REISSUED AS PART OF TH€ TENTH ANNIVERSARY OBSERVANCE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION iag&

Marine Biological Laboratory Library

Woods Hole, ^\as3achusett5

Gift of Bostwick H. Ketchum - 1976

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Vannevar Bush

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A report to the President on a
Program for Postwar Scientific Research

By Vannevar Bush

Director of the
Office of Scientific Research and Development

July 1945

Picpriiitcd Jiily 1960
Niitiotiid Scicticf Fotnulation Wns/ij«^(oji, D. C.

r-(>() — M)

Science — The Endless Frontier

"New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they
are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive
with which we have waged this war we can create a
fuller and more fruitful emplovment and a fuller and
more fruitful life." —

Franklin D. Roosevelt.

November 17, 1944.

FOREWORD

The National Science Foundation has rendered a
useful ser\'icc in reprinting Science, the Endless
Frontier as part ot its tenth anni\'crsarv observance.
The Report, as well as the studies that supported it,
represents the collective efforts ot a group of dis-
tinguished scientists and other scholars who brought
their special experience and knowledge to bear on the
problem of establishing a strong research and develop-
ment effort in the postwar period. Their hndings
with respect to the relations of government to science
and education merit a re-reading in the light of todav's
events. Dr. Waterman's Introduction constitutes an
effective summary of the extent t(j which the recom-
mendations of Science, the Endless Frontier have
been realized during the Fifteen )'ears since it first
appeared. I welcome the republication and hope that
it will be a genuine serxice to all who have responsi-
bilities for the national effort in scientific research and
development.

Vannevar Bush

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword iii

Introduction vii

Letter of Transmittal 1

President Roosevelt's Letter 3

Summar\' of the Report 5

Part One: Introduction:

Scientific Progress is Essential 10

Science is a Proper Concern of Go\ ernment 11

Go\ernment Relations to Science — Past .md Future 11

Freedom of Inquir\ Must be Preser\ ed 12

Part Two: The \\\ir A^j^ainst Disease:

In War 13

In Peace 13

Unsoh-ed Problems 14

Broad and Basic Studies Needed 14

Coordinated Attack on S|iccial Problems 14

Action is Necessarx 15

Part Three: Science mid the Piddic Welfare

Relation to National Sccuiitx 17

Science and lobs 18

The Importance of Basic Research 18

Centers of Basic Research 19

Research W^ithin the Cio\ ernment 20

Industrial Research 21

International Exchange of Scicntidc Inlormation 22

The Special Need for EedLial Sup[iort 22

The Cost of a Program 22

V

Part Four: Renewal of Our Scientific Talent:

Nature of the Problem 23

A Note of Warning 23

The Wartime Deficit 24

Improve the Quahty 24

Remove the Barriers 25

The Generation in Uniform Must Not be Lost 25

A Program 26

Part Five: A Problem of Scientific Reconversion:

Effects of MobiHzation of Science for War 28

Security Restrictions Should be Lifted Promptly 28

Need for Coordination 29

A Board to Control Release 29

Publication Should be Encouraged 30

Part Six: The Means to the End:

New Responsibilities for Go\ernmcnt 31

The Mechanism 31

Five Fundamentals 32

Military Research 33

National Research Foundation 34

L Purposes 34

IL Members , 34

IIL Organizations 35

IV. Functions 37

V. Patent Policy 38

VI. Special Authority 38

VII. Budget .' 39

Action b\' Congress 40

Appendices

1. Committees Consulted 43

2. Report of the Medical Advisory Committee, Dr. W. W. Palmer,

Chairman 46

3. Report of the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare,

Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Chairman 70

4. Report of the Committee on Disco\er\ and De\elopment of

Scientific Talent, Dr. Henry Allen Moe, Chairman 135

5. Report of the Committee on Publication of Scientific Inlormation,

Dr. Irvin Stewart, Chairman 186

Index 193

VI

INTRODUCTION

Alan T. Waterman
Director, National Science Foundation

On November 17, 1944, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed a
letter to Vannevar Bush, director of the wartime Office of Scientific Research
and Development, asking his advice as to how the lessons that had been
learned from that experience could be applied in the days of peace that lay
ahead. With the help and recommendations of four committees of dis-
tinguished scientists and other scholars, Dr. Bush set forth in clear and
specific terms what he felt the relations of government to science should be
and how these should be sustained. His report to the President was published
in July 1945, under the imaginative title. Science, the Endless Frontier. The
major recommendation was that a "National Research Foundation" should
be established by the Congress to serve as a focal point for the support and
encouragement of basic research and education in the sciences and for the
development of national science policy. Five years later, in May^ 1950, the
Congress passed the National Science Foundation Act of 1950, bringing the
new foundation into being.

On the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the Foundation's establishment,
it seems appropriate to turn again to Science, the Endless Frontier and to
attempt some assessment of the extent to which the objectives it set forth have
been met. A re-reading impresses one with the perspicacity with which this
remarkable document anticipated the major needs and problems relating to
research and development in the postwar period. Although there have been
shifts in emphasis since the report was written 15 years ago, its principles
and its clear enunciation of the fundamental responsibility of the Federal
Government in the area of research and development are as fresh and sound
today as when they were written.

The original edition of Science, the Endless Frontier has long been out
of print and the National Science Foundation is happy to make it available
once more — not as an historical document, but as a classic expression of
desirable relationships between government and science in the United
States. Its usefulness and validity today are all the more remarkable when it
is remembered that Dr. Bush and his advisers were of course quite unable
to anticipate the specific developments that have most profoundly influenced
our time, namely, the Korean war and the cold war, the missile and satellite
race, the Soviet technological challenge, and the rapid acceleration of space
research. Nor could Dr. Bush have estimated, in the final days of World
War II, the full growth and direction of the atomic energy effort, including

vii

the large-scale programs and peaceful uses of nuclear energy. But he did
anticipate in fullest measure that important developments would occur and
that science and science education would be of immense importance in the
postwar growth of the United States. The closing words of his Report
were strongly prophetic: "On the wisdom with which we bring science to
bear against the problems of the coming years depends in large measure
our future as a nation."

Science and Government

Dr. Bush expressed the view that science is the proper concern of govern-
ment but pointed out that the Government had only begun to utilize science
in the Nation's welfare. He cited the absence within the Government of a
body charged with formulating or executing national science policy and
pointed out that there were no standing committees of the Congress devoted
to this important subject. At the present time, science policy is constantly
being made by the National Science Foundation with respect to basic re-
search; by the President's Science Advisory Committee in matters in which
the Chief Executive is responsible for direct action; and by the Federal Coun-
cil on Science and Technology on coordination and. planning that involve the
interaction of the agencies of the Government concerned with research and
development.

There are now three standing committees in the Congress whose con-
cerns are directly related to science and technology: the Joint Committee
on Atomic Energy; the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space
Sciences; and the House Committee on Science and Astronautics. Twenty-
four agencies within the Federal Government are responsible for the Gov-
ernment's obligation of funds for conduct of research and development,
although nine agencies account for 99 per cent of the total.

The Importance of Basic Research

The principal focus of Science, the Endless Frontier is the importance of
basic research. Of it. Dr. Bush said:

Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides scientific capital. It creates the
fund from which the practical applications of knowledge must be drawn. . . . Today, it
is truer than ever that basic research is the pacemaker of technological progress. ... A
nation which dei^ends upon others for its new basic scientific knowledge will be slow in
its industrial progress and weak in its competitive position in world trade, regardless of
its mechanical skill.

Dr. Bush viewed the publicly and privately supported colleges and uni-
versities and the endowed research institutes as the centers of basic research
that must furnish both the new scientific knowledge and the trained research
workers. He pointed out that if they were to meet the rapidly increasing
demands of industry and government for new scientific knowledge, their
basic research would have to be strengthened by the use of public funds.

Basic research is fundamental to all of the research and training needs

viii

which the Report considers. It is through basic research in biology, bio-
chemistry and other sciences, for example, that the solutions to major disease
problems are to be reached. Basic research is necessary to national defense
if the United States is not to find itself fighting the next war with weapons
merely improved from the last. Economic growth and the development of
new products in industry are dependent upon rich resources of basic knowl-
edge. And finally, knowledge of the methods and techniques of basic research
is essential to the training and full development of skilled research
investigators.

In the years since Science, the Endless Frontier was written, there has been
an increased awareness on the part of the Government of the importance of
basic research as shown by a steady trend upward in the amount of Federal
funds for basic research and by an increase in the number and diversity of
Government sources bv which such support is furnished. I lowexer, the per-
centage of funds available for basic research has failed to increase in relation
to total Federal funds for research and development — remaining somewhere
between 6 and 7 per cent for a number of years.

In short, all the problems relating to the understanding and nurture of basic
research in this country have not been solved. The general public is still far
from a true understanding of the nature of basic research and of the funda-
mental difference between science and technology. The evidence suggests
that industry could profitably support a larger basic research effort both in
its ov^rn laboratories and in the form of extramural support for colleges and
universities. The relative proportion of Federal research and development
funds between basic research and applied research and development has not
achieved a completely desirable balance. These matters will be considered in
somewhat greater detail further on under the discussion of the National
Science Foundation.

Research Within the Government

Science, the Endless Frontier notes that research within the Government
is an important part of our total research activity and urges that it be strength-
ened and expanded. In particular, it cites the need for revision of personnel
practices and procedures in order to place the Government in a more advan-
tageous position in competing with industries and the universities for first-
class scientific talent.

Some progress has been made toward carrying out these recommendations.
A series of legislative acts has created an excepted category for scientific per-
sonnel, authorized the Federal agencies to pay travel expenses to posts of duty,
and provided opportunity for scientific and professional employees to take
leave with pay, for educational and training purposes. Changes in adminis-
trative attitudes have brought about an improved climate of opinion in Gov-
ernment laboratories which has resulted in increased opportunity and funds
for Government scientists to engage in basic research. Publication in scien-
tific journals is encouraged, and the payment of travel expenses to enable
Government employees to attend scientific meetings is now rather generally
accepted as right and necessary.

ix

With respect to the organization of the administration of scientific activities
within the Government, the Report declares:

In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific agencies form
parts of larger departments has both advantages and disadvantages. But the present
pattern is firmly established and there is much to be said for it. There is, however,
a very real need for some measure of coordination of the common scientific activities
of these agencies, both as to policies and budgets, and at present no such means exist.

The Report recommends :

A permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to consult with these
scientific bureaus and to advise the executive and legislative branches of Government
as to the policies and budgets of Government agencies engaged in scientific research.

The Report recommends that the board should be composed "of disinterested
scientists w^ho have no connection with the affairs of any Government agency."

These observations are of particular interest in view of the current debate
over the need for a Department of Science and Technology. The coordina-
tion of common scientific activities, both as to policies and budget, is the
responsibility for the newly established Federal Council on Science and Tech-
nology; and the advice and counsel of disinterested scientists is available
to the President through his Science Advisory Committee.

It should be noted, however, that full attention to these matters was stim-
ulated primarily by the Russian sputnik. Immediately after its successful
launching, the post of Special Assistant to the President for Science and
Technology was created; and the President's Science Advisory Committee —
which had been established under the Office of Defense Mobilization in 1950
— was reconstituted and placed directly under the President.

Industrial Research

The Bush Report approaches the issue of industrial research by stating
directly: "The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can
strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to develop
scientific talent." It goes on to point out, however, that one of the most
important factors affecting the amount of industrial research is tax law, and
it recommends that the Internal Revenue Code be amended to remove un-
certainties in regard to the deductibility of research and development ex-
penditures as current charges against net income.

The tax laws have now been changed, partially at least, to meet this par-
ticular problem. Among various legislative provisions designed to encourage
business participation in private research ventures are Section 174 of the
Internal Revenue Code of 1954, which permits business expenditures for
research to be deducted from taxable income, and Section 9 of the Small
Business Act of 1958, which encourages small business concerns to engage
in joint research and development efforts.

The contributions of industrial research to our development as a nation
are too obvious to require review. Furthermore research and development are
themselves developing into a major industry for which the late Sumner
Slichter coined the phrase, "industry of discovery. The importance of

research to economic stabilization and gnnvth is now almost universally recog-
nized. In 1958 the National Science Foundation sponsored a conference on
research and development and its impact on the economy. The impact of
the conference itself was such that industrial officials who attended confessed
afterwards that the conference had convinced them that they should not
reduce research and development expenditures in the face of the 1958 re-
cession. It is hoped that industry will continue to accord full support to basic
research, both in its own laboratories, and, to the extent possible, through
extramural support of basic research in the universities.

Organized labor is also developing an increasing awareness of the relation
of research to the health and growth of the economy. In 1959 the AFL-CIO
sponsored a conference on "Labor and Science in a Changing World." The
conference acknowledged the inevitability of the technological progress and
explored ways in which organized labor could meet the challenges and
demands of the new technology.

Medical Research

Medical research is a point of major emphasis in Science, the Endless Fron-
tier. An entire chapter, "The War Against Disease," is devoted to it and
it was studied in great detail by one of the four advisory committees. Upper-
most in the minds of Dr. Bush and his consultants were the impressive ac-
complishments of the military medical research and development effort and
the absence of a specific agency for their continued support following the
close of the war. Here again the emphasis was on basic studies. The Report
observes :

It is wholly probable that progress in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, renal
disease, cancer, and similar refractory diseases will be made as the result of funda-
mental discoveries in subjects unrelated to those diseases and perhaps entirely un-
expected by the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front of medicine
and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics, anatomy, biochemistry, physiology,
pharmacolog>', bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, etc, be broadly developed.

Both Dr. Bush and his Medical Advisory Committee recommended action
on ihe part of the Federal Government to initiate a support program for basic
medical research in the medical schools and in the universities through grants
for research and through fellowships. Dr. Bush recommended that the pro-
posed program be administered by a "Division of Medical Research" of the
"National Research Foundation"; the committee recommended that a second
organization be established, to be called the National Foundation for Medical
Research. Actually, both recommendations have been met by subsequent
events, which resulted in both a division within the National Science Foun-
dation that supports basic medical science (Division of Biological and Medical
Sciences) and in a completely independent organization, the National In-
stitutes of Health, which has far surpassed in its support programs anything
that the Committee envisioned in the recommended Medical Research
Foundation.

The two sets of recommendations did not differ greatly as to the amount of
support that should be established at the initiation of the program — Bush

xi

recommending an initial start of $5 million a year extending upwards to
perhaps $20 million a year at the end of five years; his Medical Advisory Com-
mittee recommending a start of approximately $5 to $7 million annually, with
larger sums to follow as the program developed. The Committee urged the
need for unrestricted grants, with support of fellowships and projects being
of relati\ely less importance in their thinking.

A striking feature of postwar developments in the Government's support
program for medical and health-related sciences has been the rapid rate of
increment of funds. This is the result of the deep and continuing interest of
the Congress in the progress of medical research. The National Institutes of
Health has increased its obligations for research grants alone from $85,000
in 1945 (a year when the Bush Report suggests S5 to $7 million) to more
than $155 million for grants and contracts in 1959. In addition, of course, the
Institutes operate their own intramural research program at the Clinical
Center and funds for this were around $45 million for 1959.

That both organizational recommendations have been met — that is, for a
di\'ision of the Foundation and for a separate institutional organization —
appears to have been a fortunate turn of affairs. The National Institutes of
Health stresses research aimed at the care and cure of diseases, including basic
research related to its mission, as defined b\ Executive Order 10512. The
National Science Foundation, on the other hand, supports basic research in
this area primarily for the purpose of ad\'ancing our knowledge and under-
standing of biological and medical fields. With more than one source of
funds available from the Federal Government, scientists enjoy the broader
base of support that is consistent with American tradition.

Although the U. S. Public Health Ser\'ice and the National Science
Foundation are the principal sources of funds for medical research, mention
should also be made of the intramural programs of the Veterans Adminis-
tration, the military services, and the medical research programs of the
Atomic Energy Commission.

Military Research

With the ci\'ilian Office of Scientific Research and Development just
bringing to a close its brilliantly successful program of wartime research on
weapons and devices of warfare, and problems of military medicine. Dr.
Bush felt that a certain amount of long-range scientific research on military
problems should continue to be carried on in peacetime b\' a civilian group.
Such research would complement research on the improvement of existing
weapons which, he felt, could best be done within the militarv establishment.
He therefore recommended that the new "National Research Foundation"
should include a division of national defense. For this he contemplated a
modest level of expenditures of $10 million for the first year, rising to $20
million by the end of the fifth year.

Here again, as in the case of medical research, the situation evolved in a
way quite different from that originally visualized by Bush, but which has
probably met the substance of his principal recommendations. A division of
national defense was stricken from proposed legislation establishing a new

xii

agency largely because the delay had resulted in different measures being
taken. The military services, who were well jileased with the civilian re-
search performed in the universities under OSRl) sponsorship, continued
such arrangements with the unixersities by writing appropriate new contracts
to continue the work started under OSRD auspices or to launch entirely new
investigations. In ensuing years, many contracts of this type were entered
into by the military services with a growing number of universities. The
central laboratories originally associated with OSRD contracts, such as the
Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, the Radiation Labora-
tory at M.LT., and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute
of Technology, developed into the research centers, which, though supported
by military funds, are operated by civilian scientists under civilian manage-
ment.

In addition to applied research for the solution of immediate problems, the
three services gradually expanded their research programs to include grants
for basic research — in general related to their missions but often of a very
fundamental nature. During the five-year period between the publication of
Science, the Endless Frontier and the enactment of the National Science
Foundation legislation in 1950, the Navy Department, through its Office of
Naval Research (established b\' Congress in 1946) gave generous support to
basic research in a wide variety of fields. Later, by order of their respective
secretaries, a similar pattern was adopted by the Department of the Army,
through its Office of Ordnance Research, and the Air Force, through the Air
Force Office of Scientific Research.

The Bush thesis that "some research on military problems should be con-
tinued, in time of peace as well as in war, by civilians independently of the
military establishment" has not been adequately tested because of the un-
certain character of the peace that has existed since the close of World War II.

In general, however, it can be said that a substantial number of the Nation's
top scientists, both within the Department of Defense and in outside institu-
tions, are applying their talents to military problems with imagination and
\'igor.

International Relations in Science

With their long tradition of effectix'e international cooperation in science,
it is not surprising that a group of scientists should urge upon the Government
the importance of a vital program for the continuing international exchange
of scientific information, through both the medium of scientific literature and
active participation in international conferences, symposia, and other forms of
international collaboration in science.

Thus the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare recommended that
scientific attaches be appointed to serve in certain selected United States em-
bassies. "Such a post, ' observed the Committee, "would appear to be most
important in countries such as Russia, where a great deal, if not all, of the
scientific activity is controlled or directed by the government and where other
channels of scientific communication have been greatly restricted for several

xiii

years." This recommendation was reaffirmed by a special Department of State
International Science Steering Committee in its report, Science and Foreign
Policy, released in May 1950 at about the same time the National Science
Foundation legislation was being enacted.

The Office of Science Adviser to the Secretary of State was established in
a preliminary way in the summer of 1950 and the post of Science Adviser was
formally filled as such in February 1951. During the first year, science
attaches were assigned to London, Stockholm and Bern. The following year
similar posts were added in Bonn and Paris.

Following the resignation of the Science Adviser in July 1953, the program
was gradually permitted to lapse. Meanwhile, the scientific community,
which felt that the program had made a definite contribution to international
understanding and cooperation in science, pressed for a reactivation of the
program — principally through the medium of editorial comment as expressed
in various scientific journals. Under urging from the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Science Foundation, and the President's Science Ad-
visory Committee, the Department of State decided to renew and strengthen
the program in July 1957.

The new Science Adviser took office in January 1958. In January 1959
the attache program was again active, with attaches assigned to London, Paris,
Stockholm, Bonn, Rome, Tokyo, New Delhi, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos
Aires. At the present time no real obstacle appears to exist to the fulfillment
of the original Bush proposal that a scientific attache in Moscow would be
useful. In addition, the way appears to have been opened for better ex-
change between the U. S. and the U.S.S.R. of both scientific information and
scientists under the Bronk-Nesmeyanov Agreement of July 1959.

As far as international scientific conferences are concerned, the situation is
probably more satisfactory than at any time since the Bush Report was pub-
lished. U. S. attendance at such meetings has been strengthened and placed
on a more orderly basis through the National Science Foundation's authority
to pay travel expenses of American scientists attending scientific meetings
abroad and through the continued backing of the scientific unions by the
National Academy of Sciences. In general, scientists are chosen to represent
the U. S. by their peers acting usually through the scientific societies.

With respect to foreign scientists traveling to the U. S. for scientific meet-
ings, there have been some improvements in the situation. The visa problem
of recent years has been greatly alleviated. The current problem, which is a
very real one for science but which transcends scientific considerations, is the
problem of recognition and non-recognition of certain nations. The inter-
national scientific community operates without regard to political considera-
tions and establishes its meetings and selects its delegates solely on the basis
of their scientific qualifications. When these run head-on into political con-
siderations involving the entrance of foreign nationals, there are, of course,
knotty problems to be solved. At the present time, these problems appear to
admit of no easy solution.

On the positive side, by far the largest and most impressive example of
eflfective international cooperation in science was the International Geo-
physical Year of 1957-58. The U. S. was one of 66 nations participating in the

XIV

18-month period of intensive geophysical research. The scientific program
was under the direction of the U. S. National Committee for the International
Geophysical Year, National Academy of Sciences. Here again the Bush
Report anticipated what was to come by citing the International Polar Year
as an example of significant international scientific activity. The Report rec-
ommended that "the National Research Foundation be charged with the
responsibility of participating in such international cooperative scientific enter-
prises as it deems desirable." The National Science Foundation secured and
administered Government funds for U. S. participation in the International
Geophysical Year to the extent of $43,500,000.

In the contemporary scene, international activities in science have neces-
sarily widened to include political considerations. Through such mediums as
the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, the
nations of the world are working to divert the powerful new forces of nuclear
energy into constructive uses. Similarly, the nations may find it necessary in
the common good to agree and cooperate on scientific and practical aspects
of outer space research. The Antarctic Treaty under which twelve nations
have agreed to preserve the Antarctic as a great scientific laboratory is a
major landmark in international relations.

Renewal of Scientific Talent

In a chapter entitled "Renewal of Our Scientific Talent," Dr. Bush takes as
a major premise the statement of James B. Conant that ". . . in every section
of the entire area where the word science may properly be applied, the limit-
ing factor is a human one. We shall have rapid or slow advance in this direc-
tion or in that depending on the number of really first-class men who are
engaged in the work in question. ... So in the last analysis the future of
science in this country will be determined by our basic educational policy."

Dr. Bush and his advisory committee on education were concerned (1) with
broadening the base from which students with scientific aptitude and talents
could be drawn, and (2) with filling the wartime deficit in young scientists
and engineers. They were concerned with quality and with the full opera-
tion of the democratic process. They felt that all boys and girls should be
able to feel that, if they have what it takes, there is no limit to the opportunity.
A ceiling should not be imposed on a young person's educational opportunities
either by limited family means or negative family attitudes.

Science, the Endless Frontier also emphasized the importance of teaching
in these words: "Improvement in the teaching of science is imperative; for
students of latent scientific ability are particularly vulnerable to high school
teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate instruction."

The specific recommendations of the Bush Report in the area of science
education were for the establishment of a national program of science scholar-
ships and science fellowships and for the subsequent enrollment of the re-
cipients of these awards in a National Science Reserve upon which the Gov-
ernment could draw in times of emergency.

In the establishment and operation of the Foundation's program of educa-
tion in the sciences, there has been fundamental and perhaps unanimous

XV

agreement with the Bush thesis. The methods and techniques by which
these objectives are to be accomphshed do not coincide at every point with
the rather general proposals set forth in the Bush Report; nevertheless, I
think it can be said that all the programs that the Foundation has initiated
and supported have contributed in significant measure to the principal rec-
ommendation of Dr. Bush, namely, that the Nation's pool of scientific talent
should be strengthened and improved.

In the very first year of operation with its total budget only $3.5 million, the
Foundation awarded 575 predoctoral and postdoctoral fellowships. Over the
ten-year period the fellowship program has been gradually expanded to include
fellowships in other categories, and more than 12,000 fellowships in all cate-
gories have been awarded.

The Foundation has not embarked upon a program of scholarship support
for a number of reasons, the principal one being the conviction of the National
Science Board that an undergraduate program of scholarship support should
not be limited to a particular field of science or even to science and engineer-
ing generally. The Foundation does, however, support several programs of
a different type which provide to gifted students, at both the undergraduate
and secondary-school levels, research experience and educational opportunities
far beyond those afforded by the normal curriculum.

Financial assistance for undergraduate students was anticipated by Dr.
Bush and his Committee. Although Public Law 346 (G.I. Bill of Rights) had
been passed in 1944 and is mentioned at some length in Science, the Endless
Frontier, its ultimate impact was not apparent at that time. The final sum-
ming up is impressive. Of the more than 7.5 million veterans who took
advantage of this training, more than two million pursued courses in schools
of higher learning. Almost 10 per cent of the total (744,000) pursued
courses in scientific fields. The engineering profession attracted 45,000 and
medicine and related courses more than 180,000. The remaining 113,000
who elected to study in the natural sciences were variously distributed among
geology, chemistry, geography, metallurgy, physics, medicine, dentistry, and
others.

About two million veterans of the Korean conflict received similar educa-
tional opportunities under the Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1952.
Engineering, medical, dental, and scientific fields attracted about a quarter
million of these.

Other sources of financial aid for undergraduate students include the
National Merit Scholarship Corporation, a nonprofit institution established
and supported by philanthropic foundations and business organizations, and
the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which provides for loans to
students in institutions of higher education.

Dr. Bush's urgent plea that the generation in uniform should not be lost
seems to have been abundantly answered. The evidence suggests also that
the military services are making constructi\'e efforts to utilize both draftees
and officers in positions in which they can make use of specialized skills and
training. The services also have interesting programs for continuing the
advanced education of highly qualified men through such mediums as the
Navy Postgraduate School and through direct subsidy of advanced education
for military men in colleges and universities.

xvi

A comparison of the support levels tor scientific personnel and education
recommended in Science, the Endless Frontier and those that actually obtain
is difficult. The Bush recommendation of $7 million lor the first year, rising
to $29 milhon by the fifth year, was based on an annual program of 6,000
undergraduate scholarships and 300 graduate fellowships. The National
Science Foundation's obligations for scientific personnel, education and man-
power, which in the early years were devoted largely to graduate fellowship
support, totaled approximately $1.5 million the first year and $4 million about
the fifth year. During this period, of course. Federal funds for education
were also available through the G.I. Bill, through the fellowships of the
National Institutes of Health, and the Atomic Energy Commission, as well
as from other sources.

By 1960 the Foundation's obligations for scientific personnel and education
totaled more than $65 million, of which more than half went for institutes to
improve the teaching of mathematics and science principally in — biit not
limited to — the high school. The institutes program initiated by the Founda-
tion on an experimental basis in 1953 appealed particularly to Congress and
for several succeeding years funds have been specifically appropriated by Con-
gress for this purpose.

A significant assessment of the impact and value of these programs is diffi-
cult at close range. A number of years, possibly a generation, will be required
before we may be able to judge fairly the extent to which Federal-support
programs have met their objectives.

In the National Science Foundation, quality rather than numbers has been
stressed. We have felt that it was important for the whole broad rank and
file of students to be made aware of the opportunities and intellectual satisfac-
tions of science as well as other fields; it has seemed to us especially important
that those with special aptitudes and ability from whatever walk of Hfe should
have the fullest opportunitv for the realization of their talents.

The Foundation is trying to the extent possible to meet the problem at its
source. It agrees fully with the Bush stress upon the importance of the
teaching of science at the high school level. It has been apparent that in
order to teach modern science effectively, teachers must not only be ade-
quately trained themselves but must have the opportunity to work with up-to-
date curriculums and course content and with proper laboratories and equip-
ment.

Beginning with the work of the Physical Sciences Study Group at M.I.T.,
the Foundation is supporting studies looking toward the complete revision
and up-dating of course content in physics, mathematics, chemistry, and
biology. This work has included the preparation of new textbooks and teach-
ing aids and the introduction of imaginative and stimulating new equipment.

It seems reasonable to assume that these constructive efforts must by their
very nature influence for the better the teaching of science. Nevertheless,
nothing that has been accomplished thus far provides reason for complacency^-
As a nation we still seem a long way from a universal understanding and
appreciation for intellectual activity generally and probably will remain so
until we attach roughly the same importance to academic achievement as we
do, for example, to prowess in sports.

xvn

Reconversion

At the close of the war Dr. Bush and the scientific community generally
were keenly aware of the volume and importance of the scientific information
generated during the War and which had necessarily been subject to severe
security restrictions. Of the medical information developed during the
War, however, the greater part had remained unclassified and had been
published. Dr. Bush expressed the view ". . . that most of the remainder of
the classified scientific material should be released as soon as there is ground
for belief that an enemv will not be able to turn it against us in this war."

On the whole, this problem seems to have been successfully met. Despite the
enormous volume of material involved and the shortages of military and tech-
nical personnel qualified to rule on the security status of technical data, de-
classification has been steadilv going on since the War. The Department of
Defense through its Office of Declassification Policy and the Atomic Energy
Commission through its Division of Classification are actively attacking this
problem on a continuing basis. In the opinion of some who are dealing with
this problem, more reports are being declassified than consumers can find
time to read.

The latter point, of course, is related to the whole broad problem of the
dissemination, storage, and retrieval of scientific information. This problem
has received attention from the National Science Foundation since its in-
ception, but because of limitation of funds, activities in this area were nec-
essarily supported at a fairly low level until recently. Early in 1958 the
President's Science Advisory Committee made a detailed study of what the
Government should do to improve the flow of scientific information and
thereby increase its utilization. As a result of the Committee's recommenda-
tions, the President directed that the scientific information activity of the
National Science Foundation should be strengthened and expanded. At
about the same time, under Title IX of Public Law 85-864 (the National
Defense Education Act of 1958), the Foundation was authorized to establish a
Science Information Service and also a Science Information Council, which
would include in its membership outstanding scientists, information experts,
and heads of Federal Bureaus and agencies that are directly concerned with
the dissemination of information.

In a number of programs the Office of Science Information Service of
the Foundation has sought to improve the dissemination of existing materials
by helping to provide for prompt publication of research results, reference aids
and information centers of various kinds, and translations of significant scien-
tific papers in languages not widely understood by American scientists. In
addition, the Foundation is supporting a slowly growing body of research
directed to whole new approaches in various aspects of the information prob-
lem. Most of the research is concerned with exploration of ways of using
machines to help with information processing tasks, such as the organization,
storage and searching of scientific information and the- translation of scientific
publications from foreign languages into English. Before machines can
process the texts of documents, however, for either mechanized information
searching systems or mechanical translation systems, more precise knowledge
of syntax and semantics is needed. Therefore, current research acti\nties in

xviii

these areas are extending our understanding of language with the expectation
that uhimately machines will be able to handle linguistic data.

The recommendation of Science, the Endless Frontier that the National
Research Foundation should include a Division of Publications and Scien-
tific Collaboration has been substantively realized by the creation within the
National Science Foundation of the OIHce of Science Information Service.

The National Science Foundation

In a final chapter labeled "The Means to the End," Science, the Endless
Frontier recommends the establishment of a National Research Foundation,
conceived as the principal means for carrying out the other major recom-
mendations contained in the Report. The five years of legislative debate
during which the scientific community urged upon Congress the importance
of establishing a new foundation are history too familiar to require repetition
here.

President 1 ruman's veto of the bill that was finally passed by both Houses
of Congress in 1947 was a major disappointment. The President's objections
were directed toward the administrative structure of the new agency under
which the director would be elected by a board, a provision which he felt
would render it insufficiently responsive to the will of the people.

The Bill that was finally passed in May 1950 met the principal objections
of the President by specifying that both the Director and the Members of
the 24-member board should be appointed by the President. This unusual
arrangement left over-all policy determination and program approval largely
in the hands of the Board, with the Director reporting to the President, al-
though serving ex officio on the Board and acting as its executive officer.

In 1958 the Board, through an ad hoc committee appointed for the purpose,
reviewed the working relationship of the Director and the Board in the light
of experience and noted that this relationship has been harmonious and con-
structive largely as a result of the excellent cooperation on the part of both.
The Board noted further that each year of successful operation, built on a
clear understanding on the part of each Board Member of his proper func-
tion, and upon wise statesmanship on the part of the Director and his asso-
ciates gives assurance of continued success. The Board further observed that
as each year passes a body of precedents for sound administrative procedures
is being built up that may ultimately become an unwritten constitution which
will prevail.

Some of the organizational anomaly of the Foundation was resolved in 1959
when Congress amended the National Science Foundation Act to permit the
Board to delegate authority to the Director and its Executive Committee to
approve grants and contracts in certain situations. The delegation of author-
ity has since been implemented by Board action.

In other details, the structure of the National Science Foundation, as finally
constituted, does not difter substantially from that proposed by Science, the
Endless Frontier, except in the omission of a Division of National Defense.
The Report proposed the following Divisions: Medical Research, Natural
Science, National Defense, Scientific Personnel and Education, Division of
Publications and Scientific Collaboration and appropriate staflf offices.

xix

The principal divisions of the Foundation are: Biology and Medicine; *
Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences; and Division of Scientific
Personnel and Education. There is also an Office of Science Information
Service, an Office of Special International Programs, an Office of Special
Studies, as well as an administrative division.

In 1958 the National Science Board approved the establishment of an
Office of Social Sciences, thus bestowing formal status on Foundation support
of the social sciences which has been carried on on a limited basis since the
early days of the Foundation. The social sciences support program which was
undertaken on the strength of the permissive phrase in the Act "and other
sciences ' includes projects in the following fields: physical anthropology, func-
tional archaeology, cultural anthropology, psycholinguistics, human ecology,
demography, sociology, social psychology, economic and social geography,
economics, history of science, and philosophy of science.

Thus in the National Science Foundation we have a functioning organ-
ization closely resembling in organization and design the National Research
Foundation proposed by Dr. Bush.

Certainly in ideals and objectives it is a prototype of the institution en-
visioned in Science, the Endless Frontier. The really important question is,
of course, to what extent has the Foundation been successful in serving the
high purposes and needs for which it was created?

Dr. Bush enunciated five basic principles that should characterize an effec-
tive program of Government support for scientific research and education :

(1) Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of funds over a
period of years so that long-range programs may be undertaken.

(2) The agency to administer such funds should be composed of citizens selected
only on the basis of their interest in and capacity to promote the work of the agency.
They should be persons of broad interest in and understanding of the peculiarities of
scientific research and education.

(3) The agency should promote research through contracts or grants to organizations
outside the Federal Government. It should not operate any laboratories of its own.

(4) Support of basic research in the public and private colleges, universities, and
research institutes must leave the internal control of policy, personnel, and the method
and scope of the research to the institutions themselves. This is of the utmost importance.

(5) While assuring complete independence and freedom for the nature, scope, and
methodology of research carried on in the institutions receiving public funds, and while
retaining discretion in the allocation of funds among such institutions, the Foundation
proposed herein must be responsible to the President and Congress.

( 1 ) The Foundation is aware that continuity and stabihty are most impor-
tant in the support of basic research. This can be achieved in two principal
ways: one, by making the grant or contract for a term of years rather than for
a single year and renewable; the other, by setting aside a revolving fund for
the renewal of grants or contracts when the term expires, without reference
to the annual appropriation. In the early years, budget limitations made it
difficult for the Foundation to provide long-range support. As funds have
become available, however, the amount and duration of the average grant
has steadily increased. The value of the average research grant in fiscal year
1953 was $10,300, for an average duration of 1.9 years; and in fiscal year
1960 the average estimated value has risen to $30,500, with an axerage

* Under the terms of the Act biology and medical research were initially to be separate divisions.
After consideration during the first year it was decided to combine these into a single division.

XX

duration of 2.3 years. Indixidual grants arc being made for as long as five
years. Thus fuller support is being achicxed, and with grants of longer
duration the trend is toward increasing stability.

(2) The National Science Foundation has been extraordinarily fortunate
in the calibre of the people who have manned its regular staff, as well as in
the advisors and consultants who have served untiringly. The National
Science Board, as prescribed by law, is composed of persons "eminent in the
fields of the basic sciences, medical science, engineering, agriculture, educa-
tion or public affairs; . . . selected solelv on the basis of established records of
distinguished service; and ... so selected as to provide representation of the
views of the scientific leaders in all areas of the Nation." The substantive divi-
sions ha\'e statutory dixisional committees of scientists eminent in their respec-
tive fields or specialties, and a similar committee for the Office of Social Sci-
ences was recentlv named. At the program level there is an advisory panel for
each program which advises and counsels the program director and provides
assistance in the formulation of the program in that particular discipline. The
regular Foundation staff is selected largely from college and university fac-
ulties— many serving on leave for the term of their appointment.

The Foundation maintains \'iable relationships with the scientific and edu-
cational communities which make possible constant interchange of views
and information.

(3) The Foundation is permitted to operate no laboratories of its own.
Early in its history the decision was made that the grant, in general, affords
the most effective means of support for basic research. As a result of the
Foundation's efforts, furthermore, the Eightv-Fifth Congress passed Public
Law 934, which extends the grant-making authority to appropriate Federal
agencies and permits them, also, in the case of basic research grants, to vest
title to research equipment with the institution receiving the grant, provided
such equipment is not needed for government purposes.

The need for major facilities for basic research purposes — not wholly antici-
pated by the Bush Report — has given rise to a situation in which the Founda-
tion is supporting the construction and operation of such facilities by means of
contracts with qualified organizations. For example, in astronomy, where
urgent need exists for both photoelectric instruments and radiotelescopes, the
Foundation is supporting two major facilities: the National Radio Astronomy
Observatory at Green Bank, West Virginia, and the Kitt Peak National Ob-
servatory near Tucson, Arizona. The former is being operated bv Associated
Universities Incorporated, composed of nine eastern universities, which has
had notable experience in the management of large-scale research in the opera-
tion of the Brookhaven National Laboratory. The Kitt Peak Observatory is
being constructed and operated by the Association of Universities for Research
in Astronomy, a group of eight uni\'ersities with major astronomy depart-
ments, which was organized specifically for this purpose.

The Foundation has also contributed substantial support to other large-
scale facilities for basic research, including high-speed computers, an ocean-
ographic research vessel, and nuclear reactors.

An even more recent program, which is somewhat related to the facility
program, is the development of graduate research laboratories under which

xxi

the Foundation provides funds for the reno\'ation and equipment of the re-
search laboratories of graduate schools.

(4) In the operation of its program, the National Science Foundation has
sought to hold to a minimum the burdens imposed upon academic institutions.
Administrative requirements on grantees, fellows and contractors are the
minimum consonant with accountability and responsibility for public funds.
In the last analysis, however, the scientific and academic communities must
be the final judge of the extent to which Federal support has been given
without interference in internal affairs or burdensome controls. During its
first ten years of operation the Foundation has had no serious complaints on
this score.

(5) The Foundation has found its responsibilities to the President and
the Congress in no wise incompatible with its independence and freedom of
operation. Congress in its wisdom endowed the Foundation with an un-
usually broad charter. It is so broad, in fact, that the Foundation from time
to time has had to place its own interpretation on its Act and to make policy
decisions regarding what not to do. This wide latitude has enabled the
Foundation to approach the immense and challenging problems of modern
science in innovational and experimental ways.

The Director enjoys cordial working relationships with the Special Assist-
ant to the President and with the President's Science Advisory Committee.
Whenever circumstances require it, he has direct access to the President. The
Director is a member of the National Aeronautics and Space Council, the
Federal Council on Science and Technology, a consultant to the President's
Science Advisory Committee and a member of the Defense Science Board.

The foregoing summary probably represents the extent to which we are
able to comment on the success with which these five fundamentals have
been met. A more complete judgment must await the perspective of history.

So far as the operations of the Foundation are concerned, these have been
substantially covered in the course of commenting on the major recommenda
tions of Science, the Endless Frontier. Upon examination, the Foundation s
programs, particularly in the area of research support and education in the
sciences, will be found to correspond closely with the principal recommenda-
tions of Science, the Endless Frontier.

An extremelv troublesome and difficult problem is the Foundation's relation
to the development of national science policv and to the e\'aluation and corre-
lation functions. The National Science Foundation Act authorizes and directs
the Foundation —

to develop and encourage the pursuit of a national poHcy for the promotion of basic
research and education in the sciences;

to evaluate scientific research programs undertaken by agencies of the Federal Govern-
ment, and to correlate the Foundation's scientific research programs with those under-
taken by individuals and by public and pri\'ate research groups; . . .

The number and variety of Federal research programs prompted the Foun-
dation at the outset to consider what should be the responsibilities of the
several Federal agencies with respect to the support of extramural research and
de\'elopment in the sciences. After conferences bv NSF staff members with
the Bureau of the Budget and other agencies, the Foundation's primary

xxii

recommendations were set forth in Executixe Order 10521 of March 17, 1954.
The Order states that the Foundation "shall . . . recommend to the President
policies for the promotion and support of basic research and education in the
sciences, including policies with respect to furnishing guidance toward de-
fining the res]X)nsibiHtics of the Federal Government in the conduct and
support oi basic scientific research."

The Order further directs that the Foundation shall be increasingly re-
sponsible for the support of general-purpose basic research but recognizes,
also, the importance and desirability of other agencies' conducting and sup-
porting basic research in fields closely associated to their missions. The
Foundation is not expected to have responsibility for the applied research
and de\ elopment programs of other agencies, and each agency is accountable
for the scope and quality of its developmental effort.

With respect to the evaluation function, the Foundation has con-
sistently pointed out that it is unrealistic to expect one agency to render
judgment on the o\er-all performance of another agency unless an agency
requests such help. The Foundation has chosen instead to approach the
problem in terms of specific areas of science. Through close liaison and
exchange of information with other science agencies, the Foundation has
endeavored to identify areas that are receiving inadequate support or that
require attention for other reasons. In this way it has been possible to bring
about needed adjustments on an amicable, cooperative basis.

Executive Order 10807 of March 13, 1959, establishing the Federal Council
on Science and Technology, also redefines the Foundation's role in the de-
velopment of national science policy as applying only to basic research.
Within this more specialized framework, the Foundation has been steadily
formulating national science policies in the course of day-to-day operations,
frequently on the basis of agreement and understanding with other agencies.
Those who insist that policy must be handed down "ready made" in the
form of a proclamation or edict do not understand the policy-making process.
To be workable, policy must evolve on the basis of experience.

In 1959 the Foundation listed a compilation of some fifty science policies
of a government-wide, national character that had been recommended by the
Foundation during the previous eight years. Drawn from a variety of public
statements and published reports the policies are grouped under the following
broad categories: Basic Research; Government-University Relationships in
the Conduct of Federally Sponsored Research; Indirect Costs; Education and
Training; Federal Financial Support of Research Facilities; Government-
Industry Relationships on Research; International Scientific Activities; Or-
ganization and Administration of Research; Medical Research, and Scientific
Information.

As background data for its own research programs and for policy formula-
tion concerning the role of the Federal Government in the support of science,
the Foundation early established a series of studies of the nature and extent
of the national eflfort in research and development. Comprehensive surveys
are made on a recurring basis of the research and development effort of in-
dustry and of universities and other nonprofit institutions. The Foundation's
analyses of the support of research and development by Federal agencies are

xxm

published annually in Federal Funds for Science. In addition to statistical
surveys of the volume of research and development, the Foundation is also
engaged in analytical studies of the close relationship that exists between
research and development and the economy in order to achieve a fuller under-
standing of the effects of research and development on various economic and
industrial activities. The whole effort carries out the directive in the Execu-
tive Order "to make comprehensive studies and recommendations regarding
the Nation's research effort and its resources for scientific activities. . . ."

A final word about the Foundation's budget is perhaps of interest. The fol-
lowing table summarizes Dr. Bush's projected budget for the National Re-
search Foundation and the National Science Foundation's actual appropria-
tion for its fifth operating year, fiscal year 1956; 1952 was the first year for
which operating funds ($3.5 million) were appropriated for the Foundation
by Congress.

(millions of dollars)

Activity "■

Bush's Budget for
the National Re-
search Foundation

NSF funds '
5th Year 9th Year

1st Year

5 th Year

(FY 1956) (FY 1960)

Division of Medical Research

5.0
10.0
10.0

7.0

.5
1.0

20.0
50.0
20.0

29.0

1.0
2.5

3 3

Division of Natural Sciences '^

10.0 67.1

Division of National Defense

Division of Scientific Personnel
Education

and

3.4 64.5

Division of Publications & Scientific
Collaboration *

.4 5.4

Administration

Other "

1.3 6.2
.9 16.0

Total

33.5

122.5

16.0 159.2

■^ Except for the "other" category, these were the activities enumerated by Dr. Bush in
his projected budget for the Foundation.

= Fiscal year 1956 data from The Budget of the United States, 1956, p. 159. In fiscal
year 1960 the Foundation's total adjusted appropriation amounts to $154.8 million.
The total of $159.2 million, shown here, includes $4.4 million carried forward from
fiscal year 1959. See part 3, Hearings before the Suhccnnnnttee on Appropriations,
House of Representatives, Eighty-Sixth Congress, Second Session, Independent
Offices Appropriations for 1961, for further details on program activities.

■ Funds administered by the Foundation's Biological and Medical Sciences Division are
included in the total shown for the Division of Natural Sciences. This total also
includes grants for the social sciences.

' Scientific information program activities are administered in the Foundation by the
Office of Science Information Service.

"^Includes funds for facilities, other program activities, and all adjustments.

A glance at the chart indicates that by the end of the fifth year the Foun-
dation was operating at a level fifty per cent lower than that recommended
b\- Dr. Bush for the first year. By the fifth year the National Science Founda-
tion was operating at about thirteen per cent of the level suggested by Dr.
Bush for that year. By 1960, however, the Foundation's appropriation for all
activities was $159,200,000, almost ten times the 1956 level.

xxiv

In order to understand the whole support situation it is necessary to look
beyond a bare statistical comparison of Dr. Bush's recommendations and the
Foundation's financial resources. As pre\'iously mentioned, Dr. Bush had
visualized the Foundation as the sole support of basic research in the Govern-
ment. This has been far from the fact. As already noted, a number of
agencies began actively to support basic research during the five years of
legislative debate of the National Science Foundation bills. It is estimated
that in 1956 the Federal Government obligated about $200 million for basic
research. Of this amount somewhat less than $120 million went for basic
research related to "national defense" (Department of Defense $72 million,
and Atomic Energy Commission $45 million). Twenty-six million dollars
represents the total basic research reported bv the National Institutes of
Health for the year. The remainder of the $200 million is variously distrib-
uted among the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, National Science Foundation, and the
Smithsonian Institution.

Rough estimates indicate that about $115 million of the $200 million total
1956 obligation for basic research went to nonprofit institutions, including
colleges and universities, research centers, research institutions, hospitals, and
so on. Thus it would appear from these estimates that although the Founda-
tion itself had not reached the projected level of basic research support pro-
posed for its fifth year the Federal Government as a whole was providing the
kind of basic research support visualized by Dr. Bush at a level somewhat
higher than he projected.

In the history of the National Science Foundation's appropriations one is
able to trace something of the public reaction to the international and national
political situation. A $15 million limit on the Foundation's appropriations
had been written into the law.* For its first year of operations, however,
Congress appropriated to the Foundation only a small fraction of that amount
— $3.5 million. Appropriations for the Foundation climbed slowly but steadily
as Congress gained confidence in its operations and possibly also as a result
of some dawning recognition on the part of the public of the importance of
basic research. By the fifth year, 1956, the appropriation was up to $16
million. In the summer of 1955 the Foundation published a National Re-
search Council study, Soviet Professional Manpower, which drew sobering
comparisons between the rates at w^hich the U. S. and the U.S.S.R. are train-
ing scientific and technical manpower. One result of these findings was
that the Congress sharply increased Foundation funds for education in the
sciences. The Foundation appropriation for fiscal year 1957, $40 million,
more than doubled that of the preceding year. The next large increment
came in 1959 when $130 million was appropriated in the wake of intense
national concern over the Russian sputnik and all that it implied. Funds
available for fiscal year 1960 total more than $159 million.

What can be said in summation? The principal mechanisms recommended
by Dr. Bush for the support and encouragement of basic research and educa-
tion in the sciences have been realized. All branches of the Federal Govern-
ment have recognized the importance of these matters to the public welfare,

* This limitation was repealed by Act of Aug. 8, 1953 (67 Stat. 488).

XXV

and support is available in a variety of forms from a variety of sources. The
universities, which have been the principal recipients of support, have ex-
pressed their approval of this diversity in the sources of support. Such diver-
sitv has meant more funds, greater flexibility, and the possibility of more than
one approach.

It is difficult to say what the optimum level of support should be except to
recognize that at some point a finite limit is set by the number of competent
investigators available. At the present time the ratio of basic research funds
to the over-all research and development funds of the Federal budget is
something like seven per cent. Undoubtedly the ratio should be higher.

We have the organization; to a considerable extent v\'e ha\'e the dollars,
people, and facilities. Can we conclude, then, that the objectives of the
Bush Report have been fully met? When one has been verv close to the
scene it is not possible to speak with complete objectivity and detachment.
I think it can be said that the Government is doing well, both in the pro-
vision of funds and in the exercise of leadership. There remains, however,
one conspicuous difficulty to be overcome. It is that people generally still do
not clearly understand and appreciate the importance of education and the
importance of science as distinguished from technology. As Dr. Bush so
trenchantly observed:

The distinction between applied and pure research is not a hard and fast one, and
industrial scientists may tackle specific problems from broad fundamental viewpoints.
But it is important to emphasize that there is a perverse law governing research: under
the pressure for immediate resuks, and unless deliberate policies are set up to guard
against this, applied research invariably drives out pure.

This moral is clear: It is pure research which deserves and requires special protection
and specially assured support.

It must be admitted that as a people and a Nation we have not been prop-
erly appreciative of intellectual achievement. This awareness and apprecia-
tion is not something the Government can legislate into being. We must
build it into our national consciousness through our educational system, and
until we do, science and all other forms of intellectual activity will lack the
firm foundation they require.

XXVI

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Office of Scientific Research and Development

1530 P Street, NW.

Washington 25, D. C.

July 5, 1945.

Dear Mr. President:

In a letter dated November 17, 1944, President Roosevelt requested my
recommendations on the following points:

(1) What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the
prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as
soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our war
effort to scientific knowledge?

(2) With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what
can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the
work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?

(3) What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research
activities bv public and private organizations?

(4) Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing
scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of scientific
research in this country mav be assured on a level comparable to what has
been done during the war?

It is clear from President Roosevelt's letter that in speaking of science he
had in mind the natural sciences, including biology and medicine, and I
have so interpreted his questions. Progress in other fields, such as the social
sciences and the humanities, is likewise important; but the program for
science presented in my report warrants immediate attention.

In seeking answers to President Roosevelt's questions I have had the
assistance of distinguished committees specially qualified to advise in respect
to these subjects. The committees have given these matters the serious
attention thev deserve; indeed, they have regarded this as an opportunity
to participate in shaping the policy of the countrv with reference to scien-
tific research. They have had many meetings and have submitted formal
reports. I have been in close touch with the work of the committees and
with their members throughout. I have examined all of the data they
assembled and the suggestions thev submitted on the points raised in Presi-
dent Roose\'elt's letter.

1

Although the report which I submit herewith is my own, the facts, con-
clusions, and recommendations are based on the findings of the committees
which have studied these questions. Since my report is necessarily brief, I
am including as appendices the full reports of the committees.

A single mechanism for implementing the recommendations of the several
committees is essential. In proposing such a mechanism I have departed
somewhat from the specific recommendations of the committees, but I have
since been assured that the plan I am proposing is fully acceptable to the
committee members.

The pioneer spirit is still vigorous within this Nation. Science offers a
largelv unexplored hinterland for the pioneer who has the tools for his task.
The rewards of such exploration both for the Nation and the individual
are great. Scientific progress is one essential kev to our security as a nation,
to our better health, to more jobs, to a higher standard of living, and to our
cultural progress.

Respectfully vours,

(s) V. Bush, Director.

The President of the United States,
The White House,
Washington, D. C.

PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT'S LETTER

The White House
Washington, D. C.
November 17, 1944

Dear Dr. Bush:

The Office of Scientific Research and Development, of which you are the
Director, represents a unique experiment of team-work and cooperation in
coordinating scientific research and in applying existing scientific knowledge
to the solution of the technical problems paramount in war. Its work has
been conducted in the utmost secrecy and carried on without public recog-
nition of anv kind; but its tangible results can be found in the communiques
coming in from the battlefronts all over the world. Some day the full story
of its achievements can be told.

There is, howe\er, no reason whv the lessons to be found in this experi-
ment cannot be profitablv employed in times of peace. The information, the
techniques, and the research experience developed by the Office of Scientific
Research and Development and bv the thousands of scientists in the uni-
versities and in private industry, should be used in the days of peace ahead
for the improvement of the national health, the creation of new enterprises
bringing new jobs, and the betterment of the national standard of living.

It is with that objectixe in mind that I would like to ha\'e your recom-
mendations on the following four major points:

First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the
prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as
soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our war
effort to scientific knowledge?

The diffusion of such knowledge should help us stimulate new enterprises,
provide jobs for our returning servicemen and other workers, and make pos-
sible great strides for the improvement of the national well-being.

Second: With particular reference to the war of science against disease,
what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future
the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?

The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases
alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in battle during
this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe future generations.
Third: What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research
activities by public and pri\'ate organizations? The proper roles of public and
of private research, and their interrelation, should be carefully considered.

FoTirth: Can an effective program be proposed for discoxering and devel-
oping scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of
scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable to
what has been done during the war?

New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with
the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war
we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and more
fruitful life.

I hope that, after such consultation as you may deem advisable with your
associates and others, vou can let me have your considered judgment on
these matters as soon as convenient — reporting on each when you are ready,
rather than waiting for completion of your studies in all.

Very sincerelv vours,

(s) Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Dr. Vannevar Bush,

Office of Scientific Research and Development,

Washington, D. C.

SUMMARY OF THE REPORT

Scientific Progress is Essential

Progress in the war against disease depends upon a flow of new scientific
knowledge. New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous
additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, and the application of that
knowledge to practical purposes. Similarly, our defense against aggression
demands new knowledge so that we can develop new and improved weapons.
This essential, new knowledge can be obtained onlv through basic scientific
research.

Science can be effective in the national welfare onlv as a member of a
team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific prog-
ress no amount of achievement in other directions can insure our health,
prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world.

For the War Against Disease

We have taken great strides in the war against disease. The death rate for
all diseases in the Armv, including overseas forces, has been reduced from
14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in this war. In the
last 40 vears life expectancy has increased from 49 to 65 vears, largelv as a
consequence of the reduction in the death rates of infants and children. But
we are far from the goal. The annual deaths from one or two diseases far
exceed the total number of American lives lost in battle during this war. A
large fraction of these deaths in our civilian population cut short the useful
lives of our citizens. Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States
are mentally ill and their care costs the public over $175,000,000 a vear.
Clearly much illness remains for which adequate means of prevention and
cure are not vet known.

The responsibility for basic research in medicine and the underlying
sciences, so essential to progress in the war against disease, falls primarily
upon the medical schools and universities. Yet we find that the traditional
sources of support for medical research in the medical schools and universi-
ties, largely endowment income, foundation grants, and private donations,
are diminishing and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this trend.
Meanwhile, the cost of medical research has been rising. If we are to main-

tain the progress in medicine which has marked the last 25 years, the Gov-
ernment should extend financial support to basic medical research in the
medical schools and in universities.

For Our ISational Security

The bitter and dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of scien-
tific techniques — and our margin of success was dangerously small. The
new eyes which radar has supplied can sometimes be blinded by new scien-
tific developments. V— 2 was countered only by capture of the launching
sites.

We cannot again relv on our allies to hold off the enemy while we
struggle to catch up. There must be more — and more adequate — military
research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian scientists continue in
peacetime some portion of those contributions to national security which
they ha\'e made so effectively during the war. This can best be done through
a civilian-controlled organization with close liaison with the Armv and Navy,
but with funds direct from Congress, and the clear power to initiate military
research which will supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under
the control of the Armv and Navv-

And for the Public Welfare

One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment. To
reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of the American
people must be released. To create more jobs we must make new and better
and cheaper products. We want plentv of new, vigorous enterprises. But
new products and processes are not born full-grown. They are founded on
new principles and new conceptions which in turn result from basic scien-
tific research. Basic scientific research is scientific capital. Moreover, we
cannot any longer depend upon Europe as a major source of this scientific
capital. Clearly, more and better scientific research is one essential to the
achievement of our goal of full employment.

How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have plenty of
men and women trained in science, for upon them depends both the creation
of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes. Second, we must
strengthen the centers of basic research which are principally the colleges,
universities, and research institutes. These institutions provide the environ-
ment which is most conducive to the creation of new scientific knowledge
and least under pressure for immediate, tangible results. With some notable
exceptions, most research in industry and in Government involves applica-
tion of existing scientific knowledge to practical problems. It is only the
colleges, universities, and a few research institutes that devote most of their
research efforts to expanding the frontiers of knowledge.

Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Goyernment increased
from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those for the colleges
and universities increased from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those for

research institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000 during the same
period. If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet the
rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific
knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by use of public
funds.

For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare, applied
research both in Government and in industry must be vigorous. To improve
the quality of scientific research within the Government, steps should be
taken to modifv the procedures for recruiting, classifying, and compensating
scientific personnel in order to reduce the present handicap of governmental
scientific bureaus in competing with industry and the universities for top-
grade scientific talent. To provide coordination of the common scientific
activities of these governmental agencies as to policies and budgets, a perma-
nent Science Advisorv Board should be created to advise the executive and
legislative branches of Government on these matters.

The most important ways in which the Government can promote industrial
research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge through support
of basic research, and to aid in the development of scientific talent. In addi-
tion, the Government should provide suitable incentives to industry to con-
duct research (a) by clarification of present uncertainties in the Internal
Revenue Code in regard to the deductibility of research and development
expenditures as current charges against net income, and (h^ by strengthen-
ing the patent svstem so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily
on small industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon
a basically sound svstem. In addition, ways should be found to cause the
benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now utilize new
scientific knowledge.

We Must Renew Our Scientific Talent

The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge — and for
most of its application — rests on that small body of men and women who
understand the fundamental laws of nature and are skilled in the techniques
of scientific research. We shall have rapid or slow advance on any scientific
frontier depending on the number of highly qualified and trained scientists
exploring it.

The deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war, would
have received bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. It is estimated that the
deficit of those obtaining advanced degrees in these fields will amount in
1955 to about 17,000 — for it takes at least 6 years from college entry— te^
achieve a doctor's degree or its equivalent in science or engineering. The
real ceiling on our productivity of new scientific knowledge and its applica-
tion in the war against disease, and the development of new products and
new industries, is the number of trained scientists available.

The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies clearly
show that there are talented individuals in every part of the population, but
with few exceptions, those without the means of buying higher education

go without it. If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, deter-
mines who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall be
assured of constantly impro\'ing quality at eyery leyel of scientific activity.
The Goyernment should provide a reasonable number of undergraduate
scholarships and graduate fellowships in order to develop scientific talent in
American youth. The plans should be designed to attract into science only
that proportion of youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in
relation to the other needs of the Nation for high abilities.

Including Those in Uniform

The most immediate prospect of making up the deficit in scientific per-
sonnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in uniform.
Even if we should start now to train the current crop of high-school gradu-
ates none would complete graduate studies before 1951. The Armed Services
should comb their records for men who, prior to or during the war, have
given evidence of talent for science, and make prompt arrangements, con-
sistent with current discharge plans, for ordering those who remain in uni-
form, as soon as militarily possible, to duty at institutions here and overseas
where they can continue their scientific education. Moreover, the Services
should see that those who study o\'erseas have the benefit of the latest
scientific information resulting from research during the war.

The Lid Must Be Lifted

While most of the war research has in\'olved the application of existing
scientific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than basic research, there
has been accumulated a \'ast amount of information relating to the applica-
tion of science to particular problems. Much of this can be used by industry.
It is also needed for teaching in the colleges and universities here and in the
Armed Forces Institutes overseas. Some of this information must remain
secret, but most of it should be made public as soon as there is ground for
belief that the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. To
select that portion which should be made public, to coordinate its release,
and definitely to encourage its publication, a Board composed of Army, Navy,
and civilian scientific members should be promptly established.

A Program for Action

The Government should accept new responsibilities for ]:)romoting the
flow of new scientific knowledge and the de\'elopmcnt of scientific talent in
our youth. These responsibilities are the proper concern of the Government,
for thev xitallv affect our health, our jobs, and our naticjnal security. It is in
keeping also with basic United States policy that the Government should
foster the opening of new frontiers and this is the modern way to do it. For

8

many years the Government has wisely suppoi'ted research in the agricul-
tural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has come when
such support should be extended to other fields.

The effective discharge of these new responsibilities will require the full
attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There is not now
in the permanent governmental structure receiving its funds from Congress
an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic research in the
colleges, uni\'ersities, and research institutes, both in medicine and the natural
sciences, adapted to supporting research on new weapons for both Services,
or adapted to administering a program of science scholarships and fellowships.

Therefore I recommend that a new agency for these purposes be estab-
lished. Such an agencv should be composed of persons of broad interest and
experience, having an understanding of the peculiarities of scientific research
and scientific education. It should have stability of funds so that long-range
programs may be undertaken. It should recognize that freedom of inquiry
must be preserved and should leave internal control of policy, personnel,
and the method and scope of research to the institutions in which it is carried
on. It should be fully responsible to the President and through him to the
Congress for its program.

Early action on these recommendations is imperative if this Nation is to
meet the challenge of science in the crucial years ahead. On the wisdom
with which we bring science to bear in the war against disease, in the crea-
tion of new industries, and in the strengthening of our Armed Forces
depends in large measure our future as a nation.

Part One

INTRODUCTION

Scientific Progress Is Essential

We all know how much the new drug, penicillin, has meant to our griev-
ously wounded men on the grim battlefronts of this war— the countless lives
it has saved — the incalculable suffering which its use has prevented. Science
and the great practical genius of this Nation made this achievement possible.

Some of us know the vital role which radar has played in bringing the
Allied Nations to victory over Nazi Germany and in driving the Japanese
steadilv back from their island bastions. Again it was painstaking scientific
research over manv years that made radar possible.

What we often forget are the millions of pay envelopes on a peacetime
Saturdav night which are filled because new products and new industries
have provided jobs for countless Americans. Science made that possible, too.

In 1939 millions of people were emploved in industries which did not even
exist at the close of the last war — radio, air conditioning, rayon and other
synthetic fibers, and plastics are examples of the products of these industries.
But these things do not mark the end of progress — they are but the begin-
ning if we make full use of our scientific resources. New manufacturing
industries can be started and many older industries greatly strengthened and
expanded if we continue to studv nature's laws and apply new knowledge
to practical purposes.

Great advances in agriculture are also based upon scientific research. Plants
which are more resistant to disease and are adapted to short growing seasons,
the pre\'ention and cure of livestock diseases, the control of our insect enemies,
better fertilizers, and improved agricultural practices, all stem from painstak-
ing scientific research.

Advances in science when put to practical use mean more jobs, higher
wages, shorter hours, more abundant crops, more leisure for recreation, for
studv, for learning how to live without the deadening drudgery whi'ch has
been the burden of the common man for ages past. Ad\'ances in science wdll
also bring higher standards of living, will lead to the pre\ention or cure of
diseases, will promote conser\'ation of our limited national resources, and will
assure means of defense against aggression. But to achieve these objectives —
to secure a high level of emplovment, to maintain a position of world lead-
ership— the flow of new scientific knowledge must be both continuous and
substantial.

Our population increased from 75 million to 130 million between 1900

10

and 1940. In some countries comparable increases have been accompanied
by famine. In this country the increase has been accompanied by more
abundant Food suppK', better lixing, more leisure, longer life, and better
health. 1 his is, largely, the product of three factors — the free play of initia-
tive of a vigorous people under democrac)', the heritage of great natural
wealth, and the advance of science and its application.

Science, by itself, provides no panacea for individual, social, and economic
ills. It can be effective in the national welfare onlv as a member of a team,
whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific progress no
amount of achievement in other directions can insure our health, prosperity,
and securitv as a nation in the modern world.

Science Is a Proper Concern of Government

It has been basic United States policy that Government should foster the
opening of new frontiers. It opened the seas to clipper ships and furnished
land for pioneers. Although these frontiers have more or less disappeared,
the frontier of science remains. It is in keeping with the American tradition
— one which has made the United States great — that new frontiers shall be
made accessible for development by all American citizens.

Moreover, since health, well-being, and security are proper concerns of
Government, scientific progress is, and must be, of vital interest to Govern-
ment. Without scientific progress the national health would deteriorate;
without scientific progress we could not hope for improvement in our stand-
ard of living or for an increased number of jobs for our citizens; and without
scientific progress we could not have maintained our liberties against tyranny.

