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In the ‘Munich catalogue more than six thousand “ Speen E are few beetles so universally well-known throughout Great Britain as those belonging to the genus Geotrufes, the several kinds being popu- larly designated ** Dumble-dors” ; for although one or two of the species are somewhat local in their occurrence, the genus is as a whole widely and generally distributed over the length and breadth of the land, from Lowestoft in the east, to the most Britisu 1.—Geotrupes typhaeus (male). 2. (underside, showing smooth, bar 5:—G. mutator, 6.—GC. sj westerly parts of Ireland, and from Dunnet Head, in Caithness, to Dorsetshire. "These beetles belong to the Scarabaeidae, one of the two families, into which for convenience, the Lamellicornia or “‘chafers” are divided. They form & group, perhaps the best defined, and one of the most widely known of the coleoptera, constituting as it does not only a division numerically important, but containing within its ranks many of the largest and most prominent members of the insecta, as well as some of the most beautiful and destructive beetles. JAN., 1g900.--No. 68, Vol. VI. species are enumerated, and since its publication several thousands have been added to the list. To this group belong the *‘ Goliaths” of Western Africa, robust insects allied to the Cetoniidae or rose-chafers, which frequently attain to a length of five inches, as well as the elephant beetles of South America, and other giants of the race. Dor-BEETLEs. G. longitudinal space). (vaticus. 7. typhaeus (female). 3.—G. spini 4.—G. stercorar —G. vernalis. The name Scarabaeidae will, perhaps, be more familiar to most of us in connection with the Scarabaeus or ‘‘ Sacred Beetle” (Ateuchus sacer) of the Egyptians, representations of which abound on many of their works of a bygone age. Scarabaei figure, in fact, amongst the very earliest examples of engraving on stone, having been regarded by the ancient Egyptians as symbolical of Pthah the Creative Power, and Phrahthe Sun. The Phoenicia and Etruszans also carved them on sard, onyx, and Other varieties of chalcedony. From chariots and ns 226 SCIENCE-GOS STP. warlike subjects being often sculptured in intaglio upon the earliest productions of the latter people, it is conjectured they were sometimes bestowed as rewards and marks of favour upon their military heroes. The Scarabaeoid form for various ornaments of personal adornment, was at a later period introduced into Greece, whilst figures of this beetle were also worn upon the signets of the Roman soldiery as symbolical of manly courage, on account of its supposed birth from the male sex only. To the Scarabaeidae belong Aristophanes’ Cantharus and other beetles of the Ancients, the habit of rolling balls of dung, in which were enclosed their eggs, common to many members of the group, having attracted the attention of observers from the earliest times. The family has been variously divided by modern naturalists, but in Britain we follow the arrangement of Drs. Leconte and Horn, whose classification has been adopted by Canon Fowler in his monograph. In this arrangement, which is based upon differences in the structure and position of the lingula and abdominal spiracles, the group is divided into three portions termed (1) Scarabaeidae Laparosticti; (2) Scarabaeidae Melolonthini; and (3) Scarabaeidae Plevrosticti ; each of which divisions is again sub- divided into several tribes. With the two latter groups we are not concerned in the present article, but taking the first-named we note its members fall naturally into two great sections, the one having five and the other six ventral segments of the abdomen plainly visible. To the former of these belong the Trogina, the members of whose single genus Z7ox are found in dry decaying skins, hides, horns and like substances, whilst the latter comprises the three tribes Coprina, Aphodiina, and Geotrupina, nearly all of which are dung feeders. The. Coprina, round-oval convex insects, of which over seventy species occur in Europe, are readily distinguished from the other two in having scarcely any visible scutellum, whilst members of the two remaining tribes may be separated from one another by the number of joints to the antennae, nine in the Apho- diina and eleven in the Geotrupina. Ofthe latter tribe, four genera occur on the Continent, of which two are found in Britain, viz., Odontaeus Klug. and Geotrupes Latreille. The first-named genus contains but one beetle, Odontaeus mobilicornis, an exceedingly rare insect, that has not been taken in England for many years. This brings us to Geotrufes, a genus contain- ing considerably over a hundred species, widely scattered over the temperate regions of the globe, some fifty being. natives of Europe, and seven indigenous to our own islands. Although not so noticeable in character as some of the exotic members of the family, the habits of this genus have a special interest of their own. From very early times they appear to have attracted the attention of our leading naturalists, and even our poets have made mention of them in their verses. “‘The shard-borne beetle with his drowsy hum” (Macbeth III. 2) of Shakespeare, Crabbe, and Hogg, belongs to the dumble-dors, and is usually associated with Geotrupes stercorarius or one other of the com- moner species. Authorities have differed considerably as to the correct spelling of the word ‘‘ born” or ““borne”’ and the meaning of the word ‘‘shard” as here employed. In his dictionary Dr. Johnson interprets the epithet ‘‘ to be born amongst broken pots or stones,” but Tollet holds that Shakespeare probably wrote ‘‘sharn-born”—shar being a common name for cow-dung in Staffordshire and other Midland and Northern English counties. Again, not an inconsiderable number of commentators incline to the belief that the shards are the wing- cases and that the term refers to the method of carrying the elytra, which are poised aloft during flight ; whilst yet others consider it was the common cockchafer (JZelolontha wilgavis), and not . the dumble-dor at all, to which Shakespeare referred (Patterson). In the face of so many and varied criticisms it behoves one to be careful in advancing an opinion, but when we consider the life-history of the dumble- dor, we cannot help feeling that Dr. Johnson’s interpretation as applied to this beetle is certainly not ahappy one. In the light of further reference to shards in Anthony and Cleopatra (III. 2)—‘‘ Both he loves. They are his shards, and he their beetle ”— and again in Cymbeline (III. 3), where Belarius, the banished lord, says: ‘‘.. . Often to our comfort do we find the sharded beetle in a safer hold than is the full-winged eagle.” It certainly appears probable that Shakespeare used the term in connec- tion with the wings or wing-cases. In some parts of the country the Geot;upes are known as dor- blind- or clock-beetles, and in others as tumble-dungs and I6usy watchmen. In referring to old natural histories, confusion may arise in connection with the first-mentioned name, as most of the earlier writers used it in describing M/elolentha vulgaris, Tumble-dung is probably an Americanism, the term being applied in the United States to a closely allied species, and the ‘‘lousy watchman” obtains its name both on account of its being most in evidence after nightfall, and because it is often infested with