch, Harvard Medical
School, 688 Boylston Street, Boston, Mass.
GENERAL,
‘ Tue following gifts and bequests to educa-
tional institutions have been made since our
last issue: $50,000 to Oberlin College for a
chemical laboratory ; $8,000 to Vassar College
by the will of Mrs. Luther Elthing for the
founding of a scholarship; $6,000 from Miss
Emily H. Bourne for the establishment of schol-
arships in Barnard College; $10,000 to the
Catholic University of Washington by the will
of Miss Mary Moran, and a conditional gift of
632
$30,000 to Yankton College, S. D., from D. K.
Pearson.
FOREIGN journals report that the late W. J.
Astrakoff has bequeathed to the University of
Moscow a sum ofa million roubles, on condition
that it shall be expended upon the foundation of
a ‘ Moscow University for Women,’ with three
faculties—mathematics, medicine and natural
science. He requires that it shall be placed
under the direct administration of the Ministry
of Public Education and the program corre-
spond exactly with that of the University for
men.
THE Mechanical Hall of the University of
West Virginia was destroyed by fire on March
4th. The building was insured for $28,000, and
the loss beyond this sum is not great. The
building will be immediately replaced.
THE present state of affairs in the Russian
universities in extremely serious. Not only
has the University at St. Petersburg been closed
for some time, but similar conditions exist at
Moscow, Kieff, Kharkoff, Odessa, Kasan,
Tomsk and Warsaw, and in most of the tech-
nical institutes. More than 30,000 young men
who will soon form an important part ofthe in-
tellectual class in Russia are affected. The
troubles began by a demonstration against the
Rector of the University of St. Petersburg,
which was followed by an encounter with the
police in which Cossack whips were used upon
the students. The Russian government ap-
pears to sympathize to a certain extent with the
students, and an investigation has been ordered.
Tue statement in the daily press to the effect
that Dr. J. L. Wortmann has been elected by
the Yale corporation professor of paleontology
and Curator of the Peabody Museum is in-
correct. It is, however, probable that the work
in paleontology will be in some way divided
between Professor C. E. Beecher, of Yale Uni-
versity, and Dr. J. L. Wortmann.
Mr. J. ArrHuR THOMPSON has been ap-
pointed professor of natural history in the Uni-
versity of Aberdeen in succession to the late
Professor Nicholson.
Dr. RopeRT Murr has been elected to the
vacant professorship of pathology in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. Dr. Muir was last year
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. EX. No. 226.
called from a lectureship at Edinburgh to the
professorship of pathology at St. Andrews. He
has published important contributions especially
on the pathology of the blood and of the bone-
marrow.
Mr. W. A. MurRiuy has been appointed As-
sistant Cryptogamic Botanist of the Cornell
University Experiment Station for one year,
during the absence, in Europe, of Dr. B. M.
Duggar. Mr. Murrill is a graduate of the
Washington and Lee University, and of the
Virginia Agricultural College. He entered
upon graduate study at Cornell University two
years ago, when he was appointed scholar in
botany. During the last year he held one of
the positions of graduate assistant in botany at
Cornell. He is still continuing graduate work.
EpGar BUCKINGHAM, associate in physics
and physical chemistry in Bryn Mawr College,
has resigned his position.
J. H. McCracken, assistant professor of
philosophy in New York University, has been
elected President of Westminster College.
TWENTY-SIX fellowships have been announced
in the University of Pennsylvania, of which the
following were given in the sciences: Reap-
pointments—Philosophy, H. B. Alexander ;
Mathematics, R. H. Vivian. New appoint-
ments—Mathematics and Astronomy, U. 8.
Hanna ; Physics, H. S. Conrad ; Chemistry, T.
M. Taylor, M. B. MacDonald ; Zoology, J. R.
Murlin, C. B. Thompson ; Pedagogy, I. B. Mc-
Neal.
Dr. Dante E, Rosa, of Turin, has been ap-
pointed associate professor of comparative
anatomy in the University at Sassari; Profes-
sor Bergen, of Munich, has been made professor
of geology and mineralogy in the School of Min-
ing at Klausthal. Dr. Solomon, docent in
mineralogy at the University of Heidelberg, has
been promoted to an assistant professorship. Dr.
W.-Wien, associate professor of physics at the .
Institute of Technology at Aix, has been called
to a full professorship at the University at
Giessen. Dr. Eggeling has qualified as docent
in comparative anatomy and embryology in
the University at Strassburg, and Dr. Zermelo
as docent in mathematics and theoretical phys-
ics in the University at Giessen.
SCIENCE
EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE: 8. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WoopwARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THuRsToN, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LE ContE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; HENRY F. OsBoRN, Paleontology ; W. K.
Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology; 8. H. ScupDER, Entomology; C. E. Brssry, N. L.
BRITTON, Botany; C. 8. Minot, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bowpitcu, Physiology;
J. S. Bryrnas, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRIN-
TON, J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, May 5, 1899.
CONTENTS:
“Observations of the Planet Mars:’ PROFESSOR G.
SCHIAPAREDUG feeccsccstsessssneseassorssacsssecuesestess 633
Dr, Alexander Graham Bell on the Development by
Selection of Supernumerary Mamme in Sheep.
(GWathPPlaten Va) ccc sadtsccssessestetcetensetnesess 637
Latest Voleanie Eruptions of the Pacific Coast: J.
SBDINTERAreccscccesscccscnscencnsscrevsececcteceersescse 639
The Prospective Place of the Solar Azimuth Tables
in the Problem of Accelerating Ocean Transit: G.
W. LITTLEHALES
Some New American Fossil Fishes: C. R. EASTMAN. 642
Rapidity of Sand-Plain Growth: M. L. FULLER.. 643
Proposed Survey of the Nile.......cccccscrcscsreosecvesene 644
Scientific Books :—
Evans on Birds: DR. J. A. ALLEN. Dav-
enport’s Experimental Morphology : PROFESSOR
T. H. MorGAN. Verworn’s General Physiology :
PROFESSOR D. T. MAcDouGAL. General........ 647
Scientifie Journals and Articles.......cccscceecececseceees 651
Societies and Academies :-—
The Philosophical Society of Washington: E. D.
PRESTON. The Entomological Society of Wash-
ington: DR. L. O. Howarp. The New York
Academy of Sciences ; Section of Astronomy and
Physics: DR. WM. S. Day. The New York
Section of the American Chemical Society: DR.
DURAND WiOODMAND ccseccsresstesiesdstssccsscsssee: 652
Discussion and Correspondence :—
Messrs. Lehmann and Hansen on Telepathy:
PROFESSOR WILLIAM JAMES. Two Correc-
tions: PROFESSOR BURT G. WILDER.............- 654
Notes on Physics :—
A New Theory of the Zeeman Effect ; Daylight-
Phosphorescence VAG STsC 9D sjeerseccaeseshsscecesss ss 655
Notes on Inorganic Chemistry: J. L. Hu...... eee 656
Current Notes on Meteorology :
Blue Hill Observatory Bulletins ; Snow Rollers ; A
Course in Meteorology at Ohio State University ;
Climate of the Congo Free State: R. DEC. WARD. 657
A New Marine Biological Laboratory: DR. HUGH
INL FSIO GY: Pe ooqscoadzoaadoce: LoonoossosqasoadoedBadaadadegas 658
Theory of the Steam Engine: PRoressor Rk. H.
ANTE HORE SIILONNT -haanpbudcabsdbadoooridcdaaccn sdodasoopdanndadag 659
The Philadelphia Exposition Of 1900.....1cscececeeeees 659
Scientific Notes and News.........scccsececececscavsescecers 660,
University and Educational News.........c:cecvereceeeee 664
‘ OBSERVATIONS OF THE PLANET MARS.’*
Tuis is the first volume of a series which
promises to be important for the physical
study of the planets. It contains a detailed
account of the observations made on the
planet Mars during an interval of ten
months (June, 1894—March, 1895) by Mr.
Percival Lowell and his two collaborators,
W. H. Pickering and A. E. Douglass. The
observatory, especially constructed near the
small town of Flagstaff, occupies a central
position in the great plateau of Arizona, at
an elevation of 7,250 feet above the level of
the sea, in latitude 35° 11’ and longitude
111° 40’ west of Greenwich. The choice of
that location has been justified by the
success attained. During the six months
from June to November, 1894, the planet
could be observed on nearly every day. On
two days out of three it was possible to re-
cord useful observations of difficult objects.
The atmospheric conditions prevailing dur-
ing that period (and often during the fol-
lowing winter as well) are sufficiently char-
acterized by the discovery of a great number
of details unknown to previous observers.
These observations suffice to give an idea of
the optical perfection of the instrument em-
ployed, which had an objective by Brashear,
* Annals of the Lowell Observatory. Vol. I.—Ob-
servations of the Planet Mars during the opposition
of 1894-95, made at Flagstaff, Arizona. Percival
Lowell, Director of the Observatory. Boston and
New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1898. Pp. xii+-
392. Large quarto. Plates, xxi.
634
of 18 inches aperture and 315} inches focal
length. The magnifying powers used were
commonly 440 and 617; an eye-piece of
power 820 served for the micrometric meas-
urements. Among the auxiliary instru-
ments we mention an Arago polariscope,
which has been employed, perhaps for the
first time, upon Mars by W. H. Pickering
at Flagstaff ; also a scale of very fine lines
of different sizes, which served for the com-
parison and estimation of the size and in-
tensity of the lines observed on the planet.
The very numerous and varied observa-
tions which form the contents of the pres-
ent volume have led to many results, the
most important of which have been an-
nounced by Mr. Lowell in his book ‘ Mars,’
published in 1895. That book contains
many discussions and theories of great in-
terest as to the physical constitution of the
planet and its atmosphere, its habitability,
and as to the most plausible manner of ex-
plaining the curious phenomena which have
been observed. The substance of those re-
searches and of those discussions has been
reproduced in the present volume. The
readers of ScrencE have been made familiar
with them by the critical analysis of them
given by Professor W. W. Campbell in
the number for August 21, 1896. I have,
therefore, not occupied myself with the
theoretical and hypothetical portions, and
I am able to confine myself to the observa-
tions. In view of their great variety, I
shall be obliged to limit myself to the con-
sideration of some of the more character-
istic points.
First, as to the polar spots and their
periodic variations, which are known to be
analogous to those of our polar snows.
The manner of development of the polar
caps and the phases of their increase are
entirely unknown, and it is probable that
they will always remain so; for during the
period of their increase they are for the
most part or wholly enveloped in the night
SCIENCE. [N. &.
Vou. IX. No. 227.
of the pole. But the process of their dis-
solution can be followed without much diffi-
culty when the inclination of the planet’s
equator with respect to our line of vision
approaches the maximum value possible,
which occurred in 1894. As for that, the
observers at Flagstaff have been able to
study the phenomena of the southern spot
from the beginning of June, when its di-
ameter was about 55°, up toits total (or
nearly total) destruction, which occurred
toward the end of October.
They were able to follow the changes of
its size and shape, its division into several
parts by the large black band, and to estab-
lish further the persistence of certain parts
isolated from the greater body. They also
observed the changes of color which took
place in the surrounding dark regions.
Plate II., page 46, gives the definitive re-
sults of that investigation, which, in com-
parison with similar work hitherto, suffi-
ciently shows the superiority of the means
with which Mars has been visually studied
at Flagstaff.
I may be permitted to express here
the conviction that it is by the exact and
persevering study of the polar spots of
Mars that we shall some day arrive ata
sound knowledge of the physical nature of
that planet, and the interpretation of its
singular phenomena. I shall even venture
to say thatif the southerncap is very instruc-
tive in that respect, the northern cap is still
more so. In fact, the latter develops toa
large extent over the regions of a yellow
color which it is customary to call conti-
nents. The obscure band which reaches to
its edge has a direct relation to the system
of canals and lakes surrounding it. In the
same measure as the white spot diminishes
under the influence of the solar rays, there
take place in the neighboring regions very
considerable changes, the connection of
which with the successive phases of the cap
is evident. The facts that I was able te
May 5, 1899.]
establish during the oppositions of 1886
and 1888 make me very strongly wish that
the northern cap could be studied by the
observers at Flagstaff with the same suc-
cess as the southern.
A considerable portion of the work is de-
voted to the phenomenon which is called,
according to usage, the canals of Mars, the
nature of which is still entirely obscure,
despite the theories, oftentimes pretty and
very ingenious, which they have occasioned.
Mr. Lowell has given a description of
these singular formations which seems to
me to conform to the truth in the great ma-
jority of cases. He has succeeded in show-
ing their character quite well in his draw-
ings. See plates I, IV, V, VI. If thereis
any defect here, it is that the differences of
the size and intensity of the different canals
are not indicated with sufficient clearness.
Ihave had occasion to gain some experi-
ence in that line of work, and I have no
hesitation in saying that this part of the
observations at Flagstaff seems to me to be
worthy of the greatest consideration. Be-
tween the south pole and the thirtieth par-
allel of north latitude (three-quarters of the
whole surface of the planet) previous ob-
servers have more or less clearly recognized
the existence of 70 or 80 canals. At the
Lowell Observatory that number has at one
stroke been increased to nearly 200, without
counting those whose existence could not be
satisfactorily verified. The record of ob-
servations of these objects made from June 6,
1894, to April 3, 1895, occupies no less than
85 pages. Frequently 20 or 30 canals could
be seen together. In less than an hour, on
the night of October 6th, 42 were made out
ona portion of the planet which did not
amount to a quarter of the whole surface.
All three observers took part in the work.
The newly discovered canals naturally be-
long to the most difficult class, and a certain
number of them have since been verified by
two European observers, Leo Brenner at
SCIENCE.
635
Lussinpiccolo and Cerulli at Teramo. I
greatly regret that Iam unable to add my
own name to those, but my eye no longer
has the power necessary for successfully
carrying out such difficult observations.
Several canals were observed in a state
of gemination, among others Ganges,
Nectar, Euphrates and Phison. On the
8th of October Mr. Douglass made the very
curious and remarkable observation of the
gemination of the Lacus Solis, which seemed
to be divided in two by a luminous band on
the extension of Nectar. JI made a similar
observation in 1890, but then the luminous
band was on the prolongation of Eosphoros.
The same thing is being observed by M.
Cerulli at Teramo during the current op-
position of 1899.
As a result of these numerous discoveries
and other subsequent ones, as well as future
ones, areography is coming to find itself in
a condition which may be called an em-
barrassment of riches. The network of
canals has become so complex that there
begins to be considerable difficulty in orient-
ing oneself. Imagine three or four hun-
dred of these lines traced all together over
a globe of but a few seconds of apparent
diameter! The identity of lines seen by
different observers at almost the same place
is very often doubtful. The difficulty of
seeing well and of precisely locating the
coordinates of the two extremities may
easily give rise to ambiguity and errors.
Add to this the frequent changes which the
lines undergo in their aspect and their de-
gree of visibility ; being now fine and sharp,
and again large and diffuse; sometimes
double, often entirely invisible—and one is
no longer astonished to see the same line,
observed by two different men in a slightly
different manner, regarded by them as two
distinct objects ; or, on the other hand, to
see two essentially different objects con-
founded as a single one. The _ better
remedy for avoiding these inconveniences
636
would be to give up the doubtful objects,
and to make as complete and exact a study
as possible upon those canals best known
and most easily observed, following with-
out interruption the variations of their
aspect and of their course, and basing de-
ductions upon precise measures. Precise
measures ! the thing most necessary and at
the same time the most difficult, which
ought to receive more attention from skilled
observers.
The proportion of new discoveries at
Flagstaff on the small dark spots called
lakes (Mr. Lowell’s oases) is relatively still
more considerable. Prior to the opposition
of 1894 ten to twelve of these formations
were known. Mr. Lowell gives a cata-
logue of more than forty of them. He
has shown that in most cases these oases
are arranged in regular series on the
routes of the longer canals. It is quite
probable that minute dark spots, more or
less readily visible, must exist at all points
of intersection of any two canals.
There is still another class of objects on
which the Flagstaff observers have insti-
tuted the first thorough research. These
are the black lines which furrow the darker
portions of the surface of Mars and are
ordinarily called the seas. Some lines of
that sort had been noticed before, and even
a form of gemination had been established
for two of them.* In general, previous
observers had believed that they saw here
lines of the greatest faintness rather than
true canals; in only a very few special
cases did they succeed in tracing the two
edges distinctly. At Flagstaff these lines
have been observed and reproduced with
much care by Mr. Douglass, who seems to
*See on my map of 1882 the two parallel lines
which include between them the large island called
Noachis ; one of these is named Prasodes on Cerulli’s
map. See also the two lines which flank the right
side of Syrtis Jiagna on my drawing of June 20, 1890,
published by Flammarion (Za Planéte Mars, p. 476).
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 227.
have a very sensitive and well-trained eye
for that sort of objects. From measures of
position angles he traced on two maps their
course in the dark regions of the planet and
their connection with the canals of the yel-
low region. See plates XII and XIII.
The third chapter of the volume is also
the work of Mr. Douglass, and deals with a
class of observations which are almost un-
known, except for some essays in this direc-
tion at Nice and at the Lick Observatory
in 1890 and 1892. I refer to the irregu-
larities which have been very often noticed
at the terminator, 7. e.,on the line which at
any instant separates the obscure from the
illuminated hemisphere. These are very
evident when the phase is considerable,
near the quadratures. In by far the greater
majority of cases these irregularities are
merely optical illusions caused by the dif-
ferent proportion of the oblique solar illu-
mination returned to us in the different
regions traversed by the terminator. But
there seem to be certain of these irregular-
ities which can only be explained by the
presence of elevations or depressions on the
surface of Mars. Still others seem to de-
pend upon the presence of very high clouds.
These investigations are of much interest,
not only from their possible bearing on the
topography and orography of Mars, but also
from the point of view of the physical his-
tory of the planet and its atmosphere.
The work is enriched by a large number
of drawings of Mars, some of which are
really excellent even from an artistic point
of view. See especially plates I and IV.
We have seen nothing as beautiful since
the drawings made by Mr. Green on his
expedition to Madeira in 1877. We can
recognize here not only the geometrical con-
figurations and the varieties of light and
shade, but we can also get some idea of the
magnificent coloration observed on the
planet.
The chart placed at the end of the vol--
SCIENCE. N. S., Vou. IX., PLATE V.
Fic. 4. Ewe born 1892, nipples increased by
selective breeding.
Fic. 1. Normal milk-bag of ewe showing two
nipples.
Fic. 5. Ewe born 1893, nipples increased by
selective breeding.
Fic. 2. One rudimentary extra nipple.—A Sport.
Fic. 3. Two rudimentary extra nipples. — A Fic. 6. Ewe born 1895, nipples of equal size in-
Sport. creased by selective breeding.
BELL ON THE DEVELOPMENT BY SELECTION OF SUPERNUMERARY MAMME IN SHEEP.
May 5, 1899.]
ume is a simple schematic representation,
I venture even to say a little too schematic:
Each object is designated by a number, and
the corresponding name is to be sought in
the special tables of regions, canals and
oases. This makes the use of the chart
troublesome and comparison with other
charts inconvenient. All the large and
small canals, of whatever degree of impor-
tance and visibility, are treated in a uniform
manner and are represented by lines of
equal intensity; and the same with the
oases, with the exception of the largest one
of all, called the Lake of the Sun. It is
not easy to recognize promptly on the chart
many of the objects which are ordinarily
seen at the first glance and which are fa-
mniliar to areographers. Such objects as
Indus, Oxus, Ganges, Cyclops, Trivium and
Elisium must be sought in an inextricable
maze of lines. We have here not a simple
index, but one which in use requires itself
an index.
I will close this incomplete description
of the work on Mars at Flagstaff with the
expression of a hope and a wish, namely,
that so important a publication shoula not
be limited to a single opposition. The
exact and complete knowledge of Martian
phenomena demands that the planet should
be examined under all possible inclinations
of its axis and during all seasons of its
year. This requires observations continued
at least through seven consecutive opposi-
tions. I say, ‘at least,’ for if the terrestrial
seasons are far from following the annual
period with mathematical precision, the
phenomena of Mars seem still more diver-
gent; and the existence of other periods,
longer and more complex, ought to be in-
cluded among the possibilities. Neverthe-
less, I think that if we could have before
us seven volumes similar to the one under
review, and corresponding to a complete
cycle of seven oppositions, many facts
would be revealed of which we are at pres-
SCIENCE. 637
ent ignorant, and many others of which we
have at present only dubious indications ;
especially would this be the case if the
seven volumes were the work of the same
observers. I therefore hope and wish, as
do many others, that Mr. Percival Lowell
may be in a position to continue the work
so happily begun ; that he will soon publish
the results of the observations during the
opposition of 1896-97, and that the same
means which he has employed for the study
of the southern hemisphere of Mars may be
applied to the still more important obser-
vation of the phenomena of the northern
hemisphere.*
G. ScHIAPARELLI.
MILAN, March 1, 1899.
ON THE DEVELOPMENT BY SELECTION OF
SUPERNUMERARY MAMM2 IN SHEEP.+
In the year 1890 Dr. Bell found that 50 %
of the lambs born upon his farm in Nova
Scotia were twins, and he made an exam-
ination of the mothers in order to ascertain
whether the twin-bearing ewes differed in
any noticeable degree from those which
produced single lambs.
Thirty-three per cent. of the twin-bearing
ewes were found to possess supernumerary
mamme ina more or less rudimentary con-
dition, whereas among the ewes having
single lambs only 22% possesssed the pecul-
iarity ; 43 % of the ewes having supernu-
merary mamme bore twin lambs, whereas
only 30% of the normally-nippled ewes
had twins.
Although the absolute numbers were far
too small to yield reliable percentages, they
afforded some ground for the idea that the
extra-nippled ewes were more fertile than
the others ; and Dr. Bell thought it would
be interesting to ascertain (1) whether by
- * Translated from the author’s MS. in French by
E. BOR.
ft Abstract of a paper read before the National
Academy of Sciences at Washington, D. C., April
19, 1899, by Alexander Graham Bell.
638
selective breeding the supernumerary mam-
me could be developed from their rudi-
mentary condition into real functional nip-
ples yielding milk, and (2) whether in this
ease the fertility of the ewes would be in-
creased.
In the autumn of 1890 his shepherd, Mr.
John McKillop, made an examination of
the mammz of 890 sheep belonging to
farmers in the island of Cape Breton, Nova
Scotia. In 811 cases, or 91%, the sheep
were normally nippled, having only two
nipples each. In 79 cases, or 9%, super-
numerary Mamme were present in a more
or less developed condition. Some of these
‘sheep had three nipples, others four, a few
five, and one ewe had six nipples. In 52
cases, or 6%, the extra nipples were so rudi-
mentary as to resemble pimples upon the
milk bag. In 27 cases, or 3%, the extra-
nipples, though much inferior in size to the
ordinary-nipples, seemed to be sufficiently
developed to be functional ; and most of
these sheep were purchased by Dr. Bell and
added to his flock.
Dr. Bell presented statistics showing the
results of ten years selective breeding for
supernumerary mamme. The following
tables show the number and percentage of
lambs born each year having 2, 3, 4,5 or
6 nipples, and the accompanying chart ex-
hibits the percentages in graphical form :
TABLE I.
Number of Lambs born each year from 1890 to
1899.
Years of | Total Number of Mammze
Birth Lambs 9 3 4 ae 6
1890 ; 71 59 4 Be epee
1891 78 38 10 30 —
1892 71 29 5 36 1 —
1893 67 15 HE 45 —
1894 22 4 3 15 — =
1895 26 —_— 1 24 il ae
1896 27 —_— _— 23 Bp tial
1897 34 — 1 ii 3 3
1898 37 —_— — 26 5 6
1899 41 — 1 26 6 8
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 227.
TABLE II.
Percentage of Lambs born each year from 1890 to
1899.
Number of Mammeze
Year of Total
Birth | Lambs 2 3 4 5 6
1890 | 100% | 83% 6% | 11% | —— | ——
1891 | 100 ‘* 49 ** TsO eteh ——
1892 | 100 ‘‘ ANUSe Ciceit eodies 1% | ——
1893 | 100 ‘‘ Pp Ogee | —— 9
1894.) 100/**)) 18 “* =) 14* | 68 ¢ Te
1895 | 100 ‘‘ —— AES iy QQieé 4%
1896 | 100 ‘‘ —— Shue ildate 4%
1897 | 100 ‘‘ — Shella Oh ae te (igh
18983-10053 ——— — | 70'S | 14** | 16%
1899 | 100 ‘‘ — SEO MIOS we iL oncen eo Ques
a H H + |
A+ Fr] Ere a ar an -
BE EEEEEEIREE H
a PREECE EE aa f a
f a Hr
CI ey 4a t
H- 1 n +} -
HEE PEREEEEEEE EEE EEEEEELEEEE A He H
Sretiaceestss haaseenaeeeie™t it
C cH EEL E9 st EEE :
A E apa E H HEH
Cel +
Graphical Chart showing the percentage of lambs
born each year from 1890 to 1899 having 2, 3, 4, 5 or
6 nipples (See Table II.).
In the autumn of 1893 the flock was cut
down very severely, and only those ewes
were retained which had supernumerary
mamme in a functional condition. This
accounts for the small number of lambs
born in 1894. Since that time no ewe
lambs have been retained excepting those
having extra nipples large enough to yield
milk.
No normally-nippled lambs (2-nippled)
have been born in the flock since 1894.
Three-nippled lambs are gradually disap-
May 5, 1899.]
pearing. Four-nippled lambs increased
from 11% in 1890 to 92% in 1895, since
which time the percentage has gradually
fallen, the four-nippled lambs being re-
placed by five and six-nippled lambs. The
first six-nippled lamb was born in 1896,
and the percentage has increased from 4%
in 1896 to 20% in 1899.
Dr. Bell claimed that his statistics showed
that he had produced by selection a breed
of sheep possessing supernumerary mamme
as a normal condition.
Figures are given on Plate V. show-
ing the normal milk-bag of a ewe, extra
nipples occurring as sports and the extra
nipples obtained by selective breeding.
LATEST VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OF THE PA-
CIFIC COAST.
Tue date of the last voleanic eruption on
the Pacific coast of the United States, ex-
clusive of Alaska, has long been a matter of
doubt, and will probably remain so for
many years to come. Speaking geologic-
ally, much of the material in the great vol-
eanic field of the Northwest, including a
large part of Oregon and Washington, with
portions of California, Idaho and Wyo-
ming, is of comparatively recent eruption.
The outbursts may have begun in the Eo-
cene, were most violent and extensive dur-
ing the Miocene and Pliocene, and, dimin-
ishing in vigor, extended, perhaps, up to the
borders of the historical period. In Alaska,
however, there have been eruptions from
Bogoslov, St. Augustin and other volcanoes
as late as 1883 and even later, and there
can be no question concerning the reliabil-
ity of the testimony. G. F. Becker gives a
list (U.S. G.S., 18th Ann. Rept., Part III.,
p. 14) of over forty volcanoes in Alaska
which have been reported active within his-
torical times.
The evidence, so far as the Pacific States
are concerned, is given chiefly by Professor
J.D. Whitney (The United States, 1889, p.
SCIENCE.
639
114), Major C. E. Dutton (Scrrncr, Vol.
VI., p. 46), Professor George Davidson
(Science, Vol. VI., p. 262), and Dr. H. A.
Harkness, (Proc. of the Cal. Acad. of Sci.,
Vol. V., p. 408). Although there are no
new facts at hand definitely fixing the date
of the last eruption in that region, there
has recently come to my attention some in-
formation having a bearing upon other evi-
dence.
Last summer Mr. Frederick V. Coville,
Botanist of the Department of Agriculture,
while studying the flora of Mt. St. Helens,
in Washington, found some _ interesting
fragments of charcoal, which he transmitted
to the Director of the U. 8. Geological Sur-
vey, with the following letter:
“*T collected two pieces of coniferous charcoal at
the point where the trail from Lake Merrill to Mt. St.
Helens crosses the Kalama River. Each came from a
short charred piece of tree trunk about two feet long
and a foot in diameter. My attention was first called
to them by Colonel J. J. Hawkins, of Portland. The
pieces of charcoal were caught with other fresh drift
material brought down the Calama from Mt. St
Helen’s in last spring’s flood. They were charred
all the way to the center as evenly and thoroughly as
the fragments sent you.
‘« The character of the charcoal, which need not be
described in detail here, is such as at first to suggest
that it was made in a very carefully prepared kiln.
There are, however, no charcoal pits in the region,
and the charcoal from forest fires has a very different
character. It is evident from the peculiarities of the
flora of Mt. St. Helens, and from its limited erosion,
that it is a mountain of very recent volcanic origin.
Among other phenomena presented by it was one
which, although it did not come under my own ob-
servation, is well substantiated by people of the re-
gion, and furnishes an explanation of the peculiar
sections of charred logs found at the crossing of the
Kalama. The phenomena described is the occurrence
of molds of tree trunks at various points in the lava
flows about the base of Mt. St. Helens. In some
places these molds occur in large numbers and lie in
the beds in either a horizontal or a vertical position.
They are sometimes thirty feet in length, and bear
the impress of the bark of the tree in the minutest de-
tails. Though I was unable to visit the places where
these tree molds occur, I talked with at least half a
dozen men who had seen these casts, but none of
640
them had seen charred wood or bark in the holes.
Presumably charcoal was formed only where the lava
flow so completely covered the trees as to shut out the
air, and the pieces found had been eroded by the
Kalama River from wholly submerged molds.”’
Mr. Coville’s conclusion as to the forma-
tion of the charcoal is probably correct.
Mr. F. H. Knowlton, who studied the struc-
ture of the charcoal, recognizes the wood as
Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga mucronata). At-
tention was called (Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol.
VIII., p. 226) several years ago to the tree
molds or tree wells by Captain P. Elliott.
Through Mr. J. H. West, of Woodland,
Washington, Mr. F. A. Walpole, one of Mr.
Coville’s assistants, secured a piece of the
basaltic lava from one of these tree molds
three feet in diameter. The piece of lava
shows the impressions of the bark in
great detail. In the hope of obtain-
ing some evidence concerning the age
of the lava flow associated with the tree
molds and charcoal I entered into corre-
spondence with Mr. West, who reports
charred logs at least forty yards up the
slope from the high-water mark of Kalama
River. One of the charred logs is twenty-
eight inches in diameter, and some of them
are partly woody, not having been com-
pletely converted into charcoal. Near the
River at one point the charred logs are found
under six feet of sand and gravel, on which
are now growing fir trees having a diameter
of three feet. Some of the charred logs,
therefore, appear to be at least 100 years old,
for a fir three feet in diameter would prob-
ably require at least that length of time to
attain its present size. If this be true it is
probable that some of the charred logs are
not the result of the last eruption of St.
Helens, but of an earlier one. There is
historical evidence furnished by Fremont
(Memoirs, p. 282) to the effect that Mt. St.
Helens and also Mt. Baker were in eruption
November 23, 1843. At that time a light
fall of ashes occurred at the Dalles, Oregon,
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 227.
on the Columbia, fifty miles from Mt. St.
Helens, which was then noted as being in a,
state of eruption. Rev. Mr. Brewer collected .
some of the ashes and gave them to General
Fremont, who visited the Dalles a year later.
Mt. Baker is thought to have been in erup-
tion at the same time, arid the natives re-
port that the fish in the Skagit River were
killed by its ashes. Mr. 8. F. Emmons gives:
(Jour. of the Am. Gleog. Soc., Vol. IX., p. 53)
the testimony of a former Hudson Bay
trader who saw an eruption of Mt. St.
Helens in the winter of 1841-2.
It is hoped that the question may be settled
sometime in the near future by a geological
survey of both Mt. St. Helens and Mt.
Baker. While it may not be possible to es-
tablish the date exactly, the geological re-
cords upon the mountain slope are likely to:
be such as to give the relative age with cer-
tainty. The case of the cinder cone, ten
miles northeast of Lassen Peak, California,
may be noted as an example of the results
of investigation in the field. Professor
Harkness was of the opinion that the erup-
tion occurred in January, 1850. The fresh-
ness of the material was so striking that
Major Dutton and I, who visited the region
in 1885, were at first of the same opinion,
but fuller investigation, an account of which
is published in the U. 8. Geological Survey
Bulletin No. 79, shows conclusively that.
the explosive eruption from the cinder cone
must have occurred long before the begin-
ning of the present century.
J.S. DILLER.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,
WASHINGTON, D. C., April 22, 1899.
THE PROSPECTIVE PLACE OF THE SOLAR
AZIMUTH TABLES IN THE PROBLEM
OF ACCELERATING OCEAN
TRANSIT.
Tr is not generally recognized that science,
employing the mathematician and the engi-
neer alike in the problem of shortening the
duration of ocean transit, has accomplished
May 5, 1899.]
as much by causing ships to go fewer miles
as by causing them to go faster.
This generation is familiar with the part
that has been played by steam propulsion
in increasing the speed of ships, but, besides
the increase in the rate of travel, modern
motive power, by making possible a depar-
ture from the old meteorological routes, has
had another and a greater effect in the
progress of the universal policy of civilized
nations to accelerate transit from place to
place to the utmost possible extent. When
the wind was the sole motor of ocean-going
vessels the best economy was realized by
passing through regions of favorable meteor-
ological conditions without reference to
the directness of the route. Thus, in sail-
ing from Europe to the United States, it
was customary to pass southward along
the eastern shores of the Atlantic to the
‘Cape Verde Islands, and thence westward
through the trade-wind region along the
route followed by Columbus on his first
voyage to the New World, and finally
northward into the region of prevailing
westerly winds and along the western
shores of the Atlantic to the point of desti-
nation. In making this voyage, ships trav-
ersed 4,400 miles in passing between ports
that were only 2,400 miles apart on the
surface of the earth.
Under steam, even if they go no faster,
ships may yet get farther toward the port
of destination in a given time because the
winds and currents may be disregarded,
and they may be navigated over the oceans
along great circles of the earth.
The increasing recognition among mari-
ners of the sound principle of conducting a
ship along the arc of the great circle joining
the points of departure and destination and
the expanding sense of the advantages to
be gained by a knowledge of this branch of
nautical science have greatly heightened
the value of methods which place the bene-
fits of the knowledge and use of the great-
SCIENCE.
641
circle track at the service of the mari-
ner without the labor of the calculations
which are necessary to find the series of
courses to be steered. Inasmuch as great-
circle courses alter continuously in proceed-
ing along the track, it becomes necessary to
know the latitude and longitude of the ship
in order to determine the course to be fol-
lowed. At the present day there are con-
venient means for determining at sea the
longitude as well as the latitude, but before
the early part of the present century these
means did not exist, and great-circle sail-
ing was impracticable. The general lack
of the application of the principles of the
great circle in later times, and even in the
present generation, seems to have resulted
not from the want of recognizing that the
shortest distance between any two places
on the earth’s surface is the distance along
the are of the great circle passing between
them, nor that the great-circle course is the
only true course and that the courses in
Mercator and parallel sailing are circuitous,
nor yet to a due appreciation of the advan-
tages to be gained by a knowledge of the
great-circle course as a means for obtaining
the most advantageous track in windward
sailing; but to the tedious operations which
have been necessary, and to the want of
concise methods for rendering these benefits
readily available.
The solution, every time the course must
be determined, of a spherical triangle in
which the two sides and the included angle
are given is a formidable operation for a
mariner as compared with the measure-
ment on a compass diagram of the direction
of the straight line representing the circuit-
ous path of the ship’s track on the Merca-
tor chart. At page 662 of the ninth edition
of a work on Practical Navigation by Cap-
tain Lecky, of the Royal Naval Reserve of
Great Britain, there is a section entitled
‘Great Circle Courses found from Bur-
wood’s Tables,’ which has doubtless been
642 SCIENCE.
read with profit by thousands, for it states
that “‘ to find the great-circle courses from
the azimuth tables you have only to regard
the latitude of the port bound to as declina-
tion, and the difference of longitude, turned
into time, as the hour-angle. The latitude
of the ship you take from the top of the page
as usual.’’ But the author goes on to remark
that, as Burwood’s solar azimuth tables ex-
tend only to twenty-three degrees of decli-
nation, this ready-made method is only ap-
plicable when the place of destination is
within the tropics.
It may be of value, therefore, to point out
that the solar-azimuth tables are universally
applicable for finding great-circle courses,
because all great circles pass into the trop-
ics, and, if the problem of finding the
courses is with reference to a great-circle
track between a point of departure and a
point of destination, both lying outside of
the tropics, it is only necessary to find a
point lying on the prolongation of the
great-circle are beyond the point of actual
destination and within the tropics, and treat
this point as the place of destination in
finding the courses.
The longitude of the selected point within
the tropics may be found without any cal-
culation by simply prolonging the straight
line representing the great circle upon a
gnomonic chart. By this combination of
the gnomonic chart and the azimuth tables
the courses upon a great circle track may
be determined with very great facility.
To illustrate, take the problem of finding
the initial course on a voyage by the great
circle route from Bergen, in latitude 60° N.
and longitude 5° E., to the Strait of Belle
Isle, in latitude 52° 1’ 2” N. and longitude
55° W. On a copy of a gnomonic chart,
such as Godfray’s, draw a straight line
between the geographical positions above
stated and extend it beyond the latter into
the tropics. It will be found to intersect
the 20th degree parallel of latitude in longi-
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 227.
tude 90° W., or 95° from the meridian of
the point of departure. Entering the azi-
muth table at latitude 60°, under declina-
tion 20°, and opposite hour-angle 95° or
6h. 20m., we find the required course to be
N. 75° -31' W.
G. W. LitTLEHALEs.
SOME NEW AMERICAN FOSSIL FISHES.*
Tue following new occurrences of fossil
fishes were reported: (1) A species of
Cladodus, scarcely distinguishable from C.
striatus Ag. in the Corniferous Limestone of
Ohio. (2) Thelodus-like scales from same
horizon. (3) A pair of naturally associated
pectoral spines of Macheracanthus from the
Hamilton, near Buffalo, N. Y. (4) A pty-
chopterygian pectoral fin from Naples Shale
of the same locality. (5) Two new species
of Diplodus from Upper Devonian near Chi-
cago, Ill. (6) Teeth of Phebodus from
Keokuk Limestone of Iowa and Permian
of Nebraska. (7) Largest known spine of
Stethacanthus (length over 35 cm.) from
Keokuk Group, Iowa. (8) A complete
fin, spines and shagreen scales of a
new and very large species of Acanthodes, a
genus not hitherto met with in the United
States, from Coal Measures of Mazon Creek,
Ill. (9) Pholidophorus americanus sp. nov.,
also belonging to a genus new to this coun-
try, founded on very perfect material dis-
covered by N. H. Darton, of the U.S.
Geological Survey, in the Jura of the Black
Hills, South Dakota.
Photographs of the new Jurassic fishes
were exhibited and their specific characters
summarized as follows: Gracefully fusi-
form, upwards of 15 em. long, the head
forming about one-fourth the total length
and slightly less than maximum depth of
trunk ; dorsal arising behind pelvic fins ;
scales not serrated, thin, smooth, nearly
rhomboidal, overlapping; flank series not
* Abstract of a paper read before the Boston So-
ciety of Natural History, March 15, 1899.
May 5, 1899.]
especially deepened. This places them
among the more primitive members of the
genus, and hence would seem to indicate a
Lower Jurassic horizon. ;
The distribution of American Devonian
fishes was discussed with reference to those
of other countries. During the Lower De-
vonian there was none, and in the Upper
scarcely any intermingling of United States
and Canadian vertebrate faunas, but those
of Canada and Great Britain belonged to a
distinct province. Corniferous fishes of
Ohio and New York are most nearly related
to those of the Middle Devonian of con-
tinental Europe, especially the Eifel, Bo-
hemia, etc. The Hamilton faunas of New
York and the Mississippian region, includ-
ing Manitoba, are the direct successors of
the Corniferous, but the Chemung of both
eastern and western regions (or its equiva-
lent) contains a remarkable mixture of in-
digenous types and intruders from all direc-
tions. Intercommunication between eastern
Canada and Great Britain, Spitzbergen,
etc., became general for the first time dur-
ing this period. The transition between
Devonian and Carboniferous faune is now
known to be more gradual than was for-
merly supposed.
The only natural basis of family classifi-
cation among Arthrodires was held to be
through comparison of the sutures of cranial
and dorsal shields, the differences in denti-
tion being of only secondary importance.
Degeneracy of the latter in Titanichthys, etc.,
is paralleled by that in certain toothless
whales (Mesoplodon,etc.). Cranial osteology
of Homosteus and Heterosteus compel their
removal from Coccosteide to form a separate
family called Homosteide. In this family
the so-called antero-dorso-lateral corre-
sponds to the like-named element in Di-
nichthys and Titanichthys plus the clavicular.
The latter plate functioned as a support for
the gills,and hence may be interpreted asa
modified branchiostegal apparatus, but in
SCIENCE.
643
no sense as a part of the shoulder-girdle.
There is no evidence that any of the Ar-
throdires. possessed pectoral fins. The ob-
vious resemblance of this group to Ostraco-
derms, with implied relationship, is lost
sight of through its removal by Woodward
to the Dipnoi, and there seems to be suf-
ficient evidence for regarding the Arthrodira
as a distinct sub-class, of equal rank with
Lung-fishes, Teleostomi, etc., as already
suggested by Dean.
Caries R. EASTMAN.
RAPIDITY OF SAND-PLAIN GROWTH.*
THE undisturbed character of the strati-
fied deposits making up the sand-plains,
taken in connection with the absence, or at
most, the very slight development of con-
structional back-sets, indicates, as was early
pointed out by Davis, a stationary ice
margin during the period of deposition. It
follows, thérefore, that their formation must
have been extremely rapid, and the natural
conclusion is that they represent the de-
posits of a single summer’s period of melt-
ing, an interval not over eight months in
length.
It occurred to me that a calculation based
upon the conditions now existing in the
large glaciers of Alaska might give some
indication as to the probability of such
estimates, or at least would be of interest in
this connection.
To make this calculation it is simply
necessary to divide the bulk of the sedi-
ments by the daily discharge of detritus by
the glacial stream which deposited them.
This involves factors which are usually very
difficult to determine, but at the sand-plain
near the railroad station at Barrington,
R. I., the conditions are almost ideally per-
fect, and admit of the determination with
considerable accuracy of both the bulk of
* Abstract of paper read before Boston Society of
Natural History, February 15, 1899.
644 SCIENCE,
the sediment and the size and velocity of
the stream transporting it. Owing to the
fact that observations as to the amounts of
the fine clay-like detritus of glacial streams
are more numerous and reliable than those
upon the coarser material, the bulk of the
contemporaneous clays was taken as a basis
of calculation, rather than the sand-plain
itself. In estimating the load of the glacial
stream, I have taken the maximum value
of 13 grams per liter, given by Reid for
the Muir Glacier (the highest value on
record ),as the one which, in all probability,
would most nearly correspond to the load
of a glacial stream during the closing stages
of the continental ice sheet.
At the time of the formation of the Bar-
rington clays the Jand stood at a level of at
least forty feet below that at present exist-
ing, and the deposition took place in an in-
closed bay, having the ice sheet as_ its
northern boundary, a ridge of till and
modified drift for its eastern boundary,
and an earlier sand-plain as its southern
boundary. On the west was a broad and
deep opening, connecting with Narragansett
Bay, and admitting of a complete com-
mingling of the salt and fresh waters. Into
this inclosed bay flowed a stream with a
width, as indicated by its esker, of 150 feet,
a depth of some 20 feet, and an average
velocity of not over 5 feet per second. On
the assumption that the amount of sedi-
ment was 13 grams per liter, the daily dis-
charge of clayey material would have been
some 526,500 tons per day.
Experiments recently conducted by Pro-
fessor W. O. Crosby in connection with
professional work for the Metropolitan
Water Board of Massachusetts, the results
of which he has kindly placed at my dis-
posal, indicate that material such as the
clay beds are essentially composed of, 7.e.,
quartz-flour, settles with great rapidity,
and it can be shown that practically the
entire amount of sediment brought in by
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 227.
the glacial stream must have been deposited
within the inclosed bay described.