Government Relations to Science — Past and Future

From early days the Government has taken an active interest in scientific
matters. During the nineteenth century the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the
Naval Observatory, the Department of Agriculture, and the Geological Sur-
vey were established. Through the Land Grant Gollege Acts the Govern-
ment has supported research in state institutions for more than 80 vears on
a gradually increasing scale. Since 1900 a large number of scientific agencies
have been established within the Federal Government, until in 1939 they
numbered more than 40.

Much of the scientific research done by Government agencies is inter-
mediate in character between the two types of work commonly referred to
as basic and applied research. Almost all Government scientific work has
ultimate practical objectives but, in many fields of broad national concern, it
commonly involves long-teyn investigation of a fundamental nature. Gen-
erally speaking, the scientific agencies of Government are not so concerned
with immediate practical objectives as are the laboratories of industry nor,
on the other hand, are they as free to explore any natural phenomena
without regard to possible economic applications as are the educational and
private research institutions. Government scientific agencies have splendid
records of achievement, but they are limited in function.

11

We have no national policy for science. The Government has only begun
to utilize science in the Nation's welfare. There is no body within the Gov-
ernment charged with formulating or executing a national science policy.
There are no standing committees of the Congress devoted to this important
subject. Science has been in the wings. It should be brought to the center
of the stage — for in it lies much of our hope for the future.

There are areas of science in which the public interest is acute but which
are likely to be cultivated inadequately if left without more support than will
come from private sources. These areas — such as research on military prob-
lems, agriculture, housing, public health, certain medical, research, and re-
search involving expensive capital facilities beyond the capacity of private
institutions — should be advanced by active Government support. To date,
with the exception of the intensive war research conducted by the Office of
Scientific Research and Development, such support has been meager and
intermittent.

For reasons presented in this report we are entering a period when science
needs and deserves increased support from public funds.

Freedom of Inquiry Must Be Preserved

The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and research
institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the wellsprings of
knowledge and understanding. As long as they are vigorous and healthy
and their scientists are free to pursue the truth wherever it may lead, there
will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those who can apply it to
practical problems in Government, in industrv, or elsewhere.

Many of the lessons learned in the war-time application of science under
Government can be profitably applied in peace. The Government is pecul-
iarly fitted to perform certain functions, such as the coordination and support
of broad programs on problems of great national importance. But we must
proceed with caution in carrying over the methods which work in wartime
to the very different conditions of peace. We must remove the rigid controls
which we have had to impose, and recover freedom of inquiry and that
healthy competitive scientific spirit so necessary for expansion of the frontiers
of scientific knowledge.

Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of free
intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner dictated
by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. Freedom of inquiry must
be preserved under any plan for Government support of science in accord-
ance with the Five Fundamentals listed on page 32.

The studv of the momentous questions presented in President Roosevelt's
letter has been made by able committees working diligently. This report
presents conclusions and recommendations based upon the studies of these
committees which appear in full as the appendices. Only in the creation of
one over-all mechanism rather than several does this report depart from the
specific recommendations of the committees. The members of the committees
have reviewed the recommendations in regard to the single mechanism and
have found this plan thoroughly acceptable.

12

Part Two

THE WAR AGAINST DISEASE

In War

The death rate for all diseases in the Army, including the overseas forces,
has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand
in this war.

Such ravaging diseases as yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus, pneu-
monia, and meningitis have been all but conquered by penicillin and the
sulfa drugs, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved hvgienic
measures. Malaria has been controlled. There has been dramatic progress
in surgery.

The striking advances in medicine during the war have heen possible only
because we had a large backlog of scientific data accumulated through basic
research in many scientific fields in the years before the war.

In Peace

In the last 40 years life expectancy in the United States has increased
from 49 to 65 years largely as a consequence of the reduction in the death
rates of infants and children; in the last 20 years the death rate from the
diseases of childhood has been reduced 87 percent.

Diabetes has been brought under control by insulin, pernicious anemia
by liver extracts; and» the once widespread deficiency diseases have been
much reduced, even in the lowest income groups, by accessory food factors
and improvement of diet. Notable advances have been made in the early
diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation treatment of the disease.

These results have been achieved through a great amount of basic research
in medicine and the preclinical sciences, and by the dissemination of this
new scientific knowledge through the physicians and medical services and
public health agencies of the country. In this cooperative endeavor the
pharmaceutical industry has played an important role, especially during the
war. All of the medical and public health groups share credit for these
achievements; they form interdependent members of a team.

Progress in combating disease defends ufon an expanding body of new
scientifc knowledge.

13

Unsolved Problems

As President Roosevelt observed, the annual deaths from one or two
diseases are far in excess of the total number of American lives lost in battle
during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian population
cut short the useful lives of our citizens. This is our present position despite
the fact that in the last three decades notable progress has been made in
civilian medicine. The reduction in death rate from diseases of childhood
has shifted the emphasis to the middle and old age groups, particularly to
the malignant diseases and the degenerative processes prominent in later life.
Cardiovascular disease, including chronic disease of the kidneys, arterio-
sclerosis, and cerebral hemorrhage, now account for 45 percent of the deaths
in the United States. Second are the infectious diseases, and third is cancer.
Added to these are manv maladies (for example, the common cold, arthritis,
asthma and hav fever, peptic ulcer) which, though infrequentlv fatal, cause
incalculable disability.

Another aspect of the changing emphasis is the increase of mental diseases.
Approximately 7 million persons in the United States are mentally ill; more
than one-third of the hospital beds are occupied by such persons, at a cost of
$175 million a year. Each year 125,000 new mental cases are hospitalized.

N ot with St an ding great progress in prolonging the span of life and in relief
of suffering, much illness remains for which adequate means of prevention
and cure are not yet known. While additional physicians, hospitals, and
health programs are needed, their full usefidness cannot he attained unless
we enlarge our knowledge of the human organism and the nature of disease.
Any extension of medical facilities must he accompanied hy an expanded
program of medical training and research.

Broad and Basic Studies Needed

Discoveries pertinent to medical progress have often come from remote
and unexpected sources, and it is certain that this will be true in the future.
It is whollv probable that progress in the treatment of cardiovascular disease,
renal disease, cancer, and similar refractory diseases will be made as the result
of fundamental discoveries in subjects unrelated to those diseases, and perhaps
entirelv unexpected by the investigator. Further progress requires that the
entire front of medicine and the underlving sciences of chemistrv, phvsics,
anatomy, biochemistry, phvsiologv, pharmacology, bacteriology, pathology,
parasitology, etc., be broadly developed.

Progress in the war against disease residts from discoveries in remote and
unexpected fields of medicine and the underlying sciences.

Coordinated Attack on Special Problems

Penicillin reached our troops in time to save countless li\es because the
Government coordinated and supported the program of research and develop-
ment on the drug. The development moved from the early laboratory stage
to large scale production and use in a fraction of the time it would have

14

taken without such leadership. The search for hctter anti-malarials, which
proceeded at a moderate temjx) for many years, has been accelerated enor-
mously by Government support during the war. Other examples can be cited
in which medical progress has been similarly advanced. In achieving these
results, the Government has provided over-all coordination and support; it
has not dictated how the work should be done within any cooperating
institution.

Discovery of new therapeutic agents and methods usually results from basic
studies in medicine and the underlying sciences. The development of such
materials and methods to the point at which they become available- to medical
practitioners requires teamwork involving the medical schools, the science
departments of universities. Government and the pharmaceutical industry.
Government initiative, support, and coordination can be very efifective in this
development phase.

Governvient initiative and swpfort for the develofment of newly discov-
ered therapeutic materials and methods can reduce the time required to bring
the benefits to the fublic.

Action is Necessary

The primary place for medical research is in the medical schools and uni-
versities. In some cases coordinated direct attack on special problems may be
made by teams of investigators, supplementing similar attacks carried on by
the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, and other organizations. Apart from
teaching, however, the primarv obligation of the medical schools and univer-
sities is to continue the traditional function of such institutions, namely, to
provide the individual worker with an opportunitv for free, untrammeled
study of nature, in the directions and bv the methods suggested by his inter-
ests, curiosity, and imagination. The history of medical science teaches clearly
the supreme importance of affording the prepared mind complete freedom
for the exercise of initiative. It is the special province of the medical schools
and universities to foster medical research in this way — a duty which cannot
be shifted to Government agencies, industrial organizations, or to any other
institutions.

Where clinical investigations of the human body are required, the medical
schools are in a unique position, because of their close relationship to teaching
hospitals, to integrate such investigations with the work of the departments of
preclinical science, and to impart new knowledge to physicians in training.
At the same time, the teaching hospitals are especially well qualified to carry
on medical research because of their close connection with the medical schools,
on which they depend for staff and supervision.

Between World War I and World War II the United States overtook all
other nations in medical research and assumed a position of world leadership.
To a considerable extent this progress reflected the liberal financial support
from universitv endowment income, gifts from individuals, and foundation
grants in the 20's. The growth of research departments in medical schools
has been verv uneven, however, and in consequence most of the important
work has been done in a few large schools. This should be corrected by build-

15

ing up the weaker institutions, especially in regions which now have no
strong medical research activities.

The traditional sources of support for medical research, largely endowment
income, foundation grants, and private donations, are diminishing, and there
is no immediate prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, research
costs have stcadiK' risen. More elaborate and expensive equipment is required,
supplies are more costlv, and the wages of assistants are higher. Industry is
onlv to a limited extent a source of funds for basic medical research.

It is clear that if we are to maintain the progress in medicine which has
marked the last 25 years, the Government shoidd extend financial support to
basic medical research in the medical schools and in the universities, through
grants both for research and for fellowships. The amotint which can he effec-
tively spent in the first year shotdd not exceed 5 million dollars. After a pro-
gram is under way perhaps 20 million dollars a year can he spent effectively.

16

Part Three

SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC WELFARE

Relation to National Security

In this war it has become clear beyond all doubt that scientific research is
absolutely essential to national security. The bitter and dangerous battle
against the U-boat was a battle of scientific techniques — and our margin of
success was dangerously small. The new eves which radar supplied to our
fighting forces quickly evoked the development of scientific countermeasures
which could often blind them. This again represents the ever continuing
battle of techniques. The V— 1 attack on London was finally defeated by
three devices developed during this war and used superbly in the field. V— 2
was countered only by capture of the launching sites.

The Secretaries of War and Navy recently stated in a joint letter to the
National Academy of Sciences:

This war emphasizes three facts of supreme importance to national security: (1)
Powerful new tactics of defense and offense are developed around new weapons created
by scientific and engineering research; (2) the competitive time element in developing
those weapons and tactics may be decisive; (3) war is increasingly total war, in which
the armed services must be supplemented by active participation of every element of
civilian population.

To insure continued preparedness along farsighted technical lines, the research scien-
tists of the country must be called upon to continue in peacetime some substantial
portion of those types of contribution to national security which they have made so
effectively during the stress of the present war * * *.

There must be more — and more adequate — military research during peace-
time. We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy while we
struggle to catch up. Further, it is clear that only the Government can under-
take military research; for it must be carried on in secret, much of it has no
commercial value, and it is expensive. The obligation of Government to
support research on military problems is inescapable.

iModern war requires the use of the most advanced scientific techniques.
Many of the leaders in the development of radar are scientists who before
the war had been exploring the nucleus of the atom. While there must be
increased emphasis on science in the future training of officer^s lor both the
Army and Navy, such men cannot be expected to be specialists in scientific

17

research. Therefore, a professional partnership between the officers in the
Services and civiHan scientists is needed.

The Armv and Na\v should continue to carry on research and de\'elopment
on the improvement of current weapons. For manv years the National
Ad\'isory Committee for Aeronautics has supplemented the work of the Army
and Navy by conducting basic research on the problems of flight. There
should now be permanent ci\'ilian acti\'ity to supplement the research work
of the Services in other scientific fields so as to carry on in time of peace
some part of the actixities of the emergency wartime Office of Scientific
Research and De\'elopment.

Military preparedness reciiiires a pernianeiit independent, civilian-contyoUed
organization, having close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds
directly jrovi Congress and with the clear power to initiate military research
which will supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the
control of the Army and Navy.

I
Science and Jobs

One of our hopes is that after the v\'ar there will be full employment, and
that the production of goods and ser\'ices will ser\'e to raise our standard of
living. We do not know yet how we shall reach that goal, but it is certain
that it can be achieved only by releasing the full creati\'e and productive
energies of the American people.

Surely we will not get there by standing still, merely by making the same
things we made before and selling them at the same or higher prices. We
will not get ahead in international trade unless we offer new and more
attractive and cheaper products.

Where will these new products come from? How will we find ways to
make better products at lower cost? The answer is clear. There must be a
stream of new scientific knowledge to turn the wheels of pri\'ate and public
enterprise. There must be plenty of men and women trained in science and
technology for upon them depend both the creation of new knowledge and
its application to practical purposes.

More and better scientific research is essential to the achievement of our
goal of full employment.

The Importance of Basic Research

Basic research is performed without thought of practical ends. It results
in general knowledge and an understanding of nature and its laws. This
general knowledge provides the means of answering a large number of im-
portant practical problems, though it ma\' not give a complete specific answer
to any one of them. The function of applied research is to provide such
complete answers. The scientist doing basic research may not be at all inter-
ested in the practical applications of his work, yet the further progress of
industrial development would e\entually stagnate if basic scientific research
were long neolccted.

One of the peculiarities of basic science is the variety of paths which lead

18

to productive advance. Many of the most important discoveries have come as
a result of experiments undertaken with xerv different purposes in mind.
Statistically it is certain that important and highly useful discoxeries will result
from some fraction of the undertakings in hasic science; hut the results of
any one particular in\ estimation cannot be predicted with accuracy.

Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides scientific capital.
It creates the iund Irom which the practical applications of knowledge must
be draw n. New products and new processes do not appear full-grown. They
are founded on new principles and new conceptions, which in turn are
painstakingK' dex'cloped by research in the purest realms of science.

Toda\', it is truer than e\er that basic research is the pacemaker of tech-
nological progress. In the nineteenth century, Yankee mechanical ingenuity,
building largely upon the basic discoveries of European scientists, could
greath' advance the technical arts. Now the situation is different.

A uatiou which depends upon others for its new basic scientific knowledge
will he slow in its industrial progress and weak in its competitive position
in world trade, regardless of its mechanical skill.

Centers of Basic Research

Publicly and pri\'ately supported colleges and universities and the endowed
research institutes must furnish both the new scientific knowledge and the
trained research workers. These institutions are uniquely qualified by tradi-
tion and h\ their special characteristics to carry on basic research. They are
charged with the responsibility of conser\'ing the knowledge accumulated
by the past, imparting that knowledge to students, and contributing new
knowledge of all kinds. It is chiefly in these institutions that scientists may
work in an atmosphere which is relatively free from the adverse pressure of
con\'ention, prejudice, or commercial necessity. At their best they provide
the scientific worker with a strong sense of solidarity and security, as well as
a substantial degree of personal intellectual freedom. All of these factors are
of great importance in the development of new knowledge, since much of
new knowledge is certain to arouse opposition because of its tendency to
challenge current beliefs or practice.

Industry is generally inhibited by preconceived goals, by its own clearly
defined standards, and by the constant pressure of commercial necessity. Satis-
factory progress in basic science seldom occurs under conditions prevailing in
the normal industrial laboratory. There are some notable exceptions, it is true,
but even in such cases it is rarely possible to match the universities in respect
to the freedom which is so important to scientific discovery.

To serve effecti\'ely as the centers of basic research these institutions must
be strong and healthy. They must attract our best scientists as teachers and
investigators. They must offer research opportunities and sufficient compen-
sation to enable them to compete with industry and government for the cream
of scientific talent.

During the past 25 years there has been a great increase in industrial
research involving the application of scientific knowledge to a multitude of
practical purposes — thus pro\'iding new products, new industries, new invest--
ment opportunities, and millions of jobs. During the same period research

19

within Government — again largely applied research — has also been greatly
expanded. In the decade from 1930 to 1940 expenditures for industrial
research increased from $116,000,000 to $240,000,000 and those for scientific
research in Government rose from $24,000,000 to $69,000,000. During the
same period expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and univer-
sities increased from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those in the endowed
research institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000. These are the
best estimates available. The figures have been taken from a variety of
sources and arbitrary definitions have necessarily been applied, but it is
believed that they may be accepted as indicating the following trends:

(a) Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government —
almost entirely applied research — have more than doubled between
1930 and 1940. Whereas in 1930 they were six times as large as the
research expenditures of the colleges, universities, and research insti-
tutes, by 1940 they were nearly ten times as large.

(b) While expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and univer-
sities increased by ope-half during this period, those for the endowed
research institutes have slowly declined.

// the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to vieet the rapidly
increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific knowledge,
their basic research shoidd he strengthened l^y ^^se of fiihlic funds.

Research Within the Government

Although there are some notable exceptions, most research conducted
within governmental laboratories is of an applied nature. This has always
been true and is likely to remain so. Hence Government, like industry, is
dependent upon the colleges, universities, and research institutes to expand
the basic scientific frontiers and to furnish trained scientific investigators.

Research within the Government represents an important part of our total
research activity and needs to be strengthened and expanded after the war.
Such expansion should be directed to fields of inquiry and service which are
of public importance and are not adequately carried on by private organi-
zations.

The most important single factor in scientific and technical work is the
quality of personnel employed. The procedures currently followed within
the Government for recruiting, classifying and compensating such personnel
place the Government under a severe handicap in competing with industry
and the universities for first-class scientific talent. Steps should be taken to
reduce that handicap.

In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific
agencies form parts of large departments has both advantages and disadvan-
tages. But the present pattern is firmly established and there is much to be
said for it. There is, however, a very real need for some measure of coordin-
ation of the common scientific activities of these agencies, both as to policies
and budgets, and at present no such means exist.

A permanent Science Advisory Board shoidd he created to consult with

20

these scientific bureaus and to advise the executive and legislative branches
of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government agencies
engaged in scientific research.

This board should be composed of disinterested scientists who have no
connection with the affairs of any Government agency.

Industrial Research

The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can
strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to develop
scientific talent.

The benefits of basic research do not reach all industries equally or at
the same speed. Some small enterprises never receive any of the benefits.
It has been suggested that the benefits might be better utilized if "research
clinics" for such enterprises were to be established. Businessmen would thus
be able to make more use of research than they now do. This proposal is
certainly worthy of further study.

One of the most important factors affecting the amount of industrial
research is the income-tax law. Government action in respect to this subject
will affect the rate of technical progress in industry. Uncertainties as to the
attitude of the Bureau of Internal Revenue regarding the deduction of
research and development expenses are a deterrent to research expenditure.
These uncertainties arise from lack of clarity of the tax law as to the proper
treatment of such costs.

The Internal Revenue Code shoidd be amended to remove present uncer-
tainties in regard to the deductibility of research and development expendi-
tures as current charges against net income.

Research is also affected bv the patent laws. They stimulate new invention
and they make it possible for new industries to be built around new devices
or new processes. These industries generate new jobs and new products, all
of which contribute to the welfare and the strength of the country.

Yet, uncertainties in the operation of the patent laws have impaired the
ability of small industries to translate new ideas into processes and products
of value to the Nation. These uncertainties are, in part, attributable to the
difficulties and expense incident to the operation of the patent svstem as it
presently exists. These uncertainties are also attributable to the existence of
certain abuses which have appeared in the use of patents. The abuses should
be corrected. They have led to extravagantly critical attacks which tend to
discredit a basicallv sound svstem.

It is important that the patent svstem continue to serve the countrv in the
manner intended by the Gonstitution, for it has been a vital element in the
industrial vigor which has distinguished this Nation.

The National Patent Planning Commission has reported on this subject.
In addition, a detailed studv, with recommendations concerning the extent
to which modifications should be made in our patent laws is currently being
made under the leadership of the Secretarv of Commerce. It is recommended,
therefore, that specific action with regard to the patent laws be withheld
pending the submission of the report devoted exclusively to that subject.

21

International Exchange of Scientific Information

International exchange of scientific information is of growing importance.
Increasing specialization of science will make it more important than ever
that scientists in this country keep continually abreast of developments abroad.
In addition, a flow of scientific information constitutes one facet of general
international accord which should be cultivated.

The Government can accomplish significant results in several ways: by
aiding in the arrangement of international science congresses, in the official
accrediting of American scientists to such gatherings, in the official reception
of foreign scientists of standing in this country, in making possible a rapid
flow of technical information, including translation service, and possibly in
the provision of international fellowships. Private foundations and other
groups partially fulfill some of these functions at present, but their scope is
incomplete and inadequate.

The Government should take an active role in promoting the international
flow of scientific information.

The Special ISeed for Federal Support

We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a source of fundamental
knowledge. In the past we have devoted much of our best eff^orts to the
application of such knowledge which has been discovered abroad. In the
future we must pay increased attention to discovering this knowledge for
ourselves particularly since the scientific applications of the future will be
more than ever dependent upon such basic knowledge.

New impetus must be given to research in our country. Such new impetus
can come promptly only from the Government. Expenditures for research
in the colleges, universities, and research institutes will otherwise not be
able to meet the additional demands of increased public need for research.

Further, we cannot expect industry adequately to fill the gap. Industry
will fully rise to the challenge of applying new knowledge to new products.
The commercial incentive can be relied upon for that. But basic research is
essentially noncommercial in nature. It will not receive the attention it
requires if left to industry.

For many years the Government has wisely supported research in the
agricultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has come
when such support should be extended to other fields.

In providing Government support, however, we must endeavor to preserve
as far as possible the private support of research both in industry and in
the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These private sources should
continue to carry their share of the financial burden.

The Cost of a Program

It is estimated that an adequate program for Federal support of basic
research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes and for financing
important applied research in the public interest, will cost about 10 million
dollars at the outset and may rise to about 50 million dollars annually when
fully underway at the end of perhaps 5 years.

22

Part Four

RENEWAL OF OUR SCIENTIFIC

TALENT

Nature of the Problem

The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge rests on

that small body of men and women who understand the fundamental laws

of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific research. While there

will always be the rare individual who will rise to the top without benefit

of formal education and training, he is the exception and even he might

make a more notable contribution if he had the benefit of the best education

we have to offer. I cannot improve on President Conant's statement that:

"* * * in every section of the entire area where the word science may properly
be applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have rapid or slow advance in
this direction or in that depending on the number of really first-class men Vv'ho are
engaged in the work in question. * * * So in the last analysis, the future of
science in this country will be determined by our basic educational policy."

A Note of Warning

It would be follv to set up a program under which research in the natural
sciences and medicine was expanded at the cost of the social sciences,
humanities, and other studies so essential to national well-being. This point
has been well stated by the Moe Committee as follows:

"As citizens, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in mind while
examining the question before us — the discovery and development of scientific talent —
the needs of the whole national welfare. We could not suggest to you a program which
would syphon into science and technology a disproportionately large share of the Nation's
highest abilities, without doing harm to the Nation, nor, indeed, without crippling
science. * * * Science cannot live by and unto itself alone."

"The uses to which high ability in youth can be put are various and, to a large
extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards. When aided by selective devices
for picking out scientifically talented youth, it is clear that large sums of money for
scholarships and fellowships and monetary and other rewards in disproportionate amounts
might draw into science too large a percentage of the Nation's high ability, with a result
highly detrimental to the Nation and to science. Plans for the discovery and development
of scientific talent must be related to the other needs of society for high ability * * *.
There is never enough ability at high levels to satisfy all the needs of the Nation; we
would not seek to draw into science any more of it than science's proportionate share."

23

The W artime Deficit

Among the voung men and women qualified to take up scientific work,
since 1940 there have been few students o\'er 18, except some in medicine
and engineering in Armv and Navy programs and a few 4-F's, who ha\'e
followed an integrated scientific course of studies. Neither our allies nor,
so far as we know, our enemies have done anything so radical as thus to
suspend almost completelv their educational activities in scientific pursuits
during the war period.

Two great principles have guided us in this country as we have turned
our full efforts to war. First, the sound democratic principle that there
should be no favored classes or special pri\'ilege in a time of peril, that all
should be readv to sacrifice equallv; second, the tenet that every man should
serve in the capacity in which his talents and experience can best be applied
for the prosecution of the war effort. In general we have held these principles
well in balance.

In my opinion, however, we ha\'e drawn too heavily for nonscientific pur-
poses upon the great natural resource which resides in our trained young
scientists and engineers. For the general good of the countrv too manv such
men have gone into uniform, and their talents have not always been fully
utilized. With the exception of those men engaged in war research, all
physically fit students at graduate level ha\'e been taken into the armed
forces. Those readv for college training in the sciences have not been per-
mitted to enter upon that training.

There is thus an accumulating deficit of trained research personnel which
will continue for many years. The deficit of science and technology students
who, but for the war, would have recei\'ed bachelor's degrees is about 150,000.
The deficit of those holding advanced degrees — that is, voung scholars trained
to the point where thev are capable of carrving on original work — has been
estimated as amounting to about 17,000 bv 1955 in chemistrv, engineering,
geologv, mathematics, phvsics, psvchologv, and the biological sciences.

With vioitntir2g demands for scientists both for teaching and for research,
we will enter the postwar period with a serious deficit in our trained
scientific personnel.

Improve the Quality

Confronted with these deficits, we are compelled to look to the use of our
basic human resources and formulate a program which will assure their
conservation and effectixe development. The committee advising me on
scientific personnel has stated the following principle which should guide
our planning:

"If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably not, write you
a plan whereby there might be selected for training, which they otherwise would not
get, those who, 20 vears hence, would be scientific leaders, and we might not bother
about any lesser manifestations of scientific ability. But in the present state of knowledge
a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only those young men and women
who will gi\'e the top future leadership to science. To get top leadership there must be
a relatively large base of high ability selected for development and then successive skim-
mings of the cream of ability at successive times and at higher levels. No one can select

24

from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the top because unmeasured and
unknown factors enter into scientific, or any, leadershij). There are brains and character,
strength and health, happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one
knows what else, that must needs enter into this supra-mathematical calculus.

"We think we probablv would not, even if we were all-wise and all-knowing, write
you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific leadership at one stroke. We
think as we think because we are not interested in setting up an elect. We think it
much the best plan, in this constitutional Republic, that opportunity be held out to all
kinds and conditions of men whereby they can better themselves. This is the American
way; this is the way the United States has become what it is. We think it very important
that circumstances be such that there be no ceilings, other than ability itself, to intel-
lectual ambition. We think it very important that everv boy and girl shall know that, if
he shows that he has what it takes, the sky is the limit. Even if it be shown subsequently
that he has not what it takes to go to the top, he will go farther than he would otherwise
go if there had been a ceiling bevond v\'hich he alwavs knew he could not aspire.

"By proceeding from point to point and taking stock on the way, by giving further
opportunity to those who show themsekes worthy of further opportunity, by giving the
most opportunity to those who show themselves continually developing — this is the way
v^'e propose. This is the American way: a man works for what he gets."

Remove the Barriers

Higher education in this country is largely for those who have the means.
If those who have the means coincided entirely with those persons who have
the talent we should not be squandering a part of our higher education on
those undeserving of it, nor neglecting great talent among those who fail
to attend college for economic reasons. There are talented individuals in
everv segment of the population, but with few exceptions those without the
means of buying higher education go without it. Here is a tremendous waste
of the greatest resource of a nation — the intelligence of its citizens.

If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, is made to determine
who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall he assured of
constantly improving qjiality at every level of scientific activity.

The Generation in Uniform Must !Sot Be Lost

We have a serious deficit in scientific personnel partly because the men
who would have studied science in the colleges and universities have been
serving in the Armed Forces. Many had begun their studies before they went
to war. Others with capacitv for scientific education went to war after
finishing high school. The most immediate prospect of making up some of
the deficit in scientific personnel is by salvaging scientific talent from the
generation in uniform. For even if we should start now to train the current
crop of high school graduates, it would be 1951 before thev would complete
graduate studies and be prepared for effective scientific research. This fact
underlines the necessity of salvaging potential scientists in uniform.

The Armed Services shoidd comb their records for vien who, prior to or
during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make prompt
arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for ordering those
who remain in iiniforui as soon as militarily possible to duty at institutions

25

here and overseas where the\ can continue their scientific education. More-
over, they should see that those who study overseas have the benefit of the
latest scientific developments.

A Program

The countr\' ma\' be proud of the fact that 95 percent of bovs and girls
of fifth grade age are enrolled in school, but the drop in enrollment after
the fifth grade is less satisfying. For e\'erv 1,000 students in the fifth grade,
600 are lost to education before the end of high school, and all but 72 have
ceased formal education before completion of college. While we are con-
cerned primarily with methods of selecting and educating high school grad-
uates at the college and higher le\'els, we cannot be complacent about the
loss of potential talent which is inherent in the present situation.

Students drop out of school, college, and graduate school, or do not get
that far, for a variety of reasons: they cannot aflford to go on; schools and
colleges prox'iding courses equal to their capacity are not available locally;
business and industry recruit many of the most promising before they have
finished the training of which they are capable. These reasons apply with
particular force to science: the road is long and expensix'C; it extends at least
6 years beyond high school; the percentage of science students who can obtain
first-rate training in institutions near home is small.

Improvement in the teaching of science is imperative, for students of latent
scientific abilitx' are particularly xulnerable to high school teaching which
fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate instruction. To enlarge the
group of specially qualified men and women it is necessary to increase the
number who go to college. This involves improved high school instruction,
provision for helping indi\'idual talented students to finish high school
(primarily the responsibility of the local communities), and opportunities
for more capable, promising high school students to go to college. Anything
short of this means serious waste of higher education and neglect of human
resources.

To encoiirage and enable a larger number of young tnen and women of
ability to take wp science as a career, and in order gradually to reduce the
defcit of trained scientifc personnel, it is recommended that provision be
made for a reasonable number of ia) undergraduate scholarships and gradu-
ate fellowships and (b) fellowships for advanced training and fundamental
research. The details shoidd be worked out with reference to the interests
of the several States and of the universities and colleges; and care shotdd
be taken not to impair the freedom of the institutions and individuals
concerned.

The program proposed by the Moe Committee in Appendix 4 would pro-
vide 24,000 undergraduate scholarships and 900 graduate fellowships and
would cost about $30,000,000 annually when in full operation. Each year
under this program 6,000 undergraduate scholarships would be made avail-
able to high school graduates, and 300 graduate fellowships would be offered
to college graduates. Approximately the scale of allowances provided for

26

under the educational |)ro!4iain \ov returning veterans has heen used in
estimating the cost ot this program.

The plan is, further, that all those who recei\'e such scholarships or fellow-
ships in science should be enrolled in a National Science Reserve and be
liable to call into the ser\'ice of the Government, in connection with scientific
or technical work in time ol war or other national emergency declared by
Congress or proclaimed b\ the President. Thus, in addition to the general
benefits to the Nation by reason of the addition to its trained ranks of such
a corps of scientific workers, there would be a definite benefit to the Nation
in ha\ing these scientific workers on call in national emergencies. The
Government would be well advised to invest the money involved in this
plan e\en if the benefits to the Nation were thought of solely — which they
are not — in terms of national preparedness.

27

Part Five

A PROBLEM OF SCIENTIFIC
RECONVERSION

Effects of Mobilization of Science for War

We have been living on our fat. For more than 5 years many of our
scientists have been fighting the w^ar in the laboratories, in the factories and
shops, and at the front. We have been directing the energies of our scientists
to the development of weapons and materials and methods on a large number
of relatively narrow projects initiated and controlled by the Office of Scientific
Research and Development and other Government agencies. Like troops,
the scientists have been mobilized and thrown into action to serv^e their
country in time of emergency. But thev have been diverted to a greater extend
than is generally appreciated from the search for answers to the funda-
mental problems — from the search on which human welfare and progress
depends. This is not a complaint — it is a fact. The mobilization of science
behind the lines is aiding the fighting men at the front to win the war and
to shorten it; and it has resulted incidentally in the accumulation of a vast
amount of experience and knowledge of the application of science to par-
ticular problems, much of which can be put to use when the war is over.
Fortunately, this country had the scientists — and the time — to make this
contribution and thus to advance the date of victory.

Security Restrictions Shotild be Lifted Promptly

Much of the information and experience acquired during the war is
confined to the agencies that gathered it. Except to the extent that military
security dictates otherwise, such knowledge should be spread upon the record
for the benefit of the general public.

Thanks to the wise provision of the Secretary of War and the Secretary
of the Navy, most of the results of wartime medical research have been
published. Sc\'eral hundred articles have appeared in the professional jour-
nals; many are in process of publication. The material still subject to security
classification should be released as soon as possible.

It is my view that most of the remainder of the classified scientific material
should be released as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will
not be able to turn it against us in this war. Most of the information needed
by industry and in education can be released without disclosing its embodi-

28

ments in actual militarv material and devices. Basically there is no reason
to believe that scientists of other countries will not in time rediscover every-
thing we now know which is held in secrecy. A broad dissemination of
scientific information upon which further advances can readily be made
furnishes a sounder foundation lor our national security than a policy of
restriction which would impede our own progress although imposed in the
hope that possible enemies would not catch up with us.

During the war it has been necessary for selected groups of scientists to
work on specialized problems, with relatively little information as to what
other groups were doing and had done. Working against time, the Office
of Scientific Research and Development has been obliged to enforce this
practice during the war, although it was realized by all concerned that it
was an emergency measure which prevented the continuous cross-fertilization
so essential to fruitful scientific effort.

Our ability to overcovie jwssihle future enemies defends upon scientific
advances which will proceed more rapidly with diffusion of knowledge than
under a policy of continued restriction of knowledge now in our possession.

Need for Coordination

In planning the release of scientific data and experience collected in
connection with the war, we must not overlook the fact that research has
gone forward under many auspices — the Army, the Navy, the Office of
Scientific Research and Development, the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, other departments and agencies of the Government, educational
institutions, and many industrial organizations. There ha\'e been numerous
cases of independent discovery of the same truth in different places. To
permit the release of information by one agency and to continue to restrict
it elsewhere would be unfair in its effect and would tend to impair the
morale and efficiency of scientists who have submerged individual interests
in the controls and restrictions of war.

A part of the information now classified which should be released is
possessed jointly by our allies and ourselves. Plans for release of such
information should be coordinated with our allies to minimize danger of
international friction which would result from sporadic uncontrolled release.

A Board to Control Release

The agency responsible for recommending the release of information from
military classification should be an Army, Navy, civilian body, well grounded
in science and technology. It should be competent to advise the Secretary
of War and the Secretary of the Navy. It should, moreover, have sufficient
recognition to secure prompt and practical decisions.

To satisfy these considerations I recommend the estahlishmcnt of a
Board, made up equally of scientists and military men, whose function would
he to pass upon the declassification and to control the release for puhlication
of scientific inforviation which is now classified.

29

Publication Should Be Encouraged

The release of information from security regulations is but one phase of
the problem. The other is to provide for preparation of the material and its
publication in a form and at a price which will facilitate dissemination and
use. In the case of the Office of Scientific Research and Development,
arrangements have been made for the preparation of manuscripts, while the
staffs under our control are still assembled and in possession of the records, as
soon as the pressure for production of results for this war has begun to relax.

We should get this scientific material to scientists everywhere with great
promptness, and at as low a price as is consistent with suitable format. We
should also get it to the men studving overseas so that they will know what
has happened in their absence.

It is recommended that measures which will encourage and facilitate the
■preparation and fmhlication of reports he adopted forthwith hy all agencies,
governmental and private, possessing scientific information released from
security control.

30

Part Six

THE MEANS TO THE END

New Responsibilities for Government

One lesson is clear from the reports of the several committees attached as
appendices. The Federal Go\'ernment should accept new responsibilities for
promoting the creation of new scientific knowledge and the development of
scientific talent in our vouth.

The extent and nature of these new responsibilities are set forth in detail
in the reports of the committees whose recommendations in this regard are
fullv endorsed.

In discharging these responsibilities Federal funds should be made avail-
able. We ha\'e given much thought to the question of how plans for the
use of Federal funds mav be arranged so that such funds will not drive out
of the picture funds from local governments, foundations, and private donors.
We believe that our proposals will minimize that effect, but we do not think
that it can be completely avoided. We submit, however, that the Nation's
need for more and better scientific research is such that the risk must be
accepted.

It is also clear that the effective discharge of these responsibilities will
require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose.
There should be a focal point within the Government for a concerted pro-
gram of assisting scientific research conducted outside of Government. Such
an agencv should furnish the funds needed to support basic research in the
colleges and universities, should coordinate where possible research programs
on matters of utmost importance to the national welfare, should formulate a
national policv for the Government toward science, should sponsor the inter-
change of scientific information among scientists and laboratories both in
this country and abroad, and should ensure that the incentives to research in
industry and the universities are maintained. All of the committees advising
on these matters agree on the necessitv for such an agency.

The Mechanism

There are within Government departments many groups whose interests
are primarilv those of scientific research. Notable examples are found within
the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, and the Federal Secu-
ritv Agencv. These groups are concerned with science as collateral and

31

peripheral to the major problems of those Departments. These groups should
remain where they are, and continue to perform their present functions,
including the support of agricultural research by grants to the land grant
colleges and experimental stations, since then- largest contribution lies in
apph'ing fundamental knowledge to the special problems of the Departments
within which thc\ are established.

By the same token these groups cannot be made the repository of the new
and large responsibilities in science which belong to the Government and
which the Government should accept. The recommendations in this report
which relate to research within the Go\'ernment, to the release of scientific
information, to clarification of the tax laws, and to the recovery and develop-
ment of our scientific talent now in uniform can be implemented by action
within the existing structure of the Government. But nowhere in the gov-
ernmental structure recei\'ing its funds from Congress is there an agency
adapted to supplementing the support of basic research in the universities,
both in medicine and the natural sciences; adapted to supporting research
on new weapons for both Services; or adapted to administering a program of
science scholarships and fellowships.

A new agenc\' should be established, therefore, bv the Congress for the
purpose. Such an agencv, moreover, should be an independent agency
dex'oted to the support of scientific research and advanced scientific education
alone. Industr\' learned manv vears ago that basic research cannot often be
fruitfulK' conducted as an adjunct to or a subdixision of an operating agency
or department. Operating agencies ha\e immediate operating goals and are
under constant pressure to produce in a tangible wav, for that is the test of
their value. None of these conditions is favorable to basic research. Research
is the exploration of the unknown and is necessarily speculati\e. It is in-
hibited bv con\'entional approaches, traditions, and standards. It cannot
be satisfactorily conducted in an atmosphere where it is gauged and tested
by operating or production standards. Basic scientific research should not,
therefore, be placed under an operating agency whose paramount concern
is anything other than research. Research will always suffer when put in
competition with operations. The decision that there should be a new and
independent agencx' was reached bv each of the committees advising in
these matters.

I am con\ inced that these new functions should be centered in one agency.
Science is fundamcntalK a unitary thing. The number of independent
agencies should be kept to a minimum. Much medical progress, for example,
will come from fundamental ad\'ances in chemistrw Separation of the sci-
ences in tight comjiartments, as would occur if more than one agency were
involved, would retard and not ad\'ance scientific knowledge as a whole.

Five Fiindanieiilnls

There are certain basic principles which must underlie the program of
Government supjiort for scientific research and education if such support is
to be effecti\c and if it is to a\()id impairing the \'erv things we seek to
foster. These principles are as follows:

32

(1) Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of
funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be undertaken.

(2) The agencv to administer such funds should be composed of citizens
selected only on the basis of their interest in and capacity to promote the
work of the agency. They should be persons of broad interest in and under-
standing of the peculiarities of scientific research and education.

(3) The agency should promote research through contracts or grants to
organizations outside the Federal Government. It should not operate any
laboratories of its own.

(4) Support of basic research in the public and private colleges, uni-
versities, and research institutes must leave the internal control of policy,
personnel, and the method and scope of the research to the institutions
themselves. This is of the utmost importance.

(5) While assuring complete independence and freedom for the nature,
scope, and methodology of research carried on in the institutions receiving
public funds, and while retaining discretion in the allocation of funds among
such institutions, the Foundation proposed herein must be responsible to the
President and the Congress. Only through such responsibility can we main-
tain the proper relationship between science and other aspects of a democratic
system. The usual controls of audits, reports, budgeting, and the like, should,
of course, apply to the administrative and fiscal operations of the Foundation,
subject, however, to such adjustments in procedure as are necessary to meet
the special requirements of research.

Basic research is a long-term process — it ceases to be basic if immediate
results are expected on short-term support. Methods should therefore be
found which will permit the agency to make commitments of funds from
current appropriations for programs of five years duration or longer. Conti-
nuity and stability of the program and its support may be expected (a) from
the growing realization by the Congress of the benefits to the public from
scientific research, and (1?) from the conviction which will grow among
those who conduct research under the auspices of the agency that good
quality work will be followed by continuing support.

Military Research

As stated earlier in this report, military preparedness requires a permanent,
independent, civilian-controlled organization, having close Haison with the
Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress and the clear power
to initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that
carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy. As a temporary
measure the National Academy of Sciences has established the Research
Board for National Security at the request of the Secretary of War and the
Secretarv of the Navy. This is highly desirable in order that there may be
no interruption in the relations between scientists and military men after
the emergencv wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development goes
out of existence. The C'ongress is now considering legislation to provide
funds for this Board by direct appropriation.

33

I belie^•e that, as a permanent measure, it would be appropriate to add to
the agenc\- needed to perform the other functions recommended in this
report the responsibihties for civihan-initiated and civihan-controllcd mihtary
research. The function of such a ci\iHan group would be primarily to con-
duct long-range scientific research on military problems — leaving to the
Services research on the improvement of existing weapons.

Some research on military problems should be conducted, in time of peace
as well as in war, b\ ci\ilians independently of the military establishment.
It is the primary responsibility of the /\rm\- and Na\'y to train the men, make
available the weapons, and employ the strategy that will bring victor)^ in
combat. The Armed Ser\'ices cannot be expected to be experts in all of the
complicated fields which make it possible for a great nation to fight success-
fully in total war. There are certain kinds of research — such as research on
the improvement of existing weapons — which can best be done within the
military establishment. Howexer, the job of long-range research involving
application of the newest scientific disco\'eries to military needs should be
the responsibilitx' of those cix'ilian scientists in the universities and in indus-
try who are best trained to discharge it thoroughly and successfully. It is
essential that both kinds of research go forward and that there be the closest
liaison between the two groups.

Placing the civilian military research function in the proposed agency
would bring it into close relationship with a broad program of basic research
in both the natural sciences and medicine. A balance between military' and
other research could thus readily be maintained.

The establishment of the new agency, including a civilian military re-
search group, should not be delayed by the existence of the Research Board
for National Security, which is a temporary measure. Nor should the creation
of the new agency be delayed by uncertainties in regard to the postwar
organization of our militar\' departments themselves. Clearly, the new
agency, includinp a civilian military research group within it, can remain
sufficiently flexible to adapt its operations to whatever may be the hnal
organization of the military departments.

National Research Foundation

It is m\' judgment that the national interest in scientific research and
scientific education can best be promoted by the creation of a National
Research Foundation.

I. Purposes

The National Research Foundation should develop and promote a national
policy for scientific research and scientific education, should support basic
research in nonprofit organizations, should develop scientific talent in Amer-
ican youth by means of scholarships and fellowships, and should by contract
and otherwise support long-range research on military matters.

II. Members

1. Responsibility to the people, through the President and Congress, should
be placed in the hands of, say nine Members, who should be persons not

34

otherwise eonneeted with the Government and not representative of any
special interest, who shoidd be known as National Research Foundation
Members, selected b\ the President on the basis of their interest in and
capacitv to promote the purposes of the Foundation.

2. The terms of the Members should be, say, 4 vears, and no Member
should be eligible for immediate reappointment prox'ided he has served a
full 4-vear term. It should be arranged that the Members first appointed
ser\'e terms of such length that at least two Members are appointed each
succeeding year.

3. The Members should serve without compensation but should be en-
titled to their expenses incurred in the performance of their duties.

4. The Members should elect their own chairman annually.

5. The chief executive oflicer of the Foundation should be a director
appointed by the Members. Subject to the direction and supervision of the
Foundation Members (acting as a board), the director should discharge all
the fiscal, legal, and administrative functions of the Foundation. The direc-
tor should receive a salary that is fully adequate to attract an outstanding
man to the post.

6. There should be an administrative office responsible to the director to
handle in one place the fiscal, legal, personnel, and other similar admin-
istrative functions necessary to the accomplishment of the purposes of the
Foundation.

7. With the exception of the director, the division members, and one
executive ofiicer appointed by the director to administer the affairs of each
division, all employees of the Foundation should be appointed under Civil
Service rcpulations.

"is"

III. Ormnization

1. In order to accomplish the purposes of the Foundation, the Members
should establish several professional Divisions to be responsible to the Mem-
bers. At the outset these Divisions should be:

a. Division of Medical Research. — The function of this Division should

be to support medical research.
h. Division of Natural Sciences. — The function of this Division should

be to support research in the physical and natural sciences.

c. Division of National Defense. — It should be the function of this Divi-
sion to support long-range scientific research on military matters.

d. Division of Scientific Personnel and Education. — It should be the func-
tion of this Division to support and to supervise the grant of scholar-
ships and fellowships in science.

e. Division of Pid?lications and Scientific Collaboration. — This Division
should be charged with encouraging the publication of scientific knowl-
edge and promoting international exchange of scientific information.

2. Each Division of the Foundation should be made up of at least five
members, appointed by the Members of the Foundation. In making such
appointments the Members should request and consider recommendations
from the National Academy of Sciences which should be asked to establish
a new National Research Foundation nominating committee in order to

35

bring together the recommendations of scientists in all organizations. The
chairman of each Division should be appointed by the Members of the
Foundation.

3. The Division Members should be appointed for such terms as the
Members of the Foundation may determine, and may be reappointed at the
discretion of the Members. They should receive their expenses and com-
pensation for their services at a per diem rate of, say, $50 while engaged on
business of the Foundation, but no Division Member should receive more
than, say, $10,000 compensation per year.

4. Membership of the Division of National Defense should include, in
addition to, say, five civilian members, one representative designated by the
Secretary of War, and one representative of the Secretary of the Navy, who
should serve without additional compensation for this duty.

Proposed Organization of National Research Foundation

NATIONAL RESEARCH
FOUNDATION

MEMBERS

DIRECTOR

DIVISION OF
MEDICAL RESEARCH

MEMBERS

EXECUTIVE OFFICER

STAFF OFFICES

GENERAL COUNSEL
FINANCE OFFICER
ADMINISTRATIVE PLANNING
PERSONNEL

DIVISION OF
NATURAL SCIENCES

MEMBERS

EXECUTIVE OFFICER

DIVISION OF SCIENTIFIC
PERSONNEL & EDUCATION

MEMBERS

DIVISION OF
NATIONAL DEFENSE

MEMBERS

EXECUTIVE OFFICER

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS
& SCIENTIFIC COLLABORATION

MEMBERS

EXECUTIVE OFFICER

EXECUTIVE OFFICER

36

IV. Functions

1. The Mevihers of the Foundation should have the following functions,
powers, and duties:

a. To formulate over-all policies of the Foundation.

h. To establish and maintain such offices within the United States, its
territories and possessions, as they may deem necessary.

c. To meet and function at any place within the United States, its terri-
tories and possessions.

d. To obtain and utilize the services of other Government agencies to the
extent that such agencies are prepared to render such services.

e. To adopt, promulgate, amend, and rescind rules and regulations to
carrv out the provisions of the legislation and the policies and practices
of the Foundation.

f. To review and balance the financial requirements of the several Divi-
sions and to propose to the President the annual estimate for the funds
required by each Division. Appropriations should be earmarked for
the purposes of specific Divisions, but the Foundation should be left
discretion with respect to the expenditure of each Division's funds.

g. To make contracts or grants for the conduct of research by negotiation
without advertising for bids.

And with the advice of the National Research Foundation Divisions
concerned —

h. To create such advisory and cooperating agencies and councils, State,
regional, or national, as in their judgment will aid in effectuating the
purposes of the legislation, and to pay the expenses thereof.

i. To enter into contracts with or make grants to educational and non-
profit research institutions for support of scientific research.

j. To initiate and finance in appropriate agencies, institutions, or organi-
zations, research on problems related to the national defense.

k. To initiate and finance in appropriate organizations research projects
for which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate.

/. To establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences includ-
ing biology and medicine.

m. To promote the dissemination of scientific and technical information
and to further its international exchange.

n. To support international cooperation in science by providing financial
aid for international meetings, associations of scientific societies, and
scientific research programs organized on an international basis.

o. To devise and promote the use of methods of improving the transition
between research and its practical application in industi'y.

2. The Divisions should he responsible to the Members of the Founda-
tion for —

a. Formulation of programs and policy within the scope of the particular

Divisions.
h. Recommendation regarding the allocation of research programs among

research organizations.

37

c. Recommendation of appropriate arrangements between the Foundation
and the organizations selected to carry on the program.

d. Recommendation of arrangements with State and local authorities in
regard to cooperation in a program of science scholarships and fellow-
ships.

e. Periodic review of the quality of research being conducted under the
auspices of the particular Division and revision of the program of sup-
port of research.

/. Presentatidn of budgets of financial needs for the work of the Division.
g. Maintaining liaison with other scientific research agencies, both gov-
ernmental and private, concerned with the work of the Division.

V. Patent Policy

The success of the National Research Foundation in promoting scientific
research in this country will depend to a very large degree upon the coop-
eration of organizations outside the Government. In making contracts with
or grants to such organizations the Foundation should protect the public
interest adequately and at the same time leave the cooperating organizations
with adequate freedom and incentive to conduct scientific research. The
public interest will normally be adequately protected if the Government
receives a royaltv-free license for governmental purposes under any patents
resulting from work financed by the Foundation. There should be no obli-
gation on the research institution to patent discoveries made as a result of
support from the Foundation. There should certainly not be anv absolute
requirement that all rights in such discoveries be assigned to the Government,
but it should be left to the discretion of the Director and the interested Divi-
sion whether in special cases the public interest requires such an assignment.
Legislation on this point should leave to the Members of the Foundation
discretion as to its patent policv in order that patent arrangements mav be
adjusted as circumstances and the public interest require.

VI. Special Authority

In order to insure that men of great competence and experience may be
designated as Members of the Foundation and as Members of the several
professional Divisions, the legislation creating the Foundation should contain
specific authorization so that the Members of the Foundation and the Mem-
bers of the Divisions may also engage in private and gainful employment,
notwithstanding the provisions of anv other laws: provided, however, that
no compensation for such employment is received in any form from any
profit-making institution which receives funds under contract, or otherwise,
from the Division or Divisions of the Foundation with which the individual
is concerned. In normal times, in view of the restrictive statutory prohibi-
tions against dual interests on the part of Government officials, it would be
virtually impossible to persuade persons having private employment of any
kind to serve the Government in an official capacity. In order, however, to
secure the part-time services of the most competent men as Members of the
Foundation and the Divisions, these stringent prohibitions should be relaxed
to the extent indicated.

Since research is unlike the procurement of standardized items, which are

38

susceptible to competitive bidding on fixed specifications, the legislation
creating the National Research Foundation should free the Foundation from
the obligation to place its contracts for research through advertising for bids.
This is particularK' so since the measure of a successful research contract lies
not in the dollar cost but in the qualitative and quantitative contribution
which is made to our knowledge. The extent of this contribution in turn
depends on the creative spirit and talent which can be brought to bear within
a research laboratory. The National Research Foundation must, therefore,
be free to place its research contracts or grants not only with those institu-
tions which have a demonstrated research capacity but also with other insti-
tutions whose latent talent or creative atmosphere affords promise of research
success.

As in the case of the research sponsored during the war by the Ofhce of
Scientific Research and Development, the research sponsored by the National
Research Foundation should be conducted, in general, on an actual cost
basis without profit to the institution receiving the research contract or grant.

There is one other matter which requires special mention. Since research
does not fall within the category of normal commercial or procurement
operations which are easily covered by the usual contractual relations, it is
essential that certain statutory and regulatory fiscal requirements be waived
in the case of research contractors. For example, the National Research
Foundation should be authorized by legislation to make, modify, or amend
contracts of all kinds with or without legal consideration, and without per-
formance bonds. Similarlv, advance payments should be allowed in the
discretion of the Director of the Foundation when required. Finally, the
normal vouchering requirements of the General Accounting Office with
respect to detailed itemization or substantiation of vouchers submitted under
cost contracts should be relaxed for research contractors. Adherence to the
usual procedures in the case of research contracts will impair the efficiency
of research operations and will needlesslv increase the cost of the work to
the Government. Without the broad authority along these lines which was
contained in the First War Powers Act and its implementing Executive
Orders, together with the special relaxation of vouchering requirements
granted by the General Accounting Office, the Office of Scientific Research
and Development would have been gravely handicapped in carr)nng on
research on military matters during this war. Colleges and universities in
which research will be conducted principally under contract with the
Foundation are, unlike commercial institutions, not equipped to handle the
detailed vouchering procedures and auditing technicalities which are re-
quired of the usual Government contractors.

VIL Budget

Studies by the several committees provide a partial basis for making an
estimate of the order of magnitude of the funds required to implement the
proposed program. Clearly the program should grow in a healthy manner
from modest beginnings. The following very rough estimates are given for
the first year of operation after the Foundation is organized and operating,
and for the fifth year of operation when it is expected that the operations
would have reached a fairlv stable level:

39

Activity

Millions of dollars

First year

Fifth year

Division of Medical Research ._ _ _

$5.0
10.0
10.0

7.0
.5

1.0

$20.0

Division of Natural Sciences

Division of National Defense

50.0
20.0

Division of Scientific Personnel and Education

29.0

Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration

Administration . . . _ _ _ .

1.0
2.5

33.5

122.5

Action by Congress

The National Research Foundation herein proposed meets the urgent
need of the davs ahead. The form of the organization suggested is the result
of considerable deliberation. The form is important. The very successful
pattern of organization of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
which has promoted basic research on problems of flight during the past
thirty years, has been carefully considered in proposing the method of
appointment of iMembers of the Foundation and in defining their respon-
sibilities. Moreover, whate\'er program is established it is vitally important
that it satisf\' the Fi\'e Fundamentals.

The Foundation here proposed has been described only in outline. The
excellent reports of the committees which studied these matters are attached
as appendices. They will be of aid in furnishing detailed suggestions.

Legislation is necessar\-. It should be drafted with great care. Early action
is imperative, hovyever, if this Nation is to meet the challenge of science and
fully utilize the potentialities of science. On the wisdom with which we
bring science to bear against the problems of the coming years depends in
large measure our future as a Nation.

40

APPENDICES

41

IN MEMORIAM

The following members of the
advisory committees have died
since the publication of Science,
the Endless Frontier in 1945:
Isaiah Bowman
Walter C. Coffey
Karl T. Compton
r. e. doherty
Clarence A. Dykstra
Farnham p. Griffiths
W. S. Hunter
W. Rupert Maclaurin
Charles E. MacQuigg
Cleveland Norcross
J. Hugh ODonnell
W. W. Palmer
J. T. Tate
Kenneth B. Turner

42

Appendix 1

Committees Consulted

Question

"With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what
can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the
work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?"

Committee

Dr. W. W. Palmer, chairman; Bard professor of medicine, Columbia Uni-
versity; director of medical service of Presb\'terian Hospital, New York
City.'

Dr. Homer VV. Smith, secretary; director, physiology laboratory, School of
Medicine, New York University.

Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary; assistant professor of medicine,
Columbia University.

Dr. VV. B. Castle, professor of medicine, Harvard Unixersitv; associate di-
rector, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City Hospital.

Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and biochemistry,
St. Louis Llniversity School of Medicine (recipient of Nobel Award).

Dr. Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology. School of Medicine, Van-
derbilt Unix'ersitv.

Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department of
surgery at Tulane LIni\'ersity School of Medicine.

Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical engineer-
ing and director of the chemical laboratories at the California Institute of
Technology.

Dr. James |. Waring, professor of medicine, Llniversity of Colorado School
of Medicine.

43

Question

"What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research
activities bv pubhc and private organizations? The proper roles of public
and of pri\ate research, and their interrelation, should be carefully
considered. '

Committee

Dr. Isaiah Bowman, chairman; president of Johns Hopkins University.

Dr. J. T. Tate, vice chairman; research professor of physics, University of
Minnesota.

Dr. W. Rupert Maclaurin, secretarv; professor of economics, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.

Dr. 01i\er E. Bucklev, president of the Bell Telephone Laboratories.

Dr. Weaker C. Coffev, president of the Uni\ersitv of Minnesota.

Mr. Oscar S. Cox, deputy administrator of the Foreign Economic Admin-
istration.

Col. Bradlev Dewev, president of Dewey & Almv Chemical Co.

Dr. Clarence A. Dvkstra, prox'ost of the Uni\'ersitv of California at Los
Angeles.

Dr. C. P. Haskins, director of Haskins Laboratories.

Dr. Edwin H. Land, president and director of research, Polaroid Corpora-
tion.

Dr. Charles E. MacOuigg, dean of the College of Engineering, Ohio State
Uni\'ersitv.

Dr. Harold G. Moulton, president of the Brookings Institution.

Re\'. ]. Hugh O'Donnell, president of the LIni\ersit\' of Notre Dame.

Dr. I. I. Rabi, professor of phvsics, Columbia Uni\'ersit^' (recipient of Nobel
Award).

Dr. Warren Wea\'er, director for natural sciences. Rockefeller Foundation.

Dr. Robert E. Wilson, chairman of the board, Standard Oil Co. of Indiana.

Dr. William E. \\^-ather, director, LI. S. Geological Survev.

Question

"Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing
scientific talent in American vouth so that the continuing future of scien-
tific research in this country mav be assured on a le\'el comparable to what
has been done during the war? '

Committee

Dr. Henr\' Allen Moe, chairman; secretar\'-general of the John Simon Gug-
genheim Memorial Foundation.

Mr. Lawrence K. Frank, secretary.

Mr. Henrv Chauncev, assistant secretarv.

Dr. Henr\' A. Barton, director of the American Institute of Phvsics.

Dr. C. Lalor Burdick, special assistant to the president, E. I. du Pont de
Nemours & Co.

Co]itinHL>d, next pngf

44

Dr. J. B. Conant, president of Harvard University; chairman of the National

Defense Research Committee.
Dr. Watson Davis, editor and director of Science Service.
Dr. R. E. Dohertv, president of the Carnegie Institute of Technology.
Dr. Paul E. Elicker, executive secretary, National Association of Secondary

School Principals.
Mr. Farnham P. Griffiths, lawyer, San Francisco.
Dr. W. S. Hunter, professor of psychology at Brown University.
Dr. T. R. McConnell, dean of the College of Science, Literature, and Arts

at the Universitv of Minnesota.
Mr. Walter S. Rogers, director of the Institute of Current World Affairs.
Dr. Harlow Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory.
Dr. Hugh S. Taylor, dean of the Graduate School, Princeton University.
Dr. E. B. Wilson, professor of vital statistics. Harvard Universitv School of

Public Health.

Question

"What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the prior
approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as soon as
possible the contributions which have been made during our war eflfort to
scientific knowledge"?"

Committee

Dr. lr\'in Stewart, chairman; executive secretary of the Office of Scientific
Research and Development; director of the Committee on Scientific Aids
to Learning of the National Research Council.

Mr. Cleveland Norcross, secretary; executive assistant to the executive sec-
retary of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.

Dr. 1. P. Baxter III, president of Williams College; historian of the Office
of Scientific Research and Development.

Dr. Karl T. Compton, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology; chairman of the Research Board for National Security; member
of the National Defense Research Committee.

Dr. 1. B. Conant, president of Harvard University; chairman of the National
Defense Research Committee.

Dr. A. N. Richards, vice president of the University of Pennsylvania in
charge of Medical Affairs; chairman of the Committee on Medical Re-
search of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.

Dr. M. A. Tuve, director, applied physics laboratory, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versitv; staff member of the department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Mr. Carroll L. Wilson, executive assistant to the Director of the Office of
Scientific Research and Development.

45

Appendix 2

Report of tlie Medical
Advisory Coramlttee

Table of Contents

Page

Letter of transmittal 47

Members of the Committee — 48

Summary 49

Recommendations 51

Part I. Considerations on which the recommendations of the Committee are

based 52

1. The record of medicine in World War II 52

2. The Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research

and Development 53

3. Effect of war on medical research 54

4. The need for continued medical research 54

5. Importance of fundamental research to the progress of medicine 55

6. The place of medical schools and universities in medical research 56

7. Medical research under State sponsorship in Great Britain 56

8. The need for Federal aid to medical research 57

9. How financial aid should be supplied 58

10. Estimated cost of program 60

11. The need for an independent agency 60

12. Compensation 61

13. Patent rights 61

Part II. Fundamental principles governing the use of Federal funds for medical

research 62

Part III. Recorrunendations outlining the establishment of a "National Founda-
tion for Medical Research" as an independent Federal agency 64

1. Composition of the Foundation 64

Board of trustees 64

Technical board 65

Office of the executive secretary 66

2. Functions of the Foundation 66

Financial aid 67

a. General research funds 67

b. Fellowships 67

c. Grants-in-aid 68

Coordination and initiation of research 68

3. Reports 68

4. Authority to modify procedure -— 69

46

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Dr. Vannevar Bush, Director,

Office of Scientific Research and Developinent,

1530 P Street NW., Washington 25, D. C.

My Dear Dr. Bush:

It is my privilege to submit herewith the report of the Medical Advisory
Committee appointed by you in January of this year to answer the second
question in President Roosevelt's letter of November 17, 1944, which was
worded :

With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done
now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work which has been done
in medicine and related sciences? The fact that the annual deaths in this country from
one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in
battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe future generations.

In preparing this report, the Committee has consulted some 350 repre-
sentatives from 73 of the 77 medical schools of the United States, from the
Services, from various research institutions, from the pharmaceutical indus-
trv, and from philanthropic foundations; it has conferred in joint meeting
with the Committee on Medical Research; and it has received written com-
ment and advice from many leaders in medicine and allied sciences through-
out the country.

The report, which is preceded by a summarv, is in three parts: (1) Con-
siderations on which the recommendations of the Committee are based, (2)
fundamental principles governing the use of Federal funds for medical re-
search, (3) recommendations outlining the establishment of a National
Foundation for Medical Research as an independent Federal agency.

The Committee recognizes a great and urgent need for the expansion and
renovation of medical school laboratories. However, our study has taken no
account of this requirement, pertinent as it is to medical research, since a
building program was considered outside the scope of our assignment.

This report has the unanimous approval of mv Committee and I submit
it with the conviction that it has, almost without exception, the endorsement
of the manv individuals to whom the Committee is so deeplv indebted for
freely gi\'en and \aluable ad\ice.

Respectfully vours,

Walter W. Palmer, Chairman,

Medical Advisory Committee.

April 25, 1945.

47

MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE

Dr. Walter W. Palmer, chairman, Bard professor of medicine, Columbia
University; director of medical service of the Presbyterian Hospital, New
York City.

Dr. Homer W. Smith, secretary, director, physiology laboratory. School of
Medicine, New York University.

Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary, assistant professor of medicine,
Columbia University.

Dr. William B. Castle, professor of medicine. Harvard University; associate
director, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City Hospital.

Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and biochemistry,
St. Louis University School of Medicine (recipient of Nobel Award).

Dr. Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology. School of Medicine, Van-
derbilt University.

Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department of
surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine.

Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical engineer-
ing, director of the chemical laboratories at the California Institute of
Technology.

Dr. James J. Waring, professor of medicine, Uni\'ersity of Colorado School
of Medicine.

48

SUMMARY

Impressed by the contributions medicine has made in the present world
struggle, President Roosevelt asked what could be done by the Government
in the future to aid "the war of science against disease."

Recognition of the brilliant record of medicine in World War II has
brought comfort to thousands of families with members in the armed forces.
Compared to World War I the death rate for all diseases in the Army, includ-
ing overseas forces, has fallen from 14.1 to 0.6 per 1,000 strength. Penicillin
and the sulfonamides, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved
hygienic measures have all but conquered yellow fever, dysentery, typhus,
tetanus, pneumonia, meningitis. Malaria has been controlled. Disability
from venereal disease has been radically reduced by new methods of treat-
ment. Dramatic progress in surgery has been aided by the increased avail-
ability of blood and plasma for transfusions.

Much of the credit for these advances is properly assignable to the Com-
mittee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research and Devel-
opment. In 3 years this organization has developed penicillin and DDT;
supported blood fractionation studies resulting in serum albumin as a blood
substitute and immune globulin as a new countermeasure against infections;
and standardized the effective treatment of malaria with atabrine now used
by the armed forces. Up to July 1944, this program had cost $15,000,000,
a modest outlay for the saving in suffering and lives.

These dramatic advances in medicine during the war have been the result
of developmental rather than fundamental research, and have come through
the application, to problems of wartime importance, of a large backlog of
scientific data accumulated through careful research in the years prior to
the war.