numbers of little animals called Gamasus coleoptra- torum. These parasites are yellowish white in colour and oval in form, and may commonly be ound attached to the underside of the beetle. They belong to the dcarina, or mites. In Denmark the peasants regard these little animals as furnishing an unfailing augury respecting their harvest time. If in spring the ticks are numerous between the front legs of the ‘t Skarnbosse ” (or ‘‘ Torbist ”), as the dor+ beetle is there called, it isa sure prognostic that the in-gathering will be an early one; but if, on the contrary, they are mostly confined to its posterior portions, then will the harvest be late. Linné tells us (Syst. Nat.) that large quantities of Geotrapes on wing, during the evening, portend a subsequent fine day, but as Kirby has pointed out (Int. Ent.) they usually only fly in numbers during fair and settled weather, although during the autumn, it is no uncommon thing to see one or two abroad, on nights when the weather is anything but propitious. The dumble-dors of the genus Geofrupfes are so well-known, and with one exception so much alike, that a very short description will suffice. They are large oval convex insects, very robust, sometimes measuring as much as an inch in length and one and three-quarters of an inch in girth. The thorax is broad and comparatively smooth, especially on the disc ; the elytra more or less boldly striated. The legs are strong and adapted for digging rather than for feats of pedestrianism, the gait of the dumble-dor being both awkward and slow. For the size, its strength is enormous. This becomes apparent to anyone who tries to hold a beetle in the lightly closed hand. Unlike so many of the chafers, the colouring of the upper aspect is of a dark and often unattractive hue. The undersides, which are in many cases clothed with shaggy pubescence, generally exhibit a bright metallic lustre partaking of some shade of blue, violet, green, or bronze. Olivier asserts that no beetle can fly against the wind, but although this may be the case with many coleopterous insects, the statement is certainly in- accurate as applied to the order as a whole, the Cicindelidae and others, as well as members of the present genus, having often been observed to make satisfactory headway against a fairly stiff breeze. The flight of the dor-beetle is strong and swift, but seldom so straight as is that of the majority of the coleoptera. Its course is in arcs or segments of circles like the humble-bee, in which circumstance it is resembled by Anomala frischii, a beetle closely allied to the rose- chafer, whose flight curves are, however, usually longer. Notwithstanding that they occasionally occur in decaying fungi and other substances, the Geotrupina are usually dung-feeders both in the larvae and imago forms. In the latter state their scent is keen, as behoves animals which have to seek their food in various and scattered directions. Having discovered suitable food, the dumble-dor alights on or near and immediately commences to burrow beneath, this work being generally performed by the female insect. If a piece of cow-dung in a field be raised and the ground examined beneath, it will probably be found riddled with several clean-cut, almost perpendicular, borings “of about half to three-quarters of an inch diameter, and from eight or ten to perhaps over eighteen inches in depth, according to the nature of the soil and other circumstances. These are the homes of the Geo- trupina. When the tunnel is complete dung is conveyed from the surface above to the bottom of the gallery, in which the female lays her eggs—one egg in each hole. In little more than a week the young larva is hatched, and immediately commences to feed upon the store provided. In appearance these larvae are soft, unattractive little grubs, curved about the middle so that their heads and ‘tails ” approach we ie hi (lela aa sala ee | ea SCIENCE-GOS SIP. 227 one another. The general colour is a slaty-grey, becoming lighter towards the head and thorax, which latter parts are hard and corncous, partaking of a brownish hue. Having exhausted its larder the grub may either work its way to the orifice and procure more food before its change, or immediately assume the pupal form, according to the amount of sustenance stored by the parent, in which state it remains until ready a little later, to emerge a perfect beetle, fitted in every way to take its part in the important work of the propagation of its kind. Besides ‘* the beetle’s drowsy distant hum ” during flight members of this genus have the power when at rest of producing a sharp shrill sound by rubbing the posterior femora against the apical extremity of the abdomen. This ability to emit a squeaking sound is shared also by Cofr?s /unarts, an allied beetle, with many coleopterous and other insects. Dumeril (Trait. Elem. II. 100) compared the noise made by certain of the Longicornes to the braying of an ass, but no well-conducted and self respecting dumble-dor has ever been guilty of thus expressing itself. Before proceeding to consider in detail our various species of Geofrufes, mention may be made of the fact, that the well-provided retreats of the dor- beetles are often taken advantage of by other insects in which to lay their eggs. Especially is this the case with some of the smaller beetles of the tribe Aphodtina, Heptaulacus testudinarius being sometimes found in quantities at Ferndown in East Dorset, and possibly elsewhere, quite at the bottom of the burrows of Geotrupes mutator (Ent. Mo. Mag. March, 1898). Aphodius porcus is also said to frequent in like manner the subterranean abode of others of the genus. (To be continued.) VESPA AUSTRIACA IN NORTHUMBERLAND.—This year (1899) between June 21st and July 3rd inclusive, I captured, at Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, four fine females or queens of this cuckoo-wasp. They were taken within a short distance of each other along the same warm, dry, loose-soiled hedge bank with southern aspect, as they flew along it, most probably in search of the suitable nest of a host in which to oviposit. All the spring and early summer the Rufous Wasp (Vespa rufa), which was by far the most abundant wasp of the season, had flown along and quartered inquisitively this same hedge bank, and it is not at all improbable that one or more of this host- wasp had founded a colony in the bank, as they were flying along it, though in fewer numbers, and had begun to rasp fibres from my garden poles. I had, though only for a short period before capturing the first specimen of the /@sfa austriaca Panz., been keeping a look out for this parasitic species, as I thought that since the last season’s broods of the Jesfa rufa had evidently been fairly numerous, and the hybernating conditions obviously favourable to their conservation, it was probable both these circumstances would have acted in favour of the very closely allied inguiline, the V. austriaca, and that it, too, mightnow be on the wing in some numbers in search of a young colony of its host to whom the rearing of its offspring might be intrusted. I was not mistaken in the presence of this wasp.