The clays cover about a square mile in
area, have a maximum thickness of 60 feet,
and a total bulk of 95,300,000 tons. Divid-
ing this bulk by the daily discharge of sedi-
ment by the glacial stream (526,500 tons),
the time of deposition of the clays is indi-
cated to have been 181 days, or almost ex-
actly six months.
The Barrington deposits probably repre-
sent very nearly average conditions ; hence
a period of six months seems a fair estimate
of time for the formation of a simple sand-
plain of moderate size. In the case of large
plains, with areas of several or many square
miles, the period of deposition may be con-
sidered as extending over more than one
season of melting, there being in the mean-
time either no retreat of the ice margin ora
retreat so slight that the intervening space
was completely filled and the sand-plains
united into a single compound plain.
Myron L. FuLuer.
PROPOSED SURVEY OF THE NILE.*
THE Egyptian government has agreed to
undertake a survey of the Nile with the
object of determining the species of fishes
inhabiting its waters. It is due in the first
instance to the efforts and energetic action
of Dr. John Anderson, F.R.8., who has al-
ready done so much to enlarge our knowl-
edge of the fauna of Egypt that this impor-
tant project, to which so much scientific
interest is attached, has now taken definite
shape. A memorandum prepared by him,
setting forth his proposals for the survey and
the lines of his scheme for carrying it out,
received the approval of Lord Lister, Presi-
dent of the Royal Society ; Professor E. Ray
Lankester, Director of the Natural History
Departments of the British Museum; Dr. A.
Ginther, President of the Linnzean Society,
and Mr. P. L. Sclater, Secretary of the
*“From the London Times.
May 5, 1899.]
Zoological Society, and was then forwarded
by him to Lord Cromer, to be submitted to
the Egyptian government, with a strong
recommendation for its favorable consider-
ation from these eminent scientific men.
The Trustees of the British Museum further-
more gave the scheme their powerful and
influential support, and intimated their
willingness to assist in a practical manner
by undertaking to supply the necessary
collecting-boxes, with alcohol to fill them.
An essential feature of the scheme is that
the fishes collected are to be sent to London
to be studied and determined by Mr. Bou-
lenger, the ichthyologist on the staff of the
Museum, and the Trustees have, it is un-
derstood, agreed to give him every facility
for doing this, thus practically placing the
services of their officer at the disposal of
the Egyptian government for the purpose
for the three years which it is estimated will
be required to accomplish the survey.
Our knowledge of the fishes of the Nile
appears to be very imperfect. It may be
said to have taken its origin in 1750, when
Hasselquist described thirteen species found
in the Deltaic area or in its immediate prox-
imity. In 1847 sixty probably represented
the number of known species. In 1861-63
Petherick made, at Dr. Gunther’s request, a
collection of fishes from the Nile for the
British Museum. The specimens were ob-
tained at Cairo, Khartum and Gondokoro,
and were described by Dr. Giinther in an
appendix to Petherick’s ‘ Travels,’ published
in 1889. The collection contained eighteen
new additions to the fauna, and raised the
number of known species to eighty-two.
Since 1869 the fishes of the Nile have been
almost completely neglected. At present
about ninety species are known to inhabit
the river, but this number, considering the
vast extent of its waterway and the very
diverse physical conditions which charac-
terize many parts of its course, cannot be
considered as at all approaching finality.
SCIENCE.
645,
The collections hitherto made from the
Nile have principally been obtained from
below the First Cataract; indeed, Ruppell
and Petherick are the only two collectors
who had opportunities to investigate the
river above Assuan. The former distin-
guished traveler and naturalist largely col-
lected in lower Egypt, and not a few of
Petherick’s specimens were from the same
region. In Dr. Ginther’s account of this
collection only six species were distinctly
recorded as coming from Gondokoro, Khar-
tum and the White Nile, while thirteen,
besides the foregoing six, species were stated
to belong properly to the reach of the Nile
above the Sixth Cataract. Here it may be
observed that, while we possess a fragmen-
tary knowledge of the species from Khartum
southwards, the immense tract of the Nile
from the First to the Sixth Cataract re-
mains practically untouched.
Morever, as within the next few years a
change will be effected in the distribution
of the Nile waters by the construction of
the controlling powers now in course of
erection at Phile and Assiut, and as other
similar structures or dams are likely to fol-
low towards the south, all of which are cer-
tain ultimately to limit more or less the
range of certain species of fishes, it is much
to be desired that, before any of these tri-
umphs of the Department of Irrigation have
been completed, we should be placed in
possession of the main features and present
condition of the piscine flora of the great
reaches of the river.
The present time is also extremely oppor-
tune for the commencement of the proposed
investigation, since the authorities of the
Congo Free State have satisfactorily inau-
gurated a survey of theCongo. Mr. G. A.
Boulenger has been entrusted, with the
sanction of the Trustees of the British Mu-
seum, with the description of the fishes of
the Congo for the Congo Free State, and, as
his services will be at the disposal of the
646 SCIENCE.
Egyptian government for the Nile explora-
tion, the two surveys should mutually ben-
efit each other. The materials afforded by
the one cannot but throw light upon those
of the other, many of the species of the two
great rivers being closely allied.
As regards the scope and working of the
survey, it is suggested, as a preliminary
step, that a series of stations should be
established along the river, extending, at
intervals, from the Delta to Lado, in the
territory Ieased by the Egyptian govern-
ment to the Congo Free State, and as far to
the south of this as possible. Instructions
for collecting fishes, written in English and
Arabic, will be sent to some responsible
official in each of these localities, accom-
panied by a collecting box and alcohol, sup-
plied by the British Museum, while the ser-
vices of fishermen and others will be en-
listed in the work, a fair price being paid
to them for the fishes they collect.
Dr. Keatinge, the officer in charge of the
Museum of Natural History of the Medical
School of Cairo, has been entrusted with
the general supervision of the service of the
survey. He will see to the reception of the
collecting materials from the British Mu-
seum, to their distribution to the different
stations, to their reception when returned
filled with fishes, and to forwarding them
to London. The actual superintendence of
the working of the survey is to be under-
taken by an officer, who will be constantly
on the river at all seasons, visiting the dif-
ferent stations, inspecting the collections
formed, making sure that everything pos-
sible is being done to obtain fishes, and gen-
erally satisfying himself that the specimens
are properly preserved, and that they are
fairly representative. He will also par-
ticularly note the physical characters of the
river at each station, find out as much as
possible about the habits of the fishes, the
depth at which they are found, the general
character of the river bed, the seasons in
[N. S. Von. TX. No. 227.
which the fishes breed, and the nature of
their food. He will further be required to
satisfy himself that the native names have
been correctly recorded in Arabic and
rightly applied.
Mr. Leonard Loat has been appointed to
this responsible post of superintendent of
the survey, and on him will devolve the
task of seeing that the work is carried out
in a thoroughly efficient manner. He left
London a short time ago for Cairo, and has
already commenced operations on Lake
Menzaleh. During the first year it is pro-
posed to carry the investigation as far as
Wady Halfa; in the second year the river
will be worked between Wady Halfa and
Berber, and in the third year it is hoped to
continue the survey to Sobat, and, if con-
ditions are favorable, through the sudd and
rapids between Lado and Dufile, and, ulti-
mately, perhaps to carry the exploration of
the river to its origin in the Albert Nyanza.
In this connection it may be stated that the
assistance of the authorities of the Congo
Free State has been invited, and an assur-
ance of their hearty cooperation has, it is
understood, been received informally, leav-
ing no room for doubt that an official ex-
pression to the same effect will be shortly
forthcoming.
These are the lines on which the projected
survey of the Nile is to be conducted. It
is obvious that, apart from the mere knowl-
edge of how many species of fishes exist in
the river, great economic questions will
come to the front when their life-history is
studied. Also it is hoped that the survey
may help to elucidate many problems re-
lating to the fishes sculptured on the ancient
monuments of Egypt. Dr. Anderson is tak-
ing special pains to obtain drawings of as
many of these fish forms as possible, and he
regards it as not improbable that a scientific
investigation of the fishes obtained in the
river will lead to an identification of many
of the species represented in stone. These
May 5, 1899.]
‘questions, however, can never be usefully
determined until there exists on record a
basis on which to work, in the form of a
detailed description on each species accom-
panied, as far as practicable, by a figure.
The scheme, therefore, includes provision
for the publication of the scientific results
in a book uniform with the sumptuous vol-
ume which Dr. Anderson has recently issued
on the ‘ Reptiles and Batrachians of Egypt.’
This work forms the first volume of the
‘Zoology of Egypt.’ He is at present en-
gaged in working out the collections of
mammals on which the second volume will
be based. The‘ Fishes of the Nile’ will
form the third volume of this monumental
record of the fauna of the country.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
Birds. By A. H. Evans, M.A., Clare College,
Cambridge. London, Macmillan & Co., Lim-
ited; New York, The Macmillan Company.
1899. 8vo. 144 text cuts. Pp. xvi-+ 635,
Price, $3.50.
Mr. Evans’s ‘Birds’ forms Vol. IX. of the
*Cambridge Natural History,’ and is intended
as a popular systematic review of the class
Aves. In a volume of 650 pages itis, of course,
impossible to treat in much detail any of the
one hundred and thirty odd families of birds,
or to particularize respecting many of the 12,-
000 to 13,000 or more species now recognized
by systematists. It would seem, however, that
a little more space might have been profitably
given to the generalities of the subject, asstruc-
ture, classification, geographical distribution,
migration, etc., all of which is compressed into
the short space of twenty-two pages, of which
three are devoted to the terminology of the ex-
ternal parts of a bird. The remarks on classi-
fication and geographical distribution are mainly
historical. Mr. Evans adopts, with ‘some
slight modifications,’ Dr. Gadow’s scheme of
classification and Sclater’s scheme of geograph-
ical areas. In referring to the wide differences
of opinion among authorities on the subject of
genera and species he says: ‘‘It cannot be
denied that genera and species are merely
SCIENCE.
647
‘convenient bundles,’ and that divisions of
either, if carried too far, defeat the object for
which classification is intended. Genera are
only more distinct from species, and species
from races, because the intervening links have
disappeared ; and if we could have before us
the complete series which, according to the
doctrine of evolution, has at some time existed
neither genus nor species would be capable of
definition any more than races in many cases;
while the same, remark will apply to the
larger groups.’’ While such statements are not
new they have not been presented in popular .
works, the lay reader being allowed to retain
the old idea of the tangible nature of generic
and specific groups. The tendency among
certain systematists to recognize subspecies on
the basis of the slightest recognizable differences
leads naturally to the multiplication of genera,
and the increase of subfamilies, etc., to con-
form, so to speak, to the new unit of measure-
ment consequentupon the recognition, in nomen-
clature, of the grade of differentiation that is
considered as a sufficient basis for ‘ races’ or
subspecies. It is to this, doubtless, that Mr.
Evans alludes as being likely to ‘defeat the
object for which classification was intended.’
_ Beginning with Archxopteryx, and ending
with the Finches, the various groups of birds
are passed briefly in review. The characters
of the ordinal, subordinal and family groups are
succinctly stated, and some little account is
given of the number, distribution and habits of
the species, the latter usually in general terms.
Very little is said about any particular species,
though sometimes a characteristic member of a
group is taken as the subject of more definite
remark, or in cases where the number of species
is so few that something may be said of each.
The reader may be thus often disappointed,
in seeking information regarding particular
species, to find little, if any, reference to the ob-
ject of his search. Ina work of the dimensions
of the present volume this must be inevitable,
yet it will prove a convenient source of
information on the general subject of bird life
throughout the world. References to more de-
tailed accounts of species or groups of particular
interest are, however, often supplied in foot
notes. Only about.one-sixth of the work is de-
648
voted to the Passeriformes, which nearly equal
in number of species the rest of the class, only
a few pages being allotted to even the larger
families; and the various generic groups are
mentioned, as a rule, only by their technical
generic names. The book isthus evidently not
really adapted to beginners, nor wholly suited
to the general reader, though apparently de-
signed ‘not only for the tyro in ornithology,
but also for the traveller or resident in foreign
parts interested in the subject.’ The wood-
cuts that quite fully illustrate the text are, for
the most part, excellent, and prepared especially
for the work by G. E. Lodge ; others are famil-
iar through frequent previous use. Consider-
ing the limitation of space imposed for the sub-
ject, the author has, perhaps, supplied all that
could be rightfully expected, and has certainly
shown himself to be ‘up to date’ in all of the
essentials of his subject.
Jay Any A.
Experimental Morphology. By CHARLES B. DAv-
ENPORT. New York and London, The Mac-
millan Company. 1899. Part Second. Pp.
228.
The second part of Davenport's Experimental
Morphology that has just appeared deals en-
tirely with phenomena of growth. The first
volume described the effects of chemical and
physical agents upon protoplosm, and it is in-
tended to devote the third volume to cell-di-
vision and the fourth to differentiation. The
author states that it is the aim of this series
“so to exhibit our present knowledge in the
field of experimental morphology as to indi-
cate the direction for further research.’
The present volume gives a clear, brief state-
ment of what is known in regard to growth in
plants and animals. Most of the illustrations are
taken from plant physiology, and it may, there-
fore, be questioned whether a zoologist is in
position to summarize so large and important a
field of botanical research, but in justification it
should be stated that Davenport has attempted
to deal with the subject from a common biolog-
ical standpoint.
In reading this volume one cannot fail to be
impressed by the enormous difference in our
knowledge of growth-phenomena in plants and
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 227.
animals. The subjects dealt with cover one of
the most interesting fields of biological study—
the responses of organisms to their surround-
ings and the relation of these responses to the
conditions of life under which the form is liv-
ing or has lived in the past. The introductory
chapter is intended to give an idea of normal
growth. Organic growth is defined as increase
in volume—‘ it is not development, not differen-
tiation and not increase in mass.’ A broad defi-
nition of this sort, while convenient to include
a large number of changes resulting in ‘an in-
crease in volume,’ may lead to difficulties if an
attempt is made to find a common explanation
of all the phenomena included in the definition,
for the processes that take place in plants and
animals that produce an increase in volume
may be entirely different in their nature. The
author has skillfully avoided this pitfall in most
cases, although at times one cannot but feel
that a most heterogeneous collection of facts
has been included in the same category.
The first chapter (XI.) deals with the effects
of chemical agents on growth, and gives in com-
pact form a large amount of useful information.
In most cases the action of the substance seems
to be purely physiological and only secondarily
formative. It is not obvious why so much
space should be given to pure plant physiology.
It is, no doubt, difficult to draw the line between
substances that act as foods and others that
produce growth, since the latter often (but not
always) depend on the former.
An admirable account of the rdle of water in
growth is given in Chapter XII. Here the au-
thor has some new facts that bear on the
problem. In the next chapter, dealing with the
effect of density of the medium on growth, the
results are summed up as showing that ‘the
diminution or growth is proportional to the
osmotic action of the medium.’ It is possible,
however, that the effect is due also, in part, to
the direct injurious action of the salts used to
increase the density of the fluids. If due to
osmotic action alone, then, the results that fol-
low when different substances are used should
be in proportion to their osmotic equivalents,
but the few facts that are given do not entirely
support this general conclusion.
In Chapter XIV. the effect of molar agents is
May 5, 1899.]
dealt with. The effects of rough shaking on
bacteria and of tensions and torsions on plant
tissues are described. Nothing is said in re-
gard to the changes that take place in bones, as
aresult of displacement, etc. The closing of
wounded surfaces (in Stentor and Hydra) is
said to ‘ be grossly mechanical.’ Imay add from
observations of my own that, in some cases at
least (in Tubularia and in the embryo of Rana),
the closing of the wound after injury cannot
be explained as grossly mechanical, but is due
rather to a movement of the living cells in re-
sponse to a stimulus.
The action of parts of plants in response to
contact and the general phenomena of bending
in seedlings, etc., can scarcely be included in a
definition of growth, even as broadly defined
by the author, for while there is an increase
in volume on one side there may be a corre-
sponding decrease on the opposite side, the vol-
ume of the whole plant or part remaining ap-
proximately the same.
A brief account of the effect of gravity is
given in Chapter XV. Two classes of effects
are distinguished, the first mechanical, ‘‘ due to
gravity, acting on the growing organ as_ it
might on any other heavy body. The second
is a vital effect, having no immediate, direct
physical relation to the cause.’’ Itseemsa little
obscure to state that a vital effect has ‘no im-
mediate, direct physical relation to the cause.’
That the connection is a causal connection,
even if a remote one, few will be bold enough
to deny. The distinction that the author
wishes to make is, perhaps, fairly clear, but
the words may easily lead to a misconception of
what is meant by vital effects. Again, on page
417 (in Chapter XVII., dealing with the effect
of light upon growth), the author concludes,
after showing that the eggs of many (but not
all) animals are sheltered from sunlight, ‘ that,
in general, growth does not take place in nature
in full sunlight.’ It is obvious that in many
cases the eggs deposited in the dark are better
concealed, and it is not improbable that this
may account for their development in the dark.
Under these conditions they would become at-
tuned to the absence of light. The more rapid
growth of plants in the dark is described in de-
tail, the effect of colored light on the growth of
SCIENCE.
649)
animals and plants, and the direction of growth
in reponse to light, are discussed at some length.
The effect of heat on growth, as well as on
the direction of growth (in plants), is dealt with -
in Chapter XVIII. The interesting fact is
pointed out that under certain conditions the
bending of a plant towards the source of heat
cannot be explained as the direct result of the
heat causing growth on the warmer side, since
the concave side is the one turned towards the
source of heat. This experiment may well
make one question whether or not these phe-
nomena of bending are growth phenomena in the
ordinary use of the terms.
In the concluding chapter the cooperation of
several factors in normal growth is analyzed.
A clear summary of the work of Semper and de
Varigny on the growth of water-snails in a con-
fined space is given. There is some excellent
matter in the few pages of this chapter, al-
though here and there one may find fault with
the expression rather than with the general
sense. The attunement or acclimatization of
an organism to its surroundings is emphasized.
A tentative hypothesis to account for the at-
tunement is offered. This attempt to construct
a possible explanation brings clearly to light
that the author pictures to himself these ‘ vital
phenomena’ as chemical responses to external
agents. The contrast, therefore, so often made
in the text between physical and vital effects
would seem to be a difference between physical
and chemical reactions. If anything more than
this is intended it is not included in the final at-
tempt at an explanation, although it is stated
on a preceding page that the ‘specific effects’
cannot at present be accounted for by known
chemical processes, ‘but result from peculiari-
ties of the specific protoplasms which depend
largely upon the past history of each kind of
protoplasm.’
If we have taken issue with the author
on a few points it is only because in these
the book appears incomplete or imperfect.
Taken as a whole it is a valuable addition to
our text-books, and the author is to be congrat-
ulated on having performed so difficult and
arduous a task with success. The careful and
exact summaries that are given will be of use
to those not having access to the original papers.
650 SCIENCE.
The book contains many tables compiled from
various sources. The data are generally given
in the form of curves so that a large amount of
information may be comprised in a single dia-
gram. ‘The clear and judicial discussion of the
topics makes the book a model of its kind.
Especially praiseworthy is the absence of the
rash speculation so predominant in biological
literature of recent years.
T. H. MorGan.
BRYN MAwWR COLLEGE.
General Physiology. By PRoFESsSOR MAx VER-
WorRN. ‘Translated and edited from the
second edition (1897) by Proressor F. 8.
Ler. New York, Macmillan & Co. 1899.
Pp. xvi+616. 285 figures.
The subject-matter of this book is arranged
in five chapters with headings as follows: The
aims and methods of physiological research,
living substance, elementary vital phenomena,
the conditions of life, stimuli and their action,
and the mechanism of life. The English edi-
tion is very happily rendered, and is character-
ized by an extremely small residuum of Teu-
tonic idioms, while the privileges of the editor
have been very skillfully but sparingly exer-
cised.
The book is chiefly concerned with the cell as
such and as organism, and it seems to the
writer that it hardly justifies the resounding
title of ‘General Physiology, or the Science of
Life.’ It is usually unfair to pass judgment
upon the nature of a work from any single
paragraph which may be required in a review,
but the closing sentences of the volume are
fairly indicative of the author’s conception of
his subject. ‘‘ The cell is the element of living
substance. All living substance exists in cells,
and all of the functions of living substance
originate in the elementary vital phenomena of
cells. Hence, if the task of the physiolo-
gist lies in the explanation of vital phenom-
ena, general physiology can be only cell-
physiology.’’ These sentences are faultlessly
rhetorical, but they do not exhibit an unas-
sailable logic, at least from the point of view
of the botanist, or the physiologist interested
in the general properties of organisms.
The work of investigators upon the physiology
and organization of the protoplasm of plants
[N.S. Vou. 1X. No, 227.
has been somewhat more uniformly developed,
and the results attained have been given a
wider interpretation than similar efforts in the
animal world ; hence the value of this volume
as a reactionary protest against the minute and.
profitless specializations which have absorbed
so much of the energy of the animal physiolo-
gist is not so apparent to the plant physiologist.
The latter feels no need for a return to investi-
gations in cell-physiology, since his researches
upon all the more important activities of vege-
tal protoplasm have been extended to cover
material of the widest range of morphological
and physiological differentiation, and have been
an investigation of principles rather than a
study of the functions of special tissues.
Without reference to the above, the book is
a very valuable and welcome addition to the
library and laboratory accessories of the plant
physiologist, not for what it contains about
plants, for the paragraphs devoted to these or-
ganisms are teeming with errors and omissions,
or are badly antiquated, but for its comprehen-
sive treatment of the composition and elemen-
tary activities of protoplasm, and the metabolic
and directive reactions to stimuli, and the sec-
tions devoted to these subjects are well executed.
The historical sketch of the development and
methods of physiological research, as well as
the metaphysical discussions of the conditions
of life properly belong here, although they do
not constitute the most valuable or striking part
of the book.
It appears to the reviewer that the physiolog-
ical aspects of the form and size of the cell are
but scantily touched upon ; that the réle and dis-
tribution of inorganic matter in the cell does not
take into account the greater mass of the availa-
ble information on that subject, while secretion,
absorption and election of food do not receive
deserved attention. The fatuous distinction of
ferments into ‘ organized’ and ‘unorganized’
bodies bids fair to be immortal, since it is con-
tinued here and in many other prominent texts
recently issued, although yeast, the well-worn
example of the ‘ organized ferments,’ has been
found to secrete definite enzymes, as is doubt-
less the case with all ferment organisms. It is
certainly antiquated to quote Sachs to the effect
that starch is the first ‘visible product’ of the
May 5, 1899.]
activity of the chlorophyllaceous cell in the
sunlight. The curvature of twining stems is not
thigmotaxis (p. 443). The use of the phrase
‘conduction of a stimulus’ to indicate the trans-
mission of an impulse from the point of recep-
tion of the stimulus to a reaction zone is a
mistake resulting from the literal translation of
‘Reizleitung.’ The German word ‘ Reiz’ hay-
ing a broad meaning which permits its use to
designate both the stimulus and the stimulus-
effect. ‘Every change in the external condi-
tions of an organism constitutes a stimulus ;’ but
itis to be presumed that no one would mean
that these changes in the intensity of external
energy, rather than the shock of such change,
are transmitted by nerves or other conducting
mechanisms.
Perhaps the most remarkable omission in the
entire work is that which occurs in the discus-
sion of the history of death. No attention is
given to the aging or senescence of cells, and
there is no mention of any example of the plant
cell in the histolytic processes, or metamorphic
death, although this phenomenon is of such im-
portance that all types of plants furnish dead
cells from normal atrophies and degenerations,
while in the higher types the greater bulk of
the plant-body is made up of dead cells.
The greater number of the faults enumerated
above would be due to the inaccessibility of the
botanical literature to the animal physiologist,
and are of such nature that they may be easily
eliminated from future editions. The book has
a long period of usefulness before it. It is
stimulating and suggestive, and will do much
to broaden investigation upon both the animal
and vegetal organism ; a purpose it would ac-
complish equally well under its proper title of
‘The Physiology of the Cell.’
D. T. MacDouGat.
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA.
GENERAL.
THE last Legislature of the State of Arkansas
provided for the printing of the hitherto unpub-
lished reports of Dr. J. C. Branner, formerly
State Geologist of that State. There are five
volumes of these reports, viz: (1) Coal; (2)
Lower Coal Measures; (8) Clays, Kaolins and
Bauxites; (4) Zinc ‘and Lead; (5) Report on
SCIENCE.
651
the general geology of the State. Provisions
were also made for printing new editions of the
reports already out.
THE sixth volume of Biological Lectures from
the Wood’s Holl Laboratory, in the press of
Messrs. Ginn & Co., will contain :
‘The Structure of Protoplasm,’ E. B. Wilson.
‘Cell-Lineage and Ancestral Reminiscence,’ E. B.
Wilson.
‘Adaptation in Cleavage,’ Frank R. Lillie.
‘Protoplasmic Movement asa Factor of Differentia-
tion,’ Edwin G. Conklin.
‘Equal and Unequal Cleavage,’ A. L. Treadwell.
‘Cell Origin of the Prototroch,’ A. D. Mead.
‘Relation of the Axis of the Embryo to the First
Cleavage Plane,’ Cornelia M. Clapp.
‘Observations on Various Nucleolar Structures of
the Cell,’ Thomas H. Montgomery, Jr.
‘Protoplasmic Contractility and Phosphorescence,’
8. Watasé.
‘Some Problems of Regeneration,’ T. H. Morgan.
‘The Elimination of the Unfit,’ H. C. Bumpus.
‘Heredity of Coloration in Fishes,’ Jacques Loeb.
‘Do the Reactions of Lower Animals, Due to Injury,
Indicate Pain Sensations,’ W. W. Norman.
‘North American Ruminant-like Animals,’ W. B.
Scott.
‘Caspar Friedrich Wolff and the Theoria Genera-
tionis,’ W. M. Wheeler.
‘Animal Behavior,’ C. O. Whitman.
MM. GEorGES CARRE and C. Naud have be-
gun the publication of a series of scientific mono-
graphs under the editorial direction of leading
French men of science. MM. Appell, Cornu,
d’Arsonval, Friedel, Lippmann, Moissan, Poin-
cearé and Potter are responsible for the physical
and mathematical sciences and MM. Balbiani,
d@’ Arsonval, Filhol, Fouqué, Gaudry, Guignard,
Marey and Milne-Edwards for the biological
sciences. The numbers so far issued are as
follows: ‘Les Oscillations Electriques,’ by M.
Poincaré{ ‘La Specificite Cellulaire,’ by M.
Bard ; ‘La Sexualité,’ by M. le Dantec.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND ARTICLES.
THE papers in the American Journal of Science
for May are as follows :
‘Some Experiments with Endothermic Gases,’ by
W. G. Mixter.
‘Hypothesis to explain the partial non-explosive
Combination of Explosive Gases and Gaseous Mix-
tures,’ by W. G. Mixter.
652 SCIENCE.
‘Occurrence of Paleotrochis in Volcanic Rocks in
Mexico,’ by H. 8. Williams.
‘Origin of Paleotrochis,’ by J. S. Diller.
‘Association of Argillaceous Rocks with Quartz
Veins in the Region of Diamantina, Brazil,’ by O. A.
Derby.
Goldschmidtite, a New Mineral,’ by W. H. Hobbs ;
‘Hydromica from New Jersey,’ by F. W. Clarke and
N. H. Darton.
‘Powellite Crystals from Michigan,’ by C. Palache.
‘Volatilization of the Iron Chlorides in Analysis,
and the Separation of the Oxides of Iron and Alu-
minum,’ by F. A. Gooch and F. 8. Havens.
‘ Descriptions of imperfectly known and new Actini-
ans, with Critical Notes on other Species, V,’ by A.
E. Verrill.
‘Preliminary Note as to the Cause of Root-Pres-
sure,’ by R. G. Leavitt.
‘Study of some American Fossil Cycads, Part III.,’
by G. R. Wieland.
Professor L. V. Pirsson, who holds the chair
of geology in the Sheffield Scientific School of
Yale University, has become an associate editor
of the Journal in the place of the late Professor
Marsh.
AFTER the close of the current volume, in
April, the Zoological Bulletin, edited by Profes-
sors Whitman and Wheeler, of the University
of Chicago and published by Messrs. Ginn &
Co., will be continued under the title the
Biological Bulletin and be published under the
auspices of the Marine Biological Laboratory.
The scope of the Bulletin will be enlarged so as
to include General Biology, Physiology and
Botany. It will further include occasional re-
views and reports of work and lectures at the
Laboratory. The Bulletin ‘will be open, as
heretofore, to scientific contributions from any
source.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
THE 500th meeting of the Society was cele-
brated on April 15th by a dinner at Rauscher’s.
About fifty members were present. After
coffee had been served, the President, Mr. O. H.
Tittmann, in his usual felicitous manner, called
on the past Presidents of the Society who had
honored the banquet by their presence. Seven
were present, namely, Newcomb, Harkness,
Eastman, Dall, Clarke, Baker and Bigelow.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 227.
Interesting remarks were made by each of these
gentlemen, on the past history of the Society,
its relation to present scientific progress, and its
future sphere of usefulness. Informal inter-
course was had for a short time after adjourn-
ment.
E. D. PRESTON,
Secretary.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON,
APRIL 18, 1899.
UNDER the head of Exhibition of Specimens
and Short Notes, Mr. Howard exhibited a vial
full of specimens of a species of a Peripatus just
received from some unknown correspondent in
Trinidad.
Mr. Schwarz showed a specimen of Chrysina
erubescens Bates. The determination he said
was somewhat doubtful, but probably correct.
The species is a distinct Central American
form, but the specimens showed were found in
Madera Canyon, south Arizona. The insect is
probably a grape feeder.
Dr. Dyar showed specimens of Megalopyge
krugti, Dew., collected by Mr. Busck in Porto
Rico. The larva was described by Dewitz in
his original communication, but so briefly that
additional points were mentioned.
Mr. Howard asked whether Mr. Busck had
been stung by this larva, and Mr. Busck re-
plied that the first one which he found had
fallen on the back of his hand and produced
severe pain and inflammation which lasted for
three days.
The first paper of the evening was read by
Mr. Schwarz and consisted of a continuation of
the Hubbard correspondence from the South-
west.» The letter read at this meeting con-
tained a discussion of the insect fauna of Dasy-
lirion wheeleri. In discussion Mr. Pollard asked
whether the agave and other large plants of
that region have similar insect fauna. Mr.
Schwarz replied that the agave is the only
liliaceous plant of that region which has an in-
sect enemy which attacks it when healthy.
This is a lepidopterous larva of the genus
Megathymus. The communication was briefly
discussed by Messrs. Cockerell and Ashmead,
Mr. Cockerell stating that two Coccids had been
found upon the Dasylirion, but that both species.
May 5, 1899. ]
were also found upon yuccas. Mr, Ashmead
said that the Dasylirion insects were very simi-
lar in character to the insects found in decaying
palmetto in Florida.
The next paper was by Mr. Marlatt, and in
the absence of the author was read by Mr. Ben-
ton. It was entitled ‘Remarks on some recent
work on Coccide.’ L. O. HowARD,
Secretary.
THE WASHINGTON BOTANICAL CLUB.
THE fifth regular meeting of the Washington
Botanical Club was held April 5, 1899, at the
residence of Mr. Frederick V. Coville.
Professor E. L. Greene made some remarks
on the occurrence of parthenogenesis in Anten-
naria, apropos of Juel’s recently published in-
vestigations in A. alpina. He considered the
phenomenon to be well established in several of
our native species.
Mr. J. G. Smith presented a synopsis of a
proposed revision of the genus Sitanion, a group
of grasses long included under Elymus. He
was able to segregate a large number of new
‘species, chiefly from Western localities.
Mr. H. J. Webber gave some notes on the
various forms of Zamia found in Florida. There
are apparently two well-marked species, at
least on the east coast, one confined to the
northern, the other to the southern half of the
State, while on the west coast occurs possibly a
third. Neither of these species is referable to
Z. integrifolia Jacq., a name under which the
plants have been described in most text-books.
Mr. Webber exhibited numerous photographs,
pointing out remarkable differences in the shape
and structure of the fertile spike.
The Club extended invitations to the Phila-
delphia Botanical Club and to the Torrey Botan-
ical Club of New York to visit Washington for
a series of botanical excursions during the last
week in May. CHARLES LOUIS POLLARD,
Secretary.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY AND PHYSICS OF THE
NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
A MEETING of the Section was heid on April
10th, Professor M. I. Pupin, the Chairman of
the Section, presiding.
A paper was read by Dr. A. S. Chessin on
SCIENCE.
653
‘The Temperature of Gaseous Celestial Bodies.’
The author said, in brief, that, in view of some
extravagant and baseless assertions which have
appeared lately in both scientific and popular
periodicals with regard to certain supposed
laws of temperature in gaseous celestial bodies,
it seemed proper to state the true condition of
our knowledge in this direction. Dr. Chessin
showed that what Dr. See assumed, in a recent
article, to be a ‘fundamental law’ of nature,
namely, the formula RT = a constant, in which
T=the absolute temperature of the gaseous
body and R = the radius, was neither a ‘ fun-
damental’ nor ‘any law’ at all; in fact,
the formula is the result of erroneous and
superficial calculations. Dr. Chessin also gave
an account of the work done by others on
the question of the temperature of heavenly
bodies, particularly referring to the investiga-
tions of A. Ritter, in Wiedemann’s Annalen
for 1878. He showed how far from applicable
to actual facts most of these theoretical discus-
sions and calculations are, and he drew the
conclusion that at this stage of our knowledge
it would be but an idle speculation to formulate
any law which may govern the changes of tem-
perature in heavenly bodies. He called atten-
tion to one interesting case discussed by Ritter
in his theoretical investigations, a case in which
when y, or the ratio of the specific heat at con-
stant pressure to that at constant volume, is
greater than 4/3, we could have a pulsating
condition of the gaseous body about a condition
of equilibrium. -005 or 40 de-
grees Cent. as the excess of the mean surface tempera-
ture above what it would be if no heat were conduc-
ted from within"outwards. The present augmentation
of temperature downwards may be taken as 1 degree
Cent. per 27 meters as a rough average derived from
observations in all parts of the earth where under-
ground temperature has been observed. (See British
Association Reports from 1868 to 1895. The very
valuable work of this Committee has been carried on
for these twenty-seven years, with great skill, perse-
verance and success, by Professor Everett, and he
promises a continuation of his reports from time to
time.) This, with the same data for conductivity and
radiational emissivity asin the preceding calculation,
makes 40°/2700 or 0.0148° Cent. per centimeter as the
amount by which the average temperature of the
earth’s surface is at present kept up by underground
heat.
May 19, 1899.]
must have caused a rapid downpour of all
the vapors other than water, if any there
were; and, a little later, rain of water out
of the air, as the temperature of the surface
cooled from red heat tosuch moderate tem-
peratures as 40° and 20° and 10° Cent.
above the average due to sun heat and radi-
ation into the ether around the earth.
What that primitive atmosphere was, and
how much rain of water fell on the earth in
the course of the first century after consoli-
dation, we cannot tell for certain ; but Natu-
ral History and Natural Philosophy give us
some foundation for endeavors to discover
much towards answering the great ques-
tions: Whence came our present atmos-
phere of nitrogen, oxygen and carbonic
acid? Whence came our present oceans
and lakes of salt and fresh water? How
near an approximation to present conditions
was realized in the first hundred centuries
after consolidation of the surface.
§ 40. We may consider it as quite certain
that nitrogen gas, carbonic acid gas and
steam, escaped abundantly in bubbles from
the mother liquor of granite, before the
primitive consolidation of the surface, and
from the mother liquor squeezed up from
below in subsequent eruptions of basaltic
rock, cause all, or nearly all, specimens
of granite and basaltic rock which have
been tested by chemists in respect to
this question,* have been found to con-
tain, condensed in minute cavities within
them, large quantities of nitrogen, car-
bonic acid and water. It seems that in
no specimen of granite or basalt tested has
chemically free oxygen been discovered,
while in many, chemically free hydrogen
has been found, and either native iron or
magnetic oxide of iron in those which do
contain hydrogen. From this it might
seem probable that there was no free oxy-
* See, for example, Tilden, Proc. R. 8. February
4, 1897: ‘On the Gases Enclosed in Crystalline
Rocks and Minerals.’
SCIENCE.
709
gen in the primitive atmosphere, and that
if there was free hydrogen it was due to
the decomposition of steam by iron or mag-
netic oxide of iron. Going back to still
earlier conditions we might judge that,
probably, among the dissolved gases of the
hot nebula which became the earth, the
oxygen all fell into combination with hy-
drogen and other metallic vapors in the cool-
ing of the neubla, and that, although it is:
known to be the most abundant material
of all the chemical elements constituting the
earth, none of it was left out of combination
with other elements to give free oxygen in
our primitive atmosphere.
§ 41. It is, however, possible, although
it might seem not probable, that there was
free oxygen in the primitive atmosphere.
With or without free oxygen, however, but
with sunlight, we may regard the earth as
fitted for vegetable life as now known in
some species, wherever water moistened
the newly solidified rocky crust cooled down
below the temperature of 80° or 70° of our
present Centigrade thermometric scale a
year or two after solidification of the primi-
tive lava had come up to the surface. The
thick, tough, velvety coating of living vege-
table matter, covering the rocky slopes
under hot water flowing direct out of the
earth at Banff (Canada),* lives without
help from any-ingredients of the atmosphere
above it, and takes from the water and
from carbonic acid or carbonates, dissolved
in it, the hydrogen and carbon needed for
its own growth by the dynamical power of
sunlight ; thus leaving free oxygen in the
water to pass ultimately into theair. Simi-
lar vegetation is found abundantly on the
terraces of the Mammoth hot springs and on
the beds of the hot-water streams flowing
from the Geysers in the Yellowstone Na-
tional Park of the United States. This vege-
tation, consisting of confervee, all grows
* Rocky Mountains Park of Canada, on the Cana-
dian Pacific Railway.
710 SCIENCE.
under flowing water at various tempera-
tures, some said to be as high as 74° Cent.
We cannot doubt but that some such con-
fervee, if sown or planted in a rivulet or
pool of warm water in the early years of
the first century of the solid earth’s history,
and, if favored with sunlight, would have
lived, and grown, and multiplied, and would
have made a beginning of oxygen in the air,
if there had been none of it before their
contributions. Before the end of the cen-
tury, if sun-heat, and sunlight, and rain-
fall were suitable, the whole earth not under
water must have been fitted for all kinds of
land plants which do not require much or
any oxygen in the air, and which can find,
or make, place and soil for their roots on
the rocks on which they grow; and the
lakes or oceans formed by that time must
have been quite fitted for the life of many
or all of the species of water plants living
on the earth at the present time. The
moderate warming, both of land and water,
by underground heat, towards the end of
century, would probably be favorable rather
than adverse to vegetation, and there
can be no doubt but that if abundance of
seeds of all species of the present day had
been scattered over the earth at that time
an important proportion of them would have
lived and multiplied by natural selection
of the places where they could best thrive.
$42. But if there was no free oxygen in
in the primitive atmosphere or primitive
water several thousands, possibly hundreds
of thousands, of years must pass before
oxygen enough for supporting animal life,
as we now know it, was produced. Even
if the average activity of vegetable growth
on land and in water over the whole earth
was, in those early times, as great in re-
spect to evolution of oxygen as that of a
Hessian forest, as estimated by Liebig* 50
* Liebig, ‘Chemistry in its application to Agricul-
ture and Physiology.’ English, 2d ed., edited by
Playfair, 1842.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 229.
years ago, or of a cultivated English hay-
field of the present day, a very improbable
supposition, and if there were no decay
(eremacausis, or gradual recombination with
oxygen) of the plants or of portions, such
as leaves falling from plants, the rate of
evolution of oxygen, reckoned as three
times the weight of the wood or the dry
hay produced, would be only about 6 tons
per English acre per annum or 1} tons per
square meter per thousand years. At this
rate it would take only 1533 years, and,
therefore, in reality a much longer time
would almost certainly be required, to pro-
duce the 2.3 tons of oxygen which we have
at present resting on every square meter of
the earth’s surface, land and sea.* But
probably quite a moderate number of hun-
dred thousand years may have sufficed. It
is interesting, at all events, to remark that,
at any time, the total amount of combus-
tible material on the earth, in the form of
living plants or their remains left dead,
must have been just so much that to burn
it all would take either the whole oxygen
of the atmosphere or ‘the excess of oxygen
in the atmosphere at the time above that,
if any, which there was in the beginning.
This we can safely say, because we almost
certainly neglect nothing considerable in
comparison with what we assert when we
say that the free oxygen of the earth’s at-
mosphere is augmented only by vegetation
liberating it from carbonic acid and water,
in virtue of the power of sunlight, and is
diminished only by virtual burning} of the
* In our present atmosphere, in average conditions
of barometer and thermometer, we have, resting on
each square meter of the earth’s surface, ten tons
total weight, of which 7.7 is nitrogen and 2.3 is
oxygen.
{ This ‘virtual burning’ includes eremacausis of
decay of vegetable matter, if there is any eremacausis
of decay without the intervention of microbes or
other animals. It also includes the combination of a
portion of the food with inhaled oxygen in the regu-
lar animal economy of provision for heat and power.
May 19, 1899. |
vegetable matter thus produced. But it
seems improbable that the average of the
whole earth—dry land and sea bottom—
contains at present coal, or wood, or oil, or
fuel of any kind, originating in vegetation,
to so great an amount as .767 of a ton per
square meter of surface; which is the
amount, at the rate of one ton of fuel to
three tons of oxygen, that would be re-
quired to produce the 2.3 tons of oxygen
per square meter of surface which our
present atmosphere contains. Hence it
seems probable that the earth’s primitive
atmosphere must have contained free oxy-
gen.
§ 43. Whatever may have been the true
history of our atmosphere it seems certain
that if sunlight was ready the earth was
ready, both for vegetable and animal life,
if not within a century, at all events within
afew hundred centuries, after the rocky
consolidation of its surface. But was the
sun ready? The well-founded dynamical
theory of the sun’s heat carefully worked
out and discussed by Helmholtz, Newcomb
and myself,* says NO if the consolidation
of the earth took place as long as 50 million
years; the solid earth must in that case
have waited 20 or 50 million years for the
sun to be anything nearly as warm as he is
at present. If the consolidation of the
earth was finished 20 or 25 million years
ago the sun was probably ready, though
probably not then quite so warm as at
present, yet warm enough to support some
kind of vegetable and animal life on the
earth.
$44. My task has been rigorously con-
fined to what, humanly speaking, we may
call the fortuitous concourse of atoms, in
the preparation of the earth as an abode
fitted for life, except in so far as I have re-
ferred to vegetation, as possibly having
been concerned in the preparation of an
*See ‘Popular Lectures and Addresses,’ Vol. I.,
pp. 376-429, particularly page 397.
SCIENCE. 711
atmosphere suitable for animal life as we
now have it. Mathematics and dynamics
fail us when we contemplate the earth,
fitted for life but lifeless, and try to imagine
the commencement of life upon it. This
certainly did not take place by any action
of chemistry, or electricity, or crystalline
grouping of molecules under the influence
of force, or by any possible kind of fortui-
tous concourse of atoms. We must pause,
face to face with the mystery and miracle of
the creation of living creatures.
ADDENDUM.—MAY, 1898.
Since this lecture was delivered I have
received from Professor Roberts-Austen
the following results of experiments on the
melting-points of rocks which he has kindly
made at my request:
Melting-point. Error.
Felspar:...s.....0s 1520° C. +30°
Hornblende...... about 1400°
Mii cainecceecbecees 1440° ==302
Quantzreceseceense 1775° =15°
Basaltaccmertscste about 880°
These results are in conformity with what
I have said in §§ 26-28 on the probable
origin of granite and basalt, as they show
that basalt melts at a much lower tempera-
ture than felspar, hornblende, mica or
quartz, the crystalline ingredients of granite.