In the meantime, sorely needed additions to- basic knowledge have been
prevented. The war has forced us to set aside fundamental research to a
large extent. Our capacity to carry out research in the future has been
impaired bv the curtailment of medical education, the absorption of physi-
cians into the armed forces, the prohibition against training draft-eligible
men in the basic medical sciences, and the diversion into developmental
problems of those scientists who were able to remain in their laboratories.

The universities are the chief contributors to pure science, for research
thrives best in an atmosphere of academic freedom. It is to the universities

49

that we must turn to train more men for research and to provide the infor-
mation that will enable us to solve the problems of cancer, degenerative
disease and the ageing process, neuropsychiatric disorders, peptic ulcer,
asthma, and e\'en the common cold.

Universitv funds that can be used for medical research are decreasing as
research costs rise. Income from endowment is steadily shrinking, while
endowment itself is no longer being increased bv large new gifts. Medical
schools must continue to meet relativelv fixed expenses of teaching and
overhead from smaller budgets, with the result that less money is left for
research.

Medical research will continue in the future, regardless of any adverse
circumstances. The Go\'ernment, however, has an opportunity to play an
important role in supplementing the depleted research budgets of medical
schools. Federal aid will increase the volume of medical research; it will
strengthen the promise of important discoverv and speed its fulfillment; it
will encourage and develop the financiallv weaker schools now at a serious
disad\'antage; and it will enable the United States to maintain its position
of world leadership in medical research in competition with the nations of
Europe where State funds have long been available for scientific research.
When a government wiselv invests the people's monev in medical research,
the people receive huge dividends in the form of better health and longer
lives.

If Federal funds are to be used to aid medical research, they should be
provided in three forms:

1. Funds should be made available as unrestricted grants, with no portion
earmarked for a specific purpose, to supplv technical help and materials; to
enable a limited number of voung people to obtain research experience
during their regular course in medicine; to build up research in institutions
where, for financial reasons, it is not now well-developed; and to cover a
multitude oF research requirements within each institution. The admin-
istration of these funds should be decentralized to the fullest possible extent,
allowing full plav to the wisdom and experience of medical school faculties
and administrators. If a central agency were to attempt to underwrite a
program of this sort item by item, the costs of administration would be pro-
hibitive, and the organization would be too rigid and ponderous to meet the
numerous, diverse, and sometimes rapidly varying needs of the institutions.

2. Funds should be made available to support fellowships in order that
young people with aptitude for research mav be selected, trained, and given
an opportunity to carry on research.

3. Funds should be made available to support special projects of consid-
erable magnitude and importance bv grants-in-aid.

The Federal agency should receive its funds by such means as to permit
it to fa\'or long term grants, up to 10 years.

Federal aid should be initiated modestly. Funds exceeding the capacity
of the Nation's research institutions to utilize them effectively would do
harm bv encouraging mediocre work and by driving away unix'crsitv and
foundation support. The responsible agency must remain free from political
influence and resistant to special pressures. Its policies must be determined

50

by scientists who bring sympathetic understanding to the problems of
research. The agency must have the necessary flexibility to modify its
procedures in the light of experience.

From available information it is estimated that approximately 5 to 7
million dollars annually could be used effectively in the immediate postwar
period. As the research program develops a larger sum may be required.

Recommendations

The Committee recommends that Government aid be provided for medi-
cal research through the creation of an independent Federal agency to be
called the National Foundation for Medical Research. The Foundation
would consist of a board of trustees, a technical board, and the necessary
administrative organization.

The board of trustees would consist of five eminent scientists appointed
by the President with the approval of the Senate for terms of 5 years, and
in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the retirement of one member
each year. The trustees would serve on a part-time basis, be paid for their
work, and be appointed without regard to civil-service laws. Meetings of
the trustees would be held monthly with one meeting annually in each of
six geographical regions. The trustees would determine the policies of the
Foundation and act on all requests for funds.

The technical board would consist of 12 scientists, representing special
fields of medical science, appointed by the trustees for terms of 3 years, and
in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the retirement of 4 members
each year. Technical board members would serve on a part-time basis, be
paid for their work, and be appointed without regard to the civil-service
laws. Members of the technical board would have the necessary aides and
ad hoc committees to assist them in the performance of their duties. The
technical board would forward all requests for funds to the trustees with
recommendations for appropriate action, follow the progress of work sup-
ported by the Foundation, and prepare reports or appraisals requested by
the trustees.

The financial and other business affairs of the Foundation would be in
charge of a full-time executive secretary responsible to the trustees.

The Foundation would not engage in research but would initiate and
coordinate research in existing institutions and maintain liaison with inter-
ested domestic and foreign agencies.

51

Part One

Considerations on which the Recommendations of the Committee are Based

1. The Record of Medicine in
World War II

We believe that at no time has su-
perior medical and surgical care been
a\'ailable to the public generally than
is now recei\ed by our armed forces
even in the most remote parts of the
world. Public knowledge of the ex-
cellence of this care has brought com-
fort to thousands of anxious families
and has strengthened the morale of
our fighting men.

The magnificent records of the
medical departments of the Arm\' and
Navy are directly attributable to two
factors: (1) The training men re-
cei\'ed before the war in American
medical schools and teaching hospi-
tals was the best in the world, and,
when war came, large reserves of
superbly trained physicians and sur-
geons were available for the armed
forces. (2) Medical progress had
been rapid before the war and was
continued at an accelerated rate dur-
ing the war under the stimulus of
the Committee on Medical Research
and the Army Epidemiologv Board.

The results are spectacular. Be-
tween World War I and World War
II, the death rate for all diseases in
the Army, including overseas forces,
has been reduced from 14.1 to 0.6
per 1,000 strength. Dysentery, for-
merly the scourge of armies, has be-
come a minor problem. Tetanus,
typhoid, paratyphoid, cholera, and
smallpox have been practicallv elimi-
nated. As a result of a potent vaccine

52

and impro\'ed mosquito control, yel-
low fever has not appeared in the
Armv or Navy. The prompt arrest
of the Naples epidemic of typhus
by means of the insecticide DDT is
a dramatic example of preventive
medicine.

The use of the sulfa drugs has
lowered the death rate from lobar
pneumonia in the Armv from 24 per-
cent in World War I to less than 1
percent at present. The death rate
from meningitis has been reduced
to one-tenth of that in World War I.
Penicillin is one of the great tri-
umphs of modern therapeutics. By
its use death rates and disability from
infections due to the staphylococcus,
streptococcus, pneumococcus, and an-
thrax bacillus have been greatly re-
duced. It has also proved to be a
most effective weapon in limiting
mfection and in accelerating healing
of wounds and burns. As a result
of treatment with penicillin the days
per man per year lost from active
duty in 1944 because of venereal dis-
ease were one-third of those for 1940.
The temporary disabling complica-
tions of gonorrhea have been cut in
this period to one twenty-fourth.

Ad\'ances in surgery have been
scarcely less dramatic. Despite dev-
astating antipersonnel munitions, the
fatality rate among the wounded has
been as low as in any war in history.
Prolonged and difficult operations are
performed successfully in field hos-
pitals close to the front. Surgical
skill has been aided by the avail-

ability of large quantities of plasma
and whole blood for the treatment of
severely wounded men.

2. The Committee on Medical
Research of the Office of Scien-
tific Research and Development

In the summer of 1940, the advice
of the Di\'ision of Medical Sciences
of the National Research Council
was sought by the Surgeons General
in many fields of medicine and sur-
pery. Ultimately 13 committees and
43 subcommittees were set up in avi-
ation medicine, chemotherapy, con-
valescence and rehabilitation, drugs
and medical supplies, industrial medi-
cine, medicine including malarial
studies, infectious diseases, nutrition,
tropical disease, tuberculosis, venereal
diseases, etc., neuropsychiatry, path-
ology, sanitary engineering, shock
and transfusion, surgery, and the
treatment of gas casualties.

In June 1941, the Committee on
Medical Research was organized un-
der the Office of Scientific Research
and Development, to "initiate and
support scientific research on medical
problems affecting the national de-
fense." The existing committees of
the National Research Council acted
in an advisory capacity to the new
organization.

As of December 1, 1944, 496 re-
search contracts had been executed
by the Committee on Medical Re-
search with 120 different institutions.
Over 95 percent of these contracts
were with universities or teaching
hospitals. The personnel represented
in this work numbered about 2,670,
of whom 553 were physicians. These
investigators have studied dysentery,
bubonic plague, cholera, gas gan-
grene, influenza, tuberculosis, hemo-
lytic streptococcal disease, encepha-
litis, primary atypical pneumonia,

airborne infections, venereal diseases,
infected wounds, burns, neurosur-
gery. X-rays, surgical sutures, shock,
blood substitutes, treatment of gas
casualties, convalescence and reha-
bilitation, insect and rodent control,
antimalarial drugs, and the develop-
ment and use of penicillin.

Among the most conspicuous
achievements of this program are
the following:

a. The acquisition, in civilian hos-
pitals and laboratories, of suffi-
cient knowledge of the thera-
peutic value of penicillin to
warrant its official adoption by
the medical divisions of the
Army and Navy and to provide
the impetus for the great pro-
duction program that has made
this remarkable drug available
in large quantities for both mili-
tary and civilian use.

h. Developments in insect repel-
lents and insecticides, particu-
larly DDT, important in guard-
ing troops against insect-borne
diseases such as typhus and
malaria.

c. The study of human blood
plasma which has led to use by
the armed forces of serum al-
bumin as a blood substitute, of
immune globulins to combat in-
fections, and of fibrin foam to
stop bleeding.

d. The improvement and stand-
ardization of the treatment of
malaria by atabrine.

e. The determination of the rela-
tive usefulness of sulfonamide
drugs in the treatment of
wounds and burns.

f. The physiological indoctrination
of our airmen and the develop-
ment of devices which enable
them to endure the rigors of

53

high altitudes without disastrous
loss of fighting capacity or life.

It is fair to say that without the
Office of Scientific Research and De-
\'elopment or its equivalent few or
none of the investigations listed above
would have been carried out with the
same speed and thoroughness. This
research program to June 30, 1944,
had cost over $15,000,000. Private
funds were not available to finance
this work.

3. Effect of War on Medical
Research

Despite this imposing record of
practical achievement, the war has
seriously retarded the long-range de-
velopment of medicine in ways per-
haps not immediately apparent to
the uninformed, but nevertheless
with effects that will be longlasting.
Because those physicians and scien-
tists who have remained in their
laboratories have, for patriotic rea-
sons, devoted themselves to special
problems raised by the exigencies of
war, essential fundamental research
has decreased to an extent which can
only be viewed with grave concern.

Our hospitals and medical schools
have suffered serious depletions of
staff in order to supply the armed
forces with needed physicians. Medi-
cal education has been hurried and
impaired by the accelerated program,
and the advanced training of young
men has been in practically complete
abeyance throughout the war. This
diversion of physicians, coupled with
an effective prohibition against gradu-
ate training in the ancillary sciences
has left the fields of medical science
barren and without the seed to pro-
duce a new generation of investi-
gators. It will be many years before
medicine fully recovers.

4. The Need for Continued
Medical Research

It must be emphasized that nearly
all that was good or apparently new
in war medicine had its roots in
civilian medicine. The pressure of
war served chiefly to accelerate the
development and large scale applica-
tion to military needs of previously
known facts. Medicine must consider
now how to attack the medical prob-
lems of peace.

As President Roosevelt noted, the
annual deaths in this country from
one or two diseases alone are far in
excess of the total number of lives
lost by us in battle. This is true even
though notable progress has been
made in civilian medicine during the
past three decades. Diabetes has been
brought under control by the dis-
covery of insulin; pernicious anemia
by the use of liver therapy; and the
once widespread deficiency diseases
hav^e been almost eradicated, even in
the poorest income groups, by the
discovery of accessory food factors
and the improvement of the diet.
Notable advances have been made
in the early diagnosis of cancer, and
in the surgical and radiation treat-
ment of this dreaded disease.

In the period of 1900 to 1942, the
average life expectancy of the Ameri-
can people increased from 49 to 65
years, largely as a result of the re-
duction in the death rates of infants
and children. In the last two decades,
the death rate from diseases of child-
hood has been reduced 87 percent.
Deaths from scarlet fever have been
reduced 92 percent, from whooping
cough 74 percent, and from measles
91 percent. The death rate from diph-
theria among children (5 to 14) is
only one eighteenth what it was two
decades ago. Only one-fourth as
many children die today from tuber-

54

culosis and pneumonia as would if
the mortality rate of 20 years ago
still preyailed. The death rate among
children between the ages of 5 and
14 from all causes combined was cut
57 percent between 1922 and 1942.
For eyery three children who die
under current conditions, more than
seyen would haye died if the death
rate of two decades ago had continued.
This reduction in the death rate in
childhood has shifted the emphasis
in medicine to the middle- and old-
age groups, and particularly to the
malignant diseases and the degenera-
tiye processes which are prominent in
the later decades of life. Cardioyas-
cular disease, including chronic dis-
ease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis,
and cerebral hemorrhage, now ac-
counts for 45 percent of the deaths
in the United States. Second in im-
portance are the infectious diseases,
and third is cancer. Added to these
are many maladies (for example, the
common cold, arthritis, asthma and
hay feyer, peptic ulcer) which,
though infrequently fatal, cause in-
calculable disability.

Another aspect of the changing
emphasis in clinical medicine is the
increasing incidence of mental dis-
ease. Approximately 7,000,000 per-
sons in the United States are men-
tally ill. More than one-third of the
hospital beds in this country are filled
with such persons at a cost of $175,-
000,000 annually. Each year nearly
125,000 mentally ill new patients are
hospitalized.

In short, despite notable progress
in prolonging the span of human
life and in alleyiating suffering, ade-
quate methods of preyention and
cure are not yet ayailable for many
diseases. Additional hospitals, physi-
cians, and mechanisms for dispersing
knowledge, howeyer useful, cannot

su])ply a complete solution. We sim-
ply do not know enough, and in-
creased facilities for medical care will
not supply the missing answers. The
basic task faced by medicine is con-
tinued exploration of the human
organism and the nature of disease.
This exploration has only begun.

5. Importance of Fundamental
Research to the Progress of
Medicine

Research in medicine may be car-
ried out eflfectiyely in two ways:
First, by a coordinated attack on a
particular disease; or second, by inde-
pendent studies of the fundamental
nature of the human body and its
physiological mechanisms, of the
nature of bacteria, yiruses, and other
agents of disease, and of the influence
of enyironment on both. An example
of the first method is the attack on
malaria carried out under the Army,
Nayy, Public Health Seryice, the
National Research Council, and the
Office of Scientific Research and De-
yelopment. The discoyery of peni-
cillin is an example of the second
method: Fleming noted that a com-
mon mold, Penicilliuvi notatum, in-
hibited the growth of a culture of
bacteria in which it appeared as a
contaminant. Thus an incidental ob-
servation in the course of studies un-
related to chemotherapy furnished
the basis for the ultimate deyelop-
ment of the most valuable chemo-
therapeutic agent known.

Discoveries in medicine have often
come from the most remote and un-
expected fields of science in the past;
and it is probable that this will be
equally true in the future. It is not
unlikely that significant progress in
the treatment of cardiovascular dis-
ease, kidney disease, cancer, and other

55

refractory conditions will be made,
perhaps unexpectedly, iis the result
of fundamental discoveries in fields
unrelated to these diseases.

To discover is to "obtain for the
first time sight or knowledge of some
fact or principle hitherto unknown."
Discovery cannot be achieved by di-
rective. Further progress requires that
the entire field of medicine and the
underlying sciences of chemistry,
physics, anatomy, biochemistry, physi-
ology, pharmacology, bacteriology,
pathology, parasitology, etc., be de-
veloped impartially.

6. The Place of Medical Schools
and Universities in Medical
Research

The medical schools and universi-
ties of this country can contribute to
medical progress by carrying on re-
search to the limit of available facili-
ties and personnel, and by training
competent investigators for an en-
larged program in the future.

In some cases coordinated direct
attacks will be made on special prob-
lems by teams of investigators from
the medical schools, supplementing
similar direct attacks carried on by
the Army, Navy, Public Health Serv-
ice, and other organizations. How-
ever, the main obligation of the
medical schools and universities, in
addition to teaching, will be to con-
tinue the traditional function of these
institutions — that of providing the in-
dividual worker with an opportunity
for the voluntary and untrammeled
study in the directions and by the
methods suggested by his imagination
and curiosity. The entire history of
science bears testimony to the su-
preme importance of affording the
prepared mind complete freedom for
the exercise of initiative. The special

duty and privilege of the medical
schools and universities is to foster
medical research in this way, and this
duty cannot be shifted to Govern-
ment agencies, industrial organiza-
tions, or any other institutions.

Because of their close relationship
to teaching hospitals, the medical
schools are in a unique position to
integrate clinical investigation with
the work of the departments of pre-
clinical science, and to impart new
knowledge to physicians in training.
Conversely, the teaching hospitals are
especially well organized to carry on
medical research because of their
close relationship to the schools, on
which they depend for staff and
supervision.

Not all our medical schools are
equally developed. Because of inade-
quate financial support or lack of
trained personnel, some of them can
contribute little to medical research.
A great increase in the resources of
the Nation would be achieved by
stimulating research in these less fa-
vored schools. It is imperative that
we employ all possible methods of
improving the research facilities and
research staffs of our present medical
schools before considering the estab-
lishment of new institutions.

7. Medical Research Under State
Sponsorship in Great Britain

Although Federal aid for medical
research was brought about in the
United States largely under pressure
of war, Government support of re-
search has been general in Europe
for many years. As a rule this support
has been delegated to organizations
separate from the ordinary Govern-
ment bureaus in order to remove it
as far as possible from political influ-
ence and to place the administration

56

of funds in the hands of men experi-
enced in research.

In Great Britain as early as 101 I
the promotion of medical research
was explicitly recognized as a respon-
sibility of the State by the establish
ment of the Medical Research Com-
mittee, which became the Medical
Research Council in 1920. The
Council has administrative autonomy
with general responsibility to a com-
mittee of ministers in the Priyy
Council. It receives money from
both Parliament and nongovernmen-
tal sources specifically for furthering
medical research and has no connec-
tion with any system of medical care
or health insurance.

The Medical Research Council has
continued to play an increasingly im-
portant and eminently successful role
in its field. Through it Government
support for medical research and the
aid of medical science to the Govern-
ment are assured.

Medical research in Great Britain
also receives indirect Government aid
through the University Grants Com-
mittee, a Standing Committee of the
Treasury. Its members are independ-
ent experts of acknowledged repute
and thoroughly familiar with the
problems of university administration.
The Committee's terms of reference
are "To inquire into the financial
needs of university education in the
United Kingdom, and to advise the
Government as to the application of
any grants that may be made by
Parliament toward meeting them."

Although the University Grants
Committee does not give direct grants
for specific medical research projects,
it holds that research is one of the
primary functions of a university and
an indispensable element in the work
of university teachers. Grants to the
institutions are in the form of unre-

stricted funds with no portion ear-
marked for a s[)ecilic jiurpose.
Through a recent act of Parliament
whereby this Committee is enabled
to award $4,000,000 annually to
medical schools and $2,000,000 to
teaching hospitals, this indirect sup-
port of medical research by the
Government has been substantially
increased.

8. The Need for Federal Aid to
Medical Research

Between World War I and World
War II the United States overtook
the other nations in medical research
and forged ahead to a position of
world leadership. If this leadership
is to be maintained, some form of
Go\'ernment financial aid to the medi-
cal schools will be necessary. This
view is accepted by the Committee
and by nearly all whom the Com-
mittee has consulted.

Dr. A. N. Richards, Chairman of
the Committee on Medical Research,
reported to the Subcommittee on
Wartime Health and Education of
the Committee on Education and
Labor of the United States Senate
that, in connection with medical re-
search, "The experience of the Office
of Scientific Research and Develop-
ment has proved that none of the
universities which were called upon
for Office of Scientific Research and
Development work could afford to
undertake it on the scale which the
emergency demanded at the expense
of its own resources. Hence, if the
concerted efforts of medical investi-
gators which have yielded so much of
value during the war are to be con-
tinued on any comparable scale dur-
ing the peace, the conclusion is in-
escapable that they must be supported
by government."

57

At the same hearing, Dr. Lewis H.
Weed, Chairman of the Di\'ision of
Medical Sciences of the National Re-
search Council, stated '"" "" '^ Much
of medical research will necessarily
have to be abandoned in the private
and semiprivate institutions of the
country unless Go\'ernment subsidv
is made available in some form for the
general support of medical research."

Without Federal support American
medical research will not stop, but
without it our opportunities to ad-
\'ance medical knowledge cannot
fully be exploited, and our objectives
will be reached more slowlv.

It has been computed that the an-
nual budgets of the 77 medical
schools in the United States total
about $26,000,000. The portion of
this sum spent for medical research
cannot be determined accurately. In-
come from tuition amounts to
$8,000,000, leaving a deficit of
$18,000,000 annually. To meet this
deficit the schools, apart from those
connected with State universities and
financed by the respective States,
draw upon many sources.

A substantial part comes from uni-
versity endowment, but during the
past 10 years the amount of new
endowment to medical schools has
greatly diminished. At the same time
the income from present endowment
has been cut by one-third. With con-
tinued high taxation it is improbable
that large gifts and bequests for scien-
tific work can be expected in the
future.

In many instances funds are allo-
cated to the medical schools from
tuition fees dcri\cd from other de-
partments of the university.

Another source of research funds
is the foundations, but, as in the case
of the universities, the income from
foundation endowment is decreasing.

Moreo\'er. the foundations in general
favor short-term grants to projects
which carry promise of yielding im-
mediate results.

Industry is a potential source of
funds, but gifts from this source
are usually for specific problems of
a developmental nature. Universit\'
alumni associations contribute only
relatively small sums. Direct gifts
from indi\'iduals are a substantial aid
at times, but the medical schools
must compete with all charities and
churches for these funds. Further-
more, it is estimated that gifts from
individuals, while perhaps more nu-
merous, are far smaller in total than
the large contributions of individual
donors in the past.

When the funds available to a
medical school are cut, the institution
usually retrenches by curtailing the
portion used for research. Overhead
and teaching expenses must be met,
and research becomes a luxury.

Finally, while research funds are
decreasing, the costs of research are
steadily rising. More elaborate and
expensive equipment is required, sup-
plies are more costly, and the wages
of assistants are higher.

9. How Financial Aid Should be
Supplied

Federal financial aid to the medi-
cal schools should be provided in
three forms: General research funds,
fellowships, and grants-in-aid.
General research funds

It is the Committee's opinion that
unrestricted grants, with no portion
earmarked for specific purposes, and
with administration delegated to local
research boards, would be the most
\'aluable and productive form in
which Government support could be
given.

58

A medical school consists of a
dozen or more semi-autonomous de-
partments, each with its own budget.
In the schools fa\'ored with a large
endowment, research projects arc con-
stantly in progress in all departments;
in financially weaker schools, the
budget of a department may be too
small to supply as much as a secretary
for the department head, and research
is, of course, a financial impossibility.
E\'en in the most fayorcd depart-
ments, the quality and quantity of re-
search would be greatly increased if
it were possible to employ an extra
technical assistant or tvyo, to purchase
additional supplies or a necessary
piece of equipment, to improve or
enlarge animal quarters, or to meet
other countless small financial re-
quirements that may arise suddenly
and may be of a temporary nature.
In departments with small budgets
such requirements are eyen more
pressing. Many medical schools at
present haye small likelihood of se-
curing grants-in-aid because they
ha\'e neither personnel nor equip-
ment to conduct successfully the type
of research project appropriately fi-
nanced by this method.

If a central agency were to attempt
to meet item by item these many
requirements by means of specific
grants, the administrative costs would
be prohibitixe. The amount needed
for each item is small, but the total
amount needed by an institution may
be relatively large.

Furthermore, a central agency
would lack the flexibility to meet the
rapidly varying and often temporary
research needs that arise in the medi-
cal schools. A promising lead in re-
search mav prove patently false
within a month or two. It is equally
important that the project should
then be stopped, and its personnel

and equipment promptly diverted to
more producti\'e work, as it is that the
project should have been given a trial.

A special use for general research
funds would be to provide "junior
fellowships" which would allow a
medical student to interrupt his
course, usually between the preclini-
cal and clinical years, and to devote
himself full-time to research for a
year or two. The chances in this
country for medical students to gain
research experience prior to gradua-
tion are few, and as a result much
research ability goes undiscovered.
Candidates for these fellowships
would be unknown to a central
agency, which would have to rely
entirely upon the judgment of the
local research board for their selec-
tion. Hence it would be proper and
economical to provide these fellow-
ships from the general research funds
administered by the local board.

The provision of funds as block
grants to local research boards would
exercise to greatest advantage the
principle of decentralization of con-
trol of research; would eliminate
costly overhead; would create a flexi-
ble mechanism to meet rapidly vary-
ing needs; would allow full play to
the wisdom and experience of medi-
cal school faculties and administra-
tors, whose knowledge in aggregate
and whose particular knowledge of
local needs must always exceed that
of a central agency; would promote
research in laboratories where it is
now poor!)' developed; would foster
investigations of an exploratory na-
ture; and would provide the greatest
and most eff'ective stimulus to medi-
cal research.

¥e\\o\vs\i\fs

Federal funds should be used to
support fellowships, extending over
periods up to 6 years, to be awarded

59

bv the Government agency to enable
selected men to obtain training in re-
search, to learn techniques in fields
other than those of their basic scien-
tific education, or to undertake re-
search on a full-time basis. Since
1921 the fellowship program, sup-
ported by the Rockefeller Foundation
and administered by the Medical Fel-
lowship Board of the National Re-
search Council, has made an impor-
tant contribution to the ad\ance of
medical science and to the training
of teachers and investigators in the
United States. An increase in the
number of such fellowships is greatly
needed.

Grants-in-aid

A limited number of important re-
search projects both of immediate and
long-range consequence, will require
special grants-in-aid. On occasion,
through grants-in-aid, support should
be given to medical schools, hospitals,
or nonprofit scientific institutions to
enable a senior investigator to develop
the problems of his interest more
rapidly and effectively.

10. Estimated Cost of Program

No final statement on costs is
possible at this time. From informa-
tion received from the deans of medi-
cal schools, from the expenditures of
the Committee on Medical Research,
and from other sources, it is estimated
that approximately 5 to 7 million dol-
lars annually can be used effectively
in the immediate postwar period. A
larger sum mav be required when the
program is fully underway. This esti-
mate does not include the possible
assumption of present commitments
of the Office of Scientific Research
and Development. A more definite
statement would require prolonged
studv.

11. The ISeed for an Independent
Agency

Advances in medical science have
come and will continue to come pre-
ponderantly from medical schools or
science departments of universities.
Therefore the problem of improving
medical research and of training more
top-flight in\'estigators is primarily
one of aiding the medical schools and
unixersities to utilize their research
and educational facilities to the full-
est extent.

In the Committee's opinion, medi-
cal research could best be promoted
by the creation of an independent
Federal agency.

This new organization would not
conflict with the medical interests of
existing Government agencies, none
of which is primarily concerned with
developing the basic medical sciences
or with training personnel, both of
which are functions of the unixer-
sities. Some duplication of investiga-
tion would occur in problems in
which civilian investigators and one
or more Government agencies were
mutually interested. However, it can-
not be too strongly emphasized that,
far from being wasteful, duplication
is imperative in medical research,
where each new discovery can be
accepted only after repeated confirma-
tion by independent observers ap-
proaching the problem from different
points of view. The duplication is
more apparent than real, as the re-
sults of independent in\'estigators
working on a common problem rarely
agree exactly, and the differences
are frequently the basis for new dis-
coveries.

Rather than conflicting with exist-
ing agencies, the proposed body
would supplement the research activ-
ities of these agencies in a valuable
manner. Only through the efforts of

60

such a body can our Gcncrnnicnt
agencies be supplied with the neces-
sary increase in numbers oi expert
personnel and with the all-important
increase in basic scientific knowledge
on which medical ad\ance depends.
As the function of the proposed
agency is broadly conceiyed. as it
must be concerned not onl\' with
research but \yith the training of
personnel required b\' all existing
agencies, and as it must operate
through non-Goyernmental education
institutions, the future of which rests
heavily upon private endowment or
support by the States, it is the Com-
mittee's con\iction that the Federal
agency concerned with medical re-
search should be created de novo and
be independent of all existing agen-
cies, none of which is sufficiently free
of specialization of interest to vyarrant
assigning to it the sponsorship of a
program so broad and so intimately
related to civilian institutions.

12. Compensation

The Committee belie\'es that better
effort will be put into the work of the
agency by members if they are paid.
The question of adjustment of salary
from parent institutions should be
left to the parties concerned.

It is estimated that members of the
board of trustees and technical board,
as proposed below, will be called
upon to gi\'e an a\'erage of one-third
of their time to the work of the
agency. One-half the time of the
aides may be required. This includes
time devoted by members to the work
of the agency at their official stations
and in traveling.

Over the past 25 years there has
been an increasing draft of expert
personnel from the medical schools
to meet the demand for scientists in

acti\ities related to the national wel-
fare, until at present, exen discount-
ing the increased demands of war,
man\' teachers and investigators are
unable to discharge their responsibili-
ties to the institutions which pay their
salaries. A further increase in this
borrowing of personnel without com-
pensation can inflict only injury upon
the medical schools.

Moreover, many competent inves-
tigators in medicine and surgery draw
a negligible fraction of their income
as salary, depending financially upon
clinical practice. Participation in the
work of the agency may interrupt this
practice and the resulting loss of in-
come may exclude such persons from
service.

13. Patent Rights

The practice in regard to patent
rights on discoveries and inventions
bearing on human health varies in
diflferent medical institutions in this
country. The Committee has made
no effort to codify them, or to arrive
at a generally acceptable policy.

It seems to the Committee that
under the present patent laws the
principle of patenting certain types
of discoveries and in\'entions to ex-
clude misuse is sound. Since perhaps
the majority of institutions do not
capitalize their patent privileges, and
since such practice would be incom-
patible with Government sponsored
research, it is suggested that, where
a patent be granted on research
which has been sponsored by Gov-
ernment in whole or in part, the
ownership of the patent remain in
the inventor, and that the Govern-
ment receive, in addition to a royalty-
free license, the power to require the
licensing of others.

61

Part Two

Fundamental Principles Governing the Use of Federal Funds

for Medical Research

As stated above, the Committee is
convinced that Federal aid is neces-
sary to ensure maximal progress in
the development of medical science.
It is also convinced that this aid, if
misdirected, mav do serious harm.
It believes that among the major
principles which should govern the
application of Federal aid to medical
research are the following:

a. Until experience has indicated
the best plan of organization
and procedure, the Federal
agency created to aid medical
research should be kept as flexi-
ble as possible. One of our
colleagues has written "The
common history of social organi-
zations has been their creation
in response to an idea, their
flowering under the influence
of the idea, their loss of the
idea, and their perpetuation for
the maintenance of the prestige
of the office-holder." Onlv if
authority to experiment with or-
ganization is written into its
charter will an agency designed
to aid medical research escape
this fate.

h. The administration of Federal
aid to medical research must be
free from political influence and
protected against special pres-
sures.

c. Men who are experienced in
research and who understand
the problems of the investigator

should administer the agency
and determine its policies. Since
the agency will be concerned
primarily with basic scientific
research in, and scientific train-
ing and policies pertinent to,
endowed or State supported
civilian institutions, and since
the armed forces, the Public
Health Service, and other exist-
ing governmental services have
specialized interests, the Com-
mittee believes that it is as im-
proper for any one of these serv-
ices to hold the power of vote
in matters pertaining to the pro-
posed new agencv as it would
be for one or more members of
the agency to vote in the medi-
cal councils of the services.

d. The agency should not attempt
to dominate or regiment medical
research but should function by
creating greater opportunities
and more freedom for investiga-
tion, and by aiding in coopera-
tive eff^orts. It should not at-
tempt to influence the selection
of personnel, the conditions of
tenure, the salary level, or other
internal aff^airs of the institu-
tions to which it gives aid.

e. Any program of Federal aid to
medical research should be mod-
estly initiated in terms of actual
needs and conservatively in-
creased as the capacity of the
medical schools to utilize addi-

62

tional funds is demonstrated. If
the Government spends too
much in medical research, other
funds will be driven out and the
Government will be the sole
source of support. The schools
should remain free to elect the
potential donor to whom they
wish to apply. As Senator Pep-
per has stated, "Government
can not, and must not, take
the place of philanthropy and
industry in the sponsorship of
research."

/. The establishment of life-time
research professorships, or of
protracted research fellowships,
at the expense of Federal funds
is considered unwise. In excep-
tional instances, as for example
when an in\'estigator demon-
strates unusual ability, or it is
desirable to relieve a senior and
experienced person from aca-
demic or clinical responsibilities
in order to free him for research,
support should be obtained from
general research funds or
through a grant-in-aid.

g. A grave danger in any effort to
accelerate discovery is the ease
with which the quality of the
work can be lowered by encour-
aging men to undertake research
who are inadequately prepared
or unfitted for the task. Medi-
ocre research work in medicine
is not only apt to be useless, but
may prove dangerous by mis-
leading medical practice and by
fostering false hopes in the

public. This danger must be
guarded against by constantly
encouraging confirmatory work
or "challenging investigations."

h. The agency should not serve
merely as a mechanism for dis-
bursing funds for particular re-
search projects, but should
always attempt to maintain a
broad view of the needs of the
whole field of medical research.

i. It is belie\'ed that it would be
unwise for a national body con-
cerned with medical research to
give prizes or otherwise to dis-
pense praise or blame. It is also
believed that this agency should
avoid even the semblance of
scientific authority. What is ac-
ceptable or unacceptable in
medicine must be established by
tested methods of examination
and not be made to appear as
such because of the imprimatur
of a national body.

j. The agency should come to
share in the leadership of medi-
cal investigation by encouraging
individual initiative and free-
dom of research, and with a
careful avoidance of coercion
and regimentation, which might
lead not only to mediocre work
but to disastrous impairment of
the spirit of cooperation, and of
research itself. Individual scien-
tific curiosity, community of in-
terest and regard for the com-
mon weal must in peace replace
as a cohesive force the patriotism
of war.

63

Part Three

Recommendations Outlining the Establishment of a "National Foundation
for Medical Research" as an Independent Federal Agency

It is recommended that an inde-
pendent agency of the Federal Gov-
ernment be estabhshed, to be known
as the National Foundation for Medi-
cal Research.^

1. Composition of the
Foundation

The foundation is to be composed
of (a) a board of trustees, (1?) a tech-
nical board, and (c) an executive
secretarv s office.

Board of Trustees

The board of trustees is to consist
of five persons appointed without
regard to the Civil Service Laws by
the President of the United States
and subject to confirmation by the
Senate. They are to be chosen on the
basis of scientific achievement and
leadership, wide knowledge of medi-
cal problems, capacity for adminis-
tration and organization, and with
reasonable regard for geographical
representation. The board of trustees
is to elect its own chairman.

A member of the board of trustees
is to serve on a part-time basis for
a term of 5 vears and is not to be
eligible for reappointment. A mem-
ber appointed to a vacancy caused by
death or resignation is eligible for
reappointment for a full term pro-

1 Wherever used the term "medical research"
is intended to include related aspects of den-
tistry, veterinary medicine, biology, entomology,
protozoology, and similar fields.

viding his short term has been less
than 2 vears. No two members serv-
ing simultaneously shall be chosen
from the same institution. The suc-
cessor to a retiring member shall not
be chosen from the same institution
except in unusual instances.

The original members of the board
of trustees are to be appointed for
2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 vears, respectively,
in order to assure continuity and ro-
tation. Whenever a vacancy occurs
or is to occur, the chairman is to
transmit to the President of the
United States for his information a
list of suitable candidates. In pre-
paring this list, the chairman is in-
structed to seek the advice of the
President of the National Academy
of Sciences.

The chairman is to represent the
Foundation in matters affecting medi-
cal research where the interests of
other Government agencies are in-
voh'cd.

The board of trustees is to meet
not less than once each month. At
least one regular meeting each year
is to be held in each of the following
geographical areas: North Atlantic,
South Atlantic, North Central, South
Central, Rocky Mountain, and Pa-
cific coast areas.

The board of trustees is to deter-
mine the broad policies of the Foun-
dation. It is to appoint members of
the technical board and is to have the
authority to approve or disapprove

64

all recommendations ol the technical
board. It may request the chairman
and other members oi the tech
nical board to sit with it whenever
necessary.

The board of trustees is to establish
necessary liaison offices to insure a
free exchange of information with
all domestic and foreign agencies or
services interested in medical re-
search. It is to in\'ite the Surgeons
General of the Armv, the Navy, the
United States Public Health Service,
the Air Force, or responsible officers
of other domestic or foreign organi-
zations as may be indicated, to ap-
point appropriate liaison officers to
sit with it during deliberations of
interest to those agencies. Liaison
officers are not to have the power
of vote.

Remuneration

Each member of the board of trus-
tees is to be paid a salary of seventy-
five hundred dollars ($7,500) per
annum for that portion of his time
which he devotes to the services of
the Foundation. In accordance with
Government regulations, a member
is to receive travel expenses and suit-
able per diem to cover other costs
when traveling.

Technical Board

A technical board, composed ini-
tially of 12 persons, is to be ap-
pointed, without regard to the Civil
Service Laws, by the board of trus-
tees. The members of the technical
board are to be chosen on the basis
of their knowledge and experience
in special fields of medical research
and the related sciences, and with
reasonable regard for geographical
representation. The office of a board
member is to remain in his parent
institution. At the discretion of the

board oi trustees the membership of
the technical board mav be increased
or decreased in number.

A member of the technical board
should not ordinarily be considered
eligible lor reappointment, but a re-
tired member may be appointed to
the board of trustees. A member ap-
pointed to fill an unexpired term is
eligible for reappointment for a full
term. No two members serving simul-
taneously shall be chosen from the
same institution. The successor to a
retiring member shall not be chosen
from the same institution except in
unusual instances.

The chairman of the technical
board is to be designated by the board
of trustees. He is to represent the
technical board before the trustees,
is to call meetings of the technical
board as frequently as necessary, and
is to be responsible for the supervision
of the activities of the board and the
preparation of reports required by the
board of trustees.

The original members of the tech-
nical board are to be appointed in
groups of 4 to serve 2, 3, and 4 years,
respectively, in order to assure con-
tinuity and rotation.

Remuneration

Each member of the technical
board is to serve on a part-time basis
for 3 years, and is to receive a salary
to be determined by the Board of
Trustees, but not to exceed five thou-
sand dollars ($5,000) a year for that
portion of his time which he devotes
to the services of the Foundation. In
accordance with Government regula-
tions, a member is to receive travel
expenses and suitable per diem to
cover other costs when traveling.
Aides

Each member of the technical
board may, with the approval of the
technical board, appoint one or more

65

aides without regard to the Ci\il
Service Laws. These aides are to be
selected on the basis of quahfication
in a special research field and are to
serve on a part-time basis for periods
up to 3 years.

As determined bv the board of
trustees, aides are to be compensated
for time spent in the work of the
Foundation, and when traveling are
to receive tra\'el expenses in accord-
ance with Government regulations
and a suitable per diem to cover
other costs.

As aides are scientists in a poten-
tially productive period, provision is
to be made to insure that thev remain
professionally acti\'e, and that service
with the technical board does not
jeopardize their academic careers.

Committees

The technical board is to appoint
ad hoc committees to advise with a
particular member on medical prob-
lems. Members of such committees
are to be appointed consultants with
per diem compensation up to twenty-
five dollars ($25), and in accordance
with Go\ernment regulations are to
receive travel expenses and suitable
per diem to cover other costs when
tra\'eling.

Aides and committees appointed
for a technical board member are to
be discharged on the expiration of
the member's term, but continued
service may be in\ ited bv the mem-
ber's successor.

Authority of the technical hoard

The technical board is to receive,
review and recommend to the board
of trustees on all requests for gen-
eral research funds, fellowships, and
grants-in-aid.

It is to take such steps as are neces-
sary to put appro\cd programs into
effect.

It is to maintain reasonable super-
vision of work under general research
funds and grants-in-aid and of the
acti\'ities of Fellows, and keep the
trustees informed on the progress of
this work.

It is to arrange for the preparation
of reports or appraisals as requested
by the board of trustees.

Its members are to keep themselves
informed on the status of pertinent
medical problems, to which end thev
are authorized to convene round-table
discussions, to invite competent per-
sons to prepare summaries of specific
problems, and to seek authoritative
information in any other appropriate
manner.

It is to recei\e and consider recom-
mendations from individual investi-
gators with regard to the further
development of problems of possible
scientific interest.

Office of the Executive Secretary

A full-time executive secretary is
to be appointed bv the board of trus-
tees after consultation with appropri-
ate Government fiscal and accounting
agencies. The executive secretarv is
to organize administrative, fiscal, and
accounting offices for the conduct of
the business of the Foundation. Fiscal
actions approved bv the board of
trustees are to be put into effect by
the executi\'e secretary and his affili-
ated officers.

Except for the executi\e secretarv,
all members of the stafii^ of the execu-
ti\e secretarv are to be drawn from
qualified ci\'il-ser\ice lists.

2. Functions of the Foundation

The functions of the Foundation
are to be (a) to further medical re-

66

search by providing financial aid
through general research funds, fel-
lowships and grants-in-aid; (1?) to
coordinate research in progress and
to initiate new work considered essen-
tial; (c) to establish necessary liaison
to secure a free exchange of medical
information.

Financial Aid

a. General research funds

On application, a block grant may
be made to a medical school for gen-
eral use over a period of 1 to 10 vears
for the promotion of research pro-
vided the institution can present evi-
dence that it can efficiently utilize
for scientific research the funds re-
quested, and that it is prepared to
give a reasonable accounting of the
expenditure of funds received. The
institution is to have a research com-
mittee, drawn preferablv from the
executive faculty and active investi-
gators, which is to be informed on
all local research expenditures, and is
to be responsible for the administra-
tion of the grant and for reports and
accounting required by the Founda-
tion.

The institutions are to be allowed
wide latitude in the expenditure of
general research funds, but these ex-
penditures are to be subject to review
periodically by the Foundation,
which is to have the power of can-
cellation.

It is recommended that general re-
search funds be used in part for
junior fellowships to be awarded,
without reference to the Foundation,
to students working for an M.D. de-
gree, in order to permit the recipients
to devote 1 or 2 years on a full-time
basis to acquiring more specialized
knowledge of the techniques of medi-
cal research than is possible during

the regular course. Junior fellowships
are not to be used as scholarships to
defray medical school tuition. The
policy of each institution in regard
to number of Junior Fellows, the
value of the stipend, and other fea-
tures of general importance is to be
subject to review by the Foundation.

Formal discussions concerning re-
newal of general research funds
should be completed 1 to 3 years in
advance of termination.

If an application for general re-
search funds is refused, the applicant
institution may appeal directly to the
board of trustees for a review.

In allocating general research
funds, the Foundation is to consider
both the immediate needs and prom-
ise of development of the applicant
institutions, and is to take cognizance
of the effects of such funds upon the
support of medical schools bv their
parent institutions.

Equipment purchased under gen-
eral research funds is to become the
property of the institution to which
the block grant is made.

b. Fellowships

Fellowships are to be awarded by
the Foundation, for a period of 1 to
3 years, to approved applicants having
the M.D., Ph.D., or D.D.S. degree
or equivalent attainment, to enable
the recipients to acquire research
training, to undertake research, to
learn special techniques, or to pursue
studies in related sciences. Fellow-
ships may be renewed for a period
up to 3 years, but onlv in exceptional
instances should the term of a fellow-
ship exceed 6 vears. The holder of a
fellowship is to be publicly desig-
nated as a 'Tellovv of the National
Foundation for Medical Research."

In the initial selection of Fellows,
potentialities for dexelopment of lead-

67

ership in medicine should be vveiglied
as heavily as past performance in re
search work. Fellows are to be en-
couraged to take further work in the
fundamental sciences to remedy any
deficiencies in a contemplated re-
search career, but fellowships are not
to be used to pro\'ide residencies, or
primarily for obtaining postgraduate
degrees or for qualifying for Certifi-
cation by the Specialty Boards.

Fellowships are primarily intended
to enable men to recei\'e research
training and to engage in acti\'e re-
search, but they should include ex-
perience in teaching or the clinical
care of patients, as these exercises are
essential to balanced research train-
ing and are imperatiye if a Fellow is
to fit himself for. maximal usefulness
in medicine or the medical sciences.

Fellowship stipends are to be de-
termined by the Foundation with due
consideration of uni\'ersity salaries
paid persons with equivalent training
and experience, and to the desira-
bility of encouraging relatively senior
men to devote themsehes to research.

Research expenses of a Fellow may
be met by the Foundation. If an in-
stitution matches insurance or an-
nuity payments bv its faculty, a
similar payment is to be added by the
Foundation to the Fellow's stipend.

A fellowship is to lapse automati-
cally if a Fellow transfers to another
institution without approxal by the
Foundation.

c. GrafJts-in-aid

On application, grants-in-aid ex-
tending for 1 to 10 years may be
made to universities, medical schools,
or other nonprofit scientific institu-
tions for the support of specific proj-
ects or of specified investigators. Ap-
plications for grants-in-aid are to
carry the endorsement of the appli-
cant institution. Formal discussions

concerning renewal should be com-
pleted prior to the beginning of the
last third of the period of the grant.

Reasonable overhead expenses may
be included in the financial statement
accompanying a request for a grant,
but overhead payments are not to be
automatic.

Reports are to be submitted under
each grant as required by the Foun-
dation. Equipment purchased under
a grant is to become the property of
the institution to which the grant is
made.

If a request for a grant or for the
extension of a grant is refused, the
applicant institution may appeal di-
rectly to the board of trustees for a
review.

Coordination and Initiation
of Research

The Foundation is to consider
methods designed to stimulate re-
search, to impro\'e research conditions
in institutions where it is now not
well developed, to effect coordination
among investigators working in a
common field, and to facilitate publi-
cation, dissemination, and experi-
mental application of scientific in-
formation.

The Foundation is to initiate and
support such new research work as
may be indicated, but it is not itself
to enpage in research. Its integrative
and catalytic efforts are to be carried
out by recommendation and invita-
tion rather than by direction.

3. Reports

The Foundation is to report annu-
ally to the President, in the form he
requests, on the progress of work car-
ried out under its authority. With
the President's approval, all or part of
the annual report is to be published.

68

4. Authority to Modify to make and alter speeific regulations

Procedure -ji-jj iq experiment in proecdures for

The organization and responsibility fostering medieal research is to be

of the Foundation are to be defined incorporated in the charter of the

as broadly as possible. The authority Foundation.

69

Appendix 3

Report of the Committee on Science
and the Public Welfare

Table of Contents

Page

Letter of transmittal 7 1

Members of the Committee — - 72

Preface 73

Summary 74

A National Research Foundation 75

Research carried on by the Federal Government 75

Environmental aids to industrial research 76

Part

I. Introduction 77

II. Present status and trends in American science 81

A. The nature of scientific research 81

B. Development of scientific research in the United States 83

C. The national research budget 85

III. Scientific research in American universities and colleges 90

A. The university as a research environment 90

B. Form of aid to universities 93

IV. Scientific research in the Government service 99

A. Suggested reforms — _ 100

V. Aids to industrial research and technology 107

A. Assistance to technical clinics for small business enterprise 107

B. Grants to nonprofit industrial institutes for fundamental

research 108

C. Encouragement for new scientific enterprises 108

D. Strengthening the patent system -.. 109

VI. Taxation and research 110

A. Present tax treatment of research and development expendi-

tures ._ 1 1 0

B. Recommendations for legislative action 111

C. Broad tax considerations 112

Vn. International scientific cooperation 113

A. Support and sponsorship of international cooperative scien-
tific enterprises 113

VIII. A National Research Foundation 115

A. Organization 115

B. Powers and responsibilities 116

C. Patent policies of the Foundation 117

Appendix A. Library aids 118

Appendix B. Analysis of university research expenditures 122

70

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

April 16, 1945.
Dr. Vannevar Bush, Director,
Office of Scientific Research and Development,
16th and P Streets NW.,
Washington, D. C.

Dear Dr. Bush:

It is with satisfaction that I hand you herewith a copy of the report of
the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare.

We have had a number of meetings with good attendance and excellent
discussion. We have unanimously agreed on practically all essential points.
If the report aids in any degree in completing the task assigned you by the
late President Roosevelt all members of the committee, I feel sure, will be
gratified.

Sincerely yours,

Isaiah Bowman, Chairman,
Committee on Science and the Public Welfare.

71

MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE

Isaiah Bowman, Chairman, President, Johns Hopkins University.

John T. Tate, Vice Chairman, Research Professor of Phvsics, University of

Minnesota.
W. Rupert Maclaurin, Secretary, Professor of Economics, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology.
Ohver E. Buckley, President, Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Walter C. Coffey, President, University of Minnesota.
Oscar S. Cox, Deputy Administrator, Foreign Economic Administration.
Bradley Dewey, President, Dewey & Almy Chemical Company.
Clarence A. Dvkstra, Provost, University of California at Los Angeles.
Caryl P. Haskins, Director, Haskins Laboratories.

Edwin H. Land, President and Director of Research, Polaroid Corporation.
Charles E. MacOuigg, Dean of Engineering, Ohio State LIniversity.
Harold G. Moulton, President, Brookings Institution.
J. Hugh O'Donnell, President, Notre Dame LIniversity.
I. I. Rabi, Professor of Physics, Columbia University (recipient of Nobel

Award).
Warren Weaver, Director for Natural Sciences, Rockefeller Eoundation.
Robert E. Wilson, Chairman of the Board, Standard Oil Company of Indiana.
William E. Wrather, Director, U. S. Geological Survey, Department of

Interior.

72

f

PREFACE

Dr. Isaiah Bowman was named by Dr. Vannevar Bush, Director of the
Office of Scientific Research and Development, as chairman of a committee
to consider this question raised by President Roosevelt in his letter of Novem-
ber 17, 1944, to Dr. Bush: "What can the Government do now and in the
future to aid research activities by public and private organizations? The
proper roles of public and of private research and their interrelationship should
be carefully considered."

The Bowman Committee has confined its attention to research activities
in the natural sciences, engineering, and agriculture. Clinical medicine has
been considered bv another committee. The support of the social sciences,
it is believed, represents an important problem in itself which should be
handled as a separate issue.

In analvzing the task assigned to the Bowman Committee, the project was
divided into the following major questions:

1. What should the Government do to assist research in universities
and nonprofit research institutes?

2. What should the Government do to assist scientific research con-
ducted by the Government itself?

3. What should the Government do to assist research in industrv?

4. What changes, if any, should be made in our present tax structure
to stimulate industrial research?

5. What policv should the Government follow to encourage greater
international interchange of scientific knowledge and engineering art
after the war?

6. What are the proper roles of public and private research?

The Committee was divided into working groups to consider each of these
questions except the last. The whole report is concerned with the basic
problem of the proper roles of public and private agencies in scientific re-
search. The analyses undertaken by the working groups have been combined
into a final report which is submitted herewith.

In addition to numerous meetings of the subcommittees the main Com-
mittee has held three full meetinos, the first of which was devoted to
resolving the problem into its major parts, the second to discussing the
concept of the Federal Go\'ernment in relation to research, and the last to
considering the recommendations of the subcommittees.

73

SUMMARY

Interest in the question of Federal aid to research reflects widespread
recognition by the American people that the security of a modern nation
depends in a vital way upon scientific research and technological progress.
It is equally clear that public health, higher standards of living, conserva-
tion of national resources, new manufacturing which creates new jobs and
investment opportunities — in short, the prosperity, well-being and progress
of the American Nation — all require the continued flow of new scientific
knowledge. Even if a nation's manpower declines in relative numbers, even
if its geographical frontiers become fixed, there always remains one inex-
haustible national resource — creative scientific research.

In view of the importance of science to the Nation, the Federal Govern-
ment, by virtue of its charge to provide for the common defense and general
welfare, has the responsibility of encouraging and aiding scientific progress.
It has recognized this responsibility by providing research laboratories within
the structure of government, by providing a climate of law within which
industry could progress on its ov>/n initiative, and by making limited appro-
priations to certain types of educational institutions. Study of the present
status of research has shown convincingly that certain basic parts of our
research structure require increased financial support. Since the evidence
is clear that private sources cannot assume the entire burden, the committee
has been forced to the conclusion that an increased measure of direct Federal
aid is necessary. We believe that it is possible to devise methods whereby
great benefits to research may be achieved by such aid without sacrificing
the freedom essential for scientific advance or the academic independence
of our traditional institutions.

We therefore urge that the Federal Government take a more active interest
in promoting scientific research, and in assuring that the Nation gain there-
from the benefits of increased security and increased welfare. We are con-
vinced that the most effective way for the Federal Government to serve these
purposes is to provide to our educational institutions and research institutes
support for basic research and training for research. By so doing, the Gov-
ernment will increase the flow of new knowledge and the supply of young
scientists trained in research. It is on this new knowledge that applied science
must build, and it is from the ranks of those trained in research that the
leaders in applied science must come.

74

If this new knowledge and an adequate supply of trained men are pro-
vided, it is our opinion that the ordinary course of industrial activity can be
relied upon to convert to practical application in industry most of the
advances made in research. However, we believe that in certain instances
measures can and should be devised to expedite the transition from scientific
discovery to technological application. To this end we recommend that
procedures be devised for supplying research information to small companies
and stimulating them in the application of the latest technology.

In the international sphere the lack of any official Federal support for
scientific meetings or experimental programs organized on an international
scale has been a frequent source of embarrassment and difficulty. By pro-
viding official recognition and financial support to such undertakings the
Government could do much to facilitate scientific interchange and promote
international good will.

A National Research Foundation

We believe that our national and international needs and responsibilities
in the field of science require the creation of a new Federal instrumentaHty.
We therefore recommend that a National Research Foundation be created
for the promotion of scientific research and of the applications of research
to enhance the security and welfare of the Nation.

The control of the Foundation should be in the hands of a board of
trustees. This board should be appointed by the President of the United
States from a panel nominated by the National Academy of Sciences.

The Foundation shall be empowered, among other things, to:

1. Distribute funds in support of scientific research in educational
and nonprofit research institutions, such research to be wholly under
the control of such institutions.

2. Initiate and finance, in appropriate agencies, research projects for
which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate.

3. Establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences.

4. Promote dissemination of scientific and technical information.

5. Support international cooperation in science by providing finan-
cial aid for international congresses, worldwide associations of scientific
societies and scientific research programs organized on an international
basis.

6. Devise methods of improving the transition between pure research
and its practical applications in industry.

Research Carried on by the Federal Government

Research carried on directly by the Federal Government represents an
important part of our total research activity and needs to be strengthened
and expanded after the war. Expansion, however, should be limited to fields
of inquirv and service which are of public importance and are not ade-
quatelv carried on bv private enterprise.

75

To increase the effectiveness of research done within the various depart-
ments and laboratories of Government a number of important changes in
existing practices are desirable.

1. The most important single factor in scientific and technical work
is the quality of personnel employed. Separate and distinct procedures
for recruiting and classifying scientific personnel are warranted bv the
exacting technical requirements in these services. No one change from
current practice would do more to improve the quality of research con-
ducted by the Government than to establish a separate branch of the
Civil Service for scientific and technical positions.

2. A general up-grading of positions and salaries in the scientific
services of Go\ernment, accompanied bv a careful selection of new
talent, would be a major contribution to improvement of the quality of
research conducted by the Government.

3. Research programs of Government should be assured in terms of
their long-run objectives. Appropriations bv Congress to the principal
Government scientific departments should be made in lump sums for
broad programs of research extending over several years. Appropriations
within the assured sum might then be made available as at present in
the annual budget.

4. A permanent science advisory board should be created to consult
with Government agencies and to advise the executi\e and legislative
branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government
agencies engaged in scientific research.

Environmental Aids to Intlustrial Research

The structure of Federal taxation and the operation of the patent system
have an important impact on the research and development policies of indus-
try. In designing postwar taxes, consideration should be given to increasing
incentives to industrial research. The proper treatment of research costs for
tax purposes should receive clear legislative definition. Specific recommenda
tions on this point are included in the main body of the report.

76

Introduction

Part One

President Roosevelt has asked:

What can tlie Go\'ernmcnt do now and
in the future to aid research activities bv
public and private organizations? * * *
The information, the techniques, and the
research experience developed by the
Office of Scientific Research and Develop-
ment and by the thousands of scientists in
the universities and in private industry,
should be used in the days of peace ahead
for the improvement of the national health,
the creation of new enterprises bringing
new jobs, and the betterment of the na-
tional standard of living. New frontiers of
the mind are before us, and if they are
pioneered with the same vision, boldness,
and drive with which we have waged this
war we can create a fuller and more fruit-
ful employment and a fuller and more
fruitful life.

The President's request reflects
widespread recognition by the Amer-
ican people that the security of a
modern nation depends in a vital
way upon scientific research and tech-
nological progress. It is equally clear
that public health, higher standards
of living, conservation of national re-
sources, new jobs and investment op-
portunities— in short, the prosperity,
well-being and progress of the Amer-
ican Nation — all require the con-
tinued flow of new scientific knowl-
edge. Even if a nation's manpower
declines in relative numbers, even if
its geographical frontiers become
fixed, there always remains one in-
exhaustible national resource — crea-
tive scientific research.

The advanced state of technology
in the American economy, of which
we are justly proud, could not have

been realized without sound institu-
tional foundations. Our public and
prix'ate universities and nonprofit re-
search institutes, our industrial re-
search laboratories, the research agen-
cies operated by the State and Fed-
eral Governments, all constitute part
of a cooperative pattern within which
tremendous achievements have al-
ready been made. We are confident
that within that same framework
even greater developments in science
will mark the future.

The continued progress of science
is a matter of the highest national
importance. The Federal Govern-
ment, by virtue of its charge to pro-
vide for the common defense and
general welfare, has the responsibility
of encouraging and aiding such prog-
ress. It has recognized this responsi-
bilitv in the past bv providing re-
search laboratories within the struc-
ture of government, bv providing a
climate of law within which industry
could advance on its own initiative,
and by making limited appropriations
to certain types of educational and
research institutions. As far as the
committee can determine, there is no
major dissent from the view that the
first two methods of aiding scientific
progress fall within the proper func-
tion of government.

The time has come, however, for
a careful evaluation of the questions
raised by direct Federal aid to private
institutions. Our universities clearly
stand in need of increased financial

77

support if they are to strengthen their
basic contributions to the scientific
fife of the Nation. Financial aid may
also be required to speed up the
transition between basic discoveries
in university laboratories and their
practical industrial applications. The
committee has therefore felt com-
pelled to examine from the stand-
point of public policy the question:
"Is a substantial increase in Federal
financial aid to scientific research in
educational and other nonprofit re-
search institutions necessary and de-
sirable?"

If the necessity were not clearly
demonstrable, several considerations
might argue for the undesirability of
such Federal support. These center
upon the fear that Federal aid might
lead to centralized control. It is the
firm conviction of the committee that
centralized control of research by any
small group of persons would be dis-
astrous whether such persons were in
government, in industry, or in the
universities. There might be a dan-
ger, too, that increased Federal aid
would discourage existing sources of
financial support. Private individuals
might lose interest in contributing to
research institutions and the great
foundations might turn their atten-
tion to other fields. The States might
reduce the support given their large
universities. These varied sources of
support have contributed materially
to the development of vigorous
centers of independent initiative
throughout the United States and
prevented control by any one group.

The committee has had to weigh
these considerations against an analy-
sis of the adequacy of the over-all
support for science in America rela-
tive to the needs of society. Our na-
tional pre-eminence in the fields of
applied research and technology

should not blind us to the truth that,
with respect to pure research — the
discovery of fundamental new knowl-
edge and basic scientific principles
— America has occupied a secondary
place. Our spectacular development
of the automobile, the airplane, and
radio obscures the fact that they were
all based on fundamental discoveries
made in nineteenth-century Europe.
From Europe also came formulation
of most of the laws governing the
transformation of energy, the physi-
cal and chemical structure of matter,
the behavior of electricity, light, and
magnetism. In recent years the
United States has made progress in
the field of pure science, but an ex-
amination of the relevant statistics
suggests that our efforts in the field
of applied science have increased
much faster so that the proportion of
pure to applied research continues to
decrease.

Several reasons make it imperative
to increase pure research at this stage
in our history. First, the intellectual
banks of continental Europe, from
which we former Iv borrowed, have
become bankrupt through the ravages
of war. No longer can we count
upon those sources for fundamental
science. Second, in this modern age,
more than ever before, pure research
is the pace-maker of technological
progress. In the nineteenth century,
Yankee mechanical ingenuitv, build-
ing upon the basic discoveries of
European science, could greatly ad-
vance the technical arts. Today the
situation is different. Future prog-
ress will be most striking in those
highly complex fields — electronics,
aerodynamics, chemistry — which are
based directly upon the foundations
of modern science. In the next gen-
eration, technological advance and
basic scientific discoverv will be in-

78

separable; a nation which borrows its
basic knowledge will be hopelessly
handicapped in the race for innova-
tion. The other world powers, we
know, intend to foster scientific re-
search in the future. Moreover, it is
part of our democratic creed to affirm
the intrinsic cultural and aesthetic
worth of man's attempt to ad\'ance
the frontiers of knowledge and un-
derstanding. By that same creed the
prestige of a nation is enhanced by
its contributions — made in a spirit of
friendlv cooperation and competition
— to the world-wide battle against
ignorance, want, and disease.

The increasing need for the culti-
vation of science in this country is
onlv too apparent. Are we equipped
to meet it? Traditional support from
private gifts, from endowment in-
come, from grants by the large foun-
dations, and from appropriations by
State legislatures cannot meet the
need. Research in the natural sci-
ences and engineering is becoming
increasingly costly; and the infla-
tionary impact of the war is likely
to heighten the financial burden of
university research. The committee
has considered whether industry
could or should assume most of the
burden of support of fundamental
research or whether other adequate
sources of private assistance are in
sight. The answer appears to be in
the negative.

The committee has therefore be-
come convinced that an increased
measure of Federal aid to scientific
research is necessary. Means must
be found for administering such aid
without incurring centralized control
or discouraging private support.

Basically this problem is but one
example of a series of similar prob-
lems of government in a democracy.
Many of our important political de-

cisions invoKe the necessity of bal-
ancing irreducible national functions
against the free play of individual
initiative. It is the belief of this com-
mittee that if certain basic safe-
guards are observed in designing a
plan for Government support to sci-
ence, great benefits can be achieved
without loss of initiative or freedom.

The experience of the land-grant
colleges represents an important prece-
dent. The scale of Federal aid has
been modest but has led to very sig-
nificant results especially in agricul-
ture; it has not led to domination
by small groups; it has not been ca-
pricious and uncertain. On the con-
trary, it has progressed on a slowly
expanding scale for o\ex 80 years.
No evidence has been brought before
the committee that this sort of Fed-
eral aid has discouraged other sources
of support. The land-grant colleges
are examples of harmonious coopera-
tion among State and Federal Gov-
ernments, private indi\'iduals, and
industry. American experience with
support of higher education by State
and local governments has been ex-
tremely satisfactory, our vigorous
State universities standing as impres-
sive testimonials.

The committee foresees that an in-
creased measure of Federal support
will raise new problems. We have,
therefore, carefully considered the
possibility of increasing Federal aid
for scientific research without, at the
same time, introducing undesirable
paternalism. For, in order to be
fruitful, scientific research must be
free — free from the influence of
pressure groups, free from the neces-
sity of producing immediate practical
results, free from dictation by any
central board.

Many have been impressed by the
vyay in which certain fields of applied

79

science have benefited, during the
war, from an increased measure of
planned coordination and direction.
It has thus been very natural to sup-
pose that peacetime research would
benefit equally from the application
of similar methods. There are, of
course, types of scientific inquiry that
require planning and coordination,
and a large degree of control is in-
evitable and proper in applied re-
search. However, there are several
reasons why pure science in peace-
time cannot wisely or usefully adopt
some of the procedures that have
worked so well during the war. War
is an enterprise that lends itself al-
most ideally to planning and regi-
mentation, because immediate ends
are more rigidly prescribed than is
possible in other human activities.
Much of the success of science dur-
ing the war is an unhealthy success,
won by forcing applications of sci-
ence to the disruption or complete
displacement of that basic activity in
pure science which is essential to
continuing applications. Finally, and
perhaps most important of all, scien-
tists willingly suffer during war a
degree of direction and control which
they would find intolerable and stul-
tifying in times of peace.

It is the belief of this committee
that increased support of research in
American universities and nonprofit
institutes will provide the most posi-
tive aid to science and technology.
But we do not believe that any pro-
gram is better than no program — -
that an ill-devised distribution of Fed-
eral funds will aid the growth of
science. Our concrete proposals seek
to augment the quality as well as the

quantity of scientific research. We
believe that there are historical prece-
dents of Goyernment aid to research,
both in this country and abroad,
which show the possibilftv of pro-
viding, within the framework of
sound administrative practice, sus-
tained nonpolitical grants which
would operate in such a manner as
to call forth from existing institu-
tions even greater initiative, effort,
and accomplishment.