—Charles Robson. to to bo lee) SCIENCE-GOS STP. RADIOGRAPHY. By JAMES QUICK. (Continued from page 204.) ELecrric LIGHTING CURRENTS. V J HEN current is to be utilised from the supply mains, much care must be exercised. If the worker is not fully conversant with electrical matters he should take the advice of an electrical engineer upon the subject, otherwise he may get his induction coil burnt up, or may do other serious damage. Electric lighting circuits are run at different voltages, Fic. 14. REsIStTANCE FRAME, varying from 100 to 210, depending upon the company from whom the power is obtained. There are two principal systems of supply, by continuous, or by alternating currents. If the latter is the one at the experimenter’s command, it will be necessary for him to transform it into a continuous current before proceeding to its use for his X-Ray work. For this purpose an alternating current motor, coupled to a small dynamo will be required. In either case, though, whether the supply iscontinuous or alternating, the ‘voltage from the mains is much too high for induction coil work. If a coil were connected direct to the mains’ terminals, it would be instantly deranged, owing to the excessive current that would pass through. esistances or rheostats of some kind have therefore to be inserted in the circuit, to cut down the current to the required values. Wire resistances are used in a great many instances, and they generally consist of spirals of bare iron, German silver or platinoid wire. These spirals are strung parallel to one another upon a suitable frame, as is shown in fig. 14. The left hand terminal of the frame is connected to the bottom of the left hand spiral, and the right hand terminal to the metallic lever of a switch, which can be made to pass over several insulated brass projecting pieces. These latter are each connected to the bottom end of a spiral. By this arrangement the resistance can be varied from that due to one spiral, to the total resistance of all the spirals in series. It is difficult to obtain a satisfactory wire resistance arrangement suchas the above, when, for experimental purposes, the current is required to be varied from very small to very large values. If the former is required, then the wire must be thin and its total length great, in order to obtain as high a resistance as possible to the current. If, however, a shorter length of this thin wire is taken, so as to increase the current passing through by thus diminishing its resistance, it will become hot and perhaps finally fuse. There is a maximum current that a wire of given diameter can take without becoming unduly heated; that is, its current carrying capacity is limited. To obtain a large current will therefore necessitate a thicker wire and a correspondingly greater length of it, anda single wire resistance frame, unless it be a large and cumber- some one, cannot be adapted satisfactorily to the extreme values of current. A more suitable arrangement is provided by an in- candescent lamp resistance. Suppose a t00-volt incandescent lamp of 16 candle-power (c.p.) is con- nected direct on to a 100-volt circuit, then the resist- ance of the lamp is such that the current passing through will be about 0.6ampere. It two such lamps are placed in series the total resistance will be doubled, and therefore, by Ohm’s law, the current passing through will be 0.3 ampére, and so on for any number in series. If two lamps are in parallel the total Fic. 15. INcANDESCENT Lamp RESISTANCE. resistance will be one-half that in the case of the single lamp, and the current taken through will therefore be 1.2 amperes. If three are in parallel the current will be 1.8, and so on. If lamps of the same make and voltage, but of 32 c. p., are used, then one lamp will take about 1.2 amperes, and the above reasoning will hold good when two or more are coupled in series or in parallel. The greater thec.p. of a lamp the greater SCIENCE-( the current it will take, and the greater will be the value of the latter passing round the rest of the circuit of which the lamp forms part. It will be seen then that by some suitable arrang: ment for connecting up different lamps in series or Fic. 16. Universat Lamp ResisTANce. parallel, or both, required values of current can be obtained. Two convenient instruments for this purpose are shown in figs. 15 and 16. In the former of these, two brass strips run parallel down the length of the base, and are each connected to one of the terminals. Between these strips are fitted lamp holders, % so that by inserting a j Neen lamp in any one of them the circuit is completed through that lamp, and a certain strength of current passes. Two lamps of the same c.p. aoe —— inserted will double the Fic. 17. AmMeTER-VOLTMETER, current, for they will be running in parallel. Mach additional lamp increases the current, and the form shown in fig. 15 will take six lamps thus arranged. Fic. 18. FLvoroscope EXTENDED. In order to widen the application of these lamp combinations, a different set of connections may be re- sorted to, asis shown in fig. 16. Tere the lamp sackets FOS STP: 229 are connected to the br ring n on the top of the cover in such a way, that properly bridging these springs across by mt nne ng pieces, ull wr any of the Jamps may be put ir I r in parallel, or a series parallel combination ma »btained. In both the abo a further variation i of current cin be mad } a stock of lamps of different candle-powers, and which can be substituted for the others. The resistance shown in fig, 16 i provided with a zine box in which the lamps hang. This box serves a double purpose : firstly, by filling it with water the instru ment may be kept cool ; secondly, it shields the surroundings from the light of the lamps—a desidera- tum, especially when doing fluoro scopic X-Ray work. Water resistances may be used, as a third variety, to cut down the current to the required values, but they are generally not so con- venient or so cheap as the other two forms In addition to a proper resistance an X-Ray outfit will not be complete without a voltmeter, and an ammeter, with which to measure the potential and current respectively—especially if the supply from the mains is used. These instruments are made in various forms, either for use in a vertical or a hori- zontal position. One of the former patterns is shown in fig. 17. In connecting up these instruments in circuit, the ammeter is placed in series with the source of supply and the induction coil, but the voltmeter is connected as a shunt across the terminals of the coil and break, and should not be allowed to remain in circuit permanently. Before leaving the subject of the mains supply current, a few more words may be said upon the use of the Wehnelt break already described (ase, p. 202). It has been asserted that this break may be con- Fic, 19. FrLuoroscope CLosep. nected with a coil direct to the continuo terminals, and without any intervening resistance. Unless, however, the operator is quite easy in his 230 SCIENCE-GOS SIP. mind as to ts working, the writer would strongly advise him for safety sake, to first insert a resistance which may be gradually cut down as required, other- wise serious consequences to the coil may accrue. Certainly for a large coil, say one giving a 20-inch spark, not more than 15 amperes should be sent through, and of course a smaller current for smaller coil. Fic. 20. X-Ray TuBE, FLUOROSCOPES. When examining a patient by means of the fluorescent screen (amée, p. 135), it is sometimes found very inconvenient to shield the screen from external light, such as that from the windows or