In the electrolytic process for producing
aluminium, now practiced by the British
Aluminium Company at their Foyers works,
alumina, of which the melting-point is cer-
tainly above 1700° C. or 1800° C., is dis-
solved in a bath of melted cryolite at,a tem-
perature of about 800° C. So we may
imagine melted basalt to be a solvent for
felspar, hornblende, mica and quartz at
temperatures much below their own sepa-
rate melting-points ; and we can understand
how the basaltic rocks of the earth may have
resulted from the solidification of the mother
liquor from which the crystalline ingre-
dients of granite have been deposited.
KELVIN.
712
MENTAL FATIGUE.
THE purpose of this article is to givea
preliminary report of some experiments on
mental fatigue made by the writer. It is
expected that they will later be presented
in detail, and accordingly only the method
and theoretical conclusions will be now
stated.
Mental fatigue may mean either the fact
of incompetency to do certain mental work
_ or a feeling of incompetency which parallels
the fact or the feeling or feelings denoted
by our common expressions ‘ mentally tired,’
‘mentally exhausted.’ Among the conclu-
sions to which the experiments have led are
the following: first, that the fact of incom-
petency is not what it has been supposed to
be; second, that there is no pure feeling of
incompetency which parallels it and is its
sign, that consequently the mental states
ordinarily designated by the phrases men-
tioned are not states made up of such a
feeling of incompetency, but are very
complex affairs; and third, that these mental
states are in no sense parallels or measures
of the decrease in ability to do mental
work.
We have been accustomed to think of
mental work in terms of mechanics. The
mind has been supposed to lose its power to
work as a rubber ball loses its power to
bound. As the ball rebounds to a lesser
and lesser heightso the mind has been sup-
posed to think with less and less vigor. We
have talked as if sleep charged the mind
with mental energy as a current might
charge a storage-battery with electricity and
that then the mind had this stock to spend.
As it spent it, it could exert less and less
energy in its thinking. One could easily
show the impropriety of such views by
demonstrating the inconceivability that the
complexity of mental action should fit so
simple a scheme, but it is also useful to
show the same thing by proof that in the
case of certain people the mind does not lose
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 229.
its power to do work from having done
large amounts of it. My experiments show
in certain individuals no decrease in
amount, speed or accuracy of work in the
evenings of days of hard mental work over
mornings or in periods immediately follow-
ing prolonged mental work over periods pre-
ceding it.
So far as these and many other experi-
ments go they all agree in denying that
the cause for a decreased amount of mental
work is such a simple lessening of some one
factor, mental energy or whatever one cares
to call it. They would affirm, on the con-
trary, that we did less work when tired;
not because this stock of mental energy was
running low, but because ideas of stopping,
of ‘taking it easy,’ of working intermit-
tently came in and were not inhibited ; be-
cause feelings of boredom led to their con-
sequences of leaning back in one’s chair,
looking at the clock, etc.; because a certain
feeling of physical strain weakened one’s.
impulse to read, write or translate ; because
sleepiness clouded our mental vision ; be-
cause headaches or eye-aches tended natu-
rally to inhibit the processes which caused
them, etc., etc.
As to the pure feeling of incompetency I
fail utterly to find it in myself or to get any
intelligible account of it from others. After
one separates out from the feelings of men-
tal fatigue the factors just mentioned, espe-
cially the feelings of physical pain and
strain, the feelings of mental nausea at cer-
tain ideas, and the feeling of sleepiness, I
do not think that he will find anything left
that is worth naming.
That the feelings of fatigue which we do
have are not proportionate concomitants
with the decreasing ability to do mental
work is shown by the fact that all the per-
sons in our experiments reported a large
measure of such feelings in cases where their
mental work was quite up to the average.
In general a comparison of the introspective
May 19, 1899.]
records of feelings with the actual mental
ability displayed shows that the former are
not a parallel or measure of the latter.
The quantitative results obtained would
seem to show that the degree of real inabil-
ity caused by mental work was very much
less than has been supposed ; that in ordi-
nary life nature warus us by the complex
feelings mentioned not to work mentally
some time before we are really incapacitated
for work. They would also suggest that
the results which those investigators who
have sought to measure mental fatigue
in school children have obtained were due
to the use of methods which did not meas-
ure the inability, but the distaste for mental
work, of the children. One is tempted to
put forth the paradox that real mental in-
competency is the rarest of all reasons for
stopping or decreasing mental effort.
The methods used to estimate the ability
to do mental work are to some extent new
and so worth mention. The chief was the
mental multiplication of three figures by
three (e. g., 794x683); of two figures by
three, and in some cases four by four. This
work, at least for the subjects of these ex-
periments, required the utmost concentra-
tion. It is very fatiguing (in the ordinary
sense of the word). Any interruption or
distracting influence is felt at once and
makes successful work impossible. So one
would suppose that it ought to show the
influence of decreasing power to do mental
work as clearly as could anything. The
amount of work and the mistakes can be
easily and accurately recorded.
Another method involved the addition of
columns of twenty numbers, each of five
figures. This does not require close con-
centration, but the work done should show
perfectly the fact of mental fatigue in so far
as that involves the accuracy and speed of
associations between ideas. The speed and
accuracy of discrimination of the lengths of
lines and of the perception of letters were
,such criticism.
SCIENCE. 713
also used. The tests were arranged so as
to eliminate the effects of practice.
Epwarp THORNDIKE,
WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
The Development of English Thought: A Study in
the Economic Interpretation of History. By
Simon N. PATren, PuH.D., Professor of Polit-
ical Economy, Wharton School of Finance
and Economy, University of Pennsylvania.
New York, The Macmillan Co. 1899. Pp.
xxvii + 415.
‘““We don’t know him; let’s heave half a
brick at him.’’ The process is simple, obvious
and, to the heavers, effective. There are only
too many grounds for the fear that Professor
Patten’s new work will be treated as a vile
body for this old experiment. Everyone knows
how easy it is to discredit generalization by
advancing negative instances; how sweet to
cavil at principles by alleging that facts have
been twisted to fit; how seductive to empha-
size the specialist’s standpoint and to magnify
its abounding limitations. I do not exaggerate
in saying that it is long since I have encoun-
tered a book which lies so open, so invitingly
open, to these insidious attacks; or, on the
contrary, one which proves so conclusively the
unfairness, superficiality, even stupidity, of
For Professor Patten sets
theory in the forefront of his discussion, and the
body of his work sees the persistent application
of this theory. Nevertheless, he whoruns may
read that, in the author’s mind, the theory
came last, being the inference from his detailed
investigations, the final form in which the mul-
titudinous facts shaped themselvyes—ceased to
be mere isolated phenomena and became ration-
ally one.
Professor Patten’s theory reposes on a quasi-
psychological basis. Sensory ideas, or ideas
brought by the senses from the environment,
constitute the material of knowledge; and
‘sensory knowledge is merely the amplification
and classification of the differences perceived by
the senses.’’ (2) Such processes produce series
of mental images ; these, in turn, occasion rela-
tive motor reactions. Consequently a ‘‘ man’s
714
activities are determined by that part of his
ideas for which motor reactions haye been pro-
vided.’’ (3) These complicated results are, of
course, affected profoundly by differences of en-
vironment. In ‘local’ environments motor re-
actions predominate, in ‘ general’ environments
sensory ideas. Thus, ‘stratification of society ’
does not take place in obedience to such ‘super-
ficial’ causes as wealth and social position, but
must be referred to ‘ psychic’ characteristics.
‘‘ A yace ideal differs from its elements or from
an abstract concept by having a motor reaction
united with it (173). * * * Before the time
of Locke there were three types of Englishmen
—the Puritan, the clinger and the sensualist.
Locke’s analysis had split the Puritan party
into two parts. One section was transformed
into stalwarts, who placed race ideals above
reason and sense impressions, and the other
into mugwumps, who made the _ opposite
choice’’ (185). Viewed in this light, English
society has consisted of four great classes—
‘Clingers, Sensualists, Stalwarts, Mugwumps’
(23-32). ‘Clingers’ spring from ‘local’ en-
vironments; ‘Sensualists’ appear when” en-
vironments become richer in objects; they break
down local traditions and stand forth as con-
querors. When society becomes sufficiently
differentiated, ‘Stalwarts’ are evolved—men
who love creeds and react from sensualism to
asceticism. Finally, increased wealth produces
‘Mugwumps,’ who evince a highly developed
sensory side, and so are strong in thought, but
weak in action. ‘‘ Its members are cosmopol-
itan in their sympathies ; advocates of compro-
mise and policy in politics ; sceptical in thought,
and agnostic in belief. They dislike ideals,
creeds and utopias, and are ever ready to ex-
pose shams and cant in which other people dis-
guise their sentiments’’ (81). The history of
English thought is the history of the appear-
ance, interaction and transformation of those
classes. ‘‘ The sensualist is the original unmodi-
fied Englishman, who retains the dross of prim-
itive times. The clinger is the result of
qualities grafted on English nature by the
supremacy of the Church. The stalwart is the
concrete Puritan. The conflict was a three-
cornered fight in which either the sensualist or
the Puritan was the aggressor, while the clin-
SCIENCE,
[N.S: Vou.) LX. No. 229.
ger joined in with the defensive party (139).
Tan a The three-cornered fight had to go on
until some solution could be found other than
those these parties could offer. A new type of
man was demanded, a type endowed with men-
tal qualities different from those Englishmen
then possessed ’’ (141-2). If the matter be
treated in this way one is freed from foreign
methods of interpretation and gets to know
English character as it actually was and is, in
its own peculiar nature (cf. 43). It ought to
be said that our author himself recognizes the
limitations of this standpoint and not merely on
his title-page. ‘‘ Economic conditions create
the primary motor reactions, put them to new
uses and give them a form quite different from
that they have at the outset. * * * Thecon-
sequence is that a motor reaction, after losing
its primal economic importance, responds to
abstract instead of concrete phenomena ’’ (50—
1). Further, it ought to be added that the
most interesting, and, as I believe, the most
effective part of the work is the second half,
where this limitation does not press so heavily.
The execution of this portion, which deals with
English thought as ruled by the ‘Mugwump,’
is a most important contribution to the subject,
one that all English philosophers, especially
those who see no good thing outside of Ger-
many, would do very well to mark, learn and
inwardly digest. ‘‘If we view English thought
from this standpoint there are three clearly de-
fined epochs. In the first Hobbes states the
problem without solvingit ; Locke is the econo-
mist on the upward curve; Newton is the
thinker on the downward curve. In the
second Mandeville states the problem ; Hume is
changed from an economist into a philosopher,
and Adam Smith from a philosopher into an
economist. The third epoch, beginning with
Malthus, ends when Mill is transformed into a
philosopher and Darwin into a biologist’? (55).
Taking the book as a whole, no one can fail
to be impressed with its freshness, originality
and great brilliance in some places. While the
style is plain and straightforward for the most
part, incisive sayings—almost epigrammatic on
occasions—attract attention or serve to stimu-
late rapid thought. Indeed, sometimes Pro-
fessor Patten contrives to cast a flood of light
May 19, 1899.]
over an entire period by their use. I had
marked a large number of penetrating purviews
_and new reflections for quotation, but limits
of space forbid more than briefest reference to
avery few. The theory of curves of thought
(43) ; the value of monastic influences (71); the
contrasts between communal and family life
(81, 192, ete.) ; the relation of Catholicism and
Protestantism to vice and crime (94); the mis_
fortunes of the Reformation (104); the sudden-
ness of English civilization (126) ; Locke’s office
(162) ; the meaning of Deism (175) ; the contrast
between England and France (187, 281); the
presentations of Wesley and Whitefield (250) ;
the ‘ origins’ of Adam Smith (264) ; the criticism
of current sociology (333); Romanticism and
religion (353)—all serve to illustrate the origi-
nality and one might almost say weird sugges-
tiveness of Professor Patten’s inferences, and
other instances might be adduced indefinitely,
On the other hand, a few things give one
pause. To begin with, Professor Patten will
perhaps not take it amiss if a Scot informs him
that Scottish thought is not a variant of English,
Hume and Adam Smith and the Mills would
not have been what they were had their’ na.
tionality lain south of the Tweed. At the same
time, I am well aware how difficult it is for the
foreigner to understand that the Cheviots di-
vide, if not two civilizations, then two ways of
thinking. The doctrine of the ‘manly man,’
the ‘womanly man,’ and so forth (255, 318, 341,
etc.), seems a little far-fetched to be made so
much of; perhaps it applies in the case of John
Stuart Mill. The bath theory (192) of English
civilization; the treatment of Calvinism (110,
etc.); the contrast between Cavalier and Puritan
(119); the gulf between the upper and lower
classes in England (1380); the emphasis upon
clothing (191); the passage from a liquor to a
sugar diet (881)—all seem to me to be some-
what fanciful or, at least, to be used in support
of conclusions which do not necessarily connect
with them. Many of the ‘Concluding Re-
marks’ are vitiated by the author’s foreign
standpoint. For example, the identification of
religion and economics, while strikingly true
of the United States, is incomparably less true
of England, and must remain so till the Anglican
Church loses its endowments. I ought to add
SCIENCE. 715
that some of these objections would probably
appear less forcible to one fully informed on
economic questions.
Finally, the appreciations of English philo-
sophical thought are wholly admirable. The
value of the new lights cast on Locke (158),
Mandeville, Hume (215, 223), the Mills, espe-
cially the son (3831), Darwin (3845), and the
present position of English philosophy (377) and
religion (398), cannot be overestimated at the
contemporary juncture. Emphasis ought to be
laid on the masterly discussions of Ricardo and
Adam Smith ; the interpretation of the former
is most illuminating.
So far as Iam capable of judging, the book
is obviously the work of a very able man and
one unusually well informed; of a man who
has extraordinary capacity for seeing and tell-
ing truths pointedly, even though he may
miss the whole truth time and again. In any
case, it must be reckoned with and cannot miss
the exercise of wide influence, whether this be
of a negative or positive character.
R. M. WENLEY.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
Peruvian Meteorology, 1888-1890. Compiled
and prepared for publication by SoLon I.
BAILEY, under the direction of EDwaArp C.
PICKERING. Annals of the Astronomical Ob-
servatory of Harvard College, Vol. XXXIX.,
Part I. 4to. Cambridge, Published by the
Observatory. 1899. Pp. 153. Pls. VI.
It is safe to say that no publication has been
awaited with greater interest among meteorolo-
gists than the volume now before us. Ever since
the establishment of the permanent Southern
Station of the Harvard College Observatory at
Arequipa, in 1891, and of the auxiliary meteor-
logical stations in connection with it, every
meteorologist the world over has been anxious
to have access to the data which have been
gathered concerning the climatic conditions of
that unique region. The notable discoveries
made on the photographic plates from Arequipa
have turned the attention of every astronomer
towards Peru. Now the meteorological world
likewise turns towards Peru in the study of the
records which are for the first time accessible.
Readers of SciENCE will remember that the
716
astronomical and meteorological work of the
Observatory of Harvard College in Peru is the
result of a bequest left to the Observatory in the
will of Mr. Uriah A. Boyden, in 1887. Under
the terms of the will this money was to aid in
the establishment of an observatory ‘‘ at such
an elevation as to be free, so far as practicable,
from the impediments to accurate observation
which occur in observatories now existing,
owing to atmospheric influences.’? It was in
connection with the study of the atmospheric
conditions of the desert strip of the west coast of
South America, with a view to determining the
best possible site for the new observatory, that
the early meteorological observations in Peru
were undertaken. The stations selected for the
taking of these preliminary observations were
Mollendo, Arequipa, Vincocaya, Puno and
Chosica. The first four stations are between
latitude S. 15° 40’ and S. 17° 5’, on the
Ferrocarril del Sur del Peru, which runs from
Mollendo, onthe sea coast, northeast to Puno,
on Lake Titicaca, a distance of 325 miles (by
rail). Mollendo is immediately on the coast (alti-
tude 80 feet). Arequipa is at a distance of 80
miles ina direct line from the Pacific Ocean, at an
altitude of 7,550 feet. Vincocaya is 14,360 feet
above sea level, on a desolate plateau, near the
crest of the Western Cordillera. Puno (12,540
feet) is on the western shore of Lake Titicaca.
The station at Chosica was situated about 25
miles northeast of Lima (altitude 6,600 feet).
A few observations, chiefly of cloudiness, were
made at the Pampa Central, near the central
western part of the Desert of Atacama, in
Chile. ;
These early observations were made during
the years 1888-1890, with more or less com-
pleteness. They are, however, preliminary,
They were almost all made by observers who
had had little or no experience and who re-
ceived no compensation for their services. The
instrumental equipment in use at the different
stations varied considerably ; the hours of ob-
servation were not always the same ; the loca-
tion of the instruments was sometimes changed.
In short, the work as a whole was done in an
unsystematic and incomplete and often in a very
inaccurate way. This was, of course, abso-
lutely unavoidable. It was impossible to secure
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. 1X. No. 229.
trained observers, to inspect the stations, or to
test the instruments. The observations were,
therefore, liable to be considerably in error.
Thus, in connection with the minimum ther-
mometer readings at Chosica the statement is
made in a note that it is probable that the
lower end of the index in the minimum ther-
mometer was read, instead of the upper end.
And in the wind observations at Arequipa and
Vincocaya it is noted that ‘‘ the direction of the
wind was always given, even if the remark
appended was ‘calm’ or ‘dead calm.’ Ap-
parently the position of the wind-vane was re-
corded, whether at the time wind was observed
or not.’? These two cases will serve to indicate
the sort of errors which inevitably appear in
these records. We do not intend to criticise
adversely the publication of these early Peru-
vian observations, but merely to point out their
necessary inaccuracies. Professor Pickering says
very clearly in the preface: ‘‘ These observations
must not be regarded as indicating the accuracy
of those made later. * * * It must be remem-
bered that it was not possible under the condi-
tions then existing to obtain observations of
the accuracy of those made by professional ob-
servers at permanent and easily accessible ob-
servatories.’’? And again, on page 68, Professor
Bailey says: ‘‘ The results are perhaps as reliable
as are possible in such outlying stations, where
experienced observers cannot be obtained and
frequent supervision is impossible.’’
The published observations comprise tweuty-
nine tables. The data are by no means equally
complete for all stations. At Mollendo, Are-
quipa and Vincocaya the instruments in use
were the maximum, minimum and ordinary
thermometers, thermograph and rain-gauge.
At Arequipa a solar radiation and a wet-bulb-
thermometer were also used. At Puno the ob-
servations were continued but a short time,
and there was no thermograph. At the Cho-
sica station, in addition to the above-named in-
struments, there were a barograph, sunshine and
pole-star recorder. At Pampa Central cloud
observations only were made, four times daily.
There are several tables showing the hourly
means of the barograph and thermograph, and
a comparison of thermometer and thermograph
hourly and monthly means. Curves are also
May 19, 1899.]
given showing the diurnal variation of temper-
ature at Mollendo, Arequipa, Vincocaya and
the Chosica station ; the diurnal variation of
pressure for the Chosica station, and the annual
range of the afternoon oscillation of pressure at
the Chosica station. Beyond some general re-
marks in explanation of the tables, there is no
discussion of the observations.
Besides the meteorological portion proper,
this volume containsa very attractive account,
by Professor Bailey, with some excellent illus-
trations, of the voleano El Misti (19,200 feet),
and of the establishment of the now famous
Misti meteorological station on its summit.
There is also a carefully compiled account of
The Configuration and Heights of the Andes,
which will be of distinct value to geographers.
We presume that Professor Pickering may
receive some rather severe criticism in certain
quarters for the publication of meteorological
data which are so incomplete and which, doubt-
less, have very many inaccuracies. But we
agree with him in believing that, considering
the interest of the region in which these obser-
vations were made, and the lack of information
concerning its meteorology, such results deserve
publication, provided careful statement is made
in regard to the circumstances under which the
data were collected. Professor Pickering and
Professor Bailey have both made these condi-
tions perfectly clear, and we believe that the
results, when viewed in the light of these
statements, will prove not only of great interest,
but also of great value.
R. DEC. WARD.
The Elements of Physical Chemistry. By J. Liv-
INGSTON R. MorGAn, PH.D., of the Depart-
ment of Physical Chemistry, Columbia Uni-
versity. First edition, first thousand. New
York, John Wiley & Sons; London, Chap-
man & Hall, Limited. 1899. Pp. 299.
This little book deals with the gaseous state,
the liquid state, the solid state, solution, the
role of the ions in analytical chemistry, thermo-
chemistry, chemical change, including equilib-
rium and chemical kinetics, phases and electro-
chemistry.
The aim of the author is to present the
elements of physical chemistry in brief form to
SCIENCE. ele
those who do not have the time or opportunity
to go more extensively into the subject. An
examination of the work will bring out much
that is of interest and importance, and a care-
ful study of it will help a beginner to obtain
an insight into the subject. But the objec-
tion might be raised to the work as a whole
that it seems to deal rather with conclusions
and generalizations than with the evidence
upon which such are based. Further, there are
many omissions which it is difficult to account
for. Thus, under liquids no mention is made
of Kopp’s work on atomic volumes; of the work
of Pulfrich, Landolt, Gladstone, Brithl and
others, on the refractivity of liquids; of the rota-
tion of the plane of polarized light and the Le
Bel-Van’t Hoff hypothesis; of the work of Per-
kins, and of Rodger and Watson on magnetic
rotation; of Thorpe and Rodger on viscosity; of
Ramsay and Shields on the surface-tension of
liquids as applied to the determination of molec-
ular weights. It would seem that such impor-
_ tant work as the above ought to be referred to
briefly even in an elementary treatise designed
to cover the whole field of physical chemistry.
An examination of the book will show, further
that much of the more recent experimental
work has not been taken into account, indica-
ting that text-books which have been published
several years, rather than the original literature,
have been drawn upon as the source of material.
As in most text-books, so here, an occasional
statement is not quite accurate. But what book
is perfectly logical, thoroughly comprehensive
and rigidly exact throughout ?
Harry C. JONES.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
The Anatomy of the Central Nervous System of Man and
of Vertebrates in General. LUDWIG EDINGER. Trans-
lated from the fifth German edition by WINFIELD
S. HALL, assisted by P. L. HoLLAND and E. P.
CARLTON. Philadelphia, F. A. Davis Company.
1899. Pp. xi-+ 446.
Marriages of the Deaf in America. EDWARD ALLEN
Fay. Washington, Gibson Bros. 1898. Pp.
vii + 527.
A Century of Vaccination. W. Scorr Tress, Lon-
don, Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. 1899. Second
Edition. Pp. 452.
718
Essai critique sur Vhypothése des atomes dans la science
contemporaine. ARTHUR HANNEQUIN. Paris, Al-
can. 1899. Second Edition. Pp. 457.
Social Phases of Education in the School and the Home.
SamuEL T. Durron. New York and London,
The Macmillan Company. 1899. Pp. viii 259.
The Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands of the North Pacific
Ocean. DAVID STARR JORDAN. Washington,
Government Printing Office. 1898. Pp. 606 and
13 Plates.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND ARTICLES.
American Chemical Journal, May. The Action
of Metals on Nitric Acid: By P. C. Freer and
G. O. Higsley. The reduction of strong acid is
due to the metals alone, but with dilute acid both
metal and hydrogen take part in the reduction.
On the Dissociation of Phosphorus Pentabro-
mide in Solution in Organic Solvents: By J. H.
Kastle and W. A. Beatty. On the Color of
Compounds of Bromine and of Iodine: By J.
H. Kastle. The explanation offered is that the
color is due to a slight dissociation of the solid
substance. On the Formation of Potassiums
B- ferricyanide through the action of Acids on the
Normal Ferricyanide: By J. Locke and G. H.
Edwards. 700 part of that developed by the
condensation of the sun, and that the energy
of the motion of the planets amounts to
only ;1, of that resulting from the potential
of the homogeneous sun upon itself. Thus
nearly all the energy of the solar system
has resulted from the condensation of the
solar mass,
I propose this evening to present the re-
sults of a determination of the potential of
the sun upon itself, when the mass is
heterogeneous, or made up of successive
layers of a uniform density, and the density
follows the laws found by our countryman,
Lane, just 30 years ago, for a gaseous body
in convective equilibrium. The density of
each layer can be found from Lane’s theory.
Beginning at the center and proceeding out-
ward, we can thence determine the average
density of the included spheres when suc-
cessive layers of known density are added.
(The speaker here explained the theory of
the integration which he had developed, and
said that the mathematical discussion of
the process would appear in the Astronom-
ische Nachrichten.) From an astronomical
point of view the problem to be solved is best
treated by some process of mechanical
quadrature ; and accordingly I have divided
the radius into 40 parts, and by successive
steps obtained an integral for the potential of
the heterogeneous sphere upon itself, which
isalmost rigorously exact. It turns out that
the condensation of the heterogeneous sun
MAY 26, 1899. ]
has produced more heat than the homo-
geneous one, in the ratio of 176,868 to
100,000. As the energy of condensation of
the homogeneous sphere represents a radia-
tion of 18 million years, the potential of
this heterogeneous sphere would, on the
same basis, sustain radiation almost exactly
32 million years. Thus the effect of most
of the particles of Helmholtz’s homogeneous
sphere falling towards the center to produce
the heterogeneous sphere here treated is to
prolong the life of the sun through an additional
period of 14 million years.
It has been generally held by those who
have studied the theory of the sun’s energy
that this fiery globe can hardly continue its
activity after the diameter has shrunk to
one-half its present value, which would
increase the average density of the sphere
eight times, and make it equal to 11.2 that
of water. Jf this supposition be admitted, it
wili follow that our sun has a total longevity of
thirty-six million years, of which thirty-two mil-
lions lie in the past and only four millions are
available for the future life of the solar system.
Thus eight-ninths of the available potential en-
ergy of the sun has been spent, and only one-
ninth is available for futwre use. This conclu-
sion is based upon the assumptions : (1)
That the sun’s mass is gaseous and the
density follows the laws found by Lane ;
(2) that shrinkage will essentially cease
when the globe has attained the average
density of 11.2; (3) that the ratio of the
specific heat of the solar gas under constant
pressure to that of the gas under constant
volume is 1.4, as in common air and most
terrestrial gases, and, moreover, that the
average specific heat of the sun’s mass is
not enormously great, so that the latent
heat of cooling would become a great source
of energy after shrinkage had _ entirely
ceased. All these hypotheses are extremely
probable, and the first two will hardly be
questioned by any one. For since Wilson
and Gray (Phil. Trans., 1894) find by ex-
SCIENCE. 138
periment that the effective temperature of
the photosphere is about 8,000° C., it will
follow that the temperature of the body of
the sun is very much higher. According
to Lane’s theory this would make the tem-
perature of the nucleus about a quarter of
a million degrees Centigrade. The matter
composing the body of the sun is much
above the critical temperatures of all
known substances, and thus is necessarily
in a gaseous state, though in the nucleus it
may be so far condensed, under the euor-
mous pressure to which it is subjected, as
to act like a solid or fluid of great viscosity.
On the other hand, even though the central
density be 28 times that of water, while the
photosphere is rarer than the terrestrial at-
mosphere, it is hardly conceivable that ap-
preciable shrinkage can go on after the
average density of the globe has increased
to eight times its present value. For the
resistances due to molecular repulsive forces
must tend to overcome gravitation pressure,
and thus render further contraction impos-
sible. If this state be not fully realized
when the sun’s radius has sunk to one-half
its present value, it must yet be so fully at-
tained in the greater part of the body of
the sun that what further shrinkage is pos-
sible in the external layers will produce
little available energy for maintaining the
sun’s heat.
As to the average specific heat of the sun
we can only say that water has the greatest
specific heat of all known terrestrial sub-
stances, and it is not probable that the
average specific heat of the dense gases
composing the sun can be enormously
greater than that of the specific heats of the
corresponding gases found upon our earth.
Thus it is not likely that our sun can long
maintain its radiation after shrinkage has
ceased.
From this investigation it seems that the
future duration of the sun’s heat can hardly
exceed four million years, and a_corre-
740
sponding limit is set for plant and animal
life upon our globe.
At Ae ds trot
U. S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON, D. C.,
May 12, 1899.
ON THE NEW GENUS OF LAMPREY, MACROPH-
THALMIA CHILENSIS.
THE preliminary account of Dr. Plate’s
remarkable discovery published in the Sitz-
ungsberichte der Gesellschaft Natwrforschende
Freunde, Berlin (1897, No. 8, pp. 137-141),
has, as far as I am aware, received no com-
ment in recent literature, although there
ean be little doubt that this remarkable
Cyclostome has revived more of the im-
portant discussions as to the position of the
Cyclostomes than any publication since the
time of the classic pamphlet of Professor
Dohrn, ‘ Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere.’ And
morphologists will, I am sure, await im-
patiently a further discussion of the anat-
omy of this newly discovered type, shortly
to appear in the Fauna Chilensis in the Sup-
plement Volume of the Zoologische Jahr-
biicher.
As the preliminary account is not readily
accessible, it may be noted that this re-
markable lamprey has large and normally
developed eyes. It measures but 107 mm. in
length, is of a brilliant silver-white color,
and its sides are literally compressed, as in
the case of many of the typical bony fishes.
The back region is blue-black, with light
yellow, dusky flakes on the anterior half of
the forehead. It is also noteworthy that
the sides of the body are perfectly smooth,
lacking the markings of the muscles, com-
mon in other Cyclostomes. The nasal open-
ing is slit-like, situated anterior to the eyes,
and not opening in apapilla. The gill-slits
are vertically compressed. The eye is of
extraordinary size, 2.5 mm. in diameter, and
resembles outwardly the eyes of a Teleost,
with a circular pupil, 1 mm. in diameter.
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. LX. No. 230.
The dentition is relatively simple, and is
said to resemble that of Myxine.
Plate has not as yet expressed his opinion
as to the significance of his morphological
prize ; but, judging from a single phrase in
his paper, he appears to regard it as a form
which has not assumed parasitic habits, and
has, therefore, not been subjected to degen-
eration. To what degree, however, will he
support Dohrn’s earlier teachings, which
derived the Cyclostomes from a teleost-like
ancestor? In any case, this discovery will
by no means simplify the difficult problem
as to the relationships of the Cyclostomes
in general, for it is not unnatural to assume
that if one of these forms has evolved nor-
mally developed eyes probably the others
also may originally have possessed them,
and that the present condition of cornea,
lens and retina may reasonably be inter-
preted as degenerate instead of primitive.
On the other hand, as far as the prelim-
inary account enables one to judge, it is
also possible to assume that under favorable
conditions the Hyperoarte may have become
highly specialized to the degree, indeed, of
acquiring a more teleost-like body form, to-
gether with more completely developed
visual structures. Itis tobe hoped that Dr.
Plate has succeeded in collecting material
which will throw light upon the relations of
this new type from the standpoint of meta-
morphosis and embryonic development.
Basurorp DEan.
NOTE ON THE SPAWNING SEASON OF THE
EEL.
Tue recent and most interesting work of
the Italian naturalists Grassi, Calandruc-
cio and Ercolani has added, in all essential
regards, the needed information regarding
the spawning time, as well as the meta-
morphosis, of the eel. Ido not find, how-
ever, in my review of the literature, any
definite observations with regard to either
May 26, 1899.]
time or place of spawning of the eel in
American waters, and I wish, therefore, to
present a brief note on the only instance of
a spawning eel which has, up to the pres-
ent time, come within my notice. I had
hoped to give further instances relating to
this matter, but Ihave, unfortunately, been
unable to secure additional data.
The general interest I have always had
in the spawning of the eel has led me, from
time to time during the past twenty-five
years, to examine the condition of the
ovary in numbers of specimens which have
been brought to the New York markets
during various seasons. The eggs which
I have, however, noticed in this material
were never larger than some which I
observed twenty years ago in the so-
called ‘eel-fat,’ that is to say, minute
ovarian eggs, measuring possibly .03 mm.
in diameter. It has long been known, in a
general way, that in this neighborhood the
eels are usually taken in great numbers dur-
ing November and December, at the time of
their passage seaward down the Hudson or
in Gravesend Bay; and it has always been
supposed that the spawning takes place
within a month or so of this time, since in
the early spring the elvers (montées), which
ascend the rivers, are found never measur-
ing less than two inches in length. That
the actual spawning-time, however, may be
a much later one, seems to me now more
than probable for the following reason: On
May 8, 1898, my attention was brought
to an eel containing ova which separated
readily from the ovary and filled the cavity
of the abdomen, and I am able to give the
following notes relating to this very un-
usual specimen. JI find it was taken at At-
lantic Highlands by Lewis Morris, in rela-
tively shallow water, between two and
three fathoms, in a locality which is well
known as an eeling ground. The color of
the specimen was relatively bright, but not
unusually so, nor was the eye notably
SCIENCE, 741
larger than in similar specimens from the
same locality. The specimen was rela-
tively small, measuring 42 cm. in length,
and weighed but 135 grammes. The eggs
are .4 mm. in diameter. A microscopic ex-
amination of the ova made by my friend,
Professor Dean, of Columbia University,
shows that the germinative vesicle is clearly
defined, and that the egg is all but ma-
ture. The ova, as I have already noted,
are readily shaken free from the ovarian
tissue.
The distinct interest of this observation
appears to be this, that the eel may, in ex-
ceptional instances at least, ripen its eggs
in relatively shallow water, possibly in the
inlets of many of the bays and sounds, in-
stead of at the great depths which the
European observers have hitherto regarded
as necessary for sexual maturation. As far
as I am aware, the only instance of the tak-
ing of a sexually matured eel has been in
waters of one hundred or more fathoms in
depth. In all these instances, moreover,
the female eel has been of considerable size,
at least half again as large as the present
example.
The present specimen, moreover, gives
us a clue to the spawning time of the eel in
our neighboring waters; in any event, it
demonstrates that here the season of ovula-
tion, during the month of May or there-
abouts, is certainly many months later than
in the Mediterranean, for in the latter
locality, according to Grassi and Calan-
druccio (Fischerei Zeitung, X XII., 428), the
eggs can only be found between the months
of September and January. I should note,
however, that the possibility is not ex-
cluded that the present eel was of excep-
tional sexual characters, like the small ex-
amples of shad showing almost ripened
eggs which are sometimes taken one and
even two months in advance of the regular
‘run.’
EvuGcENE G. BLACKFORD.
742
EVOLULION OF THE EMBOUCHURE IN NORTH
AMERICAN INDIAN FLAGEOLETS.
Instrument No. 76,164 in the U. S. Na-
tional Museum, from the Cocopa Indians, is
made of cane. The septum of the reed is
not removed, but two small holes are burnt
into the cavity, one on either side of the
septum and the wood between the holes re-
moved. By covering the upper hole and
the intervening space between the holes
with the finger and blowing in the upper
end of the reed, a proper direction is given
to the breath against the outer edge of the
lower hole and a whistling sound is pro-
duced.. Finger holes in the section below
the septum enable the player to produce a
variety of sounds.
The second step in the development of
the embouchure is illustrated by instru-
ments Nos. 107,535 from Tucson, Arizona,
and 11,814 from the Apache Indians, in the
same Territory. Both have the same style
of embouchure as the first named. Buta
piece of cloth or deerskin tied over the up-
per sound hole and the space between the
holes takes the place of the finger in di-
recting the breath. It may be noticed that
in none of the flageolets mentioned has the
maker sharpened the edge of the lip or hole
against which the wind impinges.
The third step is marked by instruments
with a thin edge on the lip where the sound
is made. In No. 8,429, from the Ree In-
dians, one section of quill is used to re-
place the finger or cloth in directing the
breath, and another to form a sharp lip,
and they are lashed down tight with
sinew. In Nos. 72,884 and 94,005, from
the Creek Indians, and in many other ex-
amples, the reed is replaced by a piece of
soft wood split and hollowed to imitate the
interior of the cane flageolet, and the pieces
then joined with gum and thongs. In
these the ‘languid,’ or languette, is left in
the carving and the sound holes are united
by an excavation as in 1 and 2. The air
SCIENCE,
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 230-
channel is formed by excavating a shallow
notch in the upper edge of the diaphragm,
or ‘languid ;’ the lip being a thin piece of
metal; the cover is a piece of wood, laid on
and fastened with thong. This is usually
carved and isa prominent feature in this
style of flageolet commonly called ‘ court-
ing flutes.’
The fourth and last step in this evolution
is exemplified by No. 23,724, from the Sioux
of Devil’s Lake Agency. The air passage
between the two sound holes is not cut out
of the diaphragm between, but a metal plate
extends over and beyond both holes, and
there is a rectangular slot cut out of the
metal long enough to expose both holes and
of the same width as the holes. The carved
cap is lashed on top of the metal plate so
as to form the air passage, which is bounded
by the diaphragm, the edges of the metal
and the underside of the wooden cap.
The Ree specimen, No. 8,429, shows that
the Indian flageolet was in use before the
knowledge of the Europeans. This speci-
men consists of a tube of hard wood. In-
stead of making the embouchure like those
in European whistles and flageolets, placing
a plug with an air channel between it and
the wall of the tube just above the sound
hole, they have made a long hole or slot
in the wall of the tube and plugged the bore,
with the gum or wax so placed that the slot
is open above and below the plug. This
plug, or ‘ languid,’ is not quite even with the
outer surface of the tube; the upper portion
of the slot is covered with a split quill, its
lower edge being even with the lower face of
the plug, or ‘ languid,’ and the shallow space
between the edge of the plug within the
slot and the quill forms the air channel
which directs the wind against the edge of
another split quill lashed over the lower
part of the slot to within a quarter of an
inch or so of the upper quill, thus form-
ing a modification of the Indian cane flageo-
lets, but not of the European form at all.
May 26, 1899. ]
This peculiar style of the Indian flageolet
T have not met with, except among the In-
dians of the United States, and those chiefly
west of the Mississippi. There are whistles
made of bone, stone or other materials by
the Indians of the United States which are of
the European character and they may have
been known before the coming of the Euro-
peans. But the peculiar construction of
the flageolet I have described is so different
from the common form that I have no
doubt of its entirely Indian origin.
E. H. HAwtey.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
Traité élémentaire de météorologie. Par ALFRED
AnGoT. Paris, Gauthier- Villars. 1899. Pp.
vi+417. Price, 12 francs.
Professor Angot occupies the position of
meteorologist to the Freuch Bureau Central
Météorologique, and is so well known to meteor-
ological workers the world over, that a formal
treatise from his pen will receive careful con-
sideration. It. is not too much to say that
Angot is to-day the foremost meteorologist in
France, and as such his treatise will be con-
sidered an authority in his own country. The
question naturally arises : Does the book repre-
sent the meteorology of to-day ?
The author in his preface explains that he is
not giving a complete treatise on meteorology,
but merely a non-mathematical presentation of
the elements of the science. The subject of
meteorological instruments and their use has
been excellently presented by the author in his
‘Instructions météorologique,’ and he has
omitted this from his present treatise ; thus hav-
ing more space to devote to the results of me-
teorological observations and theories.
Professor Angot remarks that little attention
is paid to instruction in meteorology in the in-
stitutions of learning in France, and he refers
to the contrast existing in the United States,
where ‘a great number of special chairs are
devoted to meteorology in the high schools
as well as in the universities.’ I must say that
Iam surprised to learn of this activity in the
study of meteorology in our country, for my
SCIENCE.
743
own observation has revealed an almost utter
indifference, in fact the indifference which
comes from ignorance, to the claims of meteor-
ology on the part of those who have the say of
what shall and what shail not be taught in our
schools and colleges. If there is any institu-
tion in the United States, except Harvard Uni-
versity, that devotes $500 a year to meteoro-
logical instruction I have not yet heard of it ;
and, looking at the matter from another point
of view, it may be remarked that our pub-
lishers who have brought out works on ele-
mentary meteorology express a disinclination
to have their fingers burned by a repetition of
the experiment.
Angot has divided his work into five books,
which follow a brief introduction. Book I.
treats of the Temperature; Book II. of the
Atmospheric Pressure and Wind ; Book III. of
the Water in the Atmosphere ; Book IV. of the
Disturbances in the Atmosphere; Book V. of
the Forecasting of the Weather and Meteoro-
logical Periods.
In the introduction the author explains the
derivation of average values, the various
periodic changes which occur in meteorology
and the significance of interpolation.
Under the heading Temperature there is
given first an excellent chapter on actinometry,
which is followed by the usual treatment of the
periodic diurnal and annual changes of tempera-
ture, and their variations with change of alti-
tude, latitude and continental or oceanic sur-
roundings, and the distribution of temperature
over the earth’s surface. An unusually full
section treating of the influence of temperature
on vegetation, anda quite lengthy chapter on
the temperature of the soil and water surface
closes this book. The charts representing the
geographical distribution of the temperature
(and the other elements) show the convergence
of the meridians, and are consequently an im-
provement on the ordinary Mercator’s projec-
tion.
The treatment of the barometric pressure is
especially full as regards the diurnal variation ;
and, as was to have been expected, the cause of
the semi-diurnal oscillation is referred to as still
unknown.
The general conceptions concerning the direc-
744 SCIENCE.
tion, force and velocity of the wind are fully
explained, but it is not until the author reaches
the subject of the causes of the wind, and its re-
lations with the temperature and pressure, that
the reader’s greatest interest is aroused. For
it is here that the modern aspect of meteorology
really begins, and it is just here that the author
encounters his greatest difficulties. He gives
first the cause and maintenance of fluid motions
as depending on the differences of pressure at
the same level, and establishes the complete
circuit of such movements of the air; he then
proceeds to explain the meaning of the terms
isobaric lines and barometric gradients. Then
follow, in succession, the influence of the earth’s
rotation on the movements of the air, the curve
of inertia, the formation of cyclonic and anti-
eyclonic whirls, and the circulation of the air
around centers of warm or cold air. After this
comes the general circulation of the atmosphere;
the constant winds, the ‘ Trades ;’ the seasonal
winds, the monsoons; the diurnal winds, the
land and sea breezes, mountain winds, ete.
I must confess to a feeling of disappointment
upon reading this part of Professor Angot’s
book. I had hoped that he would have given
us a simple, clear, logical development of the
air circulation somewhat after the manner of
Ferrel’s theory, but which should include the
views of the best European investigators. That
is what we need ; but the author has contented
himself with the older method of a disconnected
treatment of the different features of the at-
mospheric circulation, some of which have been
treated in one way and some in other ways by
the various investigators who first developed
them. I think that all of those who have tried
to present in an elementary manner the results
of the later investigators concerning the ‘ cir-
culation of the atmosphere’ have attempted an
impossible short cut in meteorological litera-
ture, and that there must first be written an
advanced treatment of the subject, which can
later be simplified for an elementary treatise.
Until this elaborate treatise has been written I
think that Ferrel’s development of the subject
as given in his ‘ Popular Treatise of the Winds’
(New York, 1889) will still remain the best for
presentation to the student or general reader.
We must bear in mind that Ferrel preceded
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 230.
this popular exposition of the subject by his
highly technical ‘Recent Advances in Meteor-
ology.’
In Angot’s chapter on atmospheric humidity
the sections on condensation and clouds deserve:
special mention, and the reproduction of cloud
photographs are unusually good. Under rain-
fall the charts showing the continental distribu-
tion of this element are valuable.
The subject of meteorological optics is really
too difficult for presentation in a very elemen-
tary treatise on meteorology, but the author
has succeeded rather better than is usual in his
brief treatment of the subject.
The development of the subject of cyclones,
thunder-squalls and spout phenomena is very
full ; but Faye’s theories are given perhaps un-
due prominence from the German and Ameri-
can points of view.
In this, as in other recent treatises, the sub-
ject of Weather Predictions has not the space
devoted to it which its practical importance
demands.
The last chapter takes up briefly the meteor-
ological periods or cycles, and cosmic influ-
ences.