The organization or instrument
finally set up should not attempt to
play the role of an all-seeing, all-
powerful planning board trying to
guide in detail the normal growth-
processes of science. The first and
most essential requirement is that the
groups administering a program of
research assistance be composed of
men of the highest integrity, ability,
and experience, with a thorough un-
derstanding of the problems of sci-
ence. The committee believes that
an independent Government body,
created by the Congress, free from
hampering restrictions, staffed with
the ablest personnel obtainable, and
empowered to give sustained and far-
sighted assistance to science with
assurance of continuing support,
would constitute the best possible
solution.

It is our belief that the desired
purposes can best be served and the
possible dangers minimized by cen-
tering the responsibility for this pro-
gram in a new organization, a Na-
tional Research Foundation, whose
function should be the promotion of
scientific research and of the appli-
cations of research to enhance the
security and welfare of the Nation.

80

Part Two

Present Status and Trends In American Science

To aid in formulating policies of
assistance to research, it will be help-
ful first to analyze the important
types of scientific activity and to
sketch the deyelopment of the prin-
cipal types of American scientific
institutions.

A. The Nature of Scientific
Research

Scientific research may be divided
into the following broad categories:
(1) pure research, (2) background
research, and (3) applied research
and development. The boundaries
between them are by no means clear-
cut and it is frequently difficult to
assign a given investigation to any
single category. On the other hand,
typical instances are easily recog-
nized, and study of them reveals that
each category requires different in-
stitutional arrangements for maxi-
mum development.

1. Pure Research

Pure research is research without
specific practical ends. It results in
general knowledge and understand-
ing of nature and its laws. This gen-
eral knowledge provides the means
of answering a large number of im-
portant practical problems, though it
may not give a specific solution to
any one of them. The pure scientist
may not be at all interested in the
practical applications of his work; vet
the development of important new
industries depends primarily on a

continuing vigcuous progress of pure
science.

One of the peculiarities of [)ure
science is the variety of paths which
lead to productive advance. Many of
the most important discoveries have
come as a result of experiments un-
dertaken with quite different pur-
poses in mind. Statistically it is cer-
tain that important and highly useful
discoveries will result from some frac-
tion of the work undertaken; but the
results of any one particular inves-
tigation cannot be predicted with
accuracy.

The unpredictable nature of pure
science makes desirable the provision
of rather special circumstances for its
pursuit. Pure research demands from
its followers the freedom of mind to
look at familiar facts from unfamiliar
points of view. It does not always
lend itself to organized efforts and is
refractory to direction from above. In
fact, nowhere else is the principle of
freedom more important for signifi-
cant achievement. It should be
pointed out, however, that many
branches of pure science increasingly
involve the cooperative efforts of nu-
merous, individuals, and expensive
capital equipment shared by many
workers.

By general consent the discoveries
of pure science have for centuries
been immediately consigned to the
public domain and no valid prece-
dent exists for restricting the advan-
tages of knowledge of this sort to any

81

individual, corporation, State, or Na-
tion. All the people are the bene-
ficiaries. Go\'ernments dedicated to
the public welfare, therefore, ha\'e a
responsibilitN' for encouraging and
supporting the production of new
knowledge on the broadest possible
basis. In the United States this re-
sponsibility has long been recognized.

2. Background Research

The preparation of accurate topo-
graphic and geologic maps, the col-
lection of meteorological data, the
determination of physical and chemi-
cal constants, the description of spe-
cies of animals, plants, and minerals,
the establishment of standards for
hormones, drugs, and X-ray therapy;
these and similar types of scientific
work are here grouped together un-
der the term background research.
Such background knowledge pro\'ides
essential data for ad\ances in both
pure and applied science. It is also
widely used by the engineer, the
physician and the public at large. In
contrast to pure science, the objec-
tives of this type of research and the
methods to be used are reasonably
clear before an in\'estigation is under-
taken. Thus, comprehensive pro-
grams may be mapped out and the
work carried on by relatively large
numbers of trained personnel as a
coordinated effort.

Scientific work of this character is
necessarily carried on in all t\'pes of
research organizations — in universi-
ties, in industry, and in Government
bureaus. Much of it e\'olves as a nec-
essary byproduct either of applied
research or of dexelopment. Only
\'ery rarely, however, does the knowl-
edge obtained emerge in patentable
form and the public welfare is usu-
allv best ser\'ed by prompt publica-
tion of the results.

There seems to be little disagree-
ment with the view that these sur-
veys and descriptions of basic facts
and the determination of standards
are proper fields for Government ac-
tion and that centralization of cer-
tain aspects of this work in Federal
laboratories carries many advantages.
There are few private organizations
equipped to carry out more than a
small fraction of the research needed
in these fields. And it is obvious, for
example, that topographic maps are
most useful when maps for the entire
country observe similar rules in re-
gard to scale, contour lines, conven-
tional markings for roads, dwellings,
etc. Similarly, standard units for hor-
mones should be based on uniform
test procedures and be stated, so far
as is possible, in uniform units. The
Federal Government has recognized
these responsibilities in principle and
the Bureau of Standards serves as an
excellent example of how such work
can be carried out most efficiently.

Recent technical advance in such
fields as synthetic chemistry and in-
dustrial biology have resulted in a
stream of new compounds and mate-
rials too rapid for present laboratories
to catalogue. Many substances of
great potential usefulness are either
completely unknown, or their prop-
erties inadequately described. Com-
plex minerals such as coal, and a
wealth of agricultural products, are
composed of chemical compounds,
any one of which may become the
basis of a new industry. What is
needed is enough knowledge about
their potentialities to justify the pri-
\'ate investment necessary for their
practical application. If the problem
is left entirely in pri\'ate hands, prog-
ress may be very slow. At present,
only the larger industrial laboratories
have the capacity to engage exten-

82

sivelv in such research. It seems de-
sirable, therefore, for the Government
to arrange for work of this sort, either
in its own laboratories or in outside
institutions, and to make the results
of this research generally available in
a systematic manner.

3. Applied Research and Devel-
opment

Applied research and development
differs in several important respects
from pure science. Since the objec-
tive can often be definitelv mapped
out beforehand, the work lends itself
to organized effort. If successful, the
results of applied research are of a
definitely practical or commercial
value. The very heavy expenses of
such work are, therefore, undertaken
by private organizations onlv in the
hope of ultimately recovering the
funds in\'ested.

In several fields, admittedly, such
as agriculture and in various special
industries where the individual pro-
ducing units are small and widely
dispersed, the presence of a profit
motive does not ensure the existence
of adequate research and develop-
ment. The substantial research work
initiated by the Department of Agri-
culture has developed in response to
these special needs.

The distinction between applied
and pure research is not a hard and
fast one, and industrial scientists may
tackle specific problems from broad
fundamental \'iewpoints. But it is
important to emphasize that there is
a perverse law governing research:
Under the pressure for immediate re-
sults, and unless deliberate policies
are set up to guard against this, ap-
plied research invariably drives out
pure.

The moral is clear: It is pure re-
search which deserves and requires

special protection and specially as
sured support.

B. Development of Scientific Re-
search in the United States

During the colonial period of
American history, scientific work was
carried on in random, sporadic fash-
ion, and for the most part outside the
universities. Franklin and Jefferson
are outstanding examples of the type
of gifted amateur whose influence
upon American science continued to
be felt well into the nineteenth cen-
tury. In the first decades of the Re-
public, the older American colleges
began to gi\'e science increased at-
tention in the curriculum. But de-
spite the presence on their faculties
of such outstanding individuals as
the Sillimans, Louis Agassiz, and
Joseph Henry, it cannot be concluded
that the colleges were active centers
of research, or that science received
much emphasis in institutions which,
if they were not so exclusively con-
cerned with religious instruction as
heretofore, were still devoted to the
ideals of a liberal education along
the lines of strict classical and liter-
ary tradition.

With the college environment in-
imical or at least cool toward the
growth of scientific research, neither
Government support nor private en-
dowment was available in the United
States for the promotion of pure re-
search until late in the nineteenth
century. This is in marked contrast
to the principal European countries
where, almost without exception,
science was directly supported by the
governments. Gradually in response
to a steadily increasing need, the
Federal Government established the
scientific bureaus that it needed to
fulfill its obligations to the public.

83

During the course of the century it
created the Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey, the Naval Observatory, the De-
partment of Agriculture, and the
Geological Survey. In 1836, to cite
an early example of Federal support
of a scientific venture, the Wilkes
Exploring Expedition was authorized
"to expand the bounds of science and
to promote knowledge." But the
practical nature of all these acti\'ities
is evident. Despite several eloquent
expressions by scientific men of the
important long-run utility of sponsor-
ing pure science, the Congress turned
a deaf ear to all proposals for creating
scientific institutions having anything
but limited and strictly utilitarian
purposes. Washington's plan for a
national university, and the various
suggestions for a Government-spon-
sored academy or a national institu-
tion had the support of public figures
like Jefferson, Madison, and John
Quincy Adams but were unpopular
in Congress and were often strenu-
ously opposed by the older private
colleges.

If Government support for science
was not forthcoming, neither was
support from private gifts or bequests.
It is significant that the first consid-
erable sum for the support of pure
science came from a foreigner, the
Englishman James Smithson, with
whose bequest Congress — after de-
bating its acceptance and disposition
for nearly 10 years — created the
Smithsonian Institution.

As a result of the profound forces
which were converting America in
the last decade of the nineteenth cen-
tury from an essentially backward
agricultural Nation to a world power,
changes took place in our attitudes
toward science and learning and to-
ward the encouragement that should
properly be accorded them. The State

universities and land-grant colleges
grew and prospered through generous
public support. Science also became
one of the beneficiaries of the pri\'ate
fortunes built up in the later nine-
teenth century. Whereas earlier it
had been evident that only the Gov-
ernment could assume the burden of
erecting and supporting an astronomi-
cal observatory, there were now men
like James Lick with fortunes large
enough to build and endow such ex-
pensive centers of research. Equally
important were the contributions of
private philanthropy in developing
universities and in the direct support
of research through the creation of
nonprofit science institutions and
philanthropic foundations.

Two of our best-known privately
endowed institutions devoted to pure
research, the Carnegie Institution of
Washington and the Rockefeller In-
stitute, were created shortly after the
turn of the century. From the same
gigantic fortunes stemmed the Rocke-
feller Foundation and the Carnegie
Corporation. Their tremendous con-
tributions to the progress of scientific
research, not only in America, but
throughout the world, cannot be ex-
aggerated.

The latter part of the nineteenth
and the early twentieth centuries
witnessed the de\'elopment of the
American medical schools, which to-
day serve as research centers not only
for applied or practical medicine but
for fundamental research in many
biological problems which are basic
to medicine. The medical schools
appear to have been particularly at-
tractive objects of private philan-
thropy. Various factors, such as the
regulation of standards by the pro-
fession at large and the active inter-
est of two or three of the largest
foundations, haye gi\'en to the medi-

84

cal schools of the country a uniformly
ad\'anced status not enjoved hv other
di\'isions of our uni\crsities. In fact,
only in the case of medical schools
can the United States be said to excel
all other countries in the number of
first-rate research institutions per unit
of population.

Almost equally significant is the
growth of the Federal Government's
own scientific bureaus. The existing
agencies and departments, especially
the Department of Agriculture, un-
derwent an extraordinary develop-
ment. An outstanding feature was
the expanding program of grants-in-
aid to the State agricultural experi-
ment stations. The first decades of
the twentieth century saw the crea-
tion of a number of new scientific
bureaus and laboratories: the Bureau
of Mines, the Bureau of Standards,
and the National Institute of Health.
The First World War led to the crea-
tion of the principal service labora-
tories, the Na\'al Research Labora-
tory, for example, and the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
By 1932 the total Government ex-
penditure for research had risen to
over 40 million dollars, more than
double the figure for 1922.

But no factor in the gradual emer-
gence of American science from its
dependent state is more striking than
the growth of research laboratories in
industry. Prior to 1880 there were
few, if any, commercial laboratories
worthy of the name; but in the last
decades of the nineteenth century
powerful new industries, especially
in the electrical field, grew out of
basic technological discoveries and
the inventive genius of men like Bell,
Edison, and Elihu Thomson. Firms
in these new industries almost from
the outset adopted the policy of main-
taining their lead by energetic pro-

grams of scientific and technological
research resulting in patents based
in large part on the work of their own
laboratories.

The First World War provided a
further stimulus to the growth of
commercial laboratories by revealing
the inadequacies of our position in
industrial research as compared to
Germany, especially in the chemical
field. Much of our present chemical
industry, together with its vast re-
search potential, grew up in response
to needs which were demonstrated in
the war, aided by the availability of
patents seized from their former
German owners.

C. The National Research Budget

The over-all picture of the devel-
opment of research in the United
States, as reflected in the changed
structure and magnitude of the na-
tional research expenditures of the
last 15 years, is shown in table I and
in the corresponding figure I.

Since statistical information is nec-
essarily fragmentary and dependent
upon arbitrary definitions, most of
the estimates are subject to a very
considerable margin of error. Never-
theless, the following generalizations
seem warranted:

(1) Of the three principal groups
engaged in research, private industry
contributes by far the largest portion
of the total national expenditures,
with the Government coming next
and the educational institutions last.

(2) Research expenditures of in-
dustry, Government, and industrial
institutes have been expanding con-
siderably more rapidly (fig. I), than
research in uni\'ersities and science
institutes.

During the war, the Government
expanded its research budget from

85

$69,000,000 in 1940 to $720,000,000 dustry and to the universities. This

in 1944. Not all of this large increase resulted in changing the trend of

took place in Government labora- university research expenditures. The

tories. Substantial sums went to in- universities spent $28,000,000 on

Table

Scientific Research Expenditures and National Income

Year

National
income '

Industry ■

Nonprofit

industrial

research

institutes =

Government

(Federal
and State)'

Colleges
and univer-
sities "

Research
Institutes «

Total
scientific
research ex-
penditures

1920

Millions

$74,200
59,400
60,700
71,600
72,100
76,000
81,600
80,100
81,700
87,200
77,300
60,300
42,900
42,200
49,500
54,400
62,900
70 , 500
64,600
70,829
77,809
96,900
122,200
149,400
160,700

Thousands

$29,468

37,400

44 ,-000

50,000

58,000

64,000

70,000

75,928

88,000

106,000

116,000

131,320

120,000

110,268

124,000

136,000

152,000

160,000

177,168

200,000

234,000

Thousands

Thousands

Thousands

Thousands

Thousands

1921- - ..

1922

1923

$560

1,240

990

740

1,540

2,470

2,530

3,580

4,080

5,000

6,110

9,139

14,079

$15,615
16,336
18,087
16,995
17,119
17,757
22,825
24,066
26,945
40,081

1924

1925 -

1926

1927

1928

1929 -_. .-

1930

1931

1932

1933

$20,353
"24^840"

$5,212
5,218
5,159
4,887
4,767
4,785
4,701
4,635
4,596
4,531
4,549

$166,191
191^676

1934

1935

1936

1937

1938

1939

22,243
25,328
33,891
40,786
49,382

19,286

"25^660"

28^496'

171,836
"218^22
"263^722

1940

1941

69,136
207,259
332,151
561,507
719,813

31,450

345,245

1942

39,575

1943

1944

' Kuznets, Simon S., National Income and Its Composition, 1919-38, Vol. I (New York, National Bureau
of Economic Research, 1941), p. 137.

■ National Resources Committee, Research — A National Resource, Vol. II, Industrial Research (Washing-
ton, Supt. Docs., 1938), p. 174; Perazich, G. and Field, P., Industrial Research and Changing Technology
(Philadelphia, WPA, National Research Project, Rep. No. M-4, Jan. 1940), p. 65.

' Includes the industrial research institutes supported primarily by contributions from industry. Esti-
mated $5,000,000 spent by nonprofit industrial research institutes for 1939 and extrapolated for other years
by the Battelle Memorial Institute figures given in their publication Research in Action (Columbus, 1944),
p. 51.

' Report on Federal Government expenditures on scientific research. Excludes Federal grants to agricul-
tural experiment stations. 3 percent of Federal Government expenditures estimated as equivalent to scien-
tific research expenditures by the States, exclusive of their grants to agricultural experiment stations and
colleges and universities, which are included in the expenditures by the latter. 1940-44 Federal Govern-
ment figures do not include grants to "educational institutions and foundations."

' The National Resources Committee reported that $50,000,000 were spent on research by all colleges and
universities in 1935-36. Based on the surveys by the Bowman Committee, it was estimated that $25,000,000
of this were for expenditures on research in the natural sciences. The trend shown in research expenditures
of a large sample of universities and colleges was used to extrapolate for years other than 1936. Figures in-
clude grants from foundations and from the Government for agricultural experiment stations.

'Includes the endowed research institutes which are not connected with any industry nor an integral
part of any university, such as the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research, the Wistar Institute, the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, etc. The estimates
have been made upon published information and questionnaires. The trend shown in the institutions on
which complete information was available was used to extrapolate the research expenditures in other re-
search institutes. It was estimated that six institutes constituted 75 percent of the total expenditures.

86

research in 1938, while in 1943-44
the Office of Scientific Research and
Development, alone, contracted for
$90,000,000 of research in univer-
sities and colleges.

Certain problems which should be
considered in planning for a national
postwar research program, and some
guidance in meeting these problems,
can be ascertained from a study of
the basic prewar trends and relation-
ships. Particularlv important is a
studv of the relative expenditures for
pure and applied research. Accord-
ing to the best available estimates,
industrv before the war devoted
about 5 percent of its research
budget, or $9,000,000,^ and Govern-
ment about 15 percent, or $7,500,-
000, to pure research. Colleges, uni-
versities, and endowed research insti-
tutes spent 70 percent of their re-
search budgets, or a total sum of
nearly $23,000,000 in this way.

Total national expenditure for
pure science thus amounted to ap-
proximately $40,000,000 while that
for applied reached a figure of $227,-
000,000, a ratio of nearly 1 to 6. In
England, where the development of
industrial research is, admittedlv,

In the year 1938.

\'ery retarded, the corresponding ratio
of pure to applied research is esti-
mated at 1 to 1.2.-

In the decade from 1930 to 1940
applied research was expanding much
more rapidly in the United States
than was pure research. During this
period industrial research expanded
by 100 percent and governmental re-
search by 200 percent. Research in
colleges and universities increased
bv 50 percent, and the endowed re-
search institutes (which were pri-
marilv devoted to pure research) de-
clined bv nearly 15 percent. It may
be concluded, therefore, that since
governmental and industrial expendi-
ture is growing so rapidly, relative
to that of the universities, generous
support to university research is es-
sential if the proportion of pure to
applied research is to be maintained
at anything like the previous relation-
ship.

This support will have to include
substantial expenditures for capital
facilities. The great decline in capital
outlays of privately supported insti-
tutions is very striking.

- Computed from research budgets listed by
Bernal, J. D., The Social Functio}i of Science
(London, Routledge, 1939).

Annual Expenditures for Capital Outlay

All Institutions of Higher Education
Millions of Dollars

Privately supported

Publicly supported

Fiscal year

institutions

institutions

1929-30

$73.1

$36.6

1931-32

56.8

35.0

1933-34

18.1

11.4

1935-36

15.3

32.1

1937-38

29.6

40.9

1939-40

20.6

63.6

1941 42

19.8

31.8

Source: Biennial Surveys of Education (Washington, U. S. Office of Education).

87

Some portion of the new plant and
equipment constructed during the
last few years for the purpose of war
research can be converted to peace-
time uses. Nevertheless, a consider-
able amount of new investment will
have to be undertaken after the war.
There can be no doubt that such new
construction could constitute one of

the most productive kinds of public
and private investment.

Next to the achievement of an ade-
quate total volume of research activi-
ties and the establishment of a proper
proportion between its pure and ap-
plied phases, maintenance of a con-
tinuous and steady expansion should
be considered one of the most impor-

Figure

Expenditures for Scientific Research in the United States

Dollars Per $1,000 of National Income

>

•

iV

/

1

TQi

FAL / \

/

f

/

/ \

/

/

/ \_

y

•

^MENT •

1

GOVERh

/

P f

1

J

/

1

/

•

/ N INDUSTRY /

/

/
^ /

/■

/
/

^V

/

/

/

/

/

•

f

i

1

/

/

•

/

•

1

^ >. -

, ^

/\

.^
^

^ ^
•

/ \

/ COLLEGES AND

/ RESEARC

H INSTITUTES,^

J- -^rr.

,.^ UNIVERSITIES

.1.1

... 1

\ INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

\ . 1 INSTITIITFSN^ ^

0

1920

1925

1930

1935

1940

1945

88

tant objectives of a far-sighted na-
tional research poHcy. Idle scientihc
talent and a retarded rate of scien-
tific and technological progress have
been the usual result of economic
depression. Steady maintenance of a
generally high level of production
and emplovment would naturally ob-
viate the necessity of special stabili-
zation policies in respect to research
and technological development. In
the period of postwar transition and
possible temporary recession, how-
ever, increased governmental expend-
iture mav be necessary in order to
offset the probable reduction of re-

search activities in industry and in
prixately financed universities. Even
if such a temporary recession should
be much milder than the great de-
pression of the early 1930's, the abso-
lute reduction in the national re-
search budget would be substantial
since the general level of research is
now much higher than it was 15
years ago. It is urged, therefore, that
anv national scientific foundation
that is established should, as far as
is consistent with sound and equita-
ble policy, increase its grants for re-
search in periods of depression.

89

Part Three

Scientific Research in American Universities and Colleges

A. The University as a Research
Environment

Historical development has given
the sanction of tradition to the promi-
nent role plaved by the universities
in the progress of pure science. The
advent of the agricultural and engi-
neering schools has also increased
university interest and responsibilitv
in the field of applied research and
development.

Several factors combine to empha-
size the appropriateness of universi-
ties for research. The university as
a whole is charged with the responsi-
bilitv not onh- of maintaining the
knowledge of the past and imparting
it to students but of contributing to
new knowledge of all kinds. The
scientific worker is thus pro\'ided
with colleagues who, though they
may represent widely differing fields,
all have an understanding and appre-
ciation of the value of new knowl-
edge.

The long struggle for academic
freedom has provided our universities
with the means of protecting the sci-
entist from many of the immediate
pressures of convention or prejudice.
The university at its best proxides its
workers with a strong sense of group
solidarity and security, plus a sub-
stantial degree of personal and intel-
lectual freedom. Both are essential
in the development of new knowl-
edge, much of which can arouse
opposition because of its tendency to
challenge current beliefs and prac-
tices.

1. Present Status of Pure Re-
search in American Universities

The rapid expansion of university
education in this country during the
present century is encouraging, but
it is wise to remember that a large
part of this increase has been devoted
to undergraduate departments and
was especially designed to meet
increased teaching responsibilities.
More than any other country in the
world, the United States has under-
taken to provide higher education on
a broad base. There has been an even
more remarkable percentage rate of
growth in the number of students
taking postgraduate courses in Ameri-
can uni\'ersities. Development of re-
search has not, however, paralleled
this rapid expansion in teaching.

2. Backgrounds and Trends of
Financial Support to Universities

The support of our large private
universities and colleges has come
mainly from endowment gifts and
foundation grants. The prodigious
growth of our public institutions has
been supported by appropriations
from the various legislatures. Since
1929 fundamental changes in the
American tax and income structure
and decline in interest rates have
slowed down the rate of new private
gifts and endowment earnings. Stu-
dents' fees constitute an increasing
proportion of the total support of
private institutions, and capital out-
lays in those universities are definitely

90

on the downgrade. At the same time
research has become increasingh' ex-
pensive and man\' State legislatures
are finding it diBlcult to provide ade-
quate support for such activities in
their universities.

The science departments of univer-
sities have found it necessary, in view
of the decrease in gifts by individ-
uals, to relv more upon industrial
corporations for assistance. This may
imply the distortion of university re-
search in the direction of short-range
problems at the expense of more
fundamental research. Also the free-
dom of the university scientist may
be decreased by the introduction of
some degree of commercial control.
Undoubtedly, if proper safeguards
are maintained, cooperative research
performed for industry in universities
can be expected to increase in the
future to the advantage of both
parties concerned. But in this report
which wishes steadily to emphasize
the need for freedom in science, it is
well to speak of the need to guard
against control of science by industry
as well as against control of science
bv government.

If university research is to keep
pace with the growth of our economy,
if able people are to be attracted to
college research and teaching, it is
clear that new sources of financial
support must be found. Incomes of
other professions — doctors, lawyers,
dentists, engineers, etc. — have in-
creased considerablv during the war.
The cost of living has risen markedly.
For the first time the personal in-
come tax bears sharply on the middle-
income groups. And in the face of
these factors, professorial earnings
have been frozen at a level which
was not considered to be overgen-
erous 15 vears ago. A continuation
of this trend will certainly ha\'e an

adverse effect upon the recruitment
and retention of able university sci-
entists.

3. Immediate Effects of the War

The above trends were in evidence
even before the war. Yet in addition,
the present conflict has added a num-
ber of very special problems which
will dominate the situation for a
number of years to come.

First, and most important, has been
the virtual cessation of training of
new scientific personnel. As a result,
we must simply accept as axiomatic
the fact that there will be an insuffi-
ciency of fully trained young scien-
tists after the war and that it will
take a considerable period of time to
repair the deficiency.

The war has also created a serious
problem of reconversion and reha-
bilitation for the individual scientist.
The mature scholar, as well as the
advanced student whose curriculum
had to be interrupted, needs re-edu-
cation and readjustment. The prob-
lem is not simply one of returning to
the status quo ante helium. In many
cases the war has increased the re-
search time and opportunities of
American college scientists. Neces-
sarily the concentration in relatively
few centers of the bulk of war re-
search will, and should, be reversed
in time of peace. But it would defi-
nitely not be in the national interest
if the dispersal of research staffs away
from the largest institutions should
mean a marked reduction in the re-
search opportunities and effectiveness
of university scientists.

Teaching and research are comple-
mentary activities, each aiding and
reinforcing the other. But if too
much of the teaching is of a routine,
elementary character, and if the num-
ber of teaching hours is so great as

91

to absorb too much of the time and
creative eneroy of the scientists, then
the two acti\ ities become competiti\ e.
Before the war, in all but a few of
the most prosperous unixersities,
teaching loads were excessixe from
the standpoint of optimal research
output.' The need to make up for
the wartime deferment of training
may necessitate the "acceleration" of
educational programs to a three-term
basis for some years after the war.
again with harmful effects to re-
search.

To' the well-trained uni\'ersit\' sci-
entist now enoaoed in war work, the
immediate academic outlook may
haye lost some of its appeal, espe-
cially if he is research minded. For
during the war he has had. perhaps
for the first time in his life, the fa
cilities and assistance to carry on re
search in a really efficient wav. At
the same time, industrial laboratories

will be bidding eagerly for his serv-
er o

ices. Uni\ersity salaries tend to be
low compared with those in industry
and tKere has been a steady flow of
unix'ersity scientists into industrial
laboratories. Since one of the most
important fruits of pure research is
the creation of outstanding applied
research men, it is \ery much in the
national interest that this mo\ement
take place in some degree. But in the
immediate postwar period there is
danger that an undue number of
trained individuals may go into in-
dustry, stripping the uni\'ersities of
those who are most competent to
teach a new generation of research
workers. It is of the utmost impor-
tance, therefore, to maintain a fa-
vorable competiti\e position for uni-
x-ersities relati\'e to industr\'.

Paradoxically, increasing the teach-
ing load of uni\ersity scientists to

^ See appendix B.

meet postwar demands may intensify
the teaching shortage through its
tendencN to encourage transfers to
industry. A number of partial solu-
tions suggest themseh-es, each being
possible onK' if financial support is
a\'ailable to make research opportuni-
ties mcne plentiful and teaching more
attractixe. Numerous scientists on
war work may be encouraged to re-
turn to their unixersities; many of
the newly trained war scientists may
be encouraged to remain in the uni-
versities; competent scientists who
before the war were in institutions
with \'er\' little science teaching may
be transferred to the more active cen-
ters; finally, unixersities may decide
to alter teaching methods and size of
classes for at least a few years after
the war. These are important short-
run makeshifts. In the long run the
solution will be found in the training
of more scientists.

It is also \'itally important that
sufficient laboratory assistance, mate-
rials, apparatus, clerical and manual
aid be provided for those university
staff members who are undertaking
research in the natural sciences. It
is anomalous, to say the least, that
unixersities and colleges should hire
first-class scientists, equip them with
offices and laboratories, and then fail
to proA'ide them with the supple-
mentary funds necessary for produc-
ti\'e research. No industrial labora-
tory would be so imprudent as to use
the time of highly paid staff members
for doing shop work.

A survey was made by this com-
mittee to make possible a quantitative
comparison of the support of research
in universities, nonprofit research in-
stitutions and industrial laboratories
during the prewar \'ears. The aim
was to disco\'er just how nearly the
unixersities were approximating the

92

practice, in the use of research per-
sonnel, wiiich research institutes and
especialh industrial lahoratcMies had
found to be economical and cllicicnt.'
The results showed that, just prior to
the war, university science depart-
ments were spending on the direct
operating costs of research — appara-
tus, materials, technical assistance —
sums of the order of 10 to 40 cents
for ever\' dollar of salary paid to
members of the research staff. A fie-
ure of 15 to 20 cents per salary dollar
was typical of most departments. Fig-
ures abo\'e 30 cents were uncommon
and were considered to be distinctly
liberal by standards of current univer-
sity practice. By contrast, in a similar
survey of a number of industrial re-
search laboratories, a figure of 40
cents for direct research expenditures,
per dollar of salarv paid to the re-
search staff, was the lowest encoun-
tered.' In most of the firms report-
ing, the research expenditures ranged
from $1 to $3 for each dollar of sal-
arv. Industries ha\'e found that gen-
erous expenditures for assistance to
research workers are economical in
the long run. Clearly steps must be
taken to help the universities bring
their supplementary research expend-
itures more into line with the best
practice.

If the prewar support of research
in uni\'ersities was inadequate, the
postwar situation promises to be
worse, unless drastic remedies are
applied. In view of the wartime in-
crease of some 27 percent in the price
level of all goods,- each of the already
inadequate university research dollars
will go much less far than before the
war. It is as though every natural
science department had alreadv re-

^ See appendix B.

- B. L. S. Cost of Lh'ing Index, all items,
March 15, 1940, to January 15, 1945.

cei\ed a cut in its postwar research
budget ol from one cpiartcr to one-
third.

This prospect is serious lor all uni-
\'ersitics but i~)crhaps most acute for
the 25 universities just below the first
half dozen in size and resources. The
large wartime unix'crsity research lab-
oratories ha\'e drawn upon the inter-
mediate uni\ersities for staffs. Such
tried and experienced men can make
\'aluable contributions in their home
institutions if adequate funds are
made available. Here lies the imme-
diate opportunity from the Nation's
point of view, although much also re-
mains to be done at the highest and
lowest le\'els.

B. Form of Aid to Universities

Althou^ih the Go\'ernment mav
render important indirect aid to imi-
versities by keeping its own labora-
tories, libraries and other research fa-
cilities at a high level of efficiency,
the principal need is for direct finan-
cial support under conditions which
will not endanger academic freedom
and the personal independence of
the investipator.

This committee does not feel that
it is desirable to supply these funds
by a series of annual conoressional
appropriations for specific projects;
the difficulties these have raised
within the Government service testify
to the e\'ils that would be introduced
into the university environment by
this practice. The preservation of
academic freedom requires that funds
be allocated in a way that would
minimize the possibility of external
control and would encourage long-
term projects.

Experience in other countries and
the example of the successful private
foundations suggest that a largely
autonomous board with a staff of

93

men trained in science is the most
appropriate agency for carrying on
this phase of the Government's re-
sponsibiHtv for scientific progress.
Recommendations for the formation
of a National Research Foundation
and additional responsibilities with
which it mav be charged appear else-
where in this report. The following
paragraphs are devoted to an outline
of the committee's views respecting its
operation in relation to universities.

To give funds intelligently in sup-
port of fundamental research is a
difficult task and there is no gener-
ally accepted rule of procedure. The
private foundations follow a number
of different policies and' are con-
stantly revising their procedures on
the basis of accumulating experience.
A Government board would have
new and perplexing problems stem-
ming from its status as an arm of the
Government, and from the fact that
the resources at its command would
presumably be large in comparison
with those of any single university
or private foundation. The commit-
tee recommends, therefore, that such
a board be in large measure free to
formulate its own rules of procedure
for allocating funds to universities,
as long as these do not transgress
certain broad general principles.

The most important of these gen-
eral principles are as follows:

(1) The funds supplied to the
universities should be used for the
support of significant research with
special emphasis on the universi-
ties' position as the chief contribu-
tor to pure science.

(2) In making grants the board
should assure itself that the univer-
sity has competent and adequately
trained personnel to guide the
studies.

(3) Grants to uni\'ersities or to

men working in universities must
be made in such a way as to avoid
control of the internal policy of
the university, so that the univer-
sity and not the board will have
full responsibility for the admin-
istration of the grant after it is
once made.

(4) A constant effort should be
made to improve the general re-
search level in institutions of
higher education throughout the
country.

No matter on what conditions
money is given to universities, the
very existence of such support will,
of course, modify university policy.
In fact, the increased emphasis on
research, which will be the object of
the Foundation, itself constitutes a
change in policy. And despite the
fact that our committee is concerned
only with the natural sciences, action
along the lines proposed cannot fail
to have influence on the humanities
and the social sciences. It is our hope
and belief that the provision of funds
for the natural sciences would, in
some measure, free university funds
for use in the other fields. Aside
from such general influences, how-
ever, it would be necessary to devise
ways and means of allocating funds
in large measure without deterviining
what particular jirohlevis are to he
worked on and who is to carry theiii
otit. The principle of variety and de-
centralization of control is nowhere
more important than in scientific
work, where the fostering of novelty
must be the first concern. One of the
most useful ways of preserving these
opportunities is to allow the greatest
possible latitude to the accumulated
wisdom of university administrative
officers and faculties.

The committee has given a great
deal of thought to the technical form

94

in which Government grants should
be made in order best to reflect these
principles. It does not wish to recom-
mend that the proposed board be re-
stricted to the use of any particular
plan, as experience will undoubtedly
reveal in each defects and adx'antages
which cannot be predicted before-
hand. The committee, however, feels
that any instrumentality set up to aid
research in unix'ersities should be em-
powered to allocate funds in any or
all of the following ways:

1. Matching Grants to Private
and State Supported Institutions

It is proposed that research funds
be made available to accredited uni-
versities, colleges, and engineering
schools on a matching basis, and in a
manner that will be virtually auto-
matic. These grants would be con-
tingent upon satisfying the admin-
istrating board that certain clearly
stated requirements, largely of a tech-
nical bookkeeping nature have been
met by the particular institution in
question. The grant would be for
fluid research purposes within the
institution, rather than to any par-
ticular department or person. Once
a university were accepted as a par-
ticipant in this plan, and as long as
it continued to meet the required
conditions, it would expect to receive
the grant as a regular annual appro-
priation, with no other control than
some form of Government audit to
insure that the money was, in fact,
used in support of research. The
Government would match dollar for
dollar (or according to any other
simple formula) the sums the uni-
versity expended for research.

Although certain practical difficul-
ties must be recognized and dealt
with, many considerations make such
matching grants attracti^'e in princi-

ple. First, and perhaps most impor-
tant, it leaves to the recipient institu-
tion complete freedom in the selec-
tion of research programs and per-
sonnel. Second, it encourages local
support and utilizes the important
forces of local interest and pride, both
in screening out unworthy projects
and in carrying through worth-while
ones. Third, the size of the grant is
geared more or less realistically to the
ability of the institution to utilize it
effectively. Fourth, since the grants
are largely automatic in character, the
board is freed from the burden of
investigating intensively the large
number of potential recipients and
arriving at a decision in regard to
the merits and defects of each. The
experience of the private foundations
demonstrates that judgments of this
sort are extremely difficult and time-
consuming, even when pursued on
a small scale. The burden of work
for a Go\'ernment board with much
larger funds at its disposal is bound
to be far greater.

There is, of course, the practical
problem of determining research costs
as distinguished from other outlays.
University accounting practice is by
no means uniform and there are in-
herent difficulties in deciding what
part of the costs of laboratory space,
staff salaries, administrative overhead
and so forth is occasioned by research
and what part by teaching. Certain
funds now received by universities,
notably as a result of contracts with
industry, should almost certainly not
be matched by the Government, espe-
cially if the resulting discoveries were
to become the exclusive property of
the industrial donor. Difficulties of
this nature, however, are not insu-
perable and should not weigh heavily
against the many advantages of the
scheme.

95

2. Discretionary Grants

Matching grants, however, may
well be attacked as a method of main
taining the status quo, in which a
few universities tend to dominate
scientific research. It is, in fact, essen-
tial to the healthy growth of science
that the Foundation should help to
spread the research spirit as widelv
as possible throughout the United
States. If the recruitment of future
scientific personnel is to proceed from
a suflficientlv broad base, it is impor-
tant that as large a number of stu-
dents as possible be made aware of
the research point of view. Many of
our colleges and engineering schools
are not now able to support a signifi-
cant amount of research.-'' The level
of research practice in these institu-
tions can best be raised through dis-
cretionary grants.

The committee recommends, there-
fore, that the board of trustees be
empowered to expend a substantial
part of its funds on a discretionary
iDasis, either as grants-in-aid for prom-
ising special projects or in the pro-
vision of large and expensive capital
facilities.

a. Grants-in-aid

Much of the funds now granted
bv private foundations to universities
is in the form of grants-in-aid for spe-
cial purposes. These range in size
from a few hundred dollars for 1 year
to several hundred thousand dollars
for a period of 5 to 10 years.

A Government foundation with
larger sums at its command would
presumably be in a position to make
appropriations of considerable size
and for long periods of time. Indeed
the very magnitude of its responsi-
bilities would require that it abstain
from frittering away its efforts on a

^ See appendix B.

large number of small and transitory
projects.

Once proper precautions are taken
to avoid obvious pitfalls, several ad-
vantages of relatively stable grants-in-
aid argue strongly for their adoption
in certain circumstances. Of first im-
portance is the fact that they offer
what is probably the best means of
supporting promising projects in in-
stitutions whose present status does
not enable them to benefit sufficiently
under matching grants. In this con-
nection particular attention should be
given to attaining a better balance
of research activity throughout the
country.

h. Grants for Capital Facilities

It has already been pointed out
that any plans for expansion of re-
search in educational institutions will
require additional investment in
buildings and equipment. Increases
in the total number of students are
expected to bring student enrollment
considerably above prewar levels and
will bring great pressure on existing
facilities which are already over-
crowded. Substantial sums will there-
fore be required to provide adequate
facilities for advanced research.

In addition the trends in many
fields of scientific research point to-
ward the increasing importance of
large and highly expensive pieces of
equipment which, at present, can be
purchased and maintained only by
fa\'ored institutions. The astrono-
mers were perhaps the first to face
this problem, but now the physicist
wishes to work with a cyclotron or
betatron, and the biochemist with an
ultracentrifuge or mass spectrograph;
and workers in many fields have need
for the services of computing centers
or for the use of complicated calculat-
ing equipment, such as the differen-

96

tial analyzer. Much of present-day
engineering research requires large
installations of a semi-industrial na-
ture.

It is, accordingly, suggested that
the Goyernment could greatly aid the
course of both pure and applied re-
search by making ayailable these fa-
cilities to uni\ersities, vyith proyisions
that they should be used coopera-
tiyely by other institutions in the
region. A detailed proposal for the
management of such facilities will
probably need close study; and the
needs of each center should be
adapted to its peculiar local circum
stances.

This proposal appears to haye a
number of inherent ad\'antages: (1)
It proyides necessary facilities that
would not otherwise be readily ayail-
able, and an economical and demo-
cratic way of using them, (2) it rec-
ognizes the cooperatiye aspects of
modern research and proyides facili-
ties where workers could come to-
gether for a common effort and inter-
change of ideas, and (3) care in the
placement of such equipment would
immediately stimulate and strengthen
research efforts in hitherto less fa-
yored areas.

3. Postdoctoral Research
Fellowships

Another committee under the
chairmanship of Dr. Moe"* has made
a careful analysis of the problem of
recruiting and training future re-
search workers up to the leyel of the
doctorate. The Moe Committee is
recommending a substantial program

* The Moe Committee was appointed by Dr.
Bush to assist in answering the President's
question "Can an effective program be pro-
posed for discovering and developing scientific
talent in American youth so that the continu-
ing future of scientific research in this country
may be assured on a level comparable to what
has been done during the war?" (See Presi-
dent's letter.)

of undergraduate and predoctoral sci-
ence fellowships. We should like to
rcinlorce these recommendations by
stating our belief that the need for
additional personnel is one of the
most pressing which faces uniyersi-
ties, industry, and Goyernment. The
\'er)' heart of any successful program
of research is the existence of a strong
body of highly trained men. Ade-
quate funds can be of immense yalue
in giving a large number of qualified
persons the opportunity for the nec-
essary training and study. Not only
will pro\'isions for undergraduate and
predoctoral fellowships help supply
future workers, but grants in the lat-
ter category will immediately con-
tribute to the productive research
done in universities. Much of the
actual experimental work carried on
in these institutions is done by stu-
dents pursuing the Ph.D. degree
under the direction of mature inves-
tigators. Every additional qualified
student assistant thus increases the
effectiveness of the senior staff mem-
bers.

The Bowman Committee also
wishes to recommend a program of
post-doctoral fellowships as a direct
aid to research. The National Re-
search Council, with funds received
from the Rockefeller Foundation, has
for many years granted a number of
fellowships to research workers who
have recently received advanced de-
grees and wish a year or two more
to establish themselves firmly in in-
\'estigatiye work before taking up
extensive teaching responsibilities. A
notably high proportion of the recip-
ients have gone on to distinguished
careers in science or one of the allied
arts, notably in medicine. One of the
most important aspects of these fel-
lowships is that their holders have in
the majority of instances used them

97

for work at institutions other than
those in which thev obtained their
degrees. Thus, they not onlv broad-
ened their own training but contrib-
uted greatly to the interchange of
ideas and methods between labora-
tories. In the immediate postwar
period, an increase in the number of
these fellowships would be especially
important in re-establishing in scien-
tific work many men who had com-
pleted their formal education before
joining the armed forces and would
thus be ineligible for aid under the
G.I. Bill of Rights. The fellowships
should also be helpful in certain
fields of pure and applied science
where a combination of skills is re-
quired and where the cost of a
thorough training is prohibitive un-
der present conditions.

4. Senior Research Felloivships

Although scholarship and fellow-
ships such as those described above
have operated successfully on a fairly
large scale in the past, fewer oppor-
tunities exist for similar aid to the
mature investigator. One of the foun-
dations has for several years gi\'en
special attention to this field, and
shortly before the war the National
Research Council instituted the
Welch Fellowships in Medicine for
men of relatively advanced though
hardly mature academic status. In
the opinion of the committee, how-
ever, much more needs to be done to
enable really experienced investiga-
tors to develop and utilize their tal-
ents most effectively. The problem,
in fact, appears to be far beyond the
means of private resources. Research
workers who have reached the status
of assistant professor or above tend to
remain in their own uni\ersities and

their time available for research tends
to become increasingly broken up. In
theory, the sabbatical year gives an
opportunity for intensive research or
travel, but in recent years universities
have been less and less able to grant
such freedom from academic routine.
The resulting immobility of the sen-
ior staff serves to isolate the intel-
lectual life of a university from that
of its fellows, and the indi\'iduals
concerned, lacking outside stimula-
tion, may incline more and more to
perfunctory performance of routine
duties. The tendency of American
universities to select full professors
and department heads from within
their own staffs only aggra\'ates these
undesirable conditions.

Fellowships large enough to meet
the salaries of advanced academic
personnel for periods of intensive re-
search work at their own institutions
or at other universities would be an
effective means of attacking these
problems. Such grants offer an espe-
cially powerful tool for building up
research in institutions that are just
beginning to develop the research
spirit, either by enabling their facul-
ties to receive advanced training else-
where or by bringing distinguished
workers to them from other institu-
tions. An accompanying grant to
cover the use of research facilities
should be made to the institution
selected by the recipient of the fel-
lowship.

Efforts should also be made to
encourage mature scientists in indus-
try and government to avail them-
selves of the opportunity pro\ided in
this program to do fundamental re-
search in universities of their own
choice. This should help in part to
speed the transition between pure re-
search and its practical applications.

98

Part Four

Scientific Research in the Government Service

An analysis of the activities of the
various scientific bureaus gives con-
vincing proof that the recognized re-
sponsibihties of the Government in
scientific research are wide indeed.
The tvpes of research in u'hich it is
directly engaged mav be roughlv
classified under three headings: (1)
research that is essential to the effec-
tive operation of Government depart-
ments; (2) research of broad scien-
tific and economic importance that
has long-range value to the Nation
and for which the Federal Govern-
ment has assumed a large share of
the responsibilitv (particularlv impor-
tant has been Government research
for industries made up of manv small
units); and (3) technological re-
search of public concern, which is
either too expensive or whose success
is too problematical or too far distant
to attract the research efforts of com-
mercial enterprise. In this category
would also be placed research pro-
grams, requiring elaborate coordina-
tion, which the Government is pecul-
iarly well-fitted to direct.

Much of Government research is
of wide scope and long-range char-
acter. It is predominantly a team
affair, and often involves the corre-
lation and integration of a Nation-
wide effort, with the Government
enlisting the cooperation of investiga-
tors from industry and universities
throughout the countrv. The devel-
opment of the contract mechanism
for sponsoring research has been a
most important factor in this type of

cooperation. The planning, organiza-
tion and successful administration of
such far-reaching research programs
often raise problems much more com-
plex than those encountered in the
operation of laboratories devoted ex-
clusively to specific sciences.

The general problem of improving
the conditions under which the Gov-
ernment conducts research, and the
special problem of coordinating the
various scientific activities of the Gov-
ernment, has been previously consid-
ered by a number of other commit-
tees who have reported to the Gon-
gress or to the President. In 1884, a
committee of the National Academv
of Sciences reported to the Gongress
on the condition of several of the
most important scientific bureaus.
This committee recommended the
consolidation of the four agencies
under consideration into a single De-
partment of Science, or, if that were
not deemed practical, the creation of
an advisorv "permanent commission"
charged with coordinating and im-
proving the scientific services of the
Government. Neither recommenda-
tion was acted upon. In 1908, an-
other committee of the National
Academy recommended a permanent
board to advise on the work of the
scientific bureaus, the board to con-
sist of the heads of the various bu-
reaus, four delegates from Congress,
and "five to seven eminent men of
science not connected with the Gov-
ernment service." No action was
taken as a result of this report. A

99

temporarv Science Ad\'isor\' Board
was appointed b\' President Roose\ elt
in 1933 and asked to consider specific
problems of the organization of \'a-
rious scientific bureaus and to rec-
ommend a program for more acti\e
support of research by the Federal
Government. In the 2 years of its
activities, the board made man\ \alu-
able recommendations and brought
about useful improvements in the
Government service. The board sub-
mitted its first report in 1934 and
its final report late in 1935. In this
final report the board strongly rec-
ommended the creation of a perma-
nent science advisory board for the
scientific services of the Federal Gov-
ernment. Several years later the
National Resources Committee pub-
lished a study of Federal aids to re-
search and of the place of scientific
work in the Government.^ Findings
of these two committees have been
consulted freely in the preparation of
the present chapter. Suggestions from
research workers and research direc-
tors long connected with Government
bureaus afford a basis for recommen-
dations supplemental to those pro-
posed by the earlier committees.

A. Suggested Reforms

The special problems of the con-
duct of research by the Government
are made more difficult than is nec-
essary by the application to research
activities and to research personnel of
regulations designed primarily to gov-
ern custodial, regulatory, or other
functions of Government. Many of
these regulations and restrictions seri-
ously hamper successful prosecution
of research work by Government
agencies. If research is to be con-
ducted by Government, its distinc-

^ Research— A National Resource. I. Relation
of the Federal Government to Research.

t'ne character should be recognized,
and it should be freed from as many
as possible of these hampering restric-
tions. Fiscal and budgetar\' proce-
dures should be modified to fit the
particular needs of research work
rather than attempting to adapt re-
search procedures to inflexible regu-
lations applicable to other items of
Government expense. Ci\'il Ser\'ice
regulations should be modified to
permit the most advantageous pro-
cedures for recruiting and classifying
scientific personnel. Research bv
Government bureaus should be co-
ordinated with research in other pub-
lic and private scientific institutions.

1. Fiscal and Budgetary
Procedures

The scientific work of Government
bureaus could be assisted greatly by
simplifying procedures in order to
permit more effective use of the
funds appropriated for research. The
principal modifications suggested
here are aimed at granting wider
latitude and greater flexibility for
planning and executing sustained
research programs. The necessary
changes in procedure can probably
best be determined by a special com-
mittee composed of governmental
and nongovernmental scientists and
representatives of the budgetary or
appropriating authorities.

a. Appropriations for Long-Tenn
Programs

Current budgetary procedure of
Go\'ernment provides funds on an
annual basis, yet only a small per-
centage of the research conducted by
Government agencies can be planned
adequately or appraised satisfactorily
on a 1-year basis. Research programs
should somehow be assured in terms
of their long-run objectives. If ap-

100

pio\'Cc], funds should bo guaranteed
over the period of years neeessar\ to
permit e(Mitinuit\' of effort and attain
ment of these uhimate ohjeeti\es.
Appropriations should he in lump
sums for broad programs rather than
in speeifie sums lor detailed projeets.
Requiring detailed justiheations ot
an annual budget tends to stultify
research by ignoring its intrinsic un-
certainty. Appropriations within the
assured sum might then be made
available as at present in the annual
budget. This plan has attained lim
ited acceptance in certain depart-
ments of the Government, but the
procedure should be made uniform
throughout scientific bureaus. It
oives needed Hexibilitx' to research
programs and permits modification
to meet unexpected developments
which almost inevitably arise.

b. Cooperative Support of Research
hy Public and Private Agencies

The degree of cooperation by pub-
lic and private agencies in the finan-
cial support of research has never
been uniform in all departments of
the Go\'ernment. It should be made
a relatively simple matter for any sci-
entific bureau of the Government to
accept funds from State or local gov-
ernments, from nonprofit research in-
stitutions, or from private industry,
for cooperative scientific investiga-
tions that are in the public interest.

It is particularly important that
Federal research agencies should be
able to cooperate freely with State
and municipal governments. Many
problems of predominantly local con-
cern can be studied most advanta-
geously by State agencies, such as
agricultural experiment stations,
health departments, and mineral re-
source bureaus. To the extent that
the results of these studies are of
more than local interest, they should

rec(.'i\e fin.mcial support through the
I c'deral bureaus that are particularly
interested. The Federal Go\'ernment
should, perhaps, make a special efiort
to stimulate development of research
organizations in backward States.

c. Siniplificatioii of fiscal
Reoiilations

Government regulations resardina
the purchase of supplies and equip-
ment, while intended to assure econ-
omy and fair dealing to all, often
hamper research programs. The call-
ing for bids and the insistence on
purchase of the lowest-priced mate-
rial is no doubt fully justified for the
great bulk of Government supplies.
Nevertheless, the required proce-
dures do not always yield scientific
etjuipment of the best quality, and
the nominal saving is usually far out-
weighed by intangible losses in delay
and frustration of the research staff.
Liberalization of the rules for pur-
chase of scientific equipment is, there-
fore, recommended.

2. Operation of the Civil Service

The most important single factor
in scientific and technical work is the
quality of personnel employed. Sci-
entific and professional personnel in
Government service are now subject
to approximately the same system of
recruitment, promotion, and super-
vision as those in the clerical, fiscal,
and custodial positions. Separate and
distinct procedures for recruiting and
classifying scientific personnel are
warranted by the exacting technical
requirements in these services. No
one change from current practice
would do more to improve the qual-
ity of research conducted by the Gov-
ernment than the establishment of a
separate branch of the Civil Service
for scientific and technical positions.

101

The Civil Service was instituted to
replace the demoralizing "Spoils Sys-
tem" bv an orderlv merit system of
recruiting efficient personnel for Gov-
ernment service. It has been largely
successful in eliminating the "spoils-
men"; and any modifications designed
to improve present methods of recruit-
ing and protecting personnel must
not imperil the defense now afforded
against political influence and favor-
itism in making appointments. The
keystone of the merit system is com-
petition open to all qualified appli-
cants for a position; but the Civil
Service has been severely criticized
because of the slow and cumbersome
machinery necessary to insure this
competition. The general suggestions
offered here are designed to meet the
more serious of these criticisms with-
out undermining the essentials of the
merit system. The precise form of
changes needed in present Civil Serv-
ice procedures deserves study by a
special committee of governmental,
university, and industrial scientists
and representatives of the Civil Ser\ -
ice Commission.

a. Entrance Requirements for
Scientific Service

The standards for entrance into
scientific and professional positions in
the Government should be approxi-
mately those maintained for compara-
ble posts in universities and indus-
tries. Civil Service positions are sub-
jected to continuous political pressure
to relax entrance requirements; and
recently the educational requirements
for a number of scientific classifica-
tions have been removed. This opens
the way to possible appointments by
personal favoritism and political pref-
erence. Action should be taken im-
mediately to re-establish the require-
ment of a university or college degree
for entrance into all scientific and

professional services. Exceptions in
especially meritorious cases should be
granted only upon recommendation
of qualified scientists.

In many types of Government em-
ployment, standards are not lowered
by granting military preference to
candidates who have served in the
armed forces, although, strictly speak-
ing, such preference is a departure
from the merit system. In scientific
and technical services, however, in-
dividuals unable to qualify without
special preference are not really bene-
fited by appointment to positions
for which they are unqualified; and
when such appointments are made,
the work inevitably suffers. Any
lowering of entrance requirements,
whether for civilians or v^eterans, is
distinctly harmful to the scientific
services of Government.

b. Recruitment of Scientific
Personnel

The methods of recruiting for gov-
ernmental service presupposes a sup-
ply of able applicants for every posi-
tion to be filled. However, in the
years immediately preceding the pres-
ent war there was a shortage of able
young scientists. This shortage is
likely to be even more acute after the
war, because of the interruption of
training programs.

Government scientific bureaus are
under a severe handicap in compet-
ing with industrial laboratories which
employ college seniors bv the use of
the personal interview followed by
prompt appointment. This handicap
should be offset as much as possible
without jeopardizing the fundamen-
tal objectives of Civil Service. It
should be permissible for representa-
tives of Government agencies to in-
terview students and to persuade the
more able ones to apply for employ-
ment. The months of delay between

102

application, examination, and notifi-
cation of appointment should, if pos-
sible, be reduced to a few days.
College seniors could be given ap-
pointments effective on the day of
their graduation. The necessary safe-
guards could be maintained by a
longer period of probationary employ-
ment and by the requirement of suit-
able examinations before promotion
to higher grades. Government bu-
reaus could further improve their
chances of successful recruitment
from the colleges by making wider
use of temporary student appoint-
ments during summer \'acations.

c. Salary Scale

The opportunitN' for full-time scien-
tific work, freedom to publish results,
and the satisfaction of serving the
national interest attract many able
scientists to the Government service.
But salary scales must be broadly
commensurate with those of private
institutions if these scientists are ex-
pected to remain in Government serv-
ice. Entrance salaries in Go\'ernment
scientific positions are usually slightly
above this competitive level. How-
ever, promotion is slow in Go\'ern-
ment service, and the higher positions
carry salaries much lower than those
offered in industry. The present sys-
tem of efficiency ratings and promo-
tion procedures is designed to assure
fair and uniform treatment for all
governmental positions. But this sys-
tem is so elaborate that it requires
handling by many persons of non-
technical training. Furthermore, in
most branches of Go\'ernment serv-
ice, the higher salaries are almost
solely for super\'isory positions. As
a result, the senior professional posi-
tion, with a salary range of $4,600 to
$5,400 a year, is the highest ordi-
narih' attained by Government scien-
tists in nonadministrative positions.

Civil Service regulations should be
modified to permit exceptionally
qualified scientists to reach salaries
of $9,000 or more a year even though
thc\' ma\' not have important adminis-
trati\'e responsibilities.

It is sometimes said that one of the
most serious limitations of scientific
work b\' the Government is the in-
ability to pay salaries large enough
to get outstanding directors for re-
search organizations. Although no
legal restrictions, except the neces-
sity for congressional appro\'al, pre-
vent the employment of a director of
a research bureau at whatever salary
is deemed necessary, practical con-
siderations— such as comparison with
the salaries of Department Secretaries
and members of Congress — ine\'itably
impose limitations. In actual practice,
few research directors ha\'e received
more than $9,000 a year.

Under the stress of war needs,
when expert talent was urgently re-
quired, the departments of Govern-
ment, particularly the so-called "war
agencies," succeeded to some extent
in breaking down the tradition of low
Government salaries. Many technical
positions and salaries were, in effect,
up-graded; and this contributed sig-
nificantly to the flow of talent into
Go\'ernment ser\'ice during the war
emergency. A more general and per-
manent up-grading of positions and
salaries in the scientific services of
CTOvernment, accompanied by a care-
ful selection of new talent, would be
a major contribution to improvement
of the quality of research conducted
by the Government.

d. Security of Tenure

The security of tenure in Civil
Service is partial compensation for
the lower salaries in many types of
governmental employment, especially
during periods of depression. But if

103

scientific and professional personnel
are to be classified separately from
other Government employees, and if
they are to receive salaries approxi-
mating those of their colleagues in
universities and in industry, care
must be taken that this security of
tenure does not become a shelter for
incompetence and mediocrity.

Many of the more able and ener-
getic scientists in Government service
are offered higher salaries elsewhere.
Inevitably, a number of these offers
are accepted, with the result that the
less qualified employees tend to con-
stitute a larger proportion of those
who remain. Unless a research bu-
reau can replace such losses with
new employees of equal ability, it is
forced to operate with only the resi-
due of its scientific staff after continu-
ous raids. An additional handicap is
the difficulty, under Civil Service
regulations, of demoting or dismissing
incompetent, mediocre, or poorly ad-
justed individuals.

f-ligher standards for entrance into
scientific positions, longer and more
closely supervised periods of proba-
tion, examinations for promotions in
the lowest grades, with the alterna-
tive of separation from the service,
and higher salaries for the abler scien-
tists are some of the methods by
which the quality of scientific work
of the Government can be improved.

3. Coordination of
Governmental Research

The extensive development of the
sciences in recent vears, and the in-
creasing complexity of governmental
research, make it more difficult each
year to coordinate the scientific work
conducted by the Government and
to integrate governmental research
with that of universities, endowed in-
stitutions, and industrial organiza-

tions. Parallel investigations of cer-
tain important research problems are
to be encouraged rather than avoided,
and duplication should not neces-
sarily be the bugbear in science that
it is in other types of governmental
acti\ity. Ne\'ertheless, it becomes in-
creasingly important that the research
personnel of \'arious governmental
bureaus keep in close touch with one
another and with current technical
developments and public needs.

a. CoordinaUon of Research Within
the Government

A specific need is for an inter-
bureau committee or council of rep-
resentatives of the principal scien-
tific bureaus. Such a committee might
be set up under the Bureau of the
Budget, or other appropriate auspices,
to advise on interrelationships of re-
search programs of the different agen-
cies, and to compare the effectiveness
of different procedures for adminis-
tering governmental research. Recom-
mendations from such a committee
on policies of budget procedure or
of classification of scientific personnel
should carry more weight than the
recommendation of a single bureau.

The practice of utilizing scientific
employees of one bureau as con-
sultants for other bureaus is difficult
under existing regulations. But if this
practice were generally adopted, it
would further coordination of re-
search programs by disseminating
more widely a knowledge of the re-
lated problems under investigation by
\'arious agencies and of the different
methods by which these problems
are being attacked.

b. Coordination of Governmental Re-
search with Outside Organizations

There is a widespread impression
that a research project, once started

104

bv a Go\crnmcnt hurcaii, uvax con
tinue long after it has served its origi-
nal purpose. Research jirojects need
continuous reappraisal in the light of
scientific ad\ance and technological
developments. Orderh re\'ision of re
search programs should be the normal
and expected result of scientific [irog-
ress. The danger that a research bu-
reau ma\ fail to revise its programs
or its methods when thev become
obsolete is minimized most surelv bv
encouraging members of the scien-
tific staff to maintain close contact
with their professional colleagues
elsewhere. Government emplovees
engaged in research should be en-
couraged to participate in the activi-
ties and publications of national
scientific societies. This means,
among other things, more liberal
funds for tra\'el to scientific meetings,
f^urthcrmore, it should be legallv pos-
sible for anv Government bureau to
keep in close touch with modern
ideas within its field of science bv
assigning emplovees on full pav for
graduate work at universities or for
research projects to be conducted at
endowed or industrial institutions or
at official research organizations in
this or other countries. Scientists
from uni\'ersities, research institu-
tions, State agencies and industrial
organizations should be invited to
accept appointments for short-term
projects in Government bureaus.
Facilities should likewise be ex-
tended to visiting scientists from for-
eign countries.

c. Clarification of Patent Policy for
Government Employees

The present policv of granting
patents to the emplovees of some
Government bureaus for inventions
in the field of the bureau's official
duties does not instill public confi-

dence in Government employees nor
encourage industr\' to share new in-
lormation v\ith Go\'ernmcnt agencies.
Attention should be given to the
recommendations of the National
Patent Planning C'ommission that all
inventions made within the specifi-
cally designated chities of Govern-
ment employees be assigned to the
Government and that doubtful cases
be decided by a central board on
Government patents.^

4. Advisory Committees to the
Separate Bureaus and a Perma-
nent Science Advisory Board

Many of the changes here recom-
mended to assure proper coordination
of governmental research and raise
the le\'el of its performance depend
in considerable measure upon the ex-
istence of ad\'isory committees to the
several scientific bureaus. The excel-
lent service rendered bv the several
advisory committees already in exis-
tence has demonstrated the \'alue of
these bodies. Their use, however, is
not universal, and at present only
the more progressive bureaus actively
seek outside advice. It is therefore
urged that advisorv committees, com-
posed of scientists from outside the
Government service, be established
for each of the bureaus or agencies
in which extensive research is being
conducted.

There has been ample experience,
also, to demonstrate the need for a
permanent Science Advisorv Board,
similar to the body which served so
successfully on a temporary basis
from 1933 to 1935. Such a central
board could correlate the activities of
the specialized advisory committees,
and would probablv be the proper

^ See Second Report of the National Patent
Planning Commission (Washington, 1944), pp.
10-12.

105

body to recommend the personnel of
the various committees. It would be
in a position to advise Congress and
the Bureau of the Budget on the
qualitv and importance of research
being conducted bv the bureaus. Bv
being able to relv upon the disinter-
ested advice of such a bodv, Congress
might be willing to appropriate sums
for long-term programs of basic re-
search whose importance it is difficult
or impossible for nontechnical per-
sons to evaluate properlv. Besides
consulting with the bureau chiefs on
their individual or collective prob-

lems, the board would find it helpful
to meet at stated intervals with the
interbureau committee proposed ear-
lier in this chapter.

We add our recommendation to
those of earlier committees and
strongly urge the creation of a per-
manent Science Advisory Board, em-
powered to assume over-all re-
sponsibility for advising the various
branches of the Government in scien-
tific matters. We suggest that this
board cooperate closelv with the
National Research Foundation.

106

Part Five

Aids to Industrial Research and Technology

Industrial research in America has
enjoyed a rapid and extensive growth.
There are also widespread indications
that industry is planning to undertake
applied research on a greatly ex-
panded scale in the postwar period —
an encouraging and wholesome pros-
pect. At the same time it is evident
that research in American industry
is concentrated to a considerable ex-
tent in a relatively small number of
industrial units and in a few particu-
larly progressive industries. Thirteen
companies emploved nearly one-third
of all industrial research personnel
in the year 1938. In the rubber in-
dustry, one-quarter of the companies
emplo\'ed 90 percent of the research
workers, while in petroleum and in-
dustrial chemicals the respective per-
centages were 85 and 88. This is not
to suggest that there should be a
considerable degree of uniformity
among the units of an industry or
between industries as to the percent
age of research effort in each. But
the implications of the increasing
concentration of industrial research
in this country deserve special study.

One important fact is clear — the
process of transition from pure re-
search to its practical application does
not work equallv effectively in all in-
dustries. For example, the petroleum
industry has for years supported far
more research than has the coal in-
dustry. New technical developments
in the petroleum field have made it
possible to carry on an increasing
amount of research while the relative

backwardness of the coal industry,
where small units predominate, has
resulted in fewer and fewer new de-
velopments and a less and less
healthy over-all situation.