even from the spark made at the break belonging to the coil. Instruments have been devised to overcome this difficulty and are known by a variety of names such as fluoroscopes, radioscopes, kryptoscopes, etc. Such a one is shown in fig. 18. It consists of a camera bellows fitted to a frame, in one end of which the fluores- cent screen is made to slide. The front takes place through the tube, and if the aluminium cup is made the cathode, the cathode rays emanating from the cathode impinge upon the platinum anode or anti-cathode, as it is called, and are scattered out through the glass as Rontgen rays. Ina later form of tube there is an aluminium anode in addition to. the anti-cathode, but it is the latter that receives the bombardment of the cathode rays. When used, this form of tube has the anode and anti-cathode con- nected together outside, so that both are in com- munication with the positive terminal. When working with these forms of X-Ray tubes, two difficulties present themselves. Firstly: under different conditions of working and different spark lengths, the one tube with its one degree of exhaus- tion and one value of resistance cannot be adapted. Secondly : upon continued working, it is found that the exhaustion, and therefore the penetrating value, of the tube increases, so that finally, in spite ot repeated heatings by a Bunsen flame or other source, to increase the pressure inside, the resistance of the tube becomes so high that the electrical discharge will not take place under the same conditions for which the tube was originally selected. end of the fluoroscope is fitted with a fur-lned aperture to receive the ob- servers eyes. The arrangement is port- able folding up into a small compass, as is seen in fig. 19. These fluoroscopes are a boon to radiographers, as the conditions of various parts of the body may be viewed easily in the daytime. THE X-Ray TuBe. We come now to discuss the last, but certainly not the least important accessory to an X-Ray outfit—the X-Ray vacuum tube. Except in detail, the form of the tube now in general use does not differ from the original pattern of Mr. Jackson, of King’s College. This, as is seen from fig. 20, consists of a concave aluminium cathode, and a piece of sheet platinum as | ) i t of Fic. 22. SpeciIAL X-Ray TuBeE ror STRONG DISCHARGES anode, supported about the middle of the glass bulb and inclined at an angle of about 45° to the line joining the anode and cathode. The tube is ex- hausted very highly, otherwise no X-Rays will be produced, yet not too highly to prevent electrical discharges passing through at all. When a discharge a, \ a Z il a iia ll Fic. 21. ApjusTaBLE CATHODE X-Ray TuBE. These difficulties have been overcome, chiefly owing to the work of ‘Mr. A. A. C. Swinton, whose results upon the »zodus ofevandz in the interior of the tube, also upon the conditions affecting the emission of X-Rays, have proved of very great importance in the work. Among other things Mr. Swinton found, with experimental tubes made in his laboratory, that if the anode of the tube be so arranged that the distance between it and the cathode could be ad- justed, then a ready and very simple means was at hand whereby the resistance and penetration could be altered to suit the varied conditions imposed. The nearer the anode is placed to the cathode the higher the resistance, and consequently the higher the penetration of the tube, and zice versa. In moving the anode of a tube, however, the point of origin of the X-Rays is also moved for each adjust- = ment, which is certainly a disadvantage, especially when a difficult radiograph, requiring a lengthy exposure, is being taken. While, therefore, taking advantage of Mr. Swinton’s very useful principle of varying the dis- tance between anode and cathode, Dr. Dawson Turner, in conjunction with the writer, reversed the arrangement by making the cathode movable and keeping the anode fixed. They added a further modification in that the cathode is adjusted by external magnetic means, so that movement may easily be made without disturbing the tube at all while it is in any desired position. This tube, as is shown in fig. 21, is So constructed that the cathode in its movement slides in and out of the side annex blown in the bulb, and is kept in proximity to the glass throughout its movement ; for it has been found that the latter has a greater influence upon the resistance of the tube than mere movement to and fro when the cathode is quite out into the bulb Space, and it affects it in the reverse way : that is, the nearer the cathode is to the anode the lower the resistance, and this increases again as the cathode is gradually drawn back inside the annex. The figure Shows an earlier pattern of this tube, in which the cathode moves out into the centre of the bulb space. _ The present form, however, is arranged so that its action depends upon this proximity of the cathode to the glass. Unless the anti-cathode of an X-Ray tube is backed by an additional block of metal to conduct away the heat, it sometimes becomes red hot and even melts, owing to the bombardment of the molecules upon it— especially if the tube is in use with a large coil. All well-made tubes are now so constructed, but special SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 231 ones are manufactured for the largest coils, and in cases where the Wehnelt break is used, since the latter produces an excessively strong discharge. Such a tube is shown in fig. 22, where it will be seen that the anti-cathode is connected to a large copper tube which extends almost to the end of the annex tube, which therefore offers a large mass and also a large area for radiation; both of these conditions helping to keep the anti-cathode cool. Although this tube has only heen brought forward this year, the idea is not quite a new one, as similar tubes were con- structed in 1897, to Professor A. P. Chattock’s designs. Yet another tube has lately been introduced with this end in view, namely, keeping the anti-cathode cool. A hollow platinum cone, which serves as an anti-cathode, is sealed into the X-Ray bulb; but the inside of the cone is in communication with the external air. It can therefore be filled at will with cold water, which prevents the surface of the anti- cathode becoming unduly heated. When the tem- perature of the contained water rises to boiling point, fresh cold water is substituted. The amount of platinum required in this tube renders it expensive. ( To be continued. ) OPIUM, ITS SOURCE, VARIETIES AND COMPOSITION. By Lewis OuGu, F.L.S. F.C.S. (Concluded from fage 198.) | 2 eugs in no medicinal product has a greater variety of foreign substances been at one time or other detected as adulterants, principally to in- crease the weight of the opium. All are readily detected by careful examination, including chemical and microscopic analysis. I have per- sonally found bullets and stones in Turkey opium, together with such substances as clay, sand, starch, dried leaves, extract of lettuce and extract of poppies. The last named is obtained by boiling crushed poppy heads in water, then evaporating the dark coloured decoction thas obtained. With regard to the chemical composition of opium, the activity of the drug is principally due to the vegetable alkaloid morphine. The yield of morphine from Turkey opium is from 8 to 17 per cent., the average being ro per