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SCIENCE-GOS SIP. I

BUTTERFLIES OF THE PALABARCTIC REGION.

By Henry CHartrs Lanc, M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Lonp.

HE Rey. H, C. Lang, M.D., has been good
enough to undertake a series of articles for
ScigNcE Gossip, upon the Butterflies of the Palae-
arctic Region. Dr. Lang’s work on the Butterflies
of Europe, issued with coloured plates in 1884, is well-
known to every entomologist studying this beautiful
group of insects. The species contained in that work
will be revised and included herein, the whole
forming a manual of Palaearctic Butterflies, with
every known species fully described. There will be
frequent illustrations, especially of species either
hitherto unfigured, or not easily accessible. These
figures will be from authentic specimens in Dr, Lang’s
almost complete collection. The subject, at our

INTRODUCTION.

The Butterflies or Rhopalocera which form a
natural section of the great order Lepidoptera will no
doubt always be popular with entomologists. Almost
annually some work appears entirely devoted to this
group, and it seems that even our British Butterflies
are not yet likely to cease from becoming the subjects
of new monographs.

English entomologists are, however, beginning to
recognise that our country is but a small corner of
Europe, ‘‘ The nook-shotten Isle of Albion.” Further,
that Europe itself is only a portion of one of the
great Biological divisions of the world, known to

DiGNE IN PROVENCE,
One of the best Localities in Europe for Butterflies.

request, is treated popularly, though scientifically ;
as it is intended in addition to students or collectors,
for the use of the increasing number of English-
speaking persons, who visit the Continent of Europe.
Now that the trans-Siberian railway is progressing
in construction, these travels will be, in the near
future, extended eastward. As no popular manual of
the Palaearctic Butterflies exists, we have induced
Dr. Lang to include the Asiatic portion of his work.
The author desires to enter into communication
with those entomologists who may visit, and collect
these insects in little frequented parts occurring on
the accompanying map, with a view of recording the
accurate distribution of new species, rare or local
forms. Dr. Lang’s address is All Saints Vicarage,
Southend-on-Sea, Essex, These articles are the copy-
right of the author and Sctrncr-Gossip.—[Editor. ]

June, 1899.—No. 61, Vol. VI.

naturalists as the Palaearctic Region. Our small
array of sixty or so butterflies will serve as an indica-
tion of the general type of what we may expect to
meet with on the Continent. The European species
again afford us an idea of the general aspect of the
rhopalocerous fauna of the whole region.

THE PALAEARCTIC REGION,

I am often asked, ‘‘ What is the Palaearctic
Region?” This is not a question that is easy to
answer in terms of general application. We may
define it zoologically as the portion of the Old World
whose fauna bears traces of having come under the
influence of the Glacial Period. Nevertheless, in
different groups of animals the arrangement of the
region requires a certain amount of modification. A
distribution of territory that would be suitable to
mammalia, or to birds, would not necessarily apply

2 SCIENCE-GOSST/P.

exactly toinsects. I intend here to make use of the
definition proposed by Mr.: Philip Lutley Sclater,
Ph.D., F.R.S., secretary of Zoological Society of
London, in his article on ‘‘The Geography of
Mammals” (‘‘ Geological Journal,” 1897, p. 84).
He divides the Region into four groups, viz.—

I. PANARCTIC SUB-REGION.

** Comprising the extreme northern part of Russia
and Siberia as far as Behring Strait, the southern
boundary of which is the northern limit of trees,
corresponding, though by no means accurately, with
the Arctic Circle. This part of the old world,
together with the most northern portions of the new
world, will form one sub-region.”

II. EvUROPASIAN SUB-REGION.

“Containing the whole of Europe, with perhaps
the exception of the steppes of Russia, Siberia north
of the great mountain ranges and south of the Arctic
sub-region as far as Kamtschatka in the north and
northern Manchuria in the south, together with the
island of Saghalien, and perhaps the Japanese island
of Yezo. In this sub-region must also be included
Asia Minor, the Caucasus and the Elburz mountains.”

III. EREMIAN SUB-REGION.

“Including the north of Africa, northern Arabia,
the greater part of Persia and Afghanistan, and the
great desert of Central Asia, extending from the
steppes of Southern Russia as far as Manchuria.”

IV. MANCHURIAN SUB-REGION.

“‘Embracing the greater part of China proper,
Southern Manchuria and Japan, extending-westward
to western Tibhet and the top of the southern slopes
of the Himalayas.”

Such is Mr. Sclater’s definition of the Palaearctic
Region as applied to the distribution of mammals.
This is a convenient and definite plan which I accept
for the Butterflies, with the following modifications :—

Sup-rREGIoNnsS I. and IJ. may be taken in their
entirety excepting of the Japanese island of Yezo.

In SuB-REGION III. we must exclude the south of
Persia, Afghanistan, Arabia and Egypt, because in
these districts there is too great a preponderance of
Indian, or of African types.

SuB-REGION IV. can only be taken in a limited
sense. From the eastern extremity of the northern
slope of the Himalayas, a line must be drawn ina
northerly direction, so as to exclude China proper,
where, so far as Butterflies are concerned, there is too
large a proportion of Indo-Australian species. For
this reason Japan must also be excluded; though
Corea may fairly be admitted into our Region. Syria
and Palestine, North Persia, Tunis, Algeria and
Morocco, with the islands of Madeira and the
Canaries belong to the Palaearctic Region. This, on
the map, is the dotted portion south of Sub-regions II.
and III.

SvuB-REGION I. is prolonged into Arctic America so
as to include Greenland, Labrador, and Northern
Canada to Alaska. Southward of these the fauna
merges into that of the Nearctic Region.

«

In the vast territory thus indicated, it is ieedless to
say there is the utmost diversity of climate and
physical condition. Yet among the Butterflies the
“*European” type prevails throughout. We have to
reckon with plains, deserts, mountains, table-lands and
forests; with the shores of the Arctic Ocean; the
Littoral of the Mediterranean and of such inland seas
as the Caspian, and lakes, such as Baikal and Aral.
We have to include in this region places where winter
reigns almost supreme and with lands that are favoured
with an almost perpetual summer.

The map that is appended for use in the following
monograph is adapted from Mr. Sclater’s map,
illustrating his paper above alluded to, with the
modifications indicated.

As regards nomenclature; I have determined in these
chapters to adhere to that of Staudinger’s Catalogue of
1871; which is generally adopted on the Continent.
This system is also used by Riihl and Heyne in their
** Palaearctischen gross-Schmetterlinge,” published in
1895. In doing this, I know I differ from many
English entomologists of repute. Atthe same time, I
avoid the confusion into which we are in danger of
falling by the wholly unnecessary, and insular changes
many are seeking to bring into the zoological arrange-
ment, and generic and specific nomenclature of Lepi-
doptera. It seems to me more useful to follow the
method employed in other countries of Europe where
entomology is understood, at least as well, as it is in
England. Inventing new plans of our own that are
no more natural than those commonly received
throughout Europe, only adds to our insularity,
already more than sufficient in such matters. For
after all is said and done, zoological nomenclature and
arrangement is but an arbitrary expedient to simplify
study ; and we are helped but_little, if at all, by many
of the revolutionary changes. Lastly, I think it is of
the utmost importance to be in touch with Continental
authors.

Therefore, I hope I may be pardoned if I am not
willing to accept, for instance, the proposed placing
of the butterflies in the middle of the Heterocera, or
the change of name of the pale clouded-yellow butter-
fly to Eurymus hirbyi from the old name of Colzas
hyale, by which it was known to our fathers, and to
ourselves until recent times.

The Rhopalocera of the Palaearctic Region are
contained in ten families.

I. PAPILIONIDAE (British type Papilio machaon,
the swallow-tail) containing the genera, Papilio, Sert-
cinus, Luedorfia, Thais, Hypermnestra, Doritis, Par-
NASSTUS.

2. PIERIDAE (In Britain the whites, clouded
yellows and brimstone). Genera—J/esapia, Aforia,
Pieris, Anthocharis, Zegris, Leucophasia, Idmais,
Callidryas, Euremia, Colias, Rhodocera.

3. LycagNipar (In Britain the hairstreaks, cop-
pers and blues). Genera—7Zhecla, Jolaus, Laeosopis,
Thestor, Cigaritis, Polyommatus, Lycaena.

4. ERYCINIDAE (In Britain Memeobius lucina, the
Duke-of-Burgundy). Genera—/olycaena, Nemeobius.

SiGIEMGE-GOS SP: 3

5.—LIBYTHEIDAE. Genus—Lidythea.

6. APATURIDAE (In Britain dAfpatewa tris, the
purple emperor). Genera — Charaxes, Apatura,
Thaleropis.

7. NYMPHALIDAE (In Britain, the white - ad-
miral, tortoiseshell, peacock, &c., and fritillaries).
Genera—Limenitis, Neptis, Hypolimnas, Hestina,
Luripus, Vanessa, Melitaea, Argynnis.

8. Danarpar. Genus—Danais. hy

9g. SATYRIDAE(In Britain, marbled white, meadow-
brown, heaths, &c.). Genera—J/elanargia, Evebia,
Occnets, Satyrus, Uphthima, Pararge, Lethe, Mycale-
sis, Melanitis, Epinephele, Coenonympha, Triphysa.

10. HesrERIDAE (In Britain, the skippers).
Genera—Sfilothyrus, Syrichthus, Nisoniades, Danio,
Eudamus, Ismene, Hesperia, Cyclopides, Cartero-
cephalus.

All these Families are represented in Europe, and

In these days or cheap and easy travelling, it is
possible to pursue the study of them in a practical
manner, which would have been next to impracticable
but a very few years ago.

DISTRIBUTION OF GENERA.

To enter further into detail concerning the dis-
tribution of genera in the Palaearctic Region, we may
remark that the genus richest in specific forms is
Lycaena, which contains more than a hundred species
besides many constant varieties. It has representatives
n almost every part of the Kegion, being represented
in Britain by our ten species of ‘** Blues” that form
he largest generic group of British Butterflies.

Next in order, as regards numerical strength, is
Lrebia, of which, while we have only two species in
Britain, Z. aethiops (Scotch argus), and £. cassiope
(mountain ringlet), more than half of the Palaearctic
species occur in the mountains of Europe, the rest

100 120 E i 180

Uy

___TROPIC OF GANCER
TROPIC OF CANCER

| | } | |
L 20 0 2 40), 60 (aa (2) THO) 160 __180,

Map oF THE PALAEARCTIC REGION,

Showing Dr. Lang’s Sub-regions.

all but Libytheidae in England (if we accept Davais
evippus as a British species). Of the sixty-one
genera enumerated above, forty are represented in
Europe, and twenty-seven in England. Of the
remaining twenty-one genera, which are not repre-
sented in Europe, omly six are exclusively Palaearctic,
the remainder resulting from the extension into our
Territory of genera properly belonging to other
Regions. As examples of these we may cite /dmais,
Callidyas and Jolaus in Syria, genera properly
belonging to the African Region; Zzipus, Lethe,
Mycalesis, Eudanius, etc., to Corea; Lsvtene, Damio
and Sericiénus to the Amur. To these we may add
the existence of a single species in Europe of the
otherwise African genus Chavaxes.

It may be gathered from the above remarks that
the forms of Rhopalocera with which collectors in
our own and adjacent countries are familiar, are for
the most part closely allied to what we may expect to
find over a vast portion of the surface of the globe.

being furnished by the mountains of Central Asia and
Siberia, and the elevated parts of Turkestan and the
Amur. Satyrus is represented byeabout fifty species,
but does not extend further eastward than the Altai.

Next, as regards numbers, follow the genera Coléas
and drgyrnis, which from this point of view are
about equal. Species of these two genera have been
taken between 78° and 83° N. lat., as far north
as naturalists have explored. They are well repre-
sented in Europe, and are distributed throughout the
whole region, even to. the Canaries. The deserts
and mountains of Centra] Asia and Siberia, afford
many beautiful species of Coldas, which are absent
from Europe.

Nearly equal to these last in numbers is the genus
Melitaea (Mf. aurinia, the greasy-fritillary, being a
familiar British species). This genus is distributed
more or less throughout the Region, from Scandinavia
and Northern Siberia, to North Africa. Outside the
Palaearctic Region there are no species of JWelrtaea,

2

4 SCIENCE-GOSS/P.

except in North America. Another numerously repre-
sented genus is Parnassius, but with only three species
in Europe. It is rich in specific forms on the elevated
plateaux and mountains of Northern and Central Asia,
China and the Himalayas. Several species also occur in
the Californian mountains. It is thought that this genus
originated in Central Asia, spreading thence eastward
and westward, so that it may be said to be particularly
characteristic of the Palaearctic Region ; it is repre-
sented in all the sub-regions. Some genera are
absolutely peculiar to the region. Among these may be
noticed Ay fermmestra represented by a single species
having somewhat the aspect of a Parnassius. It is
confined to the Eremian sub-region, inhabiting
abundantly the deserts to the east of the Caspian.

The genus 7hazs is remarkable in being confined
to those portions of Europe, Asia and Africa, which
are in proximity to the Mediterranean. The species
of this genus are extraordinarily different from any
other butterflies, and do not occur in other parts of
the world. One well-marked aberration of a species of
Thais is absolutely localized in the neighbourhood of
Digne in Provence and has never been found any-
where else. This is Thats medesicaste @b. honoratit.
Doritis is a genus of limited distribution, occurring
only in Asia Minor, Syria and the Greek Islands.
Thaleropis, a peculiar genus allied to dfatura, is
confined to Asia Minor. Among the Pieridae, the
central Asian genus JMesafza is exclusively Palaearctic,
as are also 7hestor and Lagosopis in the Lycaenidae,
Polycaena in the Erycinidae, and V/elanargia, and
Triphysa in the Satyridae.

DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES.

As regards the distribution of specific forms, itis
only natural that the most widely distributed genera
should exhibit the greatest diversity of species.
Haying regard to the varying physical conditions of

the Region it is not surprising that many species are

circumscribed and local in their habitats. Some,
however, are distributed more or less throughout the
Territory, being capable of adapting themselves to
various and diverse conditions, while the former do not
appear to have this aptitude. Two species are found
in every part of the Palaearctic Region where Butter-
flies occur. These are both members of the family
Lycaenidae 7hecla rubi (the green-hair-streak), and
Polyommatus phlaeas (the small-copper).

The following species inhabit the entire region, with
the exception of sub-region I. */afilio machaon
(swallow-tail) ; Aforta crataegi (black-veined white),
Pieris brassicae (large white), P. rapae (small white),
P. daplidice (green-chequered white), Rhodocera
rhamni (brimstone), Lycaena astrarche (brown argus),
L. icarus (common blue), ZL. arefo/ns (azure blue),
Vanessa “urticae (small tortoiseshell), 2 cardui
painted lady),* Avgynnis ag/aia (dark green fritillary),
*Areynnis niobe, Coenonympha *pamphilus (small
heath), Hesperia *lincola, *H. comma (pearl skipper).
Those marked * do not occur in the Canaries, and
Areynnis niobe is probably absent from Britain, but
Vanessa urticae does occur in sub-region I. in the
form of its var. fo/aris, and it is possible V. cardut
also, as it is an almost cosmopolitan species.

‘

At least six species are limited to the Polar regions,
viz., Coltas nastes, C. authyale, C. hecla, Argynnis
polaris and A. chariclea ; these are all circumpolar, in-
habiting the Polar Regions of Europe, Asia and
America, Argynnis improba Butc., is peculiar to
Nova Zembla.

In islands there is always a tendency towards the
formation of a fauna peculiar to themselves. This
is shown to some degree in the Lepidoptera of the
British Isles, more especially among the Heterocera,
and in them most markedly in Scotland and Ireland.
There are several instances of insularity among British
Butterflies. Our form of Anthocharis cardamines
differs from that usually found on the continent;
Polyommatus dispar, unhappily now extinct, was
peculiar to England, being represented on the con-
tinent only by the var. véz/us. Lycaena astrarche var.
artaxerxes only occurs in Scotland, and the var.
salmacis is peculiar to northern England. To these
may be added JVe/itaca aurinia var. hibernica Birchall
and Coenonympha tiphon var. laidion Bkh., both of
which forms are peculiar to Ireland.

The islands of Corsica and Sardinia possess the
following species and varieties peculiar to them-
selves :—/apilio hospiton Gn., Anthocharis tagis var.
insularts Stg., Vanessa ichnusa Bon., Argynnis
elisa Godt., Satyrus neomiris Godt., S. semele var.
aristaeus Bon., Epinephele nurag Ghil., Pararge
tigellius Bon., Coenonympha corinna Ab. (perhaps
occurring in Sicily), Syrichthus sao var. therapne Rbr.

The following are peculiar to the Canaries ;—
Pieris cheiranthi, P. wollastont, Lycaena webbiana,
Rhodocera cleobule and Pararge xiphioides.

Whilst on the subject of ‘‘ insularity,” we may

notice the tendency to be observed on islands towards
a paucity of specific forms; consequent, no doubt,
upon being isolated from the mainland, and therefore
cut off from recruiting sources. There is no doubt
that Papilio podalirius, Polyommatus virgaureae and
hippothoe, Argynnis dia and Lycaena semiargus were
truly British insects a century ago. /o/yommatus
dispar has become extinct within the memory of those
now living; and the next generation may have to
bewail the loss of Aforia crataeg?, once a widely
distributed species. It is doubtful whether it
exists at the present moment in any Bnitish locality.
Limenitis sibilla, once described as ‘‘common in
every wood,” is now restricted” to the New Forest,
and one or two other localities in the south, anid will
probably in another half century be a stranger to the
British Fauna. The same future may also be pre-
dicted for Zycaena arion, Melitaea cinxta, and
perhaps even JV. athalia and Afatura iris.

With facts such as these in mind, we cease to
wonder at the absence in Britain of so many species
that are to be met with commonly in the immediately
adjacent Continental districts. If we travel eastward
from London, to no greater distance than Penzance
would be, had we taken a westerly direction, we should
find ourselves in Belgium; where many species of
butterflies are common that are not met with in
England, or else are very rare. Entomologists had

4

SCIENCE-GOSS/P. 5

long hoped to find Parnasstus apollo in our British
mountains, but experience has taught us that the
search is fruitless, although our mountains differ but
little in aspect from many of those on the Contirent,
on which /. apollo, Colias phicomone and C. palaeno,
besides many species of Lyed/a and Argynnis are
common, which are here altogether unknown.
LOCALIZATION.

There is a remarkable phenomenon which may be
observed even amongst our British Butterflies ;
namely that of the localization of species, as for
Instance in the case of Papilio machaon, Lycaena
arion, Melitaea cinxia, Hesperia actaeon, Cyclopides
palaemon, etc. We know it is of little use to look for
these species, except in the special localities chosen by
them as their habitat. We also know that many
British species, although widely distributed are only
to be looked for in certain circumscribed localities.
As examples of these, we may cite such species as
Areynnis paphia, and A. aglaia, Melanargia galatea,
Flesperia comma, etc. Such are certainly not un-
common species, but are not abundant everywhere.
Taking the Palaearctic Region as a whole, we find
many species localized in a remarkable manner. In
many cases we can see that this is the consequence of
the local nature of the food plant of the larva. Hyferm-
nestra helios depends upon the presence of Zygophyllum
furcomanum, Charaxes jastus on Arbutus unedo.

TICKS AND

Libythea celts is only found where Cel/7s austval?s is
wild. Often however there is not anything to account
for the localization of species; the food plant being
frequently abundant in places where the butterfly is
absent. Two European butterflies Zegrts eupheme
and Satyrus hippolyte are found only in Andalusia and
in South Russia. It is impossible to account in any
satisfactory manner for their isolation in such widely
separated localities. -

The selection of food plants is, in itself, one of the
unexplained mysteries of nature, nevertheless it is an
undisputed fact. Some larvae are very exclusive in
their food, others are almost omnivorous, the latter
as a rule are those of common and widely distributed
species. In respect of food plants, there is often a
relation of Zoological to Botanical groups. The
larvae of Zhacs and some allied genera are found
exclusively on plants of the genus Ay7stolochia ;
Parnassius on Saxitrages and Crassulaceae ; the
genus /e77s and its allies, select plants of the order
Cruciferae ; Coltas, Leguminosae; Vanessa, Urti-
caceae 3 47¢ym7s, Violaceae ; the Satyridae on various
species of grasses. There is as I have stated above a
hidden law of nature which governs this selection;
what the effect of it is, upon the configuration of the
various groups and species, we do not know, but it
is possible that such an effect does exist.