Time did not permit an intensive
and well-rounded investigation of
this subject. The Committee feels
strongly, however, that the National
Research Foundation should be
charged with the responsibility of
studying the process of technological
development in industry and of ex-
perimenting with methods of aid to
industrial research. The following
suggestions are tentative and submit-
ted with the thought that they might
be of assistance to the Board in meet-
ing this important challenge.

A. Assistance to Technical Clinics
for Small Business Enterprise

It is the belief of the Committee
that the most effective research wells
up from below. Our objective, there-
fore, should be to develop as many
indi\'idual centers of research initia-
tive in industry as is possible. The
seeds of industrial research that are
planted now in small, vigorous indus-
trial enterprises may yield tremendous
returns in the future. There is con-
siderable difficulty, however, in get-
ting research started in enterprises
which have not been research-minded
in the past.

To meet this need a number of
special research clinics have been es-
tablished in different regions, e. g.,

107

the New England Industrial Re-
search Foundation. These clinics
make their services a\'ailablc to the
small business concerns of the region
in which they ser\'e. It is difficult to
place this type of enterprise entirely
on a self-supporting basis especially
where its important promotional ac-
tivities are concerned. The Com-
mittee believes that this moxement
should be encouraged. It therefore
recommends that the National Re-
search Foundation be empowered to
make sustaining grants to cover part
of the administrative costs involved
in such organizations, provided they
are run on a nonprofit basis.

The acti\'ities of such ser\ices
should include stimulation of busi-
ness interest in research and technical
developments, aid to small businesses
in interpreting the trends in technical
de\'eIopments, consultation with in-
dividual concerns to aid them in a
diagnosis of their technical problems,
and maintenance of a directory serv-
ice to put small businessmen in touch
with competent individuals and
proper sources of information neces-
sary for further work.

Unix'crsities, engineering schools
and nonprofit industrial research in-
stitutes should be eligible to receive
grants from the National Research
Foundation to perform such services.
Insofar as possible, organizations with
grass-roots foundations standing high
in communit\' prestige and offering
a substantial background in actixe
research work, should be selected.
The staff of such a clinic might in-
clude a limited number of full- or
part-time indixiduals for general pro-
motional and ach'isory work; but there
should also be available a panel of
experts in as many fields as possible
for counsel on specific problems.

War experience has demonstrated

that such organizations must be able
to bring their information directly to
the plant. It is believed that in the
proper hands such services will prove
very helpful and can be of significant
value in the long run in developing
\'igorous new research organizations
and reducing the existing concentra-
tion of research in a relatively small
number of companies.

B. Grants to Nonprofit Industrial In-
stitutes for Fundamental Research

In recent years an increasing num-
ber of industries in which research
has lagged in the past have attempted
to meet the problem by establishing
special research institutes to serve the
industry. Such institutes are usually
supported by annual grants from in-
di\'idual business concerns. One of
the difficulties that these institutes
have faced is the pressure for short-
range accomplishments. In conse-
quence, research undertaken has not
been sufficiently basic to achieve the
most significant results. It is sug-
gested, therefore, that where non-
profit industrial institutes are deemed
capable of undertaking important
long-range research they should be
eligible for grants for fundamental
research from the National Research
Foundation.

C. Encouragement for New
Scientific Enterprises

In addition to these recommenda-
tions, some members of the Com-
mittee feel that special steps should
be taken to encourage the launching
of small scientific enterprises. Other
members, while sympathetic to these
objectives, do not believe that any
practical method could be devised for
handling such problems through a
Government agency.

108

Those members of the Committee
who fa\or taking some positi\ e action
to help launch new scientific enter-
prises bcheve that greater opportuni-
ties should be pro\'icled to indi\iduals
who are primarily interested in new
applications of recent advances in
pure science rather than in basic in-
quiry itself. This thought has been
elaborated by one of the members
of the Committee in the following
terms:

The country needs new types of indus-
trial activity. We should not be satisfied
with the cvcle of displacement of one good
technical product made of metal by the
same product made of plastic, and so on,
in a rather unimaginative utilization of
fundamental developments. What is re-
quired is the rapid invention and evolu-
tion of the peacetime analogues of jet-
propelled vehicles, bazookas, and the mul-
tiplicity of secret, bold developments of the
war.

New types of industrial activity could
be aided if students of engineering and
science were strongly encouraged at the
undergraduate stage to study unsolved
technical problems and to invent solutions
for them. On graduation those young men
who wish to strike out for themselves
should have the opportunity to complete
their inventions, both theoretically and
practically, in an actual enterprise. In
large industrial organizations which pro-
vide the principal outlet for such men
there is a long path of duty which the
young scientist must pursue before he can
become very effective in original contribu-
tion. Furthermore, most large industrial
concerns are limited by policy to special
directions of expansion within the well-
established field of activity of the com-
pany. On the other hand, most small
companies do not have the resources or
the facilities to support "scientific pros-
pecting." Thus the young man leaving
the university with a proposal for a new
kind of industrial activity is frequently not
able to find a matrix for the development
of his ideas in any established industrial
organization.

Neither is it always satisfactory that
such a potential scientific entrepreneur
remain in the university for graduate work.
The Ph.D. degree in the American univer-
sity may not best fit a man for such a
career; it makes him a good scholar but
may dampen his early leanings in the di-
rection of the commercial development of
his ideas.

The Committee was not able to
agree on a solution to this problem.
The matter was regarded as of suffi-
cient importance, however, to justify
careful investigation by the National
Research Foundation in the hope that
it might be able to devise special
methods and techniques of encour-
aging young scientists in the de-
velopment of their inventions and
in the launching of new scientific
enterprises.

D. Strengthening the Patent System

Patents are the life of research. No
study of the aids to research or the
incentives to research would be com-
plete without an inquiry into the
manner in which the patent laws and
the patent system of this country
might be strengthened. The Com-
mittee has given its attention to this
important problem and has advised
Dr. Bush informally of its views on
this subject.

No detailed recommendations on
the patent aspects of research are
herein contained since Dr. Bush is
independently making a study of this
problem looking to a separate report
to the President. This Committee
wishes to emphasize, however, the
very vital importance of a strong
patent system to the development of
new and active small enterprises and
the stimulation of healthy scientific
research.

109

Part Six

Taxation and Research

Federal corporate income taxes
have an important bearing on the
amount of scientific research and
new-product development undertaken
by private enterprises. An examina-
tion of the present treatment of re-
search and development expenditures
for tax purposes is therefore an im-
portant aspect of a study designed to
determine, as requested bv President
Roose\'elt, what the Government can
do to aid research acti\'ities conducted
by private organizations.

A. Present Tax Treatment of Re-
search and Development
Expenditures

The deduction of research and
development ex-penditiires as current
charges against net income is gener-
ally permitted bv the Bureau of In-
ternal Revenue. In broad terms the
policv of the Bureau appears to be
as follows: Firms that spend approxi-
matelv the same amount on research
and development work vear after
year and consistentlv claim these ex-
penditures as deductions from cur-
rent income seldom have substantial
amounts of their claims disallowed.
On the other hand, where the
amounts spent on research and devel-
opment fluctuate widelv from year
to year and where the taxpaver does
not follow a consistent accounting
practice in handling research and de-
\'elopment expenditures, the Bureau
tends to question more closelv the
taxpayer's treatment of such expendi-
tures. This policy may sometimes re-

sult in a less favorable treatment for
new and small companies than for
large, established companies.

1. Uncertainty in Minds of
Taxpayers

Manv taxpavers believe that in re-
cent years the Bureau of Internal
Revenue has been adopting an in-
creasingly critical attitude toward the
deductibility of research and devel-
opment costs. This impression, so far
as the Committee can determine, is
not the result of any deliberate
change in the policv of the Bureau.
Rather, it has probablv arisen from
the justifiable tendency of the Bureau
to review more closelv all items af-
fecting taxable income in vears of
high tax rates.

The uncertainty on the part of tax-
payers is heightened by the fact that
the tax law and Treasury regulations
do not clearlv specify the proper
treatment of research and develop-
ment costs. There are relativelv few
court cases on the problem; moreover,
existing cases seem to support the
view that many research and develop-
ment costs are capital expenditures.
Consequently, if the Bureau should
abandon its present liberal policv and
attempt to enforce the capitalization
of research and development costs
wherever possible, its action might
well be sustained in court.

If research and development costs
were required to be capitalized, thev
could presumably be amortized over
their useful life. The task of de-

110

termining the proper basis of amorti-
zation would, however, be extremely
difficult and frequently impossible of
solution. If the tax law were very
narrowly interpreted, it is conceiv-
able, although not likely, that the
difficulty of determining a proper
basis for amortizing capitalized re-
search costs might make it impossible
for such costs ever to be deducted for
tax purposes. The Treasury regula-
tions now permit intangible assets to
be amortized only when the useful
life of the asset can be determined
with reasonable accuracy.

Since a delay of several years ordi-
narily occurs before a tax return is
finally audited and closed by the Bu-
reau of Internal Revenue, the un-
certain status of the deductibility of
research and development expendi-
tures can involve very large sums of
money. Small firms making heavy
research expenditures, in particular,
are restricted by this uncertainty in
their commitments for fixed invest-
ments.

2. Proper Accounting Treatment
of Research and Development
Costs

No simple, universally applicable
principles can be laid down as to the
proper accounting treatment of re-
search and development costs. Some
research costs are clearly current ex-
penses: they either turn out to be
worthless or merely enable the tax-
payer to keep abreast of his com-
petitor. Other research expenditures
may improve the long-run position of
an enterprise, but the amount of the
expenditures properly allocable to a
given product, and the proper basis
of amortization of these expenditures,
may be almost impossible to deter-
mine. In a few cases such as, per-
haps, the development of a new

model of an airplane, the capital
nature of the expenditure may be
fairly obvious, and it may be possible
to determine a reasonably satisfactory
basis for amortizing the expenditure.
Even in such instances, however, it is
frequently impossible to determine in
the year that a given expenditure is
made whether a valuable capital asset
will be developed.

3. The Public Interest

This report assumes that the stimu-
lation of research and development
work, especially by small enterprises,
is in the national interest. It there-
fore follows that the present tax un-
certainties of research expenditures
should be removed. The case for
taking this action is particularly
strong since, for the most part, all
that is needed is a specific legal sanc-
tion of the present Treasury practice.

B. Recommendations for Legislative
Action

Recommendation (1). — Deductibil-
ity of expenditures on research and
development (other than expendi-
tures for the acquisition of tangible
capital assets). The Internal Revenue
Code should be amended to give the
taxpayer in every taxable year an
option :

(a) To deduct currently all expen-
ditures on scientific research and the
development of new products and
processes, other than expenditures for
the acquisition of tangible capital
assets; or

(h) To capitalize such expendi-
tures as deferred charges and amor-
tize them according to a specified
plan that in the judgment of the tax-
payer is deemed reasonable; or

(c) To deduct currently such part
of these expenditures as in the judg-

111

ment of the taxpayer is deemed to be
a current cost and to capitalize the
remainder as deferred charges and
amortize them according to a speci-
fied plan that in the judgment of the
taxpayer is deemed reasonable.

This recommendation appears to
be clearly desirable. Its primary effect
would be to give clear legal sanction
to present practice and hence to re-
move the uncertainty of the present
law. A secondary effect would be to
give the taxpayer more flexibility in
the deduction of research and devel-
opment costs. Verv little change in
current practice, however, would ordi-
narily result from the increased de-
gree of flexibilitv. Most taxpayers
would continue their present policy
of treating research and development
costs as an annual expense. Since no
simple rule, properly applicable to
all cases can be devised, it seems wise
to give the taxpaver considerable free-
dom of action.

Recovimendation (2). — Amortiza-
tion of expenditures for the acquisi-
tion of tangible capital assets used for
scientific research and the develop-
ment of new products and processes.
The Internal Revenue Code should
be amended to give the taxpayer an
option :

(a) To amortize the cost of tan-
gible capital assets used for scientific
research and the development of new
products and processes in equal
amounts over a period of five years; or

(h) To depreciate such assets at the
same rates as ordinarily allowed on
such assets.

Recommendation (2) provides for
an optional accelerated amortization
of tangible capital assets acquired and
used for the development of new
products and processes. As such, it is
consistent in purpose with recom-
mendations made by the Roosevelt

Administration for the accelerated
amortization of all depreciable assets.
The present recommendation would
not, however, raise many of the diffi-
culties of the general proposal, since
it would apply to only a very small
percentage of fixed assets and hence
would not significantly affect the
revenue yield of the tax structure.

In general, expenditures for the
acquisition of tangible capital assets
constitute a minor fraction of all out-
lays on research and development.
Moreover, in some instances at least,
research equipment is alreadv depre-
ciated at a rapid rate. Nevertheless,
this recommendation has been sup-
ported bv most of the businessmen
whose opinion on the proposal has
been obtained.

C. Broad Tax Considerations

The preceding sections of this re-
port have been confined to issues
related directly to the treatment of
research and development expendi-
tures. Two broader tax revisions,
clearlv desirable on other grounds
than for the sole purpose of promot-
ing research and development work,
would be verv helpful in stimu-
latino increased research and devel-
opment expenditures. Consequently,
the Committee concurs in the recom-
mendations that have already been
made by other groups:

(1) That immediate legislative ac-
tion be taken to make the tax refunds
from the carrv-back provisions and
from the postwar refund of 10 per-
cent of excess profits taxes more
promptlv available to taxpayers dur-
ing the transition period; and

(2) That the net operating loss
carry-over provided by the present
tax law be increased from 2 years, to,
at least, 5 or 6 years.

112

Part Seven

International Scientific Cooperation

Perhaps more than any other na-
tional activity, scientific research and
development depend upon close rela-
tionships with other countries. Scien-
tific knowledge is not limited by
geographical or racial boundaries, and
it is almost impossible to think of
any branch of science which has
progressed very far without amalgam-
ating discoveries made in several
different nations. In the past, most
of this interchange has gone on in-
formally and directly between the
members of the scientific communi-
ties concerned, without regard to
political considerations. Certain obvi-
ous barriers such as that of language
have hampered free communication,
but, on the whole, relations between
scientists have probably been closer
than between the representatives of
anv other segment of society.

The growth of science in the last
few decades and its increasingly close
relationship to other national inter-
ests have demonstrated the need for
more official methods of carrying on
international scientific activity.

A. Support and Sponsorship of
International Cooperative
Scientific Enterprises

That this country has never pro-
vided any method of participating
ofhciallv in international scientific

J

enterprises has frequently been an
embarrassment to various scientific
groups. If the present tendency, in
other countries, of closely integrating

science with Government continues,
the need will exist for some official
body to carry on international scien-
tific activities. (A good example of
such an activity was the so-called
"International Polar Year" in which
several countries, interested in the
compilation of scientific data of the
Arctic regions, pooled information and
techniques. This cooperation gave
added value to the results of the study
by providing uniform methods of ob-
servation and presentation of the data
collected.) The Government could
not onlv provide some modest financ-
ing for such international cooperative
projects, but it could also facilitate
them by arranging for means of
travel, visas, and so forth.

It is therefore recommended that
the National Research Foundation be
charged with the responsibility of
participating in such international
cooperative scientific enterprises as it
deems desirable.

1. International Scientific
Congresses

The Foundation should also par-
ticipate in arrangements for interna-
tional scientific conferences whereby
scientific workers in different coun-
tries may be brought together to ex-
change ideas. These were held more
or less regularly before the war and
were found to be stimulating and
useful forms of assistance to the ad-
vancement of science. As far as the
United States was concerned, how-

113

ever, its representatives were fre-
quently hampered, especially when
they were acting as hosts for confer-
ences held in this country, by the
lack of Go\ernment financial aid and
by difficulties in arranging for official
courtesies relating to the travel of
outstanding men from abroad and for
other marks of official recognition
which are commonly available in
Europe. An organization such as the
National Research Foundation could
be very helpful in making these
arrangements.

2. International Fellowships

If the Foundation is set up as sug-
gested, it would be empowered to
grant scholarships and fellowships to
qualified scientists. It is recom-
mended that attention be given to
awarding some of these fellowships to
Americans who wish foreign travel
and study, and to scientists from
abroad to undertake advanced re-
search in this country. Private foun-
dations have found this to be an
excellent way not only of aiding
scientific progress but of promoting
international understanding as well.
Holders of such fellowships are likelv
to be disinterested representatives of
their countries and well equipped to
observe the national life of the coun-
try thev visit. Such a program should

be undertaken with particular care
to avoid specialized political or per-
sonal interests, and it would be well
to draw freely upon the experience
of the National Research Council or
the private foundations which have
been successful in this field in the
past.

3. Scientific Attaches

The Committee would like to sug-
gest, as an experiment, that scientific
attache's be appointed to serve in cer-
tain selected United States embassies.
They should be men of high profes-
sional scientific attainments whose
tenure of the post would be tempo-
rary— perhaps 1 or 2 years — and
whose principal duties would be con-
cerned with facilitating the various
aspects of scientific cooperation dis-
cussed above. It is also expected that
in less formal ways they would im-
prove their knowledge of science as
it is pursued abroad and would in
turn contribute something from their
experience in this country. Such a
post \yould appear to be most impor-
tant in countries such as Russia
where a great deal, if not all, of the
scientific activity is controlled or di-
rected by the government and where
other channels of scientific communi-
cation ha\'e been greatly restricted for
several vears.

114

A National Research Foundation

Part Eight

As a means to implement the rec-
ommendations of this report, it is
proposed that the Congress should
create a National Research Founda-
tion. The function of this new Fed-
eral agency should be to assist and
encourage research in the public in-
terest by disbursement of funds allo-
cated by the Congress for that pur-
pose. Its board of trustees should be
eminent men who are cognizant of
the needs of science, and experienced
in administration. The members of
this board should be appointed bv the
President of the United States from
a panel nominated bv the National
Academy of Sciences.

It is proposed that the Foundation
be given an original nonearning capi-
talization of $500,000,000, to be
called and expended, with the ap-
proval of Congress, over not less than
10 years. As has been discussed ear-
lier in this report, scientists and edu-
cators emphasize the cardinal impor-
tance of creating a board which (1)
can budget its expenditures over a
considerable period of time; (2) will
not be subject to review in detail by
the legislature, and (3) will be able
to withstand political pressures. The
British University Grants Committee,
which has been operating successfully
for many years with funds supplied
by Parliament and whose postwar
role is undergoing great expansion,
serves as one of many examples cor-
roborating the desirabilit\' of the
above features. It should be clearly
understood, however, that the present
committee does not recommend any
instrumentality which would not be

accountable to the President, the
Congress, and the public for its
operations.

A. Organization

The board of trustees should com-
prise about 15 members, each serving
on a part-time basis, with remunera-
tion at the rate of $50 per diem when
on official duty, plus necessary travel
and subsistence expenses. The term
of office should normally be for 5
years and no retiring member should
be eligible for reappointment until
after a lapse of 2 additional years.
In order to insure continuity, there
should be a staggering of the terms
of office of the various members. Ir
is suggested, therefore, that at the
outset the first appointments be for
\'arying periods of time. Because the
progress of science depends in great
measure on the vigorous and progres-
sive abilities of younger men, the
Committee suggests that in making
appointments to the board and in its
policies on retirements an effort be
made to keep the age distribution
such as to assure dynamic leadership.

The board should have the power
to appoint an executive director of
recognized ability who would be a
full-time officer, receiving a salary
commensurate with the dignity and
importance of his position and respon-
sibilities. The details of the internal
administrative organization of the
Foundation cannot profitably be dis-
cussed here. The executive staff of
the Foundation and its board of di-
rectors would no doubt wish to

115

modif\- iind chiinue aclministrati\'e
procedures in the light of experience
acquired. Presumabh', the executi\'e
director would have at his command
a staff of experts, each responsible for
a major division of science: the physi-
cal sciences, the biological sciences,
engineering, agriculture, etc. These
experts would be full-time profes-
sional employees of high salary and
status, charged with the task of keep-
ing in touch with research all over
the country. By lightening the bur-
den of administration for the board,
they would permit it to concentrate
on important policy decisions. Not
the least of the problems which
would have to be faced bv the new
organization would be that of main-
taining close contact with research in
all parts of the country.

B. Powers and Responsibilities

The broad, general object of the
Foundation is to promote the general
welfare through support to science.
However, more concrete powers, re-
sponsibilities, and limitations must, in
the judgment of this Committee, be
placed upon the scientific Foundation
when it is established. Under the
guise of "promoting the general wel-
fare," the agency should not be able
to set itself up in business to produce
in competition with existing industry.
Its primary purpose is to provide en-
couragement, and where necessary,
financial aid, without at the same
time introducing centralized control
of research. The Foundation should
be empowered to receive gifts or be-
quests for the support of scientific re-
search from outside sources as well
as from the Government.

In carrying out its objectives, the
Foundation should take all necessary
or proper steps:

(a) To study and keep itself cur-
rentlv informed on the present state
of science in the United States and
to seek ways of apph'ing its resources
to the discovery of useful knowledge.

ih) To initiate, encourage, sponsor
and finance scientific research and
development with emphasis on re-
search aimed at (1) increasing the
general fund of basic scientific knowl
edge and thus creating new industries
and increased employment, (2) pro-
moting the conserx'ation and better
utilization of natural resources, and
(3) improving the health of the Na-
tion. The Foundation should utilize
to the greatest extent feasible the
existing facilities in the Federal Gov-
ernment, State governments, educa-
tional institutions, public and private
foundations, laboratories, and re-
search institutes. No contract or
grant-in-aid made in furtherance of
this provision should introduce con-
trol by the Foundation over the in-
ternal policies or operations of the
contractor or grantee.

(c) To establish or provide new or
additional scientific and technical re-
search facilities in geographical areas
or specialized fields of study or en-
deavor where none exist or where
existing facilities are deemed by the
Foundation to be inadequate: Pro-
vided, That the Foundation should
not itself undertake directly to oper-
ate such facilities.

{d) To provide for and assure the
most comprehensi\'e collection and
dissemination of scientific and techni-
cal knowledge and information by
aids to libraries, bibliographic serv-
ices, translating activities, etc.

(e) To seek out latent scientific
talent, and to foster and support
scientific and technical education and
training through grants to individ-
uals, educational institutions, public

116

and prixatc foundations, laboratories
and research institutes, and througli
scholarships, fellowships and prizes.

(/) To assist scientists, inxentors,
and research workers bv affording
them opportunities to engage in re-
search and developmental activities.

(g) To act in cooperation with the
National Academy of Sciences in ad-
vising the President, the Congress,
and the xarious departments, inde-
pendent establishments, and agencies
of the Government on scientific
matters.

(h) To make its facilities, person-
nel and resources fullv axailable to
the United States of America in the
event of war or the declaration of a
national emergency by the President
or the Congress.

(i) To cooperate with the Army,
Navy, and civilian militarv research
organizations for the rapid inter-
change of information on basic scien-
tific problems of use in national
defense. It should coordinate its ac-
tivities wherever possible with these
organizations to prevent unnecessary
duplication.

ij) To assist industry and business,
particularly small enterprises, in es-
tablishing research facilities and in
obtaining scientific and technical in-
formation and guidance, in order to
expedite the transition from scientific
discovery to technological application.

(k) To help maintain a continu-
ous and steady expansion of scien-
tific research by increasing its grants
for research in periods of depression,
as far as is consistent with sound and
equitable policy.

(I) To represent the United States
of America in effecting better inter-
national cooperation in scientific ac-
tivities, to assist in the freer inter-
national exchange of scientific and

technical knowledge and information
and scientific and technical person-
nel, to help sponsor and finance
international scientific congresses or
associations and cooperative scientific
research programs.

The board should also be empow-
ered to make grants for such historical
and economic studies as it believes
necessary to fulfill its responsibili-
ties in investigating scientific re-
search and its practical applications
in industry.

Finally, it should be stressed that
confidence must be reposed in the
integrity, character, and qualifications
of the individuals comprising the
board of directors. No curbs, restric-
tions, or limitations on their powers
would provide adequate safeguards,
or take the place of character and
ability; and the introduction of a
series of hampering limitations would
lead to inflexibility and inefficient
operation.

C. Patent Policies of the
Foundation

The Foundation should set up its
own general rules for the handling
of patent policies. It is felt that in
establishing these policies the Foun-
dation should interfere as little as pos-
sible with the practices of the difTerent
universities and research institutions.

It is expected that the obtaining of
patents by universities on work fi-
nanced by the National Research
Foundation will remain a minor by-
product of the fundamental research
undertaken. The patent policy of the
universities and research institutions
should not be permitted to interfere
with early publication of results.
Moreover, the patent policy of the
recipients of grants should be such
as to foster widespread public use of
worth-while developments.

117

Appendix A

Library Aids

Adequate technical libraries are an
indispensable tool for research work-
ers. Every new discovery depends
upon a host of former ones, and every
year brings additions to the store of
knowledge which must be mastered
by the scientist. The magnitude of
the task of keeping all this knowledge
available to the scholar requires that
he be provided with every possible
aid and convenience. These services
may be considered under three head-
ings: (A) interlibrarv cooperation,
(B) abstracting and translating serv-
ices, and (C) bibliographic and ref-
erence services.

At the present time none of these
services can be said to be entirely
adequate and the rapid expansion of
published materials makes it very un-
likely that private resources can con-
tinue library services even on their
present level. The problem is so large
and requires so much special knowl-
edge and training that the Committee
does not feel in a position to make
specific recommendations as to where
Government aid can best be brought
to bear. It does, however, feel strongly
that a Government board such as the
National Research Foundation pro-
posed elsewhere in this report should
give careful attention to the problems
presented below, and should devote
part of its funds to their solution.

Several existing Government agen-
cies, such as the Library of Congress
and the Army Medical Library,
could, if they were supplied with suf-
ficient resources, do much to impro\'e
existing services throughout the coun-
try. The following paragraphs con-
tain a short summary of the Com-
mittee's views regarding the most
important issues involved in the
improvement of library services.

A. Interlibrary Cooperation

The three largest libraries in this
country, the Library of Congress, the
Harvard University Library, and the
New York Public Library, have long
ago given up any hope of collecting
all materials necessary for research.
Considerable evidence exists that over
the past 150 vears, libraries in this
country have been doubling in size
every 16 years. This geometrical pro-
gression raises great problems requir-
ing that attention be given to the
various technical proposals which
have been made for reducing the
bulk of this material and for simpli-
fying the problem of storage and
cataloguing. Pending the widespread
adoption of really revolutionary tech-
nical aids, it will be necessary to make
comprehensive arrangements for in-
terlibrary cooperation.

There are two important problems

118

here. One, that of securing in this
country at least one copy of all
needed items. Various estimates have
suggested that existing library hold-
ings represent from one-third to one-
half of all the books published. In
other words, nowhere in this country
are there copies of many millions of
books, pamphlets, magazines, etc.
The second part of the problem is
securing enough copies of various
titles so that they are strategically
available to students and scholars.
For some books, perhaps, one copy
would be enough, for others, how-
ever, there should be copies distrib-
uted according to some cooperative
plan.

The participating institutions
would then be free to reduce the rest
of their collections to what may be
called "working libraries." Adequate
data are not yet at hand for defining
the limits of such working libraries
in the various scientific fields, and
analyses of the sort recently under-
taken by the Association of Research
Libraries are urgently needed. Studies
made by this group of the use of
chemical periodicals suggest that a
reasonable working library covering
over 90 percent of the ordinary chem-
ical laboratory's needs could be main-
tained by purchasing less than half
of the available periodical literature.

Interlibrary cooperative plans could
take the form of agreements among
all libraries whereby each would at-
tempt to be inclusive in limited fields.
This would involve union catalogues
on a regional and national basis and
smoothly organized transportation ar-
rangements. The Committee recog-
nizes that proposals such as this have
been frequently under study by
librarians and that there are many
difficulties to be surmounted. Federal
aid for the library system of the coun-

try might well have as its central
object the strengthening of the Li-
brary of Congress so that it could
foster programs of cooperation. Both
the Library of Congress and the
Army Medical Library occupy lead-
ing positions in their fields. Yet these
two Government institutions still
have to look to private sources for
much of their support, especially for
projects involving experimentation
with new methods. Two foundations
alone have contributed over half a
million dollars to the Library of Con-
gress in the past few years.

Before leaving the subject of li-
braries it may be well to draw atten-
tion to an acute though temporary
problem brought on by the war. Few,
if any, European scientific publica-
tions for the last 5 years have been
reaching this country in adequate
volume. Many important periodicals
published are not represented at all
and others are available in only a
few libraries and in broken sets. The
end of the war will not bring about
a solution to the problem since much
of this material was published in re-
duced editions because of wartime
restrictions on paper and printing.
Furthermore, much existing material
has been destroyed by enemy action.
If American libraries are not to show
serious gaps in their collections of
important foreign periodical litera-
ture, it will be necessary to provide
funds for reproducing much of this
material. The funds necessary for
such a project are entirely beyond
private resources, and it is proposed,
therefore, that the Government un-
dertake to fill this need.

B. Abstracting and Translating
Services

One of the most useful tools
whereby the scientist is enabled to

119

keep up with the flow of pubhcation
is the collection of abstracts published
in several different fields. Their pub-
lication is extremely laborious and
expensive, involving, as it does, the
reading, summarizing, editing, and
printing of all scientific articles pub-
lished from month to month. At the
present time much of this labor is
donated bv scientists who would
rather sacrifice some of their research
time than be deprived of this useful
service. The existence of these pub-
lications is a precarious one and fi-
nancial deficits are frequently en-
countered. Since the start of the war,
many continental publications have
not been available for abstracting and
a large number of American and
British papers have been withheld for
security reasons.

If, as seems likely, it will not be
possible to get this accumulated sup-
ply of papers abstracted by persons
working without compensation, sub-
stantial costs may be expected.

With the advent of Russia as an
important contributor to science, the
problem of translating services be-
comes acute. Hitherto, most Ameri-
can scientists have been able to read
the languages in which most scien-
tific work was published. Unfortu-
nately, there is little likelihood that
many of the present generation will
learn Russian in the near future.
Translation and republication of im-
portant Russian works would, there-
fore, appear to be necessary and is
likely to be very expensive. A studv
of the problem insofar as it concerns
biology is now under way by the
editors of Biological Abstracts, and
within a period of several months it
should be possible to give a reason-
ably accurate statement of the cost
involved. Since such work would
benefit not only science generally in

the United States but would very
likelv promote the use of English in
other countries, it seems proper to
recommend that the United States
Government consider methods by
which the cost of such work could
be met.

C. Bibliographic and Reference
Services

The rapid accumulation of scien-
tific publication continually increases
the problem of keeping up with ad-
vances even within a single field.
Every year earlier work is obscured
by the mass of contemporary publica-
tion. Frequently discoveries have
been published in the past which
were neglected because their ultimate
significance was not apparent in time.
The task of bringing these past dis-
coveries to bear on present problems
is a difficult one. Searching the in-
dices of a hundred different periodi-
cals for the past several decades is an
almost insuperable task. In some
fields, notablv medicine, consolidated
and cumulative indices are available;
in others the abstracting sources are
an aid. For various reasons, however,
these mechanisms are not wholly sat-
isfactory. For example, the index
catalogue of the Surgeon General's
Library, which is the only publica-
tion attempting to gather together all
medical publication in a single cumu-
lative index, is up to date for only
one letter of the alphabet in anv 1
year. Few other fields, however, can
boast of anv cumulative catalogue of
periodical articles.

Another attempt to meet the need
is made bv the reference services
maintained as a part of library serv-
ice. In theory, these organizations
supply lists of publications bearing
on particular subjects. In several
fields an adequate job may be done

120

insofar as books or monographs are
concerned, but rarely is sufficient at-
tention given to periodical articles,
which are far more important to the
scientist. Furthermore, these services
are frequentlv restricted in practice
to older workers of distinguished rep-
utation. The young man who wishes
to be informed about past work is
frequentlv compelled to divert much
energy which could be better spent
in his laboratory.

It seems probable that use of cat-
aloguing and sorting devices now
available in the form of business
machines and the use of microfilm
technique might go far to improve
present methods of searching the
literature and making bibliographies.
Other technical advances mav be ex-

pected lurther to simplify the prob-
lem. Adequate utilization of techni-
cal advance, however, would mean
reclassifving all scientific literature
for at least the past several decades.
In the future this problem could be
met by arranging for classification of
every article prior to publication ac-
cording to some prearranged system.
Again the Committee wishes to
emphasize that it is not equipped to
make specific recommendations in re-
gard to technical library practice. It
merely wishes to call attention to the
existence of problems which, because
of their magnitude and the large
measure of centralization necessary
for solution, appear to be proper sub-
jects of Federal concern.

121

Appendix B

Analysis of University Researcli
Expenditures

Research Expenditures in a Large Sample of American Colleges

and Universities

To obtain factual information con-
cerning research expenditures in
1939—40 and an estimate of postwar
needs, questionnaires were sent to
the 315 colleges and universities ac-
credited by the Association of Amer-
ican Universities. Replies from 188
institutions were received, giving an
over-all coverage of 60 percent. The
coverage among the larger institu-

tions was higher (over 80 percent)
than that among the smaller schools.
Of the 188 colleges reporting, 125
have organized research programs;
the remaining 63 have not conducted
research.

Table I summarizes the returns
from the 125 institutions supporting
research.

Table I
Expenditures and Needs of University Research

Natural Sciences and Engineering

' This category includes all items of research expense exclusive of buildings and items of major capital
research equipment.

' These figures are estimates by the universities of their needs for capital facilities, including items of
major capital research equipment and general laboratory facilities, without which the postwar research
projects envisaged could not be carried on adequately.

' Of the $26,000,000 over and above prewar expenditures that would be required to finance these projects,
the universities estimate that they will be able to raise only $7,000,000 through "normal" channels.

' It was estimated that, of the 315 colleges and universities accredited by the Association of American
Universities, 150 have organized research programs in the natural sciences and engineering. Returns were
received from 125 of these institutions. We have estimated the totals for 150 research universities by add-
ing 20 percent to each category.

122

There are about 150 colleges and
universities in the United States that
have organized research programs in
the natural sciences and engineering.
We have estimated that research ex-
penditures in these institutions
amounted to $26,000,000 in 1939-40.
Estimates of postwar projects call for
annual expenditures of $57,000,000.
Although this must be regarded as a
verv rough approximation, internal
evidence from the returns, and am-
plifving statements accompanying
manv of them, suggest that if ade-
quate funds and personnel were
available the universities would be
able to carry out projects of this mag-
nitude. Many of the universities, for
example, have prepared careful lists
of important projects that their staffs
wish to undertake after the war.

Postwar estimates for capital facili-
ties were aggregated. They total
$130,000,000, but most of them in-
clude facilities used jointly for teach-
ing and research.

Some of the comments which ac-
companied replies to the question-
naires are given below:

The great discrepancy between the fi-
nancial figures for 1939 and for our ideal
after the war is easily explainable — and
not on the basis that we are hoping to get
some money from the Government. There
is just one way that scientific research can
prosper and grow apace here, and that is
for promising young men to have the time
to do it. Therefore, we are certain that if
funds became available either from outside
or some gift to the college about which we
know nothing at the present time, we
should like to use them for a considerable
enlargement of our staffs, which would
mean that the men promising in research
might carry only a half-time teaching load.
This we should hope in its totality would
amount to the full time of two or three
extra men in each department.
* » »

The estimates which we have made for
the future represent somewhat large in-
creases over our pre-war expenditures, but

they are quite in line with the funds
which we have been expending for re-
search in the war years.
» » *

Our estimate of postwar needs for re-
search are based upon definite information
concerning the research which our depart-
ments in the sciences feel they are capable
of undertaking and which they want very
much to undertake as soon as funds are

available.

* * »

Although the administration and faculty
are giving greater recognition to the needs
of such research, it is apparent that the
state will hardly rise to the occasion with
adequate appropriations. The university
is, therefore, in need of considerable sup-
port for its research program in the post-
war period.

Research in Small Colleges

Quite interesting reports were re-
ceived from small colleges on their
attitudes toward scientific research
and their desire to encourage it. One
small but well-endowed college in
the East stated that its primary ob-
jective is a high quality of under-
graduate teaching, and that it con-
siders continued scholarly interest in
research essential in order to obtain
this objective. It has done so, in gen-
eral, by four different means: (1)
Grants-in-aid from a special fund.
(2) Leaves of absence to permit fac-
ulty members to work at other insti-
tutions. (3) The maintenance of a
well-equipped machine shop and car-
penter shop with expert assistance for
the sole use of the science depart-
ments. (4) A liberal purchase policy
for instruments that can be used for
both instruction and research. This
resulted in a well-equipped electron-
ics laboratory at the beginning of the
war, which was put to valuable use
at once when war broke out.

The type of policy outlined is
much more liberal in its encourage-
ment of research than was found in

123

most of the smaller colleges. It does,
however, represent the aims of a con-
siderable number of them, and the
adoption of similar policies by others
certainly deserves encouragement.

Nonresearch Institutions

The returns from the 63 colleges
that do not have organized research
programs were mostly in the form of
letters; few attempted to fill out the
questionnaires. The replies are of
some interest, however, and they
suggest that the small liberal arts
colleges fall into two definite groups.
Some of these schools view them-
selves as purely teaching institutions
and have no interest in developing
research programs. Furthermore, a
number of them are strongly opposed
to Federal subsidy. The following
comment is typical:

In general it is my opinion that the
Federal Government should not undertake
to establish any far-reaching program for
the support of research in either public or
private colleges or universities. I do not
believe such relations can be established
and permanently maintained without in-
volving political control, which has proved
so disastrous in Germany and other totali-
tarian states.

On the other hand, many of the
smaller colleges feel that they could
make important contributions to re
search, if funds were available to
them for that purpose. Of the 63
nonresearch institutions reporting, 25
made statements, of which the fol-
lowing are tvpical: •

With adequate funds, we could rea-
sonably expect a much greater devotion to
research than obtains at present, for the
members of our staff have both the inter-
est and the training requisite for fruitful

work.

» * *

Personally, I believe that if funds were
available it would contribute toward the
advancement of science to have one or two
members of the staff of a liberal arts col-
lege engaged in minor projects of research,
such as could be carried on satisfactorily
with the equipment that such a college
has.

In developing a program of post-
war Federal aid to scientific research,
attention should be given to the po-
tentialities of these schools. To the ex-
tent that our sample is representative,
at least 40 percent of the small lib-
eral arts colleges in this country are
desirous of conducting research, and
are prevented from doing so by lack
of funds.

124

Research Expenditures in a Small Sample of Leading Universities, Industrial
Research Laboratories and Nonprofit Science Institutes

To obtain a detailed pieture of re-
search expenditures in natural sci-
ence departments, a special investi-
gation was made in 13 leading uni-
versities and institutes of technology
throughout the country. In each uni-
versity, the president was requested
to appoint a consultant in the natural
sciences to cooperate in securing the
necessary information. Inquiries were
made with respect to the departments
of chemistry, physics and biology,
and of electrical, mechanical and
chemical engineering. In those uni-
versities which had medical schools,
similar inquiries were made in the
departments of anatomy, physiology,
biochemistry, and bacteriology. The
relevant data were then compared
with research expenditures in 10 of
our leading industrial laboratories
and in 7 nonprofit science institutes.

It should be remembered, in assess-
ing the results, that the data were
prepared under pressure of time. The
accounting systems in different insti-
tutions differ widely; in some in-
stances, detailed figures could be ob-
tained with relative ease, while in
others it was necessary to make some
rather crude guesses.

University Research
Expenditures

Time and funds for research varied
substantially between departments in
the same university and between uni-
versities. Analysis of these variations
suggests that much remains to be

done if the majority of natural sci-
entists with research interests are to
be given the opportunities for re-
search that are available in the most
favored departments. Engineering
departments, in general, appear to
have very meager funds for research,
although there are a few notable ex-
ceptions. At least two of the engi-
neering schools under consideration
have undertaken far-reaching expan-
sions in research activity since the
year 1940 — expansions not due to the
war, and, indeed, impeded by the
war. If these are carried through ac-
cording to present plans, the postwar
research picture in these institutions
will be very different from that for
1939-40.

Extraordinary variations are shown
in the extent to which direct research
expenditures are met from outside
sources — especiallv grants from in-
dustry or the foundations. Many de-
partments draw more than half of
their support from these outside
sources and some of them get all their
funds in this way.

Comparisons were made of re-
search expenditures in various uni-
versity departments, industrial labo-
ratories and science institutes. Ex-
penses were divided into professional
salaries and direct operating expenses
of research.^ This latter category in-
cluded expenditures for equipment,
apparatus, technical and research as-

1 See tables II-VI inclusive, columns 4 and 6;
and table VII, columns 2 and 3.

125

sistance, publishing costs associated
with research, etc. A calculation was
then made of the amount of these
direct expenses in relation to profes-
sional salaries. The minimum figure
in any of the industrial laboratories
or science institutes studied was
about forty cents per dollar of pro-
fessional salary; typical figures are
near one dollar, and in certain cases
the figure was more than two, or even
three, dollars. The highest figures
for the university departments — with
one or two striking exceptions, such
as the chemistry department in insti-
tution number 8 — are approximately
the same as the lowest figures for the
industrial laboratories and science in-
stitutes. Typical figures for univer-
sity departments are about twenty
cents per dollar of salary, and often
are considerably lower.

Although it is very difficult to
judge, there appeared to be a corre-
lation between the research contri-
butions of a university department
and the amount of research assistance
made available to its professional
workers. In the institutions and de-
partments less adequately provided
with such support there are many
men with research ability whose pro-
ductivity could be significantly in-
creased by the provision of more ade-
quate research funds. Such funds
might be used to diminish heavy
teaching loads, which leave many
men with little time for research, and
to provide essential apparatus and
technical assistance.

Time Devoted to Teaching and
Research

The universities and engineering
schools included in this survey rank
among the leading institutions of the
country. In all of them research is
fostered and encouraged, and is con-
sidered an important factor in aca-

demic promotion. However, the va-
rious institutions differ considerably
in the relative emphasis given to
teaching and research. In a general
way the 13 institutions may be said
to fall into two groups:

In group A, comprising institutions
1, 5, 8, 10, and 13, the teaching load
is relatively light, but varies consid-
erably among individuals. For some
members of the staff it is moderately
hiph, while for others it is only 2 or
3 hours a week. These institutions
are also likely to have some research
professors who do no teaching at all.
Most members of the staff are ex-
pected to devote more than half of
their time to research. Of the five
institutions that fall in group A, four
are privately endowed. Nos. 1 and 5
are large universities in which a great
deal of research is being actively car-
ried on in all departments. No. 10
is a similar medium-size institution.
No. 8 is an institution devoted pri-
marily to the natural sciences and
engineering. One very large State
university (No. 13) also appears to
belong in this category, at least, as
regards some of its science depart-
ments.

Group B (Nos. 2, 4, 9, 11, and 12)
is made up of important State univer-
sities. The teaching load is consid-
erably heavier in this group, averag-
ing around 12 class-room hours per
week. Most members of the staff,
however, are able to devote about
one-quarter of their time to research,
and sometimes more. Research pro-
fessorships involving little or no
teaching are extremely rare in these
universities.

Three private institutions (Nos. 3,
6, and 7) appear to lie somewhere
between groups A and B in regard
to the relative allocation of time be-
tween teaching and research. No. 3

126

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132

Table VII

Analysis of Returns on Questionnaires Sent to Industrial Laboratories

and Nonprofit Science Institutes

[1939 data]
Industrial Laboratories

1

Reporting institutions

2

Salaries of
professional

personnel
(thousands)

3

Direct operating

expenses of

research >

(thousands)

4

Number of

technical research

personnel per

professional

individual

5

Ratio column 3
to column 2

1=

$253

1,225

1,025

393

610

91

380

46

100

80

$124

1,250

3,709

154

285

49

286

102

69

107

0.24
.40

1.04
.39
.50
.29

1.89
.70

2.00
.13

0.48

2

1.02

3 -

3.62

4

.39

5

.47

6

.54

7 .

.76

8

2.23

9

10 -

.69
1.34

Nonprofit Science Institutes

13

2

$51
518
73
29
26
98
347

$23
557
32
36
55
80
483

0.76
2.18
.53
.18
1.50
.53
.76

0.45
1.07

3 - -

.44

4

1.24

5

6

7 _

2.12

.82

1.39

' Includes expenditures for equipment, apparatus, technical and research assistance, publishing costs
Associated with research, field trips, expeditions, etc.

2 1 and 7 are large electrical companies; 2 is a communications company; 3 and 4 are oil companies; 5 is a
large and 9 a small chemical concern; 6 is a meat-packing company; 8 is a glass company; and 10 is a large
pharmaceutical firm.

= 1 and 2 are institutions for medical research ; 3, 4, and 5 for biological research ; 6 and 7 for research in the
physical sciences.

is a large privately endowed univer-
sity, associated with a large State ag-
ricultural school. No. 6 is an impor-
tant engineering school. No. 7 is a
medium-size liberal arts university.

In engineering de-partments, the
teaching schedule is generally con-
siderably heavier than in physics,
chemistry and biologv; often it runs
to 18 class-room hours per week. In
some institutions, however, the teach-
ing schedule for engineers is no
heavier than in other departments
of the university.

hi the medical sciences, teaching

(prewar) was frequently concen-
trated in one 4-month term, during
which time the teaching load was
fairly heavy; but the remaining 8
months commonly involved little or
no teaching. Some institutions devi-
ate from this pattern, but, on the
whole, facultv members in the medi-
cal sciences tend to have a large frac-
tion of their time available for re-
search.

In several institutions the amount
of teaching done by men in the
lower academic ranks was consider-
ably higher than for the full and

133

associate professors. In other cases,
the amount of teaching was practi-
cally identical, regardless of rank.
Often there were marked differences
between one department and another
in the same university. For instance,
the chemistry department in one in-
stitution reported the regular teach-
ing load in hours per week as: full
professors, 3; associate professors, 8;

assistant professors, 10; instructors,
12. This is an unusual amount of var-
iation with rank. The biologv depart-
ment in the same institution reported
a uniform figure for all academic
ranks. In this particular institution
the chemistry department appears to
have been much more extensively
endowed than the other science de-
partments.

134

Appendix 4

Report of tlie Committee on Discovery
and Development of Scientific Talent

Table of Contents

Page

Letter of transmittal „„ 1 36

Summary — 137

Preface 142

I. Long-term plans 147

1. The desirability of and necessity for the proposed plans .— 147

2. The desirability and necessary extent of the proposed long- term plans 150

3. The recommended long-term plan and means for achieving it 152

II. Plans for the near future — 158

1. Deficits of scientific and technological personnel resulting from war

and selective-service policies 158

2. Plans for integrated scientific training for soldiers and sailors 160

3. The importance of quality of instruction in "Army universities"

abroad ___ _ 161

4. The place of the GI Bill of Rights in ameliorating scientific and

technological deficits 162

5. Duties of schools, colleges, universities, and technical schools to

returning veterans 163

6. Importance of problem of scientific training of men in armed forces.... 165

Appendix A. The educational pyramid: studies concerning able students lost

to higher education 166

Appendix B. Data concerning training of personned for science and technology -._. 177

Appendix C Suggested administrative organization, bases of selection, schedule

and procedures 1 80

135

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

June 4, 1945.
Dr. Vannevar Bush,

Director, Office of Scientific Research and Development,
1530 P Street NW., Washington, D. C.

Dear Dr. Bush:

To assist you in making recommendations in response to President Roose-
velt's letter of November 17, 1944, you assigned consideration of the fourth
question in that letter to the following-named committee:

Dr. Henry A. Barton, director, American Institute of Physics.

Dr. C. Lalor Burdick, special assistant to the president, E. I. du Pont de

Nemours & Co.
Dr. James B. Conant, ptesident, Harvard University.
Dr. Watson Davis, director, Science Service.

Dr. Robert E. Doherty, president, Carnegie Institute of Technology.
Dr. Paul E. Elicker, executive secretary. National Association of Sec-
ondary School Principals.
Mr. Farnham P. Griffiths, lawyer, San Francisco.
Dr. W. S. Hunter, professor of psychologv. Brown University.
Dr. T. R. McConnell, dean. College of Science, Literature, and the Arts,

University of Minnesota.
Mr. Henry Allen Moe, secretary general, John Simon Guggenheim

Memorial Foundation.
Mr. Walter S. Rogers, director. Institute of Current World Affairs.
Dr. Harlow Shapley, director. Harvard College Observatory.
Dr. Hugh S. Tavlor, dean of the graduate school, Princeton University.
Dr. E. B. Wilson, professor of vital statistics. Harvard University School
of Public Health.
Mr. Henry Chauncey and Mr. Lawrence K. Frank are the committee's
secretaries.

The committee held onlv two meetings, but there has been constant inter-
change of materials by mail and we have conferred frequentlv among our-
selves and with others. The report herewith presented is a joint effort and
it is agreed to, both as to content and form, by the whole committee. This
result has been arrived at, not by compromise, but by study of the relevant
facts in the light of the committee members' varied experience, and by dis-
cussion and agreement upon the conclusions to be drawn from those facts
in the light of our experience.

Respectfully submitted,

Henry Allen Moe,
Chairman, Committee on Discovery and

Development of Scientific Talent.

136

SUMMARY

To the question asked of you by President Roosevelt, "Can an effective
program be proposed for discovering and developing scientific talent in Amer-
ican youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in this country
may be assured on a level comparable to what has been done during the
war?", wur committee reports affirmatively, stating their considered judg-
ment that an effective program of support from the Federal Government to
that end can be organized and, indeed, must be organized in order to assure
the continuation of scientific and technological training and research on a
scale adequate to the needs of the Nation, in peace or war. There is a long
history of support granted by the Federal Government for training and re-
search and it is our judgment that that type of support needs to be, and can
be successfully, extended to provide for those highly talented youth with
scientific interests and ability who must be assisted else they will not be able
to obtain the scientific and engineering training which they merit and which
the good of the Nation requires that they obtain.

Our proposals to these ends have two phases:

I. Long-term plans, aimed at ensuring through the long future an ade-
quate supply of scientists and engineers by discovering and developing scien-
tific talent in American youth; and

II. Plans for the immediate future, aimed at making up, in part, the
deficits in the ranks of scientists and engineers resulting from the war and
the Nation's Selective Service policy.

/. Long-Term Plans

The Evidence for Our Conclusions

The intelligence of the citizenry is a national resource which transcends
in importance all other natural resources. To be effective, that intelligence
must be trained. The evidence shows that many voung citizens of high
intelligence fail to get the training of which thev are capable. The reasons
for that failure are chiefly economic and geographical and can be remedied.

Existing provisions, by scholarships and fellowships, are inadequate to
meet the needs of this group, nor will State, local, and private plans for such
assistance, which are now under discussion, be adequate. Our plans, simply,
are plans — as respects science and engineering — to train for the national

137

welfare the highest abiHty of the youth of the Nation without regard to
where it was born and raised and without regard to the size of the family
income. Much of our evidence and many of our conclusions on that evidence
are applicable to helds other than science and engineering; but our plans,
naturally, do not go bevond our mandate to make effective plans for the
discovery and dexelopment of scientific talent in American youth.

The Necessary and Desirable Extent of the Proposed Plans

Throughout our deliberations, we have had it in mind that, by scholar-
ships and fellowships and monetarv and other rewards in disproportionate
amounts, too large a percentage of the Nation's high ability might be drawn
into science with a result highly detrimental to the Nation and to science.
Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent must be related
to the other needs of society for high abilitv. Since there never is enough
abilitv at high levels to satisfy all the needs of our complex civilization for
such ability, we would not seek to draw into science any more of it than
science's proportionate share. In that spirit of reasonableness our plans are:

We recommend that each year 6,000 4-year scholarships be awarded to
enable youth of scientific promise to work for bachelor's degrees in scientific
and technological fields. We recommend further that 300 3-year fellowships
be awarded each year to enable the recipients to obtain advanced training
leading to doctoral degrees in science and technology. The maximum total
of Scholars, if and when the plan is in full operation, would be 24,000 and
the maximum total number of Fellows would be 900. Maximum annual costs
if the plan is to be realized fully may reach, after the fourth year of
operation, $29,000,000.

Outline of the Plan and of the Means for Achieving It

The Scholars should be chosen by State committees of selection and the
Fellows by a national committee of selection. The Scholars shall be eligible
for the fellowships but the fellowships shall also be open to other qualified
students.

We recommend that, for the Scholars, the scale of support should be that
provided by the GI Bill of Rights for veterans, namely up to $500 annually
for tuition and other fees, plus $50 monthly for personal support if single,
and $75 monthlv if married. For the Fellows, there should be an allowance
up to $500 for tuition and other fees and up to $100 monthly for personal
support.

The Scholars and Fellows should be chosen solely on the basis of merit,
without regard to sex, color, race, creed, or need.

All those who receive benefits under this plan, both Scholars and Fellows,
should be enrolled in a National Science Reserve and be liable to call into
the service of the Federal Government, in connection with scientific or tech-
nical work in time of war or other national emergency declared by Congress
or proclaimed bv the President. Thus, in addition to the general benefits to
the Nation by reason of the addition to its trained ranks of such a corps of
scientific workers, there would be a definite benefit to the Nation in having
these scientific workers on call in national emergencies. Evidence presented
to the committee shows that, if such a science reserve had been in existence

138

in 1940 and had included many of the best scientists, the mobiHzation of
scientific men before Pearl Harbor would have been much more rapid and
effective than it was possible to make it.

We believe that the obligation vmdcrtaken by the recipients of National
Science Reserve scholarships and fellowships would constitute a real q^iid
fro quo and that the Federal Government would be well advised to invest
the money involved even if the benefits to the Nation were thought of solely
— which they are not — in terms of national preparedness.

As merit should be the sole basis of selecting the Scholars and Fellows,
likewise merit should be the sole basis of their continuing to hold their
scholarships and fellowships — 4 years for the Scholars and a maximum of 3
years for the Fellows. Unless the Scholars and Fellows maintain good
behavior, good health, and scientific progress in the top quarter of their
classes, the assistance they are receiving should be terminated.

The quotas of scholarships to be awarded by the State (and Territorial)
committees of selection should be determined by the number of their sec-
ondary school graduates of the previous year as related to the national total
of such graduates. That is, the national total of 6,000 scholarships would be
prorated to the States in the same proportion as their high school graduates
bear to the whole national total of such graduates.

We recommend that the establishment of the organization to operate the
plan and its super\'ision be entrusted to the National Academy of Sciences —
the top scientific organization of the country and the one which, through the
years since its establishment in 1863, has shown itself to have the knowledge,
integrity, ability to withstand pressures, and concern for the national welfare,
which will be required.

//. Plans for the Immediate Future

Because Selective Service policies have not taken account of the Nation's
vital needs for scientists and engineers, the training of men in the fields of
science and technology during the war has almost completely stopped. Be-
cause of these stoppages, not until at least 6 years after the war will scientists
trained for research emerge from the graduate schools in any significant
quantities. Consequentlv, there is an accumulating deficit in the number of
trained research scientists and that deficit will continue for a number of years.

The deficits of bachelor's degrees in science and technology are already
probably about 150,000.

The deficits of scientific doctoral degrees — that is, of young scholars trained
to the point where they are capable of original work — has been estimated,
for the period 1941 projected to 1955, to be more than 16,000.

All patriotic citizens who are informed about these matters agree that, for
military security, good public health, full employment, and a higher stand-
ard of living after the war, these deficits are very serious. Neither our allies,
nor our enemies, permitted any such deficits to develop but on the contrary
maintained or increased national programs for the training of scientists and
engineers.

The feasible remedies in the situation, as we find it now, appear to us to
be these:

139

1. We recommend that the Research Board for National Security and the
Army and Navv find men who, before their induction and during their
service, have shown promise of scientific abiHty and that they be ordered,
by name, to dutv in the United States as students for training in science and
engineering of a grade and quafity available to civilians in peacetime. This
should be adopted as the considered policy of the armed services and no
desire of a commanding officer to retain a potential scientist for his useful-
ness on the spot should be allowed to interfere with the operation of the
policv.

Merit should be the sole basis for the selection of these students and merit
alone should determine the number selected. We think that probably the
total would be no more than 100,000 and that number, following VE-day,
could not be militarilv significant. For building up the Nation's scientific
strength, however, that number would be very significant. If well selected
on their merits as students of science, these men would constitute the pre-
mium crop of future scientists and we know that the future of our country
in peace and war depends on that premium crop.

Under this proposed plan, be it noted, there would be no disruption of
plans already made for the discharge of soldiers from the Army. While
students, their discharges would occur in accordance with the already estab-
lished rating scale. It would not do to propose that such a plan should be
done on a volunteer basis — that is, that personnel of the Army and Navy
should request orders to duty as students. It would not do because manv of
the best of them probablv would not request such orders, from feelings that
they would not wish to be put in the position of seeming to shirk their full
patriotic duty.

2. The Armv has made plans for setting up in foreign countries, when and
where the military situation permits, courses of study for soldiers, including
courses in science and technology. These plans are all to the good. The
further important thing to ensure is that the courses shall be the best and
most up-to-date that can be given. Unless it is to do a disservice to the
soldiers taking its training, the Armed Forces Institute must be prepared
with instruction that is wholly up to date in its higher levels; but the fact
of the matter remains that since the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
the California Institute of Technology, the Ryerson Laboratory of the Uni-
versity of Chicago, and others, cannot be moved abroad, the plan for Army
universities must be supplemented by what we have suggested in our first
proposal above.

3. Public Law 346, Seventy-eighth Congress, commonly known as the GI
Bill of Rights, provides for the education of veterans of this war under certain
conditions, at the expense of the Federal Government. Among the returning
soldiers and sailors will be many with marked scientific talent which should
be developed, through further education, for the national good. However,
the 1 year of education which the law provides for essentially all veterans
clearly will not be enough to train a scientist nor in most instances to com-
plete training begun prior to entrv into the armed forces. The law makes
the amount of education bevond 1 year at Government expense depend on
length of service rather than on ability to profit from the education.

140

It appears to us that our mandate to set up an effective plan for discovering
and developing scientific talent must take into account the scientific poten-
tialities among the 10,000,000 voung Americans now in the armed forces.
To this end, it is recommended that the Veterans' Administration set up an
adequate counseling serxice for those veterans of marked scientific talent
and that a complete scientific education at Government expense he provided
for a group of them selected on the basis of merit and irrespective of the
length of their military service. Here, again, we believe it best to recom-
mend that standards of scientific abilitv be the limiting factors rather than
to suggest that definite numbers be selected for training. Amendment of the
GI Bill of Rights, to make that law an instrument for the amelioration of
the deficits of scientists resulting from the war and Selective Service policy,
seems to us essential for the safety and continued prosperity of the Nation.

The adequate handling of the education of the scientific and technological
talent now under arms will be a primary test of the effectiveness of the
Government in meeting the whole problem to which we have been asked
to direct our attention. The future scientific and technical leaders in the
United States are now largely in military service. Unless exceptional steps
are taken to recruit and train talent from the armed services at or before the
close of the war, the future will find this country seriously handicapped for
scientific and technological leadership. In peace or war, the handicap might
prove fatal to our standards of living and to our way of life.

141

PREFACE

You asked us to advise you upon the fourth question of President Roose-
velt's letter to you concerning future scientific development in the United
States. The question is:

Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scientific talent
in American youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in this country
may be assured on a level comparable to what has been done during the war?

In our judgment the answer to the question is in all respects in the
affirmative. We conclude also that the program envisaged by the question
is both necessary and desirable. The difficult questions are upon the neces-
sary and desirable extent of such a program and upon the best means for
its accomplishment.

Our report, accordingly, will be under three heads: the necessity, the
extent and the means for making the envisaged program effective.

There are, however, some general considerations which we deem it well
to place before you prior to proceeding to the body of this report.

President Roosevelt's letter to you looks toward a science that will be a
decisive element in the national welfare in peace as it has been in war. He
said, "New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered
with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this
war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and
a more fruitful life. " It is clear that the letter refers to science as the word
is commonlv understood, or, more technically described, to science now
within the purview of the National Academy of Sciences, that is, to mathe-
matics, the phvsical and biological sciences including psychology, geology,
geography and anthropologv and their engineering, industrial, agricultural
and medical applications. To science in this sense, therefore, the recom-
mendations in this report will be limited.

The statesmanship of science, however, requires that science be concerned
with more than science. Science can only be an effective element in the
national welfare as a member of a team, whether the condition be peace
or war.

As citfzens, as 'good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in
mind while examining the question before us — the discovery and develop-
ment of scientific talent — the needs of the whole national welfare. We
could not suggest to you a program which would syphon into science and

142

technology a disproportionately large share of the Nation's highest abilities,
without doing harm to the Nation, nor, indeed, without crippling science.
The very fruits of science become available only through enterprise, indus-
try and wisdom on the part of others as well as scientists. Science cannot
live by and unto itself alone.

This is not an idle fancy. Germany and Japan show us that it is not.
They had fine science; but because they did not have governments "of the
people, by the people and for the people" the world is now at war. This is
not to say that science is responsible: it is to say, however, that, except as
a member of a larger team, science is of limited value to the national welfare.

The uses to which high ability in vouth can be put are various and, to a
large extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards. When aided
by selective devices for picking out scientifically talented youth, it is clear
that large sums of money for scholarships and fellowships and monetary and
other rewards in disproportionate amounts might draw into science too large
a percentage of the Nation's high ability, with a result highly detrimental
to the Nation and to science. Plans for the discovery and development of
scientific talent must be related to the other needs of society for high ability:
science, in the words of the man in the street, must not, and must not try
to, hog it all. This is our deep conviction, and therefore the plans that we
shall propose herein will endeavor to relate the need of the Nation for
science to the needs of the Nation for high-grade trained minds in other
fields. There is never enough ability at high levels to satisfy all the needs
of the Nation; we would not seek to draw into science any more of it than
science's proportionate share.

Through all ages of civilization far-seeing men and women and govern-
ments have been concerned with the necessity of providing for the leader-
ship of the future, as one essential factor in the survival, or progress, of
civilization. Provision for the leadership of the future is necessary because
high ability, adventurous talent, is not born only into families that can pay
for its development. It is a fact that a large proportion of the world's best
brains and finest spirits have attained or accelerated their development
through outside support, of the type that we should call scholarship or
fellowship assistance. This is a profound social fact: a large part of the
world's leaders in science and other fields of scholarship, in the creative arts,
and even in public affairs, has required a financial leg up, while working
toward leadership.

Upon anv studv of the history of the development of leadership we may
be reasonablv sure that a large part of the men and women who in future
will lead us in all walks of life will need extraordinary boosts up the ladder
at some stages of their careers — boosts provided by individuals, institutions,
and governmental agencies, on the basis of a showing of very special ability
— in the form of scholarships, fellowships, and grants-in-aid.

No nation has ever done as well as we have in equalizing educational
opportunity, nor, probably, in giving the most adequate opportunity to the
best; but it can easily be shown, and we shall show it, that we could do
better. And we also shall show how we as a nation can do better.

Why we as a nation should be concerned to do better appears in the

143

following statement by Dr. Robert Gordon Sproul, President of the Univer-
sity of California — a statement of such cogency and sound common sense
that we are glad to adopt it as our own:

One of the major responsibilities of the university of the future, is to see that the
money it spends * '^ * goes toward the education of the most worthy candidates in each
generation. The intelligence of the citizenry of a nation is a natural resource which
transcends in importance all other natural resources * * * One may condone the waste
of many natural resources on the ground that science will some day discover a substitute
that is just as good. But intelligence is quite unique, and though science search dili-
gently it will never find a substitute for it, nor will the war lords.

Universities * * * are conservators of the above-average intelligence of the nation
* * * Every conservation program must proceed along two lines: it must safeguard the
known reserves of a given resource, and it must also, through exploration and every
other means, make a determined effort to ascertain accurately the further supplies of
that resource.

We do not know how much intelligence the citizenry of this Nation is capable of
producing. We pay little attention to intelligence unless it forces itself to the surface
and trickles into a college or university by force of gravity. If it happens to come to the
surface in the backwoods area or a rural district, where the process of trickling down to
college is made difficult by distance and by lack of funds, the chances are that the trickle
will sink into the earth again, "unwept, unhonored, and unsung" — unless, of course, it
happens to be one of the fastest running, highest-jumping, or quickest trickles on the
track, court, or gridiron.

Across the continent from Dr. Sproul, Dr. James B. Conant, President of
Harvard University and a member of this Committee, coming at the ques-
tion from another direction, has made a statement to like effect which his
colleagues of the committee would adopt as their own:

* * * in every section of the entire area where the word science may properly be
applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have rapid or slow advance in
this direction or in that depending on the number of really first-class men who are
engaged in the work in question. If I have learned anything from my experience in
Washington as chairman of the National Defense Research Committee, it is that ten
second-rate men are no substitute for one first-class man. It is no use pouring second-
class men on a problem, even if you are under the greatest pressure for a solution;
second-class men often do more harm than good. So in the last analysis, the future of
science in this country will be determined by our basic educational policy.