Taking Angot’s book as a whole, there is a
deliberateness of treatment of each topic which
can only be attained either by the making ofa
bulky volume or the exclusion of many impor-
tant topics which deserve mention ; and in the
reviewer’s opinion the use of the work as a text-
book will be lessened thereby, but its value to
the general reader will be increased. The lack
of an index is, however, a most serious draw-
back to the free use of the book as a work of
reference, for it requires the knowledge of a
specialist to be able to turn at once to minor
topics by the aid of the rather full table of con-
tents alone.
Professor Angot’s ‘Meteorology’ is a much
more important contribution to French litera-
ture than it is to the world’s literature of the
subject, and it will, undoubtedly, do a great
amount of good in supplying French readers
with information concerning the present con-
dition of a subject of very rapidly increasing
interest. The French meteorological literature
of recent years has not been nearly as abundant
as that of other countries, and we trust that
oe ces
MAY 26, 1899. ]
this new book may arouse to action other
authors and publishers, and especially such as
will devote their energies to the presentation of
the new meteorology. FRANK WALDO.
The Genesis and Dissolution of the Faculty of
Speech. A Clinical and Psychological Study
of Aphasia. By JoserH Coins, M. D., Pro-
fessor of Diseases of the Mind and Nervous
System in the New York Post-graduate Med-
ical School; Neurologist to the New York City
Hospital, ete. Awarded the Alvarenga Prize
of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia,
1897. New York, The Macmillan Company.
1898. Pp. viii+432.
This volume, to which was awarded the
Alvarenga prize of the College of Physicians of
Philadelphia for 1897, is a monograph of im-
portance. There is no more fruitful field of
investigation than the various forms of speech
disturbance, for the student both of psychology
and pathological anatomy. That progress has
been slow is due to the fact, as Collins points
out, that observation and analysis of speech de-
fect has been inaccurate and post-mortem ex-
aminations incomplete. If not offering very
much that is new the book before us has the
merit of calling attention to our deficiencies
and of urging greater care in the future. The
author shows from beginning to end an admi-
rable grasp of his subject and a complete ac-
quaintance with the literature, which he has
used with skill to produce throughout an emi-
nently readable and stimulating book.
The monograph opens with a chapter on
‘Disorders of intellectual expression, known
as aphasia.’ This is largely a discussion and
criticism of terms, the outcome of which is a
general classification of aphasia as follows:
1. True aphasia—-aphasia of apperception.
Due to lesion of any constituent of the speech
region, the zone of language.
2. Sensory aphasia. Due to lesion of the
central and peripheral pathways leading to the
zone of language.
83. Motor aphasia. Due to lesion of the motor
pathways, over which motor impulses travel in
passing to the peripheral speech musculature.
4. Compound aphasia. Any combination of
two or more of these.
SCIENCE, 745.
Such a classification the author regards as
sufficient for all practical purposes, but as a
concession to established usage he makes cer-
tain sub-divisions in order to avoid possible con-
fusion of nomenclature. For example, he re-
tains the word ‘motor’ as applied to aphasia
produced by lesion of Broca’s convolution
‘solely becau-e such usage has been consecrated
by time,’ and not because he believes this center
to be in reality entirely motor.
Following this chapter is a valuable historical
sketch comprised in twenty-three pages, with
a good bibliography. Charcot’s autonomous
speech centers are sharply criticised, both here
and later in the book, and Dejerine’s services
to the subject receive the warmest appreciation,
particularly because of their general opposition
to Charcot’s views,
Under the heading of ‘An analysis of the
genesis and function of speech,’ Collins an-
alyses, from the point of view of physiological
psychology, the various elements which ulti-
mately result in the development of the faculty
of speech. It is clearly too large a subject for
so cursory a handling, and on the whole is less
satisfactory than the discussions which are con-
cerned solely with the physical side of the pro-
cess.
Chapter IV. concerns itself with remarks on
the anatomy of the brain, the zone of language,
and the evidence regarding a special graphic
motor center. Itis largely anatomical and pre-
sents with clearness the facts we should know
relative to the structure of the brain in gen-
eral, and particularly of those parts to which are
attributed special functions in regard to speech.
Flechsig’s recently expressed views as to the
zones of projection and the zones of association
are narrated in considerable detail, because of
their more or less direct bearing upon the con-
ception of aphasia which the author has elab-
orated. Collins is definite in his opinion that
the zone of language, made up mainly of Broca’s
convolution, the posterior portion of the first
temporal convolution, and the angular gyrus,
does not send fibers directly into the motor pro-
jection tract. The Rolandic cortex must first
be called upon before an idea can be expressed
as speech. He is equally confident that we
now have sufficient evidence to overthrow com-
746 SCIENCE.
pletely Charcot’s conception of four more or
less independent centers and particularly of a
so-called graphic center, and that we may con-
fidently maintain that the zone of language is,
as it were, a unit in its action, no part of which
may be seriously injured, without in a measure
impairing the entire mechanism of speech.
These claims are supported by much skilful
analysis of reported cases, and a careful reading
leaves us with the conviction of the reasonable-
ness of Collins’ views.
The greater part of the remainder of the book
is taken up with a more detailed consideration
of the varieties of speech disturbance, fre-
quently and pleasantly interrupted by the nar-
ration either of personal cases or of cases re-
ported by others. In the discussion of motor
aphasia much stress is laid upon a distinction
too often overlooked, namely, that between
cortical and sub-cortical motor aphasia. In the
failure to recognize this distinction—and the
same applies to sensory aphasia—Collins sees
one of the greatest impediments to progress in
our knowledge ; and, conversely, the greatest
possible hope for more accurate knowledgein the
future must lie in the careful microscopic study
of the brains of aphasic individuals, particularly
when the lesion lies beneath the cortex. The
details of differential diagnosis do not concern
the present review, but these chapters are to be
cordially recommended to those desiring some-
thing beyond a vague conception of the real
problems of the future.
The diagnosis, etiology, morbid anatomy,
treatment and, finally, the medico-legal aspects
of aphasia are discussed in a somewhat less
complete form, as the scope of the book amply
justifies. Collins disagrees with certain other
writers as regards the responsibility of the
aphasic. His contention here is that in so far as
internal speech is unaffected, or put anatom-
ically, if the cortical areas for stored memories
are intact, a person must be regarded as re-
sponsible, other things being equal. If, on the
contrary, such areas are involved, e. g., the area
for motor word memories, the person’s testa-
mentary capacity should always be called in
question. Hence, again, the extreme impor-
tance of determining whether the lesion lead-
ing to the speech defect be actually in the zone
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 230.
of language or in that part of the nerve
mechanism which simply subserves the emis-
sion of words—sub-cortical.
In general the monograph must be regarded
as a valuable contribution to American neuro-
logical literature. The subject-matter is pre-
sented in a scholarly way, and with a directness
and certainty of his position which is char-
acteristic of the author. Itis to be regretted
that Bastian’s recent work should have been
published too late to be fully included in Col-
lins’s critical analysis. On the whole the au-
thor’s conception and treatment of his subject
seem to us sound and representative of the best
type of scientific discussion. He gives us few
pew observations, worked out with the detail,
particularly after death, which he so urgently
recommends, but this, no doubt, is due to lack
of opportunity.
The style is for the most part clear. There
is, however, a constant tendency to use unnec-
essarily pedantic words, for which we can find
no excuse. In writing on scientific subjects
simplicity of diction is surely a first requisite,
and this Collins lacks. The following words
and expressions are correct, it may be, but cer-
tainly not well chosen : ‘ Ancientness,’ ‘ super-
ambient cortex,’ ‘speechfulness,’ ‘cotton rain
guard,’ ‘perishment,’ ‘disablement.’ This is,
however, a minor criticism in an otherwise ex-
cellent piece of work.
The book is admirably printed on rather un-
necessarily heavy paper and the proof reading
is almost faultless. An index adds materially
to its usefulness and convenience.
Bie Wistelss
Codex Borbonicus. Manuscrit Méxicain de la
Bibliothéque Du Palais Bourbon, Livre divi-
natoire et Rituel figuré. Publié en fac-sim-
ile avec une commentaire explicatif par
M. E.-T. Hamy. Paris, 1889. Ernest LE-
ROUX, Editeur. Text pp. 1-24, introduction
and 4 chapters. Plates folded screen fashion
No’s. 2-88 in colors.
This ancient Mexican book, formerly known
as the Codex Législatif, is now published for the
first time, in exact fac-simile, color, size and
form. The original is on maguey paper, and
MAy 26, 1899.]
the drawing is the work of an artist, displaying
an accuracy not seen in any of the other Mexi-
can codices. It has been hidden from the world
in the recesses of the library of the Chamber of
Deputies, Paris. The writer had the priviledge
of carefully examining it in 1895, in company
with the Duke of Loubat, through whose gener-
osity its publication has been made possible.
The bright colors with which it was painted are
still well preserved, and the whole codex isin ex-
cellent condition. The first two pages and prob-
ably the last two are missing, undoubtedly having
been destroyed, or abstracted shortly subsequent
to the conquest. The division and mutilation
of the Mexican codices is a well-known fact.
This book, folded screen fashion, is painted
upon but one side, unlike the majority of the
Pre-Columbian codices. The pages bear texts
written in poor Spanish, partly explanatory of
their meaning. The first 18 pages contain the
Tonalamatl, the divinatory or astrological calen-
dar of the Aztecs. The contents of the missing
first two pages can be supplied by a study of the
other ritualistic calendars, of the Codices Vati-
canus 3773, Vaticanus 3738, Borgianus, Bo-
logna and the Boturini-Aubin-Goupil Tonala-
matl. This subject has been exhaustively treated
by Dr. Ed. Seler. The Tonalamatl of the Codex
Borbonicus is far more complete than any
other yet published, and helps to clear up some
of their obscure points. Pages 19 to 38 contain
astronomical, religious and historical material
of great interest, and somewhat resemble the
paintings found in the Codex Telleriano Re-
mensis of the National Library, Paris, and its
counterpart Codex Vaticanus 3738. Pages 37
to 38 are instructive from the historical stand-
point. Page 387 represents the two prophets
who foretold to Montezuma the coming of the
Spaniards to subdue the country. The dates:
1, Tochtli; 2, Acatl; 3, Tecpatl, 1506-7-3, ac-
company these figures, and suggest that the
priests had heard of the appearance of the ships
of Diaz de Solis and Pinzon off the coast of
Yucatan in 1506, notice of which was undoubt-
edly carried to most parts of the culture area.
When all the old Mexican codices are repro-
duced separately then the study will be much
simplified, and it is gratifying to note the
progress now being made in this direction, at
SCIENCE.
747
the present time several unpublished codices
being in process of publication.
M. H. SAVILLE.
Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grund-
lage. Von Dr. A. F. W. Scuimper. Mit
502 Tafeln und Abbildungen in autotypie, 5
Tafeln in Lichtdruck, und 4 geographischen
Karten. Jena, Gustav Fischer. 1898. 8ve.
Pp. vi+ 876.
The appearance of this text marks a distine-
tive period in the development of phytogeog-
raphy. The treatment is primarily ecological,
but the floristic is presented so fully and woven
in so logically that the arrangement is strictly
phytogeographical in the best sense. Such a
coordinate presentation of the subject-matter is
novel. The standard texts, especially such
classic ones as Humboldt’s, De Candolle’s and
Grisebach’s, have been almost wholly floristic,
while Warming’s recent Lehrbuch der Oeko-
logischen Pflanzengeographie is, of course,
purely ecological. Sketches of particular floras
have, likewise, been floristic in character, to the
practical exclusion of the ecological standpoint.
Naturally, this does not mean that the author
is the first to perceive the essential relation be-
tween floristic and ecology, a relation practi-
cally of cause and effect. The recognition of
this fact is as old as Humboldt’s first work. It
does indicate, however, the advance made in
systematizing and in making more thorough the
methods of investigating the floral covering.
The appearance of the present excellent text
evidences the author’s realization of his oppor-
tunity. The skillful manner in which the mat-
ter is handled bespeaks no small mastery of the
subject. The volume contains a number of
original and suggestive ideas, only a few of
which can be mentioned here.
The work consists of three parts, the first
treating of the factors in ecology, the second of
formations and plant societies, the third of the
zones and regions of the floral covering of the
globe. The ecological factors considered in the
first part are water, temperature, light, soil, at-
mosphere and animals. The treatment of each
subject is as exhaustive as can be expected in a
general text, especially in consideration of the
enormous mass of detail available. In thorough-
748
ness and in manner of presentation of this por-
tion, the book is probably without an equal.
With respect to water content as a factor,
Schimper’s divisions agree with those of Warm-
ing, except that he uses the term tropophyte
for mesophyte to apply to all plants not hydro-
phytes or xerophytes. The same criticism ap-
plies here that has been made elsewhere against
Warming’s mesophytes. The term is a con-
venient one, but it designates an ill-defined
group and is almost impossible in application.
The analysis of the conditions producing xero-
phytes is critical; such conditions are here
grouped with reference to decrease of absorp-
tion and increase of transpiration. Under the
former are ranged small water content, abun-
dance of salts or humic acid in the soil, low soil
temperature ; under the latter, low degrees of
humidity of the air, high temperature, low at-
mospheric pressure, intense illumination. Cor-
responding to these characteristics, xerophytic
habitats are: (1) deserts and steppes, with a
dry substratum and a dry atmosphere, often,
also, with excessive heat and intense sunlight ;
(2) rocks and tree trunks, with low water con-
tent due to rapid drying; (8) sandhills, rubble,
talus, with extremely porous soil; (4) seashore,
solfatara, with abundant salts in solution in the
soil; (5) moors, with humic acid in the soil ; (6)
polar areas, either in glaciated mountain ranges
orin arctic latitudes, with extremely low ground
temperature ; (7) alpine mountains with rarefac-
tion of the atmosphere and strong insolation.
The consideration of hydrophytes and tropo-
phytesis naturally much morerestricted. Schim-
per regards water plants proper as descended
from primitive unstable amphibious forms—a
conclusion rather too theoretical to be gener-
ally accepted. He closes this section with a
condensed statement of the relation of water to
reproduction and to dissemination.
In the consideration of temperature the
author expressly states that he regards this
factor of primary importance. He places its
treatment after that of water solely because the
modifications due to the latter are more easily
investigated and determined. The considera-
tion of temperature extremes is followed by that
of optimum temperatures, in which the work of
Sachs and Haberlandt is largely drawn upon.
SCIENCE.
_ cellence.
[N.S. Von. 1X. No. 230.
Acclimatization is touched upon only briefly, for
the most part with reference to Mayr’s contri-
butions. For the general reader one or two
re-statements are interesting: that no portion of
the earth’s surface is too cold for plant life, as,
with few exceptions, no portion is too hot ; that
it is nowhere too dark, nowhere too bright, for
plant life. There is opportunity to take ex-
ception to the sweeping nature of these state-
ments, but they are hardly intended to be taken
as absolute. Under atmosphere is considered
atmospheric pressure, air content of water and
winds. The relatively much greater effect of
the wind upon woody formations is pointed out,
as also the influence of the wind upon transpira-
tion. No mention is made, however, of the
action of the wind in dune regions, sandhills
and deserts, where it plays a primary réle in
the determination of the floral covering. The
importance of winds in pollination and dis-
semination is treated briefly.
The chapter upon soil as an ecological factor
is very skillfully summarized. Though brief, it
is so comprehensive that recapitulation is im-
possible here; one can only reaffirm its ex-
The influence of animals upon vege-
tation has not been given as much attention as
would be expected. Too little use has been
made of the vast accumulation of data in this
field. In many instances the ecological signifi-
cance has not been fully wrought out. More-
over, a large number of important biological
factors in ecology, arising from the interrela-
tions of plants to plants, and of plants to the
physical conditions, such as vegetation pressure,
zonation, layering, etc., have been entirely
neglected.
It is impossible to accept the author’s group-
ing of formations into climatic and edaphic in
the absolute way he seems tointendit. Forests,
prairies and deserts are not purely, nor always
primarily, determined by climatic factors. The
so-called edaphic formations, determined
though they are by soil characteristic, are often
not formations, but zones or patches. They
are but rarely coordinate with the author’s
climatic formations. The conception of the
facies, moreover, differs from that of Drude,
which has been accepted in this country. The
division of the floral covering into forests,
MAY 26, 1899.]
prairies or steppes and deserts is, of course,
primary and affords an altogether satisfactory
basis for the arrangement of the formations.
The statement that the constitution of the floral
covering is determined by the three factors,
temperature, hydrometeors and soil, is axio-
matic; one is inclined, however, to give only
partial assent to the conclusion that temperature
determines the flora, hydrometeors the vegeta-
tion, and soil composition the formation. The
analysis of the determining factors of forest,
prairie and desert vegetation is excellent.
Moderate frequency of precipitation is of first
importance for forest vegetation. A rainy
growing period is less favorable, the primary
requisite being considerable water content in the
soil, especially at some depth. The time of year
in which the water supply is replenished is unim-
portant. The latter may occur throughout the
year or only periodically. In the last case the
rainy season may coincide for the most part, or
entirely, with the growing period, as in the
tropics and in the interior of Argentina, or
with a period of relative rest, as in extra-trop-
ical regions with wet winters, Mediterranean
countries, Chili, California, south and southwest
Australia. Forests are limited only by such
degrees of dryness as prohibit all other vegeta-
tion, with the exception of fungi and algee. The
polar limit of forested areas is determined by
dry winds during the season of frosts. Sum-
marizing, a climate favorable to forestation
presents the following conditions: warm grow-
ing period, constantly moist substratum, moist,
quiet atmosphere, particularly in winter. It is
unimportant whether the water content of the
soil issupplied from meteoric or telluric sources,
whether the precipitation is frequent or rare,
coincident with the growing period or the period
of rest. A climate with dry winters is unfavor-
able to forests in the highest degree, since the
trees are unable to recover from the transpira-
tion loss of the winter.
For prairies and steppes a moist substratum
is unimportant, but a moist upper surface is
essential. The most favorable conditions for
grass vegetation are frequent, if only slight,
precipitation during the growing period and
coneomitant moderate warmth. Prairies are
affected little by the moisture of the substratum,
SCIENCE. 749
except in the case of extreme capillarity of the
surface, by the dryness of the air, especially
during the period of rest, and by winds. Dry-
ness in the maximum of the growing period,
spring and early summer, is inimical, in a high
degree, to grass vegetation. Axiomatically, in
a climate favorable to forestation, forests pre-
dominate; in one favorable to grasses, prairies
and steppes are the rule. In transition regions
predominance is determined by adaptation to
edaphic factors. Extreme departures from the
mean favorable to forest or to prairie vegeta-
tion produce deserts.
It is impossible even to touch upon the third
part of the volume, which constitutes by far the
largest portion. It deals with the zones and
regions of the vegetative covering of the earth.
The latter is treated in the most exhaustive
manner since Grisebach under the captions:
tropical zone, temperate zone, arctic zone,
montane regions and hydrophytic formations.
Each zone is considered in a very logical man-
ner with reference to the three main manifesta-
tions of the vegetation, forest, prairie and
desert. The high value of the text is greatly
enhanced by the large number of fine illustra-
tions. It seems impossible to commend too
highly this marked feature of the book. It may
be regarded as significant of the time when
phytogeographical results will be embodied, for
the most part, in graphic fashion, in photo-
graphs, abundance-frequence indices and charts,
and formational lists and contrasts.
FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA.
Victor von Richter’s Organic Chemistry. Edited
by Professor R. ANscHUTz, University of
Bonn. Authorized Translation by EDGAR F.
Smiru, Professor of Chemistry, University of
Pennsylvania. Third American from the
eighth German edition. Vol. I., Chemistry
of the Aliphatic Series. Philadelphia, P.
Blakiston’s Sons & Co. 1899. Pp. 625.
Price, $3.
Anschiitz, in editing v. Richter’s ‘Organic
Chemistry,’ has raised it from the rank of a good
descriptive manual to a place in the front rank
of books on this subject. He has had the aid of
Emil Fischer in the supervision of the chapters
750
on the carbohydrates and on uric acid; of v.
Baeyer, Claisen, Waitz and others on the work
in their respective fields.
The introduction occupies 77 pages, and
among other subjects includes condensed pres-
entations of the aims of physical chemistry and
stereochemistry, of the work based on the
optical and magnetic properties of carbon com-
pounds, and of that based on measurements of
conductivity. The book is written tersely and
clearly. The nomenclature in common use is
retained, but that recommended by the Geneva
Conference is also given. The literature and
historical references are abundant.
Professor Smith’s translation is very good.
A slip is on page 122, where wine is said to be
obtained from ‘St. John’s berries ;’ a term not
found in the Century Dictionary. The German
word ‘Johannisbeeren’ means currants. The
volume before us contains the results of the
latest work on the subject, and, as the second
(and last) volume on the aromatic series is
promised by the publishers during the present
year, the student purchasing this excellent book
may feel confident that he has the last word on
the subject up to the date of publication.
E. RENOUF.
Physical Chemistry for Beginners. By Dr. CH.
VAN DEVENTER. With an Introduction by
Professor J. H. VAn’t Horr. Authorized
American edition from the German edition.
Translated by BERTHRAM B. BoLTwoop,
Pu.D., Instructor in Physical Chemistry in the
Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University.
First edition, first thousand. New York,
John Wiley & Sons; London, Chapman &
Hall, Limited. 1899. Pp. 154.
In the preface it is stated that ‘‘in the book
at hand the author has endeavored to collect
the most important results of physical chem-
istry in such a manner that this important
branch of modern chemistry may be accessible
to those who have not made an exhaustive
study of physics and mathematics. The re-
quirements of students of medicine and phar-
macy, as well as of elementary chemistry, have
been especially considered in the preparation of
this work.’’
Chapters are devoted to the fundamental
SCIENCE,
(N.S. Von. 1X. No. 230.
laws of composition, the properties of gases?’
thermochemistry, solutions, phenomena of light
and the periodic system. It would seem that
a chapter on electrochemistry would add to the
value of the book.
The work has been used by Van’t Hoff in
connection with his lectures on chemistry to
students in Amsterdam, and is spoken of as
having furnished him welcome assistance.
The work of translation has been done with
care by Dr. Boltwood, his purpose being, in
part, to place in the hands of his own students
a book which shall contain a clear and concise
statement of the fundamental facts of physical
chemistry.
Harry C. JONES.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
Das Tierreich.
tide.
7 Lieferung, Demodicide und Sarcop-
G. CANESTRIUM and P. KRAMER. Pp. xvi
+193. M. 9.20. 8 Lieferung, Scorpiones und
Pedipalpi. KARL KRAEPELIN. Pp. xviii + 265.
M. 12.60. Berlin, R. Friedlander und Sohn. 1899.
Steinbruchindustrie und Steinbruchgeologie. O. HERR-
MANN. Berlin, Borntraeger. 1899. Pp. xvi-+
428. M. 10.
Essai critique sur Vhypothese des atomes dans la science
contemporaine. ARTHUR HANNEQUEN. Paris,
Alcan. 1899. Second Edition. Pp. 457.
The Newer Remedies. VIRGIL COBLENTZ. Philadel-
phia, P. Blakiston’s Sons & Co. 1899. Third Edi-
tion. Pp. vi+147. $1.00.
The Psychology of Reasoning. ALFRED BINET. Trans-
lated from the second French edition by ADAM
GOWANS WHITE. Chicago, The Open Court Pub-
lishing Co. 1899. Pp. 191.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND ARTICLES.
THE first article in the American Naturalist
for May is by H. 8. Jennings, and isa continua-
tion of ‘Studies on Reactions to Stimuliin Uni-
cellular Organisms.’ The present part, III.,
treats of ‘Reactions to Localized Stimuli in
Spirostomum and Stentor,’ the writer reaching
the conclusion that the organisms react as in-
dividuals and not as substances. But while it
will not do to think of their reactions as those
of chemical substances, neither will it do to at-
tribute to unicellular organisms the psycholog-
ical powers of higher animals. Under the title
of ‘Vacation Notes, II., The Northern Pacific
MAy 26, 1899. ]
Coast,’ Douglas H. Campbell touches on the
botany of that region. W. D. Matthew con-
siders the question: ‘Is the White River Tertiary
an Aolian Formation,’ deciding it in the affirma-
tive. F. H. Herrick describes several cases of
‘Ovum in Ovo,’ and after classifying the vari-
ous methods in which such abnormalities occur
presents theories which account for them. The
concluding paper by T. D. A. Cockerell is ‘On
the Habits and Structure of the Coccid Genus
Margarodes.’ Among the editorials is one on
‘The Gypsy Moth and Economic Entomology,’
in which the ground is taken that it is not worth
while to continue the present extravagant
policy. The number is unusually full of brief
and good reviews of recent scientific literature.
THE March number of the Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society contains: ‘On
Singular Points of Linear Differential Equations
with Real Coefficients,’ by Professor Maxime
Bocher ; ‘ The Hessian of the Cubic Surface,’ by
Dr. J. I. Hutchinson; ‘On the Simple Iso-
morphisms of a Hamiltonian Group to Itself,’
-by Dr. G. A. Miller; ‘Galois’s Collected
Works,’ by Professor James Pierpont; ‘Three
Memoirs on Geometry,’ by Professor Edgar
Odell Lovett; ‘Stahl’s Abelian Functions,’ by
Dr. Virgil Snyder ; ‘Calculus of Finite Differ-
ences,’ by Dr. D. A. Murray ; ‘Notes’ and
‘ New Publications.’ The April number of the
Bulletin contains an account of the February
meeting of the American Mathematical Society,
by Professor F. N. Cole; ‘Determinants of
Quaternions,’ by Professor James Mills Pierce ;
‘The Largest Linear Homogeneous Group with
an Invariant Pfaffian,’ by Dr. L. E. Dickson ;
‘Asymptotic Lines on Ruled Surfaces having
Two Rectilinear Directrices,’ by Dr. Virgil
Snyder; ‘Willson’s Graphics,’ by. Dr. J. B.
Chittenden ; ‘Pascal’s Repertorium of Higher
Mathematics,’ ‘D’Ocagne’s Descriptive and
Infinitesimal Geometry,’ by Professor Edgar
Odell Lovett ; ‘ Sophus Lie,’ translation of Pro-
fessor Gaston Darboux’s notice; ‘Notes’ and
‘New Publications.’ The May number of the
Bulletin contains an account of the April meet-
ing of the Chicago Section of the Society, by
Professor Thomas F. Holgate; ‘ An Elementary
Proof that Bessel’s Functions of the Zeroth
Order have an Infinite Number of Real Roots,’
SCIENCE.
751
by Professor Maxime Bécher; ‘A Generaliza-
tion of Appell’s Factorial Functions,’ by Dr. E.
J. Wilezynski; ‘On the Arithmetization of
Mathematics,’ by Professor James Pierpont ;
‘Two Books on the Tides,’ by Professor Ernest
W. Brown; ‘ Notes’ and ‘ New Publications.’
THE Annals of Mathematics will henceforward
be published quarterly, beginning with the num-
ber issued on October 1st, by the department of
mathematics of Harvard University. Professor
Ormond Stone, of the University of Virginia,
who founded and for many years supported the
journal, has consented to act as a member of
the board of editors in codperation with Pro-
fessor H. S. White, of Northwestern University,
and Professors Byerly, Osgood and Bocher, of
Harvard University. The editors state that
their object is to conduct the journal so that it
may appeal not merely to the highly trained
specialist, but to the general mathematieal
public of America from students of mathematics
in the graduate schools of our universities up-
ward. Short research articles will be welcomed,
but highly technical articles will be avoided.
Articles containing little or no absolutely new
matter, but giving a clear presentation of some
important but not readily accessible field of
mathematics, or a more thorough presentation
of some subject which is generally treated in an
unsatisfactory manner, are especially desired.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
THE regular meeting was held on April 138,
1899.
The first paper of the evening was read by
Mr. J. K. Haywood, and was entitled ‘Some
Boiling-Point Curves.’ The results obtained
have led to the following conclusions :
I. All mixtures of the following pairs of
liquids boil at temperatures between the boil-
ing points of the constituents : alcohol-water,
aleohol-ether, chloroform-carbon tetra-chloride,
acetone-water and acetone-ether.
II. A solution containing 17.5 % alcohol in
carbon tetra-chloride distills without change at
65.5° approximately, under a pressure of 768.4
mm. of mercury.
IfI. A solution containing 12.5 % methyl] al-
702
cohol in chloroform distills without change at
54° approximately, under a pressure of 770.2
mm. of mercury.
IV. A solution containing 12-13 % methyl
alcohol in acetone distills without change at
55.9°, under a pressure of 764.8 mm. of mer-
cury. The boiling point of this mixture is about
0.8° below that of the constituent which is pres-
ent in greatest amount.
Vv. A solution containing 15-20 % of carbon
tetra-chloride in acetone distills without change
at a temperature but 0.05° below that of the
pure acetone, and all mixtures containing more
than 40 % acetone boil within one degree of the
boiling point.
VI. The close proximity of the boiling points
of the constituents appears to be a favorable
condition for the existence of a maximum or
minimum point on the boiling-point curve.
VII. In general one constituent remaining
the same, mixtures with substances of similar
chemical constitution yield similar boiling-point
curves.
The second paper was read by Dr. F. Kk. Cam-
eron, and was entitled ‘ Boiling Points of Mix-
tures.’
Dr. H. C. Bolton read an interesting paper
on ‘The Development of Pneumatic Chem-
istry,’ which was profusely illustrated with
lantern slides.
?
WILLIAM H. KRue,
Secretary.
GEOLOGICAL CONFERENCE AND STUDENTS’ CLUB
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
Students’ Geological Club, April 11, 1899.—Mr.
L. La. Forge reviewed Gregory’s ‘ Plan of the
Earth,’ indicating several questionable steps in
that writer’s recent exposition of the subject.
Mr. A. W. G. Wilson described a unique lake
in Ontario, which is known as Lake-on-the-
Mountain.
Geological Conference, April 28, 1899.—Mr.
k. E. Burke communicated ‘The Discovery of
Fossils in the Roxbury Conglomerate,’ and will
publish on it at an early date.
Under the title ‘Mineral Veins of the Mys-
tic Quarries, Somerville,’ Mr. R. B. Earle re-
ported the results of his studies in that field.
The veins, which are almost entirely limited to
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. 1X. No. 230.
a dike and a sill, are composed chiefly of cal-
cite, but include small amounts of quartz, pyrite
and prehnite. The speaker divided the fissures
which these veins fill into five classes according
to their origin, which he believed to have been
by contraction of the molten magma, by earth-
quakes, by tortion, by faulting or by decompo-
sition. The growth and enlargement of these
fissures, when once formed, was held to be
mainly due to the expansive force of the vein-
filling substance.
Mr. G. C. Curtis exhibited a topographic
model, which he has constructed, of an area lo-
cated in the eastern foothills of the Cascade
Range, near the great bend of the Columbia
River, in Kitattas County, Washington.
J. M. BOUTWELL,
Recording Secretary.
DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE.
TELEPATHY ONCE MORE.
To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: Why Professor
Titchener should have taken an essay which he
now admits to have completely failed even to
make probable its point, as an example of the
‘brilliant work’ which ‘scientific psychology’
can do in the way of destroying the telepathic
superstition, may be left to be fathomed by read-
ers with more understanding of the ways of
‘Science’ than I possess.
Meanwhile, as one interested in mere ac-
curacy, I must protest against two impressions
which Professor Titchener, in your number of
May 10th, seeks to leave upon the reader’s mind.
The first is that whispering was first consid-
ered by Professor Lehmann. It has been elab-
orately discussed in the 8. P. R. Proceedings
over and over again. Sidgwick’s 6-page discus-
sion of it in the report of his own experiments
is the basis of comparison used by Lehmann in
his ampler but abortive investigation.
The second of Professor Titchener’s implica-
tions is that it was Lehmann who introduced
number-habits, and even forced the admission
of them on the recalcitrant Sidgwick. Lehmann
makes no mention of number-habits. Sidgwick
himself introduces them to account, not for the
thought transference results, but for the many
errors common to the guesses of his Subjects and
May 26, 1899.]
Lehmann’s; the two perhaps had the same
number-habit. Does Professor Titchener seri-
ously think that a number-habit in a guesser
can account for the amount of coincidence be-
tween the numbers which he guesses and those
upon counters drawn at random out of a bag?
Even in anti-telepathic Science accuracy of
representation is required, and I am pleading
not for telepathy, but only for accuracy.
WILLIAM JAMES.
ON THE WEHNELT CURRENT BREAKER,
To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: The following
facts, noticed while experimenting with the
Wehnelt electrolytic current breaker, may be
not without interest :
In order to test if the action of the breaker
could be due to a spheriodal state, produced
by the high temperature of the positive elec-
trode, some means for measuring the tempera-
ture of this electrode had to be obtained.
For this purpose I used electrodes of fusible
metals melting at different temperatures, the
temperature of the electrode being neces-
sarily less than that at which the alloy
melts, if the latter remain unfused. In this
way one can at least obtain the superior
limit for the temperature of the electrode.
Starting with a fusible alloy which melted
at about 78° C., the electrode melted as soon
as the circuit was closed. The next metal
used melted at 96° C., and was fused an ap-
preciable, though very short, time after the cur-
rent was established. Finally, using an anode
made of ametal which melted at 168° C., no in-
dication of fusion of the electrode could be de-
tected, even after the breaker had run for ten
minutes at a time. This seems to show that
the temperature of the electrode was far below
200°, the temperature necessary, at atmos-
pheric pressure, for the production of the sphe-
roidal state.
The influence of self-induction on the action
of the breaker was also studied, to some extent.
Diminution of the self-induction in circuit di-
minishes the period of the action, as is shown
by the heightened pitch of the sound produced.
But absence of all self-induction prevents wholly
the working of the breaker. Thecell was used
in a circuit composed of a storage battery, non-
SCIENCE. risss)
inductive electrolytic resistances and wires
wound non-inductively. With this arrange-
ment no interruption of the current could be
produced, though the electromotive force was
raised to thirty volts and the current to
eighteen amperes. As soon, however, as a coil
with self-induction was put in the circuit the
action of the breaker recommenced. Induction
in the circuit is essential to the action of this
form of interrupter.
Howarp McCLENAHAN,.
PHYSICAL DEPARTMENT, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.
THERMODYNAMIC ACTION OF ‘STEAM-GAS.’
ONE of the most valuable papers recently
published in the fields of applied science is that
which has just been reprinted from the Revue de
Mécanique of the last year, the work of Profes-
sor Sinigagalia, a well-known author in that
field.*
This is the latest and, in many respects, the
most complete discussion of a supremely impor-
tant subject ; one to which the minds of men of
science and engineers the world over are now
again turning after a period of many years,
during which the thermodynamic promise of
gain in efficiency in the steam-engine through
the conversion of a vapor into a gas by this
process of superheating had been almost univer-
sally believed to be more than counterbalanced
by the very serious difficulties met in the earlier
days in the attempt to profit by it. Changes
have taken place during the last generation
which are now thought by many authorities to
have largely reduced the obstructions formerly
seemingly fatal to a great thermodynamic ad-
vance.
In the practical thermodynamic operation of
the steam-engine, as M. Bertrand has remarked,
there is no such thing as ‘saturated vapor,’ as
that term is customarily employed by the
thermodynamists. The working fluid is always,
in fact, a mixture of vapor and its liquid, ina
*Application de la Surchauffe aux Machines 4 Va-
peur par M. Francois Sinigaglia, Professeur agrégé
des Ingénieurs de Naples; Ingénieur-Directeur de
1’ Association des Propriétaires d’Appareils 4 Vapeur
dans les Province napolitaines. Extrait de la Revue
de Mécanique (1897-98); Paris, V’ve Ch. Dunod, Edi-
teur, 1898.
7TO4
state of instability as to quality. The investi-
gations of the ‘théorie générique’ made by Ran-
kine, Clausius, Zeuner and others resulted in
establishment of no rational expressions for the
actual heat-exchanges of the real, as distin-
guished from the ideal, engine, and Hirn’s
‘théorié expérimentale,’ as developed by that
great investigator and his disciples, is still the
only resort of the student of the curious extra-
thermodynamic processes accompanying the
thermodynamic operation of the engine.
Superheating has come to be looked upon,
not as method of giving superior thermody-
namic action, but as simply a provision for reduc-
ing internal wastes due to heat-exchanges be-
tween the steam and the metal surrounding it.
Its effectiveness was recognized as early as
Trevethick’s time (1828 or earlier) and became
well understood about the middle of the cen-
tury ; since which time numerous inventions
have been made, looking to its utilization, few
giving any promise of success. The Alsatian
school has revealed very completely the method
and the effect of its adoption, and it has come to
be well understood that its province is simply
to reduce that form of waste known as ‘initial
condensation’ or ‘cylinder condensation.’ Its
successful use would effect the suppression of
those losses in such manner, in the words of
Dwelshauvers-Dery, as to give maximum effi-
ciency by securing the exhaust of the steam
from the engine in the dry and saturated condi-
tion. This is, in his opinion, the practical
criterion of most perfect action. The actual
gain has been found by Hirn to be, in several
eases studied by him experimentally, from 20
to nearly 50 per cent., with a superheat amount-
ing to from 210°C. to 245°C. The nearest ap-
proximation yet reported to the ideal, purely
thermodynamic, case has been effected by this
means—particularly, of late, by Schmidt.
The failures of the past have been due to
difficulties in securing an apparatus which can-
not be rapidly injured by excess of heat in
presence of superheated vapor of water, and a
system of lubrication of the cylinder and piston
eapable of working satisfactorily at the tem-
peratures attained in effective superheating.
The latter obstacle is now overcome, largely, by
the use of the high-test mineral oils ; the former
SCIENCE,
[N.S. VoL. LX. No. 230.
remains a serious obstruction. The increasing
steam-pressures of our day also reduce both the
need and the availability of increasing super-
heat.
The results of successful superheating exhibit
themselves both at the engine and at the boiler,
and, as with multiple-cylinder engines, the gain
at the boiler in economical employment of fuel
is greater than that at the engine through a more
perfect thermodynamic action; for the reduc-
tion of the demand for steam at the engine re-
sults in an increased economy in the produc-
tion of such steam through the larger propor-
tion of heating surface to weight of steam
produced. Thus a gain of 20 per cent. at the
engine may be accompanied by a gain of 22 per
cent. or more in fuel as measured at the boiler.
The desirable amount of superheat is that which
will prevent the condensation of the vapor en-
tering the steam-cylinder and insure its rejection
as saturated vapor at exhaust.
The apparatus employed by various inventors
and investigators in this field, from 1850 to our
own time is described at considerable length by
M. Sinigaglia, and the results of experiment are
recited. In many instances, recently, particu-
larly, it is reported that no serious inconven-
iences were met with in the application of this
system ; in other cases much trouble and some-
times serious accidents resulted, due to the
‘burning’ of the apparatus and its yielding,
thus weakened, to the pressure. Messrs. Lud-
wig and Weber obtained, in an extensive series
of experiments in Alsace, some very encourag-
ing figures. An average gain of 7.5 per cent.,
net, was secured by moderate superheat (44°C.).
Messrs. Walther-Meunier, and Ludwig, later,
reported a gain of 13 to 15 per cent. from a super-
heat of somewhat greater amount. Schwoerer
obtained a gain in efficiency of 15 to 18 per
cent. by superheating 68°C. Hirsch reports
similar figures from an equal amount of gasifica-
tionin a marineapparatus. Schroeter obtained
gains of 10 per cent. and more in a very elab-
orate and detailed investigation, in which the
superheat amounted to 60°C. The most re-
markable results reported are those of Schmidt,
who, by adopting an enormous portion of super-
heating to heating surface (six to one), secureda
superheat of 190°C., and at another time, witha
May 26, 1899. ]
comparatively smail apparatus, secured the
highest record yet established. With another
engine a gain in weight of steam supplied the
engine amounting to nearly 40 per cent. was
effected, and in weight of fuel 28 per cent ; the
difference being due, obviously, to the fact that
each unit-weight of steam carried an abnormal
quantity of stored heat.
Professor Sinigaglia concludes :
1. Superheating vapor is irrefutably proved
to be the most effective system of reduction of
internal wastes of heat in the steam-engine.
2. The higher the degree of superheating at-
tainable, the nearer does the thermodynamic
result approximate that indicated by pure
theory and by the formulas of thermodynamics.
3. From the industrial point of view, it is
necessary to note the gain, not at the engine,
but in fuel demanded at the boiler, and the ap-
paratus of vaporization and of gasification must
be efficient and durable.
4. The final test is in the study of the finan-
cial aspect of the operation.
“Mais, aujourd’hui, les installations nom-
breuses de |’ Alsace et del’ Allemagne ont donné
des résultats si remarkables qu’on finira par
vaincre les derniéres difficultés qui s’opposent
4 une application générale de Ja surchautffe aux
machines 4 vapeur. Ce sera le meilleur hom-
mage rendu A Hirn et 4 son école.’’
R. H. THursron.
THE REMOVAL OF DR. WORTMAN TO THE
CARNEGIE MUSEUM.
Dr. J. L. WoRTMAN, of the American Museum
of Natural History, has been called to take
charge of the new collections of Vertebrate
fossils in the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh,
and has resigned his position in the American
Museum in order to enter upon his new duties.
The finest portions of the Cope collection of
Fossil Mammals were made by Dr. Wortman
previous to his connection with the Army Med-
ical Museum in Washington. Since 1890 he has
had charge of most of the parties sent out from
the American Museum for Fossil Mammals and
Reptiles and has conducted these explorations
with extraordinary success. A very large part,
therefore, of the collections in the Department
SOIENCE.
mer
(
Or
of Vertebrate Paleontology are due to the
energy and intelligence of Dr. Wortman and
his assistants in the field. His field work has
been carried on almost exclusively during the
summer months, and he has been occupied dur-
ing the winters in the preparation of a series of
bulletins based chiefly upon the field collections,
many of which have attracted wide attention.
Notable among these are the papers upon the
Skeleton of Patriofelis, the Anatomy of Agrio-
cherus, the revision of all the early species of
horses, and a geological paper upon the Stra-
tigraphy of. the White River Beds. The most
important of his original contributions in the
series is, however, that upon the ‘ Origin of the
Sloths,’ based chiefly upon the fortunate dis-
covery of the foot of Psittacotheriwum in the
Torrejon beds of New Mexico. Dr. Wortman’s
latest paper, now in press, is upon the Ancestry
of the Dogs, in which he successfully demon-
strates the direct phylogenetic relationship be-
tween the Canide and of certain dog-like Creo-
donts.
Dr. Wortman’s services to the Museum are
greatly appreciated and his resignation has been
accepted with much regret. He carries with
him the best wishes of his friends for his suc-
cess in his new undertaking.
EES OF
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.
Proressor F. L. O. WApDsworTH has been
appointed by the managers of the Western
Pennsylvania University, Director of the Alle-
gheny Observatory, succeeding in the position
Professors Keeler and Langley. Professor
Wadsworth has been connected with Yerkes
Observatory since its opening and was pre-
viously at the Astrophysical Observatory of the
Smithsonian Institution.
UNDER authority of the Secretary of the
Treasury, the Superintendent of the Coast and
Geodetic Survey has effected a reorganization
in that Bureau in such a way as to relieve the
head of the Bureau of a certain amount of the
routine work and to insure also a more direct
supervision of the field work. The following
officers have been appointed: Assistant Super-
intendent, Mr. O. H. Tittman; Assistant in
charge of the Office, Mr, Andrew Braid ; In-
706
spector of Field Work in Hydrography and
Topography, Mr. H. G. Ogden; Inspector of
Field Work in Geodesy, Mr. John F. Hayford ;
Inspector of Field Work in Terrestrial Magnet-
ism, Dr. L. A. Bauer.
M. PRILLEUX, known for his researches on the
parasitic diseases of plants, has been elected a
member of the Section of Botany of the Paris
Academy of Sciences. The other candidates
nominated by the Section were MM. Bureau,
Maxime, Cornu, Renault and Zeiller.
THREE botanists—Professors E. Pfitzer, of
Heidelberg ; O. Brefeld, of Mumster, and E.