(To be continued.)

“ LOUPING-ILL.”

By E. G. WHELER.

HE British Ixodidae, or Ticks, are likely to
receive far more attention in the future
than in the past. Hitherto they have been almost
entirely neglected, and it is impossible to obtain
much information concerning them. No syste-
matic classification or description of any of the
British species in their various stages of develop-
ment appears to have been attempted.

It seems to have been proved beyond doubt, by
the researches of Messrs. Greig-Smith, Meek, and
others (see the “Veterinarian,” May, 1897, etc.),
that through the agency of ticks, a bacillus is intro-
duced into the systems of the hill sheep of the
Scottish Borders. This is the cause of the very
fatal disorder known in the North by the name of
“Louping-Ill,” or “Trembling.” The disease is
analagous to the Texas and Queensland cattle
fevers, also to the Australian sheep disease, all
of which are similarly traced to the attacks of
ticks. It is possible that other diseases may
eventually be proved to be caused in a like
manner. The life-history of these pests has there-
fore become a matter of much economic import-
ance, as it may be hoped that, when their habits
are thoroughly known, some method may be
found, either for preventing, or at least minimis-
ing, the damage they occasion.

The following notes have been collected with
this object during the last few months, and some
descriptions will be given of the various stages of
three of the commonest species. —/xodes reduvius,
L. hexagonus, and f. plumbeus (+). The first of
which is probably chiefly concerned in causing
Louping III.

The genus Zxodes, or true tick, must not be con-
founded with the “ Sheep Spider Fly,” or ‘‘ Ked,”
to be found on almost every sheep, and often
erroneously called the sheep tick. This is a wing-
less fly, allied to the New-Forest fly, the grouse-fly,
etc., and has nothing in common with the Jzodes,
either in habits or appearance.

Ixodes may be described as follows:—An ovi-
parous insect (?) passing through the stages of
larva, pupa, and adult. The females live by suck-
ing the blood of mammalia, by which their bodies,
covered with a tough, membranous, semi-trans-
parent cuticle, are capable of great distension in
all stages of their existence. The adult males do
not distend, though they equally attack their hosts.

(*) I am indebted to Prof. Neumann of Toulouse for the
names of the first two species, and to Mr. R. I. Pocock for
the third, taken from a named specimen in the British
Museum. There are, however, doubts as to its accuracy.

(?) It is not a ¢-we insect, having in its maturer stages of
life eight legs, and allied to the Arachnidae, or Spiders.

6 SCIENCE-GOSSTP.

It is doubtful whether the males in the larval and
pupal stages are distinguishable from the females,
or are capable of distension.

The head is provided with two palpi, canicu-
lated to enclose and protect a strongly-barbed
rostrum, by which suction is effected. This is
flanked by two retractile chelifers, also armed with

Fig. 1.—Rostrum, etc., of Female I. reduvius.

barbs or hooks, by which the rostrum is forced
into the flesh of the host. Respiration is attaine:|
through a spiracle on each side of the body, which
is absent in the larval stage.

The legs are eight in number in the pupae and
adults, but there are only six in the larvae. They

consist of six joints, of which the third of each ~

leg, and the terminal joints of the three posterior
pairs, possess a double articulation. The last
joints of the anterior pair have an organ on the
outer side (Figs. ta and 2a), which is probably
used as a feeler when the tick is resting on herb-
age, waiting to attach itself to a passing mammal.
At such times this pair of legs will be seen to be
constantly waved in the air, after the manner of
the antennae of insects. In some species this pair
of legs is furnished with one or more spines on the
basal joint. (Figs. 14 and 24.) Each leg has a
double hook on the last joint, provided with a
fleshy pad, or caruncle. (Fig. 1c.)

The difference of the rostrum and chelifers in
the two sexes is exhibited in Figs. 1 and 2, the
former of which shows those of the female, and the
latter those of the male. The difference of the
final and basal joints of the fore legs is also
shown. These drawings are taken from Jzxodea
reduvius.

The specific differences of the larvae are :—Palpi
not articulated. Shield covering less than one-half
of the body. Spiracles absent. Three pairs of
legs only. (?) Sexes not distinguishable.

The pupae, or nymphs, are more developed
generally. They have embryonic articulation of
the palpi. Spiracles present. Shield covering
less than one-half of the body. Four pairs of legs.
(2) Sexes not distinguishable.

The adult ticks are still further developed. The
palpi are articulated. Sexes easily distinguishable.

MALE.—Body covered by the shield, a narrow
margin excepted. The organs of the mouth are
inserted in the female at the time of sexual pairing.

FEMALE.—Shield covering less than one-half of
the body. Orifice of sexual organ (Fig. 3) situate
between the bases of the fourth pair of legs.

The larvae are easily distinguished by having
only six legs and no spiracles. When walking, the
first and third legs on one side are raised concur-
rently with the second on the other, giving a
peculiar action.

The pupa, having eight legs, requires, apart from
its smaller size, careful examination to distinguish
it from an adult female. The chief distinction
(Fig. 4) is absence of orifice of sexual organ in the
former. The size of the shield distinguishes the
adult male as clearly from the female, as from the
immature insect. Distension, caused by sucking
the blood of the host, takes place in all stages,
except with the adult male, and possibly with the
immature males.

The exact method of pairing between the sexes
is doubtful, but during the act, the chelifers and
rostrum are inserted in the organ of the female,
the palpi alone being excluded.

As adults, the males are to be found in company
with the females, not only on herbage, but also

ow
Fig. 2.—Rostrum, ete., of Male I. reduvius.

on the host, feeding by the rostrum. This was
proved by several adult individuals of both sexes
having pieces of the skin of the host still attached
to the rostra, after removal, and others having
the rostra mutilated by the act of remoyal. The
proportionate sizes of the various stages of growth

|

SCIENCE-GOS SIP. 7

are shown by Fig. 5, representing the larva, pupa,
male, and female of / veduvius, magnified about six
diameters. None of these are distended specimens.

Some females of 7. plumbeus were taken, fully
distended, from a dog on July 15th. On August
4th, twenty days after, one of them commenced
to lay eggs, some roo to 200 in number, under the
roots of damp moss. The eggs were oval, about
0.50 mm. in length, and 0.40 mm. in breadth. The
female parent remained with them till August 26th,
and died on September 27th. The eggs hatched
on October oth, having been nine weeks and three
days incubating. A large proportion of the
females taken were damaged
by having the rostra mutila-
ted by removal from the
host. These lived for some
time, but never survived the
process of laying their eggs,
which, moreover, were Sterile.

No difficulty has been ex-
perienced in keeping alive
ucks of all stages of growth,
for lengthened periods, in
glass bottles with a little
damp sand and moss, but
development has not been
observed to take place under
such conditions. If kept
without moisture they soon
die, but several degrees of
frost appeared to have no
effect upon adult females.

On September 3rd, a hot
and fine day, large numbers
of larvae pupae. and adults
of both sexes of LZ. rveduvees
were found with a sweep nét
ona patch of rushes. Two
pairs of the latter paired in
the bottles immediately after
capture. On September 26th
twenty-six females and seven
males were taken from a deer
in Alnwick Park, and a
largely distended female was

impregnated by a_ male
after removal. No ticks
were found on a_ deer

killed the previous day in an adjoining paddock.

The colour of ticks, being partially due to the
contents of the intestines, is decidedly variable.
Markings which are pronounced in some un-
distended specimens, are lost very soon after
death. During the process of distension consider-
able changes also take place. The intestinal
markings, if any, quickly disappear as it pro-
gresses, and when nearly complete a more or less
uniform colour pervades the whole body. Thus,
slightly distended specimens of the larvae, pupae,
and adult females of Z hexagonus and 7. plumbeus

SHerep Ticks.

are of a pale drab, changing on fuller distension to
a dark Adult females of /.
change from red to nearly pure white.

reduvtus
Under

blue.

these circumstances, descriptions are apt to be
very misleading, unless allowance be made for the
amount of development to which the tick has attained.
The object of writing these notes is to call atten-
tion to an important but neglected subject, with
the hope that others may be induced to study the
habits of these pests. The importance of the ques-
tion is exemplified by the fact that in one spring,
no less than 800 sheep were lost on one hill farm
by Louping-Il], and where it is prevalent, certain
loss is annually incurred.
Nothing is more inexplic-
able than the conditions un-
der which animals are, or are
not, subject to the attacks of
the ticks. Sheep on the
hills are evidently very, sus-
ceptible, when impoverished
by the hardship of winter,
and the strain on the system
caused by the lambing time.
On low ground the sheep
appear to escape the attack
of ticks altogether, though
they common on
3 other animals. This is anal-
agous to the fact mentioned
by Mr. Barber in ‘* Nature”
(June, 895), that in Antigua
ticks leave infested cattle
when they are changed to a
better pasture. On the
other hand, I am unable to
gather that the poorer Sheep
on the hills are more suscept-
ible than those in better condi-
tion; but have been in-
formed that the ‘contrary
is to some extent the case.
It is, however, among sheep

may be

freshly imported on _ to
“foul” ground that the
greatest mortality takes
place. A. satisfactory ex-

planation of an immunity,
which does not seem to
depend altogether on the condition of the animal,
might go far towards suggesting the direction that
experiments should take with a view of minimising
the evil.

(Mr. Wheler would be much obliged if corre-
spondents would favour him with specimens, living
preferred, of any other British species of the genus
Txodes, with particulars of the circumstances under
which they were found. His address is Swansfield
Tlouse, Alnwick. ]}—Ed. S. G.

(To be continued )

OF FORAMINIFERA.

what they were due. A cursory examination with

8 SCIENCE-GOS SIP.
COLLEGTION AND PREPARATION
By ARTHUR EARLAND.
COLLECTING.
“1*HE three chief sources from which forami-

nifera may be obtained are :—

1. Dredgings from the sea bottom. With these
may be included muds from ships’ anchors, or cable
grapnels, and the débris from fishermen’s trawls.

2. Shore gatherings made between tide marks.

3. Foraminiferous sands, clays and limestones of
various geological ages, especially Cretaceous and
Tertiary.

The method of preparation is essentially the
same for materials of the first and second classes.
In dredged material, however, the foraminifera as
a rule constitute but a small percentage of the total
bulk of the material, globigerina ooze being the
chief exception, whilst in shore gatherings the
amount of foreign material present, is largely de-
pendent upon the care with which the gathering
has been made, and the skill of the collector. In
dealing with the fossil materials of the third class
considerable deviations from the usual treatment
are necessary, varying with the nature and source
of the material.

Not many readers will probably have the oppor-
tunity of dredging for themselves, but for the
benefit of those who can do so, I will describe a
modification of the ordinary naturalist’s dredge,
which will be found necessary for successful
work at the foraminifera. The mesh of the ordi-
nary dredge being far too coarse to retain any
quantity of sand or mud, it must be surrounded
for at least one-third of its length with an outer
covering of strong canvas. This must be laced
at the upper end to the meshes of the dredge, and
extend in a pocket to about eighteen inches beyond
the net. The end of this canvas pocket must not
be sewn up, but merely tied together with stout
cord. After dredging, the sand or mud containing
the foraminifera will be found in the canvas bag,
and can be removed by untying the cord; the
larger organisms being retained in the dredge.

Considerable quantities of mud and sand are
often brought up by the flukes of anchors, and on
the grapnels used in searching for broken cables.
The rubbish from fishermen’s trawls is also fre-
quently productive of material.
sources are closed to collectors
special opportunities or
them.
ever, lies

good These
have not
investigate
The collection of shore gatherings, how-
within the
who passes a few days at the seaside.

who
means to
reach of any microscopist

Although
some localities are rich in material while others are
poor, there are probably few in which foraminifera
are altogether absent from the foreshore.

When walking along the tide-
marks, nearly everyone must have noticed the
white lines which run along the ripple marks on
the sand, and no doubt many have wondered to

sands between

a pocket lens reveals the presence of many minute
shells of a lustrous white colour, with others more
or less glassy and transparent, fragments of
bryozoa, mollusca, cinders, and other débris. Their
presence in these regular lines is due to their low
specific gravity as compared with that of the sur-
rounding sand grains. The rocking action of the
water at the extreme edge of the retreating tide,
brings all such light bodies to the surface of the
sand. They are left behind in the long ripple
marks; and as the water drains away they sink to
the bottom of the furrow. Sometimes the material
is to be found in extensive patches, or tiny heaps,
where an eddy of the tide has caused it to collect
in greater quantities than usual. This is espe-
cially the case when isolated rocks project above
sand, or in the neighbourhood of groynes or piers.

I have described the deposits as white in colour.
This is generally the case, owing to the compara-
tive abundance of the Miliolidae, a family that
usually occurs abundantly in shore gatherings, and
which are characterised by an imperforate test of
an opaque and lustrous white colour, resembling
china. Hence the name Porcellanea, applied to
the group to which they belong.

In the absence of porcellaneous foraminifera to
advertise the presence of the material by their con-
spicuous colour, the collector must seek other
clues to guide him to the spot. The other two
divisions into which the order is separated are the
Arenaceous and the Hyaline. The first are rare in
shore gatherings, while the second, though present
in large numbers, are almost invisible to the naked
eye, owing to the fact that their shells, when wet,
become nearly transparent. On every coast the
tide brings to shore large quantities of floating
débris of all kinds, which following the same law
as the foraminifera, becomes deposited in more or
less regular lines upon the sand, and wherever the
collector sees such rubbish accumulated, he may
expect to find foraminifera. Round our own
coasts, and especially in the neighbourhood of the
Thames estuary and the entrances to harbours, the
débris consists very largely of coal and cinder dust,
derived from steamer refuse. This frequently
shows up in well-defined black lines upon the sand.
One yery plentiful gathering which I remember
making near Herne Bay, in Kent, in which por-
cellaneous forms were scarce, was to the naked eye
quite black and apparently composed entirely of
coal dust. ci

From what I have already written, it will be
seen that a careful examination of the foreshore is
a necessary preliminary to any successful attempt
at collecting. The deposition of the material is
largely dependent upon the action of wind and
tide-set in connection with what may be called
the local character of the coast-line, the presence

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SCIENCE-

or absence of rocks, groynes, jetties, and such ob-
stacles to the free sweep of the tide. As these
conditions are always altering with the season and
the weather, what has proved a rich collecting-
ground at one visit may be quite bare at another.
Still, in every locality there is a focus towards
which the drift tends. When this has once been
found, as it may be by careful scrutiny of the shore
at low tide, the collector can always rely upon
finding his material within a short distance, in one
or other direction.

A sandy beach in the neighbourhood of a sub-
merged reef of rocks forms the best collecting
ground, especially when the sea in the neighbour-
hood is shallow and the bottom muddy. When
the water immediately off shore is deep the shore
gatherings will, as a rule, be poor, although dredg-
ings made off the coast may contain abundant
foraminifera. Where the beach consists of shingle
it is, of course, useless to look among the pebbles
for foraminifera, but in such cases there is fre-
quently a lower beach of sand or mud exposed at
low water, that may be profitably examined. Ac
Bognor, in Sussex, for instance, the lower beach
abounds in foraminiferous material, derived, no
doubt, from the extensive ledge of submerged
rocks lying off the coast.

A suitable locality having been found, the col-
lection of the material is quite a simple matter.
The apparatus required consists of an old spoon,
a glass slip 3in. by rin., or other convenient size,
and a piece of zinc or tin with three sides turned
up, the fourth side being sharp. The spoon is
used for scraping material from the bottom of the
tipple marks or rock pools, the glass slip and
metal tray for gathering it from patches or heaps,
the slip being used as a scraper to brush the sand
into the tray, which thus forms a miniature dust-
pan. Care must be taken to remove only the sur-
face layer, as this alone contains foraminifera. The
material as gathered should be emptied into a
calico bag, through which the bulk of the water
will drain, or if preferred, a tin can be employed.
On reaching home the material should be
thoroughly dried by a very moderate heat, or ex-
posure to the sun and air, and it may then be put
aside in bottles or boxes until such time as it is
convenient to undertake the second stage, the
cleaning of the material, and the separation of the
foraminifera from the accompanying débris.

(To be continued.)

INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS.—The
Institution of Electrical Engineers has arranged for
its members to professionally visit Switzerland in
September next, where inspection will be made of the
many important electrical works and installations in
that country. Among the more important of the
latter are the railways, tramways, and electric
lighting stations, in the neighbourhood of Ziirich.
The annual conversazione of the institution will be
held at the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road,
on the evening of the 15th of June.

B

GOSSIP. 9

THE NEW MUSEUMS.

ER MAJESTY THE QUEEN is to be con-
gratulated upon living to see the approaching
consummation of Prince Albert’s enlightened plan for
Science and Art teaching in this country. In laying
the foundation stone of the new museums at South
Kensington on the 17th of May, it may be said the
last official act of the Queen has been performed in
this connection; as it is scarcely to be expected that
Her Majesty will attend the final opening ceremony.
It is to be hoped that her representative may then be
the Prince of Wales, who hasalwaysexhibitedsuch keen
interest in the educational institutions of his country.
When the whole scheme is complete it will form an
association of buildings devoted to Science and Art,
which may be described as magnificent. It will
include on the eastern side of Exhibition Road, the
extensive galleries, courts, libraries, and other depart-
ments devoted to Art. On the south of the western
side is the beautiful Natural History Museum, for
which Owen so long contended, so _ excellently
arranged by Sir William Flower, and now in the
hands of his able successor, Dr. Ray Lankester. At

the rear of this building and facing Imperial
Institute Road is to be erected the Royal
College of Science, on a_ scale hardly less

extensive than its opposite neighbour, the Imperial
Institute. It is to be hoped that this latter building,
hitherto so far from a success in its original intention,
may be pressed into the educational group; as the
headquarters of the London University. Beyond the
Imperial Institute is the Royal College of Music, the
City and Guilds of London Institute for Technical
Education, and lastly the Albert Hall, to the extreme
north. Towards the object of completing the South
Kensington Buildings, Parliament, in the Session of
last year, voted in a sum of £2,500,000 for various
public buildings, no less an amount than £800,000.
£500,000 of this will probably be used on the Art
side, and the remaining £300,000 on the Science
buildings. Thisis most satisfactory, for if we consider
the latter sum to be taken on account, which will
probably be the case, we trust that science in London
may in the fulness of time, be able to hold up her
head with regard to the accommodation for her
housing, with the best of cities abroad. This
unfortunately at present is far from being the fact,
although in latter years we have made such excellent
strides in England, not only in science teaching ; but
also in discoveries resulting from scientific investigation.

The only discordant matter in connection with the
South Kensington Science and Art scheme, appears
to us to be the unfortunately long, not to say unwieldy
title that has been chosen by the powers that be for
this group of buildings. We refer to the association
of the names of Victoria and Albert in thetitle. One
would not for a moment desire to minimise the
interest and influence that have been brought to bear
by the Queen and her lamented Consort, in promoting
the Science and Art Building at South Kensington ;
but a time will come when a shorter title will be needed.

3

10 SCIENCE-GOSS/P.

PN SiRIN Gil:

By R. Dickson-Bryson, B.A., F.P.S., F.R.As.S.

(Continued from Vol. V., page 305.)

In SPIDERS.

HE spinning faculty being that most inti-
mately connected with the conception of a
spider, it was easy and natural for the imaginative
Greeks to adopt it as their symbol for a woman.
Despite its evil reputation and false celebrity of
ugliness, we, who think of single ladies as
spinsters, naturally associate the spinder or spider
with them. Unfortunately for the reputation of
both spiders and women, we can never observe the
skill and art displayed in the construction of the
web, but we instinctively think of the purpose for
which they are employed. Spiders are not classed
with insects, from which they differ in having
simple eyes instead of compound, eight legs in
place of six, no antennae, and not undergoing the
metamorphoses so characteristic of insect life.
They are distributed into two classes: Pulmo-
naria, or those which breathe by pulmonary cavi-
ties; and Yrachearia, or those that breathe by
trachea, like insects. They are classed according
to their habits, as Hunters, Wanderers, Sedenta-
ries, and Divers.

The instinctive qualities are well-defined in the
spider family, and their study is an agreeable occu-
pation. The spider’s web may be studied any-
where, but that of the garden spider (Mpeira dia-
dema) is pethaps best known. The garden or
diadem spider is easily recognised by the beautifui

white markings on its body, and by the dark bands.

and spines on its legs.