cent. Below this it is considered inferior and not suitable for medi- cinal purposes, being probably adulterated. As an alkaloid, morphine is of great interest historically, haying been the first discovered of this now most important class of bodies. It exists in the drug in combination with sulphuric and meconic acids. Lactic acid has also been found but that is gene- rally believed to have been formed in the opium after its collection by a process of fermentation. By some chemists, however, this is believed to be a slightly different compound and it has been named theobolactic acid. In addition to morphine the following alkaloids of opium are of more or less importance :—narcotine, 7 per cent.; codeine, I per cent.; marceine, 1 per cent.; meconine, 34 per cent.; papaverine, thebaine, cryptopine, and several others. Meconic acid is present to the extent of about 5 per cent., and the remainder of the bulk is made up with resin, gummy matter, mucus, water, fatty matter and caoutchouc. The proportion of the latter present has probably some bearing on its value for smoking purposes, as the Chinese estimate the drug roughly by the touch, i.e., the rapidity or slowness with which a thread drawn out from the mass will break by its own weight. The amount of morphine in Persian opium is very variable, some yielding from 8 to 13 per cent., whilst other kinds yield below x per cent. Indian and Chinese opiums are also very 232 SCIENCE-GOS STP. low, viz., from 3 to 7 percent. The percentage o} this alkaloid bears no relation to the preference exhibited by smokers. That containing a large amount is by them generally considered inferior and liable to cause headache. Opium dried as soon as it is gathered is richer in alkaloid than if kept in the moist state for some time and exposed to the air. It is also stated that the drug twenty years old contains less alkaloid, than when pre- viously analysed in the fresh state; but this state- ment, I think, requires confirmation. Medicinally the most extensively used prepara- tion is the tincture, generally known as laudanum, a name which was first applied to a solid prepara- tion combined with aromatics. The liquid pre- paration appears to have been introduced with these aromatics by Dr. Sydenham, and was inserted in the London Pharmacopoeia of 1721. Ordinary medicinal opium loses about 20 per cent. of water when dried and this should yield about 8. per cent. of ash, 60 per cent. of the dried drug being soluble in cold water. Opium should be tenacious, yel- lowish brown in colour, with a strong narcotic odour and bitter taste. A derivative of morphine obtained by heating the alkaloid in a sealed tube with hydrochloric acid is known as apomorphine. This is one of the most speedy and effective emetics, especially when injected hypodermically. The sedative property of opium is so well known that I need not enlarge on this point. Its position as a drug is such that Pereira describes it as the most important and valuable medicine in the whole materia medica, and the source, by its judicious em- ployment, of more happiness, and by its abuse, of more misery, than any other drug used by man- kind. The use of opium in the East as a stimulant and intoxicant, as before stated, consumes nearly the whole of the quantity produced. The Turks chew it and the Chinese smoke a watery extract under the name of chundoo, the preparation of which from the crude article constitutes a special busi- ness. As a drug it is frequently somewhat uncer- tain in its action, many people being able from idiosyncrasy, but more frequently from previous in- dulgence, to take a much larger amount than others. The smallest dose known to have proyed fatal with an adult is four grains, in contrast to which may be quoted a young man who not only swallowed sixty grains of Smyrna opium night and morning for some time, but also in addition drank 1% ozs. of laudanum daily. Another case is cited by a doctor, where a wineglassful of the tincture had to be administered several times in twenty- four hours. The drugging of children either with the view to destroy life, or to produce continual narcotism is especially rife in India, the method of administration being usually to smear a little of the solid substance on the tongue or the roof of the mouth. In our own country the use of such substances as soothing syrups, infants’ preserva- tives and such like substances, produces consider- able mortality in infant life, children being far more susceptible to the influence of opium than to any other drug. It is usually understood that where poisoning by opium is suspected, it is sufficient to detect the pre- sence of meconic acid to establish that of opium. Pills and other solid preparations betray the pre- sence of the drug by the odour they emit, and in most cases there is no great difficulty im isolating morphine, with probably one or two of the other alkaloids as well as the meconic acid. The last named giving a characteristic red colour with a solution of chloride of iron, This is not obtained with any other alkaloidal acid. Morphine, too with this re-agent, gives a very distinctive blue colour, peculiar to itself. Whilst the juice from the unripe pericarp of the poppy has been proved to possess such active pro- perties, the seeds are bland and wholesome, the dark-coloured ones called maw seeds, being largely eaten by birds. Besides woody fibre, the capsules themselves contain small quantifies of the prin- ciples found in opium, Poppy oil obtained from the seeds of both the black and white varieties, is an article of some im- portance. By cold pressure from 30 to 4o per cent. of a white virgin oil is obtained, bland and pleasant to the taste, being almost without odour. On a second pressure with heat, a further 20 per cent. is yielded of a reddish colour, possessing an acrid taste and a linseed-like odour. The oil belongs to the drying or linoleic series, having a greater drying power than raw linseed oil, and on this account is a valuable and much used medium for oil painting purposes. The fine quality, ex- tensively used in Germany as a salad oil, is less liable than that of olives to rancidity, while its freedom from flavour leads to its use as an adul- terant to that oil. In India and some other coun- tries, poppy oil is much yalued as a food, and for other domestic purposes. The inferior kinds are principally employed for making soap and varnish. After pressure the remaining cake constitutes an article of diet in most opium producing countries, besides being largely used to fatten cattle. Curzon Terrace, Leicester. Bars 1n Lonpon.—Mr. Dennett reports that on October 19th he found a crowd of boys watching two bats flying about in St. John’s Road, Hoxton, Lon- don, N. UNUSUAL BLOOMING OF HAawTHOoRN.—I enclose herewith a specimen of hawthorn (Cvataegeus oxyacan- tha) found in bloom yesterday, November 26th, in a hedge just outside thistown. It was ina very exposed position, facing due east. As you will see, there are only two blossoms springing from a fork of the twig, and at first sight I thought it was blackthorn, there being no leaves ; but a closer inspection as well as its perfume declare it to be irue ‘‘ may.” Its occurrence in flower at this unusual time of year, may be of interest to some of your other readers besides myself. —T. E. 