And finally we would quote the Board of Regents of the State of New

York who recently declared:

The need is imperative for enrolling the ablest young people of the State in institu-
tions of higher education. This proposal is defensible not in terms of the desire of the
colleges to obtain students. Fundamentally, the case rests on the need of any State to
bring its best minds up to a high level of understanding and accomplishments.

This statement also we adopt as basic to our thinking.

The data which prove the truth of the quoted statements are well known
and some parts of them are set forth in a Appendix A attached to this report.
Here we simply give samples and it is to be noted that these samples apply
not only to scientific ability in American youth but to ability generally:

An Indiana study published in 1922 showed:

If we compare the records made on our tests by the group of seniors representing
the richest and the poorest homes, we find that there are proportionally more children
possessing the highest grades of mental ability among the poorest class than among the
wealthiest class, and more individuals with high average grades of intelligence among
the wealthier than among the poorer group. The wealthiest group ranks high on
central tendency. The poorest salaried group ranks low on central tendency and also

144

has a larger percentage of individuals possessing the lower grades of mental ability. But
there are individuals in this class who obtain the highest intelligence rating made by
high school seniors. * * *

It is still more significant that so many of this most superior group of high-school
seniors will not attend college, while those with the most inferior grades of intelligence
are planning to attend, in ever increasing numbers. Twenty-five percent of the brightest
seniors found in the entire State said they were not planning to attend college at all,
while 65 to 70 percent of the dullest seniors had definitely decided to go to college,
most of them having already selected the college they expected to attend.

In Minnesota, it was shown that the probability of college attendance
for a high school graduate of high college ability who is the son or daughter
of a father employed in a professional or managerial group is several times
greater than that for the son or daughter of a farmer or unskilled laborer.
This study also showed that for every high school graduate who ranked in
the upper 10 percent of his high school class and enrolled in college,
another high school graduate who also ranked in the upper 10 percent did
not enter college.

A Pennsylvania study showed that, in that State, dividing a sampling of
the youth of approximately equal high ability into two socio-economic groups,
93 percent of children of the upper socio-economic group were graduated
from high school and 57 percent attended college. But in the lower socio-
economic group, only 72 percent of the children were graduated from high
school and only 13 percent attended college.

As emphasized, this report is concerned with discovering and developing
scientific talent, but in its proper setting and relationship to other needs for
talent for the Nation's welfare. In the report we shall suggest, as befits our
mandate, the appropriation of Federal funds to be applied only to the pur-
pose of discovering and developing scientific talent; but, as we have pointed
out, we recognize that there is need for the discovery and development of
talent in all lines and we point out that most of the plans and procedures
recommended herein for science are equally applicable to the discovery and
development of talent in other fields.

What shall be done with Federal funds for the discovery and develop-
ment of talent, scientific and other, in American youth is for the wisdom of
Congress to determine. As taxpayers and as men concerned with the states-
manship of science, we have been deeply concerned with the question how
plans for the use of Federal funds for scientific development may be set up
so that Federal funds do not drive out of the picture funds from local gov-
ernments, foundations, and private persons. We think that our proposals
will minimize that effect, but, with proper candor, we do not think that our
proposals will be completely effective to avoid what we do not want to
happen. We think, however, that the Nation's need for more and better
science is such that the risk must be accepted.

In this report, consonant with our mandate to make effective plans for
the discovery and development of scientific talent in American youth, we
recommend plans to assist able young men and women to carry their studies
from the end of high school through the doctorate. Beyond that we do not
go in our recommendations, not only because we do not think the word
"youth" ought to be stretched to include men and women of post-doctoral

145

age, but also because your committees reporting upon other questions in
President Roosevelt's letter are making recommendations for assistance to
post-doctoral investigators. For our part, we are of opinion that the basic
problem, at least for the next decade, will be to find more young talent
and to give it a chance to develop into more first-rate investigators than we
now have.

That is the problem at which this report aims. At present the opportuni-
ties for education beyond high school are accidental to too large an extent —
determined by the accidents of geography and economic income. We seek,
in this constitutional Republic, 'as respects science and engineering, to train
for the national welfare the highest ability without regard to where it was
born and reared and without regard to the size of the family income.

146

Part One

Long-term Plans

1. The Desirability of and Neces-
sity for the Proposed Plans

We are convinced that there is no
possibility that too much abihty of
the highest order can be discovered
and developed : the needs of our com-
plex social organization for brains
and character at the highest level can
never be surfeited. Moreover, it is
appropriate to point out, when con-
sidering the need for scientific train-
ing, that the first-rate scientist and
engineer cannot do his work effec-
tively unless he has a few good ones
in a secondarv role at his disposal as
assistants and sometimes a great many
as hands and as instruments for the
execution of his ideas.

We have only to look about us,
from the point of view of citizens, to
know that the current need for crea-
tive brains is not being met: there
is too much wrong with the world
and with our country to have doubt
about that. As scholars and admin-
istrators of scholarly affairs we also
know out of our own experiences
that there is a deficiency in the sup-
ply of first-rate scientific workers.
All of us know of problems in science
whose solutions are urgently needed
for indi\'idual and the collective wel-
fare. The limiting factors, all along
the line, are brains and character.

In Appendix A attached to this re-
port, some startling figures are given
as to the number of young people
who drop out before completing high
school. The country may be proud

of the fact that 95 percent of boys
and girls of fifth grade age are en-
rolled in our schools, but we cannot
help being concerned with the fact
that with each succeeding grade the
percentage falls. For every 1,000 stu-
dents in the fifth grade, 600 are lost
to education before the end of high
school has been reached, and all but
72 have ceased formal education be-
fore 4 years of college are completed.
While this report is concerned pri-
marily with methods of selecting and
educating high school graduates at
the college and higher levels, we can-
not be unconcerned with the poten-
tial loss of talent which is inherent
in the present situation in our pri-
marv and secondary schools.

The Nation's students may be dia-
grammed as a pyramid. At the base
of the diagram are the students be-
ginning the first grade. As we keep
looking at this body of students, they
drop out more and more rapidly and
the sides of the diagram slope in
sharply, making a pyramidal figure.

Students drop out of grade and
high schools for a variety of reasons.
The reasons which concern us in this
report are only those which relate to
the highly talented. Many of these
indi\'iduals of great promise who are
lost in the process are academic cas-
ualties undoubtedly to be charged
against the inadequacy of the local
secondary education available to
them. Studies of the situation in
different States show that the prob-
lem is by no means the same through-

147

out the country. The figures that
have been given above are the oxer-
all figures for the Nation: in some
States the loss is much less, in others
much greater. Unless one were to
believe — which we do not — that
there is a corresponding difference in
the distribution of native abilitv
among the States, one cannot help
reaching the conclusion that the dif-
ferences reflect great variation in the
quality of our secondary education.
It is not .within our mandate to
enter into the controversial subject
of the way in which a larger amount
of public funds should be expended
on secondary education in those
States where the amount now spent
per pupil is very low, and it is surely
no coincidence that it is in these very
States that we find the losses, from
the fifth grade on, to be the greatest.
We would be remiss in our duty,
however, if we did not point out that
much remains to be done to make
our educational system effective in
developing the latent talent of the
Nation by improving the quality of
the secondary schools in many locali-
ties so that no boy or girl of talent
and promise may be deprived of the
proper high school education.

Among those who drop out before
completing high school, both in the
States which provide excellent public
education and in those which are less
advanced in this respect, there un-
doubtedly are some at least who have
potentialities for becoming first-rate
scientists and engineers. The early
discovery of such individuals who
have dropped out of the educational
system obviously presents peculiar
difficulties. The Committee suggests
to employers, and to educational, sci-
entific, and labor leaders that serious
consideration be given to the prob-
lems involved in the discovery of such

individuals and in getting them back
into educational institutions where
their talents can be dexeloped in spite
of their lack of complete high school

trammg.

Students drop out of high school,
college, and graduate school, or do
not get that far, for a variety of rea-
sons. The reasons that concern us
are only those which relate to the
talented and they are (1) that they
cannot afford to go, (2) that schools
and colleges proxiding work of inter-
est and up to the level of their abili-
ties are not available locally, and (3)
that business and industry recruit
from among the ablest before they
ha\'e finished the training of which
they are capable.

These reasons apply generally, but
they apply with particular force to
science:

1. The educational road to becom-
ing a high-grade scientist is long and
expensive, and the families of many
able students cannot afford to pay
their way. It is of a length at least
6 years beyond high school and it is
expensive because, as is evident, no
large percentage of science students
can get first-rate training in educa-
tional institutions while living at
home.

2. Students of scientific capability
are particularly vulnerable to bad or
inadequate mathematical and scien-
tific teaching in secondary school
which fails to awaken their interest
in science or to give them adequate
instruction. Improvement in the
teaching of science all along the line
is imperative. To become a first-rate
scientist it is necessary to get a good
start early, and a good start early
means good secondary school science
teaching. No matter how gifted and
capable a person may be, if he is
not interested to finish secondary

148

school, or does not have the oppor-
tunity to complete secondary school,
he cannot — as things are — go on to
collecje and to graduate school.

3. Recruitment from among gifted
students bv business and industry
likewise applies with particular force
to science. A young man may well
find the place in which eventually
he will achieve high distinction in
industry, following graduation from
college, if his place ought to be, for
example, in management or applied
science. But if his place, consider-
ing his abilities, might be at the top
in scientific research, he will be seri-
ously handicapped if he stops his
training without proceeding to the
level represented by the doctorate.
Industry and business cannot afford,
as a long-term proposition, to recruit,
prior to completion of training, those
potential scientists who appear capa-
ble of contributing to fundamental
advances or who should be teachers.

In the light of the studies made,
having regard to the facts of the
educational pyramid, it clearly is es-
sential to provide for the early school-
ing of more able students in order
that a large enough group will sur-
vive to become a larger quota of stu-
dents of the highest ability at the
apex of the pyramid. To increase this
small group of exceptionally able men
and women it is necessary to enlarge
the number of students of high ability
who go to college. This involves bet-
ter high schools, provision for help-
ing individual, talented students to
finish high school (primarily, we con-
ceive, responsibilities of every local
community), and opportunities for
more capable, promising high school
students to go to college. Any other
practice constitutes an indefensible
and wasteful utilization of higher

education and neglect of our human
resources.

If we were all-knowing and all-wise
we might, but we think probably not,
write vou a plan v\'hcrebv there might
be selected for training, which they
otherwise would not get, those who,
20 years hence, would be scientific
leaders and we might not bother
about any lesser manifestations of sci-
entific ability. But in the present
state of knowledge a plan cannot be
made which will select, and assist,
only those young men and women
who will give the top future leader-
ship to science. To get top leader-
ship there must be a relatively large
base of high ability selected for de-
velopment and then successive skim-
mings of the cream of ability at suc-
cessive times and at higher levels.
No one can select from the bottom
those who will be the leaders at the
top because unmeasured and un-
known factors enter into scientific,
or any, leadership. There are brains
and character, strength and health,
happiness and spiritual vitality, in-
terest and motivation, and no one
knows what else, that must needs
enter into this supra-mathematical
calculus.

We think we probably would not,
even if we were all-wise and all-
knowing, write you a plan whereby
you would be assured of scientific
leadership at one stroke. We think as
we think because we are not inter-
ested in setting up an elect. We think
it much the best plan, in this consti-
tutional Republic, that opportunity
be held out to all kinds and condi-
tions of men whereby they can better
themselves. This is the American
way; this is the way the United States
has become what it is. We think it
very important that circumstances be
such that there be no ceilings, other

149

than ability itself, to intellectual am-
bition. We think it very important
that every bov and girl shall know
that, if he shows that he "has what
it takes," the sky is the limit. Even
if it be shown subsequently that he
has not what it takes to go to the
top, he will go further than he would
otherwise go if there had been a ceil-
ing beyond which he always knew he
could not aspire.

By proceeding from point to point
and taking stock on the way, by giv-
ing further opportunity to those who
show themselves worthy of further
opportunity, by giving the most op
portunity to those who shaw them-
selves continually developing — this is
the way we propose. This is the
American way: a man works for what
he gets.

2. The Desirable and Necessary
Extent of the Proposed Long-
Term Plans

As said in the general preamble to
this report, we think that plans for
the discovery and development of sci-
entific talent should have a limit re-
lated to the needs of the Nation as
a whole for trained talent in all ac-
tivities that are necessary for the
national welfare. We think, also as
stated, that while we have no fears
that too much top ability can be
found and developed there is some
danger that too many scientists of less
than top ability may be trained, there-
by debasing the currency of scientific
training to the point where scientific
careers may not look attracti\'e either
to the best or to the second best.

How to calculate the Nation's fu-
ture needs for scientists, or to docu-
ment fullv a judgment upon the
question, we confess we do not know.
But we have some evidence to sup-
port what we, at any rate, regard as

informed conclusions. This evidence
is set forth in Appendix B attached
hereto. In summary it shows the fol-
lowing facts germane to this report:

In the year 1941 there were con-
ferred 53,534 undergraduate degrees
in natural science and in technology.

In the last 6 years before the war,
the average annual number of Ph.D.
degrees conferred in natural science
and technological fields was 1,649.

For some years to come, as pointed
out elsewhere in this report, these
numbers must be increased in an at-
tempt to make up for the accumu-
lated deficits in trained scientific and
technological personnel caused by
wartime interruptions to basic educa-
tion and specialized training.

We have carefully studied data and
indications concerning the Nation's
future needs for scientists and tech-
nologists as a basis for determining
the necessary and desirable extent of
plans for discovering and developing
scientific talent. We have concluded
that the best that can be done is to
make a practical, executive judgment
after consideration of the material;
and such a judgment leads us to pro-
pose that 6,000 science students an-
nually be selected for assistance in
obtaining the bachelor's degree. This
number we judge to be not too large
from any point of view or too small
to be effective.

Similarly, making an executive
judgment upon numbers of students
proposed to be assisted annually to
obtain doctoral degrees in science, we
arrive at the figure 250, plus 50 for
medical research doctorates unless
your Committee upon the second
question in President Roosevelt's let-
ter makes a separate recommendation
on fellowships in that field, which
we understand is not their present in-
tention. It is not intended that the

150

50 proposed medical-research pre-
doctoral fellowships shall be admin-
istered nor allocated separately but
simply that the recommended total
number of predoctoral fellowships
be increased to 300.

The number 250 is arrived at by
considering, inter alia, that it would
be 10 percent of the prewar average
of science doctorates conferred, 165,
plus a number endeavoring to make
up some of the science doctoral deficit
incurred during the war years when
science students, practically, have
been and are nonexistent. Our think-
ing concerning the added 50 medical
research doctorates goes along the
same lines.

These figures, we wish to empha-
size, are not provable but equally we
wish to emphasize they appear rea-
sonable to us. It has been in our
thinking throughout this report that
we do not want to inflate or debase
the currency of scientific training by
artificially stimulating its issuance
bevond the Nation's needs for such
training.

Further, we desire to emphasize the
point that, until we see the look of
the postwar world, policies cannot be
determined with finality. And, until
policies can be determined, alterna-
tive plans, and sliding scales within
those plans, are the onlv plans that
make sense. We cannot, as we have
said, guarantee that our figure of
6,000 assisted science students in
each entering class and 250-300 as-
sisted candidates for science doctor-
ates a year are the correct figures for
the needed result. We conclude,
simply, that they are good figures
with which to begin, alwavs pro-
vided that they be not frozen and
mav be changed in the light of ex-
perience and as future demands for
scientists and need for Federal assist-

ance in training them may be shown.
Elsewhere in this report it is rec-
ommended that the administrative
agency which may be charged with
making our proposals operative be
charged also with a continuing re-
search function in which studies of
opportunities for scientific and tech-
nological employment should have a
major place.

When considering the question
whether or not the group of under-
graduates selected for training under
the plan herein recommended be too
large, it ought to be remembered that
the majority will not go on to research
careers but rather to various kinds of
engineering practice, plant manage-
ment activities and to many other
kinds of practical work connected
with industry and technological proc-
esses. For industries based on highly
advanced scientific techniques which
must be adapted constantly to new
scientific discoveries, training in sci-
ence is essential throughout the man-
agement, and while it cannot be said
that a man, because he is a good
scientist, is therefore a good manager
for such a business, still without sci-
entific training, he could hardly func-
tion at all. Moreover, for such a busi-
ness a scientific training is, qua the
business, probably as good a training
as any other.

Furthermore, in reference to sci-
entific training at the undergraduate
level, we quote with approval a state-
ment by a distinguished committee of
English scholars, from social, human-
istic and science fields, published by
Nuffield College of the University of
Oxford:

* * * We live in a world in which sci-
ence lies at the very roots of community,
and a mastery of scientific thinking grows
more and more indispensable for the suc-
cessful practice of the arts of life. The
culture of the modern age, if it is to have

151

meaning, must be deeply imbued with
scientific ways of thought. It must absorb
science, without forsaking what is of value
in the older ways or conduces to the
understanding of those deeper problems
which science by itself is impotent to
answer. It is a question, not of substitut-
ing a scientific culture for that which has
gone before, but of reaching a wider
appreciation in which the sciences in their
modern development fall into their due
place * * *

3. The Recommended Long-
Term Plan and Means for
Achieving It

As stated in the preceding section,
we propose that the number of un-
dergraduate students of science and
technology assisted under the plan
shall be 6,000 annually and that the
number of assisted doctoral students
in the same fields shall be 250 or 300
annually. This would make the 4-year
maximum total of undergraduates
24,000 and the 2- to 3-year maximum
total of graduate students 900. Maxi-
mum annual costs, if the plan is to
be realized fully, may reach, after the
fourth year of operation, $29,000,000.

It is our idea that these highly
selected students, if they proceed to
doctorates, in many cases will be able
to obtain that degree after 6 years
of undergraduate and graduate work;
but provision should be made for
those who require 3, instead of 2,
years of graduate work.

In this connection, we wish to em-
phasize the responsibility of educa-
tional institutions in this plan. Under
the central purpose of the plan — to
provide scientific training for students
of superior ability and equal oppor-
tunity to all American youth to quali-
fy in competition for such training —
educational institutions will face the
obligation of providing a training
commensurate intellectually with the
superior ability of this special group.
The Committee believes that a pro-

gram which is appropriate for the
rank and file of college students will
not be appropriate for these, or other,
highly selected individuals.

It appears to us that the scale of
support for the undergraduate stu-
dents selected under the proposed
plan should be that provided by Con-
gress under the so called GI Bill of
Rights, namely, tuition and other fees
up to $500 annually and, for personal
support, $50 a month during the
months of each year when the Schol-
ars actually are engaged in full-time
study. Benefits under the plan should
not be restricted to young and recent
secondary school graduates but should
be available also to those who, hav-
ing worked in business and industry,
desire to obtain scientific training at
the college level. Such Scholars, if
married, should receive, as also pro-
vided in the GI Bill of Rights, $75
monthly for support when engaged in
full-time study.

Persons who receive benefits under
the plan should be selected solely on
the basis of merit, without regard to
sex, race, color, or creed.

The question whether or not finan-
cial need should be considered as a
factor in awarding benefits under the
plan has been the subject of much
study, consultation, and thoughtful
consideration by the Committee. We
conclude that need should not be a
factor in the awards, for many rea-
sons, among which are that, if need
is to be considered, there would be
required a means test of the parents,
difficult if not impossible to admin-
ister with equity; those who receive
benefits under the plan would be
labeled as poor; and in cases where
parents were not sympathetic to
higher education their children might
be cut off from the benefits of the
plan.

152

Moreover, we consider that, aj^art
from and in addition to the general
benefits to the Nation flowing from
the addition to its trained ranks of
such a corps of scientific workers,
there should be a definite and stated
quid fro quo from the beneficiaries
to the Nation. Hence, we propose
that the beneficiaries under the plan
should constitute a National Science
Reserve, with definite and stated obli-
gations to the Nation for scientific
work similar to the obligations of
members of the Army and Navy Re-
serves for service of the kind for
which they have been prepared.

We suggest that recipients of un-
dergraduate scholarships under the
proposed plan be known as National
Science Reserve Scholars and that
recipients of predoctoral fellowships
be called National Science Reserve
Fellows.

The awards of Science Reserve
Scholarships for college training for
the bachelor's degree should be based
upon tests of ability and aptitude to
insure that the successful candidates
will be oriented to scientific and tech-
nological pursuits. Moreover, accept-
ance of the Scholarships and Fellow-
ships should be understood by the re-
cipients as indicating intention to en-
gage professionally in scientific and
technological work but not as consti-
tuting an absolute obligation to do so.
We recommend that the recipient
of a National Reserve Scholarship or
Fellowship shall agree that, upon the
completion of his undergraduate or
graduate training, he shall be en-
rolled in the National Science Re-
serve and be liable to call into the
service of the Federal Government,
in connection with scientific or tech-
nical work in time of war or of a
national emergency declared by Con-
gress or proclaimed by the President

— the conditions of employment and
the salary to be determined at that
time by the President.

This call would be at the option of
the Federal Government. It is con-
templated that, in cases where men
had not for years been engaged in
scientific or technical activities, the
Government probably would not ex-
ercise the right of call.

In addition to the binding obliga-
tion to serve the Government (if
called) full-time in case of war or a
national emergency, the members of
the Reserve should pledge themselves
to render assistance to the Govern-
ment in time of peace, through serv-
ice on advisory committees and on a
consulting basis insofar as they are
able to do so without gross interfer-
ence with their professional work or
the rendering of effective service to
their employers.

We believe that the proposed Na-
tional Science Reserve would be of
real service to the Nation. Evidence
presented to the Committee shows
that, if such a science reserve had
been in existence in 1940 and had
included the best scientists, the mobil-
ization of scientific and technical men
to assist the Army and the Navy
(directly and through OSRD), be-
fore Pearl Harbor, would have been
more rapid and effective than it was
possible to make it. We believe that
the obligation undertaken by the re-
cipients of National Science Reserve
scholarships and fellowships would
constitute a real quid pro quo and
that the Federal Government would
be well advised to invest the money
involved even if the benefits to the
Nation were thought of solely —
which they are not — in terms of na-
tional preparedness.

The exact extent and duration of
the obligation to serve, assumed by

153

members of the National Science Re-
serve, of course, would be for the
wisdom of Congress to determine in
relation to the needs of the Nation
and to the obligations of graduates
of the Military and Naval Academies,
of members of the Army and Naval
Reserves and indeed of all citizens in
time of war or other national emer-
gency.

It is agreed by the Committee in
respect to the administration of the
National Science Reserve Scholar-
ships that while the plan must be
national in character, the principle
of local administration must be rec-
ognized. The American scene which
looks rather uniform from anv one
place has infinite variety and intense
individuality at close range. This
must be recognized.

Our plan for the selection of Na-
tional Science Reserve Scholars is set
forth tentatively in Appendix C at-
tached hereto. In brief it is this:

The 6,000 proposed scholarships
should be assigned to the States ^ on
the basis of the number of their sec-
ondary school graduates of the previ-
ous year as related to the national
total of such graduates.

On the basis of the 1939-40 fig-
ures, State quotas of scholars would
be as stated in the table on the fol-
lowing page.

It is recommended that, for the
National Science Reserve Scholars,
the administrative organization, the
bases of selection and the procedures
be as follows in brief:

Proposals for a "National Scientific

1 It is intended that the proposed scholarships
shall he availahlc also to secondao' school
graduates in the Territories and Insular Pos-
sessions but we have not statistics relating to
them comparable to those for the States and
for the District of 0)lumbia given on this
page. Allocation of scholarships to the Terri-
tories and Insular Possessions, of course, would
decrease the State quotas.

Research Foundation" are under dis-
cussion by your Committees and
among the proposed powers of such
a foundation is power to contract with
other agencies for the performance of
functions within the scope of the
foundation. It would be our recom-
mendation that the foundation, or
any similar organization which may
be established, should make arrange-
ments for choosing Scholars and
Fellows under the proposed plan
through the National Academy of
Sciences, if that organization be will-
ing to accept the responsibility. The
operation of the plan, we recom-
mend, should be entrusted to the
Academy's operating agency, the Na-
tional Research Council. More pre-
cise details of the National Acade-
my's participation and the means by
which it is suggested that operations
be carried on are stated in Appen-
dix C.

To ensure the fairest, most effec-
tive and most up-to-date methods of
selection, advisory bodies expert in
such matters must be set up. No
existing national science organization
has shown itself to be as well-
equipped for such advisory functions
— working both with nonmembers
of the academy and with members —
as the National Academy has shown
itself to be through the years. A
central administrative staff, chosen
for ability and integrity, also must
be set up.

As outlined in Appendix C, com-
mittees of selection would be set up
in each State. These committees, it
is suggested, should consist of five
members, to wit: three scientists, one
of whom should serve as chairman;
one member of a college or university
facultv, trained and experienced in
the field of selection and guidance;
and one representative of secondary

154

State

Secondary school
graduates '

State quotas:
scholarships

Alabama

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin

Wyoming

Totals

1

16

3

12

72
11
17

2

5
12
18

6
75
37
30
23
17
17

8
13
46
44
30
13
33

6
17

1

4
39

3
17
30

7
73
23
13
99

5
12

8
17
56

8

3
20
21
17
33

3

,222
,498
,226
,301
,900
,614
,353
,278
,666
,302
,815
,508
,470
,671
,326
,675
,405
,485
,016
,830
,522
,337
,979
,343
,617
,970
,005
,670
,973
,745
,901
,372
,182
,616
,467
,002
,351
,978
,687
,059
,857
,348
,212
,130
,263
,170
,571
,464
,213

1,218,545

80

17

60

356

59

87

12

26

62

90

34

372

184

151

115

87

86

42

64

231

219

149

69

164

33

88

5

23

197

18

580

150

35

362

116

64

489

29

62

40

88

277

40

15

100

104

87

165

16

5,999

' Public high school graduates 1939-40 plus 1/6 of the private and parochial secondary school
enrollment. Statistics of State School Systems, 1939-40, 1941-42, Biennial Survey of Education,
U. S. Office of Education.

education within the State, usually a
secondary school principal or a high
school supervisor in the State depart-
ment of education. At least one of

the scientists, it is suggested, should
be from agriculture or from industry
within the State.

The administrative staff of the na-

155

tional over-all organization, in cooper-
ation with the advisory bodies, would
prepare tests in accordance with the
best thought upon such matters.
These tests would be given to all
applicants throughout the country
and the test reports would be sent to
the national organization for evalua-
tion. The national staff also would
collect other relevant data and judg-
ments concerning each applicant and
upon the basis of the tests and other
material would certify to the State
committees a number of qualified
candidates equal to twice the States
quota- — ^it being proxided, howe\'er,
that no applicants shall be certified
who do not attain a certain minimum
national standard. The dossiers of
these candidates would be sent to the
State committees and those commit-
tees would have the responsibility of
making the final selections of the
Scholars up to the number of the
State's quota.

The machinery and procedures for
administering these scholarships are
outlined only in general terms at this
time. It is clear that valid methods
for selecting students of high ability
are available in the experience of
persons and organizations which have
been working on this problem for
many years. Doubtless better meth-
ods will be available in future and
the methods adopted for the National
Science Reserve Scholarships should
be the best available at the time they
are being used.

Concerning machinery for admin-
istration of the National Science Re-
serve Fellowships, we can be brief:

They should be administered na-
tionally as the National Research
Council Fellowships are adminis-
tered. Whether or not a "National
Scientific Research Foundation" or
similar body be established, we judge

that the National Research Council
of the National Academy of Sciences
would be the best agency to admin-
ister the proposed National Science
Reserve Fellowships; for the National
Research Council has shown that it
has the know-how and integrity to
administer well a Fellowship pro-
pram on a national basis. It should
be noted that we propose that the
fellowships (as distinct from the
scholarships) should be awarded on a
national, not a State, basis.

For the National Scientific Re-
ser\'e Fellowships as for the Scholar-
ships, the sole basis of selection
should be merit, without regard to
sex, race, color, creed, or need.

It is recommended that fellowship
(as distinct from scholarship) stip-
ends should be fixed by the awarding
agency on a scale up to $100 monthly,
plus payments for tuition and other
fees up to a maximum of $500 an-
nually.

Throughout the whole plan, for
both scholarships and fellowships,
there should run an insistence upon
high-grade work by the holder, other-
wise the fellowship or scholarship
shall be terminated by the awarding
agency.

Scholarships shall be tenable for
4 academic years or the equivalent.
Fellowships shall be tenable for the
duration of graduate studies leading
to the doctoral degree, up to a maxi-
mum of 3 academic years or the
equivalent. Both shall be held upon
the following conditions:

(n) Continuance of good health.

(1?) Continuance of good behavior.

(c) Scientific progress at the level
of the best 25 percent of former stu-
dents in the scientific departments
primarily concerned.

If a Scholar or Fellow drops out

156

for failure or other reasons, his schol-
arship or fellowship should lapse.
Alternates should not be appointed.

The scholarships and fellowships
should be valid for any college or uni-
versity, within the territory of the
United States, of the holder's choice,
subject to the advice and consent of
the awarding agency concerning rele-
vant facilities for scientihc work.
With the consent of the awarding
agency, a Scholar or Fellow may
change the location of his work to
another college, university or techni-
cal school which is judged to be bet-
ter suited to his scientific development.

National Science Reser\'e Scholars
should be eligible to appointment as
National Science Reserve Fellows,
but appointments to the fellowships
should not be restricted to the Na-
tional Science Reserve Scholars. The
fellowships should be open to com-
petition from all pre-doctoral science
students.

It is recommended that the award
of the scholarships and of the fellow-

ships be commenced simultaneously,
or approximately so, to the full an-
nual number in each category.

The Committee recommends that
the National Agency in charge ol
the scholarships and fellowships
should carry on continuing research
into methods of selection and con-
tinuing study of unfolding oppor-
tunities (and the reverse) for em-
ployment in science and technology.

Among effective means for the dis-
covery and development of scientific
talent in American youth are means
for developing public interest in
science. It will not be sufficient, if
science is to remain healthy in root
and branch, merely to develop a large
number of scientists and to provide
them with the financial support
necessary for their investigations.
There is also the necessity of creating
a better understanding of the role
and place of science in our national
life, so that public approval and sup-
port for the future development of
science will be forthcoming.

157

Part Two

Plans for the Near Future

The preceding sections of this re-
port propose plans for the disco\'ery
and development of scientific talent
in American youth as a long-term
proposition. There is, however, an
immediate and pressing problem
which is a result of the war.

1 . Deficits of Scientific and Tech-
nological Personnel Resulting
from War and Selective Service
Policies

The training of men in the fields
of science and technology during the
war has almost completely stopped.
With the exception of some 2,400
men on the reserved list who have
been taken from their studies for
civilian war research, all physically
fit graduate students have been taken
into the armed forces. College stu-
dents majoring in the sciences have
also been taken into the armed forces.
Those ready for college training in

the sciences have not been permitted
to enter. Because of these curtail-
ments, it will require at least 6 years
after the war ends before scientists
trained for research will emerge from
the graduate schools in any signifi-
cant quantity. Consequently there is
an accumulating deficit in the num-
ber of trained research scientists.
That deficit will continue for a num-
ber of years.

The deficits in science and tech-
nology students who, but for the war,
would have been granted bachelor's
degrees in these fields are probably
already about 150,000.

The deficits, in science and tech-
nology, of doctoral degrees — that is,
of young scholars trained to the point
where they are capable of carrying
on original work — have been calcu-
lated by the American Institute of
Physics, as follows:

Total prob-

Deficit

able deficit

accumulated

Probable

due to war

1941 through

Estimated

Total 1941

deficits 1946

1941 through

1944

deficit 1945

through 1945

through 1955

1955

Chemistry

240

550

790

4,460

5,250

Engineering

148

82

230

730

960

Geology

63

50

113

317

430

Mathematics

161

100

261

939

1,200

Physics

251

160

411

1,589

2,000

Psychology

96

84

180

550

730

Biological Sciences...

665

725

1,390

4,910

6,300

Totals

1,624

1,751

3,375

13,495

16,870

158

All patriotic citizens, who are well-
informed on these matters, agree that,
for military security, good public
health, full employment and a higher
standard of living after the war, these
deficits are very serious.

In a recent radio address Dr.
Arthur H. Compton, Professor of
Physics in the University of Chicago
and Nobel Prize winner, said:

It takes at least 6 years for a capable
18-year-old to train himself for effective
scientific research. Even if we should start
now to resume such training, it will thus
be at least 6 years before a normal supply
of young professionals will again be avail-
able to our laboratories. Can we afford to
wait any longer?

Admiral J. A. Purer, Coordinator
of Research and Development,
United States Navy Department, has
said:

I want to mention the great personal
interest that the Secretary of War, Mr.
Stimson, and the Secretary of the Navy,
Mr. Forrestal, are taking in postwar mili-
tary research. There is a growing belief
that important as it may be to maintain
after the war ground forces, air forces, and
sea forces of a size commensurate with our
national responsibilities, it may be even
more important to keep the weapons and
the material in general which we supply
to these forces in step with the advances
of science. Stocking our arsenals with the
weapons of this war is no guarantee that
we can win the next war with them. In
fact, that may be the quickest way of
losing the next war. It would be wiser to
maintain arsenals of only modest size
whether we are speaking of ships or guns
or aircraft and to use the money saved
thereby to continually replace the old
things with the new creations of the re-
search laboratory and of American inven-
tive genius. Our industry should be kept
alert to begin quickly the production of
the vast quantities of materials needed
when war threatens; and this readiness
should concern itself especially with the
new things. We hope for your aid in
supporting this position among those who
are engaged in research.

Dr. Charles L. Parsons, Secretary

of the American Chemical Society,

wrote President Roosevelt:

American technology has given birth to
the greatest power of all time. Today, we
are drying up prosperity at its source. Pub-
lic opinion of the future will view with
amazement the waste of scientists in
Wodd War JI * * * Our children and
our grandchildren will not forgive the loss
of an entire generation of scientists.

Dr. Charles Allen Thomas, direc-
tor of the Monsanto Chemical Com-
pany's research laboratories, declared:

Scientific suicide faces America unless
immediate and adequate steps are taken to
train replacements for technical men going
into the armed services.

Statements of this type are fairly
representative of the thinking of in-
formed men in the armed services
and in civilian life.

The situation, in brief, is that since
the passage of the Selective Service
Act in the autumn of 1940, there
have been practically no students
over 18, outside of students of medi-
cine and engineering in Army and
Navy programs, and a few 4-F's, who
have followed an integrated scien-
tific program in the United States.
Neither our allies nor, so far as is
known, our enemies have permitted
any such condition to develop; but
on the contrary have maintained or
increased national programs for the
training of scientists and technolo-
gists. It takes at least 6 years for a
capable 18-year-old person to train
himself for effective scientific re-
search. Having regard to this long
period of training and on the basis
of prewar figures showing both the
number of students of physical
science in graduate schools and of
doctoral degrees then conferred, the
accumulating deficit of scientists has
been calculated, with the results al-
ready presented. That these deficits

159

are a serious matter for the welfare of
the Nation be the condition peace
or war, is agreed. What are the feasi
ble remedies?

Proposals to change the policy of
draft boards to the end that students
of science and technology shall not
be drafted are too late. The damage
has been done: these students already
are in the Armv and Navy, cut off
from integrated scientific and techno-
logical training. Proposals for their
early discharge from the Army and
Navy are not feasible. The Armv
has made its plans for the discharge
of personnel as soon as feasible in
accordance with a rating scale con
ceded to be fair and reasonable from
the standpoint of the individual GI —
however it may disregard the risk to
the Nation's scientific strength. Plans
for the discovery and development of
scientific talent in American youth
who are in the Army and Navy must,
to be practicable and reasonable, take
account of the existing situation and
of plans for demobilization already
adopted.

Our proposals, in the situation as
we find it, are these:

2. Plans for Integrated Scientific
Training for Soldiers and
Sailors

There should be prepared now lists
of promising students of science and
technology — students who before and
after their entry into the armed serv-
ices have shown high ability in these
fields. Arrangements should be made
now with the Army and the Navy
whereby, now that it is militarily fea-
sible, these talented students should
be ordered to duty in the United
States for fully independent, inte-
grated scientific study of a grade
available to civilians in peace times.
This should be adopted as the con-

sidered policy of the armed services
and no desire of a commanding offi-
cer to retain a potential scientist for
his usefulness on the spot should be
allowed to interfere with the opera-
tion of the policy.

It is recommended that this plan
be carried out, not in terms of a
stated number of young scientists,
but rather that, now, centers of
science and technology in the United
States should be combed for infor-
mation concerning those students
who, prior to the war, had given
evidence of high talent for science
and technology; and that, as soon as
militarily possible, these students by
name, should be ordered to duty as
students. Probably no more than
100,000 of the 10,000,000 men in
the Army and Navy would be in-
volved and now, following VE-day,
that number could not be militarily
significant. Likewise, we recommend
that the armed services comb their
records for men who, during the war,
have given evidence of high talent for
science and technology, and that they
also be included in this plan.

It is recommended that the plan be
not restricted to students at any par-
ticular level of studies, but rather that
science students who have shown
their abilities at all levels of studies,
from college freshman to postdoctoral
students, be included. It is also spe-
cifically recommended that former
teachers of science in the armed
forces be included in this plan.

The machinery for the discovery
of the students under this plan, we
venture to suggest, could best be set
up within the Research Board for
National Security.

Under this proposed plan, be it
noted, there would be no disruption
of plans already made for the dis-
charge of soldiers from the Army;

160

while students, their discharges
would occur in accordance with the
already established rating scale. It
would not do to propose that such
a plan should be done on a volunteer
basis — that is, that personnel ol" the
Army and Navy should request
orders to duty as students. It would
not do because many of the best of
them probably would elect to remain
in the armed services, inspired by
feelings that they would not wish to
be put in the position of seeming to
shirk their full patriotic duty.

Our recommendation is empha-
sized in the cases of men whose scien-
tific training was well started before
their induction, the more so the
further that training had advanced.
It is important to remember that the
induction of many students in the
critical science and technological
fields was delayed and that under
actual demobilizing plans they will
consequently be among the last to
return to civil life. A way must be
found to insure the quick resumption
of their training, composing, as they
do, the recognized "premium crop"
of science and technology.

The future of our country in peace
and war depends on that premium
crop.

3. The Importance of Quality of
Instruction in ''''Army Universi-
ties^- Abroad

The Army has made plans for set-
ting up in foreign countries, when
and where the military situation per-
mits, courses of study for soldiers,
including courses in science and tech-
nology. These plans are all to the
good. The further important thing
to ensure is that the courses shall be
the best and most up-to-date that can
be given, and shall include adequate
laboratory work. You stated the issue

in your letter of November 19, 1944,

to General Frederick H. Osborn:

There have been in this country, by
reason of war research, advances which
will gradually permeate our entire indus-
trial, scientific, and technical structure.
Are the metallurgists now in the Army to
return and find that they have studied
alloys that are out-of-date? Are mechani-
cal engineers to find that advanced think-
ing on gas turbines has outpaced those
who have been at the front, and the new
knowledge has not been extended to
them? Are the large number of medical
men in the field to have no direct contact
until they return with those who have
made more advance in medical research in
the last few years than usually occurs in
a decade?

It must be ensured that these ques-
tions can be answered in the nega-
tive. The Armed Forces Institute
must be prepared with instruction
that is wholly up-to-date in its higher
levels; but the fact of the matter re-
mains that since the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, the Cali-
fornia Institute of Technology, the
Ryerson Laboratory of the University
of Chicago, and others, cannot be
moved abroad, the plan for Army
universities must be supplemented by
what we have suggested in our first
proposal above.

The Committee emphasizes that
for men of scientific promise and
abihty there is special need that the
Armed Forces Institute have its in-
struction modern, up-to-date, and of
the best effectiveness. It is clear that
there is a vast opportunity in this
program for strengthening the tech-
nical work of the country by inte-
grating the training given to soldiers
possessing technical proficiencies with
problems of modern industry and
technology, especially for men who
do not plan to go on to advanced
scientific training. So far as possible,
the universities and technical schools
of the country doubtless would stand

161

ready to cooperate with the Armed
Forces histitute along these Hnes, if
requested by the Army, by sending
overseas instructors in technical and
scientific subjects — instructors, who,
fresh from war research, would be
up-to-date. Technical branches of
business and industry might well do
the same.

4. The Place of the GI Bill of
Rights in Ameliorating Scientific
and Technological Deficits

Public Law 346, Sexenty-eighth
Congress, commonly known as the
Gl Bill of Rights, provides for the
education of veterans of this war un-
der certain conditions, at the expense
of the Federal Government. Among
the returning soldiers and sailors will
be many with marked scientific talent
which should be developed through
further education, for the national
good. However, the 1 year of edu-
cation which the law provides for
essentially all veterans clearly will not
be enouph to train a scientist nor in
most instances to complete training
begun prior to entry into the armed
forces. The law makes the amount
of education beyond 1 year at Gov-
ernment expense depend on length
of service rather than on ability to
profit from the education. It would
seem to us that our mandate to set up
an effecti\'e plan for discovering and
developing scientific talent must take
into account the scientific potentiali-
ties among the 10,000,000 young
Americans now in the armed forces.
Accordingly, it is recommended that:

(a) a special advisory committee of
scientists be appointed to assist the
administrators of the law to discover
and direct the counseling of those
veterans who have marked scientific
talent;

(h) an adequate advising and coun-

seling service be established in each
State or region; and

(c) a complete scientific education
at Government expense be provided
for a group selected on the basis of
the educational record of the first
Near (assured to all veterans) and
such other tests as may be neces-
sary— the length of this education to
be determined, on the merits of each
case, b)' the special adxisory com-
mittee.

Under the suggested plans inter-
ested veterans while studying science
for the first year, during which as
veterans they are entitled to support
from the Federal Government, would
submit their records and take certain
tests. Outstanding men and women
of scientific talent would be se-
lected— and we recommend a selec-
tive process as rigorous as that pro-
vided under our main plan — and be
provided with funds at the rate pre-
vailing in the GI Bill of Rights for
completion of college courses in
science, and also for graduate train-
ing to those possessing very high
abilities.

We are informed that to some ex-
tent the proposals herein outlined
could be put into effect under the
present law by administrative action,
and we venture to recommend such
action to the extent allowable. We
believe, however, that it would be
advisable, in addition, to have new
legislation authorizing the adminis-
trators of the law to select, as an
estimate, possibly 5,000 veterans of
each age group (i. e., those born in
a given calendar year) for scientific
education at the expense of the Fed-
eral Government (at the rates speci-
fied in present laws) irrespective of
the length of their military service
and up to a total of 6 years. Here,
we think it sounder to recommend

162

that standards of scientific and tech-
nological ability be the limiting fac-
tors, rather than to recommend that
definite numbers of veterans be se-
lected for training. In dealing with
the veterans, for whom we think the
best possible training should be of-
fered, the only sound way for the
administrators of the law to proceed
is qualitatively, on the basis of assist-
ing those who can maintain the high-
est standards, rather than on the basis
of any quantitative estimates or fixed
quotas.

It is not necessary to stress further
that the proper handling of the reser-
voir of scientific talent now in the
armed forces is of the first importance
from the point of view of continuity
in future supply of scientists. Not all
of the scientific talent in the age
groups here considered (those born
in the years 1921 to 1928, roughly)
is to be found in the armed forces,
because some of the trained scientists
among them have been kept at
civilian tasks of utmost urgency for
the war effort. However, such as-
signment to civilian status through
Selective Service mechanism has been
far from effective in the past year or
two, and for those born later than
1924 (now 21 years of age or less),
practically no exemptions from mili-
tary service (except by reason of
physical disability) have been al-
lowed. Each year that the 18-year
olds are called up for service in the
armed forces a large portion of the
potential scientific talent of that age
group is cut off from adequate train-
ing. Among these younger men are
those who will be the most promising
candidates for further scientific edu-
cation when demobilized; yet, be-
cause, under the provisions of the
present law, the length of education
depends on length of service, it will

be those young men who can have
the least Government assistance.
Amendment of the law to rectify this
situation, at least insofar as future
scientists are concerned, seems to us
essential for the safety and continued
prosperity of the Nation.

The relation of the proposed ex-
tensions of the provisions of the Gl
Bill of Rights to the long-term plan
envisaged earlier in this report for
the National Science Reserve is ob-
vious. Those educated in science
under the veterans' law for a period
prolonged beyond the period to which
as veterans they would be entitled
should likewise be members of the
National Science Reserve. The rela-
tion of the proposed extensions to our
proposals for ordering members of the
armed forces to duty as students like-
wise is obvious. That group would
remain in the armed services only as
long as, under actual plans for de-
mobilization, they are required to
remain. Thereafter, they would take
up the educational benefits to which
they will be entitled under the GI
Bill of Rights, and under, we trust,
our proposed extensions of benefits
to the specially talented among them.

5. Duties of Schools^ Colleges,
Universities and Technical
Schools to Returning Veterans

However, this is a problem not
only for the Federal Government to
solve, but also is one requiring that
the States and the colleges, universi-
ties, and technical schools take lead-
ership. We say emphatically to the
colleges, and universities and techni-
cal schools that it is up to them to
be extremely flexible and broad-
minded in handling the returning
veteran. Unless they are willing and
able to devise ways and means of
developing in science those able vet-

163

erans who do not meet the usual
formal requirements, they will lose
som? of the best talent in the country.
In particular, they must devise means
of building on the basis of the very
partial but highly detailed technical
training that many of these men have
received in service. Some of this
large group of men, perhaps millions,
who have learned about machines
and electrical equipment can be
further developed, for the well-being
of the country, through special insti-
tutions or vocational schools. More
over, from this group can be culled
first-rate scientific talent, provided
that the universities and technical
schools do what they ought to do.
The rigidity of academic institutions
must not be permitted to drive av^ay
from training talented veterans.

We recognize a dilemma here: the
scientific professions, including medi-
cine and indeed all the learned pro-
fessions as well, nowadays require,
because of the complexities and vast
extent of modern knowledge, both
breadth and intensity in preparation.
On the other hand, the generation
with which we are concerned has al-
ready lost up to 5 years of educational
time, and if the most ambitious
among them are not to be repelled,
ways must be found to shorten the
period required for them to complete
their formal education. It is a con-
dition, not a theory, that confronts
us and our judgment is that the
Nation will lose much if our educa-
tional institutions do not recognize
that many veterans will feel the need
for making up lost time, and help
them make it up. Otherwise, we are
sure, a significant quantity of them
will be lost to higher education.

Further, there is the problem of
veterans needing to complete their
secondary school training. Many of

them, interested in completing their
interrupted high school programs,
will be deterred from doing so be-
cause, by reason of their greater age
and maturity, they will be reluctant
to go back to regular school classes
with adolescents, to submit to the
usual high school routines and re-
quirements, and otherwise to live and
associate with such youngsters. This
situation must be met. A similar
problem confronts many youths em-
ployed in war industries.

Provision for these "over-age" high
school students is very necessary in
postwar educational programs, espe-
cially for those who are not primarily
concerned with vocational training,
which apparently will be amply pro-
vided under present and proposed
programs. Special provisions, such as
those stated by the Regents of the
State of New York, must be put into
effect to make it attractive for able
and promising youth to complete
high school and thereby become eli-
gible for college under one or more
of the scholarship plans that will be
available for talented high school
graduates. Otherwise they will be
lost to science and to higher educa-
tion, generally.

In considering plans and programs
for discovering and developing scien-
tific talent in American youth, the
needs of these particular groups must
not be overlooked since they will in-
clude some of the potential leaders
of the future, especially among the
veterans who will have had war ex-
perience that has helped them to
mature and develop. They must not
be penalized for their priceless ad-
vantage, not now recognized in our
regular educational arrangements.

The "Regents' Plan for Postwar
Education in the State of New York"

164

makes the following statement on this
subject:

The men and women demobilized from
the armed forces, together with workers of
hke age released from war industries, will
include many thousands of persons whose
educational career was interrupted below
high school graduation. The military per-
sonnel will probably be granted scholar-
ships large enough to take care of personal
expenses. If offered a flexible program at
the secondary level, with appropriate al-
lowances for military experience and for
work in the Armed Forces Institute, many
of these veterans would fit into classroom,
laboratory, and shop instruction. Others
will be older and perhaps averse to receiv-
ing regular instruction in company with
young pupils. , , , ,

School authorities should make an m-
ventory of all building, staff, and curricu-
lum facilities, for the purpose of develop-
ing special opportunities for returning vet-
erans and workers. In large cities it may
be helpful to set aside a school building to
house a special War Service School de-
voted to high school work for young per-
sons returning from the military service
and the war industries. The courses could
be accelerated and the calendar fully uti-
lized in order to permit a saving of time.
These schools, like others, would grant
credit for work completed in the Armed
Forces Institute. In smaller cities War
Service Schools at the secondary level
could be established on a regional basis.

We commend the Regents' plan
to educators throughout the Nation.

We commend also the plan
whereby men and women in the
armed forces may complete academic
requirements, while in the armed
forces, for graduation from secondary
schools. Such educational achieve-
ment is possible through work in the
service schools, the off-duty educa-
tional program, and the educational
opportunities of the United States
Armed Forces Institute. For men
and women who lack a substantial
proportion of the requirements for

high school graduation, the Army's
General Educational Development
Tests are helpful in determining the
grade level at which service personnel
should properly resume their civilian
education. The machinery to this
end is complete and the procedure is
as follows: A complete educational
record established while in the serv-
ice, should be recorded on the official
form USAFI No. 47 and returned by
the man or woman in the armed
forces to the secondary school for
evaluation and the award of credit
toward graduation. This will facili-
tate a continuance of education in
college of qualified persons. Veterans
of World War II who do not file a
USAFI credit application form be-
fore leaving the service should use a
certified copy of their separation rec-
ord as evidence of in-service training.

6. Importance of Problem of
Scientific Training of Men in
Armed Forces

The adequate handling of the edu-
cation of the scientific and techno-
logical talent now under arms will
be a primary test of the effectiveness
of the Government in meeting the
whole problem to which we have
been asked to direct our attention.

The future scientific and technical
leaders in the United States are now
largely in military service. Unless
exceptional steps are taken to recruit
and train talent from the armed serv-
ice at or before the close of the war,
the future will find this country seri-
ously handicapped for scientific and
technological leadership. In peace or
war, the handicap might prove fatal
to our standards of living and to our
way of life.

165

Appendix A

The Educational Pyramid: Studies Concerning Able Students
Lost to Higher Education

To be effective, a plan for discov-
ering and developing scientific talent
in American youth must be built
upon the country's existing educa-
tional structure and be consonant
with its current operations. Such a
plan must recognize the undoubted
fact that there is not an unlimited
number of individuals of high ability
and must ensure that the relatively
few with creative capacity in science
will be found early and be helped
and encouraged to go on through the
years of study required to complete

professional and research training.

An over-all picture of the child
and youth population and of the en-
rollments in educational institutions
is necessary for an understanding of
the dimensions of the problem pre-
sented by the proposed plan to dis-
cover and train young persons of
potential scientific ability. Such a
picture follows:

The census of 1940 reported the
following figures of population under
20 years of age:

Total

Percent

Male

Percent

Female

Percent

Under 5 years

5 to 9 years

10 to 14 years

15 to 19 years

10,540,524
10,684,622
11,745,935
12,333,513

8.0
8.1
8.9
9.4

5,353,808
5,418,823
5,952,329
6,180,143

8.1

8.2
9.0
9.4

5,186,716
5,265,799
5,793,606
6,153,370

7.9
8.0
8.8
9.4

It will be noted that there are
fewer children in the early ages than
in later childhood or in the adoles-
cent years. These figures become
even more significant in the light of
the changes which occurred between
1930 and 1940:

(a) The number of children under
5 years of age decreased, from 1930
to 1940, by some 900,000.

(h) The number of children of
ages from 5 to 9 years decreased,
from 1930 to 1940, by some 1,900-
000.

It is estimated that by 1950 there
will be a decrease of some 2 million,
and possibly more, in the age group
10 to 19 years. Since the current
larger number of babies born during
the war will not reach adolescence
for another 10 years at least, there
will be fewer bovs and girls reaching
high' school and college ages in the
next 7 to 10 years.

The following figures from the
1940 census show the age and school
attendance of the Nation's 46 million
boys and girls and youth:

166

Age group

5 years

6 years

7 to 9 years

10 to 13 years

14 years

15 years

16 to 17 years

18 to 19 years

20 years

21 to 24 years

Total number

Number attending
school

Percent attending

2,142,407
2,054,385
6,485,830
9,340,205
2,405,730
2,422,519
4,892,170
5,018,834
2,367,042
9,220,793

385,160
1,420,051
6,119,026
8,915,669
2,224,670
2,122,995
3,361,206
1,449,485
294,962
465,875

18.0
69.1
94.3
95.5
92.5
87.6
68.7
28.9
12.5
5.1

The percentage figures by age
groups showing school attendance
during 1940 are:

Percent attending school in each age grou-p
Age group:

5 to 6 years 43

7 to 13 years _ _— 95

14 to 15 years _... 90

16 to 17 years.. __ 68

18 to 20 years _ 23.6

21 to 24 years _ 5.1

It will be observed that the per-
centage of school attendance rises to

age 13 when boys and girls approach
the end of the elementary school and
junior high school and likewise when
employment in many States becomes
legal; but that thereafter it declines.
From age 17 on, the decline in at-
tendance is rapid, to the 5.1 percent
in the years 21 to 24 of college and
university attendance.

The following figures show the
educational attainments of the popu-
lation 25 years old and over in the
year 1940:

School years completed

Total

Number school years completed.

Grade school:

1 to 4 years

5 and 6 years

7 and 8 years

High school:

1 to 3 years

4 years

College:

1 to 3 years

4 years or more

Median school years completed.

Number of persons

73,733,866

2,799,923

7

8

25

11
10

4
3

,304,689
,515,111
,897,953

,181,995
,551,680

,075,184
,407,331

Percent

100.0

3.8

9.9
11.6
35.1

15.2
14.3

5.5
4.6

8.4

Not including persons for whom school years completed were not reported.

It will be noted that about half of cent had had less than a fifth-grade

the population 25 years of age and education.

over had completed approximately The foregoing figures of school

8^2 grades but that some 13.7 per- attendance collected in the 1940

167

census may be compared with the
enrollments by grades in the public
schools of the country as tabulated
by the United States Office of Edu-
cation. Again it will be noted that

there is a marked decline after the
seventh grade and a progressive dimi-
nution through the years of high
school :
— "Statistics of State School Systems,

1937-38

1941-42

Elementary school pupils

Kindergarten

First grade

Second grade

Third grade

Fourth grade

Fifth grade

Sixth grade

Seventh grade

Eighth grade

Secondary school pupils..

First year

Second year

Third year

Fourth Year

Post graduate

19,748,174

18,174,668

607,034
3,317,144
2,486,550
2,444,381
2,402,617
2,342,428
2,252,722
2,173,173
1,722,125

6,226,934

625,783
2,930,762
2,215,100
2,175,245
2,196,732
2,166,018
2,124,494
2,060,752
1,679,782

6,387,805

1,979,379
1,669,281
1,379,398
1,150,506
48,370

1,927,040
1,705,546
1,450,788
1,273,141
31,090

1939-40

Surveys

1940-42.

and 1941-42." Biennial
of Education, 1938-40,
(Table III, p. 9.)

In the year 1941—42 there was a
decrease in high school enrollments
of about 189,000, distributed as
follows:

First year of high school 84,000

Second year 61,000

Third year __ 35,000

Fourth year 9,000

Recent reports indicate a larger
decrease in high school attendance
for the years 1942—43, with indica-
tions that some 160,000 boys and
some 50,000 girls had left high
school. Efforts to reduce the number
of students leaving high school and
to persuade others to return, have
apparently checked this decline in

high school enrollments in 1944-45.

There is, as these figures indicate,
a progressive reduction in the num-
ber of students at each successively
higher level of education. Thus, the
total student body may be compared
to a pyramid with a broad base of
elementary pupils sloping upwards to
the apex of professional and graduate
students.

Various detailed studies of how
and when students drop out along
the educational sequence have been
made which throw light upon the
size of and occasion for withdrawals,
and the reasons therefor.

Starting with 1,000 pupils enrolled
in the fifth grade (figures for earlier
grades are confusing because of pupil
retardations), the following figures
show the extent to which they are
reduced in each successive year:

168

Elementary school:

Fifth grade, 1930-31 1,000

Sixth grade - 943

Seventh grade - 872

Eighth grade -- 824

High school:

First year 770

Second year — 652

Third year __.... 529

Fourth year - 463

Graduates,' 1938 -- 417

College :

First year 146

Graduate, 1942 72

[Statistical Summary of Education, 1939-40
(p. 39)]

In prewar years, of these 72 college
graduates, only a few went on to
master's degrees and an even smaller
number received doctorates.

The foregoing data reveal the gross
declines measured in terms of student
enrollments. More detailed and indi-
vidualized studies (cited later) of
those who drop out of high school
or who fail to go on to college show
that there is a significantly large pro-
portion of students of ability, of high
level of intelligence, who do not go
to college because of lack of funds.
In addition it is believed that there
are many able, talented, students,
whose numbers are difficult to esti-
mate accurately because only a few
sample studies have been made, who
do not continue their education be-
cause schools are inadequate or
inaccessible.

Among those who do enter college
there is a progressive decrease in each
succeeding college year. A study
conducted by the United States Of-
fice of Education on "College Stu-
dent Mortality" (Bulletin 1937, No.
11) found that in 1936-37 the per-
centage of students leaving each year
was as follows:

Percent

In the freshman year 33.8

In the sophomore year 16.7

In the junior year .._ 7.7

In the senior year 3.9

In short, of every 100 students who
entered the university in the first
vear, some 62 withdrew or left before
graduation. The figure 62 is, how-
ever, a gross figure since it includes
45 students who left to enter other
institutions (e.g., students who left
after 2 years to enter professional
school) or who returned later to the
same or went to other institutions of
the same level. The reasons for with-
drawing or leaving were as follows:

Percentages

18.4 were dismissed for failure in

work.
12.4 because of financial difficulties.
12.2 miscellaneous reasons.

6.1 lack of interest.

3.4 sickness.

1.1 disciplinary causes.

0.8 needed at home.

0.6 death.
45.0 unknown.

Those with the lowest academic
marks had the highest percentage of
withdrawals and those with the high-
est academic marks had the lowest
percentage of withdrawals. But it is
to be noted that 12.4 percent, or
about one in eight, withdrew because
of financial difficulties, indicating
that economic need, personally or of
the family, was responsible for their
leaving college before graduation.

As the foregoing material indicates,
students drop out of school in large
numbers between the ages of 13 and
14 and likewise during the high
school years. Among those who thus
drop out there is a significant propor-
tion who have the capacity for fur-
ther education but who do not con-
tinue their schooling. It appears that
this premature leaving from high
school (and failure to go on to col-
lege) arises from —

Failure to provide educational
programs suited to different
students who therefore be-
come bored and drop out.

169

Active recruitment by business
and industry of promising
youth who for their own good
and the national interest
should be encouraged to con-
tinue their education.

Lack of provision for assisting
needy students in high school
who must take jobs to help
support themselves or their
families.

The responsibility for improving
these conditions is primarily upon the
local communitv and business inter-
ests and the State governments, al-
though it must be recognized that, in
some sections of the country, re-
sources are lacking to provide ade-
quate high schools.

A number of recent studies have
shown that among high school grad-
uates there are many who have the
intelligence and ability for college
but who do not go to college for a
variety of reasons, chiefly economic
and geographic. Excerpts from these
studies are given at the end of this
section as evidence of ihe present
failure to provide adequately for the
continued education of promising
American youth.

In the light of the studies made,
having regard to the facts of the edu-
cational pyramid, it clearly is essen-
tial to provide for the early schooling
of more able students in order that
a large enough group will survive to
become a larger quota of high-ability
students at the apex of the pyramid.
No matter how capable and gifted
bovs and girls mav be, if thev do not
have opportunities to complete ele-
mentary and high school, they cannot
go on to college and thence to gradu-
ate school for research training.

To increase this small group of
exceptionally able men and women

it is necessary to enlarge the number
of able students who go to college.
This involves more and better high
schools, with provisions for helping
capable students in the high schools
(primarily a responsibility of every
local community) and opportunities
for more capable, promising high
school students to go to college. Any
other practice constitutes an inde-
fensible and wasteful utilization of
higher education and neglect of our
human resources.

Following are summaries of studies
pertinent to our inquiry concerning
able students lost to higher educa-
tion:

The Carnegie Foundation carried
out a thorough investigation into the
relationships and mutual responsibili-
ties of the high schools and colleges
of Pennsvlvania. One of the pur-
poses of the study was to answer the
question: Who shall go to college?

The procedure of the study in-
volved extensive testing of high
school seniors and college students,
study of records, and study of prog-
ress made in college. Comparisons
were then made between college and
non-college groups and between va-
rious college groups.

The results of this study showed
that the group of high school gradu-
ates who went to work included
many fully as able to obtain high test
scores as any pupils who went di-
rectly to college. Pennsylvania col-
leges of arts alone took nearly 4,000
of the high school group tested in
1928. The colleges accepted nearly
1,000 with test scores below the aver-
age of the group who did not go to
college and they failed to enroll 3,000
with better average scores than the
4,000 they did admit. Although the
college group exhibited a test score

170

average superior to that of the non-
college group, it did not include the
many able and often brilliant high
school graduates who could not pay
the college bills.

— The Student and His Knowl-
edge, by W. S. Learned and Ben D.
Wood. Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching; Bulletin
29, 1938.

In Minnesota a study was made of
students who graduated from high
school in 1938 to see what they were
doing a year later. About 22,000
young people were included in this
study which showed the following:

"What were youth doing a year
following graduation? Minnesota
high school graduates of June 1938,
fall into three broad groups of ap-
proximately equal numbers. One-
third found full-time employment
within a year following graduation.
Another third continued their train-
ing in either collegiate or preparatory
schools. The third group was made
up of graduates who secured part-
time employment only, of the unem-
ployed, and of those graduates for
whom principals were unable to sup-
ply information.

"Of the 22,306 young people who
finished high school in June 1938,
35 percent were employed full time
and 7 percent had secured part-time
employment in April 1939; 12 per-
cent were unemployed; 23 percent
were enrolled in colleges or univer-
sities, and an additional 12 percent
were receiving training in other
kinds of schools — trade schools, com-
mercial colleges, schools of nursing,
high schools as postgraduates. High
school principals were unable to re-
port the whereabouts of 1 1 percent.

"Was there a relationshif between

scholastic achievement in high school
and em'ployment or further training
for Minnesota high school graduates?
When the relationship of scholastic
success in high school to the post-
high school status of the graduates of
June 1938 was studied, these three
trends were found : As one goes down
the ability scale (1) the percentage
of graduates employed increased, (2)
the percentage of unemployed gradu-
ates also increased, and (3) the per-
centage of graduates who continued
their training beyond high school de-
creased. When, however, only those
graduates who presumably were in
the labor market (not continuing
their education) were considered,
high school success bore little rela-
tion to employment and unemploy-
ment.

"Many able graduates, however,
were not attending college. Consid-
erably less than half of the high
school graduates who ranked in the
upper 30 percent of their high school
classes were enrolled in college. More
than 15 percent of these able gradu-
ates who did not continue their train-
ing were unemployed. High marks
in school are doubtless desirable, but
they were not the open sesame to
college halls or employment for those
graduates" (p. 35).

For every (high school) graduate
who ranked in the upper 10 percent
of his high school class and entered
college, another graduate who also
ranked in the upper 10 percent did
not enter college.

For every graduate who ranked in
the upper 30 percent of his class and
entered college, two graduates who
ranked in the upper 30 percent did
not enter college.

"Was there a relationship between
socio-economic status as indicated by
the fathers' occu-pations and the sta-

171

tus of Minnesota young feofle a
year following their graduation?
From the professional end of the
occupational scale to the unskilled
labor end, (1) employment increased,

(2) unemplo)Tnent increased, and

(3) the proportions of graduates
continuing their training decreased.
From this study of the Minnesota
high school graduate of June 1938.
it would seem that the probability of
college attendance for a graduate who
is the son or daughter of a father
employed in a professional or mana-
gerial group is several times greater
than that for the son or daughter of
a farmer or of an unskilled laborer.
Among the June 1938 graduates,
children of the unemployed were
themselves unemployed in greater
proportion than children of fathers
at work" (p. 36).

Many able high school graduates
were not enrolled for further educa-
tion. "It is no longer safe to assume —
if it ever was — that the most intelli-
gent high school graduates go to col-
lege. It is of fundamental importance
for all the people of the State to
know how generally young people
who would make the best teachers,
lawyers, accountants, doctors, engi-
neers, and statesmen are able to at-
tend colleges and universities. It has
been assumed traditionally that the
most capable high schol graduates
go to college. It is suggested by this
study, however, that geography and
the economic resources of the family
are perhaps as closely related to col-
lege attendance as is intellectual fit-
ness" (p. 39).