The web is an example of rare geometric skill,
and is made up of base lines radiating from a
common centre, with concentric polygonal spirals
winding to a distance of several inches from that
point. At the centre the spider takes its sentinel
post. Carefully examine the individual threads
with a lens and the concentric threads will be
found more glutinous than those radiating from
the centre. Place them under the microscope and
thousands upon thousands of globules will be
traced along its length. These globules constitute
points of attachment, by which the concentric
threads are fixed to the radiating ones. A single
web of the garden spider has been found to contain
as many as go,ooo of these globules. The web of
the Hpeira apoelisa, an allied species, usually
consists of twenty-six radiating lines, and twenty-
four rows of spirals. A large web has been esti-
mated to contain 120,000 globules. Besides the
radiating and spiral threads there are the base lines
extending beyond the outermost circle and fixed
like a cable to leaves and branches, so as to
support the whole.

A complete web, with its elaborate tracery of
radiating and circular lines and myriads of glo-
bules is produced in little less than forty-five
minutes. In this brief time the spider not only
arranges the warp and woof, with the utmost
mathematical precision, in their proper places, but
knits and spins the whole from its own body.
Carefully examining a single thread, we are at
once struck with its inconceivable tenuity. Any-
thing beyond a rough estimate of its actual
diameter is hopelessly outside our powers. The
thread is not, as we view it with unassisted vision,
a single fibre, but is composed of strands, twisted
and spun together like a rope. A rope, however,
is composed of only four or five strands, and here
the analogy fails. As many as four or five thou-
sand strands enter into a single spider’s thread.
Some of these complex threads are so extremely
fine that 4,000,000 of them spun together would
scarcely equal in thickness an ordinary human
hair. Yet each of these 4,000,000 threads is com-
posed of 4,000 others. The diameter of a single
strand is therefore the sixteen thousand millionth
Gamamoan) part of the thickness of a single
human hair. Such a statement seems reckless and
utterly beyond credibility, but the fact is one of the
many marvels abounding in lower forms of life.

The spinneret is another marvel. This curious
mechanism is found on the lower posterior surface
of the spider’s body. Careful inspection of this
part will reveal six small tube-shaped prominences.
On the apices of four of these prominences will
be found a number of minute openings—about a
thousand of each. Through each of these aper-
tures the spider ejects a fine viscid substance which
hardens on exposure to the air. These twisted to-
gether form one of the threads in the web. The
four tube-like prominences are called the spin-
neret. The remaining pair differ in structure and
function. Two kinds of thread are produced by
the spinneret. The concentric threads possess a
viscidity not found in the radiating threads. The
incautious insect alighting on the trap is glued
down and held fast till the spider overpowers it in
its meshes. But whence does the spider procure
its material to spin? Behind the spinnerets are
six or eight reservoirs, in which a glassy-looking
substance is formed and stored till required <A
comb-like apparatus on the feet is used to spin,
card, and adjust the threads as they issue from the
pores of the spinneret. This example of animal
machinery exceeds in complexity any of the devices
of man’s ingenuity for a similar purpose.

The mason spider, with an organisation almos:
similar to that of the Ypeira, has very different

SCIENCE-GOS SIP. II

habits. It scrapes a small cavity in the earth, of
which it makes a home. The interior is lined with
its soft web. It then kneads small quantities of
earth to make a door. These doors are composed
of alternate layers of spider’s silk and soil, usually
fifteen of each. These layers of silk are so united
to the lining of the wall as to form a self-closing
hinge. The mason spider never weaves a web like
the garden spider, and the garden spider never be-
comes a mason. Each species is confined to its
own special activities.

In this inborn ability of the spider, and espe-
cially in the necessary connection between the
secretion of the substance of the thread and the
construction of the web, we have a manifestation
of instinct. The spider weaves its web as the
bird builds its nest, but it produces the material,
while the bird borrows it. The spider is an ani-
mated loom, a machine functioned for automatic
action. It requires no engineer to control its
movements. The spider is unable to avoid the
necessity of weaving; the spinning of its web is
a necessity of its being.

BEEs.
The same fatality and necessity are found in the

instinct of the bee. This interesting creature

SPINNERET OF SPIDER (Magnified).

secretes the wax of which its cells are made. It is
not prepared from any extraneous material; it is
a natural product. The insect’s will, if that be

imaginable, has no share in its production, no
more than in any other excretion or secretion. The

wax exudes spontaneously from between the seg-
ments of the abdomen.

Among insects the body is divided into three
parts—the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.
They have six feet, compound eyes, and two an-
tennae, these two latter being analogous to delicate
horns, and serving, as some think, the purpose of
“feelers.” Many are provided with wings, and
all undergo a process of metamorphosis more or
less complete. That is, when the young emerge
from the egg they have not that definition under
which they are familiar to us. Thus the butterfly
begins active life as a caterpillar, and the bee as a
tiny grub.

Among hive bees instinct is manifested from
the dawn of their existence, in the social habit. A
single female gives birth to an entire population,
numbering no less than from eight to ten thousand

individuals. That numerous progeny is reared in
the same hive, and never separates on reaching the
adult state. They form a new society or swarm of
their own. Association is the absolute condition
of their existence and of the execution of their
various labours. Nothing can possibly destroy the
obligatory nature of their communal life. We
neyer see a solitary bee construct a hiye and pre-
pare honey, although it would be well able to pro-
duce both wax and honey. Besides, we may ask,
for whom is all this labour—for whom the hive
and the honey? What is the motive of their inge-
nious and resourceful activity, if not the rearing
the young members of the community? The
female bee must be impregnated, and her fertility
producing several thousand eggs, a single pair of
bees would never suffice to feed and give attention
to ten thousand young ones. Association is there-
fore absolutely necessary. No parliament con-
ceived and formulated their statutes. They are
coeval with their own existence.

e

There are occasions when animals form associa-
tions which appear to be the result of deliberation.
Beavers associate, for instance, to construct their
huts and dams; wolves, when driven by hunger,
concentrate their forces to attack a more formid-
able enemy; birds assemble to perform their
annual migrations. There are, we admit, associa-
tions provoked by necessity either for defence or
attack, or to satisfy a pressing need, or to avoid a
particular danger. The wolf once satisfied, the
swallow arrived at the end of his journey, the
beaver haying achieved his purpose—in a word,
when the want has been supplied, the danger re-
moved, and the difficulty overcome, the social
state is dissolved, and the animals return to their
ordinary modes of existence. The social state of
the bee, on the contrary, is permanent, because the
whole economy of the hive depends upon their
social constitution.

For ages, poets and naturalists have vied with
each other in their descriptions of the bee. The
fourth Georgic of Virgil is a treatise on the
management of bees. Their habits, economy,
polity, and government, are described with the
utmost fidelity, and with all the charm of poetry.

Foor oF SpIpER (J/agnifed).

In minor matters Virgil is not quite accurate, Dut
how could he be otherwise, ages before the micro-
scope? The habits of the bees, however, were the
same in his day, as now. They have always been
subject to inflexible laws.

The instinctive characters of the bee are well
seen in the construction of the comb. This case

B4

12 SCIENCE-GOS SIP.

deserves particular consideration, inasmuch as we
have evidence of mind. The hypothesis that
pressure upon a cylindrical cell prod&ces the hex-
agonal form is insufficient; we must account for
the highly artificial mode of termination of the cell
by those rhombs inclined at the precise angle
(7Odeg. 31 min.) that calculation requires for the
minimum surface, which is also the acute angle
of the rhomb. This circumstance points to a
highly intellectual operation, implied in the
arrangements of its organs so as mechanically to
effect it. The worker bees only, are able to con-
struct the cell, and their functions are obligatory,
because they alone possess the organ for that pur-
pose. The posterior pair of legs have small cavi-
ties into which the bee collects the pollen, while
the lower surface is hairy and serves the part of a
brush ; the mouth is so constructed as to fulfil the
office of several instruments; and, lastly, they
carry in the space between the four last rings of
the abdomen, the organs which secrete the wax.
All is determined, provided, and fatal. The
functions are not voluntary; they are the result of
adaptation. The worker bee is well named—it
alone works, and in order that it may not be inter-
rupted in the performance of its duties, natural
celibacy is the consequence of its organisation.
This last negative condition cannot be explained
vy natural selection. Could there be a more sin-
gular paradox than the conservation by heredity of
the unfitness for fecundation? The functions of
the male and female are likewise unique and pre-
determined. The male fecundates, the female lays
eggs, and the neuters share the government and
the care of the colony.

The social constitution, the diversity and number

of individuals, the adaptation of organs to special _

ends, the different phases of the evolution of the
swarm, the perfectness and the invariability of the
work: all bespeak instinct.

In the finished hive nearly 50,000 cells await
the eggs of the female. She, on her return from
her aérial journey, runs over the comb and ex-
amines attentively each cell, and if found satisfac-
tory. deposits in each an €S3 15,000 eggs are thus
laid, in a single day, and they are arranged in a
definite order. The ova for worker bees are first
laid, then the eggs for males, and finally those for
females. This order is never broken except when
the period of fecundation varies. This is neither
foresight nor a voluntary act. While encazed in
these duties the mother bee is the object of atten-
tion and solicitude—I had almost said of the vene-
ration of the worker bees. From this circumstance
Virgil likens her to a king, and we, toa queen.

I shall not follow the swarm in all its phases,
nor shall I describe the troubles that frequently
invade the hive, my purpose being merely to review
the peculiar traits of the life and the habits of
animals which are instinctive,

(To be continued.)

A HISTORY OF CHALK.
By Epwarp J. Martin, F.G.S.

Awe the typical forms of rock that constitute

the various geological divisions of the earth’s
crust, the form of limestone known as chalk is one of
those most familiar to the public mind. Chalk is so
clearly distinguishable from every other kind of rock,
that even he who is in no sense a geologist, has not
the slightest hesitation in identifying it. It is not,
however, always uniform. I have collected specimens
of a pure snow-white tint from a pit, at Goldstone
Bottom, near Brighton, since filled in, which fell at
once into a powder on the application of the slightest
pressure. The chalk used for road-making will leave
its mark on the hands and clothes, this being due to
the fact that it parts with powdery fragments of
itself if handled. There is another kind of natural
chalk, so hard as to have been used as building stone.
This chalk-rock, as it is called, is capable of substi-
tution in building, for some of the harder limestones.

GLOBIGERINA FROM THE CHALK,

There is a well-marked zone of this hard chalk,
situated between the Middle Chalk and the Upper
Chalk, which has received the name of Chalk Rock ;
since, scientifically speaking, a “‘ rock ” may be any-
thing from an accumulation of loose material, to the
hardest of hard rocks. It was a similar hard chalk
that was used in the foundations of the old monastery,
which formerly stood on the site at the corner of
Knightrider Street and Carter Street, in the City of
London. I had the opportunity of examining these
foundations in the year 1885, during the excavation of
the site. It was remarkable to notice how the hard
chalk, after the lapse of centuries, was apparently as
firm as it had ever been. The great slabs of granite,
of which numerous fragments were found, were in an
advanced state of decomposition, the felspar crystals
being in many cases powdered to dust, and the quartz

|

SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 1g

standing as though in relief; whilst the mica was
easily removable by scratching.

It may be safely said that the entire mass of the
purest chalk has formed, at some time or other, part
and parcel of myriads of living organisms. Fossils
are of frequent occurrence in the Chalk, sometimes
whole, but as often scattered throughout softer matrix
in a fragmentary condition. Such it is, of course,
possible to perceive with the unaided eye, and classify
accordingly, but taken in the bulk, it is found that fifty
per cent. is composed of the apparently unfossiliferous
matrix itself, which is more acceptably known as chalk,
To the unaided vision it appears to consist of nothing
more than mineral particles in a fine state of sub-
division. It is only under the microscope that the
true meaning of these particles is revealed, the
apparently shapeless specks resolving themselves into
beautiful forms of once living nature. They are, in
fact, the shells, or tests, of myriads of minute, almost

which it would take from 1,600 to 7,000 individuals,
These, with
their congeners, discoliths, rhabdoliths, and morpho-
lites, have been proved to be of organic origin. Some
have apparently formed part of minute protozoans, whilst
Throughout the

placed side by side, to make an inch.

others are proper to the sea-weeds.
whole of the chalk, numerous fragments and prisms
of shells, corals, polyzoans, sponges, etc., are found ;
these, although fragmentary, are recognisable. They
have contributed by their weathering in cretaceous
times, to the formation of the amorphous powder, in
which the various remains are now found. The tests
of the foraminifera are of a calcareous nature, and the
chalk is therefore a true limestone. On the other
hand, when we come to examine the flints, we shall
find specimens, equally microscopic, of Radiolaria,
another order of the Rhizopoda.

In order that these minute representatives of life
should be able to form such great thicknesses of

Cuatk Pit at RmpLespowN, SURREY.
Showing deposited Strata.

unorganised organisms, about one-hundredth of an
inch in diameter, belonging to the animal sub-kingdom
Protozoa (first /fe). This sub-kingdom contains three
sub-classes. One of these, Rhizopoda, branches off
into four orders, one of which is the Foraminifera, and

to this the minute chalk organisms belong. The
classification is as follows :—
PROTOZOA
| | |
GREGARINIDAE INFUSORIA RHIZOPODA

A |
| | |

MonNERA AMOEBA FORAMINIFERA RADIOLARIA

The remaining half of chalk is composed of a great
variety of sea-living organisms. Its basis is a fine
amorphous powder, whose particles have been derived
from the disintegration and decomposition of the
shells of molluscs and actinozoans (corals). Con-
tained in this are also found numbers of minute oval,
saucer-shaped bodies, known as ‘‘coccoliths,” of

chalk, as at East Horsley, in Surrey, where in a
boring it was found to measure 817ft., the creatures
must have existed in inconceivable numbers. Accu-
mulated in parts at the bottom of a deep sea of 2,000
fathoms there must for ages have been a continual
rain of dead shells, leisurely sinking through this
depth of water. Arriving at the bed of the ocean
they assisted to entomb the remains of other marine
creatures, and to form a gradually but very slowly
increasing thickness of foraminiferal ooze.
Foraminifera have existed from the earliest geologi-
cal times, and have left their remains buried in strata’
of much greater antiquity than the chalk. Large
plaster-casts of the numerous species which have been
discovered, have been modelled, and these are ex-
hibited to the enquirer at the Museum of Practical
Geology, in Jermyn Street, London, where the
diversity of their forms may be accurately studied.
Popularly speaking, a foraminifer may be defined as a
speck of jelly, covered more or less by a minute shell

14 SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

containing one or more chambers, the shells being
perforated by extremely fine holes (foramen, an open-
ing), through which the creature is able to protrude
numerous improvised members.

A foraminifer may be more scientifically defined as
a sea-living rhizopod, in which the body is protected
by a shell or test usually composed of carbonate of
lime, but sometimes membranous. The body, how-
ever complicated the shell may be, is simply ,a small
lump of granular, gelatinous sarcode, of a highly
elastic character, possessed of contractile powers, and
generally having a yellowish or reddish tinge.
Through the holes in the test, arms and legs of a
temporary nature are protruded at will, consisting
of extremely long thread-like processes of sarcode, and
these have the peculiar property of interlacing and
again uniting after emission. In this way they
somewhat represent an appearance, in miniature, of
an animated spiders web. The only traces of
organisation in this lowly creature are what are
known as the “nucleus” and the ‘‘contractile
vesicle.” The nucleus is a rounded mass in the
interior of the animal, ofa granular consistency, and
is thought in some way to be connected with the
process of reproduction. The contractile vesicle is
perhaps the more interesting of the two, in the light
of our present knowledge, for in this we appear to
have the humblest possible representation of the
heart of the higher animals. If the vesicle be
watched, in an amoeba, for instance, since in this
there is no shell or test to obscure observation, a clear
opening seems to make its appearance at a particular
place, and gradually expands within certain limits,
after which it again contracts in the same gradual
manner, until it finally apparently disappears alto-
gether. After a short period of quiescence, it again

commences to expand in a similarly deliberate

manner, followed by the process of contraction. It is
thought that the digestive fluid is forced throughout
the organism by the contraction and dilatation of this
little spot, undoubtedlya permanentorgan. Thusinthese
lowly animals we find the combined elements of the
circulatory and digestive systems of the higher. The

thread-like processes which they emit are known as
pseudopodia, and throughout these a kind of circula-

tion of minute granules is kept up. Foraminifers are
still living in vast numbers, and in numerous species.
Amongst theliving monothalamous (single-chambered)
species may be mentioned Lagena, Gromia, Miliola,
and Orbulina. By far the greater number are, how-
ever, polythalamous, that is, they consist of numerous
chambers. Among the better known of these are
Nodosaria, Globigerina, Discorbina, the nautiloid
shell, Lituola, Textularia, Nonionina, Rotalia,
Cristellaria, Pulvinulina and Orbulina.

It has been necessary to glance at some of the living
species, in order to properly appreciate the formation
of chalk. As already pointed out, it is a remarkable
fact, that under the microscope a piece of true chalk
will resolve itself into countless numbers of these
minute fossils, the ancient representatives of
some of the species we have just mentioned. G/obi-

gerina bulloides was apparently a very common
foraminifer in cretaceous times, and is found to con-
stitute a large percentage of the whole, in many
chalks. On the other hand, occasionally Zextularia
and Budimina are the chief constituents. Globigerina
is especially abundant in the chalk rock of Berkshire,
Buckinghamshire, and Bedfordshire ; also in outcrops
of the same stratum around the Weald, in the south-
east of England. In some phosphatic chalk from
Southerham Pit, near Lewes, Mr. F. Chapman found
the species of Globigerina known as G. marginata to
be very common, almost to the exclusion of G.
bulloides, whilst contained in it were no less than
forty other species of these minute tests. Most
prominent among them were the fossil forms 7extu-
laria, Tritaxta, Spiroplecta, Gaudryina, Bulimina,
Cristellaria, Anomalina, and Rotalia.

Some genera, such as Frondicularia, Bulimina,
and Cristellaria, are fairly common throughout the
whole of the formation. On the other hand, there
are certain forms, such as Wodosaria, Polymorphina,
and Xofalina, which are mostly found im the upper
chalk. The beds at lower levels are more character-
istically represented by Zeaxtularia, Rotalia, Globi-
gerina, and Lagena.

(To be continued.)

NEW FORM OF PRUNUS.

By BERNARD PIFFARD.

Your botanical readers may be interested in the
following description of a species of Prunus growing
wild over an extended area, and in considerable
quantity, in this neighbourhood. I have shown it to
two leading authorities and both are agreed it is not
the common sloe, but they widely differ as regards the
species. It is much less vigorous than the common
wild plum, and differs from it in the very small blossom
and smaller leaves. It differs from the sloe in that
it blooms some weeks earlier, and leafs at the time it
blossoms. The bark is not black, the previous year’s
growth being green. It is thornless and _ less
branching.

It extends over a considerable space on some low
land through which an extinct river seems to have
flowed into the Boxmoor Valley. As the land rises
again before the river entered the valley, the space
the shrub now inhabits must have formerly been a
swamp.

It is needless to say I shall be willing to visit the
place with any of your readers who may wish to
examine these shrubs. The locality is about half a
mile from Boxmoor Station.

Hemel Hempstead.

Tuer OLD Puysics GARDEN on theChelsea Embank-
ment, which was at one time threatened with ex-
tinction, is to be in the future under the management
of a committee consisting of seventeen persons. The
charity and its endowments are to be administered
exclusively for the promotion of the study of botany.

SCIENCE-GOS STP.

ARMATURE OF
NEW SPECIE
By G. kK.

AND

(Continued from

Plectopylis austent (*) (figs. 97a-f.). Four speci-
mens, three adult, one young, of an unnamed form of
Plectopylis, differing from all described species, have
been kindly placed in my hands for examination by
Lieut.-Col. Godwin-Austen, with whose name I have
much pleasure in associating this new species. The
new shell is allied to Plectopyl’s ogle? (figured in
ScIrENCE-GossIP, N.S. iv. (1898) p. 263, fig. 68), but
it can readily be distinguished from that species by its
concave spire; it is also much smaller and much
more flattened. In its parietal armature, it differs in
having a short and a long median horizontal
fold and a denticle in front of the vertical
plate, all of which structures are absent in /ectopyli's
ogle?. A comparison of the figures will also indicate
differences in the palatal armatures of the two species.
Plectopylis austent has further some affinity, as re-
gards palatal armature, with P. musprattd (c.f.