Warmung, of Copenhagen—have been elected
corresponding members of the Berlin Academy
of Sciences.
Mr. W. H. PREECE, C.B., F.R.S., has ac-
cepted the presidency of the 18th Congress of
the Sanitary Institute, to be held in Southamp-
ton from August 29th to September 2d.
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY has conferred the
degree of Doctor in Science, honoris causa, on
Alexander Kowalevsky, professor of zoology in
the Imperial University, St. Petersburg.
THE Prince of Monaco has been elected an
honorary member of the Royal Geographical
Society of London.
Mr. Puirie THomAs MAIN, Fellow of St.
Johns College, Cambridge, died on May 5th.
He lectured on chemistry at St. John’s College
and did much to promote the study of natural
science in the College and in the University. He
was also the author of a treatise on astronomy
which has passed through several editions.
Mr. Henry WILLIAM JACKSON, a retired sur-
geon, died at Louth, Lincolnshire, on May 14th,
aged 67 years. He founded the Lewisham and
Blackheath Scientific Association and was in-
terested in anthropology and astronomy, being
a member of the London and Paris Anthropo-
logical Societies and a Fellow of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society:
THROUGH some as yet unknown ‘accident,’ the
annual appropriation for the N. Y. State Weather
Service were stricken out of the appropriation
bill, April 24th Jast, and it is thus apparently
impossible to continue a series of observations,
SCIENCE.
[N. 8S. Von. IX. No. 230.
meteorological and agricultural, that has been
carried on without interruption for a genera-
tion. In this service, which has its headquar-
ters at Ithaca, in the College of Civil Engineer-
ing, nearly 2,500 persons are engaged without
cost to the State, including the Director of that
College, who is also the Director of the Service.
The work of the Bureau has been largely in the
interests of the farmers of the State, and the
compilation of weekly ‘Crop Bulletins,’ and
the maintenance of a weather-signal station,
which operates in conjunction with the U.S.
Bureau at Washington, has been considered an
important service to the whole Commonwealth.
The minute appropriations hitherto made, but
$4,500 per annum, by the great State of New
York have been eprtirely inadequate to the op-
portunities of the Bureau; but the volunteer
labor of a corps whose services, if fully compen-
sated, would amount to probably over a quarter
of a million of dollars annually have gone far
to make up for the defect. Even if re-estab-
lished, this interruption for a single year will
make a break in the files which can never be
repaired and which may deprive the State of
previously interested, and even enthusiastic,
observers by so disheartening them that they
will not resume their connection with the sys-
tem; thus destroying stations having records
of a length approximating thirty years.
A MEETING was held on May 20th, at Co-
lumbia University, for the purpose of discussing
the formation of an American Physical Society,
which would hold meetings in New York for
the reading and discussion of papers. The
meeting was called by the following committee
of physicists, representing important American
universities: Professor A. G. Webster, Clark
University, Worcester; Professor J. S. Ames,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore ; Profes-
sor E. L. Nichols, Cornell University, Ithaca ;
Professor Carl Barus, Brown University, Provi-
dence; Professor M. I. Pupin, Columbia Uni-
versity, New York; Professor B. O. Peirce,
Harvard University, Cambridge ; Professor W.
F. Magie, Princeton University, Princeton. It
is intended that the new organization shall be
for this country what the Physical Society is for
England and the Deutsche physikalische Gesell-
schaft for Germany.
May 26, 1899. |
THE Council of the American Chemical So-
ciety has authorized the establishment of a sec-
tion to be known as the Philadelphia Section,
with headquarters in Philadelphia, Pa., having
a territory with a radius of sixty miles from the
Philadelphia City Hall.
THE foundation-stone of the extension of
South Kensington Museum, henceforward_ to
be known as the Victoria and Albert Museum,
was laid by Queen Victoria on May 17th.
Several members of the royal family, foreign
diplomatists and members of both Houses of
Parliament were among those attending. The
Duke of Devonshire, the Home Secretary, and
Mr. Akers-Douglas took a prominent part in
the proceedings. The Prince of Wales assisted
the Queen in the actual laying of the founda-
tion-stone.
A BILL has been introduced into the British
Parliament for establishing a Department of
Agriculture and other Industries and Technical
Instruction in Ireland, and for other purposes
-conected therewith.
THE United States Civil Service Commission
announces that applicants for the position of
Inspector of Standards (Office of Standard
Weights and Measures), U. 8. Coast and Geo-
detic Survey (Treasury Department), at a salary
of $3,000 per annum, will be permitted to file
their applications as late as July 15, 1899, in-
stead of June 1, 1899, as previously announced.
Tue Examiners of the U. 8. Civil Service
Examination for a ‘‘Sloyd Teacher’’ in the
Indian Service (Dept. Interior) failed to find
candidates, April 11th. The examination will
now be held June 6th-7th and the successful
applicant will receive 8600 per annum for teach-
ing ‘‘ basket Sloyd’’ and carving.
Mayor VAN WyckE, of New York, has signed
the resolution of the Municipal Assembly pro-
viding for the issue of $500,000 bonds to defray
the expenses of removing the old reservoir from
Bryant Park and building the foundations for
the new library. The contract for the work
will be let immediately by the Board of Esti-
mate, and the work of tearing down the reser-
voir will be begun as soon as practicable.
AN anonymous gift of $25,000 has been made
to Long Island College Hospital for the endow-
SCIENCE. 757
ment of a fellowship in the department of pa
thology. The gift is to be known as the Van
Cott Fellowship, in honor of Dr. Joshua Van
Cott, the director of the laboratory.
THE French Chamber of Deputies has voted
an annual appropriation of 92,000 fr. for the
publication of the Photographic Atlas of the
Stars.
THE French Association for the Advancement
of Science will meet at Boulogne on the 14th of
September, 1899. As we have already stated,
the British Association will meet at the same
time at Dover, the meetings of the two Associa-
tions having been arranged so as to provide for
an exchange of hospitalities.
THE Indian Plague Commission has returned
to London and is continuing its meetings in that
city.
THE daily papers report that a letter from
Andrée has been found on the northeast coast
of Iceland and has been forwarded, as addressed,
to Gothenburg, Sweden.
AN exhibition is being arranged at The
Hague to illustrate what was accomplished by
the Netherlands prior to the present century in
navigation, discoveries, trade and _ fisheries.
Those in America who possess objects that might
be useful for exhibition are requested to com-
municate with the Honorary Secretary, Mr. G.
P. Van Hecking Colenbrander, The Hague.
WE learn from the London Times that the two
royal gold medals of the Royal Geographical
Society have this year been awarded to two
Frenchmen, both of them distinguished explo-
rers. Only one French explorer, Francis Gar-
nier, has hitherto figured on the Society’s list
of honors, and only one other Frenchman,
Elisée Reclus. The founder’s medal has this
year been awarded to Captain Binger, who in
the years 1887-89 carried out an extensive
series of explorations in the vast area included
in the bend of the Niger. During these jour-
neys Captain Binger explored much country
previously unknown, took numerous astro-
nomical observations on which to base a map of
the region, and in other departments of geog-
raphy did a great amount of work of high
scientific value. The results of Captain Bin-
ger’s explorations were published in 1892 in
758
two large volumes, with one large map and sev-
eral smaller maps and sections and numerous
valuable illustrations, which form the chief au-
thority on the geography of the region with
which they deal. The patron’s medal has been
awarded to M. Foureau for his explorations in
the Sahara during the last twelve years. In
his journey to Insalah in 1890 he travelled over
1,500 miles and fixed the latitudes and longi-
tudes of 35 places; in 1891 he penetrated far-
ther into the Sahara than any other explorer
since the Flatters mission, and determined the
positions of 41 places; in 1893 he penetrated as
far as the Tassili plateau ; in 1894-95 he again
covered much new ground and made numerous
astronomical observations to fix positions, be-
sides making researches in physical geography,
geology and botany ; in 1896 and in his present
journey he contributed still further to geograph-
ical knowledge. The whole comprises an
amount of continuous scientific work under
great difficulties which places M. Foureau in
the first rank of African explorers. Few men
have done so much to elucidate the topography
and the physical geography of the Sahara. The
Murchison award has been given to Mr. Albert
Armitage for his valuable scientific observations
and for his sledge journeys with Mr. Jackson
in Franz Josef Land; the Gill memorial to the
Hon. David Carnegie for his journey across the
Western Australian desert from Coolgardie to
Hall’s Creek and back by a different route,
thus traversing the desert twice ; the Cuthbert
Peek grant to Dr. Nathorst for his important
scientific exploration of the Spitzbergen Islands
and the seas between Spitzbergen and Green-
land; the Back grant to Captain Sykes for his
three journeys through Persia, during which he
has made important corrections and additiors
to the map of that country and done much to
clear up the geography of Marco Polo. These
honors will be awarded at the anniversary
meeting of the Society on June 5th, and at the
same time the American Ambassador will pre-
sent to Sir John Murray the gold medal of the
American Geographical Society for his valuable
contributions to scientific geography.
THE 30th annual meeting of the Iron and
Steel Institute of Great Britain was opened on
May 4th in the hall of the Institution of Civil
SCIENCE,
[N.S. Vou. 1X. No. 230.
Engineers, Westminster. The chair was oc-
cupied in the first instance by the retiring
President, Mr. Edward P. Martin, who intro-
duced his successor, Sir William Roberts-Aus-
ten, who delivered the inaugural address. The
report of the Council for the past year was read
by the Secretary, Mr. Bennett H. Brough, and
showed that during 1898 the number of mem-
bers was increased by 98, the total number on
the roll at the end of the year being 1,522.
With 57 members elected at the present meeting
the total numerical strength of the Institute
was brought up to 1,579. To the list of honor-
ary members the names of King Oscar II. of
Sweden and Norway and Baron Gustav Tamm,
Governor-General of Stockholm and President
of the Association of Swedish Ironmasters, were
added during the past year. The annual din-
ner was held on the evening of May 4th, at
which speeches were made by the Chairman, Sir
William Roberts-Austen ; Mr. Horace Seymour,
Deputy-Master of the Mint ; Sir William White,
Director of Naval Construction ; Sir H. Bracken-
bury, Director-General of Ordnance ; Professor
Riicker, Lord Lister, Lord Strathcona, Mr.
Preece and others.
THE Sixth International Congress on Com-
mercial Education opened at Venice on May
4th, under the presidency of Signor Pascolata.
It will next meet at Paris on August 26, 1900.
THE report of the Council presented at the
seventieth anniversary meeting of the Zoolog-
ical Society of London stated that the number
of Fellows on December 31, 1898, was 3,185,
showing an increase of 27 during the past year,
and the number of Fellows on the roll was in
excess of what it had been in any year since
1885. The total income during the past year
had been £29,208, being £495 more than that of
1897, and £8,357 in excess of the average dur-
ing the preceding ten years. The increase in
the income was attributable to the larger
amounts received for admission fees, composi-
tions and subscriptions, and also to the aug-
mentation of the miscellaneous receipts caused
by a contribution of Mr. Walter Rothschild,
M.P., towards the outlay on the new tortoise
house, built in 1898. The ordinary expendi-
ture of the Society for 1898 had amounted to
MAY 26, 1899. ]
£25,979, which was an increase of £649 over
that for 1897. A sum of £3,718 had also been
paid to extraordinary expenditure, having been
devoted mainly to the construction of new
buildings in the gardens and to the acquisition
of a young male giraffe, which, although it ar-
rived in apparently good health, did not, un-
fortunately, live long in the gardens. After
payment of the ordinary and extraordinary ex-
penditure a balance of £1,584 had been carried
forward. The number of visitors to the gar-
dens in 1898 had been 710,848, being 6,707 less
than the corresponding number in 1897, The
number of animals living in the gardens on
December 81st last was 2,656, of which 818
were mammals, 1,363 birds and 475 reptiles and
batrachians.
CoNnSUL-GENERAL HoLioway, of St. Peters_
burg, sends to the Department of State, under
date of March 28, 1899, translation of an article
from the ‘Novoe Vremia’ of the 17th instant,
referring to the first trip of the new 10,000-ton
ice boat recently built in England for the pur-
pose of keeping the ports of St. Petersburg and
Riga open during the winter months, as follows :
The ice boat Ermak arrived at Cronstadt March
5th-17th. This boat was made after plans pre-
pared by Admiral Makaroff and built in Eng-
land. Owing to the fogs, it had to remain two
days in Belt. Near Reval it met with very
thick ice, but still continued moving at 7 knots
per hour. Near Seskei it met with large fields
of ice, from 9 to 10 feet above the water
line. Here the Ermak could not move on;
but, with the aid of its machinery, it ac-
quired a swinging motion, and the water
running out of a special apparatus in the boat
melted the ice under the vessel, which moved
on, dispersing the ice mountains. The ice boat
presses on the ice with its prow; the screw that
is under it lets out water, which softens the ice,
and the movement of the screw makes the ice
go under it and breaks it into rather small
pieces. This ice boat has no keel and should,
therefore, be subject to great rolling, but, in
order to avoid this, there is a receptacle in the
hull of the vessel, filled with water, which is
arranged in such a way that the water does not
allow the vessel to sway too much one side or
the other, and keeps it in equilibrium. The
SCIENCE.
709
boat was met at Cronstadt with great triumph
and music. Hundreds of people went out to
meet it, running alongside of it on the ice.
The ice boat belongs as yet to the Ministry
of Finance. It is at the same time a
passenger boat, a freight boat and a tug
boat. It can accommodate nineteen first-
class passengers, for which it has a fine cabin,
decorated with imperial portraits, with double
windows, double illuminators, and a special
ventilator, which lets warm air into the cabin.
The walls are of oak. The boat is lighted by
electricity. On March 31st the Consul-General
adds: ‘‘ The new iceboat Hrmak left Cronstadt
on the 25th of March and opened the port of
Reval, plowing through from 16 to 18 feet of
ice, releasing three commercial steamers that
were frozen fast some distance from the shore.
On the morning of March 27th the Ermak left
Reval, clearing the way to the sea for four
vessels. During the first four days of the Er-
mak’s arrival at Russian ports she released.
sixteen vessels from the ice and opened the
way for them to proceed to sea.’’
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS.
Mr. SAMUEL CuPPLEs has increased his gift
of $150,000 for a building for Washington Uni-
versity, St. Louis, to $250,000 for two buildings.
Mr. MAXWELL SOMMERVILLE has presented
to the University of Pennsylvania his collection
of engraved gems and ethnological collections,
said to be of the value of $600,000.
THE Jewish Chronicle publishes full details of
the bequests of Baroness de Hirsch. They
amount in all to about $9,000,000, which is
distributed chiefly among Hebrew charities
throughout the world. The bequests include
7,000,000 fr. to the Teachers’ Training School
of the Hebrew Alliance at Paris and 3,000,000:
fr. for elementary education in Galicia.
NECESSARY alterations are being made in the
physical laboratory of Western Reserve Univer-
sity in order to erect an observatory upon it.
The University has recently received a gift of a
ten-inch refractor made by Messrs. Warner and
Swasey. Mr. Samuel Mather, the donor of the
laboratory, has offered to bear the expense of
mounting the instrument.
760
HARVARD University has recently received
two collections of shells which are at present
being made ready for exhibition. One of these,
given to the University by the heirs of Warren
Delano, was made by Mr. Ballestier at the be-
ginning of the present century and consists of
specimens from the East Indies. The other is
a very complete collection of ‘American land
shells made by Mr. E. Ellsworth Call.
THE Committee of Birmingham University
announced, on May 18th, that the conditions at-
tached to Andrew Carnegie’s offer of $250,000
to the institution had been fulfilled, the sub-
scriptions having reached $1,272,900. Mr.
Chamberlain had also received a letter from the
anonymous donor who had already given $187,-
500, offering an additional $62,500 if the pro-
posed endowment is increased to $1,500,000.
In view of the large increase in the number
of students attending the Institute of Tech-
nology at Darmstadt, the sum of 1,137,000
Marks has been appropriated to enlarge the
buildings and 45,700 Marks for equipment. In
addition to these improvements, an engineering
laboratory will be erected at a cost of 270,000
Marks.
OxFoRD and Cambridge Universities have
offered to admit to the privileges of affiliation
graduates of McGill University and all matricu-
lated students who have completed two aca-
demicai years of study at McGill and have passed
the intermediate examination for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts. These terms, if accepted by
the McGill corporation, will permit an under-
graduate who has passed the intermediate ex-
amination to take his degree at Oxford or Cam-
bridge in two years.
A COMMISSION has been established to take
charge of the relations between the City and
the University of Paris. It consists of members
of the Municipal Council and officers of the
University, with M. Gréard, Vice-Rector of the
University, as President.
Dr. Hugo MUNsTERBERG, professor of psy-
chology at Harvard University, will deliver the
commencement address at the Women’s Col-
lege of Baltimore, his subject being ‘The Rela-
tion of Psychology to General Education.’
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. TX. No. 230.
PROFESSOR ALFRED CoRNU, the eminent
French physicist, has been appointed Rede lec-
turer in Cambridge University for the coming
year.
PROFESSOR EpwARD H. KEISER, for the last
fourteen years professor in chemistry at Bryn
Mawr College, has accepted the professorship of
chemistry in Washington University to sueceed
Professor Charles R. Sanger, who has been ap-
pointed to a position in the chemical depart-
ment of Harvard University.
Dr. Howarp AYRES, professor of biology in
the University of Missouri, has been elected
President of the University of Cincinnati.
Dr. F. C. Ferry has been appointed assistant
professor of mathematics, and Dr. W. Waidner
instructor in physics, in Williams College.
Dr. C. E. St. JoHN has been appointed pro-
fessor of physics and astronomy in Oberlin
College, and Dr. L. Dickson has been promoted
to a professorship of mathematics in the Uni-
versity of California.
Dr. F. H. SArForD, instructor in mathe-
matics at Harvard University, has been ap-
pointed assistant professor of mathematics and
mathematical physics at the University of Cin-
cinnati to succeed Professor L. A. Bauer, whose
appointment as Chief of the newly-established
Division of Terrestrial Magnetism of the U. 8.
Coast and Geodetic Survey we announced last
week.
THE table at the biological laboratory at Cold
Spring Harbor, provided for by the John D.
Jones Scholarship of Columbia University, has
been filled by the appointment of Mr. John C.
Torrey. H. C. Surface, of Cornell University,
has been chosen to be the first beneficiary of
the Dyckman fund for biological research.
Mr. Surface is well known for his work on the
fishes of New York State.
THE Babbot Fellowship of Vassar College has
been awarded to Miss Anne Moore, assistant in
biology. Miss Moore will spend next year in
studying biology at Chicago University.
Av the University of Berlin, Dr. S. Schwen-
dener, professor of botany, has celebrated his
70th birthday, and Dr. H. Munk, professor of
physiology, his 60th birthday.
SCIENCE
EDITORIAL CoMMITTEE: 8S. NEwcoms, Mathematics; R. S. WoopwARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LEContTE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; HENRY F. OsBORN, Paleontology ; W. K.
Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology; 8S. H. ScupDER, Entomology; C. E. BressEy, N. L.
BRITTON, Botany; C. S. Minot, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bowpitcu, Physiology;
J. S. Brutinas, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRIN-
TON, J. W. PowELL, Anthropology.
Fripay, JUNE 2, 1899.
CONTENTS:
‘The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature
—Second Conference (I): DR. CyRus ADLER.... 761
-Color- Weakness and Color-Blindness: DR. E. W.
SCRIPTURMEstessscsscesssstanttinectseecscecsscastectntees T7
American Climatological Association: DR. GUY
EUENS DIAS Wien scnnene sen anchoncscassacssnsenscenstusecencst 774
Scientific Books :—
Some Smithsonian Publications: F. A. BATHER,
Creighton’s Introductory Logic: DR. GEORGE
Scientific Towrnals and Articles 2....cscceccseceveeeeeees 783
Societies and Academies :—
American Physical Society: PROFESSOR A. G.
WEBSTER. The Biological Society of Washing-
ton: Dr. O. F. Cook. Geological Conference
and Students’ Club of Harvard University > J. M.
BouTWELL. The Academy of Science of St.
Louis: PROFESSOR WILLIAM TRELEASE......... 784
Discussion and Correspondence :—
The Telepathic Question: PROFESSOR E. B.
MITCHENER rvcescsscersensscseoscsesesseceresctencsecess 787
Current Notes on Meteorology :—
Climatic Changes on the Pacifie Coast; Wave
Clouds; Recent Publications: R. DEC. WARD. 787
A Bryological Memorial Meeting.......1cccccceceeeseeees 788
Scientific Notes and News........ssreccccersccscesevsceccees 788
University and Educational News......1...61ccceeeeeeees 791
MSS. intended or publication and books, etc., intended
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Profes-
-sor J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson N. Y.
THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCI-
ENTIFIC LITERATURE.—SECOND
CONFERENCE.
Ne
In Scrence for August 6, 1897 I gave an
account of the steps which led to the hold-
ing of the first Conference on an Interna-
tional Conference of Scientific Literature,
and a somewhat detailed description of the
Proceedings of the Conference.* At the
invitation of the editor of Screncg, I shall
describe below the work done since that
time to reach a working plan for this most
important undertaking.
The first Conference, in July, 1896, had
reached certain definite conclusions, which
may be briefly stated as follows: (a) That
it was desirable to publish a catalogue of
scientific literature by means of some inter-
national organization; (>) that the cata-
logue was to be primarily for the scientific
investigator ; (c) that papers were to be
indexed according to subject-matter; (d)
that the catalogue should comprise all pub-
lished original contributions to science ;(e)
that the catalogue be issued in the double
form of slips and books.
The Conference passed a resolution to the
effect ‘that the Royal Society be requested
to form a committee to study all questions re-
lating to the Catalogue referred to it by the
Conference, or remaining undecided at the
close of the present sittings of the Confer-
* The article was also published in separate form.
762
ence, and report thereon to the governments
concerned.’’ It was also left to the Com-
mittee ‘‘ to suggest such details as will ren-
der the Catalogue of the greatest possible
use to those unfamiliar with English.”
In accordance with the terms of these
resolutions, the Royal Society appointed, in
November, 1896, a Committee, with Profes-
sor Henry E. Armstrong as Chairman,
which presented a report on March 30,
1898. This report consisted of a series of
proposed regulations for the conduct of the
Catalogue, a provisional financial statement,
and schedules of the various sciences. Inas-
much as this report formed, in a large meas-
ure, the basis of the discussion and resolu-
tions of the second Conference, it seems de-
sirable to present an outline of its contents.
Schedules of Classification. Authorized
schedules are to be prepared for the several
branches of science included in the Cata-
logue; each of these to be indicated by a
Roman capital letter known as the Regis-
tration letter ; the division in each sched-
ule to be indicated by numerical symbols
called Registration numbers; when desi-
rable, an alphabetical index of the several
headings be appended to each schedule.
Card Catalogue. For each communica-
tion to be indexed at least one slip called
Primary slip shall be prepared containing
title entry, subject entry, registration sym-
bols and significant words. These slips are
to be prepared by the bureaus established
in the various countries (regional bureaus),
which will transmit them to the Central
Bureau as rapidly as possible. When a
primary slip bears more than one subject
entry or registration number copies of
secondary slips shall be prepared. Slips of
standard size, stoutness and color are to be
printed for issue to subscribers, each slip to
be revised by an expert official of the Central
Bureau.
Book Catalogue. At determined regular
‘intervals the Central Bureau shall issue, in
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 231.
book form, an author’s and subject index of
the literature published within that period.
This Book Catalogue shall be obtainable in
parts corresponding to the several sciences
or in divisions of such parts. After the
first issue of the Book Catalogue the Com-
mittee of Referees are to be consulted as to
the desirability of making changes in the
classification.
International Council. This shall be con-
stituted by one representative of each Re-
gional Bureau and shall be the governing
body of the Catalogue. It shall appoint its
own Chairman and Secretary, and shall
meet in London at least once in three years ;
this Council is to be the supreme authority
for all matters belonging to the Central
Bureau, and is to report its doings to the
Regional Bureaus.
International Committee of Referees. The
International Council shall appoint, for each
science included in the Catalogue, five per-
sons skilled in that science to form an In-
ternational Committee of Referees. The
members shall be appointed in such a way
that one retires each year. These commit-
tees shall be consulted by the Director of
the Central Bureau on al] questions of
classification not provided for by the regu-
lations.
The Central Bureau is to be composed of
a paid staff, consisting of (1) a General
Director, (2) for each branch of science a
skilled assistant, (3) clerks. There is also
to be a Consultation Committee, consisting
of persons representing the several sciences:
and residing in or near London.
The next portion of the report is explana-
tory of the schedules of classification. Itis
expressly stated that the schedules are put
forward as illustrations of feasible methods.
of classifying the several sciences and not as:
final or authoritative. A detailed account
of the method of the work of the Central
Bureau is given, which need not be entered
upon here.
JUNE 2, 1899.]
Financial Statement. It is estimated that
about 40,000 communications will have to
be analyzed and indexed per annum. If
there are on an average 3 analytical slips
for each entry this would make 160,000
slips per annum, or about 530 for each
working day. It is further estimated that
the Book Catalogue will amount to 16 vol-
umes per annum.
Book Catalogue. The estimated cost of
the Book Catalogue (counting an edition
of 500 copies) is £5,450, which would be
covered by a subscription to 350 sets at £1
per volume.
Slips or Card Catalogue. If but a single
or primary slip is considered the additional
expense would be £3,076, and allowing
£1,000 saving on printing the book it
would require 130 complete subscriptions
at £16 to cover this expense. If the full, or
analytical-slip, catalogue be prepared 120,-
000 additional slips would have to be dealt
with per annum and 171 institutions would
have to pay £35 to cover the cost, which
would, however, slightly reduce the cost of
the primary slips. It would, of course, be
provided that portions of the catalogue
could be subscribed for separately. The
following table furnishes a clear idea of the
expenses and charges :
SOIENCE. 163
to cover the expenditure, whereas if the Slip
Catalogue were published as well the ex-
penditure would probably be beyond the
sum which can reasonably be expected to
be raised.
In view of this conclusion the Committee
raises the question as to whether a pri-
mary slip might not be sufficent, whether a
monthly bulletin in book form would serve
the purpose, or, should the entire Slip Cata-
logue be desired, whether a ‘sustenation ’
fund could be raised to meet the difficulty.
The need of a guarantee fund amounting to
about £6,000 is also pointed out.
The remainder of the report is taken up
with the schedules, which cannot be dis-
cussed here. Anticipating somewhat be-
fore coming to the’ Conference, it may be
well to mention that in November, 1898, the
Committee issued a memorandum on the
systems of classification and registration
proposed. It is explained that the minute
subdivision was adopted because if the
cards accumulated several years the num-
ber under each head might grow so large
as to make it a work of great labor to search
through them. Should the Card Catalogue
be abandoned the number of divisions
might be considerably reduced in the an-
nual volumes, though it would be desirable
Least remunerative) Average subscrip- Maximum subscrip-
dost number of com- tion to single tion to single ao aD
* \plete subscriptions. science. science. OD
Book Catalogue (1,000
(0) NES) posocuacéaeg5ac000 £5,590 £350 LL On 10 £2 0 0 £16
Primary Slip Catalogue
(200Kcopies))ea-sset---- 3,075 130 100 P76 15
Secondary Slip Cata-
logue (200 copies)..... 5,992 171 25 0 AiO 35
£14,657 = £4 5 0 £8 5 0 £66.
Less saving on use of |
FINO PEl-c---cnsccsness * 1,000 _ |
£13,657
The Committee expressed the opinion
that if the Book Catalogue alone were pub-
lished the subscription might be expected
to retain them in the volumes ranging, over
decimal periods, if such were published.
System of Registration. — Each principal
764 SCIENCE,
science is indicated by a letter. The divi-
sions of each science are numbered. These
divisions can be subdivided by the use of
significant words or symbols.
This plan is explained in detail and de-
fended. As a further evidence that the
Committee did not consider its schedules
final it has issued a revised schedule of
Physiology (Animal).
THE CONFERENCE.
The second Conference, which, like the
first, was summoned by the British gov-
ernment, was attended by the following
delegates, many of whom had participated
in the first Conference :
Austria. Professor L. Boltzmann ( Kaiserliche Akad-
emie der Wissenschaften, Vienna).
Professor E. Weiss ( Kaiserliche Akademie der Wis-
senschaften, Vienna).
Belgium. Chevalier Descamps (Membre de ]’Acad.
Royale de Belgique, Président de 1’Office Inter-
national de Bibliographe, Brussels).
M. Paul Otlet (Secrétaire-General de 1’ Office Inter-
national de Bibliographie, Brussels).
M. H. La Fontaine (Directeur de l’Office Interna-
tional de Bibliographie, Brussels).
France. Professor G. Darboux (Membre de I’Insti-
tut de France).
Dr. J. Deniker (Bibliothécaire du Muséum d’His-
toire Naturelle).
Professor E. Mascart (Membre de l’Institut de
France).
Germany. Professor Dr. Klein (Geheimer Regier-
ungs-Rath, University of Gottingen).
Hungary. Dr. August Heller (Librarian, Ungarische
Akademie, Buda-Pesth).
Dr. Theodore Duka (Member of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences).
Japan. Professor Einosuke Yamaguchi (Imperial
University of Kioto).
Mexico. Seior Don Francisco de] Paso y Troncoso,
Netherlands. Professor D. J. Korteweg (Universi-
teit, Amsterdam).
Norway. Dr. Jérgen Brunchorst (Secretary, Ber-
genske Museum),
Sweden. Dr. E. W. Dahlgren (Librarian, Kong].
Svenska Vetenskaps Akademie, Stockholm).
Switzerland. Dr. Jean Henry Graf (President, Com-
mission de la Bibliotheque Nationale Suisse. )
Dr. Jean Bernoulli (Librarian, Commission de la
Bibliothcque Nationale Suisse).
(N.S. Von. LX. No. 231.
United Kingdom. Representing the Government :
The Right Hon. Sir John E. Gorst, Q. C., M. P.,
F. R. 8. (Vice-President of the Committee of
Council on Education).
Representing the Royal Society of London :
Professor Michael Foster, Sec. R. S.
Professor Arthur W. Ricker, Sec. R.S.
Professor H. E. Armstrong, F. R. 8.
Sir J. Norman Lockyer, K. C. B., F. R. S.
Dr. Ludwig Mond, F. R. 8S.
United States. Dr. Cyrus Adler (Librarian, Smith-
sonian Institution, Washington).
Cape Colony. Roland Trimen, Esq., F. R. S.
India. Lieut.-General Sir R. Strachey, G. C.S.L.,
Ty Rass
Dr. W. T. Blanford, F. R. S.
Natal. Sir Walter Peace, K.C. M. G. (Agent-Gen-
eral for Natal).
New Zealand. The Hon. W. P. Reaves (Agent-Gen-
eral for New Zealand).
Queensland. The Hon. Sir Horace Tozer, K. C. M. G.
( Agent-General for Queensland).
The Conference met Tuesday, October 11,
1898, in the rooms of the Society of An-
tiquaries (Burlington House) the rooms of
the Royal Society not being available, as
they were undergoing repairs. Sir John
Gorst, President of the previous Conference
took the chair, and on motion of Professor
Darboux (France) was elected President.
Professor Korteweg (Netherlands) was
elected Secretary for the German language,
M. La Fontaine (Belgium) for French, and
Professor Armstrong for English. Three
short-hand reporters, one for each language,
assisted the Secretaries.
Professor Michael Foster then stated that
invitations to the Conference had been is-
sued through the Foreign Office, and gave
a list of the acceptances.* The Greek gov-
ernment regreted that they were unable to
appoint delegates; + the Russian govern-
ment did ‘not consider it necessary to be
represented by a spetial delegate.’ The
Danish government took the same view,
* List is given above.
{+ The Russian government has since requested the
appointment of a representative on the International
Committee.
JUNE 2, 1899.]
being satisfied that it could follow the mat-
ter from the verbatim reports issued. The
German government, ou October 4th, re-
quested a postponement owing to the diffi-
culty of appointing delegates, but it was
not possible to arrange for this. Professor
Klein, of Gottingen, representing Germany,
arrived the second day of the Conference.
The time of meeting was then arranged
and a resolution agreed to ‘That each dele-
gate shall have a vote in deciding all ques-
tions brought before the Conference,’ it
being understood that the decisions of the
Conference did not bind the respective gov-
ernments. It was further agreed that Eng-
lish, German and French be the official
languages of the Conference, but that any
delegate might employ any other language,
provided he supply a written translation
into one of the official languages.
Professor Foster then formally laid before
the Conference, on behalf of the Royal So-
ciety, the report summarized above, and
Professor Riicker, in explaining the report,
gave it as his opinion that the secondary
cards entailed too great an expenditure and
should be given up. Dr. Deniker (France)
thought the question to be discussed was
whether it was better to publish the Cata-
logue in the form of volumes or cards.
Professor Darboux was opposed to giving
up ecards which rendered great service to
scholars. He thought it best to discuss the
scientific questions first and leave this mat-
ter to the body which would be charged
with the actual workings of the Catalogue.
M. Otlet (Belgium) considered that the
order of subjects was threefold: (1) scien-
tific, (2) technical—relative to the method
of employing the cards, and (3) financial.
Dr. Graf (Switzerland) dissented, holding
that the matter should be taken up in the
order indicated by the Royal Society, inas-
much as the financial questions depended
upon whether the Catalogue should be is-
sued in both book and card form. He added
SCIENCE.
765
that his government had given him in-
structions to advocate the double form.
Dr. Heller (Hungary) also expressed
himself in favor of the double form. Dr.
Brunchorst (Norway) agreed in principle,
but thought at the beginning the Catalogue
could only be issued in book form. Profes-
sor Boltzmann (Austria) thought that for
the present only the book form and primary
slips were feasible.
Professor Darboux pointed out that it
was at least necessary for the various Bu-
reaus to prepare the Catalogue in slip form
and send it to London. The financial
question was: Could this Card Catalogue be
published? If it could it would be done ; if
not it could be consulted in London.
Dr. Adler pointed out that if the com-
plete Card Catalogue were published the
subscription fee would by no means cover
the entire cost to a library ; an additional
sum for furniture to provide for it, as well
as for the arrangement and care would
have to be taken into account, as well as
the space required, making the total cost of
the whole Catalogue and its maintenance to
each institution subscribing about £200 per
annum.
Dr. Deniker thought the statement as to
the space, cost, etc., exaggerated, and for-
mulated the proposition: ‘‘ The Conference
decides in principle for the publication of
the Catalogue in the double form of vol-
umes and cards ;’’ after further discussion
this resolution was agreed to.
The report of the Committee of the Royal
Society was then taken up seriatim and it
was agreed after a brief discussion as to the
form ‘ That schedules of classification shall
be authorized for the several branches of
science which it is decided to include in the
Catalogue.’
Professor Foster then moved that ‘‘ Each
of the sciences for which a separate schedule
of classification is provided be indicated
by a Roman capital letter (hereafter called
766
a registration letter) as a registration sym-
bol, namely, as follows:
A. Mathematics.
B. Astronomy.
C. Meteorology.
D. Physics.
KE. Crystallography.
I. Chemistry.
G. Mineralogy.
H. Geology (including Petrology).
J. Geography.
K. Paleontology.
L. Zoology (including Anatomy).
M. Botany.
N. Physiology (including Pharmacology and Experi-
mental Pathology).
O. Bacteriology.
P. Psychology.
Q. Anthropology.”
Dr. Bernoulli (Switzerland) pointed out
that the plan of dividing the Natural
History sciences into several groups was a
departure from systems already in exist-
ence.
Dr. Heller (Hungary) did not entirely
agree as to the wisdom of the division; he
pointed out that in the course of years cer-
tain institutions and publications had grown
up which treated several of the subjects
named. Under this plan the publications
would be entirely separated. If, however,
this was necessary he would advocate a still
further division and suggested the separa-
tion of Anatomy from Zoology.
Professor Weiss (Austria) suggested that
the question be divided, first, as to whether
registration letters be used, and second,
how the several sciences should be arranged
among them. This being agreed to, the
original proposition was withdrawn.
Professor Darboux pointed out that in
the list of sciences Geography was given,
whereas it was his understanding that the
first Conference intended to include. only
mathematical and physical geography.
Professor Weiss indicated the difficulty
in agreeing upon an absolutely definite list,
due partly to the different development
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 231.
some of the sciences had taken in England
and on the Continent. The specialists of
the Vienna Academy had suggested that
human anatomy should be separated from
zoology. No doubt similar suggestions
would come from other countries on special
points. He, therefore, advised that a small
commission be formed by the Royal Society
which might consult various specialists and
secure a coordinated scheme.
Dr. Deniker thought too much stress was
being laid on the matter. It was his opin-
ion that if Pharmacology were to be in-
troduced it should be as a separate science,
with a special letter, pointing out at the
same time that it was an applied science
and not in accordance with the original
program, which was to include only pure
science.
M. Otlet propounded several questions in
the hope of eliciting information as to how
the work of the Committee had been done,
and M. Darboux pointed out that the
science of Mechanics was put down as a sec-
tion of Physics. He considered Mechanics
a fundamental science and thought it
should have an independent section.
Professor Armstrong stated in reply that
practical considerations had come into play.
For each separate science a separate series
of boxes would have to be kept, and they
provided as many letters as they thought
separate boxes would be required. The
separate letters were prepared purely for
office purposes. The scheme of Geography
was, he admitted, purely from the English
point of view. The Committee had no
communication with foreign academies, but
consulted individuals. It desired, how-
ever, that foreign individuals and academies
should have the opportunity of examining
the schedules. Professor Michael Foster
stated that the sub-committee which drew
up the schedule for Physiology put itself
in communication with distinguished and
practiced physiologists in other lands, and
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
that they were now attempting to put the
schedule into practical use. He added for
the whole Committee that they did not
maintain the schedules in their entirety.
Professor Armstrong pointed out that the
introduction of a special science like Me-
chanics was contemplated and was entirely
possible under the scheme. He quoted the
following from the report: ‘‘ It will be neces-
sary to provide a separate volume, to be
sold apart, for each science to be distin-
guished by a registration letter; and in
some sciences, Zoology in particular, there
will, doubtless, be a demand for separate
volumes dealing with special sections of a
science.” ‘‘The extent to which the sub-
division of the Book Catalogue into parts is
carried will necessarily depend on the de-
mand arising in practice.”
Mr. Otlet thought that the matter had
been somewhat cleared up and favored the
subdivision referred to. Anthropology, he
said, comprehended nearly all the sciences
not included in the other sciences—such as
theology, anthropometry, questions rela-
tive to the various human races, their in-
dustrial occupations, ete.—-the concomitant
subjects would be nourishment, and hence
agriculture, costume, hunting, navigation,
etc. Under communication of ideas gram-
mar and the sciences connected with it
would come in history, religion, supersti-
tion, sociology, slavery, social organiza-
tions, all of which would have to be con-
sidered.
M. Korteweg said that the subdivision
of sciences would also create great difficul-
ties; he favored the exclusion of Political
Geography. Professor Darboux said that
he was in practical accord with what had
been said, but still thought that Mechanics
should form a separate class. Dr. Graf de-
sired that Anatomy be separated from
Zoology and be placed in a separate class.
Dr. Boltzmann suggested that the first
class be General Science. Meteorology, he
SCIENCE.
767
thought, should be connected with Physical
Geography. Chemistry should stand be-
tween Crystallography and Mineralogy.
Anatomy should be in a separate class.
The questions raised concerning Mechanics
and Anthropology were of great importance,
but he thought that the Conference was not
ripe for their solution.
Professor Armstrong said that the ques-
tion raised about Mechanics was a practical
one, whereas the definition of the limits of
Geography and Anthropology was a scien-
tific matter, and suggested that the latter be
dealt with first.
Dr. Heller suggested, instead of the term
Geography, that of Geo-Physics ; this would
include physical geography and meteorol-
ogy and exclude political geography. He
thought, too, that experimental psychology
might be included under Anthropology.
Professor Armstrong, to bring the discus-
sion to a conclusion, moved that Geography
be- limited to mathematical and physical
geography, to the exclusion of political
and general geography. In doing so he
pointed out, however, that this action might
lead to the Geographical Catalogue, being
of no use to the general geographical stu-
dent and not being subscribed for.
Dr. Adler stated that travels were of
great importance to naturalists and anthro-
pologists and had been included in the Bib-
liography published by the German Geo-
graphical Society. Dr. Duka also favored
their retention, but Dr. Mond dissented,
holding that this view deviated from the
original intention of the Catalogue. The
motion to limit the scope of Geography as
above stated finally prevailed.
After a brief discussion by Professors
Armstrong, Boltzmann, Darboux and Deni-
ker, a resolution was adopted that after
Zoology, Anatomy be entered on the list as
a separate subject.
The following resolution was then unani-
mously agreed to:
768 SCIENCE. LN. &. Von. IX. No. 231.
“Tt is proposed that a separate schedule be pro-
vided for each of the following branches of science :
Mathematics, Astronomy, Meteorology, Physics,
Crystallography, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology
(including Petrology), Geography (Mathematical
and Physical, excluding Political and General) Pale-
ontology, Anatomy, Zoology Botany, Physiology (in-
eluding Pharmacology and Experimental Pathology ),
Bacteriology, Psychology and Anthropology.”
The next question taken up was that of
the Registration Symbols. Professor Dar-
boux objected to voting on a resolution
naming specifically the letters for each sci-
ence. He thought that it was a detail of
execution and would change the character
of the Conference if matters of such sec-
ondary importance were discussed.
Professor Armstrong, in accordance with
this suggestion, presented a motion as fol-
lows: ‘That each of the sciences, for
which a separate schedule of classification
is provided, shall be indicated by a symbol.”
Professor Korteweg thought that the ques-
tion involved that of many different sys-
tems of classifications and various schemes
of symbols, but Professor Armstrong pointed
out, in reply, that if the resolution passed it
would not bind the bureau to any particular
symbols. M. Deniker thought that the
question did not have the importance attrib-
uted to it—that the symbols were simply a
practical scheme for securing order in the
publication and handling of the cards. M.
Otlet was inclined to lay more stress on the
question ; he thought they were not simply
a matter for the convenience of the clerks,
but would become useful to librarians and
scientific men. The resolution was then
adopted.
The next question taken up was the regu-
lations concerning the preparation of the
cards or slips. These regulations refer not
to the Catalogue itself so much as to the
preparation of the Catalogue. Professor
Foster moved that, ‘“‘ For each communica-
tion to be indexed, at least one slip, to be
called a ‘Primary slip,’ shall be prepared,
on which shall be either printed, or type-
written, or legibly hand-written in Roman
script: Title entries, the author’s name,.
and the full title of the communication in
the original language alone if the language
be either English or French, German or
Latin.”’ In the case of other languages the
title shall be translated into English, or
such other of the above four languages as
may be determined by the Regional Bureau
concerned ; but in such case the original
title shall be added when the language is
one which can be conveniently printed.
Professor Foster presented this with an
amendment to the effect that Italian should
be added to the languages named.
Dr. Brunchorst thought it best to have
but three languages and omit Latin and
Italian, holding that there were very few
publications in Latin and that its introduc-
tion was not important. He further made
the interesting statement that within a few
years the Latin language will have disap-
peared from use in Norway, and that there
would probably be no public school in Nor-
way in which Latin could be studied. Pro-
fessor Rucker stated that, although the title
of a paper might be given in Latin, it did
not follow that the subject-entry should be
in that language. Professor Foster added
that Latin was introduced chiefly in the in-
terest of zoologists. Mr. Triman, delegate
from Cape Colony, thought it important:
to retain it. Dr. Adler held that every
title should be given in the language in
which the paper is written, without any ex-
ception whatsoever. Professors Foster and
Armstrong both pointed out that some
translation of titles was necessary, but Dr.
Adler stated that,while translations of titles
might be given when necessary, the original
title should also be given, either in the
original character or in a transliteration.
It was agreed to omit Italian but retain
Latin, and the first part of the resolution
was then carried.