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Preparer of Textile Fibres and Demonstrator in Microscopy to the Manchester Municipal Technical School. me Send for Lists, &c., free per post.. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 233 BRITISH FRESHWATER MITES. By CHARLES D. Soar, F.R.M.S. (Continued rom page 210). GENUS HYDRYPHANTES KOCH. HERE are several species of this genus recorded by various authors from different parts of the world. Five are described by Piersig from Germany, but at present I can only record two from Britain, both of which are fairly common. The chief characteristics of this genus are :—Body soft skinned. Legs well supplied with swimming hairs. Clawstoallfeet. On the frontal portion of the dorsal surface is a chitinous plate, which is very “conspicuous in all species. 1. Hydryphantes ruber de Geer. FEMALE :—Body oval. Length about 1.80 mm., ‘breadth 1.32 mm. Skin coarse and granulated. A number of dermal glands are distributed over the ‘dorsal surface. Colour scarlet; in some cases very ‘dark, in others very pale. On the anterior portion of the dorsal surface is a chitinous patch or plate, which has the appearance of having been riveted to the Fic. 1. AHydryphantes ruber. 2 Dorsal Surface. ‘skin of the body at each comer (fig. 1). On the median line towards the front of this plate is a small, dark spot that has the appearance of being a fifth Fic. 2. H. ruber. Genital Plates. eye. This median eye is also found in one or two species of Z%yas, so it is not peculiar to this genus. This plate is thick and granulated, and forms one ot the principal points of identification in the species of the genus. The contour of this plate varies a little in different specimens of this species. I have four specimens before me, all varying a little, but not enough to make the recognition doubtful. The eyes on each side of this dorsal plate are close on the margin of the body, and are halved in a very decided manner, giving a distinct pair of eyes to each. The eyes are small, prominent, and very dark. LeGs.—First pair about 1.28 mm. Fourth pair about 2.0 mm. Same colour as body, very strong and very hairy (fig. 1). All the feet have claws. There is no difference in the leg structure in males or females, as in some of the genera before noticed. EPIMERA.—In four groups, strong, distinct and very hairy. PALPI.—About 0.52mm. Fourth segment longest. It has no peg on the second segment, or fourth, but the first three segments have a number of pectinated hairs. GENITAL AREA.—Composed of two plates. At each end ofeach plate is a conspicuous disc. There are also two others (see fig. 2) partly covered with the plates, which in some cases cannot be seen at all, being wholly covered. In others, the plates are so open that the whole of the disc is exposed. LocaLitiEs.—Fairly common in England. Dr. George has found it in Lincolnshire. I have taken specimens at several places around London, and Mr. Taverner reports it in Scotland. 2. Hydryphantes dispar Schaub. This mite can easily be recognised from the pre- ceding species by the dorsal plate (fig. 3). In all Fic. 3. H. dispar. Dorsal Plates. other respects it is similar to A. ruéer, even in its measurements. Ido not think any further descrip- tion necessary. LocaLitigs.—It is very common. I took large numbers at different places in England in 1897. Mr. Taverner this year sent me some from Scotland. GENUS SPERCHON KRAMER. This is another genus that contains several species abroad, but at present I have only two to record for Britain. One of these}is very common, and the other is very rare. I 3 234 The characteristics of this genus are :—Body soft skinned. Legs without the long swimming hairs. Claws to all tarsi. Epimera in four groups. Eyes wide apart. Three discs on the inner edge of each genital plate. 1. Sperchon sguamosus Kramer, 1879. Bopy.—Oval. Colour yellow, with brown mark- ings. Skin coarse and covered with papillae, or scales as suggested by the name given by Kramer. Length about 1.04 mm. Breadthabout0.84mm. On reference to figure 5, it will be seen that the rostrum in this Hydrachnid is pushed forward some distance S. sqguamosus. Fic. 4. Ventral Surface, Female. in front of the first pair of epimera, even as much as 0.28 mm., giving this mite a very singular appearance. All the species of the genus have more or less this character. Koenike has found one species which thrusts the rostrum very little forward, and named it S. brevirostus, but at present this one has not been found in Britain. Lecs.—First pair about 0.52 mm., fourth pair about 0.92 mm. They have a number of short hairs, but are quite without» the long swimming hairs we find on the legs of Aydryphantes and others. Colour a pale yellow. All feet have claws. Although without the long so-called swimming hairs, they are very strong swimmers and move in the water at a fairly quick rate of speed. EprmMERA.—In four groups and rather small in proportion to size of body (fig. 5). Patri (fig. 6).—Length about o.42 mm. Second segment is very thick and furnished with a S. squamosus. Palpus. Genital Plates, Female. peg. Fourth segment has the small pegs or projec- tions on the inner edge. GENITAL AREA.—Composed of two plates, about 0.12 mm. in length. On the inner edge of these are three discs (fig. 4). SCIENCE-GOS STP. Locaritizs.—Not common. Found in Epping: Forest by Mr. Scourfield and in Lincolnshire by Dr. George. 2. Sperchon setiger ? Thor, 1899. Bopy.—Oval in shape. Length about 1.20 mm. Breadth about 0.92 mm. Colour, straw yellow with brown markings. The surface dorsally is covered with a quantity of dermal glands, which vary in size, but are all very conspicuous. Lecs.—Very much like the preceding species. First leg about 1.20 mm. Fourth leg about 1.64mm., with plenty of short hairs, but without the long swimming hairs. EpimERA.—In four groups like the S. sgaamosis, but the posterior pair are a little larger. Pari (fig. 7)-—The two last segments very long Fic. 7. S. seliger. Palpus. and slender, being 0.88 mm. in length. These palpi are the principal point of indentification. Previous. to seeing Thor’s figure, I had always taken this mite to be Sperchon glaudulosus (Koenike, although I queried it, because I could never satisfy myself about the two small bristles on the inner edge of the third segment, as neither Koenike or Piersig had drawn attention to them. Thor, in his figure, which quite- agrees in other particulars with the figures of S. glaudulosus, has drawn three distinct bristles on the: inner edge of the third segment. There are three distinct bristles on my examples, but one is situated a little further back from the inner line. Locaities.—Common in England. TI took about twenty specimens in Suffolk, in 1897. Mr. Taverner has also found several specimens in Scotland. (Zo be continued.) VEGETARIANISM.