Fig. 97.—Plectopylis austent.

SCIENCE-GossiPp, N.S. iv., 1897, p. 10, f. 45),
but the latter is a dextral species and the parictal
armature is quite different, as also in the general shape
of the shell. The immature specimen of P. austeni
referred to above has completed five-and-a-half
whorls, and is interesting from possessing two sets of
armature a quarter of a whorl distant from each other ;
these differ considerably from the mature barriers ;
the parietal armature here consists only of the vertical
plate and a very short, slight, horizontal fold in front
of it. The palatal armature is similar to that of

(1) Plectopylis austenz, n.sp. (figs. 97a-/).—Shell
sinistral, discoid, widely umbilicated, ochreous cor-
neous, covered with a deciduous velvety cuticle ;
finely and closely ribbed, decussated by raised spiral
lines, rather distant on the upper side. One of these
spiral lines forms a ridge or keel on the upper angle
of the whorls above the periphery, revolving above

15

HELICOID LANDSHELES

S OF PLECTOPYLIS.
GubE, F.Z.S.
Vol. V., page 333.)
mature shells, except that the folds, ridge and

denticles are very small and slight. Lieut.-Col.
Godwin-Austen informs me that the shells
collected by his assistant, Mr. M. T. Ogle, inthe Diyung
Valley, Singpho, Assam.

Plectopylis woodthorpei (*) (figs. 98 a-h). Three
specimens—two mature, one young—another unde-
scribed form of Plectopylis, have also been most
obligingly sent to me for examination by Lieut. -
Colonel Godwin-Austen, who informed me that they
were collected in 1894 by the late Colonel Wood-
thorpe, R.E., after whom they arenow named. This
new species is a very interesting one forming as it
does a connecting link between the group of //ecto-
pylis ponsonbyz and that of P. plectostoma ; on the one
hand it resembles 7. /onsonbyz in the posterior
portion of the palatal armature (see fig. 98 7), and
P. leucochila in its parietal armature (see fig. 98 ¢) ;
it differs, however, from the other members of this
group in having a series of horizontal folds anteriorly
to the vertical palatal plate. On the other hand,
this biseriate,character of the last-mentioned structure,
unites it it with the group of P. plectostoma. In out-
ward appearance the shell of P. woodthorper much

were

the suture as far as the third whorl. Spire concave,
apex a little raised, suture strongly impressed. Whorls
64, flattened above, rounded below, obsoletely angu-
lated around the umbilicus ; increasing slowly at first,
the last widening rather suddenly, and descending half
the width of the whorl in front; aperture oblique,
cordate. Peristome white, strongly thickened and
reflexed, the margins united by a strong 1aised flexuous
concave ridge, slightly notched at the junctions above
and below. Umbilicus wide and rather shallow.
Parietal armature consisting of a short median hori-
zontal fold close to the apertural ridge, and a second
longer one farther back, rather elevated posteriorly,
gradually descending on the shell wall anteriorly ;
below its posterior extremity occurs a small denticle ;
still farther back is found a strong vertical crescent-
shaped plate, the upper and lower extremities of which
are deflected posteriorly. Palatal armature composed
of six short horizontal folds, the first longest, near the
suture, provided at its posterior extremity with an
elongated denticle; the second, third, fourth, and
fifth a little obliquely depressed posteriorly where they
are united by a slight vertical ridge, which is con-
tinued above the second and below the fifth folds ;
on the posterior side occur five elongated denticles,
the four lower of which correspond to the four folds,
while the fifth is situate near the upper extremity of
the vertical ridge; the sixth fold is near the lower
suture, and has also an elongated denticle posteriorly.
—Major diameter, 17°5-19 millimetres ; minor dia-
meter, 14°75-16°5 millimetres; altitude, 5-6 milli-
metres.—Habitat, Diyung Valley, Singpho, Assam.—
Type in the Natural History Museum, South Ken-
sington.

16 SCIENCE-GOSSIP:

ScreNcE-Gossip, N.S.
but the former is much

resembles 7. shirotensts (c.f.
iii., 1896, p. 155, f. 20),
larger. The immature specimen referred to, which
has nearly six whorls formed, has the armature in-
complete, and is instructive as possibly throwing
some light upon the evolution of these structures.
The parietal armature here possesses the two vertical
plates, but the horizontal folds given off by the
anterior plate are very short, being only one quarter
of the length of those in the mature shells ; the thin
fold near the lower suture is not compressed into a
lamellar fold below the vertical plates, as is the case
in the full-grown shells, and it rises much farther
back (see fig. 98 g, which shows portion of the
parietal its armature). Of the palatal
only the pro-

wall with

armature, series of

posterior

£

SS

Fig. 98.—P/ectopylis woodthorpet.

cesses is present, the anterior series

sull to be formed: a fact

having
clearly pointing
to the more recent origin of the biseriate forms.
The vertical plate is distinctly divided into two sub-
equal portions, in consequence of the indentation in
the middle being carried down to the base ; the ridge
connecting the upper extremity of the vertical plate
with the short horizontal fold above it is absent, but
in its stead occurs near the latter a little denticle ;
while posteriorly to the upper half of the vertical
plate is found a distinct denticle, corresponding to
the slight swelling in the same place, mentioned in
the diagnosis (see fig. 98 4, which shows the inside
of the palatal wall with its armature).

lectopylis (Sykesta) biciliata (figs. 99 a-e) from
Ceylon was described by Dr. Pfeiffer in the ‘* Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society,” 1855, p. 112, as
Helix biciliata, and the shell is figured in ‘* Hanley
and Theobald’s Conchologia Indica” (1875), t. 159,
figs. 1 and 4. The systematic position of this shell
remained uncertain for a long time; it was placed in
Nanina by Dr. Pfeiffer (“‘ Malak. Blatter” ii., 1855,
p- 121), and in Desews, by Mr. H. Nevill (*f Enum.
Helic. Ceylan.” 1871, p. 1), while finally Mr. S.
Clessin grouped it with J/acrech/anuys (‘* Nomencl.
Helic. viv.” 1881, p. 45). It is unfortunate that
Dr. Pfeiffer’s types of this species cannot be found.
They were described as from the late Major Skinner's
collection, but Miss Linter who purchased the entire
collection, kindly informs me that the shells in
question are not in it, and she does not think that
Major Skinner ever possessed them there being no
record of them in his catalogues. Mr. Edgar Smith

(?) Plectopylis woodthorpet, n. sp. (figs. 98 a-h).—
Shell dextral, discoid, widely and deeply umbilicated,
dark corneous, finely and regularly ribbed, closely
decussated by microscopic spiral lines. Spire conical,

apex prominent, suture impressed. Whorls 63, in-—

creasing slowly and regularly, flattened above, tumid
below, the last scarcely wider than the penultimate,
bluntly keeled above the periphery, widening a little
towards the aperture, descending deeply in front.
Aperture oblique, cordate ; peristome whitish,
strongly thickened and reflexed, the margins united
by a strongly raised flexuous ridge, which is concave
in the middle, and notched at the junctions above and
below. Parietal armature consisting of two nearly
parallel vertical plates, the posterior one longer,
slightly reflexed posteriorly at its lower extremity,
and provided posteriorly at the upper extremity with
a slight ridge ; the anterior one shorter, giving off a
horizontal fold anteriorly at each extremity, the
lower less than half the length of the upper, ascend-
ing obliquely ; the upper revolving almost parallel with
the suture, following the deflexion of the whorl, and
joining the ridge at the aperture. Below the posterior
vertical plate rises a free, thin, horizontal fold, at
first considerably elevated above the shell-wall, but
suddenly becoming attenuated and threadlike, run-
ning parallel with the lower suture, as far as the
aperture where it is joined to the ridge on the parietal
callus. Palatal armature in two series, the posterior
series consisting of: first, a long thin horizontal
fold near the suture; secondly, a very long hori-
zontal fold, extending anteriorly beyond the
folds of the second series, with an elevated
compressed denticle posteriorly; thirdly, a very
short horizontal fold, deflexed posteriorly ;
fourthly, a strong vertical plate, with an in-
dentation at the middle, giving off posteriorly at its
lower extremity an obliquely descending ridge, and
provided at the same place with a small denticle ; at
the base of the upper lobe of the vertical plate on the
posterior side occurs a slight swelling, while on the
same side from its upper extremity runs a short ridge,
connecting this plate with the third horizontal fold ;
fifthly, a long thin horizontal fold near the lower
suture. The anterior series consists of three thin
horizontal folds, the first longest the third shortest,
all three descending a little anteriorly.—Major dia-
meter, 8°75-10 millimetres, minor diameter, 7°25-8
millimetres, altitude 3°25-4 millimetres. —Habitat,
Fort Stedman, Burma.—‘Type in the British Museum.

SCIENCE-GOS STP. 17

has obligingly searched the British Museum collection
for these types, but without success
appears to be

s. The species
since it was first de-
seribed, it has remained unobserved until Mr. H.

rare, for

B. Preston found a single specimen at Patapolla,
Ceylon, as recorded by Mr. E. R. Sykes
(‘*Proc. Malac. Soc., London,” iii., 1898, p. 66),

and Mr. O. Collett subsequently found two
Vig. 99.—Plectopylis biciliata.

specimens at Haputale (Sykes, op. cit. p. 160).

The three specimens referred to agree with the

figures in ‘‘Conchologia Indica,” andit may, therefore,
be safely assumed that they are correctly identified,
and to Mr. Sykes belongs the credit of first pointing

out the true systematic position of the species. The
shell is convexly conical, narrowly umbilicated,
dark corneous, translucent, finely and regularly

ribbed, with a double keel at the periphery anda

third a little
being

above it, the lowest and uppermost
provided with a fringe of coarse, curved,
deciduous hairs. There are six convex whorls, which
regularly, the base a’ little
shining, tumid around the narrow umbilicus and

concave towards the periphery.

increase slowly and

The aperture is sub-
quadrate, elongated, the peristome simple, acute.
The parietal armature consists of two simple obliquely
ascending folds, separated by a distance of half a
whorl, having the upper extremities somewhat
attenuated and the lower truncate. (See fig. 99d,
which shows the parietal wall with its two folds). The
palatal armature is composed of: first, a short, hori-
zontal fold below the periphery, a little farther back
but in a line with it a strong lamelliform denticle,
ascending obliquely ; secondly, three denticles in a
line horizontally and about equidistant, the posterior
one strongest ; thirdly, a short slight horizontal fold
near the lower suture, rising near the aperture and re-
volving as far as the second denticle. (See fig. 99¢,
which shows the inside of the outer wall with the
palatal armature). The specimen shown in figs 99a-c
measures 6 millimetres in diameter, altitude 3°5 milli-
metres; it is one of the shells collected by Mr. Collett
and isin Mr. Poasonby’s collection ; the armatures are
figured from the specimen collected by Mr. Preston
which is in Mr. Sykes’ collection.

(To be continued.)

BRIQISH PRESHWATER (Mins:
By CHAR.LEs D. Soar, F.R.M.S.

GENUS ZZWWESIA KOCH.

(Continued from Vol. V., page 361.)

eee next genus that has yielded the largest number

of species in this country is Zzmzesia. In this we
have six species. Three are very common, but not so
the others. There are a great many species known
and described from different parts of the world; there-
fore I do not see any reason why more should not be
recorded as British.

The mites belonging to this genus are characterised
as having the body soft-skinned, legs well supplied
with swimming hairs, and the fourth pair of feet with-
out claws. There are six discs on the genital plates ;
three on each side. The mandibles are in two por-
tions; eyes wide apart.

I.—Limnesia histrionica Hermann, 1804.

FEMALE.—Body: Oval in form. Length about
1°75 mm. Width about 1°40 mm. Colour a bright
scarlet, with very dark brown markings.

Lecs.—First pair about 1°40 mm. Each pair
gradually gets longer; the fourth pair being about
220mm. They are all well supplied with swimming
hairs. The first three pairs of feet have claws, the
fourth pair have not; but the tarsi are extended
almost to a point, near which apex is a strong spur or

bristle as seen in fig. 1. The fourth pairs of legs of
all members of this genus are modified in the same
manner; this applies to males as well as females.
This is one of the important points of identification in
this genus, but it is not confined to it only, as we
shall later see. Colour, blue, sometimes very bright ;
at others of a slaty tint.

EpmmMgraA.—(Fig. 2.) Arranged in four pairs, two
on each side of the median line. In colour they are
the same as the legs, and all other chitinous parts.

Papi.—Large and long, about 0’92 mm. in length.
On each second segment is a small peg (fig. 3).

GENITAL AREA.—This is composed of two plates.
On each plate are three discs, this is no doubt the
correct arrangement, but as usual, they vary in num-
ber. I am continually finding specimens with two on
one plate, three on another, four on one, five on
another; and so on. Such irregularity can only be
sports. Koenike, in his work on Hydrachnidae of
Madagascar, 1898, describes and figures a male and
female Linueesta aspera with four discs on each plate.
I believe this is the only known species that possesses
this remarkable distinction.

18

MALE.—Is a little smaller than female, and has no
marked difference, except in the genital plates
(fig. 4), which have a fringe of hairs all round the
margin.

LocaLiries.—Common everywhere. I think it one
of the most abundant mites we have in Britain. It is

Fig. 1.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.,

piece of chitin, which nearly meets in the centre ;
but in fig. 5 the corresponding plates are curved in
the opposite direction. In identification this is the
first point to look for, and is very important ; the two
mites being nearly the same size and similar in
colour.

Limnesia JAtstrionica,
Fig. 1.—VenTRAL SuRFACE OF FEMALE. Fig. 2.—GENITAL Ptates anp EpiMeRA. Fig. 3.—PALPI OF FEMALE.
Fig. 4.—GENiITAL PLATE oF MALE.

found in all the ponds round the outskirts of London.
I met with them on the Norfelk Broads, and Mr.
Taverner has sent me a Jarge number from Scotland.
Mr. Halbert has found them in Ireland.

II.—Limnesia maculata Miiller, 1776.

FEMALE.—Body: Similar in shape to Z. Azs-
tvionica, in fact all the members of this genus are
very much alike as regards form. So much is this
the case that another figure is not necessary. Fig. 1
gives a general idea of the structure of all the species.
Length about 1.50 mm. ; breadth 1.22 mm. ; colour
bright red, with very faint markings on the dorsal
surface.

Lecs.—First pair about 0-92 mm., fourth pair
about 1.68 mm. General appearance similar to legs
on fig. 1. Colour a very dark brown, sometimes
nearly black.

Fig. 5.—Limnetia maculata,
EPIMERA AND GENITAL PLaTes of Femare.

EpimeRA.—(Fig. 5.) This will show one of the
important differences between Limnesia histrionica
and L. maculata. In fig. 2, the first pair of
epimera are curved inwards, with a small additional

PaLri.—Small, only about 0-48 mm. in length.
This is about half the length of palpi of the first species
of this genus. They are also a little different in

shape, the peg being nearer the third segment.

—_—

At
Fig. 6.—Limnesia maculata, PALPI OF FEMALE.
The hairs on the inner margin are also different,
there being several in this species. (See fig. 6.)

GENITAL AREA.—(Fig. 5.) In this species it is
very much like fig. 2, excepting that the hairs are
placed more in the central portion of the plate;
and are a little larger in proportion to the size of
the mite.

MALrE.—Rather smaller than the female, and
possessing nearly the same characters; excepting
in the genital plates. Here, a great difference will
be found, as shown on fig. 4 and fig. 7. Fig. 4
shows the male plates of Z. Aistrtonica with a fringe
of hairs all round the margin, but the plates of
L. maculata have not this feature.

Fig. 7.—Z. maculata, GunxivAL Plates or MALE,

LocaLities.—Fairly common. I have found
them around London, at the Norfolk Broads,
and in Suffolk. Dr. George finds them in

SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 19

Lincolnshire, Mr. Halbert and Dr. Freeman report PALPI.—It is here we see the distinctive difference?
them from Ireland, and Mr. Taverner from Scotland. as their length is equal to the first pair of legs, viz.,
This mite is not nearly so common as Zimmnesta 1.10 mm. (fig. 10). I have found one with the palpi
histriontca. still a little longer.
Ill.—Limnesia undulata Miller, 1781.

FEMALE.—Body : Similar in form to the preceding

Fig. 8.—Limnesia undulata, PALPI OF FEMALE.

species. Length about 1°90 mm. Width 1°50 mm.

Colour : yellow, with black markings. Fig. 10.—Liwinesia longipalpus, DORSAL SURFACE.
Lecs.—First pair about 1°75 mm. Fourth pair
about 2°30 mm. Colour a slaty blue. I do not think further description necessary for this

EPIMERA.—Fig. 9 again shows a difference in mite, as the size of the palpi prevents it being mis-
structure to the preceding ones. The first pair are taken for any other species of this genus.
wider apart, with less curve. In colour they are like Locavities.—North Wales.
the legs, and are a slaty blue.

V.—Limnesia hoentkei, Piersig, F
PaLri.—(Fig. 8.) About 1°10 mm. in length, and Lewinesia center aEtersis.,WSO4.

possess very little-difference from fig. 3, excepting that FemaLe.—Bopy: Oval in form. Length about
the hairs on the last-segment but ene, are set further © 1-20 mm., width about 1.05mm. Colour, yellow,
down the inner edge. with dark brown markings. Eyes, a deep red.

Lecs.—First pair about 1.10 mm., -fourth pair
about 1.50 mm., very similar to the legs of all mem-
bers of this genus. Colour a pale green.

\e) Y EPIMERA.—Fig. 11, differ from those I have drawn
in the preceding species. The posterior angles are
extended much further back, being almost level with
the genital plates. The greatest point of difference
will be noticed in the position of the discs on the inner
angle of the two last pair of epimera. They are quite
O differently situated to those discs on figs. 2, 5 and 9.
© The colour is a pale green, same as the legs.

Fig. 9.—Limnesia undulata,
EpPIMERA AND GENITAL AREA OF FEMALE.

GENITAL PLATES.—(Fig. 9.) These are also very
distinct from those shown in figs. 2 and 5. In this
case the discs are arranged three in each plate as
before ; but two are near the posterior margin of each
plate, and one on each plate near the epimera.

LocaLitigs.—-This is not a common mite. I have sh ae a 4 Fig. 12.
. WNUNESTA oenireél,
found it on the Norfolk Broads, and Dr. George has Fig. 11.—EPm™era, AND GeNiTaL PLaTEs OF FEMALE.
sent it tome from Lincolnshire. Fig. 12.—GeniTat PLates oF MALE.
IV.—Limnesia longipalpis Koch. " 1
FEMALE.—Body: Oval in form. Length about PALPI.—Small, being 0.60 mm. in length. The

1.20 mm. Breadth about 1.5 mm. Colour red. peg on the second segment differs from those on
One variety is all yellow in colour, with brown mark- figs. 3, 6, and 8, in being without the shoulder piece ;

ings on the dorsal surface. the peg coming direct from the limb (fig. 13), and
Lecs.—First pair about 1.10 mm. Second pair being long and slender.
about 2.0mm. Similar in structure to the others of GENITAL AREA.—Not very different from those

this genus previotsly mentioned. The red varietyhas before observed in this genus. See figs. 11 and 12.
pale blue legs. The yellow form has yellow legs. LOcALITIES.—Very common everywhere.

20 SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

VI.—Limnesia connata Woenike, 1895.

PEMALE.—Bopy: Rather more circular than in
the preceding mites mentioned. Length about
076mm. Breadth abouto*69mm. Colour, yellow,
with darker markings.

Lecs.—First pair about 0.48 mm., fourth pair
about 0.80 mm. There is not anything about them
requiring a special figure. Colour same as body,
yellow, very pale.

Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

Fig. 13.—Limnesia koentkei, PALPUS, SHOWING PEG.
Fig. 14.—Limnesia connata, Genira PLATES OF FEMALE.

EpviIMERA.—Similar in shape to fig. 9, except that
the first pair of plates curve under the mouth organs,
nearly meeting in the centre. The discs on the inner
angle of the last pair of epimera are also placed in a
similar position to those on fig. 9 and fig. 2. This
will render the identification of this species easy from
Limnesia hoentker (see fig. 11), for which at first sight
it may be mistaken.

PaLri.—About 0°32 mm. Same colour as other
parts of this mite.

GENITAL PLATES.—In these will be seen a great
difference, the discs being very small (fig. 14), two
being close together near posterior margin of plate.