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
The next proposition under discussion
was as follows: ‘In the case of other Jan-
guages the title shall be translated into
English, or such other of the above five
languages as may be determined by the
Regional Bureau concerned, but in such
ease the original title shall be added when
the language is one which can be conven-
iently printed.”
Dr. Adler suggested that instead of the
last phrase the resolution shall read : ‘“ In
‘such cases the original title shall be added ;
if convenient it shall be printed in the
original script, otherwise in Roman script.”
Professor Foster inquired of the Japanese
delegate whether the Japanese language
could be conveniently written in Roman
Script and whether educated Japanese could
read transliterations of Japanese, and re-
ceived an affirmative reply. The amend-
ment was then unanimously agreed to.
The question arose in connection with
this matter as to the meaning of the term
‘regional bureau,’ and Professor Rucker
explained that it had been decided to em-
ploy this term instead of the word ‘ Na-
tional’ because it might happen that one
nation, as, for instance, the British Empire,
may have more than one bureau, whereas
some of the smaller countries, like Holland
and Belgium, might unite in a single bureau.
If there was any objection, he said, to ‘ re-
gional,’ the term ‘ Collecting Bureau’ might
be employed.
M. Otlet desired to add to the resolution
the phrase‘ to diminish the number of
necessary translations,’ which he pointed
out as being extremely desirable, but the
President thought this question might be
more conveniently raised at a later stage.
The entire resolution as amended was then
carried.
Professor Foster then moved that ‘‘the title
shall be followed by every necessary refer-
ence, including the year of publication, and
-such other symbols as may be determined.”
SCIENCE. 769
The next resolution was “‘ Subject- entries,
indicating, as briefly as possible, the par-
ticular subjects to which the communica-
tion refers. Every effort shall be made to
restrict the number of these subject-eutries.
Such subject-entries shall be given only in
the original language of the communica-
tion if this be one of the five previously
referred to, but in other cases in English,
or in such other language as has been used
in translating the title.”
M. LaFontaine pointed out what seemed
to him certain inconsistencies in subject-
, entries presented in the schedules, and
thought that the idea of the subject-entries
was not fully understood, but both Pro-
fessors Foster and Armstrong combatted
this idea. Dr. Adler pointed out the diffi-
culty of grouping the subject-entries satis-
factorily in view of the fact that the analysis
could be made in five languages, but Pro-
fessor Rucker explained that the alphabet-
ical arrangement would be according to
English words.
Chevalier Descamps stated that the book
issue would require the repetition of titles,
and that on the whole it would be more eco-
nomical to repeat them entire. To this
suggestion Professor Armstrong agreed,
pointing out that its necessity had been
recognized by the Committee.
M. Deniker inquired as to the relative
value of the terms subject-entry and catch-
word. Was the subject-entry to be sub-
ordinated to the significant word, or vice
Professor Foster explained that the
subject-entry was to give ap idea what the
paper was about, the symbols to aid in
keeping the Card Catalogue in order, and
the significant words to aid the student who
did not carry the symbol in his mind.
M. Deniker replied that it was now clear
to him that what was proposed was not
simply a catalogue, but an analysis. What
limits he asked, would be imposed. Thus
four or five subject-entries might be given
versa ?
770
in describing a single memoir. While
recognizing the usefulness of these, he
thought some limit would have to be con-
sidered.
Professor Foster replied that for three
years past the Royal Society had requested
each author to give an analysis of his paper
in such form that it might serve as a sub-
ject-index, and that in a large majority of
cases it had been found possible to limit the
analysis to three subject-entries.
Professor Rucker pointed out that signifi-
cant words would serve as a sort of tempo-
rary expedient where a sudden interest
sprang up in some new discovery, instancing
the Rontgen rays. After some further discus-
sion the resolution as to subject-entries was
carried unanimously (the Belgian dele-
gates abstaining from voting).
Professor Armstrong then moved that
“registration symbols, in accordance with
those in the schedules of classification, shall
be entered upon the slips in some conspic-
uous manner, and upon a uniform plan.”
He explained that at the first Conference
schedules in accordance with the decimal
system had been prepared and submitted,
and that the Conference had decided against
them. The plan now proposed is distinctly
not the Dewey system. The figures given
have no absolute value, and are solely for
the purpose of enabling librarians to sort
the cards and arrange the material.
This point was emphasized by Professor
Rucker, who stated that in a system in
which the numbers had an absolute value
the method was equivalent to starting a
new language, and he did not believe that
the average scientific man would learn a
language for such a purpose.
Chevalier Descamps addressed himself to
the question of classification. He recognized
the serious attention which had been given
to the subject by the Royal Society, but said
that the Society was not the first to take up
the study which had been pursued by a large
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No, 231-
number of authors, men of science and
practical men. To provoke a general de-
bate on classification seemed inopportune.
He had pointed out in 1896 the pos-
sibility of a bibliographical classification
based on the decimal system. This did not:
meet with favor, and the Royal Society had
endeavored to produce a purely scientific
classification. For its labors it merited the
most profound recognition, but he regretted.
that the Royal Society had not explained
the ideas which underlay its schedules. To.
be good a_ bibliographical classification
should be both stable and elastic. The
adoption of a mixed system of symbols, and
more especially the lack of identity of
meaning of the same symbols in the differ-
ent sciences, seemed regrettable. He saw no
objection to giving symbols a definite signifi-
cance.
The statement of Chevalier Descamps (of
which the above is but a brief abstract)
brought from Professsor Riicker an argu-
ment which probably expressed the opinion
of most of the scientific men present, and is
accordingly given in full :
“TY think it would be desirable if I say a
few words with regard to the very interest-
ing remarks with which Chevalier Descamps
has favored us. I think we must all agree
that the questions he has raised are ques-
tions of the greatest interest to any one who
has attempted to take any share in a work
of this sort. But I very much regret,
speaking for myself, that I find myself at
variance with him on several fundamental
points. In the first place, he urges us to
adopt the scientific system of classification,
which shall not change from five years to:
five years, or ten years to ten years, but
which shall hold good for all time, or for a
very long period of time. One of the very
great advantages of our system is that we
recognize that science is a growing subject.
The notation that fits it to-day will not fit
it next year, or ten years hence. Let us
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
suppose scientific knowledge had sooner led
us to recognize the close relation of elec-
tricity and light. Surely the mode of di-
vision would be quite different. The defi-
nition of Zoology before and after Darwin
would have been different. A classification
which then appeared to be scientific would
now be recognized as inadequate. The very
first thing we must recognize is that our
scientific knowledge is imperfect and grow-
ing, and we must adopt a system capable of
easy modification as our knowledge in-
creases. Another point which Chevalier
Descamps made was that we adopt different
methods with regard to different sciences ;
in some cases the numbers are followed by
symbols ; in some cases the numbers are
separated by a hyphen, and soon. We have
gone into this question as scientific men,
and, although perfectly ready to submit the
result of our work to the criticism of other
scientific men, we do believe that the plan
that suits best one science will not suit an-
other. Take one example. Take, for in-
stance, Zoology. There is the question of
arrangement of the subject in accordance |
with the species of animals, and the
question of arrangement with regard to
the geographical distribution. Here are
two ideas to which there is nothing
similar in physics or chemistry. It would
be disastrous if we attempt to force all
these sciences to adopt the same method.
If two things are essentially different, we
do not apply the same principles to both.
In the last place, Chevalier Descamps says
the main object of classification is to tell us
where to find a particular object with which
we are dealing. I do not much believe in
the average memory of scientific men being
able to grasp a large number of numbers.
I believe it is much easier to find the place
by using symbols, which are more distinct
than a large number is from a small one.
Significant words which are for temporary
use have their own meaning. You find them
SCIENCE. 7
ca |
alphabetically. I do think, on the question
of general principle, thatit is very desirable
that the Conference should express an
opinion as to whether or not they think the
symbols are to be devised in such a way as
to help the memory or to find the place ;
secondly, whether they do or do not hold
the view that the plan good for one science
is good for all, and whether it is desirable
to attempt to plan a scheme in the belief
that it will hold good for all time.”
Dr. Bernoulli said that after hearing the
statements in favor of the two systems he
wished to add that the decimal system was
in actual working order in Switzerland, and
that its practical utility had been demon-
strated there. He considered it superior
to the system proposed by the Royal So-
ciety, although originally he had been an
opponent of the decimal system.
M. Deniker replied that it was necessary
to consult an alphabetic index to use the
decimal-system catalogue. He favored a
methodical or subject catalogue alphabet-
ically arranged.
Cyrus ADLER.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
(To be Concluded.)
COLOR-WEAKNESS AND COLOR-BLINDNESS.
Ir is generally accepted as a well estab-
lished fact that the traveling public is fully
protected by the present tests for color-blind-
ness to which railway employees and pilots
are subjected. Yetseveral of the mysterious
accidents that have occurred during the
last two years might be explained on the
supposition of color-blindness on the part
of responsible lookouts. In fact, I believe
myself in position to prove that persons of
dangerously defective color-vision actually
do pass the regular tests and obtain posi-
tions where their defects are continual
dangers to public welfare.
In the first place, I have at the present
time among my students one who is abso-
172 SCIENCE.
lutely perfect at the wool-test. He can
match wools with incredible precision at
any distance away; he is, nevertheless,
color-blind. This case is typical of a class
of persons with eyes abnormally acute for
differences in color, but yet with only two
fundamental sensations instead of three.
In the second place, I have had among
my students those who possessed perfect
color-vision for near objects or bright ob-
jects, but who were practically color-blind
for weakly illuminated or distant objects.
These persons possess the typical three
fundamental color sensations, but have one
of them weaker than the normal. A per-
son of this kind may pass the wool-test
with the utmost perfection if the test is
performed close by, but will fail if the
wools are removed to a distance of 20 or 30
feet. This peculiar defect I take the liberty
of terming ‘ color-weakness.’ The first stu-
dent of this kind that I examined passed
the wool-test close at hand and yet was un-
able to distinguish red and green lanterns
a few hundred yards away. Cases similar
to this have been reported by the British
Marine Examiner, Edridge-Green. Among
other cases he quotes a letter from an engi-
neer containing the following statement:
““T have been on the railway for thirty
years and I can tell you the card-tests and
wool-tests are not a bit of good. Why, sir,
T had a mate that passed them all, but we
had to pitch into another train over it. He
couldn’t tell a red from a green light at
night in a bit of a fog.”’
To eliminate both these classes of persons
we must have a method of testing on quite
different principles from the usual ones.
In the first place, the sorting of Celicate
shades of colors, according to likeness, must
be replaced by naming certain fundamental
and familiar colors. The sorting of wools is
a quite unusual and perplexing task to a
man brought up in a railway yard and on
shipboard. It putsa nervous man at quite
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 231.
a disadvantage; it furnishes the unsuc-
cessful candidate with the excuse that the
judgment required was so unlike any he
had made before that he failed from nervous-
ness; and, finally, itis not a guarantee that
all who pass are not color-blind. The nam-
ing of colors should—as Donders proposed
—-be rigidly required. The engineer or the
pilot in his daily routine is not called upon
to match colors, but to decide whether a
light is red, green or white; he should be
tested on just this point. The color-blind
student referred to above who can pass the
wool-test to perfection fails at once when
called upon to name the wools. The nam-
ing of delicate and perhaps unusual shades
should, however, not be required; the
colors to be named should be the three fa-
miliar ones: red, green and white, so
manipulated that every possible chance for
confusion is presented.
The second necessity for eliminating
danger is that of an absolutely certain test
which shall detect both the color-blind and
the color-weak. Acting on the basis of
suggestions from the work of Donders and
of Edridge-Green, I have devised a test
that meets this requirement as well as the
first one.
The instrument * which I have invented
may be termed the ‘color sight tester’ or
the ‘ color sense tester.’ In general appear-
ance it resembles an ophthalmoscope. On
the side toward the person tested, Fig. 1,
there are three windows of glass, numbered
1,2 and 3, respectively. The opposite side of
the tester, Fig. 2, consists of a movable disk
carrying twelve glasses of different colors.
As this disk is turned by the finger of the
operator the various colors appear behind
the three windows. At each movement of
the disk the subject calls off the colors seen
* For those interested in obtaining the Color-Sight
Tester I will say that I have made arrangements to
have it made by the Chicago Laboratory Supply and
Scale Co., Chicago.
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
at the windows. The windows, 1, 2 and 3,
are, however, fitted with gray glasses. No.
1 carries a very dark smoked glass; all
colors seen through it will be dark. No. 2
carries a piece of ground glass, showing all
colors in full brightness. No. 3 carries a
light smoked glass. There are thus thirty-
six possible combinations of the colors. The
twelve glasses are, however, mainly reds,
greens and grays.
A suitable arrangement of the colors
Fig. 1.
gives direct simultaneous comparisons of
reds, greens and grays of different shades.
The well-known confusion by color-blind
persons of dark greens with reds, greens
with gray, etc., are exactly imitated, and
the instrument gives a decisive test for
color-blindness. Its peculiar advantage,
however, lies in the fact that it presents
SCIENCE.
713
reds, greens and grays simultaneously in a
large number of different shades of inten-
sity. The light of a green lantern, at dif-
ferent distances or in a fog, is simulated by
the green behind the different grays ; at the
same time a white light is also changed.
The color-weak person to whom weak green
is the same as gray (white at a distance) is
utterly confused and thinks that the weak-
ened green is gray (white) and the dark
gray is green.
Fie. 2.
The actual test is performed in the fol-
lowing manner. The tester is held toward
a window, at about 25 feet from the person
tested. The operator begins with any
chance position of the glasses, and asks the
person tested to tell the colors seen through
the three glasses, Nos. 1, 2 and 3. He an-
swers, forexample: ‘‘ No. lis dark red; No.
774 SCIENCE,
2 is gray; No. 3 is green.’’? The operator
records from the back of the tester the let-
ters indicating what glasses were actually
used. If he finds that A, D and G were
opposite the glasses Nos. 1, 2 and 3 he
records: A 1, dark red; D 2, gray; G 3,
green. The disk is then turned to some
other position ; the colors are again named,
aud the operator records the names used.
For example, the result might be: “No. 1
is dark green ; No. 2 is white; No. 3 is red ;”’
and the record would read: G 1, dark
green; J 2, white; A 3, red. Still another
record might give: J 1, dark gray; A 2,
red; D 3, medium gray. Similar records
are made for all combinations. Of course,
the person tested knows nothing concerning
the records made. A comparison with a
list of the true colors for each position de-
termines whether the test has been passed
or not.
The three records just cited were all ob-
tained from the red glass, A ; the gray glass,
D; the green glass, G, and the ground glass,
J,in combination with the dark gray, No.1;
the ground glass, No. 2, and the medium
gray, No. 8. Those familiar with color-
blindness will notice that these combina-
tions place side by side the colors most con-
fused.
The records can be taken by any one,
and, on the supposition that the record has
been honestly obtained and that the instru-
ment has not been tampered with after
leaving the central office, the comparison is
mechanical. There is none of the skillful
manipulation required in the wool-test and '
none of the uncertainty attaching to its re-
sults. The only instruction given to the
subject is: ‘* Name the colors ;” the results
render the decision with mechanical cer-
tainty.
One of the testers is in use on one of the
English railways, another on the central
division of the New York Central Railroad.
From the former I have not yet heard, but
(N.S. Vou. 1X. No. 231.
the examiner on the latter reports that
since using the tester he has found men
who get through the wool-test, but are
caught by the tester. On the other hand,
he states that ‘ the men examined say that
this test is more like the signals they are
used to seeing every day on the road, and
is, therefore, fairer than to ask them to pick
out a lot of delicately tinted pieces of
yarn.”
An experience of several years seems to
justify the following claims for the color-
sense tester:
1. It detects with unerring precision both
the color-blind and the color-weak.
2. It is a perfectly fair test for the men
concerned and injures no man by requiring
an unfamiliar judgment.
3. It requires but a very small fraction
of the time used on the wool-test.
4, Its decisions are self-evident and un-
questionable.
E. W. Scripture.
PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
YALE UNIVERSITY,
May 7, 1899.
AMERICAN CLIMATOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.
Tuesixteenth annual meeting of the Amer-
ican Climatological Association was held
in New York City on May 9th and 10th at
the hall of the New York Academy of Med-
icine. About fifty members were in attend-
ance from all portions of the United States.
Twenty-five papers were read upon subjects
pertaining to climatology, hydrology and
diseases of the respiratory and circulatory
organs. These papers, which will appear
in the annual volume of the Transactions,
were as follows:
‘Presidential Address,’ by Dr. Beverley Robinson,
~ of New York.
‘Treatment of Consumption by Air and Light in
Colorado,’ by Dr. Charles F. Gardiner, of Colorado
Springs.
‘Tntermediate Altitude for the Consumptive,’ by
Dr. B. P. Anderson, of Colorado Springs.
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
‘The Contagiousness of Phthisis Pulmonalis,’ by
Dr. E. L. Shurly, of Detroit.
‘Climate in Relation to Renal Disease,’ by Dr. J.
B. Walker, of Philadelphia.
‘Climate as it affects the Skin and its Diseases,’
by Dr. L. D. Bulkley, of New York.
‘Hygienics of the Skin,’ by Dr. L. D. Judd, of
Philadelphia.
‘Hydrotheraphy in the Treatment of Insomnia,’
by Dr. Irwin H. Hance, of Lakewood.
‘Altitude and Heart Disease,’ with report of cases,
by Dr. R. H. Babcock, of Chicago.
‘Prognosis in Chronic Valvular Affections of the
Heart,’ by N. 8. Davis, Jr., of Chicago.
‘Treatment of the Cardiac Asthenia of Pneu-
monia,’ by Dr. H. L. Elsner, of Syracuse.
‘Empyema from a Surgical Standpoint,’ by Dr.
Johh C. Munro, of Boston.
‘Traumatic Rupture of the Heart, without Pene-
tration of the Chest Wall,’ with a case, by Dr.
Richard C. Newton, of Montclair.
‘Cold Wave of February, 1899,’ by Dr. Guy Hins-
dale, of Philadelphia.
Other papers by Drs. R. G. Curtin, C. F. MceGahan,
Harold Williams, F. H. Williams, E. O. Otis and
V. Y. Bowditch, S. G. Bonney and H. 8. Anders.
The annual dinner of the Association was
held at the Manhattan Hotel, at which the
President, Dr. Beverley Robinson, of New
York, presided. On the following day the
Association made a visit to the Loomis
Sanitarium in Liberty, Sullivan County,
New York. This institution was founded
1895 in memory of Dr. Alfred L. Loomis,
the first President of the Association, for
the treatment of tuberculosis. It has a
favorable situation, 2,300 feet above tide,
and is 120 miles from New York, on the
Ontario and Western Railway. The re-
markable success which has attended its
work has been due in great measure to its
physician in charge, Dr. J. E. Stubbert,
liberally aided by the philanthropic support
of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan and the ladies
who are associated in its management.
The scientific work of the Climatological
Association tends to the better knowledge of
the various American climates and health
resorts and their employment in the treat-
ment of disease.
SCIENCE,
775
The subject of tuberculosis is now re-
ceiving universal attention by the medical
profession, and the public are being inter-
ested in measures looking to its prevention
and restriction. It is encouraging to note
that in all our large cities the mortality
from this disease is gradually falling, and
through societies of this kind knowledge
is disseminated which affords the public
greater protection and prolongs life. The
resources of New York and Pennsylvania
for the climatic treatment of pulmonary
disease are not so well known as they should
be. Neither are the mineral springs of the
United States fully understood and intelli-
gently used. The Transactions of the
Climatological Association, now numbering
fifteen volumes, have contributed in no
small degree to the better knowledge of
this extensive subject.
The following officers were elected for
the ensuing year: President, Dr. A. Jacobi,
of New York; Vice-Presidents, Dr. R. H.
Babcock, of Chicago, and Dr. John W.
Brannan, of New York; Secretary, Dr.
Guy Hinsdale, of Philadelphia ; Representa-
tive to the Executive Committee of the
Congress of American Physicians and Sur-
geons, Dr. F. I. Knight, of Boston.
The next meeting will be held in Wash-
ington in May, 1900. Guy HinspAtz,
Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
SOME SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS.
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution, showing the operations,
expenditures and conditions of the Institution to
July, 1896. 8vo, lii+ 728 pp., lxi pls. Wash-
ington, 1898. [Received by the Bureau of
International Exchanges, January 25, 1899. ]
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution, showing the operations,
expenditures and conditions of the Institution for
the year ending June 30, 1896. Report of the
U. S. National Museum. 8vo, xxiv + 1108
pp-, excviiipls. Washington, 1898. [? 1899.]
776
Proceedings of the United States National Museum.
Volume XX. Published under the direction
of the Smithsonian Institution S8vo, xii+
932 pp., xevii pls. Washiugton, 1898.
[? 1899. ] :
The activities and influence of the Smithso-
nian Institution have so extended that, instead
of a modest Report of some hundred pages, its
annual publishing output comprises several
bulky octavo volumes. It is only 15 years since
the Report of the United States National
Museum was issued in distinct covers from that
of the Smithsonian Institution. And now, to
judge from the copy submitted for review, even
this has reached limits that transcend the
binder’s art, andsuggest that a further division
into volumes would be beneficial. The line of
division is obvious, for the Reports both of the
Smithsonian and of the Museum owe their
present thickness chiefly to the articles of gen-
eral interest which are printed after the annual
official statements. The public is, doubtless,
grateful for these admirable articles, but its
gratitude would be increased were they pre-
sented in more convenient form, The numer-
ous readers that will be found for Mr. Thomas
Wilson’s richly illustrated account of ‘ Prehis-
toric Art’ will not wish to be weighted with
lengthy lists of accessions to the library, of new
species described by the Museum staff, or of
specimens sent to the Museum for identification.
On the other hand, the professional museum-
curator, who doubtless keeps the richly sugges-
tive, one might say the classical, reports of the
Smithsonian officials at hand for reference, will
soon find his available space choked up with
reprints of papers that he either has no longing
for or already has in their original form.
The present Appendices to the Administrative
Reports have, itis true, grown in a natural man-
ner, on the one hand out of the summaries of
progress in science that used to be attempted by
the Smithsonian, and on the other hand out of
short accounts or catalogues of specimens in the
National Museum. Moreover, there may besome-
thing in the terms of the appropriation by Con-
gress that renders the present mode of publica-
tion an official necessity. In such case a strong
expression of the value attached at home and
abroad to the several sections of these Reports,
SCIENCE.
[N. S. Vou. IX. No. 231.
and of the inconvenience resulting from their
union, may do something to facilitate a change.
There is another argument in favor of the
proposed separation. The information con-
tained in these reports is as out of date as that
in an ordinary science text-book. The world
looks for more actuality in news that come
from the United States. There is little in this
‘Report of the U. 8. National Museum for the
year ending June 30, 1896’ that the intelligent
readers of SCIENCE did not know nearly three
years since. We all knew that ‘‘ Under an
order issued by the President on May 6, 1896,
the National Museum [with the other depart-
ments of the Smithsonian Institution] was made
subject to the law regulating appointments and
promotions in the Civil Service of the United
States.’? We have read all about the govern-
ment exhibit at the Atlanta Exposition in Brown
Goode’s contemporaneous report. We have
mourned for Professor C. V. Riley and Mr. R.
E. Earll, and, alas! for the writer of their obit-
uary notices, here reprinted from ScrENCE. We
have heard enough—perhaps too much—about
Alaska and the seal fisheries of Bering Sea.
There is little left but the statistics previously
referred to. And since the letter of transmittal
is dated August 8, 1896, why should we have
to await these 284 pages for two years and a
half? The reason appears to lie in the elabo-
rate papers contained in Part II., which, it is
obvious, could not have been published in 1896.
Internal evidence shows that Mr. Thomas Wil-
son’s attactive work on Prehistoric Art, of 340
pages, 75 plates and 3825 text-figures, was not
completed in manuscript before 1897. Mr.
Stewart Culin’s fascinating account of the
origin of chess and playing cards has an intro-
ductory note dated August, 1897, and contains
quotations from matter printed in that year.
The equally interesting account of the exhibit
of Biblical Antiquities at the Atlanta Exposi-
tion, by Drs. C. Adler and I. M. Casanowicz,
contains more than one such reference. It is
not likely that Dr. Walter Hough’s exhaustive
monograph on the lamp of the Eskimo was
ready for the printer before the articles that
precede it. Why should not all these have
been issued separately, or at least reserved for
the 1897 Report ?
JUNE 2, 1899.]
To write any comprehensive review of the
extraordinarily diverse matter in the three
volumes before us would be impossible for a
single individual, however unlimited his time.
The papers following the Smithsonian Report
are representative of the various branches of
science, and the general reader will gain from
them a fair idea of what is now being done by
scientific workers. Most of them have appeared
elsewhere, but English-speakers will be glad to
have the translations of Dr. L. Kénigsberger
on ‘ The Investigations of Hermann von Helm-
holtz on the Fundamental Principles of Mathe-
matics and Mechanics,’ Professor A. Cornu on
‘Physical phenomena of the upper regions of
the atmosphere,’ O. Wiener on ‘Color pho-
tography by means of body colors, and Me-
chanical color adaptation in nature,’ Dr.
Heim on ‘The biologic relations between
plants and ants,’ H. Meyer on ‘Bows and
arrows in Central Brazil,’ and J. de Morgan’s
‘Account of the work of the service of an-
tiquities of Egypt and of the Egyptian Insti-
tute during the years 1892, 1893 and 1894.’ As
an example of work carried out under the
auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, we are
presented with Dr. J. Walter Fewkes’ ‘ Pre-
liminary account of an expedition to the Pueblo
ruins near Winslow, Arizona, in 1896,’ which
expedition, it may be noted, accomplished its
work some weeks after the annual report was
transmitted to Congress. Other communica-
tions that appear to be published here for the
first time are: ‘Was primitive man a modern
savage ?’ by Talcott Williams ; ‘Memorial of Dr.
Joseph M. Toner,’ by Ainsworth R. Spofford,
and ‘ William Bower Taylor,’ by W. J. Rhees.
The rest of the articles are reprints, mainly
from the Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain and from SCIENCE.
The more technical papers based on the col-
lections in the U. S. National Museum are con-
tained in Vol. XX., of the Proceedings of the
Museum. In pursuance of the excellent policy
pursued by the Institution, these have already
been issued in pamphlet form, so as not to delay
the publication of important scientific novelties.
But it is to be wished that this policy could be
carried into effect in a more practical manner.
Let us take two examples. The volume opens
SCIENCE.
ee
with an elaborate and (thanks to the Elizabeth
Thompson fund) richly illustrated work on the
Rocky Mountain locust and its allies, entitled
‘Revision of the Orthopteran group Melanopli
(Acridiidee), with special reference to North
American forms,’ by that eminent entomologist:
and bibliographer, 8S. H. Scudder. The work
contains numerous new species and new genera.
A key to the genera is given, and is said to
have been ‘issued in advance in the Proceed-
ings of the American Academy ;’ but from be-
ginning to end no hint is given as to the pre-
vious publication of the paper as a whole, and
9 workers ont of 10 would be as likely as not to
give it the date of the bound volume, which the
title-page states to be 1898, but which, one may
hazard a guess, was really 1899.* The tenth
worker might have received the previously is-
sued separate copy of Mr. Scudder’s paper,
though it was unknown to the laborious com-
piler of the section Insecta in the Zoological
Record for 1897—a somewhat important fact in
in this connection ; or he might chance to see -
in the table of contents the affixed date, ‘De-
cember 28, 1897.’ Is this date intended for the-
date of previous publication? If so, a state-
ment to that effect should have been repeated!
at the beginning or end of the article itself.
Even the previously issued separate copies of
these articles do not bear the exact date. The
paper wrappers give the year (truthfully, let
us hope !), but what we have been led to expect
from American systematists is at least the
month, if not the day or even the hour of pub-
lication, printed on the sheet itself. In the
second example that we shall take, matters are
more complicated. No. 1132 is ‘ Preliminary
diagnoses of new mammals* * * * from the
Mexican border * * *’ by Dr. E. A. Mearns.
The competition between the describers of spe-
cies in this class is now so keen that the de-
mand for dates isimperative. The Smithsonian
meets the appeal with its wonted generosity.
It gives three dates: the date of the bound
volume, 1898 [or 1899]; ‘Advance sheets,
March 5, 1897 ;’ and again, ‘January 19, 1898.’
What, then, is the date of Neotoma cumulator
*At any rate the volume has not yet been received
by the British Museum (Natural History), 22 April,
1899.
its SCIENCE.
Mearns? The date of the advance sheets is, in
this case, given with the paper itself, and they
are described as ‘published.’ Butifso, there can
be no meaning in the date ‘January 19, 1898.’
If, on the other hand, ‘January, 19, 1898,’ is
regarded by the Secretary to the Smithsonian
as the date of publication, then the advance
sheets must be ruled out of court. What do
you mean by ‘advance sheets,’ anyway? Are
they proofs under revision ? Are they to be had
by the public? Can they substantiate a claim of
ten or eleven months’ priority? These ques-
tions are not rhetorical. We want to know.
The ever-green preliminary notice is nuisance
enough; but a preliminary notice that ranges
vaguely between March, 1897, and February,
1899, ought to be snuffed out by its own ab-
surdity.
To turn from these vexed and vexing ques-
tions to the papers themselves—After Dr.
Scudder’s monograph, which occupies nearly
half the volume, the more important are Pro-
fessor E. Linton’s ‘ Notes on Cestode and Trem-
atode parasites of fishes,’ Professor Dean C.
Worcester’s and Dr. F. 8. Bourns’ ‘ Contribu-
tions to Philippine Ornithology,’ Walter
Faxon’s ‘Observations on the Astacide in the
U.S. National Museum and in the Museum of
Comparative Zoology [Cambridge, Mass.], with
descriptions of new species,’ Professor C. P.
Gillette on ‘American leaf-hoppers of the sub-
family Typhlocybine,’ Professor A. E. Verrill’s
and Miss K. J. Bush’s ‘ Revision of the deep-
water Mollusca of the Atlantic coast of North
America, with descriptions of new genera and
species. PartI., Bivalvia.’ From these and the
lesser papers in the volume it is clear that the
U.S. National Museum plays an effective part
in the advancement, no less than in the diffu-
sion, of knowledge ; and the high proportion of
contributions from others than those on the
staff indicates a total absence of that dog-in-the
manger quality which often finds a congenial
home in establishments of this kind.
Indeed, if there is one character more praise-
worthy than another in these records of work
done it is thespirit of helpfulness and fraternal
cooperation that animates the whole. The con-
centration of the national collections in one
group of buildings, the association of the
PNaS:) iViOn. xs INOW 231.
Museum with an institution of such world-wide
scope as the Smithsonian, the proximity of other
administrative and scientific departments of the
government, all tend to foster this spirit.
Nevertheless, its development, as we see from
the example of other cities, is not a necessary
consequence ; it needs cultivation. In Wash-
ington its growth is due less to favoring circum-
stances than to the high character and ideals of
the men connected with the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and notably of recent years to the
charming personality and unwearying efforts of
the late Assistant Secretary. A remarkable
instance of this appears in the list of the scien-
tific and administrative staff, which comprises
among the Curators or Assistant Curators no
less than 28 described as ‘Honorary, and serv-
ing without salary.’ The work done by these
unpaid curators is no mere amusement; they
take their share in the drudgery of registration,
labelling and cleaning. It is true that the
majority of them receive pay from the govern-
ment in other capacities ; but this emphasizes
the point, for rivalry rather than cooperation
between the various departments is the rule in
most other countries. The gain, of course, is
not wholly on the side of the Museum.
In harmony with these principles of mutual
aid, the Museum differs from many national
museums in its custom of sending out large
quantities of material. Partly this is in connec-
tion with local exhibitions, and this branch of
the Museum’s activity may be compared to that
of the Loan Section of the British Science and
Art Department. Further, specimens are lent
to scientific workers freely and in large quanti-
ties. Presumably this applies, not to specimens
of historic interest, but te material in the re-
serve collection. No doubt some damage is
done and some specimens may be lost in conse-
quence of these operations. For all that, the
Museum is a gainer, on the one hand by the ©
awakening of national interest and the increased
number of its correspondents, on the other
through the elaboration of its material by
specialists in all parts of the world.
Apropos of correspondents, those of the Smith-
sonian and the Museum are perhaps numerous
enough already. Every citizen of the United
States seems to be as tenacious of his right to
>
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
‘question the officers on any subject under the
sun as he is of his right to shake hands with
the President. The list of specimens sent to the
Museum for identification during the year fills
24 columns. About 10,000 letters seem to have
been received and replied to. The concholo-
gists alone had to identify over 3,000 species and
to write over 1,000 pages of correspondence.
Defensive measures have become necessary.
Circular 47, U. S. National Museum, stipulates
that the material must be sent free of expense
to the Museum, unless otherwise agreed upon,
and that the localities from which the specimens
_Were obtained must be given. The Museum
reserves the right to retain, except under
special arrangement, specimens needed to com-
plete the national collection.
There are many other points in these Reports
one would like to discuss did one not feel the
information to be a little out of date. Attention
may, however, be directed to Dr. J. M. Flint’s
account of methods for the public exhibition of
microscopic objects (Rep. U. S. N. M., pp. 96,
97, pls. i-iv.). There are two forms of ap-
paratus ; in both an ordinary microscope is em-
ployed, but in one the objects are fixed ona
rotating disc, while in the other ordinary glass
slips are attached by brass clips to an endless
linen band passing over rollers. ‘‘ Microscopes
copied from the original here described have
been in use for several years, and no irre-
mediable difficulties have been found in the way
of their perfectly successful operation.’’ An ap-
paratus of this kind has been in use at the
Hamburg Natural History Museum for some
years ; but few, if any, other museums have
followed this example. Perhaps Dr. Flint’s
account may induce them to adopt this method
of overcoming the difficulty of exhibiting very
minute objects. The foregoing is only one in-
stance of the improvements in museum tech-
nique that are constantly being introduced by
the energetic officers of the U. S. National
Museum. It is the detailed account of such
matters that makes the Report of permanent
value to other museum-curators, while it evinces
the hearty interest taken in their work by all
members of the staff. F. A. BATHER.
NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM,
Lonpon, 8. W.
SCIENCE. tas)
Introductory Logic. By JAMES EDWIN CREIGH-
ToN. The Macmillan Company.
The aims of this book, as indicated in the
preface, are three. It is intended for an ele-
mentary college text-book; it is founded on a
belief in the value of the traditional ‘ formal’
logic, and hence on a desire to conserve, just so
far as may be, the forms and exercises of that
logic ; and the author hopes, before he has done,
to have presented likewise a genuinely modern
theory of thought. The first purpose, of course,
must be kept in mind in judging ultimately
both the omissions of the work and all the ad-
missions into it that occur in the way of obvious
reflection and simple enlarging comment. The
aim of saving the greater body of the old log-
ical teachings, is one which — provided only
writer or teacher knows how to breathe again
into the material some of the ancient Socratic
living practicality and fresh keenness—the ma-
jority among instructors of raw classes would
still approve of. Their most critical query,
therefore, touching this phase of Professor
Creighton’s work, would be : How far is this en-
deavor reconciled with the author’s third chief
aim, that of satisfying also, in his expositions,
the requirements of modern scientific truth and
orderly completeness? And here, in this at-
tempt of combining and correlating, in a purely
elementary treatise, the methods, content and
advantages both of the old logic and a newer
one, is plainly intended to lie the special feature
of our book; as here, indeed, would appear to be
afforded, to any writer, his most distinet oppor-
tunity for achieving a marked success, if not
even his most valid reason for writing at all.
For here—it would seem at least—is the largest
room for competition with a number of most
excellent text-books already outstanding. Thus,
on the one side, Minto’s Logic is an al-
most ideally satisfactory beginner’s-manual,
save in the important circumstance that. it
hardly more than informs the student of the
existence of the modern profounder theory of
thought ; while, on the other hand, a work like
—say even Bosanquet’s Essentials of Logic, with
all its incomplete expression and the tension in
its style—presents the broad outlines of the
organic view of thought with an admirable
philosophic ability, but too far ignores, to ful-
780 SCIENCE.
fill entirely the uses of an ordinary introduction,
the traditional staple of logic. These simple
analyses and operations, as a matter of fact,
besides retaining still a certain real point and
meaning, would deserve some special consider-
ation if only from the circumstance that, the
new branch of induction aside, they are sub-
stantially what, in the popular notion and
even in the common run of handbooks, will be
always confronting the student as logic, sole and
simple. Professor Creighton commendably
would recognize these facts more completely
than Dr. Bosanquet has cared to do.
The first two chapters of his book Professor
Creighton devotes to an Introduction. The
definition of logic, with which he sets out, suf-
fice it to say, is thoroughly modern in spirit.
So, too, his differentiation of the function and ,
materials of logic from those of psychology
is carried out in a modern, and, moreover, a
soundly practical way. In both these con-
nections it would, indeed, have been in-
structive to have been given some moderately
searching review of the effect of different con-
ceptions of the real nature of thought ; but this,
doubtless, was a topic felt to lie outside the
scope of the book. On the venerable theme
whether or not logic is an art as well as a
science, the author expresses himself thus: The
analyses of logic are capable of a practical ap-
plication, but not to the extent of constituting
an art. Thinking is too flexible to enable
us, on the basis of our theoretical knowl-
edge, to lay down, as we can in photography
or even in medicine, rules for its definite guid-
ance. It is possible to prescribe only the gen-
eral conditions that must be observed in reason-
ing correctly.—The question here of our agree-
ment or otherwise will largely be a verbal one
as to how an artis to be defined. Professor
Creighton himself speaks of the Aristotelian
logic, in the ordinary representation, as perhaps
more properly described as an art. Still, it may
be suspected whether Professor Creighton’s
general denial of a strict art-character to logic
does not hinder him, in his subsequent exposi-
tion of the old syllogistic logic (his exposition,
but not the admirable ‘exercises’ he has ap-
pended at the close of the volume), from quite
giving due emphasis to those exercises in So-
Vou. 1X. No. 231.
[N. 8.
cratic ‘dialectic’ and ‘induction,’ in interpre
tation, definition and the like, wherein, rather
than in the operation of mere abstract formulas
—A’s and E’s, 8’s and M’s, Baroko’s and Bo-
kardo’s—lies the best discipline of ‘formal’
logic. But even more is it to be feared whether
the conventional presentation of the old logic,
which, as we shall see, Professor Creighton for
the most part follows—whether this presenta-
tion, either in fulness or in order and method,
can meet the requirements of science in the rig-
orous modern sense, and must not rather seek
its sole justification in a paramount simple ar-
tistic than a strictly scientific interest and char-
acter.
The second chapter of the Introduction is
very appropriately a historical sketch. A cry-
ing need in the maze of contemporary logical
doctrine is a simple but accurate and all-
around elucidation for the student—if only for
the sake of enabling him to approach the litera-
ture intelligently—- of the various connections and
distinctions of logical standpoints and so-called
departments ; and of all methods, moreover,
of effecting this end, the historical can hardly
be denied to be the easiest and most enlighten-
ing. Professor Creighton undertakes such a his-
torical explanation with reference to Deduc-
tion, Induction and the ‘New’ logic; and his
sketch is concise and bright—so far as it goes at
all. Thus his account of the origin, develop-
ment and respective functions historically of
the Aristotelian and the inductive logics is ani-
mated, to the point, and for the most part very
satisfactory. When, however, we come to that
logic out of whose point of view his own treat-
ment is to be determined, he merely says that:
it has arisen under the influence of Hegel, but
how it has done so, and what Hegel’s logic it-
self is like, or what are its antecedents back to
Kant or, perchance, to Plato—all this is utterly
passed over. Assuredly this failure of the au-
thor’s, after he has devoted ten pages to the
origins and evolution of a logic (the syllogistic).
which he does not accept, at least as final, to
provide some account of the historical begin-
nings and course of growth of that conception
which he does accept as adequate, is to be set
down as a defect not remedied even by the sys-
tematic exposition of this truer view which we
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
get in Part ILI. of our book. How very difficult
it is to put simply, and yetin orderly truth, the
history of that fruitful notion of thought and
logic which Professor Creighton adopts, every-
one must appreciate who has endeavored to
teach it; but then, in the degree that this his- |
tory is essential for our students, its difficulty,
as already remarked, is just a writer’s best op-
portunity, and his best justification for adding
one more book to the many.
A more thorough preliminary working out
of the development from the old to a new logic
would have been not only helpful to the stu-
dent, but of service to the author himself. For,
in his desire to accord to the old logic that due
recognition which consitutes one of his prime
objects, he feels obliged, apparently, in the
exposition of ‘Syllogism,’ which makes up
Part I. of our book, to reproduce in the main
also the old conventional, half-false order of
topics—Terms, Propositions, Immediate Infer-
ence, Syllogism, Fallacies—and the old narrow,
distorted theoretical descriptions, with a fuller
truth of relationships pointed out only inciden-
tally or forgotten altogether. In Chapter I. of
this same part, some general precautions are,
indeed, put forward; but the author himself
does not live up to them ; how much less will
the thoughtless student! As an extreme illus-
tration of failure of fidelity to the interests of
the higher standpoint and a reversion, for the
time-being, to olden easy-going, slipshod meth-
ods, may be cited the treatment of Terms. We
are abruptly informed (p. 46)—‘‘wie aus der
Pistole’’—-that ‘‘ the first divisions which we have
to notice is that into Singular or Individual,
General and Collective terms.’’ These being
defined in the familiar way, we are given the
further divisions into abstract and concrete,
positive and negative, absolute and relative ;
which distinctions, it should be said, particu-
larly that of abstract and concrete, are handled
very well from the point of view of the old-
time ‘art of logic.’ What, though, of ‘new’
theory of thought is there in this (p. 52) ?—
‘¢ Positive (terms) express the existence * * *,
A Negative term indicates the absence * * *,
Words which are positive in form, are, however,
often negative in meaning * * *.’? Orwhat in
this (p. 55)?—‘‘ The nature of everything is
SCIENCE.
781
largely [sic] determined by the nature of the
things with which it stands in relation * * *.
It is, however, possible to make a distinctiow be-
tween words which are the names of things com-
paratively [sic] independent and * * *.’’ It is
but in keeping to find this chapter ending with
the subject of extension and intension of terms, 7.
e., With that which ought to form the beginning of
the treatment of such distinctions as individual
and general, collective and material, etc. Now,
to be sure, all this can be no result of a sheer
ignorance of the spirit and demands of modern
logic. Part III. sufficiently shows the contrary ;
and even in this same first Part we are given
a chapter such as that on hypothetical and
disjunctive arguments, one that is fertilized
throughout by organic reflections, and, in con-
sequence, is the freshest, most interesting and
best of this entire section of the book. Or
perhaps it would be juster to say that Professor
Creighton knows quite generally how to be in-
teresting, as also to be neat and concise, and,
in most matters, pedagogically tactful. His
only difficulty isan unresolved conflict of ideals—
of the elementary practical interest of the old
logic, with the theoretic one of exhibiting the
doctrines of this logic under a wider scientific
point of view. In this conflict, now the one
end and now the other, is lost sight of; but
herewith, of course, the author’s great purpose
of satisfying the requirements of both old and
new logic goes just so far by the board.
The faults of Part I., however, are in sharp
contrast with the merits of Part II. The latter
is, by all odds, the best-done portion of the book.