—An ex-vegetarian, Mr. Hector Waylen, has in a contemporary given the conclusions. to which he has come after some years’ trial of vege- tarianism. He says after cight years’ abstinence from all flesh food he arrived at such a low condition,. he was compelled to take meat three times aday, and beef-tea in addition. Mr. Waylen also reminds us. “that animal tissues supply most easily the analogous tissues in man. Vegetarians burden their digestive organs with masses of crude stuff, practically deprive themselves of fats and oils, and then think, while they daily grow thin and nervous, that they are improving in health. When the human body is starved it begins to feed upon itself as a camel does upon its hump, and vegetarians are. thus them- selves guilty of a species of cannibalism. The writer further reminds us that ‘‘ food reformers” are’ not consistent. He states ‘‘They seem quite to: forget how highly organised plants are, and while they shrink from killing a sheep they have no regard! for the tender sensitiveness of Brussels sprouts or cauliflowers.” SCIENCE-GOS SIP. nN we Ww | ae HIStORY OR CHAI By Epwarp A. Martin, F.G.S. (Continued from page 199). — - CRETACEOUS STRATA OLDER THAN THE CHALK. ae accumulations of sedimentary matter that can be grouped under the Cretaceous System, by the affinities of their respective fossiliferous remains, cannot be considered, geologically, of very ancient date in the world’s history. It is true they were accumulated many aeons ago, at a time long before the advent of any of the existing species of animals, and therefore ages before the appearance of man upon the earth. As compared, however, with the age of the rocks formed in Pre-Cambrian or Cambrian times, the creta- ceous rocks are but of yesterday’s date. The oldest sedimentary formations of which we have any certain information, have been in existence so long, and have had so many welding forces brought to bear upon them, that, while we are able to isolate the cretaceous as a separate system, extending at most to a thickness of about 4,1ooft. from the base to the top, yet the characters in the more ancient rocks are so uniform, and so crystalline, and the fossils have been so altered, that we have no means of grouping those strata, except by placing in a single system so large a thick- ness of strata as 50,000ft. in the case of the Laurentian in America, and 30,o00ft. in that of the Cambrian, including Ordovician. It will thus be seen that the various ‘‘systems” are very far from being of uniform thickness, and as a matter of fact, we find they decrease in the thickness of their contents as approach is made to the present day. The group of strata known as cretaceous is met in the sequence of geological history at the top of the Mesozoic systems. Its true position will be seen the more easily by a glance at the following list of for systematic purposes, are scarcely bounded by any hard and fast limit. ‘‘ Passage-beds ” are constantly being discovered, which unite in themselves fossil affinities, on the one hand to the strata above, and on the other to those below them. It must not be imagined that the familiar rock known as Chalk is the sole constituent of the Cretaceous forma- tion. In fact, in Great Britain this system contains, in about equal proportions, calcareous, argillaceous, and arenaceous Strata. The Chalk, although so well-marked a sub-division, is thus of no greater geological importance than any of the others, but from familiarity, it has come to be regarded as the most prominent member of the system, whilst from the beauty and perfection of its fossils, it will ever remain to the collector one of the most attractive of geological strata. It will have been noticed in the arrangement given above, that we have adopted the classification that places Neocomian beds on the list as a separate formation. The beds classified under this heading are those known as the Wealden beds and the Lower Greensand. They are still classed by some geologists as Lower Cretaceous. The fresh-water Wealden beds are regarded, in their upper part, as having been built up in an estuarine sea, whilst the Lower Greensand, at least in some parts, was con- temporaneously forming in an oceanic area. There is no doubt, however, that the latter formation is divided from the Chalk in point of time, by a far greater interval than had formerly been imagined. The general opinion is that it should be separated from the Cretaceous, and classed as a distinct system ji: s under the title of Neocomian ; this title also including P formations :— fae) the Purbecks and the Wealden. There is no definite ; Pleistocene. sequence between the three, but there is another ’ Tertiary Elocene. formation, away from the then disturbed area EOE’ Miocene. of the South-east of England, which repre- Cainozoic | Oligocene. sents to us in a most fortunate manner, the : Eocene. regular succession of life during this period, from the CRETACEOUS. close of the well-defined Kimmeridge Clay to the Secondary | Neocomian. early days of the Gault. This is the Speeton Clay of ’ or + Jurassic. the Yorkshire coast. It there attains a thickness of Mesozoic | Lias. nearly 300ft. After examination, it has yielded ‘ Trias. evidence of being divisible into well-marked zones. ; Permian. These zones represent phases of life at different Carboniferous. periods, which correspond closely with the succes- Primary Devonian. sion of Portland Beds, Purbecks, Wealden, Lower oe J Silurian. Greensand, and early Gault, and may be connected Palaeorore Ordovician. with them as follows = Cambrian. Zone of Belemnites minimus=Gault. Pre-Cambrian 5, &. semi-canaliculatus=Lower Greensand. (Archaean). » #8. jaculum=Wealden (apparently). With the progress of geological discovery, it has been found that these divisions, although convenient », &#. lateralis=Portland and Purbeck Beds. ( To be continued. ) I 4 bo 1S) 7 SCIENCE-GOSSTP. BUTTERFLIES OF THE PALAEARCTIC REGION. By Henry CuHaries LANG, M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Lonp. (Continued from page 209). PARNASSIUS (continued). 9g. P. insignis Stgr. S. E. Z., p. 194. Aust. Parn., 106, pl. IV., fig. 1. R. H., 97 \(déscobolus var. ). 7O—75 mm. Closely resembles P. d@zscobolus, but is somewhat } o. _* 3. ve Cs ?. .. eo p as ‘ e ¥ P. apollonius var. alpina. larger, especially 9. Purer white and more strongly marked and brightly coloured. Red spots on f.w. very vivid. Basal and ante marginal markings of h.w. more decided than in P. discobolus. 9 with a red spot near an. ang. h.w. not seenin P. dzscobolus. Abdominal pouch broader than in that species. Has., Transalai and S. Altai. a. var. tianschana Stgr. Larger, but resembles type, which apparently it replaces in Tianschan. It is larger in expanse, and whiter than is P. dzscobolus. ? with red spots at an. ang. h.w. P. delphius, 10. P. romanovi Grum-Greshimailo in litt. Aust. Parn., pl. X., fig. 3. R. H., p. 97 (synonym for zmsignis). 65—70 mm. Close to P. but smaller, wings purer white. Red spots, on all the wings, large and bright. Black markings, especially those of h.w., in 6 very strongly marked. ? without much basal shading in h.w., compared with what is seen in allied forms. INSigNziS, However, the basal shading in the ¢ h.w. is darker and more extensive than in P. dzscobolus or any of its varieties. | There is a faint trace of a red basal spot in the 6 h.w. Abdominal pouch in @ narrower than in the last. Has., Transalai. 11. P. rhodius Honr. B. E. Z. Parn. 96, pl. IX., figs. 1, 2, H. R. 55—55 mm. Very much resembles P. acézzs in size and general appearance, but at once to be distinguished from it by the presence of a red spot at base of h.w. Be- neath, the basal red blotches of the h.w. are much larger, brighter and more distinct. The apex of f.w. is more rounded, and similar to those of the next species, P. honvathz. @ duskier in colour, but more transparent than P. acfzws 2, with the basal patch h.w. more extended, and the ante-marginal band broader and more continuous. Has., Alai Province of Kokand, Osch (W. Turkestan). 