MALE.—This is, as usual, a little smaller than the
female, but is the same in all particulars, except in
the genital plates. These are very much like the

‘male plates of Z. histrionica (fig. 4) with the fringe

of hairs round their margin ; but the two pairs of discs
at the posterior end of the plates are closer together.
It can easily be recognised from the male Z. hoenthei
by this fringe, the male Z. Aoenthet being without it.

LocaLitirs.—Found by Mr. Scourfield in the
Lake District, July, 1898. It is not a common mite.
(To be continued.)

THe New F.R.S.—The following candidates
selected by the Council of the Royal Society for this
year will be elected in the ordinary course. W. F.
Jarrett, physicist ; Charles Booth, eminent in social
science; David Bruce, bacteriologist Henry John
Horstman Fenton, chemist; James Sykes Gamble,
Indian foresty; Alfred Cort Haddon, zoologist and
anthropologist ; Henry Ilead, anatomist; Conevy
Lloyd Morgan, biologist and geologist ; Clement Reid,
geologist ; Henry Selby Hele Shaw, engineer ; Ernest
Henry Starling, physiologist; Henry W. Lloyd
Tanner, mathametician and astronomer ; Richard
Threlfall, physicist ; Alfred E. Tutton, mineralogist ;
sertram C. A. Windle, anatomist.

With a few prominent exceptions, well known for
their eminent scientific work, most of these gentlemen
will be better recognised in their respective spheres
than by our general readers.

ANNELIDS NEAR BIRMINGHAM.

T a meeting of the Biological Section of the
Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical
Society, held on May 9th, Mr. Hildrie Friend made
a communication on the Annelids of Sutton Park.
Mr. Friend stated that the Annelids with which he
was to deal fell under two main heads. First, there
were the earthworms or Lumbricidae. There were
supposed to be eight or ten species in Great Britain,
when Darwin’s book on ‘* Vegetable Mould and
Earthworms” was published, but Mr. Friend had
raised the number to twenty-four species, one-third of
which he had already found in Sutton Park. There
were there: Leumbricus herculeus, L. rubellus, L.
castaneus ; Allolobophora profuga, A. caliginosa, A.
chlorolica and A. sabrubicunda, with Allunus
tetraedrus.

The second group included the water-worms and
white worms or Euchytracids. Omitting the Naids,
some of which had been studied by Mr. Bolton, these
small worms belonged to three families, the Tubi-
ficidae, Lumbriculidae, and Euchytracidae. 7 2bzfec
zvivulorum was common; also Limnodrilus words-
worthianus, a worm at present known only in Great
Britain and first described by Mr. Friend a year or
two ago, from Cumberland. Lumbriculius variegalus
undoubtedly occurs, as S¢ylodrilus vejdouskit, and
what appears to be an undescribed species of SZ/o-
drilus, which may prove to be new to science.
Nesembytraeus is represented by at least one species,
probably 4. flavus. Henlea and Buchholzia also by
one each at least, while Zuchytraeus parvidus is of
special interest because it has been lately proved to be
a very injurious pest. /77dencia, a genus known
among other things by its setae being shortest in the
middle is represented by two or three well marked
species. /. agricola has recently been suspected of
doing damage to grass, and /. magna one of the
largest known Euchytracids is new to science. It was
found at Easter by Mr. Friend in Cumberland and at
Sutton Park, and will be described at an early date.
It is chiefly remarkable (1) for its size, being often
more than an inch in length, (2) its setae in four pairs
as in the typical Lumbrici, and (3) its spermathecae
with large glands at the opening.

Mr. Friend stated that he had examined twenty
species of worms, and as this was the result of two
brief visits to the Park, the number would doubtless
be greatly augmented by further exploration.

II. H. BLoomrr, Hon. See.

HeavTH RESORTS OF BriTarnN.—In an address
before the British Balneological and Climatological
Society, on April 27th, Sir Hermann Weber, M.D.,
gave an exhaustive analysis of the climate of the
health resorts of Britain, compared with those of the
Continent. His opinion is that our summer resorts
are more desirable than those of the Continent, but
the reverse is the case in winter.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

NOTICES BY JOHN T. CARRINGTON.

The Natural History of Selborne. By GILBERT
Wuite. Edited by GRANT ALLEN, with numerous
illustrations by EomMunp H. New. to in. X 7} in.
(London and New York: John Lane, 1899.) Is. 6d.,
per part of 48 pp., net.

This issue of Gilbert White’s classic, of the many
that have been published, most nearly approaches an
edition de luxe, TVhe publisher has ‘spared no pains
or expense in producing a charmingly quaint old-style
book, quite in accordance with the period w hen
Gilbert White wrote his well-known letters and diary.
It is satisfactory to find, unlike some other editions,

Hall!

i

AANA

2)

Lane, we give on this page an example in a sketch of
*““The Wakes,” the house in which White so long
resided and wrote so much. We can cordially
recommend this latest edition of White’s Selborne to
our readers.

The Flora of Cheshive. By the late LorD DE

Tasiey. Edited by SpENCER Moore, with Bio-
graphical Notice of the Author by Sirk Mou NTSTUART
GRANT DuFr. Ixiv. +°399 pp. 8 in. So in.,

with portrait of author and map of Cheshire.
(London, New York and Bombay: Longmans,
Green and Co., 1899.) Ios. 6d. net.

The author of this Flora was better known to
botanists as John Byrne Leicester Warren, than by his
title of Lord De Tabley, which he was the third and
last to bear. After the author's death in 1895 his
sister, Lady Leighton, while going through her late
brother’s papers, collected all the materials she could
find relating to the Cheshire Flora and placed them
in the hands of Mr. Spencer Moore, for arrangement.
Thus it is we have the work before us, which forms
an important contribution to the already numerous
county and other Floras of Britain. With regard to

She Vakes

From The Natural History of Selborne. Edited by Grant Allen.

the editor has not in his notes overshadowed the
original author. In fact, it is not improbable that a
little more evidence of the critical faculty, and a
sharper comparison between White’s old style natural
history and modern knowledge, would have been an
advantage to the present readers. We have before us
a work to be coveted by every true lover of elegance
in books. Mr. New’s illustrations are excellent
imitations of the woodcuts of last century, such as
those with which Bewick delighted our grandfathers.
Each letter commences with a picture of some bird,
or charming bit of scenery from the Selborne district.
The former are usually artistically treated, though
most may be identified by the least informed
omithologist. Of the latter, by permission of Mr.

arrangement and nomenclature, the former, with few
exceptions, follows the seventh edition of the London
Catalogue ; as generally does the nomenclature; but
the classification of the vascular cryptogams and
Characeae is arranged in accordance with more
modern ideas. Following the scientific names are the
English, that have been selected strictly in view of
adopting the binominal system, in which it is
attempted, as far as possible, to give a free translation
of the Latin equivalent. For instance, A/chemilla
vulgaris is called lady’s-mantle alchemil. The result
is that we have rather a straining for uniformity to
obtain binomalism, the hyphen doing considerable
duty in the effort; as, for example, in red water-
mint and large-flowered hemp-nettle. Occasionally

22 SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the system breaks down, unless by oversight
in proof reading; for instance Carex ‘eretiuscula,
is called lesser panicled carex, in which we have
clearly an example of trinomalism. There are many
little incidents in the biographical notice of Lord De
Fabley to amuse and interest, especially those who
personally knew or corresponded with Mr. Warren.
After an enumeration of the comital districts, which
consist of the seven hundreds of the county, there
follows details of their physical aspect, and of the
characteristic plants, present or absent. A chapter is
devoted to a list of persons concerned in the past with
Cheshire botany, and particulars of their writings on
the subject. There is also a list of books, periodicals,
and manuscripts referred to or consulted, which in
itself forms a useful bibliography for the county
botanist. The book has been well produced by the
publishers, the portrait of the author being quite a
work of art.

Proceedings of the South London Entomological and
Natural History Society. 1898. Part ii. 131 pp.
S}in.x53in. and 3 illustrations. (London: The
Society, 1899). 2s. ; ;

The scientific side of these proceedings contains
several items of more than passing interest. There
are papers on ‘‘ The Scientific Aspects of Entomo-
logy,” by Mr. J. W. Tutt, F.E.S., and ** Lazy Days
by the Sea,” by Mr. R. Adkin, F.E.S., dealing
chiefly with lepidoptera at Eastbourne, though other
branches of natural history are touched upon. The
presidential address by Mr. Tutt forms good reading,
and affords much food for thought upon the pursuit of
Natural History as followed in these days. Very dif-
ferent is its possibilities from the study in the ‘*Col-
lection” period of the middle of this century. In
fact, it is a pity this address cannot be more widely
read, than through the pages of these ‘* Proceedings.”
The president’s analysis of the financial value of each
member on page 82, is an object lesson to local
scientific societies, and puts the whole question of the
practical side of such membership in a light that will
be a revelation to many who consider themselves
doing a society a favour by becoming members.

Lepidoptera of the British Islands. By CHARLES
G. BARRETT, F.E.S. Vol. v. Heterocera, Noctuae,
381 pp., gin. X6in. (London : Lovell, Reeve and Co.,
Limited, 1899.) 12s. net.

This volume of Mr. Barrett’s British Lepidoptera
comencing with the genus Celoena, brings us to the
end of the genus Xanthia. It is prepared with the
usual care shown by its author in former sections.
Mr. Barrett adds in this volume to the present diffi-
culty of entomologists studying the Lepidoptera, by
deviating from any other system of arrangement,
though to a lesser extent than we have latterly had
placed before us. It will be remembered that this
work is also issued with coloured plates, the cost being
three guineas per volume.

Buds and Stipules. By the Right Hon. Sir JoHN
LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., D:C.L., LLDi vu
and 239 pp., 74in. X5in., illustrated by four coloured
plates and 340 figures. (London: Kegan Paul and
Co., Limited, 1899.) 5s.

This work, which forms one of the International
Scientific Series, is devoted to a section of botanical
study which becomes the more fascinating as we better
understand it. The book before us by Sir John
Lubbock renders itsapproach easy. Without attempt-
ing the dry science of botany, the possessor of this
work may go forth to find lifelong interest in the
formation and development of the leaf clothing of most
of our trees and plants.

Stars and Telescopes. By Davin P. Topp, M.A.,
Ph.D. xvi.+ 419 pp., Sin. x 54in., with 219 illustra-
tions. (Boston, U.S.A.: Little, Brown and Co.,
1899.) $200.

We have already noticed Professor Todd’s ‘*‘ New
Astronomy,” and this is a companion handbook of
popular astronomy. It is founded on Lynn’s Celestial
Motions. With this work, and the other by the same
author, there is no difficulty in obtaining a sufficient
knowledge of the subject for all ordinary purposes, as
Professor Todd has a pleasant style of writing, which
leads on his readers, in spite of themselves. The
book is well illustrated.

Thornton-Pickard Album of Prize Pictures. 48

pp-, 10}in. x 7in., illustrated. (London: Dawbarn-

and Ward, Ltd., 1899.) 6d.

This may be described as an artistic scrap-book
made up of prize specimens of photography sent to
the Thornton-Pickard Co., of Altrincham, by com-
petitors for their annual £200 prize competition, for
prints taken by the ‘‘ Amber” and ‘* Ruby”
Cameras, made by that firm. The prints have been
well reproduced, and make an interesting album, as
they number examples from many parts of the world.
They are generally artistic and beautifully reproduced.
There are several natural-history subjects among
them. 5

Milk, Its Nature and Composition. By C. M.
AIKMAN, M.A., D.Sc., 2nd edition, xx. + 180 pp.,
7jin. x 5in., illustrated with 21 figs. (London: A
and C, Black, 1899.) 3s. 6d.

The object of this book is of the highest
importance, as it investigates the association of milk
with the fatal form of consumption technically known
as tuberculosis. It is to be hoped that a greater
general knowledge of the danger of consumption germs
in milk, will draw public attention to the necessity of
not using any but that which has been sterilised. In
fact, the desirability of prohibiting the sale of any
otherisapparent. Dr. Aikman has given considerable
consideration to this subject, as it naturally forms part
of his work as Analyst at Glasgow. He divides his
book into eleven chapters, commencing with the
structure of the cow’s milk-producing glands, and its
secretion, gradually leading the reader through a
history of this important article of food, in all its
stages.

Volcanoes: Their Structure and Significance. By
T. G. Bonney, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R:S. iv. +
351 pp. 84in. x 6in. 12 plates and 2 illustrations
in text. (London: John Murray; New York: G.
P. Putnam’s Sons. 1899.) 6s.

Professor Bonney’s new work is written for the
ordinary reader who may be scientifically inclined,
and this motive is kept in view so far as it is possible
in a work of this kind. More or less a compilation,
it is yet one that could not have been undertaken by
anyone but an expert on past and present igneous
phenomena, and rocks. To those for whom the work
is intended, the chapters on ‘‘The Life History of
Volcanoes,” and ‘‘ The Theories of Volcanoes,” will
prove extremely interesting. The part played by
water and steam in creating explosions in the neck
and in the crater, is well worked out. The general
proximity of present-day volcanoes to the sea-coast is
dwelt upon, as giving some explanation of the source
of the steam. The question of the cause of the molten
condition of the deep-seated materials of the earth
also receives attenticn. There is a useful glossary of
scientific terms used, and an index ; also a folding-
map showing the distribution of volcanoes, past and
present.—E. A. M.

Zz

SCIENCE-GOS SIP. 23

SINGING-FLIESs.—The following note, extracted
from my natural history diary and bearing on the
singing or humming of Syrphidae while at rest will
perhaps prove of interest to Mr. Edward H. Robert-
son (S. G., Vol. v. N.S., p. 345) and other readers of

ScIENCE-Gossip. November 14th, 1896.—In August
I had Butler’s ‘‘ Household Insects,” for the first
time. In it I found recorded, on the strength of the
observations of some other observer or naturalist,
the fact of a large species of Syrfhus indulging in a
humming or singing when seated on the ground on
stones whilst at rest. This record at once recalled
to my memory the fact that I had at least twelve
months previously been surprised to hear a uniform
shrill, high-pitched humming or singing close to my
ear, whilst I was seated on a rail beneath the trees at
the bridge crossing the burn in the Crofts at Killing-
worth. It was altogether different in tone from the
humming of the numerous Syrphi or ‘‘ hoverer-flies,”
which were soaring and darting about in the
bright and warm sunshine of the afternoon.
I thought the sound must emanate from some of them.
Still, the uniformly equal tone, shrill and somewhat
gnat-like humming or singing, appeared to be quite
close to my ear, but on turning my head very gently,
I could find no Syphus, or other insect, hovering
there, whence the sound appeared to proceed. I then
gently raised the hat from my head, and as gently and
slowly lowered it to the level of my eyes, when the
musician stood, or rather sat, revealed on the brim of
the hat. It was a black-and-yellow Syrphus of the
same size as Syrphus ribesti, and was very probably
that insect. Its wings, though closed, were not at
rest, but were rapidly vibrating ; so rapidly, indeed,
as to give to them a hazy appearance. I perfectly
satisfied myself that the peculiar humming proceeded
from the seated Sy7fhus, and that the closed wings
were rapidly vibrating. I could not have been quite
certain of the species before the insect took flight,
since I can find in my diary of August no note of the
circumstance, and had, no doubt, hoped to repeat the
experience, and identify the species before noting. —
Charles Robson, Killingworth, Neweastle-on- Tyne.

PHOTOGRAPHING LARGE INSECTS BY ARTIFICIAL
LiGur.—On the top of a tripod or camera stand may be
fixed a double board, hinged so that it will turn up at
right angles with its base as intheaccompanying sketch,
and supported by a side rod or slotted bar. It will be
seen that if the camera is screwed to the upright
board, the lens will point downwards to the ground.
It is obvious that if anything is placed on the floor, by
using the camera in this position the object can be
very readily seen on the ground glass of the instrument.
Books, manuscripts and such like things that are diffi-
cult to fix up, can thus be very easily copied, and with
a great saving of time. The size does not matter.
One has only to lengthen or reduce the distance
between the object and the lens to get the necessary
reduction; but it is not for this purpose that I now
describe an arrangement I have successfully used for
some years in photographing insects, such as butter-
flies, beetles, or shells, leaves, single flowers, etc.
Much time can be saved, as one has only to place the

object on some suitable support, and photograph.
Some people may inquire about the shadow, as it
often mars the beauty of the photograph, though some-
times it adds very materially to its relief. To obviate
this, I place my object on a sheet of clear glass with a
piece of white or coloured paper, as the subject may
require, at such a distance as to cast no visible shadow.
That is to say, the shadow is lost before it reaches the
paper. By this means one gets a negative of the
object only. Some subjects look better on a clear
ground, then use a sheet of white paper. For tinted
ground, a grey; and for a black ground, a dull choco-
late paper will be found the best, as it seems to have
the least reflection and absorbs the light better than
black. Such butterflies as the common- and marble-
whites, small blues, etc., look better on a dark ground,
whereas nearly all the others show better on a clear
ground. The same remarks will apply to other
insects. In making a series of photographs of butter-
flies, they should all bear the same relative proportion
to one another, as in nature, and not be the same
size. To obtain this, they should be taken with the

Tue ‘“ FRESHWATER CAMERA” FOR INSECTS.

same extension of the camera, and the same distance
between the object and thelens. By working on these
lines, one can obtain a set of photographs that are
perfectly accurate in size, with relation to one another.
I have not said anything about the method of expo-
sure. This is the crux. If one’s subject is not properly
lighted and exposed we do not get a negative worth
printing. I would at once say that if one has the
opportunity, there is nothing like daylight ; but it is
not every one who can spare the time to work in the
light of day. Further, many days during the winter
months are not fit for such work, so it is best to use
magnesium ribbon, as its photographic value is nearer
to daylight than anything else. With seven inches
of the ribbon, and a rapid, thickly-coated plate, one
will find it easy to get a good negative, full of detail,
and gradation of light and shade. The best developer
to use is pyro-soda. For the formulae, see any of the
photographic textbooks. I need scarcely remark that
any printing paper may be used, preferably those of
the gelatino-chloride type, as they give a brighter
image.—TZ. Z. Freshwater, F.R.ALS., 3, Fleet Street,
London, E.C,

CONDUCTED BY EDWARD A. MARTIN, F.G.S.
Drirt NOMENCLATURE.—It gave me much plea-
sure to see the amount of space devoted to this sub-
ject in your issue for April (p. 348). I hope its
perusal will awaken an interest in a rather neglected
section of geological science on the part of local
observers in those districts where Drift deposits occur.
It will lead, I trust, to further elucidation of a com-
plicated and obscure set of deposits. I gather from
Mr. Kennard’s remarks that he regards the whole of
the gravels near Dartford as practically contempora-
neous. After comparing them with a very large
number of similar deposits in Southern England, and
for reasons given in my paper referred to by him, I
think that those on Dartford Heath itself are older
than those at lower elevations at Milton Street and
Galley Hill. After carefully reading Mr. Kennard’s
remarks, I see no reason to alter my opinion. Unless
considerable earth movements have taken place
during the excavation of the Thames Valley, the
higher gravels in a given locality, such as the one
under consideration, would be the older. I was
much struck during a study of the gravels of

Southern England and the literature relating
to them with the fact that all the Pleis-
tocene Mammalia came from the _ set of

gravels most closely connected with the present
river system. Many gravel sections occur at higher
levels, but have yielded none. An universal negative
is, of course, easily refuted by one adverse fact. It
is therefore of importance to see if the statement
stands the test of future observation, as if true an
important datum line is obtained. It was in conse-
quence of this, that I could not allow Mr. Kennard’s
original remarks to remain unchallenged. The
gravels occurring at higher levels in the same
localities, than those yielding Pleistocene Mammalia
have, as far as I know, only yielded the following
evidence as to age. (1.) The Early Drifts near
Lenham and above Westenhanger contain blocks of
ironstone which yield casts of fossils referred by
competent authorities to a Lower Pliocene fauna.
The deposits containing them are therefore of later
date. Similar drifts occur in many places in the
South of England, but have up to the present yielded
no fossils. Lithological evidence and a careful com-
parison of levels are our only data. (2.) At Dewlish,
Dorsetshire, a distinctly Upper Pliocene fossil,
Elephas meridionalis, has been found in a drift,
in a deposit, situated at a lower level than the

High Level or Early Drift of that district, and
above the river terraces. It is thus seen that,
although the evidence is admittedly slender, it

distinctly points to the possibility, if not indeed
the probability, of the intermediate series of drifts,
termed Lower Plateau Drifts, being of Pliocene
age. Here the local observer might unearth valuable
evidence. Mr. Kennard finds fault with the names
used by me to designate the broad divisions of these
drift deposits, but I have merely adapted those pre-
viously used by the Geological Survey, and some of
the authorities he quotes. The term “* Early Drift ”
is defined. by me in a previous paper, ‘ Pebbly

SCIENCE-GOS STP.