— "What Happens to High School
Graduates?" by G. Lester Anderson
and T. J. Berning. Studies in Higher
Education. Biennial Report of the
Committee on Educational Research

1938-40. University of Minnesota,
1941.

"It is possible to investigate the
availability of educational opportu-
nity '^ '^ "^ in various parts of the
countr\'. For example a study of
youth in Pennsylvania was conducted
about a decade ago by the State De-
partment of Public Instruction and
the American Youth Commission.
The socio-economic status and edu-
cational history were ascertained for
a group of 910 pupils with intelli-
gence quotients of 110 or above. It
is generally assumed that pupils with
intelligence quotients above 1 10 are
good college material. This group
of superior pupils was divided into
two subgroups on the basis of socio-
economic status. Of the upper socio-
economic group, 93 percent gradu-
ated from high school and 57 percent
attended college. Of the lower socio-
economic group, 72 percent gradu-
ated from high school and 13 percent
attended college. Further study of
the data in Table II will show even
more clearly that the group with
below-average socio-economic status
had relatively less educational op-
portunity than the group with above-
average socio-economic status, al-
though both groups were about equal
in intellectual abihty" (p. 51).

"A similar conclusion must be
drawn from a study made by Helen
B. Goetsch on 1,023 able students
who graduated from Milwaukee high
schools in 1937 and 1938. These stu-
dents all had I. Q.'s of 117 or above.
The income of their parents is di-
rectly related to college attendance, as
is shown in Table III. The higher
the parents' income, the greater is
the proportion who went to college"
(p. 52).

172

"Table il: Relation of Intelligence to Educational Opportunity

[Record of students with intelligence quotients of 110 or above]

Socio-economic

Socio-economic

Educational advance

status above
average

status below
average

Total

group

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percer\t

Dropped school at eighth grade or below.

4

0.07

27

7.9

31

3.4

Completed ninth, tenth, or eleventh

grade but did not graduate from high

school

36

6.2

69

20.2

105

11.6

Graduated from high school but did not

attend college

206
322

36.3
56.8

202
44

59.0
12.9

408
366

44.8

Attended college _ ...

40.2

Total

568

100.0

342

100.0

910

100.0

"Table III: Relation of Parental Income to Full-Tlme College Attendance
of Superior Milwaukee High School Graduates

Fercent
in college
Parental income: full time

$8,000+ - 100.0

$5, 000-$7, 999 ..- -- 92. 0

$3, 000-$4, 999 72. 9

$2, 000-$2, 999 44. 4

$1, 500-$l, 999.... 28. 9

$ 1 , 000-$ 1 , 499.... 25 . 5

$500- $999 26. 8

Under $500 20. 4

"We see what actually happens if school graduates except those who

we consider the 191 students who attended private schools. Table IV

were graduates of the Old City High shows what happened to these people

School over a 5-year period. This after graduation and what the social

number includes all the white high make-up of the group was" (p. 59).

"Table IV: College Attendance of High School Graduates in Old City

Class

Number

Percent of

total by

class

Number

attending

college

Percent of
each social

class

attending

college

Percent by

social class

of all who

attend

college

Upper . .... ...

14
54
31
43
19
30

7
28
16
23
10
16

10
37

18
7
0
0

72
69
58
16
0
0

14

Upper middle .

51

Middle

25

Lower middle

Lower

10
0

Unknown

0

Total

191

100

72

100

173

"The Hometown school has a fine
building and an undifferentiated cur-
riculum so that the same high school
education is available to all the chil-
dren, whether they have college am-
bitions or not. In Hometown, 80
percent of the boys and girls of high
school age attend high school. Why
do they go? What do they and their
parents expect from a high school
education?

"First of all, no upper-upper class
family has children in high school.
The lower-uppers and upper-middles
account for about the same propor-
tions of pupils as one would expect
from their proportions in the total
population. The lower-middles con-
tribute less than one would expect
and the upper-lower and lower-lower
contribute more, probably because

the lower-class people have larger
families and therefore, more prospec-
tive pupils.

"Of all high school students classi-
fied as lower-upper or upper-middle,
88 percent will go on to college while
only 12 percent of those in the three
bottom classes expect to go to col-
lege. Of the total high school pupils,
20 percent are preparing to go to
college and 80 percent were definitely
not going to college" (p. 66).

"The generalization that different
curricula and types of institutions are
adapted to different statuses is illus-
trated by Goetsch's study. She found
that the hierarchv of family income
was reflected in a hierarchy of courses
pursued by students in higher in-
stitutions, as shown in Table VI"
(p. 72).

"Table VI: Parental Income and College Courses

Median
Curriculum: parental income

Law .._.. $2, 1 1 8

Medicine and Dentistry 2,1 12

Liberal Arts 2,068

Journalism 1,907

Engineering 1,884

Teaching 1 , 5 70

Commercial 1,543

Nursing 1,368

Industrial Trades 1 , 1 04

— Who Shall Be Educated: The
Challenge of Unequal Opportunities,
by W. Lloyd Warner, Robert J.
Havighurst, Martin B. Loeb. Harper
& Bros., New York City, 1944.

"The findings of this study, in har-
mony with the findings of other
studies, show that approximately as
many of the ablest high school gradu-
ates are out of college as are in
college.

"On the basis of the sample (of
1,754 cases), the upper quarter of

the State's 16,000 high school gradu-
ates would contain a minimum of
4,000 of the ablest individuals, the
type of students who really do well
in college. Forty-nine percent of
4,000 is 1,960 individuals with high
potential college ability, who for
some reason or reasons, did not enroll
in college. From the point of view
of the colleges, as well as of the in-
dividuals and of society, the loss in
human resources indicated in these
data is highly significant.

"Table 8 shows that for every four

174

able boys in the upper quarter there
were six able girls. Table 1 1 shows
that the ratio of able boys to able
girls in the upper quarter enrolled in
college was 6 to 4.5. Thus, it is clear
that the greatest social and personal
loss of human resources comes in the
ranks of able girls in the upper quar-
ter" (pp. 37-38).

— "The Utilization of Potential
College Ability Found in June
1940, Graduates of Kentucky High
Schools," by Horace Leonard Davis.
Bulletin of the Bureau of School
Service, College of Education, Uni-
versity of Kentucky. Vol. XV. No. 1.
Sept. 1942.

"Location of brightest seniors.
When we determine which economic
group furnished the largest percent-
age of seniors possessing the higher
grades of intelligence we secure dif-
ferent results. All economic groups
except the highest salaried group are
represented in the highest one per-
centile class. Table XLII shows the
percentage of students belonging to
each economic group whose mental
test score gave them a rating of A-f

or A, the highest grades made on the
tests, also the percentage making a
mental rating of E — or F, the low-
est grades of intelligence possessed
by our total or standard group.
Groups 2, 3, and 4, where the in-
come varied from $1,000 to $4,500,
have the largest percentage of seniors
rated A-|- and groups 1 and 5 the
smallest. Groups 3 and 4, are supe-
rior to group 2 in the percentage of
students rated A-|- or A.

"From a study of our distribution
tables it appears that neither group
1 nor group 5 contain students who
score above 180 points in the tests.
But seniors possessing this grade of
ability were found in each of the
other economic groups. The bright-
est students belong to group 4, the
annual income of whose parents
ranged from $1,000 to $2,000. Eight
students belonging to the group, 6
boys and 2 girls, made scores over
185. And 5 students in our lowest
economic group (annual income $500
to $1,000) made scores ranging from
175 to ISO, while there was but a
single student in our highest salaried
group who made a score above 175
points" (p. 213).

'Percent of Students In Each Economic Group Possessing Highest

or Lowest Grades of Ability

Economic groups compared

Percent rated:

A+

A+ or A

F

E- or F

Total cases. _

1

2

3

4

Salary

$4,500-

$12,000

Salary
$3,000-
$4,500

Salary
$2,000-
$3,000

Salary
$1,000-
$2,000

1.89

3.01

2.48

2.49

7.56

7.53

10.07

8.24

1.08

1.50

.55

.81

5.13

6.52

4.69

5.03

370

199

724

1,964

Salary
$500-
$1,000

0.82

5.68
1.92
8.99
1,089

"If we count all students whose test groups arrange themselves . . . :
scores gave them a mental rating of Group 3 (income $2,000 to $3,000)
A-j-, A or B, these \arious economic comes first; group 2 (annual income

175

of $3,000 to -$4,500) comes second;
group 4 (annual income of $1,000 to
$2,000) ranks third; while the high-
est and lowest salaried groups come
last" (p. 214).

"If we compare the records made
on our tests by the group of seniors
representing the richest and the poor-
est homes, we find that there are
proportionally more children possess-
ing the highest grades of mental
ability among the poorest class than
among the wealthiest class, and more
individuals with high average grades
of intelligence among the wealthier
than among the poorer group. The
wealthiest group ranks high on cen-
tral tendency. The poorest salaried
group ranks low on central tendency
and also has a larger percentage of in-
dividuals possessing the lower grades
of mental abilitv. But there are in-

dividuals in this class who obtain the
highest intelligence rating made by
high school seniors" (p. 216).

"Brightest seniors not going to col-
lege. It is still more significant that
so many of this most superior group
of high school seniors will not attend
college, while those with the most
inferior grades of intelligence are
planning to attend, in ever increasing
numbers. Twenty-five percent of the
brightest seniors found in the entire
State said they were not planning to
attend college at all, while 65 to 70
percent of the dullest seniors had
definitely decided to go to college,
most of them having already selected
the college they expected to attend"
(p. 298).

— The Intelligence of High School
Seniors, by William F. Book. The
Macmillan Company, New York,
1928.

176

Appendix B

Data Concerning Training of Personnel for Science and Technology

The relatively small number of
able students who graduate from col-
lege must be shared by the various
professional schools and by the gradu-
ate schools which train for research
in the natural sciences, the social
sciences, and the arts and humanities.

From compilations made by the
American Association of Collegiate
Registrars, the following figures show
the distribution of undergraduate de-
grees in 1941 among broad academic
and professional fields:

Social sciences 17,947

Social science and allied fields of
law, business administration,
education, divinity, library

training, journalism, etc 70,829

Mathematics and physical sciences 6,440

Mathematics, physical science and
allied fields of engineering, min-
ing, chemistry, etc 25,044

Biological sciences 5,812

Biological sciences and allied fields
of medicine, nursing, dentistry,
pharmacy, agriculture, forestry,
home economics, etc.._ 28,490

In the fields of research these fall
into broad groups, as follows:

Social science 17,947

Natural science 16,050

Natural science and technology 53,534

A compilation of Ph.D. degrees
in the 6 years before the war shows
the following distribution among
the physical, earth, biological and
medical sciences, psychology, public
health, and anthropolog)^:

Subject

Astronomy...

Chemistry

Engineering..
Mathematics-
Metallurgy. -
Physics

Geology

Meteorology.
Mineralogy. .
Seismology..

Paleontology -
Biochemistry.
Agriculture. .
Anatomy

1935

11
470
63
77
11
150

62
1
1
2

12

'77"
25

1936
5

482
48
84
16

147

64
0
5

10

'53"
15

1937

9

497
70
76

7
158

42
1
3

8

"48"
14

1938
12

426
59
62

7
165

58
4
5

9

101
37
20

1939
5

482

44

91

9

148

49
2
1

13

127

40

17

1940

6

527
77

103
11

191

55
0
4
2

11
130

58
21

Average

8

479

60

82

10

160

799

55
1
3

1

60*

11

(120)

52

19

177

Subject

1935

1936

1937

1938

1939

1940

Average

Bacteriology and Microbiology- -

Botany

Entomology

Genetics

38
110
34
10
24
76
113

14

10

101

4

13

41

108
30
21
14
83

132

12
18
118
13
20

46
88
51
13
21
103
98

1

14

112

9

15

40

106
33
31
16
66

102

7

19

108

15

18

56

108
47
32
11
59

102

9

23

123

8
11

59
112
48
26
20
70
112

10
23
120
15
26

47

105

41

22

Horticulture

Physiology

18
76

Zoology

110

621

Medicine and Surgery

Pharmacology

9

18

Psychology

114

Public Health

Anthropology

11

17

169

Total

1,649

It will be noted that the physical
sciences provided about 800 or al-
most half of the total number of
doctor's degrees in science, of which,
in turn, about one-half were in chem-
istry. The earth sciences provided an
additional 60 degrees.

After the physical sciences the
largest number of degrees were in the
life sciences, with about 800 degrees
distributed among the several divi-
sions as follows:

Medical sciences 300

Biology _____ 307

Agriculture 52

Psychology ___ 114

Anthropology 1 1

784

The National Roster made an in-
ventory of graduate students in non-
professional and non-vocational
schools and departments, as of De-
cember 1942, which showed the num-
ber then enrolled in the graduate
schools, divided into disciplines as
follows:

Physical sciences 5,698

Chemistry 3,045

Geology 182

Mathematics 545

Meteorology 918

Physics (electronic) 227

Physics (non-electronic) __ 680
Other physical sciences. ___ 101

Biology _____ 1,120

Social sciences _ 3,857

Economics 1,034

Geography 79

History ____ 812

Psychology 543

Other social studies 1,389

Languages, literature, fine

arts, and music 2,157

Other major fields 486

13,318

It will be noted that there were
about 5,700 graduate students in
physical science and some 1,100 in
biology at the time of this report.

In terms of the educational pyra-
mid, the total number of graduate
students shown above in all branches
of non-professional and non-voca-
tional graduate study form but a
small proportion of the total college
enrollments of approximately 1,400,-
000 in 1939-40. Moreover, the 1,649
who received Ph.D. degrees in the
sciences listed above were about one-
half of the total number of all Ph.D.
degrees (about 3,300 in 1939-40).

178

Special studies have been made by lative deficit in the number of stu-

the Institute of Physics on the effect dents receiving Ph.D. degrees, in the

of war upon the training of research several physical sciences and engi-

personnel in the graduate schools. neering, which will continue and

These indicate that there is a cumu- grow until several years after the war:

Chemistry

Engineering

Geology

Mathematics

Physics

Psychology

Biological sciences

Totals

Accumulated
deficit, 1941
through 1944

240

148
63

161

251
96

665

1,624

Estimated

deficit,

1945

550
82
50

100

160
84

725

1,751

Total 1941

through

1945

790
230
113
261
411
180
1,390

3,375

Probable
deficits,

1946
through

1955

4,460
730
317
939

1,589
550

4,910

13,495

Total prob-
able deficit
due to war,
1941 through
1955

5,250

960
430

1,200

2,000

730

6,300

16,870

Proposals for enlarging the number
of students entering the graduate
schools to be trained for research
must be considered in relation to the
probable demand for trained research
workers as expressed in available jobs.
Thus, necessary as it is to enlarge the
number of graduate students in order
to produce the relatively few research
students of exceptional ability, the
danger of an oversupply of trained
research personnel must be kept con-
stantly in mind. The unhappy plight
of scholars in Europe after the last
war when there was a surplus should
not be forgotten.

Likewise proposals for recruiting

more college students into the physi-
cal and biological sciences and enlist-
ing more graduate students for train-
ing in research in the physical and
biological sciences should be viewed
in the light of the over-all needs of
the country and of the requirements
in other fields of research and in the
several professions. If too many of
the limited number of high quality
students are absorbed by fields of sci-
entific research, research in the social
sciences and in the arts and humani-
ties may be jeopardized with probably
unfavorable reactions upon scientific
research.

179

Appendix C

Suggested Administrative Organization, Bases of Selection,
Schedule and Procedures

/. Administrative Organization

Proposals for a National Scientific
Research Foundation are under dis-
cussion, such a foundation to be
charged with responsibility for the
administration of the several national
scientific programs being recom-
mended by the committees advising
Dr. Bush. Among the suggested
powers of such a foundation is power
to make contracts with other agencies
for the performance of functions
within the scope of the foundation.
It would be our recommendation that
the foundation, or any similar agency
which may be established, should
make arrangements for choosing
Scholars and Fellows under the pro-
posed plans through the National
Academy of Sciences, if that organi-
zation be willing to accept the re-
sponsibility. The National Academy,
as a representative body of the scien-
tists of the country, would be the
logical organization to sponsor this
program; and association with the
National Academy would give the
program respect and prestige.
It is further recommended that:
(a) The President of the National
Academv of Sciences, with the ad-
vice and consent of the Administra-
tive Committee of the National Re-
search Council, periodically should
appoint a National Science Reserve
Advisory Committee which would
advise him regarding methods of se-
lection and the arrangements for the
entire program within the provisions
of the legislation.

(I7) The President of the National
Academy of Sciences with the advice
of the advisory committee should ap-
point a Director of the National
Science Reserve Program, who would
devote his full time to the work. Sub-
ject to the general supervision of the
administrative committee of the Na-
tional Research Council, the Director
would establish a national office,
select the administrative and research
staff, develop detailed plans and ad-
minister the program. The Director
would appoint a technical advisory
committee, or committees for the
development of tests of scientific
promise, of the inventory of activities
and interests and of the recommen-
dation blank and rating scale.

(c) The President of the National
Academy of Sciences with the advice
of the advisory committee would ap-
point State committees of selection,
to consist of five members, to wit:
three scientists, one of whom should
serve as chairman; one member of a
college or university faculty, trained
and experienced in the field of selec-
tion and guidance; and one repre-
sentative of secondary education, usu-
ally a school principal or one of the
high school supervisors in the State
department of education. At least
one of the scientists, it is suggested,
should be from agriculture, or from
industry, within the State. The State
committees of selection, under our
plan, would have the responsibility
of making the final appointments to
the limit of the State quotas. These

180

committees would make their selec-
tions on the basis of the dossiers of
the candidates which would be sup-
plied to them by the national office,
plus such other material as the State
committees may decide to gather and
use. The national office, on the basis
of the tests of scientific promise and
the applicants' school records, would
select twice the State's quota and re-
port the names and records of such
candidates to the State committees.
The State committees would make
the final selections from among these
candidates. No candidates who do
not attain a certain minimum na-
tional standard should be certified to
the State committees.

In the selection of the general ad-
visory committee, and also in choos-
ing the membership of the technical
committee or committees, the persons
and oreanizations that have had the
greatest experience in constructing,
administering and interpreting the
particular kind of measuring instru-
ments to be used in this program
should be consulted. Such organiza-
tions include the committee on
Measurement and Guidance of the
American Council on Education, the
Cooperative Test Service, the Col-
lege Entrance Examination Board,
the Graduate Record Examination
Office of the Carnegie Foundation,
the Measurement and Guidance Proj-
ect in Engineering Education, the
Examination Staff of the Armed
Forces Institute, and the University
of Iowa Examination project. Direc-
tors, and in some instances, other
staff members of these agencies are
among those who have had the great-
est amount of experience in prepar-
ing measurement instruments of the
type necessary. To make certain that
the selection instruments are as ade-
quate as they can be made, it will be

essential to draw upon the combined
experience and technical knowledge
and judgment of these persons and
agencies. The whole job must be
done at the highest possible level of
professional competence.

//. Bases of Selection}

It is proposed that there be four
principal sources of information and
judgment upon which final selection
of the Scholars should be based; but
that only the first two of these be
used in the preliminary screening:

(1) Score on test of scientific
promise.

(2) School record, especially rank-
in-class.

(3) Candidate's application in-
cluding an inventory of ac-
tivities and interests.

(4) Recommendation of principals
and teachers regarding candi-
date's ability and personal
qualities.

It is strongly recommmended that
these tests and examinations be un-
dertaken on an experimental basis
and be continually revised and im-
proved in the light of actual experi-
ence and of the performance of stu-
dents selected. The first few years of
the program especially should be con-
sidered experimental so that new and
promising methods can be tried out,
particularly for the discovery of the
candidates' interests and personality
characteristics, including evidence of
some concern for social understand-
ing and responsibility.

For the present, and subject to
change in the light of experience and

1 This section applies especially to the discov-
ery of talented youth who are attending high
school. The committee, as indicated in the body
of its report, recognizes that there is also the
problem of finding, and giving opportunity tcx
talented youth who are outside high schools and
that, for them, variations from standard proce-
dures will be required.

181

research upon the vaHdity of indices
of prediction, it is recommended that:

The test score and rank-in-class in
school should be combined into one
index of academic promise which
should be used as the basis of screen-
ing. For each State a critical score on
the index should be set at a point
which would yield twice the State
quota, provided that the State critical
score were above the national mini-
mum score.

For the candidates above the State
critical score, additional information
should be collected so that in the
final selection it will be possible to
take into account certain important
qualities such as originality, creative
ability, motivation, emotional sta-
bility, and qualities of leadership.

For the convenience of the State
committees of selection, a summary
sheet would be prepared giving the
essential data from the four sources
of information indicated above and
this summary sheet would be at-
tached to the front of each candidate's
dossier when it is sent to the State
committee.

The State committees should be
provided with directions to assist
them in interpreting the various items
of information about each candidate.
The State committees, however,
should be entirely free to use and
evaluate the information in accord-
ance with their best judgments and
should be encouraged to collect addi-
tional information, •such as interview
reports, concerning the applicants, to
provide the broadest possible bases
for the process of selection.

]. Test of Scientific Promise

(a) Length. — The test should be
of sufficient length for efficient selec-
tion, perhaps of 5 or 6 hours dura-
tion. It should not be a speed test.

(h) Type of questions. — The test
should be of the objective or con-
trolled-answer type. The unreliability
of free answer questions as well as
the limitation in sampling imposed
by such questions restricts their use-
fulness for the present purpose.

(c) Content. — There should be
several sections in the test. The ma-
terials throughout should be such as
to involve a complex of aptitude and
achievement as the most satisfactorv
measure. The subject matter should
be related particularly to scientific
ability instead of to general academic
promise.

(d) Level of difficulty. — It is im-
portant that the test be of maximum
selectivity at and above the critical
score. Studies of the results of the
best mathematics and science tests
now in use indicate that students
who make very high scores on such
tests can be expected to succeed in
scientific courses during the first year
of college with a high degree of
certainty.

(e) Preparation of the tests. — (I)
The test should be prepared after
consideration of the specifications rec-
ommended by the advisory committee
which would include both scientists
and testing specialists. (2) The test
material should be pretested on a
suitable population and the final test
made up of the most successful items.

2. School Record

The school record is important be-
cause it is a measure not only of
ability but of the application of that
ability in academic work over a
period of several years. It has been
found to be as useful in predicting
college success as an aptitude test
and when combined with the test
score, the combination provides an
index that is superior to either item

182

used alone. The school record not
only adds the element of industrious-
ness but rank-in-class and test score
are what might be described as auto-
matically compensatory indices. Apti-
tude test scores are not entirely inde-
pendent of the home and school
background. Although aptitude more
than achievement is measured, no
aptitude tests are "pure " and uninflu-
enced by previous training. Conse-
quently individuals attending "good"
schools are likely to be somewhat
overrated by their test scores. For
such students, their rank-in-class
score is likely to be an underesti-
mate of their achievement. Boys and
girls from inferior schools on the
other hand are likely to be under-
rated by their test scores and over-
rated by their rank-in-class. The two
indices combined, therefore, provide
a fairer basis for screening than
either alone.

The most reliable single measure
of school success is rank-in-class.
Marking systems and standards diff^er
from school to school but the signifi-
cance of relative standing in class
remains fairly constant. Pragmati-
cally it has been found to be the
best index of school achievement.

For all candidates who are above
the State critical score on the screen-
ing index, complete transcripts of high
school records should be obtained
along with other information to be
used by the State committees in
making the final selections.

3. Candidate's A'pflication, Including
an Inventory of Activities and
Interests

The application blank which can-
didates who pass the screening test
will be required to fill out will con-
tain (a) the questions concerning
age, family, schools attended, etc.,

such as are usually asked on a col-
lege admission blank; (1?) an ex-
tensive inventory of activities and
interests specifically prepared for this
purpose; (c) a statement of the extra-
curricular scientific activities of the
student during the preceding 2
years.

Inventories of activities and inter-
ests, while not yet in as high a stage
of development as intelligence tests,
are valuable in indicating personal
and intellectual qualities not meas-
ured by tests. Indications of such
qualities as the individual's ability to
get along with others, his scientific
interests and motivation, his emo-
tional stability may be obtained from
the inventory. These indications
should be checked against the rat-
ings of the principal and teachers on
those same qualities.

An advisory committee composed
of men who have specialized in this
field of measurement should be ap-
pointed to draw up the specifications
for the inventory of activities and in-
terests to be developed by the staff
of the national office.

4. Recommendation of Principal and
Teachers Regarding Candi-
date's Ability and Personal
Qualities

Although the principal and teach-
ers are not entirely impartial persons
from whom to receive recommenda-
tions, they have a better comparative
basis for making judgments and are
more 'likely to make fair and frank
estimates than others whose opinion
of the candidates might be requested.

The recommendation blank should
be in two parts. The first part would
contain a large number of multiple
choice questions and rating scales,
the answer to some of which would
relate to specific observations on

183

points of fact, while others would
involve judgment of less tangible
qualities. Each teacher who has had
the candidate in class or in extra-
curricular activities would indicate
his or her answer by initialling the
blank. The principal would finally,
with an X, indicate the consensus.
The second part of the blank would
call for statements regarding a few
particularly important qualities, such
as concrete evidence of originality or
creative abilitv in the field of science.

Part one would yield indications
on the same qualities as would be in-
dicated by the candidate's inventory
of activities and interests, so that the
two sets of scores could be considered
together and serve as a check on each
other.

The advisory committee charged
with the responsibility of preparing
the specifications for the inventorv of
activities and interests should also
prepare the specifications for the rec-
ommendation blank.

///. Schedule and Procedures (Tentative)

June 1-Oct. 1 Preliminary publicity through newspapers, magazines, and

radio.

Oct. 1 Announcement by letter to State departments of education,

superintendents of schools, and principals, giving the de-
tailed plans of the competitions. School principals would
be sent a return postal card on which to indicate the num-
ber of students in the school who would take the screening
test and the names of the teachers who would administer it.

Oct. 20 Return postal cards due at national office.

Oct. 20— Nov. 15 Screening tests and directions for administration shipped to

schools.

Dec. 1 Screening tests administered. A detachable portion of the an-
swer sheet containing the same serial number as the answer
sheet would be turned over to the principal after the candi-
date has filled in his name and the name of the school so
that the principal can enter the candidate's rank-in-class.
(Complete directions for the principal will be printed on
the form.)

Dec. 5-Jan. 10 Scoring of tests and calculation of composite index for screen-
ing.

Jan. 10 Notice to candidates of success on screening test. Letter to

principals of schools having successful candidates with ap-
plication and recommendation blanks enclosed. Full direc-
tions will be given the principal for the administration of
the inventory of activities and interests and for the filling
out of the recommendation blank.

Feb. 10 Application and recommendation blanks due at the national

office.

Feb. 10-Mar. 10 Candidates' dossiers put in order and shipped to State commit-
tees of selection.

Mar. 20-Apr. 10 State committees go over applications, gather additional infor-
mation (if they wish), and make selections.

Apr. 10 List of men and women selected for scholarships sent to

national office.

Apr. 15 State committees notify candidates of selection for scholar-
ships.

Apr. 16— Public announcement of selection of scholars.

May 1 Successful candidates must notify State committee of accept-
ance, of the university or college they wish to attend and of
the science course they wish to pursue.

184

May 15 - State committee notifies appointees of approval of college and

course of study and corresponds with those where approval

is withheld.
May 30 — . Final revised list of appointees with name of college they will

attend and course of study they will pursue sent by the

State committee to national office.
(From this point on, appointees deal directly with national

office.)

IV. Minimum Annual Cost of Selection (Estimated)

Screening: 200,000 candidates at $1 - $200,000

Final selection: 12,000 candidates:

National office at $5 60,000

State committees at $2 24,000

Research and experimentation Caverage).... 50,000

334,000

It is of the utmost importance that stage of development. A strong re-
adequate funds be allocated for re- search program would certainly lead
search on the methods of selection. ^^ improvement in the selection of

Although present knowledge makes ^ . . , . . p ,

.?, ^ J rr • • 1- • future scientists and in view or trie

It possible to do an ertective 30b in

selecting youth of scientific promise, suggested size of the program would
work in this field is still in the early be a long-run economy.

185

Appendix 5

Report of the Committee on
Publication of Scientific Information

Table of Contents

Page

Letter of transmittal — -- - 187

Members of the Committee 188

Report :

1. Need for lifting restrictions 189

2. Release from military classification 190

3. Agreement with our Allies on release of information 191

4. Stimulation of publication -— — 191

5 . Recommendations 192

186

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Dr. Vannevar Bush, Director,

Office of Scientific Research and Development,

1530 P Street, NW., Washington, D. C.

January 9, 1945.

IMy Dear Dr. Bush:

It is my pleasure to submit herewith the report of the Committee appointed
to assist vou in answering the first question in President Roosevelt's letter to
vou of November 17, 1944, which was expressed as follows:

"First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with
the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the
world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made dur-
ing our war effort to scientific knowledge?

"The diffusion of such knowledge should help us to stimulate new
enterprises, provide jobs for our returning servicemen and other
workers, and make possible great strides for the improvement of the
national well-being."

In preparing the report the members of the Committee had the benefit of
discussions with a number of persons concerned with the publication of
scientific information. There has been general agreement that one of the
primary problems in the field of pubUcation is the establishment of an agency
which, as a general principle, will permit the release of scientific information
as soon as it can no longer be used against us in the present war and on terms
which will be fair to all concerned. In particular, speed of release should be
accompanied by a mechanism which will lift the restrictions on publication
in a particular field uniformly for all workers in that field, regardless of the
particular agency of the Government for which the work might originally
have been done. The Committee feels strongly that this mechanism should
be established without any unnecessary delay.

Sincerely yours,

Irvin Stewart,
Chairman, Committee on Publication

of Scientific Information

187

MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE

Dr. Irvin Stewart, chairman; director, committee on scientific aids to
learning, National Research Council; executive secretary, Office of Scientific
Research and Development.

Dr. J. P. Baxter III, president, Williams College.

Dr. Karl T. Compton, president, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Dr. James B. Conant, president, Har\'ard Unixersity.

Dr. A. N. Richards, vice president in charge of medical affairs, University
of Pennsylvania.

Dr. M. A. Tuve, phvsicist, department of terrestrial magnetism, Carnegie
Institution of Washington.

Mr. Carroll L. Wilson, executive assistant to the director, Office of Scien-
tific Research and Development.

Mr. Cleveland Norcross. secretarv, executive assistant to the executive
secretary, Office of Scientific Research and Development.

188

REPORT

The following report is submitted in answer to your request for advice
with respect to the first point in President Roosevelt's letter to you of Novem-
ber 17, 1944.

1. ISeed for Lifting Restrictions

The frontiers of science must be thrown open so that all who have the
ability to explore may advance from the farthest position which anyone has
attained. During the war we have been living to a considerable extent on
our scientific capital, as scientists who would normally be extending the
frontiers of knowledge have instead devoted their efforts to the application
of our scientific knowledge to the development of new and better equipment,
processes, and materials for war purposes. A large part of such new scientific
discoveries as have been made, together with the great amount of information
on the techniques of application, are now classified as confidential or secret.
The restrictions incident to war have prevented the wide spread of the kind
of information upon which American science, education, and industry nor-
mally build. Scientists engaged on war projects have acquired new knowl-
edge in specific fields, but they have not been given access to similar ac-
quisitions by their colleagues in other fields. Thus, while there is a fund
of new knowledge scattered among a large number of individual scientists,
no one of them has access to all of it; and the broad base of scientific knowl-
edge available to all scientists has not been correspondingly extended. This
situation should be speedily corrected.

During the first year of the existence of the Office of Scientific Research
and Development a decision was made by the Secretaries of War and Navy
that in the fields of medical research, publication of new knowledge should
be withheld onlv if that knowledge gave promise of conferring military ad-
vantage. Hence it has been possible to publish most of the newlv developed
knowledge in the medical field. Several hundred articles have alreadv been
published in the professional journals and others are in the process of publica-
tion. The amount of classified medical material has been held to a minimum.
It has been confined largely to limited subjects of immediate battle front im-
portance and to information which might be related to strategy. Even these
limited restrictions should be lifted as soon as military conditions permit.

Not all of our troops can be returned immediately upon the cessation of

189

hostilities. Many men must remain overseas, some in armies of occupation,
others awaiting the provision of faciHties for their return. Educational facilities
must be provided for them during this period. Very recent techniques de-
veloped in our laboratories in connection with the prosecution of war devel-
opments can and should be made available in the Army universities overseas
to qualified men in order that they may thereby be enabled to return to this
country with as modern and advanced approach to some of the subjects of
moment as they would have had if they had remained here during the war,
or if they had been selected for early return and re-entry into universities in
this country. To accomplish this not only must the information be available
in printed form, but men familiar with latest developments should be chosen
as instructors in the Army universities.

The returning soldier who wants to pick up his interrupted plans for a
career as a scientist or engineer deserves access to the very latest develop-
ments and techniques. It will be a tragedv for him and for the country if he
is trained in the light of the knowledge of 1940 rather than 1945. Because of
the war we have lost several classes of scientists and engineers, both under-
graduate and graduate. The gap can never be entirely filled, and it can be
successfully narrowed only if the classes graduating in the immediate postwar
years can be trained in advanced developments and techniques. We must
overcome, not aggravate, the effects upon science and upon the country as a
whole of the wartime loss of several classes of scientists.

These considerations merit emphasis in addition to those mentioned in the
President's letter of November 17.

2. Release from Military Classification

The first, and most important, step is to obtain the release of scientific
material from its military classification as soon as conditions permit. Basically
there is no reason to believe that scientists of other countries will not in time
re-discover everything we now know. A sounder foundation for our national
security rests in a broad dissemination of scientific knowledge upon which
further advances can be more readily made than in a policy of restriction
which would impede our further advances in the hope that our potential
enemies will not catch up with us. The Committee believes that, with few
exceptions, our national interests require the release of most of our war-
acquired scientific information as soon as it is evident that our enemies will
not be able to turn that information against us in the present war. It further
believes that most of this information can be released without disclosing its
embodiments in actual military material and devices.

Research has gone forward under many auspices, the Army, the Navy, the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the Office of Scientific Re-
search and Development, various other Government departments and many
industrial establishments and academic institutions. In many cases there
have doubtless been independent discoveries of the same truth in different
places. To permit the release of information from one place and restrict it
from another would not only be unfair but would impair the morale and
efficiency of scientists who have readily subscribed to the policy of restriction
dictated by war needs.

190

The agency charged with the duty of recommending release of information
from military classification should be a continuing one well grounded in
science and technology, which can couple advice to the military with an
ability to obtain prompt decisions. With that in mind you have recently
proposed the establishment within the National Academy of Sciences of a
board to control the release and promote publication of certain scientific in-
formation. Its standing at the apex of the scientific world together with its
contributions to the present war qualify the Academy in a unique manner to
perform this service. The proposed board with its joint Army, Navy, and
civilian membership should be able to act promptly and intelligently, with
full appreciation of both military and civilian implications of its decisions.
It should provide the speed which is essential if delay is not to nullify a large
part of the benefit sought by the release of newly discovered scientific infor-
mation. Obviously the board should be adequately manned to act promptly.

3. Agreement with Our Allies on Release of Information

Some of the information which should be released is possessed jointly by
our allies and ourselves. Release in this country should be coordinated with
release in other countries where the restriction has been jointly imposed in
both. A central agency such as the proposed board should be able to handle
this normally time-consuming but important matter with a minimum loss
of time and danger of international friction.

4. Stimulation of Publication

It is obvious that the contributions to scientific knowledge "made during
the war effort" fall into many categories. Much of this information is now
being made public through various media as, for example, most of the results
of medical research. This report is directed to those contributions to scientific
knowledge which are prevented from being "made known to the world"
because of Government restrictions. Most of this information resulted from
work in which some Government agency was interested and is now under
security classification. The two chief obstacles to prompt publication are:
(I) security regulations; (2) the policy of cognizant agencies in releasing
investigators to publish freely. A courageous policy on the part of adminis-
trative officers of Government agencies in assisting and stimulating prompt
publication by Government scientists as well as private contractors and their
employees as soon as security regulations are relaxed will cover point two.
The first point, we believe, can be covered by the creation of the board to
control the release and promote the publication of certain scientific informa-
tion.

The object is to get the scientific results of war research written by out-
standing experts, completelv available, especially to young scientists, at as low
a cost to them as is consistent with doing the job well.

In connection with scientific war research being performed under contracts
of governmental agencies, which has necessitated bringing together large
groups of scientists, the most advantageous time for preparation of manu-
scripts may well be during the final months of the contract, while the scien-

191

tific staffs are still assembled and in possession of all records, but after the
pressure for production of war results has begun to relax.

Obviously not all reports will merit publication and distribution. Where
Government-financed research is involved, the contracting agency must make
the decision. In every case, however, this decision should be made upon the
basis of the public interest in the dissemination of the information, not upon
the presence or absence of funds to defray the cost of publication and dis-
tribution of the report.

The publication plans of the Office of Scientific Research and Development
are being made in accordance with the principles of the preceding para-
graphs. The effectiveness of these plans, as well as the publication of other
scientific information developed in connection with war research, will depend
largely upon the speed with which the proposed Academy board is estab-
lished and the effectiveness with which it functions after its establishment.
The impetus which has produced remarkable results in the laboratory and in
the field will be lost if publication is unduly delayed.

5. Recommendations

In specific answer to the first point in the President's letter, therefore, your
Committee recommends the following:

1. The prompt establishment and adequate staffing within the National
Academy of Sciences of the proposed board to control the release and promote
publication of certain scientific information. This is essential.

2. The adoption by that board of a liberal policy generally permitting the
release of scientific information as soon as it is apparent that such information
cannot be turned against us in the present war.

3. The encouragement of scientists to publish the results of their investiga-
tion in "open " fields covered by releases by the board.

4. The stimulation and assistance of investigators to prompt publication by
administrative officers of cognizant Government agencies.

5. The provision of adequate financing for the publication and distribution
of the reports mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

192

INDEX

INDEX

Abstracting services. See Libraries; Refer-
ence aids.

Adams, John Quincy, support of ideas for
Government-sponsored academy, 84.

Air conditioning, 10.

Air Force, development of basic research
programs by, xiii. See also Armed
services; Military services.

Advisory Board.
Board.

See Science Advisory Airborne infections, 53.

Advisory committees, recommended for
each Government bureau engaged in
scientific work, 105-106.

Aerodynamics, future progress in, to be
striking, 78.

Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Senate
Committee on, viii.

Aeronautics. See National Advisory Com-
mittee for Aeronautics; National
Aeronautics and Space Council; Sci-
ence and Astronautics, House Com-
mittee on.

AFL-CIO, conference on "Labor and Sci-
ence in a Changing World," xi.

Agassiz, Louis, 83.

Agricultural experiment stations, 86, notes
4 and 5.

Agricultural schools, growth of, as factor
in applied research, 90.

Agriculture: Federal aid to research in,
through land-grant colleges, 9, 22, 79;
advances based on scientific research,
10, 11, 12; subject of study by the
Bowman Committee, 73; distribution
of undergraduate degrees among al-
lied fields and, 177; Ph.D. degrees
in, 177, 178.

Agriculture, Department of: Federal funds
obligations for basic research by, xxv;
interest in scientific research, 31-32,
83; establishment of, 84.

Allies: continued scientific training by,
during World War II, 159; need for
agreement with, on release of war-
time-developed scientific data, 191.

Altitudes, development of devices to com-
bat effects of, on airmen, 53.

Alumni associations, as inadequate source
of medical research funds, 58.

American Association of Collegiate Regis-
trars, distribution made by, of under-
graduate degrees among academic and
professional fields, and of Ph.D. de-
grees by science fields, 177-178.

American Council on Education, proposed
utilization of the Committee on Meas-
urement and Guidance of, in the
scholarship and fellowship program,
181.

American Institute of Physics, calculations
by, on deficits of scientific and tech-
nological personnel, 158.

American Universities, Association of: sur-
vey of universities and colleges ac-
credited by, on expenditures for scien-
tific research, 122 ff.

American Youth Commission, socio-eco-
nomic study of students related to
school attendance, 172, 173.

Anatomy: development of, basic to medical
progress, xi, 14, 56; analysis of re-
search in selected university depart-
ments of, 130; Ph.D. degrees in, 177;
See also Research, medical.

195

Anderson, G. Lester, and Berning. T. J.,
What Happens to High School Grad-
uates, data from, 171-172.

Anemia, 13, 54.

Antarctic Treat>% landmark in interna-
tional scientific relations, xv.

Anthropology, in NSF support programs,
xx; included within the scope of sci-
ence considered by the Moe Commit-
tee, 142; distribution of Ph.D. degrees
among other fields and, 177-178;
Ph.D. degrees in, 178.

Applied Physics Laboratory', xiii.

Applied research. See Research, applied.

Archaeology', functional, in NSF support
programs, xx.

Armed forces. See Armed services.

Armed Forces Institutes, need for scientific
knowledge based on World War II to
be made available in, 8; need for
quality' training in, 140, 161-162;
work in, recommended as an allow-
ance toward continued education;
165; proposed utilization of the ex-
amination staff of, in the scholarship
and fellowship program, 181.

Armed services:

Dr. Bush on —

Need to salvage scientific talent in,
during World War II, xvi, 7-8, 25-
26; need for research to develop new
weapons for, 9; need for professional
partnership between civilian scien-
tists and, 17-18; role of, in scientific
research, 33-34; recommended repre-
sentation of, in proposed National
Research Foundation, 36.

Pahner Committee on —
Factors contributing to successes of
medical departments of, World War
II, 52; scientific interests of, as spe-
cialized, 62.

Aloe Committee on —
Need to salvage scientific talent in,
during World War II, 139-141, 158-
162. See also Military services.

Stewart Committee on —

Need to salvage scientific talent in,

during World War II, 189-190.

Armv:

Dr. Biish on —

Role of, in medical research, 15; in-
creased emphasis on science in officer
training, 17; need for continued re-
search by, 17-18; scientific students
in, 24; as participant in wartime
scientific research, 29; as board mem-
ber to declassify scientific informa-
tion, 29.

Palmer Committee on —
Death rate in, from disease. World
Wars I and II, 49, 52; adoption of
use of penicillin by, 53; role of, in
medical research, 55,. 56.

BownhDi Connnittce on —
Cooperation with, as function of pro-
posed National Research Foundation,
117.

Moe Committee on —
Recommended participation of, in
program to locate and develop scien-
tific talent in the armed forces, 140-
141; students of medicine and engi-
neering in educational programs of,
159; plans for integrated scientific
training in, to reduce wartime deficit
in trained personnel, 160-162, 165.

Stewart Committee on —
Wartime scientific research under
auspices of, 190; need for participa-
tion of, in decisions on release of
wartime-developed scientific data, 191.

See also Armed services; Army, De-
partment of the; Military services;
Talent.

Army, Department of the: development of
basic research programs by, xiii. See
also Armed services; Army; Military
services.

Army Epidemiology Board, medical prog-
ress during World War II stimulated
by, 52.

Army Medical Library, 118, 119.

"Armv Universities" abroad, need for,
161-162.

Army's General Educational Development
Tests, 165.

Arteriosclerosis, 14, 55.

Arthritis, 14, 55.

Associated Universities Incorporated, xxi.

Association of Universities for Research in
Astronomy, xxi.

Asthma, 14,55.

Astronomy, Ph.D. degrees in, 177. See
also Kitt Peak National Observatory;
National Radio Astronomy Observa-
tory; Associated Llniversities Incor-
porated; Association of Universities
for Research in Astronomy.

Atabrine, 49, 53.

Atomic Energy, International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of, xv.

Atomic Energ>' Commission, program for
medical research, xii; declassification
of wartime scientific data by, xviii;
Federal funds obligations for basic
research for national defense bv, xxv.

196

Attaches. See Scientific attaches.

Aviation, development of devices to com-
bat effects of high ahitudes, 53.

Aviation medicine, committee on, 53.

Bacteriology, development of, basic to
medical progress, xi, 14, 56; analysis
of research in selected uni\ersity de-
partments, 129, note 5 data, 130;
Ph.D. degrees in microbiology and,
178. See also Research, medical.

Barton, Henn.- A., member. Committee on
Disco\'ers' and De\elopment of Scien-
tific Talent, 44, 136.

Basic Research. See Research, Basic.

Battelle Memorial Institute, Research in
Action, 86, note 3.

Baxter, J. P., Ill, member, Committee on
Publication of Scientific Infonnation,
45, 188.

Bell, Alexander Graham, 85.

Bernal, J. D., The Social Function of
Science, 87, note 2.

Berning, T. J. See Anderson, G. Lester.

Bibliographic services. See Libraries.

Bids on research projects, recommendation
to waive requirements on, 38-39.

Biochemistry: development of, basic to
medical progress, xi, 14, 56; analysis
of research in selected university de-
partments of biology, including, 129;
Ph.D. degrees in, 177.

Biological sciences, included within the
scope of science considered by the
Moe Committeee, 142; deficit in per-
sonnel trained in, 158; undergraduate
degrees in allied fields and, 177; dis-
tribution of Ph.D. degrees among
other fields and, 177-178; deficits in
training research personnel in, 179.

Biology: development of improved course
content for teaching, supported by
NSF, xvii; term "medical research"
to include related aspects of, 64,
note 1; analysis of research in, 122-
134, passim; Ph.D. degrees in, 178;
graduate school enrollments in, 178.

Biolog^' and Medicine, Division of, in

NSF, XX.

Biophysics, analysis of research in selected
university' departments of biology, in-
cluding, 129.

Blood, increased availability of plasma and,
for transfusions, 49; fractionation
studies, 49; plasma and substitutes,
53.

Book, William F., The Intelligence of
//ig/( School Seniors, data from, 175-
176.

Botanv, Ph.D. degrees in, 178. See
Biology.

Bowman, Isaiah, chairman. Committee on
Science and the Public Welfare, 44,
71, 72, 73; transmittal of report, 71.

Bronk-Nesmeyanov Agreement, scientific
cooperation under, xiv.

Brookhaven National Laboratory, xxi.

Bubonic plague, 53.

Buckley, Oliver E., member. Committee
on Science and the Public Welfare,
44, 72.

Budget, Federal: amounts proposed for
medical research, xi-xii; amounts pro-
posed for military research, xii; for
International Geophysical Year, xv;
for NSF, xxiv-xxvi; proposals con-
cerning, for proiwsed National Re-
search Foundation; 39-40; estimated,
for Federal aid to medical research,
60; suggested reforms in procedures,
for scientific work of the Govern-
ment, 100-101. See also United
States Congress.

Budget, national research: public and pri-
vate funds for research, 85-89.

Burdick, C. Lalor, member, Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 44, 136.

Bureau of Standards, work of, as example
of Government's responsibility in
background scientific research, 82.

Burns, studied, 53.

Bush, Vannevar, frontispiece; as Director
of OSRD, vii; transmittal of Science,
the Endless Frontier, vii, 1-2; letter
from President Roosevelt, to, vii, 3-4;
comparison of recommendations with
developments since 1950, vii-xx\'i.

Business administration, 177. See Social
sciences.

California Institute of Technology, 140,
141; Jet Propulsion Laboratory of,
xiii.

Cancer, ix, 13, 14, 54, 55-56.

Cardiovascular diseases, xi, 14, 55-56.

Carnegie Corporation, 84.

Carnegie Foundation: study by, in Penn-
sylvania, of able students in relation
to college attendance, 170-171; pro-
posed utilization of the Graduate Rec-
ord Examination Office of, in the

197

scholarship and fellowship program,
181.

Carnegie Institution, 84, 86 note 6.

Castle, William B., member, Medical Ad-
visory Committee, 43, 48.

Census, 1940, population under 20 years
of age, 166; age and school attend-
ance, 166-167.

Cerebral hemorrhage, 14, 55.

Chauncey, Henry, asst. sec. Committee
on Discovery and Development of
Scientific Talent, 44, 136.

Chemical companies, included in survey
of research in industrial laboratories,
133, note 2.

Chemistry: development of, basic to medi-
cal progress, xi, 14, 56; development
of improved course content for teach-
ing, supported by NSF, xvii; future
progress to be striking in, 78; analysis
of research in, in universities, col-
leges, industrial research laboratories,
and nonprofit science institutes, 122-
134 passim; deficit in personnel
trained in, 158, 179; distribution of
undergraduate degrees in allied fields
and, 177; Ph.D. degrees in, 177;
graduate school enrollments in, 178.

Chemotherapy, committee on, 53.

Childhood, reduction in death rates in,
various diseases, 54-55.

Cholera, 52, 53.

Civil Service, establishment of excepted
category for scientific personnel, ix;
reforms needed in, for scientific per-
sonnel, 7, 101-104; regulations of,
to apply in proposed establishment of
National Research Foundation, 35;
separate branch of, recommended for
scientific and technical positions, 76;
up-grading of scientific positions rec-
ommended, 76.

Civilian controls in military scientific re-
search, 33-34.

Civilian participation in declassification
and publication of wartime scientific
research data, 29-30, 191.

Coast and Geodetic Survey, establishment
of, 84.

Coffey, Walter C, member. Committee on
Science and the Public Welfare,
44-72.

Cold, common, 14, 55.

College attendance and graduation, sta-
tistics and analyses concerning, 166-
176, passim. See also Tables.

College enrollment, statistics from studies
in Indiana, Minnesota, and Pennsyl-

vania on mental ability, high school
attendance and graduation, and on
college enrollment, related to socio-
economic groups, 144-145.

College Entrance Examination Board, pro-
posed utilization of, in the scholarship
and fellowship program, 181.

Colleges. See Universities and colleges.

Colleges, small, scientific research in, 123-
124.

Commerce, Department of: Federal funds
obligations for basic research by, xx\';
interest in scientific research, 31-32.

Commerce, Secretary of: study by, con-
cerning patent laws as they affect in-
dustrial research, 21.

Committee, Medical Advisory', member-
ship, 43, 48; report by, 46-69.

Committee on Discovery and Development
of Scientific Talent, membership, 44-
45, 136; report by, 135-185.

Committee on Publication of Scientific
Infonnation, membership, 45, 188;
report by, 186-192.

Committee on Science and the Public
Welfare, membership, 43-44, 72; re-
port by, 70-134.

Committees consulted by Dr. Bush, 43-45.

Communications company, included in
survey of research in industrial lab-
oratories, 133, note 2.

Compton, Arthur H., quoted, on deficit of
trained scientific personnel, 159.

Compton, Karl T., member. Committee on
Publication of Scientific Information,
45, 188.

Conant, James B., statement by, on de-
velopment of scientific talent, 23;
member. Committee on Discovery' and
Development of Scientific Talent, 45,
1 36; member, Committee on Publica-
tion of Scientific Information, 45,
188; as chairman of the National De-
fense Research Committee, 144;
quoted, on future of science being
dependent upon national educational
policy, 144.

Congress. See United States Congress.

Contracts, research, need to waive certain
statutory and regulatory fiscal require-
ments, 38-39. See General Account-
ing Office.

Convalescence, committee on, 53.

Cooperative Test Service, proposed utiliza-
tion of, in the scholarship and fel-
lowship program, 181.

Cox, Oscar S., member, Committee on

198

Science and the Public Welfare, Diphtheria, reduction in death rate from

44, 72. 54.

Disease, the "war" against, xi, 1, 3, 5, 7,
9, 10-11, 14-16, 49. See also Death
rates; Diseases; Medical Advisory
Committee; Research, medical.

Davis, Horace Leonard, The Utilization
of Potential College Ahility Found in
]une 1940, Graduates of Kentucky
High Schools, data from, 174-175.

Davis, Watson, member. Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 45, 136.

DDT, 13, 49, 52, 53.

Death rates, from disease, World Wars I
and II, 5, 13, 49, 52; in childhood,
13, 14, 54-55; from disease, compared
to war casualties, 1, 13-14, 54; reduc-
tion in, from various diseases, 54-55.
See also Life expectancy.

Deaths, principal diseases causing, 14, 55.

Defense, Department of: peacetime vigor
of, in research, xiii; declassification of
wartime scientific data by, xviii; Fed-
eral funds obligations for basic re-
search for national defense by, xxv.

Defense Mobilization, Office of, x.

Defense Science Board, xxii.

Deficiency diseases, 13.

Deficits in trained research personnel. See
Talent.

Degenerative processes, 14.

Degrees, Ph.D.: deficits, 139; annually, in
science and technology (6-year pe-
riod), 150; proposed 300 fellowships
for students working toward, 150-
151; distribution of, by science fields,
177-178. See also Fellowships and
scholarships.

Degrees, undergraduate: deficits, 139; in
science and technology (1941), 150;
proposed assistance to 6,000 students
annually, to obtain, 150, 151; dis-
tribution of, by academic and profes-
sional fields, 177. See also Fellow-
ships and scholarships.

Demography, in NSF support programs,

XX.

Dentistry, term "medical research" to in-
clude related aspects of, 64, note 1;
distribution of undergraduate degrees
in allied fields and, 177. See also
Biological sciences; Research, medical.

Dewey, Bradley, member. Committee on
Science and the Public Welfare,
44, 72.

Diabetes, 13, 54.

Diet, 13, 54.

Diseases, basic research as contributory to
solutions to, viii-ix; emphasis shifted
to those of middle- and old-age
groups, 14, 55; principal death caus-
ing, 55; studies on, by Division of
Medical Sciences, National Research
Council, and Committee on Medical
Research, OSRD, 53.

Diseases, childhood, reduction in death
rate from, 54-55.

Diseases, deficiency, near eradication of,
54.

Diseases, infectious, committee on, 54.

Diseases, tropical, committee on, 53.

Divinity, distribution of undergraduate de-
grees in allied fields and, 177.

Doherty, R. E. member. Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 45, 136.

Doisy, Edward A., member, Medical Ad-
visory Committee, 43, 48.

Drugs, committee on, 53.

Dykstra, Clarence A., member. Commit-
tee on Science and the Public Wel-
fare, 44, 72.

Dysentery, 13, 49, 52, 53.

Earth sciences, distribution of Ph.D. de-
grees among other fields and, 177-
178.

Ecology, human, in NSF support pro-
grams, XX.

Economic studies related to scientific re-
search and its application, recom-
mended as function of proposed Na-
tional Research Foundation, 117.

Economics, in NSF support programs; xx;
graduate school enrollments in, 178.

Economy. See National economy.

Edison, Thomas A., 85.

Education (as field of study), distribution
of undergraduate degrees in allied
fields and, 177. See also Social
sciences.

Education, statistics on enrollments in
schools at various levels, 26; able
students lost to, at higher level,
166-176.

199

Education, scientific: five principles of
Government support of, xx-xxi. See
also Research, basic; Research, scien-
tific; Scientific Personnel and Edu-
cation, Division of.

Education, United States Office of: sta-
tistics on enrollments in public
schools, 168.

Education and Labor, U. S. Senate Com-
mittee on: report by OSRD to a sub-
committee of, on need for Federal
support of medical research, 57.

Education and Training, NSF compila-
tion of science policies on, xxiii.

Educational institutions, expenditures for
scientific research, 85, 89. See also
Research institutes; Universities.

Educational opportunity, intelligence re-
lated to, 173, Table III.

Educational policy. Dr. Conant quoted on
future of science as dependent upon,
XV, 23, 144. See also National sci-
ence policy; Talent.

Educational programs, inadequacy of, for
talented students, 169.

Educational pyramid (able students lost
to higher education), studies concern-
ing, 147-149, 166-176 (see also Ta-
bles); graduate students related to
total college enrollments, 178.

Electrical companies, included in survey
of research in industrial laboratories,
133, note 2.

Electronics, future progress to be striking
in, 78.

Elicker, Paul E., member. Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 45, 136.

Employment, scientific progress related to,
6, 10, 11, 18, 74; promotion of re-
search aimed at increasing basic scien-
tific knowledge leading to new indus-
tries and increase in, as responsibility
of proposed National Research Foun-
dation, 116.

Encephalitis, 53.

Engineering, subject of study by the Bow-
man Committee, 73 (see also Com-
mittee on Science and the Public
Welfare); costliness of research in,
79; deficit in personnel trained in,
158, 179; students of, in Army and
Navy programs, 159; Ph.D. degrees
in, 177; distribution of undergrad-
uate degrees in allied fields and, 177.

Engineering, chemical: analysis of re
search in, 122-134, passim; Tables,
122, 128 note 4 data, 131, 133.

Engineering, electrical: analysis of re-
search in, 122-134, passim; Tables,
122, 132, 133.

Engineering, sanitary: committee on, 53.

Engineering and natural sciences: Division
of Mathematical, Physical and Engi-
neering Sciences in NSF, xx; analysis
of research in, and postwar needs by
universities, colleges, industrial re-
search laboratories, and nonprofit sci-
ence institutes, 122-134, passim; Ta-
bles, 122, 127-133.

Engineering Education, Measurement and
Guidance Project in: proposed utili-
zation of, in the scholarship and fel-
lowship program, 181.

Engineering schools: growth of, as factor
in applied science, 90; recommended
grants to, for industrial research serv-
ices, 108.

Entomology, term "medical research" to
include related aspects of, 64, note 1;
economic, 129 note 5 data; Ph.D.
degrees in, 178.

Europe, former source of basic scientific
knowledge, 6, 22, 78; use of public
funds in, for medical research, 50,
56-57; governmental support of sci-
ence in, prior to support in U. S., 83.

Executive Orders: 10512, xii; 10521,
xxiii; 10807, xxiii.

Experiment stations, agricultural research
in, 32. See also Agriculture.

Federal aid for research. See Research,
basic; Research, industrial; Research,
medical; Research, scientific.

Federal Council on Science and Tech-
nology, xxii.

Federal Financial Support of Research
Facilities, NSF compilation of science
policies on, xxiii.

Federal Funds for Science, annual report
of NSF, xxiii-xxiv.

Federal Security Agency, interest in scien-
tific research, 31-32.

Fellows, proposed means and procedures
for choosing, 180-185. See also
Scholars; Fellowships and scholar-
ships.

Fellowships, proposed for medical re-
search, xi, .xii; as recommended form
of Federal aid to medical research,
50-51, 59-60, 66-68; program of, sup-
ported by Rockefeller Foundation, ad-
ministered by the Medical Fellowship
Board of the National Research Coun-

200

cil, 60; postdoctoral research, rec-
ommended as means of increasing
trained scientific personnel, 97-98;
senior research, recommended for ma-
ture investigators as means of in-
creasing scientific personnel, 98; in-
ternational, recommended as part of
needs for international scientific co-
operation, 114; scholarships, grants-in-
aid and, as normal means of develop-
ing leadership, 143; proposed plan
for, as means of assistance to doctoral
students in science, 150-157, passim;
responsibilities of educational institu-
tions to provide training commensu-
rate intellectually with superior abil-
ity, 152; State quotas for, 155; ma-
chinery for administration, 156-157;
tenure of, and conditions of continu-
ance to a Scholar or Fellow, 156-157;
eligibilit\' of Scholars for, 157. See
also Fellowships and scholarships;
Talent.

Fellowships, National Research Council,
156.

Fellowships and scholarships:

Highlights of proposal for a program
of, to renew scientific talent —
Summary of proposals and the pro-
gram as it has developed under NSF,
xv-xvi; budgets for fellowship pro-
gram, xvi; nonimplementation of
scholarship program, xvi.

Dr. Bush on —

Need for a Government agency to
administer, 9; summary of Moe Com-
mittee recommendations for, as means
of scientific training, 26-27; to be ad-
ministered by proposed National Re-
search Foundation, 34, 35,' 37, 38,
39-40.

Bowman Committee on —
Recommended, to be administered by
proposed National Research Founda-
tion, 75, 117.

Moe Committee on —
Proposed Federal program for, 137,
138-139; financial need not to be a
factor in granting of, 152; recipients
of, to constitute a National Science
Reserve, 153; obligations of recipients
• of, 153-154; method of selection, 154-
155; estimated cost of selection proc-
ess, 185.

Fibrin foam, 53.

Fine arts, graduate school enrollments in,

178.

Fiscal procedures, U. S. Government: sug-
gested reforms in, for scientific work
of the Government, 100-101. See
also General Accounting Office.

Foreign Policy, Science and, Department
of State, xiv.

Forestry, distribution of undergraduate de-
grees in allied fields and, 177. See
also Biological sciences.

Forrestal, James V., Secretary of the Navy,
interest of, in postwar military re-
search, 159.

Foundations, endowments from, as partial
sources of funds for medical research,

58.

Frank, Lawrence K., secretary. Commit-
tee on Discovery and Development of
Scientific Talent, 44, 136.

Franklin, Benjamin, influence upon Amer-
ican science, 83.

Purer, Admiral J. A., quoted on need for
military research, 159.

Gas gangrene and casualties, 53.

General Accounting Office, need to relax
certain requirements of, for research
contractors, xxii, 38, 39.

Genetics, 129, note 5 data; Ph.D. degrees
in, 178.

Geography: economic and social, in NSF
support programs, xx; included within
the scope of science considered by the
Moe Committee, 142; graduate
school enrollments in, 178.

Geological Survey, establishment of, 84.

Geology, included within the scope of sci-
ence considered by the Moe Commit-
tee, 142; deficit in personnel trained
in, 158, 179; Ph.D. degrees in, 177;
graduate school enrollments in, 178.

Germany, 143.

G. I. Bill of Rights, summary of impact
of, xvi, xvii; recommendation that
scale of support for scientific scholar-
ships and fellowships be same as
that provided by, 138, 152; place of,
and recommended changes in, for
ameliorating scientific and techno-
logical deficits, 140, 141, 162-163.
See also Veterans Administration;
Veterans Readjustment Assistance
Act.

Glass company, included in survey of re-
search in industrial laboratories, 133,
note 2.

Goetsch, Helen B., socio-economic study
by, of able students related to college
attendance, 172-174.

Goodpasture, Ernest, member. Medical
Advisory Committee, 43, 48.

201

Government, U. S., responsibilities in
fields of scientific research and devel-
opment:

Highlights of Dr. Bush's recoviniend-
ations and dex'elopments since 1950 — -
Science, the Endless Frontier as clas-
sic expression of desirable nature of
relationships between science and the
Government, vii; role of the Govern-
ment and developments in that role
since 1950 in promotion of basic
scientific research, viii-x; increase in
Federal funds for research, ix; role of
the Government in industrial re-
search, x-xi; role of the Government
in medical research, xi-xii; role of the
Government in military' research, xii-
xiii; role of the Government in pro-
moting international scientific coop-
eration, xiii-xv; role of the Govern-
ment in promoting the discovery and
developemnt of talent, xv-xvii; role
of the Government in publication of
scientific knowledge developed dur-
ing World War II, xviii-xix; the Na-
tional Science Foundation as the
means of the Government's playing
its role in scientific development, xix-
xxvi; five principles of support by the
Government for scientific research
and education, and highlights of NSF
compliance with, xx-xxi; appropria-
tions and obligations for basic re-
search, xxv-xxvi.

Dr. Bush on —

Aid to scientific research by public
and private organizations, 1, 3; need
for support to medical research, 5-6,
14-16; need for support of scientific
research, 6-7; competition with indus-
tr\' and universities for scientific per-
sonnel, 7; need for support in devel-
oping scientific talent, 7; need for
incentives to industry to conduct re-
search, 7; summary' of responsibility
in scientific development, 8-9; recom-
mendation to establish in the perma-
nent Government structure an agency
to carry out Government responsibil-
it>% 9; advancement of science as the
concern of the Government, 11-12;
fundamentals underlying support for
scientific research, 12; responsibility
for scientific military' research, 17-18;
increase in applied scientific research,
1930-1940, in the Government, 19-21;
recommendation for improving per-
sonnel policies concerning scientific
personnel emplovees, 20; scientific re-
search in the Government as essen-
tially applied research, 20; recommen-
dation that basic scientific research at
colleges, universities, and research in-
stitutes be strengthened bv use of
public funds, 20; recommendation for
creation of a Science Advisory Board

to coordinate policies and budgets of
Government agencies engaged in
scientific research, 20-21; means of
strengthening industrial research, 21;
role of the Government in promoting
international flow of scientific infor-
mation, 22; role of the Government
in supporting basic scientific research,
22; support to research in Agriculture,
22; cost of adequate support to basic
and applied scientific research, 22;
mobilization of science for World
War II, 28-29; various agencies of the
Government as participants in war-
time scientific research, 29; responsi-
bility to make available the results of
wartime research data, 29-30; respon-
sibilities of the Government in pro-
motion of scientific research and scien-
tific talent, 31-40; mechanism for and
fundamentals of the Government's
role in scientific research and develop-
ment, 31-40; need for a special agency
to assist scientific research outside the
Government and to support research
on weapons and administer a program
on science scholarships and fellow-
ships, 31-32; five fundamentals in a
program for Government support for
scientific research and education, 32-
33.

Palmer Committe on —
See Research, medical: Palmer Com-
mittee.