Here, too, perhaps, there might still be room
for acompleter working-out of systematic impli-
cations and relations ; and there remains, after
all the author’s great deductions, too orthodox
an assent to the ‘Five Methods’ of Mill;
nevertheless, Professor Creighton here plants
himself, everything considered, on modern
ground, and in the attitude of live thought,
with the result of giving us one of the very
best introductory treatments of Induction that
we possess. Aside from the difficulty of corre-
lation that must arise for the student from his
not having previously been given a genuine
theory of thought deductively regarded, but
only the mechanics of scholastic syllogistic—the
782
true relation of induction to deduction is both
made clear in an introductory chapter and
soundly adhered to afterwards. These are
throughout described, not as two distinet things,
but as distinguished phases of one and the same
total activity of thought; deduction throwing
an explicit emphasis upon the particularizing
and synthetic aspect, while induction emphasizes
the analytic and generalizing sides. The nature
and distinction, likewise, of observation and ex-
planation are very adequately set forth in the
introductory chapter. Observation, the author
earnestly enforces, is not a mere staring at facts :
‘““To observe well it is necessary to be more or
less definitely conscious of what one is looking
for ; etc., etc.’’ Though he reserves the express
assertion of the influence of hypothesis on even
preliminary observation to a later chapter, it is
implied throughout. Naturally, therefore, the
difference, too, between observation and expla-
nation is regarded not as absolute, but as largely
a mere convenient one—of the final articulate
bringing to bear of reason on experience, in
contradistinction from an earlier half-groping
stage of the same thing. So, likewise, of course,
the goal of induction is conceived to lie, not in
a mere empirical, passive gleaning of causal
connections and generalities, but in the com-
pletion of that explanation we have just been
speaking of—the active expansion of the living
system of self-conscious human reason for and
by the inclusion of the facts under investigation.
After the introductory chapter come three
others on Methods of Obseryvation—the first
dealing with Enumeration and Statistics, the
two others with the Determination of Causal
Relations—under which head is given an expo-
sition of the Methods of Mill. All this is well
done, though, as already suggested, the simple
acceptance of Mill’s ‘methods’ as undisputed
descriptions of the actual procedure of science
is open to grave dissent. However, there is no
failure to point out the drawbacks of the several
methods separately ; nor is the author in any
sense guilty of treating them as being more than
what at best they are—mere methods of observ-
ing, that is to say, methods not for the final
solution of scientific problems, but, as Welton
has aptly put it, methods merely for suggest-
ing hypotheses. The two chapters on Methods
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Vou. IX. No. 231.
of Explanation—the first on Analogy and the
second on The Use of Hypotheses—as_ well
as the concluding chapter on Fallacies of In-
ductive Reasoning, call for no comment. All
are very good pieces of work.
Part III. deals with The Nature of Thought.
Starting from the view of thought as an organ-
ism, and of knowledge as a passage not from
the inward and known to the outside and un-
known, but always from a previous partial
knowledge to one of greater perfection, the au-
thor goes on to point out that thought and
knowledge unfold or develop in accordance with
the general laws of evolution ; that this devel-
opment is a progressive process both of differ-
entiation and integration ; that the different in-
tellectual operations, as conception, judgment
and inference, or induction and deduction, are
not separate processes, but stages in one and
the same activity ; and that the nature of this
activity is essentially discoverable in its sim-
plest and most elementary form, the judgment ;
—for the concept is not the original element, out
of which judgment is afterwards compounded,
but is only the series of judgments that have
already been made and that serve as the start-
ing-point for new judgments. Judgment, ac-
cordingly, is the main theme of this present
subdivision of our study.
The chief characteristics of judgment as the
type of all thought and knowledge are: (1) its
universality (claim of truth for everybody) ; (2):
its necessity (not a mere psychological compul-
sion, but one arising from the dependence of
judgment on grounds) ; (8) that it is always both
synthetic and analytic ; (4) that it is construct-
ive of asystem of knowledge. In this connection,.
however, require to be considered also the so-
called ‘Three Lawsof Thought.’ As very com-
monly put, these pretended supreme ‘axioms’
of judgment are altogether false. Rightly for-
mulated, though, they are real laws of thought,
in the sense of being implied in and descriptive
of the thought-procegss as just set forth. (The
topic of laws of thought in general, or of Cate-
gories, Professor Creighton does not enter upon.)
The development of judgment, from a merely
felt to a conscious necessity, gives rise to types-
of judgment. The succession of these is traced
on broadly Hegelian lines, from quality
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
through quantity (enumeration and measure)
and causal connection (stages in this latter
conception being pointed out), to the completed
form of individuality (which is that of unified
system).
The chapter on The Nature of Inference re-
quires no special comment, except that the
solution offered of the old paradox: How can
the mind pass from the known to the unknown?
—to the effect that there is no such passage,
there being ‘‘alwaysa certain amount of identity
between the two ends of the process ’’ [p. 326]
—is hardly searching. Should not questions of
this sort, if taken hold of at all, be handled
with a certain thoroughness, even where it is
jnexpert novices that one has to reckon for?
The concluding chapter, likewise, on Rational
and Empirical Theories, calls for no discussion,
its spirit beining manifest from what has been
already related, and its upshot, in the rejection
of either attitude in abstraction, sound, notwith-
standing that the rationalism described is rather
that of Descartes than the profounder doctrine
of Kant.
Of this Part as a whole, this much only need
be said. So far as it really proceeds, it is ex-
cellent and, doubtless, gives the entire book a
value immeasurably beyond that of the dry,
shallow, old-fashioned inanual. And yet a ques-
tioning does arise, just how far the practically
total avoidance of direct issue with the more
fundamental difficulties concerning thought—
the refusal to dip even lightly into the deeper
waters of philosophy—is an advantage even for
beginners, beginners of the sort who are ready
to read such a book as this at all? For may it
not be doubted if a bright student can fail—
and is it not to be hoped that he shall not fail
—to be perplexed by a groping perception of
problems, a mere definite pointing out of which,
or a mere hint towards whose solution, would
have been of the greatest help to him, but which
here are quite ignored? Surely our fear should
be, not of bringing our pupils, when need is,
into the labyrinths of metaphysic, but of our-
selves not proving clear-sighted guides therein.
However, in this point it may be that our judg-
ments must turn on individual notions of how
completely logic can and ought to be cut off
from metaphysics.
SCIENCE.
783.
Evidently in this work Professor Creighton
has not given us the ‘definitive’ text-book— if
there be any sense in the shallow favorite
phrase. His book does not closely approximate
its design. What he has produced is this, a
book with a good many good things in it.
These require a stricter organization ; in parts,
some supplementation; in other parts (per-
haps), a pushing deeper back into philosophy ;
and, in one section, a considerable correcting.
Yet with all these drawbacks—granted a
teacher capable of coping with them—Professor
Creighton’s book is not unsuited, as an: intro-
duction, to become a very useful one; rather
it undoubtedly is, as pointing in a wholly de-
sirable direction, one of the very best on the
market.
GEORGE REBEC.
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND ARTICLES.
THE Journal of Geology, February—March,
1899. The first paper is by Henry 8. Washing-
ton, and is the third installment of the series
relating to ‘The Petrographical Province of
Essex County, Mass.,’ pp. 105-122. Dr. Wash-
ington treats of the rocks occurring in dikes,
viz: Aplite, quartz-syenite-porphyry, paisanite,
sdlvsbergite and tinguaite. The series is to be
continued. B. Shimek, ‘The Distribution of
Loess Fossils,’ pp. 122-141. The author em-
phasizes certain important points in the charac-
ter and distribution of the fossil shells found in
the loess, basing his conclusions on facts ob-
served in connection with existing land shells.
His observations confirm the Aolian origin of
the Western loess. H. W. Turner, ‘Granitic
Rocks of the Sierra Nevada,’ pp. 141-163.
This is an important addition to our knowledge
of the general petrography of the granitoid
rocks of the Sierras. Types embracing true
granites, grano-diorites, quartz-monzonites,
soda-aplites, quartz-diorite-aplites and pegma-
tites we described with many analysis. Under
the studies for students the development and
geological relations of the mammalia are out-
lined by E. C. Case. Editorials and a valuable
summary of ‘ Current Pre-Cambian Literature,’
by C. K. Leith, close the number. The latter
contributions are particularly to be commended,
784
as they afford excellent summaries and temper-
ate and judicial comments.
WE are glad to note that owing to its in-
creasing circulation the publishers of Science
Abstracts (Spon & Chamberlain, New York)
have been able to make a reduction in the
price. The journal, issued monthly under the
direction of the Institution of Electrical Engi-
neers and the Physical Society of London, is
performing a very important service for the ad-
vancement of science. The first volume con-
tained 1,423 abstracts and thus gives a full sur-
vey of the progress of physics and electrical
engineering. The advantages both pure and
applied science gain by cooperation in the pub-
cation of this journal are evident on almost
every page.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
In response to a circular sent out to physicists
by a committee representing seven institutions,
a meeting was held on Saturday, May 20th, at
10:30 a. m., at Columbia University, New York,
for the purpose of organizing a Physical So-
ciety. Thirty-eight persons were present, rep-
resenting seventeen institutions, as follows:
Wesleyan University, 2; New York, 2; Yale,
8; Cornell, 5; Columbia, 7; Pennsylvania, 2 ;
Bryn Mawr, 2; Vassar, 2; Princeton, 2; Am-
herst, 1; Mt. Holyoke, 2; Smith, 1; Harvard,
2; Vermont, 1; Swarthmore, 2; Clark, 1; U.
§. Weather Bureau, 1. Letters had been re-
ceived by the committee from many physicists
in all parts of the country, expressing approval-
of the organization and a willingness to join.
Professor Pupin welcomed the physicists pres-
ent on behalf of Columbia University, and intro-
duced Professor Cooley, of Vassar, the senior
member present, as Chairman of the meeting.
Professor Webster was elected Secretary, and
addressed the meeting in explanation of the pur-
pose of the call. Reports of communications
received by members of the committee were
made by the Secretary and by Professors Magie,
Nichols and Pupin. On motion of Professor
Rosa, it was voted that a Physical Society be
organized. On motion of Professor Magie, it
was voted that a committee be appointed to
draft a constitution for the Society. On motion
of Professor Magie, it was voted that the meet-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Von. IX. No. 231.
ings be held in New York, except in special
cases. An amendment offered by Professor
Nichols was adopted, to the effect that the
meeting express the willingness of the Society
to establish local sub-sections meeting in other
cities when ademand shall arise. After arather
lengthy discussion, an amendment proposed by
Professor Pupin was adopted, to the effect that
the meeting express the sentiment of the So-
ciety to cultivate the closest relations with Sec-
tion B of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, and to contribute by
everything in its power to the success of the
Association. Upon motion of Professor Magie,
it was voted that a bulletin be published by the
Society. Professors Webster, Nichols, Magie,
Peirce, Hallock and Pupin were elected as the
committee to draft a constitution. The meet-
ing adjourned at 12:30 and partook of lunch
kindly provided by representatives of Columbia
University.
The session was resumed at 2:20 p. m., and
the constitution submitted by the committee
was adopted. All the above notes were therein
embodied. A list of nominations for officers
was reported by the same committee, and the
following were unanimously elected: Presi-
dent, Professor H. A. Rowland, of Johns Hop-
kins ; Vice-President, Professor A. A. Michel-
son, of Chicago; Secretary, Professor Ernest
Merritt, of Cornell; Treasurer, Professor Wm.
Hallock, of Columbia. Nominations were then
made from the floor for members of the Council
who, with the officers, are to have the general
management of the Society, and the following
were elected: Professors A. G. Webster, of
Clark; J. S. Ames, of Johns Hopkins; H. 8.
Carhart, of Michigan; B. O. Peirce, of Har-
vard; W. F. Magie, of Princeton; E. L.
Nichols, of Cornell; M. I. Pupin, of Columbia.
It was voted that the election of new mem-
bers be made by the Council ; that the annual
fee be five dollars; that there be no initiation
fee, and that four meetings be held annually.
The constitution provides that the name of
the Society shall be the American Physical So-
ciety, and that its object shall be the advance-
ment and diffusion of the knowledge of physics.
A circular will soon be issued containing the
text of the complete constitution, which will be
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
sent to physicists generally, and provision will
be made that those voting upon it by mail shall
be received as original members of the Society.
The first regular meeting will be held in Octo-
ber. Already about a hundred members are
assured, and it is hoped that the Society
may eventually contain all leading American
physicists and take a prominent place among
our scientific societies.
A. G. WEBSTER,
Secretary pro tem.
THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
THE 304th regular meeting was held March
11th. The program consisted of an illus-
trated lecture on the general physiographical
and biological features of Puerto Rico by Dr.
R. T. Hill, of the U. S. Geological Survey. The
mountain and drainage systems were explained
and classified, and the relations of the various
geological formations and the resulting soils to
the flora and agricultural resources of the
island were pointed out.
The lecture was supplemented by informal
accounts from Dr. B. W. Evermann, of the U.
S. Fish Commission, and Mr, A. B. Baker, of
the Zoological Park, who had recently returned
from Puerto Rico. Dr. Evermann stated
that the coasts are almost everywhere
abrupt and rocky, and that the water is
generally agitated by a powerful surf. The
result of these conditions is that only
those types could survive which were adapted
for life in deep water or which were fitted by
habits and structure to secure protection among
the rocks. This applies not only to the fishes,
but to the molluscs, crustacea, algee and other
groups, all classes of aquatic organisms having
received the attention of the expedition. The
fresh-water fish fauna is not extensive and has
been derived independently from marine groups,
having no connection with the fresh-water forms
of the continent. Dr. Evermann also explained
the methods of the native fisherman and ex-
hibited examples of traps and decoys for fishes
and turtles.
Mr. Baker noticed some additional points re-
garding the geography and physiography of the
island and the almost complete destruction of
the forests, which has had a disastrous effect
SCIENCE.
785
upon the fauna, having more less completely
exterminated some species and caused profound
changes in the habits of others.
At the 305th regular meeting, March 25th,
Dr. T. S. Palmer traced the history of the in-
troduction of the English sparrow into the
United States and its subsequent gradual dis-
tribution throughout temperate North America.
The case of the mongoose in Jamaica, Puerto
Rico and Hawaii was also considered, together
with accounts of other accidental or intentional
importations of mammals or birds, and the
general conclusion was drawn that once re-
moved from the natural conditions and checks
of its original habitat it is impossible to know
in advance of the experiment what the utility
or injury of any given species will be, and
hence such experiments should be undertaken
withthe greatest caution. The speaker con-
sidered the introduction of game birds attended
with less danger on account of the fact that
they would more easily be kept under control
by human agency.
Mr. M. B. Waite exhibited specimens illus-
trating ‘ The Effects of the Recent Severe Cold
on Vegetation,’ and described the processes at-
tending the freezing of plant cells, explaining
that sudden thawing caused death in many in-
stances because the protoplasm of the cells was
unable to reabsorb the water lost in freezing.
The extent of recent injuries to fruit trees and
ornamental and native plants was then touched
upon and subsequently discussed by several
members.
Mr. F. A. Lucas then read a paper on the
‘Mental Traits of the Fur Seal,’ saying that it
had a practical bearing on the question as to
whether or not the fur seal was likely to change
its habits owing to the presence of man on the
islands where it bred. The behavior of the
seals on the drives and killing grounds was
described as showing the low grade of the ani-
mal’s intellect and its inability to think for
itself. The female seals were said to take little
interest in their offspring and to show no affec-
tion, while the sight and smell of blood seemed
to produce no effect on the animals. The con-
clusion reached was that the fur seal isa creature
of instinct and not guided to any extent by
reason; that its habits, having been formed by
786 SCIENCE.
the slow process of natural selection, were not
likely to be changed. The general impression
that the seal is a very intelligent animal was
thought to be partly explainable by the fact
that its non migratory relatives, such as the sea
lion and the hair seal, are in reality much more
adaptable, not being possessed of the powerful
and unyarying instincts of the fur seal.
O. F. Coox,
Secretary.
GEOLOGICAL CONFERENCE AND STUDENTS’ CLUB
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
Students’ Geological Club, February 14, 1899.
Mr. A. W. G. Wilson gave a ‘ Demonstration
of Mineral Determination by Volatile Iodide
Coatings.’ After presenting a brief réswmé of
Dr. Haanel’s paper ‘On the Application of
Hydriodic Acid as a Blowpipe Reagent,’ he de-
monstrated the use of plaster of paris tablets as
supports, and of hydriodic acid as a reagent for
the determination of a number of the common
and some of the rarer elements.
Geological Conference, February 21, 1899.
Mr. J. E. Woodman spoke on ‘Notes on the
Glacial Geology of Nova Scotia.’ The Province
is divided into two parts by fairly sharp
boundaries. In the south is the lake region,
characterized by till, without distinct form, or
in the form of moraines and occasional drumlins,
and a little stratified drift. In the north, lakes
are largely absent, and there is a considerable
amount of stratified drift, with few morainal
deposits. In thecenter, near the northern edge
of the lake region, drumlins of a very elongate
form are abundant.
Throughout the country the direction of ice-
movement was controlled by pre-Pleistocene
topography to an extent seldom seen in New
England. Thus, in Cornwallis and Annapolis
valleys the ice followed the same lines as
present drainage ; in the center of the Province
it ran southward, and along the north shore
east of Pictou it ran eastward. The short
distance of carriage of much of the drift is
noticeable. Changes in the character of the
drift follow quite closely those of the larger
features of bed-rock geology.
The center and eastern part of the Province
(N.S. Vou. IX. No. 231.
shows little stratified drift. The northwestern
portion shows a considerable amount, chiefly in
the form of eskers and kame-terraces. Many
fine eskers can be followed on the road from
Yarmouth to Windsor, but east of there few
occur. The absence of coarse material in the
central part of the peninsula is very noticeable.
“Few surface boulders are seen along the rail-
road line after leaving the lake and morainic
country at Windsor Junction, until well on
toward the Strait of Canso, where a few mo-
rainic accumulations were noted. All along the
north coast the drumlins are indistinct in out-
line, being, with very few exceptions, mere
drumlinoid hills. In the Strait, ice-motion
changed from east to south along the now
sunken valley.
In Cape Breton the obedience of ice-motion
to topography is still more marked. The mass
appears to have moved, in the interior, from
the low region of the Bras d’Or lakes north-
ward along the valleys of rivers which now flow
south. This motion did not continue far, and
the higher parts of the islands are all un-
glaciated. On the west and northwest coast
the ice affected only the bordering Carbonifer-
ous lowland, penetrated a very short distance
up the wider valleys, and left the central pene-
plain, on granite and schist, untouched.
J. M. BouTWELL,
Recording Secretary.
THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS.
AT the meeting of the Academy of Science of
St. Louis, on the evening of May 15, 1899, thirty
persons present, the Secretary presented, by
title, a paper by Professor F. E. Nipher, on
‘Temperatures of Gaseous Nebule.’
Professor EK, M. Shepard exhibited an inter-
esting series of lantern slides and ethnological
specimens procured by him during a recent ex-
tended trip through the islands of the South
Pacific, especially New Zealand, Fijiand Samoa,
illustrating the natural history and ethnology
of those islands.
Two persons were proposed for active mem-
bership in the Academy.
WILLIAM TRELEASE,
Recording Secretary.
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE.
THE TELEPATHIC QUESTION.
To THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: When a scien-
tific discussion degenerates into protest and im-
putation of motive it is probably time for the
discusion to stop. But I wish to state, in self
defence, that I do not ‘seek to leave upon the
reader’s mind’ the two impressions to which
Professor James refers. I do not say that Leh-
mann first considered whispering ; I say that he
was the first thoroughly to investigate it. There
is a difference. I do not imply that Lehmann
introduced number-habits ; I say that the next
step in advance beyond him is an exhaustive
study of number habits. Again, there is a dif-
ference.
EK. B. TITCHENER.
CURRENT NOTES ON METEOROLOGY.
CLIMATIC CHANGES ON THE PACIFIC COAST,
IN the National Geographic Magazine for May
the question of climatic changes on the Pacific
coast is discussed by J. B. Leiberg, under the
title: ‘Is Climatic Aridity impending on the
Pacific Slope? The Testimony of the Forest.’
The most important results of the study are as
follows: The arid, non-forested plains of
eastern Oregon yield silicified remains of arbo-
rescent vegetation nearly or quite identical with
existing species on adjacent areas, thus proving
the presence of forest growth on these timber-
less lands at no very remote period. On the
semi-arid tracts the forest, although consisting
of species capable of enduring dry climatic con-
ditions, show everywhere a persistent and
gradual dwindling in extent and density. In
the subhumid forest there is a slow and appar-
ently ineffectual adaptative evolution of smaller
forms of the various species to replace the
larger ones which require more moisture for
their growth. In the humid forest the same
phenomena are found. So far as the evidence
derived from a study of the forest conditions is
concerned, there seems to bea fairly well defined
change of climate in progress on our Pacific
coast, from a more humid to a less humid.
In the same number of the National Geographic
Magazine, Ganett, in a paper entitled ‘The Red-
wood Forest of the Pacific Coast,’ states that
SCIENCE. 787
“everything appears to indicate that for some
reason, probably a progressive drying of the
climate, the present environment is not favor-
able to the growth of redwood, and that with
the clearing away of the present forests the end
of the species as a source of lumber will be at
hand.”’
WAVE CLOUDS.
THE formation of waves between different
strata of the atmosphere was carefully studied
and described by von Helmholtz. These waves
become visible only when clouds are formed in
them at those points where condensation takes
place, but undoubtedly invisible waves occur
very commonly in our atmosphere. The ap-
pearance of clouds in parallel lines across the
sky is an indication of the presence of atmos-
pheric waves. In the Februry number of the
Monthly Weather Review, A. J. Henry, of the
U.S. Weather Bureau at Washington, presents
five excellent views, reproduced from photo-
graphs, of alto-cumulus cloud rolls, observed at
on November 28, 1898, and on January 27,
1899. The views of November 28d are especially
interesting as showing the gradual dissolution
of the clouds.
METEOROLOGICAL WORK IN ALASKA.
THE Central Station of the Alaskan Section
of the Climate and Crop Service of the Weather
Bureau has been transferred from Sitka to Eagle,
on the Yukon, near the British line. The Chief
of the Weather Bureau hopes, by this change,
to facilitate the establishment of meteorological
stations in the region of the upper Yukon,
where, owing to poor facilities for communica-
tion, it was found impossible to establish such
stations when the headquarters of the Service
were at Sitka.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS.
Measurement of Precipitation. C. F. MARVIN,
U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, Weather
Bureau. Circular E, Instrument Division.
8vo. Washington, D. C., 1899. Pp. 28.
A pamphlet of instruction for the measure-
ment and registration of precipitation by means
of the standard instruments of the Weather
Bureau.
Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of
the New Jersey Weather Service, 1898. E. W.
788 SCIENCE,
McGann, 8vo. Trenton, N. J., 1899. Pp. 205.
This Report contains a relief map of New
Jersey, prepared by the Geological Survey
of the State, with the note: ‘‘The influ-
ence of the diversified topography of New
Jersey upon its climate is apparent by com-
paring this relief map with the temperature
and rainfall charts which follow.’’ This plan
of publishing topographic maps of the differ-
ent States in the Annual Reports of the
Weather Services is an excellent one, and
should be generally adopted.
Rivers of Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Western
Montana. B.S. PAcur. River Bulletin No.
I., 1899, U. 8. Department of Agriculture,
Weather Bureau. Portland Ore., 1899.
This valuable Bulletin, the first of its series,
concerns the precipitation over the Pacific
Northwest and the possibility of high water
from the melting snow in the mountains. It
contains a general forecast of the probable
height of the Columbia River in May and
June, as dependent upon the temperature
conditions and the resulting more or less
rapid melting of the snow on the mountains.
Monthly Rainfall Chart for Fifty Years at San
Francisco. Compiled by HERMAN SCHUSSLER,
C. E. Published by the Central Pacific Rail-
road Company.
A graphic representation ofthe monthly rain-
falls for each year during the past fifty years.
R. DEC. WARD.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
A BRYOLOGICAL MEMORIAL MEETING.
CoLuMBus was the home for many years of
William §. Sullivant and Leo Lesquereux, two
names which will awaken love and reverence
from all students of North American mosses
and hepatics. It is twenty-six years since Sulli-
vant died, and this last quarter of a century has
seen a marked extension of the limits of bryo-
logical study and a large increase in the number
of students. It seems a fitting time and place
to take a survey of the field, review the past
and make plans for the future. Hence it is
proposed to make the coming meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science, which is to be held at Columbus, the
occasion for a Memorial Day in honor of the
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 231.
Nestors of American Bryology and to call on
all botanists and scientific magazines to help to
make the occasion a memorable success. It is
proposed to present a series of papers, illus-
trated by photographs, specimens and wicro-
scopical slides, books and pamphlets under the
following topics :
Historical papers and collections showing the
bryological work of Hedwig, Palisot de Beau-
vois, Michaux, Muhlenberg, Bridel, Torrey,
Drummond, Hooker and Wilson, Greville,
Sullivant and Lesquereux, James and Watson,
Austin, Ravenel, Wolle, Eaton, Faxon and
Miller; supplementing these there will be
shown collections of specimens, macroscopic
and microscopic, illustrating the monographic
work of recent American students.
If foreign students who have worked on
North America bryophytes can be persuaded to
cooperate with us the following will be asked to
contribute: Bescherelle, Brotherus, Cardot,
Dixon, Kindberg, Mitten, Pearson, Roll,
Stephani and Warnstorf.
An effort will be made to secure the loan of
type specimens and illustrations from the fol-
lowing sources: The Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, Academy of Sciences
of New York, Columbia University, The National
Museum, The Ohio State University, The Uni-
versity of Wisconsin and Yale University, as
well as from private collections. It is also in-
tended to exhibit any portraits, autograph let-
ters and type specimens and drawings of special
interest, which may be loaned for the occasion,
as well as presentation copies of books and
pamphlets.
The following committee of organization will
gladly answer questions and give assistance to
those who wish to contribute : Professor Charles
R. Barnes, University of Chicago; Mrs. N. L.
Britton, New York Botanical Gardens ; Profes-
sor W. A. Kellerman, Ohio State University ;.
Dr. George G. Kennedy, Readville, Mass.; Pro-
fessor L. M. Underwood, Columbia University.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.
THE Royal Institution of Great Britain, in
commemoration of its centenary, has elected a
number of honorary members, including Profes-
sors 8. P. Langley, Carl Barus, A. A. Michel-
JUNE 2, 1899. ]
son, R. H. Thurston, J. S. Ames and George F.
Barker, and President W. L. Wilson.
THE American delegates to the Congress of
Tuberculosis now meeting at Berlin are Dr.
Boyd, of the Navy ; Dr. Vaughan, of the Ma-
rine Hospital Service ; Dr. De Schweinitz, of
Department of Agriculture ; Dr Stiles, scientific
attaché to the embassy at Berlin.
Mr. FRANK A. FLOWER, Chief Statistician of
the State of Wisconsin, has been appointed
Chief of the Agricultural Division of the Census.
OxForRD University has conferred the honor-
ary degree of M.A. upon Mr. Roland Trimen,
F.R.S., formerly Curator of the South African
Museum, Cape Town, and late President of the
Entomological Society of London.
Lorp JAMES, of Hereford, has been elected
chairman of the governing body of the Imperial
Institute, London, in the room of the late Lord
Herschel.
PROFESSOR GEORGE F. BARKER, of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, and Professor Carl
Barus, of Brown University, are among the
American delegates attending the Jubilee of Sir
George Stokes, of Cambridge.
PRESIDENT WILLIAM L. WILSON, of Washing-
ton and Lee University, has been chosen by the
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to repre-
sent them at the approaching celebration of the
centennial of the Royal Institution of Great
Britain.
THE St. Petersburg Geographical Society has
awarded its great gold medal to Dr. G. Radde,
Director of the Caucasian Museum at Tiflis.
MaAJor Ross, who has recently been appointed
lecturer at the newly established school of
tropical diseases at University College, Liver-
pool, has given a lecture before the Biological So-
ciety of that city on the relations of the malarial
parasite to the mosquito, to which his own re-
searches have been such an important contribu-
tion.
THE death is announced of Sir Frederick
McCoy, F.R.S8., professor of natural sciences at
Melbourne University. We learn from the
London Times that he was born in Dublin in
1823 and that he was educated for the medical
profession at Dublin and Cambridge Universi-
ties, but early devoted himself to natural
SCIENCE. 789
science. Sir R. Griffith invited him to make
the paleontological investigations for the Geo-
logical map of Ireland for the boundary survey,
the results of which he published in 1844.
Afterwards he joined the Imperial Geological
Survey of Ireland, and Sir R. Peel’s govern-
ment appointed him professor of geology in the
Queen’s University in 1850. Professor McCoy
undertook, in conjunction with Professor Sedg-
wick, a large work on paleozoic rocks and
fossils based on the Woodwardian collection at
Cambridge. In 1854 he was appointed the
first professor of natural science in Melbourne
University, and held the chair till his death.
His services to Victoria were considerable, no-
tably in regard to the Geological Survey of the
colony, as a member of various commissions,
and as the founder of the Melbourne National
Museum. In 1880 he was elected F.R.S., and
was one of the first to receive the honorary de-
gree D.Sc. from Cambridge. In 1886 he was
made a C.M.G., and in 1891 he was promoted
to be K.C.M.G. Sir F. McCoy also received
the Order of the Crown of Italy from King
Victor Emanuel, the Emperor of Austria’s great
gold medal for arts and sciences, the Murchison
medal of the Geological Society of London, and
many similar distinctions.
Dr. Lupwic STRUMPELL, professor of phil-
osophy and pedagogy at Leipzig, has died at the
age of 87 years. He was an eminent repre-
sentative of the Herbartian School.
Mr. H. B. HEWerson, an eminent English
oculist, has died at the age of 49 years. He
was the author of numerous scientific contri-
butions, being a member of the Zoological,
Linnean and Geographical Societies and a
member of the Ornithologists’ Union.
Dr. THEODOR VON HEssLING, formerly pro-
fessor of anatomy in the University of Munich,
has died at the age of 83 years.
THE Rey. T. Neville Hutchinson, died on May
6th at the age of 73 years. Mr. Hutchinson was
science master at Rugby from 1866-83 and did
much to introduce the study of science in the
English public schools.
THE Secretaries of the Sections of the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of Science
are sending to members notices of the Colum-
790 SCIENCE.
bus meeting, which opens on August 21st. It
is hoped that good programs may be arranged
for the various sections at an early date.
THROUGH elections at the annual meeting on
May 19th, and designations at the ensuing
meeting of the Board of Managers, the organ-
ization of the National Geographic Society for
the ensuing year was made as follows: Presi-
dent, Alexander Graham Bell; Vice-President,
W J McGee; Treasurer, Henry Gannett; Re-
cording Secretary, F. H. Newell; Corresponding
Secretary, Willis L. Moore ; Foreign Secretary,
Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore ; additional members
of the Board, Marcus Baker, Charles J. Bell,
Henry F. Blount, F. V. Coville, G. K. Gilbert,
General A. W. Greely, Assistant Secretary
David J. Hill, John Hyde, 8. H. Kauffmann,
Director C. Hart Merriam, Superintendent W.
B. Powell, Superintendent Henry S. Pritchett
and J. Stanley- Brown. ;
THE 12th International Congress of Oriental-
ists will meet at Rome on October 12, 1899.
Cards of membership ($4.00) may be obtained
from Mr. Cyrus Adler, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C.
THE New York State Civil Service Commis-
sion announces that examinations will be held
on June 9th and 10th, which will include the
position of assistant in zoology in the State Mu-
seum, with a salary of $900; the positions of
sanitary, electrical and heating experts in the
office of the State Architect, with salaries from
$1,200 to $1,500; and the position of bridge de-
signer and inspector in the State Engineer’s
Office, with a salary of from $1,800 to $2,400.
The examination for an assistant in dietary ex-
periments has been postponed to June 10th.
Dr. DANIEL G. BRINTON, professor of Amer-
ican archeology and linguistics at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, has presented to the
University his collection of books and manu-
scripts relating to the aboriginal languages of
North and South America. The collection rep-
resents a work of accumulation of twenty-five
years, and embraces about 2,000 volumes, in
addition to nearly 200 volumes of bound and
indexed pamphlets bearing on the ethnology of
the American Indians. Many of the manu-
scripts are unique. A number of the printed
[N.S: Von. IX. No. 231.
volumes are rare or unique and of considerable
bibliographical importance. The collection of
works on the hieroglyphic writings of the
natives of this country embraces nearly every
publication on the subject. The special feature
of the library is that it covers the whole Amer-
ican field, North, Central and South, and was
formed for the special purpose of comparative
study.
THE collection of shells of the late Mr. Henry
D. Van Nostrand, recently given to Columbia
University, is well known among malacologists
as one of the most valuable of private collections
in the country ; it contains the larger and better
portion of the land shells of the West Indies col-
lected by Thomas Bland, including many types,
together with many of the rarest specimens of
the Perry Expedition.
THE Technical Education Board of the Lon-
don County Council is cooperating with the
Asylums Committee in offering a scholarship of
£150 a year, tenable for two years, for students
of either sex (preferably qualified practitioners),
to enable them to carry on investigations into
the preventible causes of insanity. The scholar
will carry on investigations in the pathological
laboratory attached to Claybury Asylum.
Proressor A, G. NATHORST, of the Imperial
Museum of Natural History of Stockholm, with
several scientific companions, sailed ‘from Hel-
singfors on May 25th to search along the north-
east coast of Greenland for Andrée. Professor
Nathorst hopes to meet the Fram with Cap-
tain Otto Sverdrup.
Mr. A. C. HARRISON, Jr., Mr. W. H. Fur-
ness and Dr. H. M. Hiller, who recently returned
from an exploration of Borneo, with collections
for the University of Pennsylvania, are about to
start on another expedition. They expect to
make explorations in the northern part of Bur-
mah and make archeological and ethnological
collections.
WE announced last week the laying of the
foundation stone of the new building which is
to complete the South Kensington Museum,
hereafter to be officially known as the Victoria
and Albert Museum. This building will con-
tain the art and industrial collections, while
new buildings for the Royal College of Science
JUNE 2, 1899.]
will be begun at once. The sum of £300,000
has been appropriated for these buildings, which
will occupy a position directly facing the Im-
perial Institute.
THE new building erected in the Dublin Zo-
ological Gardens in memory of the late Profes-
sor Samuel Haughton was formally opened on
May 19th by the Lord-Lieutenant, in the pres-
ence of a large gathering. Field-Marshal Lord
Roberts, President of the Royal Zoological So-
ciety, described the purpose of the meeting and
said that the new building was intended as a
tribute to the memory of Dr. Haughton, whose
name was intimately connected with many of
the leading institutions in Dublin, but with
none more closely than with the Royal Zoolog-
ical Society, of which he had been five years
President and 21 years Honorary Secretary.
THE City of Philadelphia has appointed a
committee of expert engineers consisting of
Rudolph Hering, of New York, Samuel Gray,
of Providence, R. I., and Joseph L. Wilson, of
Philadelphia, to make an investigation of the
water supply of Philadelphia.
AN institute for the study of tropical medicine
will be established at Berlin, with Dr. Koch as
Director.
THE Electrical World abstracts from. English
journals an account of the early work of Pro-
fessor Huges (inventor of the microphone), in
wireless telegraphy by means of etheric waves;
it appears to be the first published account of
his experiments, which were made in 1879. He
was experimenting with his microphone and in-
duction balance, and found that the microphone
produced a sound in the receiver even when it
was placed several feet distant from the coils
through which an intermittent current was pass-
ing and not in any other way connected. He
found that the whole atmosphere, even in sev-
eral rooms distant from there, would be invisibly
changed and that this could be noticed with a
microphone and telephone receiver. He ex-
perimented on the best form of receiver for
these invisible electric rays, which he found
would pass over great distances through walls,
etc. He found that carbon contacts or a piece
of coke resting on bright steel were very sensi-
tive and self restoring receivers. A loose con-
SCIENCE. 794
tact between metals, while equally sensitive,
required restoring. He also used the micro-
phone as a relay in detecting such rays. He
endeavored to discover the best receiver so as
to utilize such waves for the transmission of
messages. He showed his experiments to a
number of well-known physicists at that time.
The distance was 60 feet in the building, but he
also took the instrument on the street, and
walked away from the transmitter, obtaining
signals up to 500 yards. He claimed the exist-
ence of the waves at that time, but was unable
to convince others of their presence. He also
calls attention to still earlier experiments of
Professor Henry, of Princeton (U. S.), which
were published by the Smithsonian Institution,
Vol. I., p. 203, the date being probably about
1850; he magnetized a needle in a coil 30 feet
distant ; also by a discharge of lightning eight
miles distant.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL NEWS.
THE election of Professor Arthur T. Hadley
to the presidency of Yale University by the Cor-
poration on May 25th marks the beginning of
a new era in the development of a great univer-
sity. Yale has adhered more closely than most
of our larger institutions to the clerical and
classical traditions of the American college, and
President Hadley, while conserving what is
good, will undoubtedly use his influence to
make Yale, as a university,the equal of Harvard.
Like the Presidents of Harvard, Johns Hopkins
and Stanford Universities, President Hadley
may be claimed as a man of science, his work
on railway transportation and other subjects
being strictly scientific in character,
CLARK University proposes to celebrate its
decennial by special exercises beginning on
July 5th. These will include lectures by emi-
nent foreign men of science. Invitations to
speak having been accepted by M. Emile Picard,
professor of mathematics at the University of
Paris and a member of the Institute; Dr. An-
gelo Mosso, professor of physiology at the Uni-
versity of Turin ; and Dr. Santiago Ramon y
Cajal, professor of histology and pathological
anatomy at the University in Madrid.
A SPECIAL course in the fundamental problems
of geology intended particularly for college:
792
teachers will be offered during the first term of
the summer quarter (July 1 to August 10,
1899) at the University of Chicago by Professor
T. ©. Chamberlin. This will embrace a discus-
sion of the chief problems of geology involving
basal principles and fundamental modes of in-
terpretation. While old views will not ignored,
a special feature of the course will be a rela-
tively new series of working hypotheses based
upon the accretion theory of the earth’s origin.
These hypotheses will be carried out to their
practical applications in the unsolved problems
of geology and be made the basis of new modes
of interpretation of geological history. The
course will embrace an exposition of the stages
of expansional, restrictional and provincial life
evolution in the earth’s history and the con-
ditions controlling them. The functions of
base-levels, sea-shelves, epicontinental seas, and
continental stages of quiescence and readjust-
ment in the control of life evolution, will be set
forth. Parallel with the above there will be
given a course in glacial geology involving a
discussion of principles, the phenomena and
modes of interpretation. These courses will be
offered for the coming summer only, in response
to an expressed desire for them. The usual
courses in general geology and physiology, and
in field and laboratory work, will be given by
Professor Salisbury, aided by Messrs. Goode,
Atwood, Calhoun and Finch.
THE Rhode Island College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts, with the cooperation of Hon.
Thomas B. Stockwell, State Commissioner of
Public Schools, and Dr. Horace S. Tarbell,
Superintendent of Schools in Providence, pro-
poses to open a summer school for nature
study at Kingston, R. I., from July 5 to 19,
1899, provided forty applicants are enrolled
before June 1st. A general summer school is
not contemplated, and the work offered by the
various departments constitutes a single course
dealing solely with local phenomena in their
adaptability to the teaching of nature study.
The distinctive feature will be the study of
living nature. On the excursions attention
will be directed to special facts and illustrations
in botany, zoology, geography and mineralogy,
and to the manner in which chemical, physical
and biological laws are utilized by practical
SCIENCE,
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 231.
application to horticulture and agriculture.
The evenings will be devoted to general lectures
bearing upon nature and upon methods of
teaching nature study. Among those who have
consented to aid by conducting excursions,
conferences and lectures are Professors H. C.
Bumpus, E. G. Conklin, H. W. Conn, C. B.
Davenport and W. M. Wheeler.
THE Women’s Medical College of New York
will be closed at the end of the year, when the
thirty-first annual commencement will be cele-
brated. When the College was established there
was no opportunity for women to secure a med-
ical education, but Johns Hopkins and Cornell
having admitted women to their medical
schools it has been decided that a special med-
ical school for women is unnecessary. The in-
firmary for women and children will be con-
tinued, and the buildings of the College will be
used for graduate work.
THE medical faculty of the University of
Pennsylvania has made nominations as follows:
Dr. James Tyson, professor of clinical medicine,
to the chair of medicine, vacant by the death
of the late Dr. Pepper; Dr. John H. Musser
and Dr. Alfred Stangel, to be professors of clin-
ical medicine; Dr. Judson Daland, Dr. M.
Howard Fussell, Dr. John K. Mitchell and
Dr. Frederick A. Packard to be assistant pro-
fessors of medicine, and Dr. G. Davis to be as-
sistant professor of applied anatomy.
Dr. C. E. BEECHER, professor of historical
geology in Yale University, has been appointed
to succeed the late Professor O. C. Marsh as
Curator of the Geological Collections of the Pea-
body Museum. Professor Beecher has been made
a member of the Executive Council of the
Museum.
At the University of Kansas the following
appointments have been recently made: W. R.
Crane, of Janesville, Wis., to be assistant pro-
fessor of mining engineering; Thomas M.
Gardner, of Mitchell, Ind., to be assistant pro-
fessor of mechanical drawing; Dr. Ida Hyde,
of Cambridge, Mass., to be assistant professor
of zoology; Hamilton P. Cady, of Ithaca, N.
Y., to be assistant professor of chemistry, and
Charles L. Searcy, of the College of Montana,
to be assistant professor of civil engineering.
SCIENCE
‘EDITORIAL ComMITTEE: S. NEwcomsB, Mathematics; R. S. WoopWARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING,
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THuRsTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LE Conte, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography; HENRY F. OSBORN, Paleontology ; W. K.
Brooks, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology; S. H. ScuDDER, Entomology; C. E. Brssry, N. L.
Britron, Botany; C. S. Minot, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bownpitcu, Physiology;
J. S. Bruitrnes, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology; DANIEL G. BRIN-
ton, J. W. PoweLL, Anthropology.
Fripay, JUNE 9, 1899.
CONTENTS:
Senatorial Investigation of Food Adulteration......... 793
Amerind—A Designation for the Aboriginal Tribes
of the American Hemisphere........:cscssesecseeeenees 795
Exploring Expedition to the Mid-Pacifie Ocean:
DR. HUGH M. SMITH.....:........00-0scceeeeeeecenes 796
The Scientific Study of Irrigation: Dr. A. C
TN RU ksoosugbooaeustos abokbodhdauaba henacsmenncshicaacdohoos 798
‘The International Catalogue of Scientifie Literature
—Second Conference (II.): DR. Cyrus ADLER.. 799
A Double Instrument and a Double Method for the
Measurement of Sound: Dkr. B. F. SHARPE..... 808
New York State Science Teachers Association: DR.
BRAN KLIN Wa BARROWS: .i00.s00escresssssearensces 811
Scientifie Books :—
Urkunden zur Geschichte der nichteuklidischen
' Geometrie: PROFESSOR GEORGE BRUCE HAL-
STED. Lachman’s The Spirit of Organic Chem-
istry: DR. JAMES F. Norris. Allen’s Com-
mercial Organic Analysis: PROFESSOR W. A.
INOWES = Bookseheceived:nesste% as well as the early.
It seems clear that the mental work of
the school day does not produce any marked
decrease in the ability to do further work.
The data here given are somewhat influ-
enced by certain factors, though not by
practice. These factors will be fully dis-
cussed in a later report.
The multiplication, spelling and figure
tests when given to about 300 children in
another city showed the following results:
The multiplication test was given to 156
children early and to 154 later. When
evaluated for 153 children the results
show the latter to have done 863% as
much work, to have made 14;5% more
mistakes. Taking together the work of all
the children tested (594, 297 early, 297
late), we find that the children who did the
work late did 2,%,% more work, and made
exactly the same number of mistakes.
The spelling test was given to 135 early
and 128 late. When evaluated for 127
children the results show the latter to have
worked through 92,5 % as many lines, to
have marked ;°, of 1% more words, and to
have marked wrongly 87 % as many words.
Taking together the work of all the chil-
dren tested, we find that those who did the
work late worked through 94,°, % as many
10
lines, marked 1,3, % more words and marked
wrongly 93,5 % as many.
The figure test was given to 156 chil-
dren early and to 152 late. After reducing
the results of the 156 to a basis of 152 we
find that those who had the tests late did
17 % better.