Gravel from Goring Gap to the Norfolk Coast”
(Proc. Geo. Assoc, Vol. xiv., pp. 389 to 404), and the
term ‘* Glacial” is also there explained. It would be
an easy task to show that the terms suggested by him
are far from being above reproach, but it would take
far too much of your valuable space. The fact is,
that a great deal of work must be done before we can
definitely, and with some approach to mathematical
precision, correctly classify and name these obscure
deposits. In conclusion, I may state that the object
I had in view in writing the paper referred to, was to
describe the gravels at greater heights O.D, than
those on the river terraces, and these latter are taken
only as a kind of base line.—d. &. Salter, 14,
Amersham Road, New Cross, S.E., April, 1899.

Work OF THE Ouse.—Under the above heading,
in the ‘* Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical
Society ” for 1898, issued a few days ago, Mr. H. M.
Platnauer, B.Sc., gives the results of some observations
he has been making with regard to the amount of
material brought past York, by the waters of the
Ouse. As these have some bearing upon a note on
the ‘* Origin of the Humber Mud,” published in
ScIENCE-GossiPp, Vol. vy. p. 7, a summary of Mr.
Platnauer’s observations may not be out of place.
The method of procedure was very simple: 102
different samples were taken from the River Ouse, and
a litre of each evaporated to complete dryness. The
residue thus obtained was carefully weighed. An
estimate of the quantity of water passing a given
point in a given time was then obtained, and a short
calculation gave the amount of solid matter-passing
York in any given period. Mr. Platnauer estimates
that, taking everything into consideration, about

-300,000 tons of material are annually carried past the

City of York, in the waters of the Ouse. — Unfortu-
nately, no attempt has been made to differentiate
between the amount of solid matter in solution and
that in suspension ; though, we are promised, experi-
ments on these lines will be shortly conducted. What
at first seems remarkable, however, is, that when the
water is swollen with flood, and, consequently,
turbid, there is less solid matter per litre
after evaporation than when the water is
clear, and flowing under ordinary condi-
tions. This is no doubt accounted for by Mr.
Platnauer, who rightly states that in the former
instance the water is principally surface water, whilst
in the latter it has passed through the soil and rock,
and reached the Ouse by means of springs. It is
then consequently charged with much mineral matter.
If, therefore, during a ‘‘ fresh,’ when the water is full
of numerous fine particles in suspension, there Is less
solid matter per litre than when the stream is normal
and clear, it is evident only a small proportion of the
300,000 tons annually swept past York is in suspen-
sion. Of course it is not forgotten that when the
river is in food a far greater quantity of water, and
consequently solid matter, passes York in a day than
when the water is low. But the period of flood is not
along one. It is also very probable a large propor-
tion of this matter in suspension never reaches the
Humber, but it is deposited on the alluvial flats, as
shown in the article in SciENCE-Gossip for June,
1898, already referred to. Now, with regard to the
bearing of Mr. Platnauer’s notes on the origin of the
Humber mud, his observations conclusively show that,
conparatively speaking, there is no extraordinary
amount of suspended material brought past York,
and probably a much less volume gets into the

estuary. I say ‘‘ comparatively speaking ” advisedly,
as only those who are acquainted with the
vast accumulations of muds and silt, usually of

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Series, 4s. per Series. 5 Series of 24 Foraminiferous Sands at
2s, each. 5 Series of Microfungi at 2s. each. 7 Series of 24

Sections of Woods, 2s. each.
CLEANED UNMOUNTED 24 TRANS. SECT. OF WOODS.
Series xxviii.— Unmounted 2s.

DIATOMS.

Series i.—4s. per 12 tubes.
Aulacodiscus Kittonii.
Synedra ulna typica.
Prasiez (Hungary).

Millbury (Mass. U.S.A.)

Sing Sing (Hudson River,
U:S.A.)

Cherryfield (Maine, U.S.A.)

St turnin (France).

Bain's lower (Oamaru).

Bodos (Hungary ‘

Simbirsk (Russia).

Licmophora flabellata.

Striatella unipunctata.

W. WEST, I5,

Pinus pinea.
Pinus laricio.
Pinus montana.
Quercus Sessiliflora.
Carpinus betulus.
Ulmus campestris.
Tilia parviflora.
Clematis vitalba.
Myrtus communis.
Salix caprea.
Platanus orientalis.
Populus alba,

Bite, ctc.

Horton Lane,
Send Stamp for List.

TRILOBITES

From the Upper Silurian of Dudley.

Phacops Downingia, rs. 6d, to 5s.
Encrinurus variolaris, 1s. 6d. to

BRADFORD.

Phacops cz audatus, 1s. 6d. to 15s.
Acidaspis coronata, 28, to 4s.
Calymene Blumenbachii, 5s. to 3s. 6d.
12s. 6d. Homolonotus, 3s. 6d. to 7s.
A few Upper Silurian Crinoids, Corals and Bra achiopods.

Collections to Illustrate Geology and Physiography.
Catalogues Post Free.

THOMAS D. RUSSELL, Mineralogist,
78, Newgate Street, London, E.C.

BORD’S
PIANOS

95 Per Cent. Discount for Cash, or 148, 6d. Per Month
(Second-Hand, 10s. 6d. Per Month). on the Three Years’ Hire
System. Illustrated Lists free, of CHAS. STYLES & Co.,
40 and 42, Southampton Row, London, W.C. Pianos

Exchanged,

, 7 it

SCIENCE-GOSSTIP. 25

enormous thickness, stretching along for miles and
miles on the sides of the Humber, can appreciate their
magnitude, and speak as to the inadequacy of the
three rivers flowing into the estuary to lay down such
extensive deposits. It would be interesting if similar
experiments to those made at York could be conducted
nearer Goole, though allowance would have to be
made for material brought in by the rise of the tide.
Of course Mr. Platnauer’s note was not written for the
purpose of showing what amount of material eventually
reached the Humber in the form of sandand mud. He
simply demonstrates in a very lucid manner what
geological work is actually being performed by the
river Ouse. If similar observations could be system-
atically undertaken on our other rivers, some very
valuable results might be obtained. We anxiously
await the appearance of Mr. Platnauer’s further notes.
—Thomas Sheppard, 78, Sherburn Street, Hull ;
r5th April.

BRIGHTON CLIFF FORMATION.—Referring to Mr.
E. A. Martin’s note on the fine section of the chalk
breccia or Coombe Rock displayed in the cliffs to
the east of Brighton (S.G., Vol. v., N.S., p. 376), it
may interest the readers of SCIENCE GossIP to know
that to the west of the town there is a good expo-
sure of the bed of sand, which, owing to the inroads
of the sea, has, as Mr. Martin remarks, since dis-
appeared from the eastern side, where it occupied a
position midway between the Chalk and the raised
beach. This occurs in asmall quarry on the sea front
at Portslade, where is seen the Coombe Rock, much
reduced in thickness, resting on a bed of marine sand,
exposed to a depth of six feet. At the eastern part
of the cutting there are a few rolled flints in the
top part of the sand. They are the sole representa-
tives of the mass of shingle under and on the other
side of Brighton. I have obtained specimens of
Mytilus edulis from the ancient beach. This
mollusc, together with Lz¢torina obtusata, is very
abundant in the sand, and pebbles encrusted with a

species of Salanws ave not uncommon. — Both
have yielded remains of a whale, Zalaena
mysticeta. Many mammalian bones, — including

teeth of Llephas primigenius and LKhinoceros
antiquitatis, have been exhumed from the Coombe
Rock. Specimens of all these, together with a
Paleolithic flint implement from the base of the last-
mentioned formation at Portslade, can be seen in the
Brighton museum. The Coombe Rock covers up all
the marine drift of the Hampshire Basin, where it
can be traced to the dry chalk valleys of the South
Downs and their westerly extension, from each of
which it projects on to the lower ground in the form
of a large semi-circular talus. The origin of this
curious deposit is not fully known, but it seems to
have been formed during a period when extreme cold
was the predominant feature. It is not difficult to
imagine that severe frosts had strewn the chalk
slopes with a deep layer of rubble. In the winter,
wind storms would seal this up under a cover of
snow, which would be congealed into a névé. Under
the influence of the summer heat, this minor ice-
sheet would partially melt, and great masses would
slide down the hillsides, dragging with them the loose
débris, and the boulders of sandstone which were
already scattered over the downs. On the final dis-
integration of the ice and snow, piled up by this
process in the bottom of the valley, great floods
resulted, which swept much of the detritus far out into
the plain below. Mr. C. Reid speaks of the mass
covering Selsey Bill, as being coarse and gravelly to
the north, and loamy to the south. This is just what
one might expect, for the process of sifting the larger
from the finer material, and the carriage of the latter

further afield, would be going on long after the
torrential waters had spent their original energy.—
Js 2. Johnson, clo Stanley and Co., High Street,
Sutton, Surrey.

GLACIAL DRIFT OF WHEATHAMPSTEAD.—At Mill
Hill some gravel has been laid down as road-material,
which is full of fossils from the Chalk. There are a
great many spong in it, chiefly Ventréculite and
Chona, also Micraster and Salentia. Drift with
derived rocks and fossils, such as Gryphaea dilatata
and Belemnites from the Oxford Clay has also been
utilised, together with masses of freestone with
Khynchonella angulata from the Inferior Solite. On
asking a man one day where these gravels came from,
he said they were brought from Wheathampstead.
I went down and visited the beds. There was plenty
of drift, but the sponges were not so abundant. Why
should the sponges be so abundant in the gravel,
whereas in the south east of London the echinoids are
the most plentiful >—G. Fletcher Brown, 3, Topsfield
Parade, Crouch End, N.

CORRELATION OF THE ECHINODERMATA.—In his
paper before the Geological Society on ‘‘ Fossils
in the University Museum, Oxford: Silurian
Echinoidea and Ophiuroidea,”’ Professor W. J.
Sollas called attention to the correlation of structure
and function in the locomotive organs of Asterids,
Ophiurids and Echinids. In the case of the two
latter, movement depends on tension directed along
the tube-feet. In Starfish this tension is met by the
disposition of the ambulacral ossicles in the form of
anarch ; in Urchins by a continuous tesselation of the
surface, which would only be weakened by arch-like
interruptions. If, however, urchins have evolved
from an Asterid stem, they may have originally
possessed arch-like ambulacral grooves, and the
present plates of the ambulacra may have been
subsequently acquired. In Padlaeoddscus ferox of
the Lower Ludlow, Leintwardine, which by the
structure of the buccal armature is definitely shown to
have been an Echinid, the ambulacra possess just the
characters as theory anticipates; an inner arch of
poriferous ambulacral plates, homologous with those
of a starfish, is closed externally by a series of paired
plates, which represent the ambulacral series of an
urchin.

GROWTH OF STALACTITES.—At a recent meeting
of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Professor
Liversidge exhibited some specimens of stalactites and
stalagmites from the tunnel at the Prospect Reservoir,
Sydney, which had been collected by Mr. E. Hufton.
The tunnel was built some twelve years ago, and the
comparatively large size of the stalagmitic deposit—
nearly 2in. in thickness—gives an idea of the rate
of deposition of calcium carbonate. The exhibitor
believes they have been derived mainly from the
cement of the tunnel, inasmuch as he understands
that no limestone was used in its construction, nor is
there any in or about the reservoir. The catchment
area is essentially of sandstone, and the water conse-
quently poor in lime.

GEOLOGY OF Davos.—At the meeting of May
toth, of the Geological Society, Mr. A. Vaughan
Jennings, F.L.S., F.G.S., read a paper on the
physical structure of the Davos Valley, which is
rather oblique to that of the great rock masses, but is,
however, somewhat irregular. These which have a
general dip towards the south and east, form three
great acute and rudely parallel overfolds ; the western-
most being the more complicated, and is partly
serpentine, with certain crysalline Breccias, in the
vicinity,

26 SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

OMY,

a

CONDUCTED BY F. C. DENNETT.

Position at Noon

Sets.
hm.
S10 p.m
8.17
8.19
Souths
June Mle ham
Moon 6 .. 2.14a.m. .. 10.25a.m. .. 6.
16 .. 0.19 p.m. .. 6.10 p.m. .. 11.
26 ..10.7 -- 2.27a.m... 7.
Position at Noon.
R. Dec.
June h. OM
Mercury ..6.. 4 20.48 N
16 . 5-45 .. 24.37
26 .. 7-19 24.5
Venus Gres 3:6 =. 15.50)N
16. 3-55 19.2
26 .. 4-45 21.25
Mars <=AO0ce 10.11 .. 12.32 N.
jupiter --16 .. I 10.27 S.
Saturn Ae) 35 “Oh so sh
Uranus ..16 .. 16.13) == 21-5.
Neptune ..16... 5-30 22.5 N.
Moon’s PHasEs.
hm. hum.
New .. June 8 .. 6.20a.m. ist Or. ..June 16 ..9.46a.m,
Full -. 23 -. 2.20.p.m: 37d Or... 30-- 4.45 a.m,

In apogee June 13th, at 3 a.m., distant 251,800
miles; and in perigee on 25th, at § a.m., distant
224,200 miles.

CONJUNCTIONS OF PLANETS WITH THE Moon.

er
June 6 a3 Venus+ -- 2am. .. planets5.10 S.
vi ae Mercury*® .. «p.m. .. Fo ee) SS

14 Ee Mars* San oe » 6.17 N.

+ 19 = Jupiter®*+ .. 9 54 Sy 2B

5) 22 Saturn* 2.22 N.

sia S -- 7 P.M. ”
® Daylight. + Below English horizon.

OCCULATIONS.
Dis- Angle Re- Angle
Magni- appears JSrom appears. from

June Star. tude. hm. Vertex. h.m. Vertex.
. .
2... 19 Piscium - 2.53a.M. .. 55 -. 3-40a.m. .. 317
25... /Sagittani.. 5 .. 1.17 Rie ts -- 283
25 ePisclum .. 5 ..11.22 p.m. .. 70 ..12.10p m. ~. 315

ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND Moon.

In the early morning of June 8th there will be small
partial eclipse of the sun. At Greenwich it begins,
6° west of the Vertex at 4.23 a.m., and ends 70°
east of the Vertex, at 5.53 a.m., so that the greatest
phase occurs at 5.17 a.m., when the magnitude of the
eclipse will be o*19, taking the sun’s diameter as
unity. Farther north the magnitude, and duration of
the eclipse is slightly increased.

There will be total eclipse of the moon on the early
afternoon June 28th, quite invisible in England, but
in splendid position for our Australian brethren.

THE Sun should be watched for occasional out-
breaks of activity on his surface. Summer is said to
commence at 4 p.m. on the 21st June when the sun
enters the sign Cancer.

MERCURY is in superior conjunction with the sun
at 7 p.m. on 14th, afterwards becoming an evening
star, which, at the end of the month, does not set

until nearly an hour and a quarter after the sun. On
goth a line drawn through Castor and Pollux will
point almost exactly to it. In conjunction with
Neptune at 7 a.m. on 14th June.

VENUs is a morning star all the month, poorly
placed for observation, except by day.

Mars has now become too small for useful observa-
tion, besides having to be looked for as soon as possible
after sunset.

Jupiter is still well placed for observation. It is
a very interesting object this season, from the broken
state of the north equatorial belt.

SATURN being in opposition at 2 p.m. on 11th is
at its best thismonth. On the 4th the major axis of the
outer ring is 42.64”, and the minor axis 19.12”, whilst
the diameter of the planet is only 17”, so that the
whole object is very beautiful, notwithstanding its
low altitude.

URANUs is still as well placed for observation as
ils southern declination will permit.

NEPTUNE is in conjunction with the sun at 9 p.m.
on 15th, and so cannot be observed.

METEORS may be looked for specially on
6th, 7th, 22nd, 290th, and 3oth.

SwirFt’s CoMET, 1899a, may be observed. Its path
takes it through Draco, Hercules, and Bootes.

May 31 .. R.A. 18h. 22m. .. Dec. 56°56’ N. .. Brightness 1°5

Jane 5). 3; a0, 40 eon ees Se “ 1"2
is) 9XO\ aa gy = 903O ene a as o8

New Minor PLANET was discovered by M.
Coggia of Marseilles, on 31st March. Over thirty-
one years have elapsed, since his first similar dis-
covery was made.

SATURN’s NINTH SATELLITE has had the namé
Phoebe, one of Satum’s sisters, proposed for its
designation by its discoverer, Professor W. H.
Pickering. Its diameter is probably not over 200
miles, and as seen from Saturn, does not probably
exceed a 6th magnitude star.

“*THE CAMBRIAN NATURAL OBSERVER.”—The
quarterly journal of the Astronomical Society of
Wales has come to hand, and contains as a frontis-
piece a very fine drawing of Mars by Rev. Theodore
E. R. Phillips, as well as 32 pp. of interesting
matter. It may be obtained from Mr. A. Mee,
41, Hamilton Street, Cardiff.

RoTaTION OF Mars.—The latest determination
by Professor H. G. Van de Sande Bakhuyzen, from
all available data, is 24h. 27m. 22°66s., the mean
error + O.O 132s. He finds that in Herschel and
Schroter’s time a very dark spot similar in form
to the Kaiser Sea, existed 50° or 55°. preceding
that object, north of the Maraldi Sea.

JUPITER 1N 1899.—Reference is made above to
the broken state of the north equatorial belt of this
planet, which may in part be seen with even a three-
inch telescope. It is beautifully shown in the two
splendid drawings kindly sent by the Rev. Theodore
E. R. Phillips of Hendford Vicarage, Yeovil, as seen
with his g}in. with reflector. Mr. Phillips says:
‘* The dark north tropical spot in the first drawing is
a very rapidly moving spot,” having a mean rotation
period of gh. 55m. 13°3s., and which seems to be now
in more rapid motion than when first observed. He
continues: ** The red spot is still visible in good air,
though very faint. To me it has lost all trace of red,
and is now quite grey. The dark material immediately
south of the red spot in the second drawing has
apparently been drifting rather more quickly than is
usual with objects in that latitude. You will see the
shadow of Satellite II. just coming on the disc.” For
these drawings, see next page.

SCIENCE-GOS STP.

CHAPTERS FOR YOUNG ASTRONOMERS.

By Frank C. DENNETT.
USE OF THE TELESCOPE.

V. p: 375.)

Onr of the first things to be ascertained on pur-
chasing a telescope, is the exact magnifying power of
each of its eyepieces. To do this accurately, focus
the instrument upon some celestial object, then
direct it, during daytime, at the bright sky, as low
down as is practicable. If a lens of, say, 2in. focus be
applied to the eye, and the light coming from the eye-
piece examined, a little image of the object- glass
will be found, when the eye and lens are drawn back
a certain distance from the eyepiece. Let this
tiny image be carefully measured. Personally, I
usually effect this with the thin glass ruled to ;};ths
of an inch, which I use as an eyepiece micrometer
with a microscope. We will suppose that the tiny
disc of light has a diameter of ;';th of an inch. If the
object-g glass has a clear aperture e of 2}in. the magnify-
ing power with that eyepiece would be 36. Tf the
aperture of the object-g glass is 3in., then the power
would be 48.

(Continued from Vol

Scuth.

length. This should be dead blacked inside, either
with paint, or with black velvet glued in. It should
fit on firmly, in place of the cap over the object glass.
This lessens the chance of ‘‘dewing”; or condensation
of atmospheric moisture on the object glass.

Be careful to have the instrument well focussed.
Different objects need re-adjustment according to
their brightness, and after close work for a little time,
the eye needs a slight alteration, even when looking
at the same Biecis For examining planetary detail
a still night with a slight frosty fog is often the best.
The most brilliant nights are not always the best for fine
definition, but are available for looking at star clusters
and nebulae. In looking for nebulae, star clusters, or
comets, the lowest powers with the largest field of view
are required, some only being visible with such powers.
The Kellner eyepiece is specially constructed for this
work. Some star clusters and nebulae, however, will
bear fairly high powers. The best power for planetary
work is usually about 50 to the inch. Thus a power
of 150 should be used with a 3-inch objective. For
double stars. a higher power. from 60 to 100 to the
inch, z.e., 180 to 300 on a 3-inch, may sometimes be
employed. Some stars however are most clearly

South.