Bowman Committee on —
Role of the Government in conduct-
ing scientific research, 73; role of the
Government in promotion of research
in fields of natural sciences, engineer-
ing, and agriculture, 73; role of the
Government to encourage interna-
tional exchange of scientific knowl-
edge and engineering art, 73, 75; role
of the Government to carry on scien-
tific research within the Government,
75-76; recommendations for increased
effectiveness of scientific work in the
Government, 76; achievements made
by Federal research agencies, 77; re-
sponsibility of the Government to
promote scientific progress in the na-
tional welfare, 77; precedents in Fed-
eral aid to scientific progress, 77, 78,
79; need for Federal aid to scientific
research in private institutions, 77-80;
responsibility of the Government to
support pure scientific research, 81-82;
responsibility of the Government to
suDOort background scientific research,
82-83; creation of Federal scientific
bureaus. 83-85; Government support
of the X^'^ilkes Ex-ploring Expedition,
84: expenditures for scientific research,
85-89; necessity for support to pure
research in universities in order to
maintain proportion of pure to applied

202

research, 87, 88-89; recommended
form ot support to research in univer-
sities, 93-98; nature of scientific re-
search in the Government and sug-
gested reforms, 99-106; recommended
aids to industrial research and tech-
nology', 107-109; desirable role of the
Government in international scien-
tific cooperation, 113-114.

Moe Committee on —

See Talent, scientific, programs for

discover^' and development of: Moe

Committee.

Stewart Conimittee on —
Responsibility of the Government to
speed release of scientific information
developed during the war, 187-192.

Government-Industry' Relationships on Re-
search, NSF compilation of science
policies on, xxiii.

Government - University Relationships in
the Conduct of Federally Sponsored
Research, NSF compilation of science
policies on, xxiii.

Grants and grants-in-aid:

Highlights of proposals for, and de-
velopments since 1950, xi, xii, xx-xxi.

Palmer Committee on —
As means of advancing medical re-
search, 50-51, 60, 63, 66-68.

Bowman Comviittee on —

As means of assistance to research,

95, 96, 97, 108, 116-117.

Moe Committee on —
Scholarships, fellowships, and, as nor-
mal means of developing leadership,
143.

Griffiths, Farnham P., member. Commit-
tee on Discoverv and Development of
Scientific Talent, 45, 136.

Harvard University Library, 118.

Haskins, C P., member, Committee on
Science and the Public Welfare, 44,
72.

Havighurst, Robert J. See Warner, W.
Lloyd.

Hay fever, 14, 55.

Health, scientific progress essential to, 5,
74, 77; promotion of research for im-
provement of, as responsibility of pro-
posed National Research Foundation,
116. See Research, medical; Wartime
Health and Education, Subcommittee
on, of U. S. Senate Committee on
Education and Labor.

Hemolytic streptococcal disease, 53.

1 lenry, Joseph, 83.

High schools: inadequacy of teaching of
science in, and actions of NSF since
1950 to improve teaching in, xv, xvii;
studies concerning able students lost
to higher education, 144-145, 166-
176; need for means for veterans and
wartime industry workers to complete
education in, 163-165, passim.

Historical studies related to scientific re-
search and its application, recom-
mended as function of proposed Na-
tional Research Foundation, 117.

History, graduate school enrollments in,

178.

Home economics, distribution of under-
graduate degrees in allied fields and,
177.

Horticulture, Ph.D. degrees in, 178.

Hospitals, Federal funds obligations for
basic research in, xxv; contracts with,
by Committee on Medical Research,
as wartime measures, 53; place of, in
medical research, 56. See also Re-
search, medical.

Hunter, W. S., member. Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 45, 136.

Hygiene, advances in, 13; in World War
11, 49, 52.

Immune globulins, 49, 53.

Indiana, study on socio-economic groups of
high school students related to ability,
and on intelligence levels of students
planning to go to college, 144-145.

Indirect Costs, NSF compilation of science
policies on, xxiii.

Industrial medicine, 53.

Industry and industrial progress:

Highlights of problems and Dr. Bush s
recommendations —
Basic research as fundamental for,
viii, 19; need for more basic research
by industry, ix, 22; NSF surveys of
industr>''s research and developinent
efforts, xxiii; dependence upon trained
scientists, 7, 9; need to strengthen
patent system as incentive to, 7; need
for scientific knowledge based on
problems of World War II to be made
available, under controls, to industry,
8; role of industry in applied science
compared with basic research, 22; in-
centives to be maintained for research
by industry, 31.

Palmer Ccnnmittee on —

Industry as partial source of funds

for medical research, 58.

203

Bowfnan Committee on —
Role of the Government to assist re-
search by industry, 73, 74, 75, 101;
impact of the patent system and taxa-
tion on research by industry, 76;
problem of transition between basic
research and industrial application, 78;
question of responsibility of industry'
for basic research, 79; expenditures
for scientific research by industry', 85-
89; research clinics as advantage to
small business, 107-108; responsibility
of proposed National Research Foun-
dation to promote research leading to
creation of new industries and to ex-
pedite transition from research to
technological application, 116, 117.

Moe Committee on —
"Regents Plan," New York State, for
postwar educational opportunities for
persons released from wartime indus-
tries, 165; recruitment of talented stu-
dents by industry for applied science
as deterrent to expansion of talent for
basic research, 149, 169-170.

Stewart Committee on —
Release of scientific information de-
veloped during the war as important
to, 187-192. See also Government-
Industry Relationships on Research;
Research, applied; Research, indus-
trial.

Infections, airborne, 53; of wounds, 53.

Infectious diseases, 14, 55.

Influenza, 53.

Information centers, functions of NSF in
providing, xviii.

Insect control, 53.

Insecticides, 10, 13, 49, 52, 53.

Institutes, science: analysis of research ex-
penditures by, compared with expen-
ditures in leading universities, 125-
134. See also Research institutes.

Institutes program for improving teaching

of mathematics and science, xvii.
Insulin, 3, 54.

Intelligence, relation of, to educational op-
portunity, 173, Table II.

Intelligence of High School Seniors, The,
William F. Book, data from, 175-176.

Interior, Department of: Federal funds
obligations for basic research by, xxv;
interest in scientific research, 31-32.

Internal Revenue Code: revisions made in,
since 1950, to encourage research, x;
need for clarification on deductibility
of research and development costs, 7;
recommendation for amendment, to
strengthen industrial research, 21. See
also Tax laws.

International Conference on the Peaceful
Uses of Atomic Energy, xv.

International Geophysical Year, as exam-
ple of international scientific coopera-
tion, xiv-xv.

International Polar Year, as example of
international scientific activity, xv.

International Programs, Special, Office of,
in NSF, XX.

International Scientific Activities, NSF
compilation of science policies on,
xxiii.

International scientific conferences: U.S.
attendance at, xiv; problem of politi-
cal considerations in respect to foreign
scientists traveling in U. S., xiv; rec-
ommendation that proposed National
Research Foundation participate in
arrangements for, 113-114.

International scientific cooperation:

Highlights of recommendations and
developments since 1950, xiii-xv.

Dr. Bush on —

Importance of, 22, 31; need for co-
ordination in lifting wartime restric-
tions on exchange of scientific infor-
mation, 29; promotion of exchange of
scientific information as function of
proposed National Research Founda-
tion, 35, 37, 39-40.

Palmer Committee on —
Proposed, in medical research, 51.

Bowman Committee on —
Role of the Government to encourage
exchange of scientific information, 73,
75; U. S. participation in interna-
tional scientific enterprises and con-
gresses as means of, 113-114; function
of proposed National Research Foun-
dation to promote, 113, 114, 117;
international fellowships recommend-
ed as means of, 114; appointment of
scientific attaches in U. S. embassies
recommended as means of, 114.

Inventors, assistance to, as function of pro-
posed National Research Foundation,
117.

Iowa, University of: proposed utilization
of the examination project of, in the
fellowship and scholarship program,
181.

Japan, 143.

Jefferson, Thomas, influence upon Ameri-
can science, 83; support of ideas for
Government sponsored academ3% 84.

Johns Hopkins University, xiii.

Journalism,, 177.

204

Centucky, study of utilization of ix)tential
college ability found in high schools
of, 174-175.

Kidney diseases, 14, 55-56.

Kitt Peak National Observatory, xxi.

Kuznets, Simon S., National Income and
Its Composition, 1919-38, 86, note 1.

Labor, organized, increased awareness of
relation of research to the economy
by, X. See also Education and Labor.

Land, Edwin H., member. Committee on
Science and the Public Welfare, 44,
72.

Land-grant colleges: agricultural research
in, 32; Federal aid to agricultural re-
search in, 79; as examples of coopera-
tion among State and Federal Govern-
ments, individuals, and industry, 79;
growth of, 84.

Languages, graduate school enrollments in,
178.

Law, 177.

Learned, W. S., and Wood, Ben D., The
Student and His Knowledge, data
from, 170-171.

Libraries, aids to, as functions of proposed
National Research Foundation, 116,
118-121.

Library of Congress, 118, 119.

Library training, 177.

Lick, James, research sponsored by, 84.

Life expectancy, 5, 13, 54.

Life sciences, distribution of Ph.D. de-
grees among other fields and, 177-178.

Linguistics. See Psycholinguistics.

Literature, graduate school enrollments in,
178.

Liver therapy, 13, 54.

Loeb, Martin B. See Warner, W. Lloyd.

Maclaurin, W. Rupert, secretary. Commit-
tee on Science and the Public Wel-
fare, 44, 72.

MacQuigg, Charles E., member. Commit-
tee on Science and the Public Wel-
fare, 44, 72.

Madison, James, support of ideas for Gov-
ernment-sponsored academy, 84.

Malaria and anti-malarials, 13, 15, 49, 53,
55.

Malignant diseases, 14.

Marine Biological Laboratory, 86, note 6.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology:
Radiation Laboratory at, xiii; men-
tioned, 140, 161.

Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences, Division of, in NSF, xx.

Mathematics: NSF's program to improve
teaching of, xvii; included within the
scope of science considered by the Moe
Committee, 142; inadequate teaching
of, in secondary schools, 148; deficit
in personnel trained in, 158, 179;
undergraduate degrees in physical
sciences, allied fields and, 177; Ph.D.
degrees in, 177; graduate school en-
rollments in, 178.

McConnell, T. R., member. Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 45, 136.

Measles, 54.

Meat-packing company, included in a sur-
vey of research in industrial labora-
tories, 133, note 2.

Medical Advisory Committee, membership,
43, 47, 48; report by, 46-69.

Medical Fellowship Board, National Re-
search Council: Rockefeller Founda-
tion fellowship program administered
by, 60.

Medical Research, NSF compilation of
science policies on, xxiii. See also
Research, medical.

Medical Research, Committee on, organ-
ized under OSRD for wartime scien-
tific research: cost of program to July
1944, 49; medical advances attributa-
ble to, 49, 52; scope of activity, 53-54.

Medical Research Committee in Great
Britain, 57.

Medical Research Council in Great Brit-
ain, 57.

Medical Research Foundation. See Na-
tional Foundation for Medical Re-
search.

Medical schools and universities:
Dr. Biish on —
Role of, in medical research, 5-6, 15.

Palmer Committee on —
Role of, in medical research, and Fed-
eral aid to, as requisite for adequate
medical progress, 50-51, 56-60, 66-69;
government support in Great Britain
to, 57; annual budgets of, 58.

Bowman Committee on —
Growth of, 84-85.

See Research, medical.

Medical sciences, Ph.D. degrees in, and
distribution of degrees among other
fields and, 177-178.

205

Medical supplies, committee on, 53.

Medicine:

Dr. Bush on —

OSRD program on problems of, in
wartime, xii; advances in, World War
II, made possible by backlog of scien-
tific data, 13.

Palmer Committee on —
Contribution to World War II by,
49, 52-53; committees on aviation and
industrial medicine, 53; achievements
during World War II under direction
of OSRD, 53-54; studies during
World War II by Division of Medi-
cal Sciences of the National Research
Council and Committee on Medical
Research, 53-54; civilian medicine as
roots of wartime medicine, 54; em-
phasis shifted to middle- and old-age
groups, to malignant diseases and de-
generative processes, 55; importance
of fundamental research to progress,
55-56; scope of sciences related to
medicine, 56.

Moe Committee on —
Students of medicine in Army and
Navy programs, 159; distribution of
undergraduate degrees in medicine
and allied fields, 177; Ph.D. degrees
in surgery and medicine, 178.

See also Medical Advisory Commit-
tee; Research, medical.

Medicine, Division of Biology and, in

NSF, XX.

Medicine, Welch Fellowships in, 98.

Meningitis, 13, 49, 52.

Mental illness, 5, 14, 55.

Metallurgy, Ph.D. degrees in, 177.

Meteorology', Ph.D. degrees in, 177; grad-
uate school enrollments in, 178.

Microbiology, Ph.D. degrees in bacteriol-
ogy and, 178.

Military research. See Research, military.

Military services: programs for medical
research, xii; continuance of research
programs after World War II and ex-
pansion from applied to basic research,
xiii; programs for continuing educa-
tion of highly qualified men, xvi. See
also Armed services; G. I. Bill of
Rights; National defense; Research,
military'.

Milwaukee, Wisconsin, study of able high
school graduates by socio-economic
status related to college attendance,
172, 173, 174, 175.

Minerology, Ph.D. degrees in, 177.

Mines, Bureau of, establishment of, 85.

Mining, 177.

Minnesota, studies on high school students
and graduates entering college, re-
lated to socio-economic groups and
mental abihty, 145, 171-172.

Moe, Henry Allen, chairman, Committee
on Discovery and Development of
Scientific Talent, 44, 136; transmittal
of report, 136.

Moe Committee: Dr. Bush's excerpts from
report by, on development of scien-
tific talent, 23, 24-25; Dr. Bush's
summary of program proposed by, 26-
27; scope of science as considered by,
142. See Committee on Discovery
and Development of Scientific Talent.

Moulton, Harold C, member. Committee
on Science and the Public Welfare,

44, 72.

Municipal governments, need for Federal
cooperative support of research by,
101.

Music, graduate school enrollments in,

178.

Naples epidemic, typhus, 52.

National Academy of Sciences:

Activities since 1950 pertinent to Dr.
Bush's recommendations —
Role in promoting international scien-
tific conferences, xiv; science attache
program urged by, xiv; role of, in the
International Geophysical Year, xiv-

XV.

Dr. Bush on —

Establishment of Research Board for
National Security by, 33, 34; recom-
mendations as to relationship of, to
proposed National Research Founda-
tion, 35-36.

Bowman Committee on —
Report to Congress by, on Govern-
ment scientific activities, 1884 and
1908, 99; cooperation with, as func-
tion of proposed National Research
Foundation, 117.

Moe Committee on —
Proposed role of, in a scholarship and
fellowship program, 139, 154, 156,
180-181; scope of science within the
purview of, 142.

Stewart Committee on —
Recommended as agency to control
release of wartime-developed scientific
data, 191-192.

See also National Research Council.

National Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics: Federal funds obligations for

206

basic research by, xxv; basic research
by, 17-18; as participant in wartime
scientific research, 29; organization of,
considered in organization of pro-
posed National Research Foundation,
40; establishment of, 85; wartime
scientific research under auspices of,
190. ^ .,

National Aeronautics and Space Council,

xxii.

National defense:

Highlights of research related to na-
tional defense and developments since
1950—

Necessity for basic research, i-"^; pro-
posals for a division of national de-
fense to be included in the proposed
National Research Foundation, and
its eventual exclusion, xii-xiii, xix;
National Defense Education Act,
xvi, xviii; Federal funds obligations
for basic research for national de-
fense, 1956, xxv.

Dr. Bush on —

Scientific progress related to national
defense, 10-11; proposal for a division
of national defense to be included in
the proposed National Research Foun-
dation, 34, 35, 39, 40.

Bowman Committee on —
Function of proposed National Re-
search Foundation to cooperate with
Army, Navy, and civil military re-
search organizations in interest of na-
tional defense, 117.

Moe Committee on —

Proposed National Science Reserve as

contributing to national defense, 153.

National Defense Education Act, xvi,
xviii.

National economy: NSF conference on
research and development arid the
impact of the conference on, xi; NSF
analytical studies on relationship be-
tween research and development and,
xxiv. See also National welfare.

National emergency: resources of proposed
National Research Foundation to be
available to the U. S. in event of,
117; recommendation for establish-
ment of a National Science Reserve
to be available upon declaration of,
138-139, 153.

National Foundation for Medical Re-
search :
Developments since 1950 in meeting

proposals for —

Purpose of proposals provided within

NSF and NIH, xi.

Dr. Bush on —

Proposed establishment of a divisioii

for medical research in the proposed

National Research Foundation, iri
lieu of a separate agency for medical
research, xi. See also National Re-
search Foundation.

Palmer Committee on —
Recommended establishment and or-
ganization of, as a Federal agency to
administer Government aid for med-
ical research, 51, 64-69; fundamental
principles governing Federal funds to
be administered by, 62-63.

National income, scientific research ex-
penditures and, 85-89.

National Income and Its Composition,
] 91 9-38, Kuznets, 86, note 1.

National Institutes of Health: establish-
ment of, xi, xii, 85; research grants
by, and budgets, xii; fellowships ot,
xvi; Federal funds obligations tor
basic research by, xxv.

National Merit Scholarship Corporatiori,
source of financial aid for undergrad-
uate students, xvi.

National Patent Planning Commissionaire-
port by, on patent laws as they attect
industrial research, 21; recommenda-
tion of, on inventions by Govern-
ment employees, 105. See also Pat-
ents.

National Radio Astronomy Observatory,
NSF support to, xxi.

National Research Council: Soviet Pro-
fessional Manpower, xxv; medical ad-
vice provided by Division of Medical
Sciences of. World War II, 53; ad-
visory capacity of Division of Medical
Sciences to Committee on Medical
Research, OSRD, 53; role of, in med-
ical research, 55; Rockefeller Founda-
tion fellowship program administered
by the Medical Fellowship Board of,
60; Welch Fellowships in Medicine
instituted by, 98; recommended use
of experience of, in granting interna-
tional fellowships, 114; proposed
agency to administer the fellowship
and scholarship program, 154, 156;
Fellowships of, 156; proposed role of
the Administrative Committee of, in
a scholarship and fellowship program,
180-181. See also National Academy
of Sciences.

National Research Foundation:
Dr. Bush on —

Establishment of, as major recommen-
dation by Dr. Bush, vii; details of
purposes, policies, organization, func-
tions, relationships, and proposed
budgets, xi, xii, 31-40; proposed role
of, in international cooperative scien-
tific enterprises, xv.

207

Bowman Committee on —
Recommended creation of, policies,
functions, and basic structure of, as
Federal agency to promote science in
the interest of public welfare, 75,
115-117; recommendations concerning
relation to universities, 94-98; recom-
mendation that a proposed Science
Advisors' Board cooperate with, 106;
suggested responsibility of studying
technological development in indus-
try and of experimenting with meth-
ods of aid to industrial research, 107;
recommended power to make grants
to universities, engineering schools,
and nonprofit industrial research in-
stitutes, 108; proposed investigation
by, of advisability of Federal aid to
encourage new scientific enterprises
of applied-research nature, 109; rec-
ommended functions of, in interna-
tional scientific cooperation, 113-114;
proposed functions related to improve-
ment of library services, 118-121.

See also National Science Founda-
tion; National Scientific Research
Foundation.

National resources:
Dr. Bush on —

Scientific progress related to conserva-
tion of, 10-11.

Bowman Committee on —
Conservation of, as dependent upon
scientific progress, 74, 77; promotion
of research aimed at conservation and
better utilization of, as responsibility
of proposed National Research Foun-
dation, 116.

Moe Co'mmittee on —

Intelligence of citizenry included

among, 137, 144.

National Resources Committee, Resea^-ch
— A National Resotirce, 86, notes 2,
4; 100 and note 1.

National Roster, inventory by, of graduate
students in nonprofessional and non-
vocational schools and departments,
by science and other fields, 178.

National Science Board: convictions of,
concerning an undergraduate program
of scholarships, xvi; approval of estab-
lishing an Office of Social Sciences in
NSF, xx; high calibre of staff, xxi.

National Science Foundation: Act of 1950
creating, vii, xiii; resume of accom-
plishments related to Dr. Bush's rec-
ommendations for a National Re-
search Foundation, vii-xxvi; establish-
ment of Division of Biological and
Medical Sciences, xi, xii; promotion
of international conferences by, xiv;
science attache program urged by.

xiv; funds obligations of, compared
to Dr. Bush's proposals on funds re-
quirements, .xvi-xvii; support of re-
search directed at new approaches to
information problems and translation
techniques, xviii; scientific informa-
tion activity of, xviii-xix; establish-
ment of a Science Information Serv-
ice and a Science Information Coun-
cil, xviii, xix; highlights of early and
present organization, present func-
tions and relationships, and com-
parison with Dr. Bush's proposals,
xix-xxvi; relationships of the Director
with other Federal agencies and com-
mittees, xxii; annual report. Federal
Funds for Science, xxiii-xxiv; Federal
appropriations for, xxiv-xxvi. See also
National Research Foundation; Na-
tional Scientific Research Foundation.

National science policy: need for, and
the National Research Foundation as
focal point for development of, in
Dr. Bush's recommendation, vii, 12,
31, 34; active growth of, since 1950,
vii-xxvi, passim; role of NSF in, xxii-
xxiv; NSF compilations on, xxiii.

National Science Reserve:
Dr. Bush on —
Proposals for, 27.

Moe Committee on —
Proposed establishment of, and rec-
ommendation that recipients of sci-
ence scholarships and fellowships be
enrolled in, 138, 153-154; to include
veterans trained under the G. I. Bill,
163; suggested administrative organi-
zation, bases of selection, and pro-
cedures for selection of scholars and
fellows, 180-185.

National Scientific Research Foundation:
proposed establishment of, and func-
tions in the program for discovery
and development of talent, 180-185,
passim. See also National Research
Foundation.

National security:
Dr. Bush on —

Scientific progress essential to, 5;
need for civilian-controlled organiza-
tion, in liaison with Army and Navy,
with appropriated funds to initiate
military research, 6; scientific research
related to, 17-18.

Bowman Comm,ittee on —
Scientific progress essential to, 74, 77.

Stewart Committee on —

Release of wartime-acquired scientific

information related to, 190.

See also National defense; Research
Board for National Security; Re-
search, military.

208

National welfare:

Science related to, since J 950 —
Increased awareness oi' relationships
between science and, vii-xwi, passim.

Dr. Bush on —

Science related to, vii-viii, 5, 6-7, 9,
10-12, 17-22, 40; scientific talent re-
lated to, 23; need for coordination of
research programs in interest of, 31.

Bowman Committee on —

Scientific progress essential to, 74, 77.

Moe Committee on —
Science as a member of a team in,
142-143; training of highest ability
students essential to, 146; promotion
of public interest in development of
science as important to, 157; discov-
ery and development of scientific tal-
ent in the armed forces, and special
postwar educational programs for vet-
erans and wartime industrial workers
as essential to, 158-165; adverse ef-
fects of deficits in trained scientific
personnel on, 158-165, passim; re-
cruitment by industry of students
who should continue education as
adverse for, 169-170.

Stewart Committee on —
Release of scientific information de-
veloped during the war as important
to, 187-192.

Natural resources. See National resources.

Natural sciences:

Dr. Bush on —

Proposal for a division of, in a Na-
tional Research Foundation, 35, 39;
support of research in, as function of
proposed National Research Founda-
tion, 35, 37, 39-40.

Bowman Committee on —
Subject of study by the Committee,
73; costliness of research in, 79; ex-
penditures for research in, 86, note
5; analysis of research in engineering
and, and postwar needs by univer-
sities, colleges, industrial research lab-
oratories, and nonprofit science insti-
tutes, 122-134, passim. See also Com-
mittee on Science and the Public
Welfare.

Aioe Committee on —
Undergraduate degrees (1941) in
technolog\' and, 150; Ph.D. degrees
C6-year period) in technology and,
150; statistics on research in tech-
nology and, 177.

Naval Observatory, establishment of, 84.

Naval Research Laboratory, establishment
of, 85.

Navy:

Dr. Bush on —

Role of, in medical research, 15; in-

creased emphasis on science in officer
training, 17; need for continued re-
search by, 17-18; scientific students
in, 24.

Palmer Committee on —

Adoption of use of penicillin by, 53;

role of, in medical research, 55-56.

Bowman Committee on —
Cooperation with, as function of pro-
posed National Research Foundation,
117.

Moe Committee on —
Recommended participation of, in
program to locate and develop scien-
tific talent in the armed forces, 140-
141; students of medicine and en-
gineering in educational programs of,
159; plans for integrated scientific
training in, to reduce the wartime
deficit in trained personnel, 160-
162, 165.

Stewart Committee on —
Wartime scientific research under aus-
pices of, 190; to participate in deci-
sions on release of wartime-developed
scientific data, 191.

See also Armed services; Army; Navy,
Secretary of the; Navy Department;
Navy Postgraduate School.

Navy, Secretary of the: joint statement
with Secretary of War, to National
Academy of Sciences, regarding scien-
tific progress and the national secur-
ity, 17; release of results of wartime
medical research to the public, 28.

Navy Department: support to basic re-
search, xiii; as participant in war-
time scientific research, xiii, 29; as
board member to declassify scientific
information, 29. See also Armed
services; Military services.

Navy Postgraduate School, xvi.

Neuropsychiatry, 53.

Neurosurgery, 53.

New England Industrial Research Foun-
dation, as a research clinic, 107-108.

New York, State of: Board of Regents of,
qyoted on imperativeness of higher
education for ablest students, 144;
"Regents' Plan" for postwar educa-
tion of demobilized armed forces and
wartime industry workers, 164-165.

New York Public Library, 118.

Norcross, Cleveland, secretary. Committee
on Publication of Scientific Informa-
tion, 45, 188.

Nuclear energy, international aspects of
diversion of, into constructive uses, xv.

209

Nuffield College, University of Oxford,
151.

Nursing, 177.

Ochsner, Alton, member, Medical Advis-
or>' Committee, 43, 48.

O'Donnell, J. Hugh, member. Committee
on Science and the Public Welfare,

44, 72.

Office of Scientific Research and Develop-
ment: Dr. Bush as director of, vii;
Dr. Bush's recommendation that por-
tions of wartime research programs
should be carried on in peacetime,
xii, 18; continuation by the military
services of research arrangements ini-
tiated by, xii-xiii; functions and emer-
gency nature of, 3, 33; wartime scien-
tific research by, 12, 190; scientific
mobilization by, 28-29; publication of
results of wartime research by, 29-30;
research sponsored by, on nonprofit
basis, 39; broad authorities to, and
relaxation of technical fiscal proce-
dures concerning research contracts,
39; medical advances attributable to
Committee on Medical Research of,
49, 52; cost of medical program to
July 1944, 49, 54; organization of
Committee on Medical Research
under, as wartime measure, 53; scope
of activity in medical research, 53-51,
55; report to U. S. Senate on need for
Federal support of medical research,
57; costs of contracts with colleges
and universities, 1943-44, 87; deci-
sions in early days of, on release of
medical-research data, 189; publica-
tion plans of, concerning release of
wartime-developed scientific data, 192.

Oil companies, included in survey of re-
search in industrial laboratories, 133,
note 2.

Organization and Administration of Re-
search, NSF compilation of science
policies on, xviii.

Osborn, General Frederick H., letter from
Dr. Moe to, quoted on need for
scientific training for armed forces,
161.

Oxford, University of (Nuffield College),

Paleontology, Ph.D. degrees in, 177.

Palmer, Walter W., chairman, Medical
Advisory Committee, 43, 47, 48;
transmittal of committee report, 47.

Parasitology, development of, basic to med-
ical progress, xi, 14, 56.

Parathyphoid, 52.

Parsons, Dr. Charles L., quoted on waste
of scientists in World War II, 159.

Patents:

Dr. Bush on —

Need for strengthening patent sys-
tems, to assist small industries, 7;
problems concerning patent laws
bearing upon industrial research, 21;
policy on, related to operations of
proposed National Research Founda-
tion, 38.

Palmer Committee on —
Question of rights on discoveries
made under Government - sponsored
research, 61.

Bowman Committee on —
Impact of system on research by in-
dustry, 76; needed strengthening of
the system, 109; recommendation con-
cerning policies of proposed National
Research Foundation, 117; reference
to policy concerning universities, re-
search institutions, and recipients of
grants, 117; policy concerning inven-
tions by Government employees, 105.

Pathology: development of, basic to medi-
cal progress, xi, 14, 56; committee
on, 53.

Pauling, Linus, member. Medical Advisor^'
Committee, 43, 48.

Pearl Harbor, 139.

Penicillin, 10, 13, 14, 49, 52, 53, 55.

Pennsylvania, studies on high school grad-
uates and college attendance of high-
abilit\' students, 145, 170-171, 172,
173.

Pepper, Senator Claude D., quoted, on
Government's role in sponsorship of
research, 63.

Perazich, G., and Field, P., Industrial
Research and Changing Technology,
86, note 2.

Personnel, scientific:

Highlights of recommendations con-
cerning scientific personnel in the
Government and developments since
1950, ix.

Dr. Bush on —

Recommendations concerning, in the

Government, 7.

Bowman Committee ori —
Recommendations concerning, in the
Government, 76, 101-104.

Moe Committee on —
Deficit in, due to wartime interrup-
tions to education, 150; deficit in
technological and scientific personnel

210

from war and selective service poli-
cies, 158-160.

See also Civil Service; Talent.

Pharmaceutical industry: role of, in the
war on disease and medical research,
13, 15; included in a survey of re-
search in industrial laboratories, 133,
note 2.

Pharmacology: development of, basic to
medical progress, xi, 14, 56; Ph.D.
degrees in, 178. See also Table V,
130, note 4.

Pharmacy, 177.

Physical science: Division of Mathemati-
cal, Physical and Engineering Sci-
ences in NSF, xx; support of re-
search in, as function of proposed
National Research Foundation, 35,
39-40; institutions for ^ research in,
included in a survey of research in
nonprofit science institutes, 133, note
3; included within the scope of sci-
ence considered by the Moe Commit-
tee, 142; undergraduate degrees in
mathematics and, 177; distribution of
Ph.D. degrees among other helds and,
177-178; graduate school enrollments
in, 178; deficits in training research
personnel in, 179.

Physical Sciences Study Group, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology:
NSF's support of, to improve science
teaching, xvii.

Physicians, role of, in the war on disease,
13.

Physics: development of, basic to medical
progress, xi, 14, 56; development of
improved course content for teaching,
supported by NSF, xvii; analysis of
research in, in universities, colleges,
industrial research laboratories, and
nonprofit science institutes, 122-134,
passim; deficit in personnel trained
in, 158, 179; Ph.D. degrees in, 177;
graduate school enrollments in, 178;
studies by Institute of, on deficits in
training of research personnel in phy-
sical sciences and engineering, 179.

Physiology: development of, basic to med-
ical progress, xi, 14, 56; analysis of
research in selected university depart-
ments, 129, 130; Ph.D. degrees in,
178. See also Research, medical.

Plant pathology, 129, note 5 data.

Plastics, 10.

Pneumonia, 13, 49, 52, 53, 54-55.

Population: increase, 1900-1940, 10-11;
statistics on child and youth, related
to school attendance, 166-176. See
also Tables.

Primary schools, loss of talent in, 147.

Private organizations: President Roosevelt's
question on the role of the Govern-
ment to aid scientific research activi-
ties by, 1, 3, 73, 77; need for Fed-
eral ' cooperative support of research
by, 101. See Committee on Science
and the Public Welfare.

Prizes, establishment of, as function of
proposed National Research Founda-
tion, 117.

Protozoology, 64, note 1 .

Psycholinguists, included in NSF support
programs, xx.

Psychology: social, included in NSF sup-
port programs, xx; included within
the scope of science considered by the
Moe Committee, 142; deficit in per-
sonnel trained in, 158, 179; distribu-
tion of Ph.D. degrees among other
fields and, 177-178; Ph.D. degrees in,
and graduate school enrollments in,
178.

Public, need to promote interest of, in
scientific development, 157.

Public health: role of groups engaged in,
in the war on disease, 13; distribu-
tion of Ph.D. degrees among other
fields and, 177-178.

Public Health Service, U. S.: source of
funds for medical research, xii; role
of, in medical research, 15, 55, 56;
scientific interests of, specialized, 62.
See also Health.

Public organizations: President Roosevelt's
question on the role of the Govern-
ment to aid scientific research activi-
ties by, 1, 3, 73, 77; need for Fed-
eral cooperative support of research
by, 101. See also Committee on
Science and the Public Welfare.

Public welfare. See Committee on Science
and the Public Welfare; National
welfare.

Publication. See Committee on Publica-
tion of Scientific Information.

Publications and Scientific Collaboration,
Division of, proposed in a National
Research Foundation, xxiv, 35, 39.
See also National Science Founda-
tion; Science Information Service,
Office of.

Rabi, I. I., member. Committee on Science
and the Public Welfare, 44, 72.

Radar, 10, 17.

Radiation Laboratory, M. I. T., xiii.

211

Radiation treatment for cancer, 13. See
also Cancer.

Radio, 10.

Rayon, 10.

Reference aids, functions of NSF in pro-
viding, xviii, xix. See also Libraries.

Refractory diseases, xi, 14.

"Pvegents' Plan for Postwar Education in
the State of New York," 164-165.

Rehabilitation, committee on, 53.

Renal disease, xi, 14.

Research — A National Resource, National
Resources Committee, 100 and
note 1 .

Research: functions of NSF in publish-
ing results of, x\dii.

Research, applied:

Highlights of tlie Report a}}d devel-
opments since 1950 —
Lack of desirable balance between
Federal funds for basic research and,
ix; research programs of militar\' serv-
ices expanded beyond, to basic re-
search, xiii; distinguished from pure
research, xx\'i; as dri\'ing out pure
research, xxvi.

Bowman Committee on —
Nature of, 83; tendency to drive out
pure research, 83; relative expendi-
tures, U. S. and England, for pure
research and, 87; need to maintain
balance with pure research, 88-89;
advent of, in universities, 90.

See also Research, industrial; Re-
search institutes.

Research, basic:

Highlights of the Report and devel-
opments since 1950 —
Development of national policy con-
cerning, since 1950, vii-viii; as scien-
tific capital, viii; as pacemaker of
technological progress, viii; as funda-
mental to industrial progress, viii;
National Research Foundation as
focal point for support of, in Dr.
Bush's recommendations, viii; as prin-
cipal focus of the Report, viii-ix; in-
crease in use of Federal funds for, ix;
lack of desirable balance between
Federal funds for, and applied re-
search and development, ix; necessary
to national defense, ix; necessary to
research training, ix; necessity for, by
industry, ix; need for industry to
support, in colleges and universities,
ix; research programs of military serv-
ices expanded to include, xiii; average
amounts and duration of NSF grants
for, xx; permission for grants for, to
vest title to research equipment, xxi;

NSF comjiilation of science policies
on, xxiii; widening support of, by
various Federal agencies, and Federal
appropriations and funds obligations
for, xx\'-xx\'i; recognition of impor-
tance of, re\'ealed by Federal legisla-
tive actions and appropriations, xxv-
xxvi; ratio of Federal basic-research
funds to over-all research and devel-
opment funds, xxvi; distinguished
from applied research, xxvi; tendency
to be driven out by applied research,
xxvi.

Dr. Bush on —

Need for a Government agency to
supplement, in colleges, universities,
and research institutes, 9; colleges,
universities, and research institutes as
centers of, 12, 19, 20; backlog of
scientific data accumulated through,
as basis of advances in medicine.
World War H, 13; in the war against
disease, 13-15; need for public funds
to strengthen, 20; support of, by Gov-
ernment, as an aid to industrial re-
search, 21; role of Government in
promoting, 22, 31; fundamentals in
use of public funds for, 32-33; sup-
port of, as function of proposed Na-
tional Research Foundation, 34, 38,
39-40.

Bowman Committee on — ■
Need to improve transition between,
and industrial application, 75, 78; as
pacemaker of technological progress,
78-79; nature of (pure and back-
ground scientific research), 81-83;
Government's responsibility to sup-
port, 81-83; tendency for applied re-
search to drive out, 83; relative ex-
penditures, U. S. and England, for
applied research and, 87; need to
maintain balance with applied re-
search, 88-89.

Aloe Committee on —
Recruitment of talented students by
industry for applied science as a
deterrent to expansion of talent in,
149; need to maintain appropriate
balance between those trained in
scientific fields and those trained in
social sciences, arts, and humanities,
179; deficit in training personnel in
phvsical sciences and engineering,
179.

See also Research, scientific.

Research, biological: institutions for, in-
cluded in a survey of research in
nonprofit science institutes, 133,
note 3.

Research, industrial:

Highlights of Dr. Bush's analysis of
factors related to, x-xi.

212

Dr. Bush on —

Basic research as promotion of, 7;
Go\ernmcnt incenti\es needed, 7; in-
crease in, 1930-1940, 19-20; prob-
lems and recommendations concern-
ins, 21.

Boxvniini Coniniittcc on —
Needed changes in ta.x structure as
incentive to, 73; achievements made
by laboratories, 77; limited number ot
laboratories engaging in background
scientific research, 82-83; operating
costs of research laboratories related
to salaries of research staffs, 92-93;
concentration of, in few companies
and industries, 107; recommended
Federal aids to, 107-109; analysis of
scientific research exi^enditures by
laboratories compared with expendi-
tures in leading universities, 125-134.

See also Research, applied; Research,
scientific; Scientific enterprises.

Research, medical:

Highlights of Dr. Bush's recommen-
dations and developments since
1950, xi-xii.

Dr. Bush on —

Need for Government financial sup-
port, 5-6; achievements in the war
on disease, 13-16; progress between
World Wars I and II, 15; sources of
financing, 16; proposed amount of
Government financing of, in medical
.schools and universities, 16; release
of wartime results, 28; support of, as
function of proposed National Re-
search Foundation, 35, 38, 39-40; a
division of, proposed in a National
Research Foundation, 35, 39.

Palvier Committee on —
Need for Federal aid for, 50-51, 57-
58; use of public funds in Europe
and Britain for, 50, 56-57; recom-
mendations concerning nature of the
use of Federal funds for, 50-51, 62-
63; estimated budget for Federal aid,
51, 60; effect of World War II on,
54; Federal aid to, as a wartime de-
velopment, 56; progress between
World Wars I and II, 57; reports of
OSRD to U. S. Senate on need for
Federal support of, 57; endowments,
industry', and alumni associations as
partial sources of funds for, 58; gen-
eral research funds, fellowships, and
grants-in-aid as recommended forms
of Federal aid, 58-60, 63, 66-68; rec-
ommendation for promotion of, by
creation of an independent Federal
agency, 60-61; definition of term, as
used in the report, 64.

Buwmiin Committee on —
Analysis oi, in uni\'ersity departments
of anatomy, physiology, and bacte-
riology, and in industrial research
organizations, 125-134, passim; insti-
tutions for, included in a survey of
research in nonprofit science insti-
tutes, 133, note .3.

Stewart Committee on —

Decisions on release of data from,

during the war, 189, 191.

See also Medical schools; National
Foundation for Medical Research;
Rockefeller Institute of Medical Re-
search.

Research, military: need for, in peacetime,
under permanent independent civil-
ian-controlled organization in liaison
with the armed services, xii-xiii, 17-
18, 33-34, 159; support of, as func-
tion of proposed National Research
Foundation, 34, 35, 38, 39-40, 117.

Research, outer space, international as-
pects of, XV.

Research, scientific:

Highlights of recommendaticms and
developments since 1950 —
Recommendations concerning, within
the Government, i.x-x; five principles
of Government support of, and NSF
compliance, x.x-xxi; NSF analytical
studies on relationship between re-
search and development and the na-
tional economy, xxiv.

Dr. Bjish on —

President Roosevelt's request for rec-
ommendations concerning, 1-4; in the
vyar against disease, 5; need for pub-
lic funds to support, 6; as scientific
capital, 6; expenditures for, 1930-
1940, 6-7; need for benefits to reach
industries not utilizing new scientific
knowledge, 7; recommendation that
knowledge based on problems of
World War II be made available,
under controls, 8, 28-30; relationship
to public welfare, 17-22; relationship
to national security, 17-18; relation-
ship to employment, 18; relationship
to practical application, 18-19; cen-
ters of, 19.

Bowman Committee on —
Role of the Government in assistance
to, in natural sciences, engineering
and agriculture, 73; responsibility of
the Government to provide, 73-76; as
basic to the national welfare, 74-76,
77; role of the Government to engage
in, within the Government, and rec-
ommendations for increased effective-
ness of Government programs, 75-76;
argurnents against Federal aid to, 78;
traditional support of, 79; precautions

213

required in a program for Federal aid
to, 79, 80; essentials of a program for
Federal aid, 80; recommended estab-
lishment of a National Research
Foundation to administer Federal aid,
80; Federal support of, in universi-
ties and nonprofit institutes recom-
mended, 80; components and nature
of, 81-83; development of, in U. S.,
83-85; national (public and private)
expenditures for, 85-89; basic ele-
ments in a national policy for, 88-89;
in American universities and colleges,
90-98; operating costs for, related to
salaries of research staffs in univer-
sities and colleges and in industrial
research laboratories, 92-93; need to
assist colleges and universities with
operating costs, 93; recommended
forms of Government support in uni-
versities, 93-98; nature of, in the
Government and suggested reforms,
99-106; bearing of Federal income
tax upon expenditures for develop-
ment and, 110-111; recommended leg-
islative action on income-tax laws de-
signed to aid, 111-112; responsibility
of proposed National Research Foun-
dation to promote, 116; analysis of
expenditures for, by 125 universities
and colleges, and postwar needs, 122-
124; example of opposition to Federal
aid for, 124; detailed analysis of ex-
penditures for, in a small sample of
leading universities, industrial re-
search laboratories, and nonprofit sci-
ence institutes, 125-134.

Stewart Committee on —
Effect of the war on, and need to re-
lease wartime-developed data as soon
as possible, 189-192.

See also Research, basic.

Research Board for National Security: es-
tablishment of, 33; recommended par-
ticipation of, in program to locate
and develop scientific talent in the
armed services, 140-141, 160.

Research clinics, advantages to small busi-
ness, 107-108.

Research facilities, scientific and technical:
NSF compilation of science policies
on Federal support of, xxiii; responsi-
bility of proposed National Research
Foundation to provide for, where in-
adequate, 116.

Research in Action, Battelle Memorial In-
stitute, 86, note 3.

Research institutes: NSF surveys of re-
search and development efforts of,
xxiii; Federal funds obligations for
basic research in, xxv; as centers of
basic research, 6, 12, 19, 20; ex-
penditures for scientific research, 6-7,
85-89; need for public funds to

strengthen, 20; inadequacy of ex-
penditures for basic research by, 22;
fundamentals of public-funds support
of research in, 33; support of scien-
tific research in, as -function of pro-
posed National Research Foundation,
34, 37, 38, 39-40; role of the Govern-
ment to assist research in, 73, 74, 75,
101; achievements made by, 77; rec-
ommended grants to, for industrial
research and for fundamental re-
search, 108; reference to patent poli-
cies of, 117.

Research workers, assistance to, as func-
tion of proposed National Research
Foundation, 117.

Richards, A. N., member, Committee on
Publication of Scientific Information,
45, 188; chairman. Committee on
Medical Research, OSRD, 57;
quoted, on deficiency in funds of uni-
versities for medical research, 57.

Rockefeller Foundation, 60, 84.

Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research,
84, 86, note 6.

Rodent control, 53.

Rogers, Walter S., member, Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 45, 136.

Roosevelt, President Franklin D.: letter to
Vannevar Bush from, requesting rec-
ommendations on means of scientific
advancements, 3-4; Dr. Bush's reply,
1-2; references to the President's let-
ter, 13-14, 54, 73, 77, 137, 142, 187,
189, 190, 192; letter to, from Dr.
Charles L. Parsons, quoted, on waste
of scientists in World War II, 159.

Russia, recommendation for appointment
of scientific attaches at embassy in,
xiii-xiv.

Russian sputnik, effects on activity of the
Government in scientific field, x, xxv.

Ryerson Laboratory of the University of
Chicago, 140, 161.

Scarlet fever, reduction in death rates
from, 54.

Scholars, proposed means and procedures
for choosing, 180-185. See also Fel-
lows; Fellowships and scholarships.

Scholarships: nonimplementation of pro-
posed program for, and substitutes
therefor, xvi; precautions necessary
not to syphon a disproportionate
amount of ability into science from
other fields through, 142-143; fellow-
ships, grants-in-aid and, as normal
means of developing leadership, 143;

214

proposed plan for, as means of assist-
ance to undergraduates in science,
150-157, passim; responsibilities of
educational institutions to provide
training commensurate intellectually
with superior abilitA', 152; State
quotas for, 155. See also Fellowships
and scholarships; National Defense
Education Act; National Merit Schol-
arship Corporation.

School attendance, statistics on, 166-176.
See also Tables.

Schools, graduate: NSF support for reno-
vation and equipment of research
laboratories of, xxii; need for policies
of, to assist veterans in making up
lost time in scientific training, 163-
165. See also High schools; Primary
schools; Secondary schools.

Science:

Highlights of the Report and develop-
ments since 1590 —
Summary of Dr. Bush's recommenda-
tions on the role of the Government
in the development of science and
progress since 1950, vii-xxvi; lack of
full awareness of difference between
technology and, ix; international rela-
tions in, since 1950, xiii-xv; widening
of international relations in, to in-
clude political considerations, xv; in-
adequacy of teaching in, as found by
Dr. Bush, and actions of NSF since
1950 to improve teaching, xv-xvii;
NSF projects on history and philos-
ophy of, xx; NSF annual report. Fed-
eral Funds for Science, xxiv; tech-
nology distinguished from, .xxvi.

Dr. B^ish on —

Scope of, as referred to by President
Roosevelt, 1; in the war against dis-
ease, 1, 3; mobilization of, for World
War II, 28-29.

Palmer Committee on —

Scope of, related to medicine, 56.

Bowman Committee on —

Status and trends in, in America,

81-89.

Aloe Committee on —
Scope of, within purview of National
Academy of Sciences, and of the
report of the Committee, 1 42; inade-
quacy of teaching of, in secondary
schools, 148-149; statistics concerning
training of personnel for technology
and, undergraduate and graduate
schools, 177-179.

See also Defense Science Board; Fed-
eral Council on Science and Tech-
nology; Research, applied; Research,
basic; Research, medical; Research,
scientific; Science, applied.

Science, applied:
Dr. Bush on —

Function of proposed National Re-
search Foundation to improve transi-
tion from research to, 37, 39-40.

Boivnian Committee on —
Planned coordination and direction as
benefits to, 79-80; methods of prog-
ress in, during war, not feasible in
peace, 80.

Moe Committee on —
Recruitment of talented students by
industry for, as a deterrent to expan-
sion of talent for basic research, 149.

Stewart Committee on —
Emphasis on, during war, 189.

See also Research, applied; Research,
scientific.

Science, Department of: recommended
creation of, by the National Academy
of Sciences, 99.

Science, Federal Funds for, NSF annual
report, xxiv.

Science Adviser to the Secretary of State,
establishment of position, xiv.

Science Advisory Board: recommendations
for establishment of, to coordinate
scientific work of Government agen-
cies, X, 7, 20-21, 76, 105-106.

Science Advisory Board (temporary),
appointed by President Roosevelt,
100.

Science Advisory Committee, the Presi-
dent's: operations of, related to Dr.
Bush's recommendations, x, xiv, xviii;
science attache program urged by,
xiv; NSF relationships with, xxii.

Science and Astronautics, House Com-
mittee on, vii.

Science and Foreign Policy, Department
of State, xiv.

Science and Technology, Department of:
debate as to need for establishment
of, related to Dr. Bush's recommen-
dations, x.

Science and Technology, Federal Coun-
cil on: recent establishment of, re-
lated to Dr. Bush's recommendations,
x.

Science and Technology, Special Assist-
ant to the President for: establish-
ment of position of, x; NSF relation-
ships with, xxii.

Science Information Council, establish-
ment of, by NSF, xviii.

Science Information Service, Office of,
NSF, xviii, xix, xx, xxiv, note 4.

215

Science policy. See National science
policy.

Science Reserve. See National Science
Reserve.

Scientific attaches: recommendation for
appointment of, in certain embassies,
viii-xiv, 114; development of the pro-
gram for, since 1950, xiii-xiv.

Scientific capital: basic scientific research
as, viii, 6; drawn upon during the
war, 189.

Scientific collaboration. See Publications
and Scientific Collaboration, Division
of.

Scientific cooperation. See International
scientific cooperation.

Scientific enterprises, unresolved question
by the Bowman Committee as to
Federal aid to launching of, 108-109.

Scientific information: release of, devel-
oped during the war, xviii, 186-192;
activity of NSF in dissemination of,
xviii-xix, 75, 116; NSF compilation
of policies on, xxiii.

Scientific Personnel and Education, Di-
vision of, NSF, xx; proposals for,
35, 39.

Scientific progress, significance of, in all
phases of American life, 10-12.

Scientific publications, encouragement of,
as function of proposed National Re-
search Foundation, 35, 37, 39-40.

Scientific research. See Research, scien-
tific.

Scientific talent. See Talent.

Scientific training: need for, related to
public welfare, 6-7; English scholars
quoted on need for and nature of, at
undergraduate level, 151-152. See
all Research entries; Talent.

Scientists, need for professional partner-
ship between the military services
and, 17-18; assistance to, as function
of proposed National Research Foun-
dation, 117. See all Research en-
tries; Talent.

Secondary schools: loss of talent in, and
variation of quality of education in,
147-149; need to assist able students
to complete education in, 149. See
also High schools; Schools; Talent.

Security restrictions on wartime scientific
data, coordination required in lifting,
29-30. See also Scientific informa-
tion.

Seismology, Ph.D. degrees in, 177.

Selective Service policies, effect of, on
deficit in scientists, and recommended

corrective action, 139-141, 158-160,
163.

Serum albumin, 49, 53.

Shapley, Harlow, member, Committee on
Discovery and Development of Scien-
tific Talent, 45, 136.

Shock, studied, 53.

Silliman, Benjamin, 83.

Slichter, Sumner, x.

Small business, research clinics as ad-
vantage to, 107-108.

Small Business Act of 1958, x.

Smallpox, 52.

Smith, Homer W., secretary, Medical
Advisory Committee, 43, 48.

Smithson, James, bequest for Smithsonian
Institution, 84.

Smithsonian Institution: Federal funds
obligations for basic research, xxv;
creation of, 84.

Social Function of Science, The, Bernal,
87, note 2.

Social sciences: need to maintain balance
between talents in natural sciences,
medicine, and, xx, 23; undergradu-
ate degrees in, 177; statistics on re-
search in, 177; graduate school en-
rollments in, 178; warning not to
drain too many able students from
research in, for scientific research,
179.

Social Sciences, Office of, NSF, xx, xxi.

Socio-economic studies: relationships be-
tween socio-economic status, ability,
and level of education attained, 171-
176; relations between parental in-
come and college courses pursued,
174.

Sociology, in NSF support programs, xx.

Sox'iet Professional Manpower, National
Research Council, xxv.

Space. See Aeronautical and Space Sci-
ences, Senate Committee on; Na-
tional Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics; National Aeronautics and
Space Council; Science and Astro-
nautics, House Committee on.

Sproul, Dr. Robert Gordon, President,
University of California: quoted, on
the citizenn.''s intelligence as the most
valuable national resource, 144.

Standard of living: scientific progress re-
lated to, 10-12, 18, 74, 77; need for
program to locate and develop scien-
tific talent in armed services as basic
to postwar conditions of, 141.

216

Standards, Bureau of, establishment, 85.

State, Department of: International Sci-
ence Steering Committee, Science
and Foreign Policy, xiii-xiv; position
of Science Adviser to the Secretary
of State established, xiv. See also
Scientific attaches.

State governments: achievements made by
research agencies of, 77; inadequacy
of appropriations for scientific re-
search, 79; expenditures for scien-
tific research, 85-89; need for Fed-
eral cooperative support of research
by, 101.

States: quotas for scholarships, 155, 180-
185, passim; proposed roles of com-
mittees in, for discovery and devel-
opment of talent, 180-185, passim.

Stewart, Irvin, chairman, Committee on
Publication of Scientific Information,
45, 187, 188; transmittal of report,
187.

Stimson, Henry L., Secretary of War,
interest in postwar military research,
159.

Shident and His Knov.Aedge, The,
Learned and Wood, data from, 170-
171.

Studies, Special, Office of, NSF, xx.

Sulfa drugs, 13, 52.

Sulfonamides, 49, 53.

Surgeon General's Library, 120.

Surgeons General, advice of Division of
Medical Sciences, National Research
Council, sought by, 53.

Surgery, 13, 49, 52, 53; Ph.D. degrees
in medicine and, 178.

Synthetic fibers, 10.

Tables:

Proposed organization of National
Research Foundation, 36.

Proposed budget. National Research
Foundation, 40.

Scientific research expenditures and
national income, 86, 88.

Annual expenditures for capital out-
lay, for scientific research institutions
of higher education, 87.

Expenditures and needs of university
research, natural sciences and engi-
neering, 122.

Analysis of research in selected uni-
versity departments (1939-40): de-
partments of physics, 127; depart-
ments of chemistry, 128; departments

of biology, 129; departments of

anatomy, physiology and bacteri-
ology, 130; departments of chemical
engineering, 131; departments of
electrical engineering, 1 32.

Analysis of returns on questionnaires
sent to industrial laboratories and
nonprofit science institutes, 133.

Proposed State quotas for scholar-
ships, 155.

Deficit of scientific and technological
personnel resulting from war and
selective service policies, 158.

1940 census figures on population
under 20 years of age, 166.

1940 census figures on age and school
attendance of Nation's vouth, 166-
167.

1940 census figures on educational
attainment of population 25 years old
and over, 167.

Enrollments by grades in public
schools, 168.

Decrease in student enrollment, per
1,000, fifth grade through college,
169.

Relation of intelligence to educational
opportunity, 173.

Relation of parental income to full-
time college attendance of superior
Milwaukee high school graduates,
173.

College attendance of high school
graduates in Old City, 173.

Parental income and college courses,
174.

Percent of students in each economic
group possessing highest or lowest
grades of ability, 175.

Distribution of undergraduate degrees
in 1941 among broad fields, 177.

Distribution of Ph.D. degrees, 1935-
40, among the several sciences, 177-
178.

The National Roster inventory of
graduate students, 1942, 178.

Deficit in Ph.D. degrees in the phys-
ical sciences and engineering, 179.

Schedule and procedures, scholarship
program, 184-185.

Talent, scientific, programs for discovery
and development of:
Highlights of recoinmendations and
programs developed since 1950, x,
xv-xvii.

Dr. Bush on —

Proposed program, 1-2, 24-27; need

217

for Government aid, 7; recommenda-
tions for development in armed serv-
ices, 7-8; deficit in talent, 7-8, 18,
23-24; need for Government scholar-
ships and fellowships, 8; development
of talent by Government as an aid to
industrial research, 21; nature of prob-
lem, 23-27; Government responsibil-
ity, 31; development of talent as func-
tion of proposed National Research
Foundation, 34, 38, 39-40.

Bowman Committee on —
Need for talent for research in the
Government, 76; as responsibility' of
proposed National Research Founda-
tion, 116-117.

Moe Committee on —
Federal responsibility, 137-185,
passim; long-term plans (early school-
ing of more able students, scholar-
ships and fellowships), 137-139, 147-
157; plans for the near future (to
locate and develop talent in armed
forces), 137, 139-141, 158-165; pre-
cautions necessary, not to syphon a
disproportionate amount of ability
from other fields, 138, 142-143, 145,
150; scope of science used by the
Committee, 142; suggested means
and procedures for discovery and
development, 180-185.

Stewart Committee on —
De\'elopment of, in armed forces,
necessary before demobilization, 189-
190.

Talented students: statistics from studies
in Indiana, Minnesota, and Pennsyl-
vania on mental ability, high school
attendance and graduation, and col-
lege enrollment, related to socio-
economic groups, 144-145, 147-148;
studies concerning able students lost
to higher education, 166-176.

Tate, J. T., vice chairman, Committee
on Science and the Public Welfare,
44, 72.

Tax laws: effect of, on industrial re-
search, X, 76, 110-111; recommended
legislative action on, designed to aid
research and development, 111-112.
See also Internal Revenue Code.

Taylor, Hugh S., member. Committee on
Discovery and Development of Sci-
entific Talent, 45, 136.

Technical schools, need for policies of,
to assist veterans in making up lost
time in scientific training, 163-165.

Technological progress, basic research as
the pacemaker of, viii, 19, 78-79.

Technology: lack of full awareness of
difference between science and, ix;
science distinguished from, xxvi;

recommended Federal aids to, 107-
109; undergraduate degrees (1941)
in natural sciences and, 150; Ph.D.
degrees (6-year period) in natural
sciences and, 150; statistics on re-
search in natural sciences and, 177.
See also Federal Council on Science
and Technology.

Tests: in the program for discoven.' and
development of talent, 180-185,
passim. See American Council on
Education; Carnegie Foundation;
College Entrance Examination Board;
Cooperative Test Service; Engineer-
ing Education, Measurement and
Guidance Project in; Armed Forces
Institute; Iowa, University' of.

Tetanus, 13, 49, 52.

Thomas, Dr. Charles Allen, quoted on
need for scientific training to re-
place technical men in the armed
forces, 159.

Thomson, Elihu, 85.

Transfusions, blood, committee on shock
and, 53.

Translation of scientific data, NSF func-
tions in providing, xviii, 116. See
also Libraries.

Truman, President Harry S., xix.

Tuberculosis, 53, 54-55.

Turner, Kenneth B., assistant secretary,
Medical Advisor^' Committee, 43, 48.

Tuve, M. A., member, Committee on
Publication of Scientific Informa-
tion, 45, 188.

Typhoid, 52.

Typhus, 13, 49, 52, 53.

U-boats, battle against, as battle of sci-
entific techniques, 6, 17.

Ulcers, peptic, 14, 55.

United States: place of, in discovery of
fundamental new knowledge and
basic scientific principles, 78; progress
in applied science, 78; development
of scientific research in, and growth
of Federal participation in research,
83-85. See Government, U. S.

United States Congress: Increased atten-
tion to scientific research and develop-
ment and legislation and appropria-
tions conducive thereto, vii-xx'\'i,
passim; standing committees in, con-
cerned with science and technology,
viii; need for appropriations by, for
scientific research in Government to
be assured on long-term basis, 76.
See also Budget, Federal.

218

Universities, State, growth of, 84.

Universities and colleges (as centers of
research, and need for aid to research
in):

Developments since 1950 —
Need for industry to support basic
research in, i.\; military services' pro-
grams for subsidy of advanced cduca-
cation for military' men in, xvi; NSF
surveys of research and development
efforts of, xxiii; Federal funds obli-
gations for basic research in, xxv.

Dr. Bush on —

As centers of basic research, viii, 6,
12, 19-20; proposed support of medi-
cal research in, xi, xii; expenditures
for scientific research, 1930-40, by re-
search institutes and, 6-7; recommen-
dation that scientific knowledge based
on problems of World War II be
made available, under controls, to,
8; role of, in medical research, 15;
need for public funds to strengthen
basic research in, 20, 31; inadequacy
of expenditures by, for basic re-
search, 22; fundamentals of public-
funds support of research in, 33;
function of proposed National Re-
search Foundation to support sci-
entific research in, 34, 37, 38, 39-40;
limitations of, to comply with tech-
nical contracting for research proj-
ects, 39.

Palmer Committee on —
As chief contributors to pure science,
49-50; inadequate funds of, for medi-
cal research, 50, 57-58; contracts
with, by Committee on Medical Re-
search as wartime measure, 53; place
of, in medical research, 56; govern-
ment support in Great Britain to, for
medical research, 57; as primary
source of advances in medical sci-
ence, 60; forms of recommended
Federal aid to, 58-60, 66-68.

Bowman Committee on —
Role of the Government to assist
research in, 73, 74, 75; achievements
made by, 77; need for financial aid
to strengthen contributions to sci-
entific life of the Nation, 77-78, 80;
inflationary impact of the war upon
research in, 79; science carried on
outside, in the colonial period, 83;
expenditures for scientific research,
85-89; costs of OSRD contracts with,
1943-44, 87; Government support to
pure research in, essential to main-
tain proportion of pure to applied
research, 87, 88-89; status of pure
research in, 90; background and
trends of financial support to, 90-91;
research environment in, 90-93; sci-
entific research in, 90-98; effect of

World War II on scientific training
and research in, 91-93; operating
costs of research related to salaries
of research staff's, 92-93; need to
assist, with operating costs, 93; recom-
mended forms of Government aid to,
93-98; reference to patent policies of,
117; recommended grants to, for in-
dustrial research services, 108; analy-
sis of scientific research expenditures
in, and postwar needs, 125 institu-
tions, 122-134; research expenditures
in small sample of leading universi-
ties, industrial research laboratories,
and nonprofit science institutes, 125-
134.

Aloe Committee on —
Responsibility of, to educate the most
worthy in each generation, 144; need
for policies of, to assist veterans in
making up lost time in scientific
training, 163-165.

See also Associated Universities In-
corporated; Association of Universi-
ties for Research in Astronomy; Fel-
lowships and scholarships; Medical
schools and universities; Research
entries.

University. See Government-University
Relationships in the Conduct of Fed-
erally Sponsored Research.

University Grants Committee (Standing
Committee of the Treasury). Great
Britain: aids to medical research
through, 57.

Utilization of Potential College Ability
Pound in ]une 1940, Graduates of
Kentucky High Schools, The, H. L.
Davis, data from, 174-175.

V-1 and V-2 attacks on London, 6, 17.

Vaccines, 13, 49, 52.

VE-day, 140, 160.

Venereal diseases, 49, 52, 53.

Veterans, need for policies of educational
institutions to assist, in making up
lost time in scientific training, 163-
165; War Service School recom-
mended for special training of, 165.
See also Armed services; G. I. Bill of
Rights; Talent, scientific; Veterans
Readiustment Assistance Act.

Veterans Administration: programs for
medical research, xii; recommended
participation of, in programs to lo-
cate and develop scientific talent in
the armed forces, 141.

Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act,
scientific training of Korean Veterans
under, xvi.

219

Veterinary medicine, 64, note 1.

War, resources of proposed National Re-
search Foundation to be available in
event of, 117; recommendation for
establishment of a National Science
Reserve to be available upon declara-
tion of, 138, 139, 153. See also
National Science Reserve.

War, Secretary of: joint statement, with
Secretary of the Navy, to the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, regard-
ing scientific progress related to the
national security, 17; release of
results of wartime medical research
to the public, 28; Research Board
for National Security established at
request of, 33.

War Service School, recommended, for
special training of veterans and for-
mer workers in war industries, 165.

Waring, James J., member. Medical Ad-
visory Committee, 43, 48.

Warner, W. Lloyd, et al, Who Shall he
Educated: The Challenge of Un-
equal Opportunities, data from, 172-
174.

Wartime Health and Education, Subcom-
mittee on, of U. S. Senate Commit-
tee on Education and Labor: reports
of OSRD to, on need for Federal
support of medical research, 57.

Washington, George, plan for a national
university, 84.

Weapons, need for a Government agency
to support research on, 9. See Re-
search, military.

Weaver, Warren, member. Committee on
Science and the Public Welfare, 44,

72.

Weed, Lewis H., chairman, Division of
Medical Sciences, National Research
Council: quoted, on need for Federal
support for medical research, 58.

Welch Fellowships in Medicine, 98.

What Happens to High School Graduates,
G. Lester Anderson and T. J. Bern-
ing, data from, 171-172.

Who Shall he Educated: The Challenge Zoology', Ph.D. degrees in, 178.

of Unequal Opportunities, W. Lloyd
Warner, et ah, data from, 172-174.

Whooping cough, 54.

Wilkes Exploring Expedition, Federal sup-
port of, 84.

Wilson, Carroll L., member. Committee
on Publication of Scientific Informa-
tion, 45, 188.

Wilson, E. B., member. Committee on
Discovery and Development of Sci-
entific Talent, 45, 136.

Wilson, Robert E., member. Committee
on Science and the Public Welfare,
44, 72.

Wistar Institute, 86, note 6.

Wood, Ben D. See Learned, W. S.

World War II, progress of medicine dur-
ing, xi, 49, 52-53; contributions to
scientific knowledge during, 1, 3; re-
duction in death rate from disease
from rate in World War I, 5, 13;
recommendation that scientific knowl-
edge developed during, be made
available, 8, 28-30; advances in
medicine during, made possible by
backlog of scientists and scientific
data, 13, 49, 52; period between
World War I and, marked by U.S.
leadership in medical research, 15;
scientific developments during, 17;
deficit in scientific students as result
of, 24, 25, 139, 150, 158-160; mobili-
zation of science during, 28; effect
of, on additions to basic medical
research, 49, 54; effect of, on scien-
tific training and research, 91-93;
189-192.

Wrather, William E., member, Commit-
tee on Science and the Public Wel-
fare, 44, 72.

X-ray, 5 3 .

Yellow fever, 13, 49, 52.

220