Taking together the work of all the chil-
dren tested, we find that those who had the
test late did almost 2% better than those
who had it early.
Besides these three tests, which are of the
same sort as some of those given to the first
lot of children, there was given to this sec-
ond lot a test with letters similar to the
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 234.
figure test. This test was given to 140
children early and to an equal number late.
Those doing the work late did 97 % as well
as those who had it early.
The factors mentioned as influencing the
work of the first set of children were largely
counterbalanced by factors at work in the
second ; one, however, should be mentioned.
A certain circumstance probably lessened
the work of one class (of 30) of the first lot
of children during an early spelling test.
So the early work in this test should prob-
ably be reckoned about 2% higher. On
the whole these additional data render
more probable our previous conclusion that
“‘the mental work of the school day does
not produce any decrease in the ability to
do mental work.’’ A glance at the follow-
ing table, which summarizes the more im-
portant data, shows this better perhaps than
the detailed accounts already given.
Toate | Nos of Scholars Ratio of Teteute Early
Multiplication. | 297 102°, %
Spelling. | 273 101°; %
Figures. | 295 102 %
Nonsense syllables. | 147 98 %
Form. | 145 94.8, %
Letters. | 140 99 %
Epwarp THORNDIKE.
WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY,
CLEVELAND, OHIO.
THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIEN-
TIFIC LITERATURE.
PHYSICS.
Tue plan proposed is to issue a book
catalogue once in five years, arranged ac-
cording to both subjects and authors, and
to issue also, from week to week, two sets of
card catalogues—one according to subjects
and the other according to authors. sti-
mates are given of the proposed cost of this ;
and various alternatives are proposed, such
as the issuing of a book catalogue by itself,
or a book catalogue and an author card
catalogue. It is estimated that each arti-
JUNE 23, 1899. ]
cle will require four entries, on an average
one according to the author, the others ac-
cording to the subjects treated of in the
paper.
It is proposed also to print, at the head of
each of the cards or slips, distinctive sym-
bols to indicate the science and particular
sub-division of the science to which the
paper refers.
There can be no doubt but that, to satisfy
the needs of workers in laboratories, the
plan of having a card catalogue of subjects
is by far the most satisfactory. A book
catalogue would be practically useless ex-
cept to a student looking up references for
historical reasons, and should, therefore, be
kept in a general library, and not in a
laboratory library. For the use of workers
in laboratories the subject card catalogue
would be of the greatest importance, as
everyone knows who has ever kept one. It
is of great use to the director of the labora-
tory in the saving of time and brain matter,
because he no longer needs to remember all
articles which have appeared, and to the
student or investigator in keeping him in-
formed of all that is going on in his particu-
lar line of work. From the standpoint,
then, of Physics there can be no doubt but
that it would be desirable for the Interna-
tional Committee to print all three cata-
logues, the book catalogue and the two card
catalogues ; and of these the card catalogues
should be kept, it seems best, in the labora-
tory itself, or at least in such a situation as
to be ready for use by all the students.
No suggestions are asked by the Commit-
tee concerning the division of the sciences
or the classification proposed ; and, in fact,
this matter is of secondary importance. The
plan is to have the assistants and the clerks
in the Central Office in London make a
division of the titles according to subjects
and to label the cards and slips in some
definite way; so that anyone, although
ignorant of the subject-matter, can arrange
SCIENCE.
865
the cards easily and quickly when they are
received.
Each. card in Physics is to be marked
with the letter ‘D,’ and each subject card
is to have, further, a number, such as
‘5410,’ which signifies the particular sub-
division to which the subject has reference.
In this particular case the 5 would indicate
the primary division, ‘ Light ;’ the 4 the sub-
division, ‘ Polarization ;’ the 10 the special
subject, ‘Methods of Producing Polarized
Radiation.’
According to this system Physics is divi-
ded into seven ‘primary divisions,’ so-
called, namely: Bibliography and Dynamics;
Heat; Mechanical and Thermal Effects of
Contact and Mixture; Vibrations, Waves
and Sound ; Theories of the Constitution of
the Ether and of Matter; Light, including
Invisible Radiation ; Electro-magnetism.
‘Bibliography and Dynamics’ is sub-
divided into seven sections: Bibliography of
Physics ; Dynamics in General ;. Dynamics
of a Particle and Rigid Dynamics ; Elas-
ticity ; Hardness, Friction and Viscosity ;
Dynamics of Fluids; Measurements of
Dynamical Quantities:
‘Heat’ is divided into seven sections :
Temperature and Thermometry ; Calorim-
etry; Determination of the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat; Fundamental Laws of
Thermodynamics ; Thermal Conduction and
Convection; Changes of Volume and of
State (Experiment and Theory); Radia-
tion.
‘Mechanical and Thermal Effects of Con-
tact or Mixture’ is. divided into five sec-
tions: Friction ; Capillarity ; Diffusion ;
Transpiration and Mechanical Perme-
ability ; Imbibition and Surface Condensa-
tion of Gases; Solution and Osmose.
‘Vibrations, Waves and Sound’ is di-
vided into five sections: Theory and Obser-
vation of Harmonic Vibrations ; Theory of
Wave Motion; Sound; The Sensation of
Sound ; The Physical Basis of Music.
866 SCIENCE.
‘Light, including Invisible Radiation,’
is divided into six sections: Geometrical
Opties and Photometry ; Velocity, Wave-
length, Energy, etc., of Radiation ; Inter-
ference and Diffraction ; Reflection and
Refraction ; Polarization ; The Emission of
Radiation, Phosphorescence, etc.
‘ Electro-magnetism ’ is divided into eight
sections: Electric and Magnetic Units ;
Electrostatics; Magnetism; The Electric
Current; Electrolysis; Electrodynamics ;
Electric Discharge ; Terrestrial Magnetism;
The Compass, Earth Currents.
These sections are divided further into
270 sub-divisions. The cards are to go to
the subscribers fully labelled, the marking
being done by expert assistants in London.
On being received they can be filed away
in suitable cases by a clerk, no expert
knowledge being required. With a suit-
able key as to symbols any desired reference
can be found quickly, and the work being
done in any subject can be ascertained
easily. Anysystem of classification, there-
fore, which is extensive, definite, and free
from ambiguity, will be satisfactory.
In the main, the systems proposed by the
Committee of the Royal Society are most
satisfactory ; and the labor expended in per.
fecting them in the different sciences, al-
though enormous, will be fully repaid.
Unfortunately, the classification in
Physics does not entirely satisfy the require-
ments demanded. The primary divisions
are not altogether logical, nor is the classifi-
cation of certain subjects; but this is com-
paratively immaterial.
In some cases it would undoubtedy be
well still further to sub-divide a subject.
For instance, the sub-divison devoted to the
‘discharge in rarefied gases,’ or the one de-
voted to the ‘measurements of wave-lengths
by optical and photographic methods.’ In
other cases this process has been carried
toofar. For instance, there is no particular
reason why a special sub-division should be
[N. S. Vou. IX. No. 234.
given to the ‘vapor pressure near curved
surfaces.’
Again, certain subjects seem to be en-
tirely omitted, such as ‘ spectrum analysis ;’
the ‘effect of different external causes on
wave-lengths,’ such as the Zeeman effect
and the pressure effect ; the ‘numerical re-
lations between the lines of any one spec-
trum and between the spectra of different
elements ;’ ‘ Doppler’s principle ;’ the ‘ laws
of radiation and absorption ;’ ‘ forced vibra-
tions and resonance ;’ the ‘laws of steady
currents as distinct from alternating cur-
rents ;’ ‘heat effects of currents ;’ ‘ photog-
raphy ;’ ete.
There are sections which are almost
identical, such as the ‘vibration of strings
and rods’ under ‘ Sound’ and the ‘ dynamics
of flexible strings’ under ‘ Elasticity.’ It
is hardly an accepted fact that the Hall ef-
fect is due to changes in specific resistance,
and, therefore, one would not necessarily,
place it in that section. Again, in speak-
ing of dynamies, the word center of inertia
or center of mass is preferable to center of
gravity. The name ‘Electro-magnetism ’
is not a particularly happy one for the last
primary division.
The only points of importance in the
classification which need be criticised,
however, are, I think, the omissions, the
other matters being of very little importance,
owing to the fact that the classification has
a key, and the fact that anyone can, there-
fore, easily find the reference which he de-
sires. It would increase, however, the
value of the catalogue if the scheme of
classification could be somewhat remodeled,
and I venture to express the hope that some
action of this kind may be taken before the
recommendations of the committee are ac-
cepted by the countries concerned in the
proposal.
There has been no plan proposed in re-
cent years which seems to be of so great
importance to the students of Physics
JUNE 23, 1899.]
throughout the world as this, and it is
earnestly to be desired that enough countries
and enough universities and libraries will
subscribe to the enterprise to make it
possible for the Central Committee to pub-
lish the book and the card catalogues.
J.S. AMEs.
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.
CHEMISTRY.
Ir the object of arranging titles of books
in a bibliography in certain groups or
classes is to enable readers and investi-
gators to find more readily an article on a
given subject, then the anonymous Commit-
tee that drew up the schedule of classifica-
tion for Chemistry in the Report of the
Royal Society’s International Catalogue
Committee has made an almost total failure.
Two methods were open to the Commit-
tee appointed to devise a classification
scheme for Chemistry, either to adopt an
arbitrary system, in which symbols uni-
formly indicate definite subjects, or to adopt
the dictionary plan, in which specific words
are arranged alphabetically. The latter
plan has, in our opinion, great and incon-
testable advantages over the former, but-as
the Committee chose to adopt the first
named method the second cannot be here
considered.
The provisional plan which was submit-
ted to the delegates at the Conference of
the International Catalogue Committee,
held in London, October, 1898, forms Sec-
tion F, of the general scheme printed in a
small volume, very difficult for others than
delegates to obtain. The grand divisions,
with their registration symbols, are as fol-
lows:
(No number) Chemical Bibliography.
0100 Chemistry (Specific) of the Elements.
0900 Laboratory Procedure.
1000 Organic (Carbon) Chemistry (Specific).
1010 Hydrocarbons.
1100 Alcohols and Ethers.
1200 Acids.
1300 Aldehydes and Ketones.
SCIENCE.
867
1400 Carbohydrates ; Glucosides ; Resins.
1500 Amino- and Azo-Compounds.
1600 Mixed Cycloids.
1700 Organo-Metallic and allied Compounds.
1890 Alkaloids.
1900 Proteids.
2000 Coloured Compounds.
2500 Operations in Organic Chemistry.
3000 Analytical Chemistry.
3900 Theoretical and Physical Chemistry.
4000 Physiological Chemistry.
These grand divisions are sub-divided so
as to provide a class and asymbol for every
substance known to the chemist or awaiting
discovery ; at least such is the intention.
Chemical Bibliography is divided into six
groups, to wit:
0000 Philosophy.
0010 History.
0020 Biography.
0030 Dictionaries, collected works, monographs, and
text-books.
0040 Pedagogy.
0050 Addresses, lectures, essays and theses.
Curiously, no symbol is provided for bib-
liographies of chemistry, a topic that must
have been prominent in the minds of the
persons on the Committee.
The second grand division ‘0100 Chem-
istry of the Elements’ is intended to em-
brace ‘all specifically chemical subject-
matter, and such other entries as may be
desirable, relating to the elements generally,
excepting carbon.’’ In this category the
elements are arranged alphabetically and
to each a symbol is given, thus :
0110 (Al) Aluminium.
0120 (Sb) Antimony.
0130 (A) Argon.
* * * * *
0200 (Cd) Cadmium.
0210 (Cs) Cesium.
* * % * *
0250 (Cl) Chlorine.
0260 (Cr) Chromium.
* * * * *
0800 (Va) Vanadium.
0810 (Yt) Ytterbium.
0820 (Y) Yttrium.
0830 (Zn) Zine.
0840 (Zr) Zirconium.
868
Students, and even older chemists, who
find difficulty in recalling the atomic
weights of common elements will scarcely
welcome the proposition to give to each ele-
ment another factor, though in the case of
antimony this objection disappears.
This alphabetical arrangement of the ele-
ments prevents carrying out one of the
prime objects of classification, namely, the
grouping of related matters ; thus
0270 = Cobalt, 0500 = Nickel,
0690 = Sulphur, 0710 = Tellurium.
The natural group Ba, Ca and Sr, have re-
spectively the unrelated numbers 0150,
0220 and 0680. Surely the elements might
have been arranged systematically, so that
related bodies would have contiguous sym-
bols.
Annexed to the table of elements are in-
structions for sub-dividing entries and the
following paragraph: ‘‘ Specific entries re-
lating to the halogens collectively shall be
arranged in Division 0250 under Halogens.’’
This mixing of a word-heading with nu-
merical symbols is a weak feature to be
again noticed.
The instructions for entering titles in
sub-divisions of 0100 include the following
paragraph: ‘‘ Entries relating to com-
pounds, which in the Slip Catalogue bear
the number and symbol of the dominant
element, together with the symbol of the
secondary constituent, or dominant second
constituent, shall be printed in the sub-
division of their second constituent.” If
we understand aright this rather obscure
sentence, it provides for writing on slips
according to one rule and for printing them
in book-form according to another rule;
sodium chloride would appear, therefore,
under the symbol for sodium in the written
slips and under chlorine in the printed
volume !
A second paragraph provides that “ refer-
ences to hydroxides, acids and salts shall
be entered under the oxide, and corre-
SCIENCE.
[N.S. Vou. IX. No. 234.
sponding sulphur compounds under the
sulphide.”
A third paragraph reads as follows: ‘‘ (d)
In each sub-division the entries shall be
arranged in such order that those relating,
a, to the history or origin of the substance
come first, and following these, in the order
mentioned, those relating, /, to its prepara-
tion or manufacture; 7, to its structure, or
of a theoretical nature ; 4, to its interactions
or use ; «, to its compounds—these five sev-
eral sections being denoted by the letters a,
By 7, 6, €.”? ;
Passing without comment this non-pars-
able English (which occurs elsewhere in the
report), the scheme introduces another
arbitrary feature, Greek letters for specific
subjects, which is an admission that the
numerical plan is found insufficient ; though
it need not be, provided decimals were
used, a plan which does not seem to be con-
templated by the Committee. The sugges-
tion is even made that “ it would be possible
to carry the analysis still farther by means
of symbols, such as ¢, z, and so forth, to
indicate physical properties, crystalline
form, ete.’”’ The writers of this review ven-
ture to suggest that when the Greek alpha-
bet is exhausted the Hebrew will come in
handy.
This mixture of numerical symbols with
word-headings is again resorted to in di-
vision ‘0930 Operations in inorganic chem-
istry,’ where it is suggested that ‘‘ entries
shall be made under significant headings,
such as dissolution (sic) and _ solvents,
crystallization, distillation, * * * oxi-
dation, electrolysis, furnace operations,
etc., arranged alphabetically.”
To organic chemistry the symbol 1000 is
assigned, under which all entries shall be
arranged that relate to the subject gen-
erally ; substitution derivatives of the com-
pounds included in each of the numbered
divisions—especially haloid and allied de-
rivatives—shall, as far as possible, be en-
JUNE 23, 1899. ]
tered under the compounds from which they
are derived.
The next paragraph provides that ‘ entries
under the name of a substance may, if
necessary, be sub-divided in the same way
as that proposed for inorganic substances.”
. Hydrocarbons receive the numerical sym-
bol 1010, and the scheme for indicating
their substitution derivatives leads to amaz-
ing propositions ; the general group is di-
vided thus :
1010 Hydrocarbons.
1020 Parafiins.
1030 Unsaturated Open-Chain Hydrocarbons.
1040 Benzenoid Hydrocarbons.
1050 Reduced Benzenoid Hydrocarbons (Terpenes,
ete. ).
1060 Unclassified Hydrocarbons.
“« Kach of these divisions shall be sub-di-
vided (excepting 1010 and 1020) into
isologous groups, in each of which com-
pounds shall be entered in homologous
order.”’ Then follow two new arbitrary
signs for distinguishing derivatives ; these
are full-faced numerals, 2, 4, etc., used to
indicate homologous series C,H,,_,, C,H,, 4,
and the full-faced letter C, with exponents
attached to indicate the number of carbon
atoms in a given compound.
Applying this scheme to nitropropane
(CH,.CH,.CH,.(NO,) ) it will receive the
registration symbol 1020.C,.NO,; allene
(C,:C:CH,) will be indicated by the symbol
1030.2.C,, and bromotuluene (C,H,.CH,.Br)
will be indicated by 1040.6.C,. Br.
This plan of assigning to definite chem-
ical bodies arbitrary symbols resembling in
structure well-established formule is most
objectionable ; if carried out it would prove
vexatious to chemists and of no practical
value to librarians.
To alcohols and ethers the symbol 1100
is assigned ; to acids, 1200; each of these
groups is sub-divided exactly as are the
hydrocarbons, but the symbols of the sub-
divisions do not harmonize. Since paraf-
SCIENCE.
869
fins = 1020, ‘ols’ should have been 1120,
and acids 1220 (instead of 1110 and 1210).
In the paragraph on acids provision
is made for indicating the number of oxy-
gen atoms, the character of the acid
and the basicity by numbers, to which
ol, al, on, id or cy shall be appended, ac-
cording to the origin of the acid. ‘‘ Thus,
lactic acid would be marked 1210.C,0,
(Lol), and protocatechuic acid, 1230.8.C,0,
(1.2.01).”” Here, again, we have registra-
tion symbols resembling in a general way
chemical formule, yet they do not show the
constitution nor even suggest the name of
the substance.
Number 1440 is given to carbohydrates
other than mono-, di- and trisaccharides and
1450 to glucosides and 1460 to resins, and
it is provided that compounds belonging to
these divisions shall be entered alphabet-
ically ; this is again a departure from the
numerical plan. Another rule provides
that ‘‘ under alkaloids (1800) a list shall
be given of vegeto-alkaloids, together with
the Latin names of the plants from which
they have been obtained, arranged in the
alphabetical order of the plant names.”
Chemists not versed in botany would find
this arrangement a puzzling one. Again,
‘‘ alkaloids derived from plants (1810) and
from animals (1820) shall be arranged
alphabetically.”’
Division 2000 is styled ‘Coloured com-
pounds’ [!], a singular misnomer for com-
pounds used in dyeing ; yet another division,
2010,is called ‘Coloured substances,not dye-
stuffs,’ and division 2020 is named ‘dye-
stuffs.’ Provision is made for sub-dividing
these categories thus: ‘2010 into Hydro-
carbons (coloured), Alcohols (coloured),
Ketones (coloured), ete.; 2020 into Azo
dyes * * * dye-stuffs of vegetable origin,
unclassified dyes,’’ arranged alphabetically
in each sub-division.
The rules concerning the entries of the
sub-divisions of 3000, Analytical Chem-
870
istry, also lack uniformity, clearness and
exactness ; ‘‘ division 3200 shall include all
entries relating to the determination of in-
dividual elements in their compounds and
in mixtures, excluding determinations of
atomic weights’? which belong to division
3500 (theoretical and physical chemistry).
“Division 3300 shall include all entries
relating to the determination of individual
compounds, e. g., alkaloids, carbohydrates
* 7K > but excluding gases. If necessary
gravimetric, volumetric, electrolytic, phys-
ical, etc., methods may be distinguished
by letters, such as g, v, ete.’”’ ‘ Division
3400 (Applied Analysis) shall include all
entries relating to the analysis of composite
materials, such as drugs, foods, soils, waters
and technical products generally, arranged
under appropriate significant headings.”
The remaining divisions, 3500, Theoret-
ical and Physical Chemistry, and 4000,
Physiological Chemistry, must be passed ;
the specimens given are sufficiently numer-
ous.
A study of this remarkable scheme of
classification shows that the Committee
failed to recognize the fact that classifica-
tion and notation are two distinct things,
and that a notation need have no relation
to the character of the class to which the
notation is given. To differentiate the
houses in a city, street and number are
given; ‘120 Grand Avenue’ suffices to dis-
tinguish a given house, and it is not neces-
sary to construct a symbol indicating the
number of stories, the number of windows
and the color of the paint in order to recog-
nize the address.
Accompanying the schedule of classifica-
tion is a specimem page giving illustrations
of the way in which these rules should be
applied; the examples bring out forcibly
the absurdities of the conglomerate method
proposed. The paper on Argon, by Lord
Rayleigh and W. Ramsay, receives the
Kabbalistic formula ‘0100. 7.¢,’ but, if we
SCIENCE.
(N.S. Von. IX. No. 234.
understand rightly the Committee’s rules,
the numerals should be 0130, which stands
for argon.
An article by J. J. Sudborough and L.
L. Lloyd, on ‘Stereoisomerism as affecting
formation of etheral salts from unsaturated
acids,’ is assigned simply the number 3500 ;
when, however, the same paper is entered
under a different title, namely : ‘ Etherifica-
tion of stereoisomeric unsaturated acids a
criterion of structure,’ it has the number
12007; when, on the other hand, this paper
is catalogued as: ‘Cinnamic and allied acids
as a criterion of structure, Etherification
of,’ the catalogue slip must bear the symbol
1230.10.€,0,5.
To a chemist the formula of cinnamic
acid C,H,.CH:CH,.CO,H has a definite
meaning, and we protest against a system
that introduces symbols, analogous in ap-
pearance, yet wholly misleading as respects
the composition.
An examination of the schedule of classifi-
cation of Chemistry proposed by the Inter-
national Catalogue Committee shows that
it consists of a medley of several methods.
The system includes :
1. Numbers, full-face and inferiors, used
for several distinct purposes.
. Roman capitals, to denote component
elements.
3. Roman lower-case, to denote kind of
chemical process.
Italic letters in parenthesis, to denote
basicity of acids.
. Greek lower-case letters.
. Word-headings arranged alphabetically.
. Special provisions ; exceptions to rules.
In 1772, at Ulm, was printed a thin octavo,
having the title ‘ Medicinisch-chymisch und
alchemistisches Oraculum,’ which contains
a key to over two thousand symbols and
kabbalistic figures found in alchemical
manuscripts and books ; the book is curious
and instructive, as well as really service-
able to antiquarian chemists. The number
bo
iP
ou
“Io
JUNE 23, 1899. ]
of synonyms for a given substance is large ;
alum has twenty-six; aqua fortis, twenty-
two ; mercury, thirty-eight; a pound
weight, eight, and cream of tartar is cred-
ited with thirty-two; the symbols have an
uncouth appearance, but are hardly more
fanciful than those proposed by the Com-
mittee on the International Catalogue.
Should their schedule of classification pre-
vail, a new edition of the ‘ Alchemical
Oracle’ would soon become a necessity.
H. Carrineaton Bourton,
Wiiiam P. Currer.
METEOROLOGY.
Tue schedules of classification in meteor-
ology proposed by the International Cata-
logue Committee of the Royal Society
seem to be fairly well adapted to secure
the objects sought by the International
Conference on the bibliography of science.
I do not understand that the Conference or
the Committee has in mind any attempt at
a philosophical classification of human
knowledge as embodied in the publications
of scientific societies. On the contrary,
their object is merely to collect together in
London all possible titles of scientific works,
and to so arrange these that the clerks of
the Royal Society may easily copy out all
the titles on any given subject that may be
called for by any student or investigator.
For instance, under the head of ‘ Earth
Temperature,’ No. 2,100, there may be
10,000 titles and cards ; these will be sub-
divided into a number of divisions, prob-
ably according to special aspects and
according to the countries or stations.
Each of these sub-divisions may have a
vumber between 2,100 and 2,199, or, if more
sub-divisions are needed, they will be
between 21,000 and 21,999. Of course, the
ease with which a clerk picks out the cards
that belong to a given subject desired by
the student depends, first, upon the minute-
ness of this sub-classification, and, sec-
SCIENCE.
871
ondly, upon the accuracy with which the
content of a memoir is expressed by its own
title. This latter is the béte noir of all
classification by titles, and there is no rem-
edy for it except that the bibliographer ex-
amine the original memoir itself, page by
page. In this respect the Royal Society
must depend upon the thoroughness of
those who send titles to it. The Society is
simply the central office, or agent, for all
the other societies and men in the scientific
world. Every card thatis sent to it should
have inscribed on it the one or more sub-
divisions into which it falls. If these sub-
divisions do not appear on the preliminary
schedules of classification that have been
sent out for criticism and suggestion, then
they will be inserted as fast as needed.
It seems to me that the method adopted
by the Conference and the Royal Society
will work just as well as any other that
could be suggested, and will be a great
boon to science if kept up during the next
century. Of course, it will require at
least ten years of experience for us to begin
to appreciate either its defects or ad-
vantages. Fortunately, so far as regards
meteorology, the Weather Bureau has the
great international bibliography, started in
1881 under my personal supervision and
already partially published. The classifi-
cation adopted therein by Mr. C. J. Sawyer,
after consultation with all the recognized
experts of Europe and America, embraces
many details not specifically mentioned in
the schedule of the Royal Society, and is
found very convenient when once the stu-
dent has become slightly familiar with it.
It endeavored to attain greater elasticity
by adopting a mixture of capital and small
letters, Roman and Arabic numerals, in or-
der to designate the various divisions and
sub-divisions. Thus we have IBlb to
designate the Aristotelian works on meteor-
ology in general, whereas the Royal Society
classification would, undoubtedly, designate
872 SCIENCE.
these as 0002, or, possibly, 00021. There is
very little to choose between the two meth-
ods except as to the ease in writing, speak-
ing and printing.
As to the classification or arrangement of
subjects, my personal preference would be
strongly in favor of a simple dictionary
catalogue.
CLEVELAND ABBE.
_ THE STOKES JUBILEE.
On June 1 and 2, 1899, the University of
Cambridge celebrated the fiftieth anni-
versary of the appointment of Sir George
Gabriel Stokes to the Lucasian professor-
ship of mathematics in that institution.
During the half century of his connection
with Cambridge, Professor Stokes has dis-
tinguished himself by a remarkable series
of investigations in the fields of hydrome-
chanics, physical geodesy, elasticity, the
undulatory theory of light, and pure mathe-
matics. His activity has continued down
to the present date, one of his most recent
papers dealing with the mechanical proper-
ties of the X-rays.
The celebration of so rare an event in
academic life,and the eagerness of educa-
tional and scientific institutions to render
homage to so eminent a man, naturally
brought together a large body of special-
ists in the mathematico-physical sciences.
About 400 delegates and other guests were
present. Nearly all of these were en-
tertained either in the colleges or in the
homes of members of the professorial staff.
Thus was it made easy for the stranger
within the gates of this renowned University
to see much of its inner life and to enjoy in
the fullest degree its charming hospitality.
The ceremonies began on the afternoon
of June 1st, with the Rede Lecture, delivered
in the Senate House, by Professor Cornu, on
‘The wave theory of light ; its influence on
modern physics.’ This was delivered with
admirable clearness in French. In the
[N. S. Von. IX. No. 234.
evening following a conversazione was held
in Fitzwilliam Museum, and busts of Sir
George Stokes were presented to the Uni-
versity and to Pembroke College (that of
Stokes) by Lord Kelvin.
On the morning of June 2d the delegates
and guests were received in the Senate
House by the Vice-Chancellor and the dele-
gates presented the addresses sent by the
various academic and scientific institutions.
There were about seventy such addresses,
so that it was essential to dispense with the
formal reading of them in most cases. Pro-
fessor Stokes responded briefly and with
great modesty to these addresses, saying
that they made him feel that in his long
life he ought to have accomplished much
more; but, he added, humorously: If I had
done more I probably should not have lived
to celebrate this jubilee.
On the afternoon of June 2d the address
of the University of Cambridge and a
gold medal were presented to Sir George
Stokes; and immediately thereafter the
degree of Doctor in Science, honoris causa,
was conferred on the following distin-
guished men of science: Marie Alfred
Cornu, professor of experimental physics
in the Ecole Polytechnique, Paris; Jean
Gaston Darboux, dean of the faculty of
sciences in the University of Paris; Albert
Abraham Michelson, professor of experi-
mental physics in the University of Chi-
cago; Magnus Gustav Mittag-Lefiler, pro-
fessor of pure mathematics, Stockholm ;
Georg Herman Quincke, professor of ex-
perimental physics in the University of
Heidelberg ; and Woldemar Voigt, profes-
sor of mathematical physics in the Univer-
sity of Gottingen.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
A Text-Book of Physics—Sound. By J. H. Poryn
TING and J. J. THomson. London, Charles
Griffin & Co. 1899. Pp. 163.
This is the first one of five volumes in
JUNE 23, 1899.]
course of preparation by the authors, the others
relating to ‘Properties of Matter,’ ‘Heat,’
‘Magnetism and Electricity,’ and ‘ Light,’ re-
spectively.
These text-books are intended ‘‘ chiefly for
the use of students who lay most stress on the
study of the experimental part of physics, and
who have not yet reached the stage at which
the reading of advanced treatises on special
subjects is desirable.’’ The nature of sound
and its chief characteristics are first considered
in a chapter that is wholly free of mathematics.
The velocity of sound in air aud other mediais
then discussed, the reflection and refraction of
sound, frequency and pitch of notes, resonance
and forced oscillations, the analysis of vibra-
tions by Fourier’s theorem, the transverse
vibrations of stretched cords, longitudinal vi-
brations in pipes and other air cavities, vibra-
tion of rods, plates and membranes, the
Trevelyan rocker, sensitive flames and musical
sand. The last chapter is on the superposition
of waves, with application to the physical basis
of concord and discord, and on combination
tones.
The distinguished authors are so well known
for their original and accurate work as investi-
gators that the critic who is in search of mis-
takes will find little to note, beyond a very
small number of obvious typographical errors.
In the descriptive parts the style is clear and
the paragraphing is good. SINGLE Copiks, 15 cts.
VoL. IX. No. 214. FRipDAy, FEBRUARY 3, 1899. ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00.
Static Machines
for all purposes.
X=Ray Apparatus
and Supplies.
SEND FOR BULLETIN No. 24.
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9 Bromfield St., Boston, Mass.
FOSSILS The attention of Teachers of Geology and Physiography is
© called to our systematic collections of Fossils; $20.00 and
upwards. We also make up Special Collections to illustrate the different text-books.
Our new circular on AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC CORALS, BRACHIOPOD AND TRILOBITE
MopELs, will be mailed on request.
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Biddle’s Bulletin for 1899 ~22222222220a,
I began to publish this eight-page paper in April, 1898. It has not changed in size but there
is improvement in quality, I hope. For 1899 I shall try to make it still more interesting.
A)
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ay are interested in Scientific Apparatus— Physical Apparatus, Electrical Measuring Instruments,
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A Flistory of Physics
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By FLORIAN CAJORI, Ph.D.
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BY THE SAME AUTHOR
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History of Mathematics Elementary Mathematics
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much wanted.’’—The Nation. | somewhat detailed account of the rise and progress
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A History of Physics
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Physical Laboratories
By FLORIAN CAJORI, Ph.D.
Professor of Physics in Colorado College.
Cloth, Crown 8vo, $1.60 net.
This brief popular history gives in broad outline the development of the science of physics from an-
tiquity to the present time.
It contains also a more complete statement than is found elsewhere of the evo-
lution of physical laboratories in Europe and America.
primarily intended for students and teachers of physics.
troduction of historical matter, a science can be made more attractive.
The book, while of interest to the general reader, is
The conviction is growing that, by a judicious in-
Moreover, the general view of the de-
velopment of the human intellect which the history of a science affords is in itself stimulating and liberal-
izing.
In the announcement of Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften we read as follows .
“ While
by the present methods of teaching, a knowledge of science in its present state of advancement is imparted
very successfully, eminent and farsighted men have repeatedly been obliged to point out a defect which too
often attaches to the present scientific education of our youth.
It is the absence of the historical sense and the
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fused with his own ardor in this department of
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il SCIENCE.—ADVERTISEMENTS.
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The Spirit of Organic Chemistry
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By ARTHUR LACHMAN, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oregon. With an In-
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“The Spirit of Organic Chemistry ’’ is a supplement to the standard text-book of the sub-
ject ; it consists of selected chapters, historically and critically presented. With the chief object.
in view of enabling its readers to follow the development of organic chemistry in the current
journals, it analyzes the chief propositions of the science into their logical component problems ;
interpreting the general in terms of the specific facts. The method employed is the historical ;
in each case, the origin, growth, and gradual evolution of the problem are discussed in detail.
The topics chosen for presentation have been selected mainly because of their adaptability to the
above manner of treatment, but they will be found to include nearly all the fundamental prob-
lems and conceptions of this branch of chemistry. Stereochemical doctrines, in particular, have
been incorporated to an extent commensurate with their importance. No great familiarity with
the subject is presupposed, the more difficult points being explained in full detail.
Experimental Morphology
By CHARLES BENEDICT DAVENPORT, PH.D., Instructor in Zoology in Harvard University.
Parti. Errects oF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL AGENTS ON PROTOPLASM.
Cloth, Svo, $2.60.
‘‘The material which is discussed has been well digested and is well arranged . . . and
the style is on the whole clear and concise. The book is a readable one and the descriptions and
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of each chapter, contribute materially to the value the book possesses for both the morphologist
and physiologist.—J. P. McMUuRRICH in SCIENCE.
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siologists have hitherto conceived them to be. There are 66 illustrations in this part and an
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ii SCIENCE.—ADVERTISEMENTS.
JUST READY.
The Arithmetic of Chemistry
BEING A SIMPLE TREATMENT OF THE SUBJECT OF CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS.
By JoHN WADDELL, B.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Heidelberg), D.Sc. (Edin.), formerly Assistant to the
Professor of Chemistry, University of Edinburg. Cloth, r6mo, go cents net.
An accurate, simple and systematic treatment of the subject, arranged so as to make the text
present a continuous line of argument. Useful tables are appended, the French metric system,
comparison of thermometric scales, atomic weights, equations in frequent use, four-place loga-
rithms, ete.
The Spirit of Organic Chemistry
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRENT LITERATURE OF THE SUBJECT.
By ARTHUR LACHMAN, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oregon. With an In-
troduction by PAUL C. FREER, Ph.D., Professor of General Chemistry in the University of
Michigan. Cloth, Crown Svo, $1.50 net.
“The Spirit of Organic Chemistry ’’ is a supplement to the standard text-book of the sub-
ject ; it consists of selected chapters, historically and critically presented. With the chief object
in view of enabling its readers to follow the development of organic chemistry in the current
journals, it analyzes the chief propositions of the science into their logical component problems ;
interpreting the general in terms of the specific facts. The method employed is the historical ;
in each case, the origin, growth, and gradual evolution of the problem are discussed in detail.
The topics chosen for presentation have been selected mainly because of their adaptability to the
above manner of treatment, but they will be found to include nearly all the fundamental prob-
lems and conceptions of this branch of chemistry. Stereochemical doctrines, in particular, have
been incorporated to an extent commensurate with their importance. No great familiarity with
the subject is presupposed, the more difficult points being explained in full detail.
Experimental Morphology
By CHARLES BENEDICT DAVENPORT, PuH.D., Instructor in Zoology in Harvard University.
Part I. EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL AGENTS ON PROTOPLASM.
Cloth, Svo, $2.60.
‘¢The material which is discussed has been well digested and is well arranged . . . and
the style is on the whole clear and concise. The book is a readable one and the descriptions and
criticisms of methods employed in experimentation, and the bibliographical lists at the conclusion
of each chapter, contribute materially to the value the book possesses for both the morphologist
and physiologist.—J. P. McMuRRICH in SCIENCE. |
PARTI. Errecr of CHEMICAL AND PHysICAL AGENTS UPON GROWTH.
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The widespread interest in the study of the conditions of development and its experimental
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physiology, botany and agriculture. The general arrangement of the book is the same as that of
Part First. Growth is treated apart from differentiation, as one of the factors of development,
and the effect of each agent both upon the rate of growth and its direction is discussed. There are
66 illustrations in this part and an index to the first and second parts.
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il SCIENCE.—ADVERTISEMENTS.
JUST READY.
The Arithmetic of Chemistry
BEING A SIMPLE TREATMENT OF THE SUBJECT OF CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS.
By JoHN WADDELL, B.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Heidelberg), D.Sc. (Edin.), formerly Assistant to the
Professor of Chemistry, University of Edinburg. Cloth, r6mo, go cents net.
An accurate, simple and systematic treatment of the subject, arranged so as to make the text
present a continuous line of argument. Useful tables are appended, the French metric system,
comparison of thermometric scales, atomic weights, equations in frequent tse, four-place loga-
rithms, etc.
The Spirit of Organic Chemistry
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRENT LITERATURE OF THE SUBJECT.
By ARTHUR LACHMAN, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oregon. With an In-
troduction by PAuL C. FREER, Ph.D., Professor of General Chemistry in the University of
Michigan. Cloth, Crown Svo, $1.50 “et.
‘The Spirit of Organic Chemistry ’’ is a supplement to the standard text-book of the sub-
ject ; it consists of selected chapters, historically and critically presented. With the chief object
in view of enabling its readers to follow the development of organic chemistry in the current
journals, it analyzes the chief propositions of the science into their logical component problems ;
interpreting the general in terms of the specific facts. The method employed is the historical ;
in each case, the origin, growth, and gradual evolution of the problem are discussed in detail.
The topics chosen for presentation have been selected mainly because of their adaptability to the
above manner of treatment, but they will be found to include nearly all the fundamental prob-
lems and conceptions of this branch of chemistry. Stereochemical doctrines, in particular, have
been incorporated to an extent commensurate with their importance. No great familiarity with
the subject is presupposed, the more difficult points being explained in full detail.
Experimental Morphology
By CHARLES BENEDICT DAVENPORT, PH.D., Instructor in Zoology in Harvard University.
Part il. Errects oF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL AGENTS ON PROTOPLASM.
Cloth, 8vo, $2.60.
‘“'The material which is discussed has been well digested and is well arranged . . . and
the style is on the whole clear and concise. The book is a readable one and the descriptions and
criticisms of methods employed in experimentation, and the bibliographical lists at the conclusion
of each chapter, contribute materially to the value the book possesses for both the morphologist
and physiologist.—J. P. McCMuRRICH in SCIENCE.
Parr Il. Errrect of CHEMICAL AND PHysICAL AGENTS UPON GROWTH.
Cloth, S8vo. Ready this Month. $2.00 net.
The widespread interest in the study of the conditions of development and its experimental
control makes it certain that this book will be welcomed by a large number of students of zoology,
physiology, botany and agriculture. The general arrangement of the book is the same as that of
Part First. Growth is treated apart from differentiation, as one of the factors of development,
and the effect of each agent both upon the rate of growth and its direction is discussed. There are
66 illustrations in this part and an index to the first and second parts.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Publishers, New York
SCIENCE
NEW SERIES. SID C £
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Queen Self-Regulating X-Ray Tube
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i SCIENCE.—ADVERTISEMENTS.
“T began to study animals about 1857, and am still at it. My conclusions in the
matter agree substantially with your own. . . . I am glad to find you keeping all
metaphysical, theological, and teleological speculation out of your science.
“Tt seems to me that you express a great fact when you speak of neuroplasmic as
well as nerve action proper ; for otherwise we cannot account for the amount of sense an
ameeba certainly possesses.”—Dr. Ettiorr Cours, Editor of The Osprey.
Just Ready Cloth, Crown 8vo, $1.25 New and Original
GaN fascinating book . . . his observations are of in-
+ FE tense interest.” — The Congregationalist, Boston.
“An exhaustive and scholarly study . . . in a clear,
simple and brief form.”— Louisville Times.
D A W N “ Exceedingly interesting . . . wholly original.”—Lowis-
ville Dispatch.
“« Any one interested in the progress of comparative psy~
O F chology must wish well to a man who, without the incentives
of the professed naturalist, makes it a labor of love to watch
animal life. I, for one, shall weleome such observations, even
R E A SO N though they are more one-sided than Dr. Weir’s. His favor-
itism toward animals, though it has deprived us of any records
of unintelligent conduct and perhaps prevented the repetition
of some tests and even distorted facts, has still failed to infuse
Mental Traits a very considerable number of suggestive and important obser-
vations. It will pay any student of animal psychology to read
in the the book for the sake of these. . . . A sample of Dr. Weir’s
keenness is his theory that the continual barking of dogs at
° night is explainable by the supposition that they bark at an
Lower Animals echo. This hypothesis he supports by some very striking
facts.”,—Dr. Epwarp THORNDIKE, in Science.
B “The author is a bold and independent thinker as shown
| by a previous work . . . and his observations profoundly
JAM ES W E| R interesting.” — The Chronicle, San Francisco.
; “ Entirely new and a valuable addition to the evidence
Jr., M.D. already published by Darwin, Romanes, Lubbock, Buchner,
he Kirby, Spence, and others.” — The Evening Post, Chicago.
uthor of
“The Physical Correlation of “The work is one of thought and indicates laborious
Religious Emotion and study.” — The Times, Louisville, Ky.
Seles ce “Tn this little book are gathered together a great many
interesting data . . . the author has observed and experi-
mented for himself and in many respects his conclusions are
Cloth, cr. 8vo, $1.25 striking and novel.” —Literature.
“One rises from the perusal of this fascinating book with a feeling as having heard
of anew world. . . . Space will not permit further allusion to this charming book,
but we advise all who are interested in such matters to obtain it.”— Public Health.
THE MACMILLAN COPMPANY, Publishers, New York.
SCIENCE
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The book may
also be interesting to educated men in all departments of life, who desire to be informed as to advances that have
been made in this interesting subject, one which concerns such a large proportion of the human race.
A Text Book of the Embryology
Of Invertebrates. By Dr. E. Korscuett, Pro-
fessor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the
University of Marburg, and Dr. K. Hrier, Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Berlin.
Vol. I. Parifera Cuidaria, Ctenophora, Vermes, En-
teropneusta, Echinodermata. Translated by Ep-
warp L. Marx, Ph.D., Hersey Professor of An-
atomy, and W. McM. Woopwortu, Ph.D., Harvard
University. 8vo. Cloth. Pp. 484. $4.00, net.
«The book has been in the hands of zoologists ‘all
over the world and is recognized as an excellent and
indispensable reference book.’’—Professor Jacos RriG-
HARD in Science.
Vol. II. Phoronidea, Bryozoa, Ectoprocta, Brachio-
poda, Entoprocta, Crustacea, Palzostraca. Trans-
lated by MatinpA Bernarp. Revised and Edited,
with Additional Notes, by Martin F. Woopwarp,
Demonstrator of Zoology, Royal College of Science.
8vo. Cloth. Pp. xv-+875. $3.00, net.
The second part of a work described in the review
quoted above as ‘‘so well done that the book is likely
to remain for many years without a rival.’’
Part III. is in preparation.
Of Man and Mammals. By Dr. Oscar Herr-
wia, Professor Extraordinarius of Anatomy and
Comparative Anatomy, Director of the II. Anatom-
ical Institute of the University of Berlin. Trans-
lated from the Third German Edition by Epwarp
L. Marx, Ph.D., Hersey Professor of Anatomy in
Harvard University. Second Edition, with 339
Figures in the Text and 2 Lithographic Plates.
8vo. Cloth. Pp. xvi+670. $5.25, net.
‘« While it is in details largely confined to the study
of mammals, there is so much of general embryology
within its covers as to give it a value as a general text-
book of vertebrate embryology. As such a text-book is
of the greatest value to a student and it is safe to say
that at the present time there is no text-book so well de-
signed to give the student a general knowledge of ver-
tebrate embryology as the present one.’’—~Science.
“The translator's work has been exceptionally
well done, for the rendering is both accurate and
smooth. . . . The work has been welcomed by all em-
bryologists and is highly esteemed by them, especially
on account of the admirable presentation made by the
author of many of the most interesting problems with
which their investigations have to deal.’’—British Med.
and Surg. Journal.
«Any one interested in the progress of comparative psychology
THE
DAWN
OF
REASON
shall welcome such ...
and important observations.
THORNDIKE in Science.
previous work . .
«