April 15th—r2h. 10m. G.M.T.

May 6th—1oh. 20m. G.M.T.

Tue PLANET JUPITER IN 1899.

Drawn by the R

After the magnifying powers of the eyepieces have
been ascertained, next find the angular diameter of
that portion of the sky visible with each eyepiece,
when it is truly focussed. This section of sky is
known as the ‘‘ field of view.” To do this, turn the
telescope on some star near the celestial equator, such
as § Orionis, or 7) Virginis, and accurately measure
the interval of time. elapsing during the passage of the
star across the centre of the field of view from East to
West, then turn time into angular diameter. For
instance, if the object takes just two minutes of time
to cross the field of view, the angular diameter of
that field of view is 30’ or half a degree. | Minutes or
seconds of time multiplied by 15 give minutes or
seconds of arc.

If possible always use the telescope out of doors,
not from a room through a window. If the
latter method is sometimes unavoidable, _ let
the end of the telescope be well out of window to
avoid the heated air passing from the room. The
floor too, is susceptible of every movement, which is
communicated to and magnified by the instrument.
Never try to look at an object over, or to leeward of
a chimney inuse, nor, if possible, close to the horizon.
It is always best to use a ‘‘ dew cap,” a piece of light
tubing about three diameters of the object glass in

Theodore FE. R.
(Sve page

Phillips.
206.)

seen with low powers. Practice is the best guide?in
these matters. Faint comparisons near to brilliant
stars are often best seen in strong twilight, or with a
full moon, this masks the glare of the large star.

In looking at the sun it is safest to employ a solar
reflector, which is a surface of glass reflecting only a
portion of the light through the eyepiece and sunshade.
This prevents the dark sun-glasses from getting
cracked, and sometimes the observer's eye from. being
destroyed.

When making observations, always take instant
note of what is seen; for, if an interval is permitted,
the memory becomes clouded by uncertainties.
Carefully note the date and time of every observation.
It is always well, if possible, to supplement written
notes by diagrams or drawings. To do this it is not
necessary to have studied drawing. A diagram of, say,
Jupiter, ‘would show the position of any markings far
bertee than any amount of written description. With
practice comes proficiency. In drawing a planet, or a
portion of the moon’s surface at the telescope, do not
attempt to finish as proceeding. First get rough outlines
done, fill in the positions of the spots or shadows
note the time, and then proceed to fill in the finer detail.
No one knows the value of even a rough diagram.

(To be continued.)

28 SCIENCE-GOS SIP.

CONDUCTED BY JAMES QUICK.

THE Evecrric Arc.—The investigations con-
ducted by Mrs. Ayrton, and her paper read before the
Institution of Electrical Engineers on March 23rd
last, have considerably extended our knowledge of the
conditions governing the electric arc. Everyone is
familiar with the hissing that takes place with an arc
lamp, when the current or other conditions are altered.
Detailed work, however, upon the manner in which
this hissing is brought about has not hitherto been
done. Among other things, Mrs. Ayrton has found
that when the length of the arc is constant and the
arc is silent, it may be made to hiss by increasing the
current ; also when the current is constant and the
are is silent, shortening the arc will make it hiss. If
the arc is a silent one, it is found that the difference
of potential varies as the current, and that this varia-
tion is different with solid and with cored carbons.
On the other hand, with a hissing arc the difference
of potential is the same for a given length of arc and
a given pair of carbons whatever current is flowing.
This law also is true whether the carbons be cored or
solid. There thus seems to be a sudden breakdown
when hissing occurs. Furthermore, it is found that
the longer the arc, the less does the difference of
potential between the carbons diminish, when the arc
changes from silence to hissing. Next, considering
the appearance of the crater under various conditions,
quite a distinct difference takes place when a current
is reached of a certain magnitude, depending only on
the length of the arc with a given pair of car-
bons. The crater becomes partly covered with
what are apparently bright and dark bands in con-
centric circles. The directions of rotations change
continually, and the motion grows faster as the
current increases. When due to the latter cause, the
motion becomes too fast to be followed by the eye,
the arc begins to hum. Mr. A. P. Trotter in 1894
made measurements upon the velocity of rotation in
these circumstances, and found it to vary from 50 to
450 revolutions per second. At about this highest
speed the arc commences to hiss, and then the whole
appearance of the crater again changes. Many more
interesting results were brought forward by Mrs.
Ayrton. The paper elicited a lengthy discussion.

PHOTOGRAPHIC ACTION WITHOUT LIGHT.—Some
striking phenomena have recently been worked out
by Dr. W. J. Russell upon the action exerted by
certain metal and other bodies ona photographic plate
in the dark. These ‘‘active” bodies have been
divided into two groups—the metals magnesium,
cadmium, zinc, and some five or six others forming one
group, and the class of organic bodies known as the
terpenes forming the other. When any of these
bodies are placed either in contact or in close
proximity to the film of a plate, they exert, under
certain conditions, a more or less strong photographic
action upon it, and an image is produced by the

ordinary methods of developing. These results
should certainly be welcome, especially to photo-
graphers, as probably they will explain many a hitherto

inexplicable fogging on an unexposed plate. Dr.
Russell's experiments go at present to prove that hydro-
gen peroxide is the active agent in these phenomena.

my Grsdy

RA

—

IME
ABROA

W

CONTRIBUTED BY FLORA WINSTONE,

La Nature (Paris), April 29th, contains an article
by M. J. Poisson on the Echinocactus of Lower
California. The directors of the ‘‘ Jardin des Plantes”
of Paris have placed for a stated time a certain
amount of room at the disposal of travellers, that they
may have opportunity for showing any objects of
interest obtained from foreign countries. This novel
exhibition was opened in February last, and contains
some interesting specimens in zoology, ethnography,
chiefly of the Indian races, and botany. The
notes by M. Poisson relate more particularly to the
flora of Lower California, especially the Family Echin-
ocactus. Two fine illustrations are given, one in which
are a number of young plants, and another, giving a fine
specimenof Z. digueti Webb. Its height is more than
twice that of a medium-sized man. Its trunk, how-
ever, never hardens into wood, and it can ‘always be
pierced with ease. The flesh-like mass makes a very
nice sweetmeat, which is sold under the name of
“© Sweet of Visnaga,” that being the colloquial term
for cactus. -In the same number, M. Aclogue writes
on the metamorphoses of insects, selecting as his
example one of the Ephemeridae. A figure is given
of the insect after emergence from chrysalis. Another
new generator for acetylene gas is noticed by M. J. F.
Gall. The apparatus is illustrated by three figures,
but though new in some of the details, it does not
appear to differ in general principles from those
already in the market. (May 6th) M. Albert Vilcoq
contributes an illustrated article on the gadfly.
This family of the Diptera are especially interesting
because, although they are inveterate enemies of farm
animals, they are little understood by the farmers,
and the means employed to destroy them are often
ineffectual. The various divisions of the Family are
described, as are also the organs which they respec-
tively attack, and the symptoms that attend their
presence. <A few methods of treatment are suggested,
but none of them appear to be of much use. There
is a short note by Jacques Boyers on the Telegraph and
Telephone in Persia.

Comptes RENDUus (Paris), May 1st. This number
contains a note by M. Armand Gautier on Iodine in
sea-water. It is usually supposed that the sea con-
tains a large proportion of iodines principally as
ioduretted alkalis. The writer, however, in the
course of various experiments demonstrates that the
open sea does not contain, either on the surface or
several metres below, any trace of iodide or
ioduretted alkalis. M. Gautier says he cannot at
present explain the presence of organic iodides in
algae, sponges, and seaweed, but he proposes to
carry on a series of experiments likely to elucidate
the cause. M. Stanislas Meunier notifies the
observation of the fall of a meteorite in Finland at
the end of March. The circumstances were
peculiarly favourable for observation. It was seen to
travel along a considerable portion of the sky above
the littoral of the Baltic Sea, falling at last not far
from the town of Borgo. It will be presented to the
collection of meteorites in the Museum of the
Academy of Sciences, France.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 29

CONDUCTED BY F. SHILLINGTON SCALES, F.R.M.S.

To Microscopisrs.—With this number Sc1ENCE-
Goss begins a fresh volume, and the microscopical
column comes under new editorship. A few intro-
ductory words as to our aims may, therefore, not be
out of place. Our object is to make this column as
interesting and as helpful as possible to our readers,
by keeping them informed of various matters of
interest in the microscopical world, especially with
reference to methods of work. We propose in future
to lay greater stress, from time to time, upon the
improvement of the microscope and its accessories. We
desire, in fact, to make this column a valuable record
of the progress of the microscope, of new or
modified stands, objectives, apparatus, etc. The
present keen competition amongst opticians, especially
amongst the limited few who are in the front
rank, and with whom workers are mostly concerned,
gives rise to constant progress. It will beour endeavour
to keep our readers advised on these points without fear
and without favour. May we add that we shall espe-
cially welcome letters from our readers, who have,
we think, scarcely realised how much help they may
gain, or give, by taking advantage of the free hos-
pitality of these columns. We shall ourselves be glad
to answer through this medium any enquiries on
miscropical matters that may be sent us if addressed
to the office of SCIENCE-GossrP.

CLEANING SLipes.—We can recommend the
method mentioned by Mr. Cole for cleaning glass
slips and covers, whether used or not, namely to
immerse them bodily in a strong solution of Hudson’s
soap-powder in warm water. Soak for an hour or two,
wash well with changes of warm water, and finally, if
necessary, with methylated spirit. Cover glasses
and slips for important work may require special
methods.

New AcHROMATIC CONDENSER.—Although the
Abbé Condenser, or, as it is often called, Illuminator,
is recognised as being suitable for most general

R. & J. Beck's New Conve?

practical work, mainly on account of its being easy to
use, yet for more critical work a well corrected
condenser becomes a necessity. Messrs. Beck have
brought out a new condenser for high-power work
that is achromatic and has a numerical aperture of

tN. A. This is the maximum that can be obtained
without having the front of the condenser in immersion
contact with the under surface of the slide, and its
aplanatic aperture exceeds -g N.A. It is thus greatly
superior to the ordinary Abbé Illuminator. The front
lens is removable to make a low-power condenser.
An Ins diaphragm and a swinging arm, with rotating
fitting for coloured glasses, or stops, are provided.
A bracket is ingeniously added at the bottom of the
mount, into which the optical portion may be
screwed, and the whole condenser thus reversed.
This is often a convenience. The price of the

complete condenser is £3, but with Ins diaphragm
only £2 5s.

NEW TRIPLE NOSEPIECE.—Messrs. Beck have also
brought out a new triple nosepiece in bright lacquered
brass, the price of which is only seventeen shillings

Beck’s New Triple NosepIEce.

and sixpence. It is not perhaps quite so attractive as
the ordinary trefoil-shaped pattern, but has the advan-
tage of being dust-proof and cheap.

NEW REVERSIBLE Compressor. —A third novelty
which the above firm have brought under our notice
is a new reversible compressor, designed by Mr. H. R.
Davis. Briefly, we may say that it is made of
ebonite, and consists of a lower and two upper plates.
The lower plate contains an oblong thin glass, held in
position by two screws, the two upper plates contain

Tue Davis REVERSIBLE COMPRESSOR.

a projecting milled ring, which, when revolved,
brings an upper thin glass in contact with the lower
glass. The whole arrangement is easily taken apart
and conveniently arranged, whilst it is eminently
serviceable. The price is Ios. 6d.

DissECTING MricroscoPEs.—Messrs. Bausch and
Lomb have brought out two new dissecting micro-
scopes. The one consists of a small wooden case or
box, 4 inchesX2 inchesX14 inches. One end of the
case and the top is removable, and serves as a cover.
A small glass stage slides in a groove at the top of the
box, and can be replaced by a glass stage with cell,
opal glass stage, or black glass stage. Beneath is a
plane mirror, and an upright rod carries three lenses,
magnifying from 5 to 25 diameters. The other dis-
secting microscope is very similar to Leitz’ well-
known stand, but the focussing is by sliding adjust-
ment instead of by rack and pinion.

ABBE CAMERA Lucrpa.—Mes Bausch and

Lomb have also brought out a simplified form of this
camera, in which the mirror and prism are enclosed

30 SCIEN CE-GOS SIP:

in a mount and fixed, the mirror itself being reduced
in size. The whole is attached to the microscope by
a clamp, and can be swung aside as required ; whilst
it can further be adjusted in position so as to be used
with various eye-pieces.

DECOLORISING ALGAE.—Dr. H.C. Sorby has found
that diluted formalin decolorises algae, and by means
of this reagent has succeeded in so reducing the colour
as to show the natural colouring of such algae in
lantern slides, instead of exhibiting only the ordinary
dark shadows.

KILLING AND PRESERVING MARINE ANIMALS.—
Dr. Sorby also finds that the addition of a small
quantity of menthol to the sea-water in which marine
animals are kept, causes them to expand fully. They
can then be preserved permanently in a four per cent.
formalin solution. By this method he has preserved
Synapta and several species of sea anemones. He
also suggests the use of dilute glycerine for killing some
animals. Afterwards he removes this by water, and
subsequently mounts in Canada Balsam. By this
means he has been able to ,mount certain worms, so
as to show the minute blood-vessels filled with the
natural red blood. Both these methods were exhibited
on May 3rd, at the Conversazione of the Royal Society.
particulars as to height and width of microscope-stage.

NEW STAGE-TABLE. — The little table herein
illustrated has been a veritable wzze/tzum i parvo to me.
It was first devised asa rough stage for the microscope.
That instrument being placed vertically, the table is
brought over its stage, and admits work of the
roughest character without danger to the microscope.
Further, it can be heated by aid of a spirit lamp, and
when hot enough placed over the microscope, thus
acting as a hot stage, extremely useful in watching
crystallisation, etc. The wooden hand-rests being
non-conductors of heat, the hands of the operator can

rin. aperture,
Sloping side,

|
/ 4X 4¢ covered with wood.

} inch thick, 44 inches wide, and 16 inches long, or

table is finished.
16-inch cut a circular aperture 1 inch in diameter.
At 33 inches, als» at 5} inches, from each end, drill
and counter-sink a %;-inch hole, #-inch from each side ;
that is four holes at each end of the sheet of brass.
Then bend the sheet into the form of part of an
irregular octagon, as in the accompanying diagram, the
1 inch aperture being in the centre of the proposed
table-top, which, when finished, should measure
44 inches by 44 inches, take care that the counter-
sinks are on the underside. Then take two pieces of
apple wood 4 inch thick, the size of your sloping-table
sides. Screw these to the sides, a piece of asbestos
cloth intervening; neatly finish, and the day’s work
will never be regretted. Microscopists, not of the
amateur mechanic fraternity, had better place the
work in the hands of an optician, giving him the
particulars as to height and width of microscope-

G. West, 128, Kentish Town Road, London, N.W.

tion to ophthalmic and aural cases.

=J

JaBez Hocc.—The sudden death is announced of
Mr. Jabez Hogg, M.R.C.S., F.R.M.S., which took
place in his 83rd year, at his residence, Palace Gar-
dens Terrace, Kensington, on the 23rd of April. Mr.
Hogg was born at Chatham, where his father held an

appointment in the Royal Dockyard. He was edu-
cated at Rochester Grammar School. His first occu-
pation was on the staff of the ‘‘ Illustrated London
News,” which he joined in 1843, but in 1845 he
entered the medical school at Charing Cross Hospital,
and in 1850 became a member of the Royal College
of Surgeons. Ophthalmic surgery received his chief
attention, and in that branch of the art he practised
in London, long living in Bedford Square. Micro-
scopy, as a science, soon occupied his spare time, and
he became a F.L.S. in 1866, and hon. secretary of
the Royal Microscopical Society from the following
year until 1872. Among numerous literary efforts, he
is best known to microscopists by his many editions of
“«The Microscope: its History, Construction, and
Applications,” the 15th edition of which we recently
noticed.

CHARLES LEESON PRINCE.—-We have to record
the death at The Observatory, Crowborough, Sussex,
on 22nd of April, of Mr. Chas. L. Prince, M.R.C.S.,
F.R.A.S. Meteorology was Mr. Prince’s chief
occupation, and he had carried on careful observa-
tions, especially on temperature, for many years past.
The Royal Astronomical and the Meteorological
Societies of London and Scotland elected him
member. Mr. Prince’s contributions to the literature
of his subject are largely of a local character, but are
of much value for comparative purposes.

BENJAMIN VINCENT.—Long the Keeper of the
Royal Institution Library, Mr. Benjn. Vincent first
became connected with the Institution in 1848, as
Assistant Secretary. In his various capacities he had
met most persons of consequence in the World of
Science, and was connected with Michael Faraday
by marriage. He possessed a remarkable aptitude
for languages. Mr. Vincent was editor of Haydn’s
“* Dictionary of Dates” and a companion ‘‘ Dictionary
of Biography.” He retired from active attention to
the Library in 1889, and died at Barnsbury on the
3rd of May.

HENRY BENDELACK HEewertson.—Mr. Hewetson,
who died at the age of 49, in the second week in May,
was a well-known scientific man at Leeds. He was a
Fellow of the Royal Geographical, the Linnean, and
Zoological Societies; also a member of the British
Ornithological Union. He was an artist of repute,
and an active supporter of several scientific and
artistic societies of Leeds. By profession Mr.
Hewetson was a surgeon, devoting his greatest atten-
Only a few weeks
ago a remarkable case of his was reported, when he
enabled a woman to regain her sight, after being
blind for 30 years.

HERBERT Lioyp.—A_ proprietor of Lloyd's
Weekly News and Daily Chronicle, died at Falmouth,
aged 41. While residing in Natal he was honorary
Astronomer at the Observatory.

SCIENCE-GOS SIP. 3

i AS

- THE new Museum of Oceanography at Monaco is
in process of building, the foundation stone having
been laid with ceremony on April 25th. There will
be laboratories for marine zoologists.

THE aluminium steerable balloon which is being
constructed at Marzell, in Germany, is expected to
make its first ascent in July next. The site chosen is
at Lake Constance, where a platform of pontoons has
been built on the lake, to facilitate the operations.

AT a meeting held recently of ‘‘ The National Trust
for Places of Historic Interest and Natural Beauty,”
the acquisition of a small portion of Wicken Fen was
announced. The matter is being arranged for the
Committee by Mr. Herbert Goss, F.L.S., whose
article on the subject (S.G., vol. v., N.S., p. 291),
appears to have influenced the Executive Committee
of the National Trust.

AMONG the last official duties performed by Sir
William Flowers before his retirement, was that of
passing for press the final volume of the ‘‘ British
Museum Catalogue of Birds.” This. issue of
-volume xxvi. completes the series as designed by
Dr. Gunther so long ago as 1874. It was originally
intended that Dr. Bowdler Sharpe should undertake
the whole of the work, but owing to his increasing
curatorial duties, this was found impossible after the
publication of the first four volumes, and he received
the assistance of ten other gentlemen. Amongst
these were the late Mr. Seebohm, Mr. P. L. Sclater,
and Mr. E. Hartert. The ‘‘ Catalogue” aims at
being a complete list of every bird known at the time
of publication. Preparations are,now being made for
a catalogue of the vast collection of eggs in the British
Museum. The work has been placed in the hands of
the well-known ornithologist, Mr. E. W. Oates.

A SMALL committee, consisting of Sir John Kirk,
Sir William THiiselton-Dyer, Dr. Sclater, Dr.
Boulenger, and Professor Ray Lankester, have sent
Mr. J. E. S. Moore again to Lake Tanganyika to
thoroughly explore its depths, and the surrounding
country. The Royal Geographical Society and the
Royal Society have both contributed funds towards
the cost of this expedition. The collections obtained
will be placed at the disposal of the Trustees of the
British Museum.

ON Saturday, April 15th, a party of about sixty
members of the Selborne Society Field Club and
friends, met at South Croydon for a ramble over
Croham Hurst. A halt was made on the top of the
Hurst, whenthe conductor, Mr. E. A. Martin, F.G.S.,
addressed those present on the geological and other
characteristics of the spot, also dealing with the
agitation for preventing the sale of a great part of the
site for building purposes. On April 6th, under the
guidance of Mr. Harrison, members met at Gomshall
for a walk in that very interesting part of Surrey.
After an enjoyable ramble in the varied scenery
lying between the chalk hills on the north and the
sandstone hills on the south, the party took tea at
West Hackhurst, the residence of Miss Forster, the
local honorary secretary. :

CORRESPONDENCE.

Ar the suggestion of several correspondents we open with
this volume a department in which our readers may address
the Editor in letter form. We have pleasure in inviting any
who desire to raise discussions on scientific subjects, to
address their letters to the Editor, at r1o, Strand, London,
W.C. Our only restriction will be, in case the correspondence
exceeds the bounds of courtesy; which we trust is a matter
of great improbability. These letters may be anonymous.
In that case they must be accompanied by the full name and
address of the writer, not for publication, but as an earnest
of good faith. The Editor does not hold himself responsible
for the opinions of the correspondents.—Zd. S.-G.

PEARSON’S HEPATICAE.
To the Editor of SCIENCE-GOSSTP.

S1r,—The announcement of Pearson’s Hepaticae
produces a feeling of profound disappointment among
a large number of botanists. Anyone not having seen
proofs cannot pronounce an opinion on the value of
the work, and, it may be reasonably assumed that it
will be worth the price charged ; but that price is
prohibitive. The increasing circle of moss lovers
embraces few, probably not any, who do not feel an
interest also in the allied hepatics. When it became
known that a work on the subject was in preparation
by a gentleman eminently capable of dealing with it,
hopes were raised ; but how many will be able to
afford seven pounds for an account of a group of plants
numbering two hundred and odd species ?

It would be impertinent for an outsider to offer
suggestions, but one may venture respectfully to put
the matter with an example. There now exist
facilities for a fairly comprehensive study of the
mosses without the possession of Dr. Braithwaite’s
‘* British Moss Flora ;” but supposing that splendid
monograph were being introduced at the present time,
or that the back numbers were to be obtained, it is
puobable that all students of bryology, without
exception, who could afford the expense, would
purchase his work. In the same way, had the
hepatics been equally accessible, there is little doubt
the monograph in question would be obtained by
all whose means are commensurate with their
enthusiasm. I do not ignore Mr. M. C. Cooke’s
useful little book, but the price is too small to admit
of more than it contains.

The foregoing remarks must not be regarded as a
grumble, nothing could be further from the writer’s
intention, but that they express the sentiments of
other botanists as well as himself is already an
ascertained fact.

W. P. HAMILTON.

1, Underdale Villas, Shrewsbury.

May rrth, 1899.

SCIENCE EXCURSIONS.
To the Editor of SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

S1r,—It has often occurred to me there are in this
country a number of persons interested in some branch
of natural science who have the reputation of
insularity, for the simple reason they have never had
an opportunity of studying Nature beyond their own
shores. Could not some arrangement be started for
occasional tours to well-known European collecting
grounds under the ‘* Personally Conducted ” System ?
I feel sure there are many entomologists, botanists,
and others, who are familiar with such places and
would gladly take charge of a party once a year.
These trips need not be expensive, if an honorary
secretary and treasurer would volunteer to organise
them.

Essex NATURALIST.

Lee)
ly

NOTICES OF SOCIETIES.

Ordinary meetings are marked +, excursions © ; names of
persons following excursions areofConductors. > Lantern
Illustrations.

Gro.ocists’ AssoctaTion oF Lonpon. Excursions.
June 3-—* Redhill.
10.—* Rickmansworth and Harefield. W. Whittaker,
B.A., F.R.S,, Pres. G.S.
17-—Excursion. Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S.,
and Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A., F.G.S.
“ 24.—Bnrghton. H. Edmunds, B.Sc.
July 1.—*Medway Valley. G. E. Dibley, F.G.S., and
A. E. Salter, B.Sc., F.G.S.
rr 15.—*Guildford.
Ai 22.—Cycling Excursion.
Aug. 3~9.—°Derbyshire: Peak Forest—Headquarters at
Matlock Bath. One night at Castleton. H.
Arnold Benirose, M.A., F.G.S., Dr. Wheel-
ton Hind, F.G.S., and J. Shipman, F.G.S.
Frederick Meeson, Chairman, Excursions Committee,
29, Thurloe Place, South Kensington, S.W.

Nortu Lonpon Naturat History Society.
June 1.—+**Some Old Microscopists and their Work.”
W. H. Barber.
-- 15.—t** Evolution of Scenery.” R. W. Robbins.
“- 24.—*Chesham. L. B. Prout, F.E.S.

SeLsorne Sociery—Croypon anD Norwoop BRaAnNcH.
June 17%—*Merstham and Caterham.

july 15.—*Reigate Heath.

Aug. 19.—*Belmont, Woodmansterne, and Chipstead.
Sep. 16.—°Mitcham Common to River Wandle.

Sout Lonpon EstomoLocicaL anp Natura History
Society.
June 10.—*Field Meeting at Byfleet.
July 15.—*Field Meeting at Wisley, via Effingham.
Hy. J. Turner, Hon. Report Sec,
He e Scientific anD Fietp Naturavists’ CLus.
June 3-—*North Cave and Cliff, with Hull Geological
Society.
” 10.—* Yorkshire Naturalists Union at Tadcaster.
» 14.—*?Lecture, “‘ The Geology of the Brough neigh-
bourhood.” T. Sheppard.

an 24.—*Day Excursion to Spurn Point.
oe 28.—t#*‘ Evidences in Man of Evolution.” Dr. J.
Hollingworth.
July 8.—*Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union at Driffield.
“4 12.—+“* A Search for the Red Deer in the Holderness

Peat Beds.” A. & B. Morfitt.
26.—+** Advice to Young Microscopists.” R. H.

Philip.
NotrinGHam Naturat Science RamsBinG Cis.
June 3-—*Botanical Section. Bulwell Forest.

17-—*Geological Section. Gotham and East Leake.
J. Shipman, F.G.S.

Tunsripce Wetts Naturat History AND PHILOSOPHICAL
Society.
June 3.—* Bodiam Castle. Dr. Earle.
rj 24.—*Heathfield Natural Gas Springs. G. Abbott.
July 15.—* Westerham and District. Mr. Trollope.
Aug. 12.—*Bidborough and Leigh (with Southborough
Field Club). Mr. Freer.
Sept. 2.—*Pembury and the Borough Waterworks.
H. S. Roberton.
30.—(?)*Fungus Foray. R. R. Hutchinson.
Hon. Sec., R. R. Hutchinson, 28, Princes Street,

Soutu-Eastern Union Scientiric Societies. — ANNUAL
ConGress aT ROCHESTER.
May 25.—1tPresidential Address.
26.—t11 a.m. to1 p.m. General einer re on
“Plateau Implements” by B._ Harrison;
“ Practical Hints on Formation of Collection
of Coleoptera,” by J. J. Walker, R.N.,
F.E.S.; ** The Sun Eclipse of May, 28th,
1goo," by G. F. Chambers, F.R.A.S.
ey 26.—13 to 5 p.m. “ Botanical Bibliography of S.E.
Counties,’ by Prof. G. S. Boul ‘er; ‘* History
of the ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’" by J.
Hepworth; * Discussion on Ideals of
Natural History Societies,” opened by Paul
Mathews, M.A.

ay 26.—tEvening. Annual Conversazione of Rochester
Naturalists’ Club.

27-—111.30 a.m. “* How to Keep a Botanical

Record,” by Prof. Boulger; ** Some English

Vegetable Galls,”, by Edward Connold;
* Science at end of 18th Century,” by A. W.
Blackett.

s 27-—Excursions to various places at or near
Rochester.

Local Secretary, J. Hepworth, Linden House, Rochester.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

IMPORTANT NOTICE.

SUBSCRIPTIONS (6s. 6d.) for Vol. VI. are now due.
The postage of SCIENCE-GoOssIP is really one penny,
but only half that rate is charged to subscribers.

The Proprietor of Sc1ENcE-Gossip having decided
to manage the business department from an inde-
pendent office at 110, Strand, London, W.C., all
subscriptions, advertisements and payment for ad-
vertisements must in future be sent to that address,
and no longer to the Nassau Press, which latterly
managed the commercial department for the pro-
prietor.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,

_ To CoRRESPONDENTS AND EXCHANGERS.—SciENCcE-GossIP
is published on the 25th of each month. All notes or other
communications should reach us not later than the 18th of
the month for insertion in the following number. No com-
munications can be inserted or noti without full name
and address of writer. Notices of changes of address
admitted free.

Business Communications.—All Business communica-
tions relating to Scrence-Gossip must be addressed to the
Proprietor of Scrence-Gossip, 110, Strand, London.

Susscriptions.—Subscriptions to Scrence-Gossip, which
may commence with any number, at the rate Of 6s. 6d. for
twelve months (including postage), should be remitted to
the Office, 110, Strand, London, W.C.

EpiroriaL_ CoMMUNICATIONS, articles, books for review,
instruments for notice, specimens for identification, &c., to
ee to Jonn -T. CaRRINGTON, 110, Strand, London,

Notice.—Contributors are requested to strictly observe

the following rules. All contributions must be clearly _

written on one side of the paper only. Words intended to be
printed in zfaéics should be marked under with a single line.
Generic names must be given in full, excep’ where used
immediately before. Capitals may only be for generic,
and not specific names. Scientific names and names of
places to be written in round hand.

Tue Editor will be pleased to answer questions and name
specimens through the Correspondence column of the maga-
zine. Specimens, in good condition, of not more than three
species to be sent at one time, carviage faid. Duplicates
only to be sent, which will not be return The specimens
must have identifying numbers attached, with
locality, date, and particulars of capture.

Tue Editor is not responsible tor unused MSS., neither
can he undertake to return them, unless accompanied with
stamps for return postage.

EXCHANGES.

Norice.—Exchanges extending to thirty words (including
name and address) admitted free, but additional words must
be prepaid at the rate of threepence for every seven words
or less.

Science-GossiP, vol. xxviii. (1892). ** Photogram,” vol. ii.
** Amateur Photographer,” vol. xvi. All unbound. Offered.
—Charles Mosley, Lockwood, Huddersfield.

Science-Gossip, 1886-8, complete. Jan.. 1889, Aug., Nov.,
Dec., 18953 Jan.. Feb., July, Aug., -, Oct, Dec., 1896.
Whiat offers in foreign shells.—Ernest Pattison, 52, Regent
Road, Leicester.

Powerrvut Brxocutar field glass, with sling case, as new,
Wanted.—Good low-power microscope (for opaque objects) ;
dissecting micros ; or offers (Natural History).—Burgess

Saxholme, Hoylake.

WantTeD, elementary science books. Offer English or
foreign books in exchange, Miss Inman, Halstead Essex.

Cottecrion Birps’ Eccs._ Few sea-birds included, open
to offer. Particulars from Charles Bowell, junior, Conway
House, Allandale Road, Leicester.

OFFERED, many back volumes. Scrence-Gossip, “* En-
tomologist,” “‘Entomologists’ Record,” *‘* Entomologists’
Monthly Magazine,” ** Naturalist,” ** Zoologist,” “* i-
thologist,”” and ** Oologist,” etc. Wanted, works on ento-
mology or offers. W. Banks, Union Road, Poole, Dorset-
shire.

Wantep, Gosse’s Manual of Marine Zoo! . 2 Vols.
State particulars and price, R. Williamson, 3, Keir Street,
Pollokshields, Glasgow.

Orrerev, new Geological Map of British Isles, by A.
Geikie, F.R.S., mounted mahogany rollers, with illustrations
fossils. Geological Text-book Wanted, also Botanical.—P,
J. Roberts, 11, Back Ash Street, Bacup.

Spwers. Few days’ loan of collection of Arachnidae
required for sketching purposes. Will exchange vols. of
“Strand Magazine” or cash payment.—James tt, 241,
Edward Road, Walthamstow.

=. eo

SCIENCE-GOS STP. vii

WATKINS & DONCASTER,

Naturalists and Manufacturers of Entomological Apparatus and Cabinets,

NB. —for Excellence and Superiority of Cabinets and Apparatus, references are permitted to aistinguished
Patrons and Colleges, &c. Catalogue (66 pp.) sent post free on application.

Plain Ring Nets, Wire or Cane, including stick, 1s. 3d., 2s. 6d. Taxidermist’s Companion, zc., a pocket leather case, containing
Folding Nets, 3s. 6d. and 4s. most useful instruments for skinning, ros. 6d.

Umbrella Nets (self-acting), 7s Scalpels, 1s. 3d. ; Label Lists ot Birds’ Eggs, 3d., 4d., 6d

Pocket Boxes, 6d.; corked both sides, od., 1s. and 1s. 6d. | Scissors, per pair, 2: Setting Needles, 3d. and 6d. per box.
Zine Relaxing Boxes, 9d., 15., 1s. 6d., and 2s. Coleopterist’s Collecting Bottle, with tube, 1s. 6d., 1s. 8d.

Nested Chip Boxes, 4 dozen 8d., 1s. od. gross. Botanical Cases, japanned double tin, 1s. 6d., 25. 9d., 3s. 6d., 4s. 6d.
Entomological Pins, mixed, 1s. 6d. 02. Botanical Paper, 1s. 1d., 1s. 4d., 1s. gd., 2s. 2d. per quire. [7s. 6d.
Sugaring Lanterns, 2s. 6d. to ros. 6d. Insect Cases, imitation mahogany, 2s. 6d. to 11s.

Sugaring Tin, with brush, 1s. 6d., 2s. Cement for replacing Antennze, 6d. per bottle.

‘Sugaring Mixture, ready for use, 1s, 9d. per tin. Forceps for ETON insects, 1s. 6d., 2s., 2s. 6d. per pair.
Mite Destroyer (not dangerous to use), 1s. 6d. per Ib. | Cabinet Cork, 7 by 33, best quality, 1s. 4d. per dozen sheets.
Store Boxes, with Camphor Cells, 2s. 64., 4s., 5s. and 6s. Pupa Diggers, in fexthes sheath, rs. 9d. Insect Lens, 1s. to 8s.
Ditto, Book Pattern, 8s. 6d., 9s. 6d., and tos. 6d. Glass Top and Glass Bottomed Boxes, from 1s. 4d. per dozen.

Setting Boards, flat or oval, rin., 6d.; 1}in., 8d.; 1} in., 9d.j 2in., Label Lists of British Butterflies, 2d.

rod.; 2}in., 1S.; 31n., 1S. 2d.; 3h in., ts. 4d.; gin., 1s. 6d.; Ditto Land and Fresh-Water Shells, 2d.

4}in., rs. 8d.; 5in., 1s. rod. Complete set of 14 boards, ios. 6d. | Ege Drills, 2d., 3d., 1s.,; Metal Blow Pipe, 4d. and 6d.
Setting Houses, gs. 6d. and ris. 6d., with corked back, 14s. Ournew Label List of British Marco-Lepidoptera, with Latin and
Zine Larva Boxes, od., ts. Brass Chloroform Bottle, 2s. English Names, 1s. 6d. Our new Catalogue of British Lepidop-
Breeding cage, 2s. 6d., 4s., 5s., and 7s. 6d. tera, every species numbered, 1s. ; or on one side for Labels, 2s.

All Articles enumerated are kept in stack and can be sent tnimediately on receipt of order.

The “DIXON” LAMP NET (invaluable for taking Moths of Street Lamps without climbing the lamp posts), 2s. 6d.
CABINETS. Special Show Roon.

The following are the prices of a few of the smaller sizes; for measurements and larger sizes see catalogue.
Minerals and Dried

5 ere R Minerals and Drie
Insect. Eges. Plants, Fossils, &c. Insect. Eggs. Plants, Fossil
i IDK lcencto NERD GEE> Seno SERS CUE Bape: Sokal 8 Drawers ...:.... SO ocbeenec 30S cercee
GuDrawers) <i -.-. seb case MOREE eono ueph il ne) IOVS cocchoes,” AER ocnk one Gash sccscade 456.

A LARGE STOCK OF INSECTS’ AND BIRDS’ EGGS.
Birds, Mammals, &c., Preserved and Mounted by First-class Workmen.

36, STRAND, W.C. (Five Doors from Charing Cross).

THe Automatic CyYcLostTVYLe.

THE LATEST IMPROVEMENT IN DUPLICATING APPARATUS
FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS JUST MADE.

For printing Reports, Speci- EDITOR OF
“fications, Price Lists, & tis
invaluable and soon repays its - =
neal ; “ [Ve can well

| Zo Seevelartes of
A FEW ADVANTAGES. others for Preparing
nea or other documents.
1.—No skill required. The

work being done by, the
Machine automatically, a

‘© SCIENCE COSSIP ” Says: | cleaner. One inking suffices
(MAY, '98, No.) | for 100 to 200 copies, but 2,000

: a lao copies may be taken from one

recommend this Machine | ene).

Scelentific Societies and |

manifold coptes of notices

4.—Egqually adapted for re-
| producing written or type-
written matter.

5-—Great speed in taking
copies. It is only necessary
to turn a handle which lifts

novice can at once obtain per- and lowers the frame, and time
cones j

fect copies. is gained by having a less
2.—Great uniformity of number of re= -inkings.

copies. The pressure being
constant and regular, the
copies are all alike.

3:—The process of re-inking
is made much easier and

6.—The difficulties which
frequently arise in the working
of other duplicating apparatus
entirely dispensed with in the

CYCLOSTYLE.

we ay
wes Newer nen

COMPLETE OUTFIT FOR SEPROnUEINE HANDWRITING.
Octavo size, 3 IOs. 5 (Quarto size, £4 15s. 5 Foolscap size, £5.

Extras for Reproducing Typewriting: Octavo size, IOS. Gd. 5 (Quarto size, HWS. Gd. 5 Foolscap size, Zs. 6d. 5
Fitted with Unmeltable Rollers for Tot CORuENEs: £l Is. extra, any size up to Foolscap.

To those requiring a Ereape proc ss ie easy & Tanipienon: the following is suitable :

THE ‘‘NEO-CYCLOSTYLE’’ HAND-ROLLER PROCESS.

Prices from 25s. Unmeltable Rollers for Hot Climates supplied at an extra cost.

THE CYCLOSTYLE COMPANY, 34, SNOW HILL, LONDON, E.C.

EE ’ a r 7
7 ‘

i vcuxscecossie MM
| JOHN J. GRIFFIN & SONS, Ltd.,

- Chemical, Philosophical, and Photographic Instrument Makers,3
MAKERS TO THE ADMIRALTY, WAR DEPARTMENT, INDIA AND COLONIAL GOVERNMENTS.

A NEW DOUBLE SURFACE CONDENSER. ~
| (Cribb’s Patent.)

Pee |

4 -~~J SMALL SIZE. :

Lea SMALL WEIGHT.

Efficiency equal to a
LIEBIG CONDENSER
5 :

Times its Size.

Pe ie i
Invaluable in
a Laboratory.

7 Kull description and particulars
oe upon application.
General View of Apparatus. Section of Condenser,

20-26, SARDINIA STREET, LINCOLN’S INN FIELDS, LONDON, Wits

JAMES J. HICKS, 8,9, « 10, HATTON GARDEN, Fabli

SCIENTIFIC erinene MAKER TO THE WAR OFFICE,

INDIA OFFICE, ADMIRALTY, &c. '

Is Sone MAKER OF THE New PATENT

“Watkin”? Mountain Aneroid Barometae

The Barometer that all the World has been waiting for, and the only Ancroid

that can be put in action when required, and “ put out of gear” when it is not wanted
for use, and which, when thrown out of action, is; absolutely impervious ‘to the
influence of variations in atmospheric pressure. ‘Travellers and Surveyors will now
able’ to ascertain correc? altitudes owing to the marvellous accuracy of this
Instrument, which is described at length by Mr. Wityytrer, the distinguished Alpine
mber, in the 7Z7nes of December 17th, 1898. In 65 readings taken between 1,227
| 10,289 feet above the sea, the mean error ascertained by companson with the
Mercyrial Barometer was never somuchas 0.1 of an inch. He says: ‘* Extraordinary
iy be obtained from Watkin’s Mountain Aneroid in observations made far

lin determining differences of level.” 5

I md doubt a wonderful instrument.” &e. (Tress.) 4

re i ee.

It is made in Aluminium for lightness, in either 3 in. or 4} in. sizes, with Sling Leather
Case, and supplied at the following Prices :—

Scale to 5,000 f., £5 5s. ; to 10,000 ft., £5 10s. ; to 15,000 ft, £5 15s. ; to 20,000 ft, £6.

iN: Printed by the Bororru Paess, Limrrep, Sweedland Court, Bishopsgate Strect, E.C.; and Middlesex Street, BE.