1882. Aust. ne F P. delphinius var. infarinalis. 12. P. honrathi Stgr. B. E Z., Par. 108, pl. X., fig. 1, XI. 2. 61—67 mm. Apex of f.w. more rounded than in P. ascobolus, ante-marginal band extending to in. marg., white spots between this and marginal band larger. Outer costal and in. marg. spots more broadly red, but lighter in colour. H.w. with a basal red spot, and a red spot at anal angle in both sexes. Hind marginal spots not chevron-shaped. Bases more broadly, but more faintly black. Red costal and central spots white-centred. @ larger than ¢, somewhat more dusky, abdominal pouch narrower than in dscobolus. The: colour of the red spots is less brilliant than in 6. Has., Turkestan, Samarkand (Hazreth), Bokhara, Sangi Djuman, Kuli-Kalan (Zarafehan), 7,000 to 8,000 feet (H. R.) V., VI. The four species above described are very closely allied, but not more so than many of the species of Melitaea and Erebia or Syrichthus, and less so than 1882. Aust. some of the British species of Lepidoptera are to their congeners, such as leronyeta pstand A. trideus or some of the genus Cuen//ia. ven such forms as Zygaena lonicerae and Z. trifelii, Catocola sponsa i and C. promissa, Plusia fota and P. pulchrina are as close to one another as any one of these Parnassii to its proximate Species. 13. P. bremeri Brem. berien 1864. Steger. Cat. pl. XIV., fig. 2. 65—70 mm. The wings are all more elongated and less rounded Lepidopteren ost. Si- 1871. Aust. Parn. 124, than in the preceding species, more densely covered with scales, and ground colour white, with a slight P. cardinal & tinge of cream colour. The neuration is strongly marked, producing somewhat the effect seen in “‘ the P. cardinal Q , black-veined white” butterfly (4 foria crataeg? ). F.w. with two well-marked black subcostal spots, the two outer ones being much less defined, marginal sub- diaphanous band very narrow, in some specimens -almost absent. Sub-marginal band grey rather than black, wavy and reaching to about half the length of the ou. In. marg. spot present, but ill- defined, at leastin ¢. markings. marg. H.w. ou. marg. without any In. marg. deeply black, the usual costal P. graeseri. Abdominal Pouch Aust. Pl. 2. Fig. 1), and central red spots are bright scarlet, well marked but small, with black rings red the fainter markings, the scarlet spots of h.w. are vivid, There is a well-marked base. spot at as above, but with SCIENCE-GOS SIP. 2 aby o/ and there are four basal spots of a similar colour. " 1 Inch in Column £0 7 6 MONOGRAPH OF BRITISH LAND SHELLS. J/lus- : trated . .. 242 | Eighth of Page.. 016 O BOOKS ORR “44 | Quarter-page, or Half-column 110 O Pout | walt One Col 215 0 “pa rOn bc MICROSCOPY 247 eM eetei1 © enn UL MICROSCOPY FOR BEGINNERS.. 248 | Whole Page .. - fi By bo ASTRONOMY 250 | Back Page a 20 37 6 6 O CHAPTERS FOR YOUNG ASTRONOMERS .. 251 ohio Positions by Arrangement. PHYSICS 252 BOTANY Ae i All Advertisements to be sent to ScrencE-Gossip Office, 110, Strand, London, W.C., on or previous to the 19th of each month. MOLLUSCA .. 253 wre, bis % ae ae Special quotations for a series of rmsertions, ony SEUSS EH *54 | size space, matter changeable, on application. IS 3 c Ta TRANSACTIONS a 25 SrruaTions WaAnTeED will be inserted at the special rate of EXCHANGES 256 } 2s. 6d. per insertion. . ; SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 249 The cheapest nosepiece and perhaps the easiest to use, is the one known as * Beale’s Neutral Tint Reflector,” costing 5s. or 6s. It is simply a dise of tinted glass placed above the eyepiece and at anangle of 45° to the optic axis. To use it, however, the microscope should be placed in the horizontal position, which is not always possible. The eye 1s placed above the dise of glass, and looking down through it on the drawing paper placed immediately beneath. The microscopical image can then be readily traced. Some little practice is of course required, but the whole secret of success lies in arranging the illumination satis- factorily, and this is more easily arrived at, if two lamps are used, one for the micro- scope as usual, and one to illum- inate the paper. A little adjustment of the light in each lamp will then be all that is necessary. The lamp itself should be paraffin with a in. wick. A very suitable one can be bought for a shilling or two anywhere, ' and a cardboard screen can easily ‘ be made to go round it. The { excellent and often elaborately ' fitted lamps sold by opticians are, of course, very convenient, but i are only absolutely necessary for <—_ Ske those who do much work. Their Neurrat great convenience is in the readi- ; RerLector. ness with which they may be raised or lowered, and the flat receptacle for the oil, that enables them to be brought close to the table. Ifa regular microscope lamp be bought it should certainly be of this form, and capable of rotation, so as to enable either the flat orthe edge of the flame to be used, anditshould have an iron chimney holding an ordinary 3in. by fin. glass slide, to be readily and cheaply changed if Live Box. cracked. Such a lamp would cost about 25s. A reflector is worse than useless, as it confuses the light raySe Some form of compressor, costing from 5s. to a guinea (see SCIENCE-GossrP, Vol. VI., p. 29) ; a live box, price 2s. 6d. or 5s.; a pair of stage forceps, price about §s., and one or two inexpensive glass stage troughs, such as Botterill’s trough, complete our list of apparatus ; and with an outfit such as we have now described at length, the beginner may work for some time and need nothing more. There are, of course, several minor things that are useful or even necessary to the working microscopist, but they scarcely come under the heading of microscope apparatus. Amongst these may be mentioned brass or steel forceps, needles, ordinary needles inserted in a penholder and bound round with wax thread do excellently, camel-hair Microscore Lamp. brushes, bent or straight scissors, scalpels for dis- secting, dipping-tubes and other collecting apparatus, killing-bottle, etc. The uses of these things are manifest, but do not need enlarging upon here. It may be useful, however, if we give a description of Borreritt’'s TRovGH. an inexpensive dissecting microscope that can be made at home for a few shillings, after which we shall add some practical hints as to the best way to use the microscope, its elementary management and care. We shall then conclude these papers with a few plain and easily understood instructions on mounting. (To be continued.) TRONOMY, es _ CONDUCTED BY F. C. DENNETT. Position at Noon. goo - Rises. Sets. RA Dec. Jan. Au. him. hm. ind BW oo “io TM so meh 2222 Sh 4-13 - 19.35 -- 21.40 - 4.30 - 20.07 .. 19.48 Souths Sets Age at Noon. hm. hm. d. h. m1. 32 a.m o.58 p.m... 5.33 p.m. o 22 8 20p.m. .. 9.46p.m. .. 5.17 a.m. 10 22 8 p-m. -. 5.14 a.m. 9.47 a.m. 20 22 8 Position at Noon. Souths Semi- R.A. Dec. Jan. hm. Diameter hm. oO” Mercury 2... toggam...) 2.9 -.a721 .. 22.149. TA 36 HOES 2.6” .. 18.22 .. 23.45 BP 56 Mia oe) 214{lon-) 1Q:28) 23-21 Venus 6 1.50 fm... 5:8/..20.45 -. 19.51 5. 12 2.8 62 BO an PIL on WpnG 22 2.17 on eb ARE O06 Ties Mars 12 O.13p-m..-. 2:0 .. 19.39 -. 22.3019. Jupiter 12 8.40 a.m... 15.2 .. 16.6) .. 20.1 S. Saturn -12 10.29a.m... 7.07 .. 17.56 .. 22.27 9. Uranus -12 Ghrelin oo Mai! oo Oey 54 Bee Sh Neptune -12 19.10 p.m... 1.2” 5:30) «22.4 Ne Moon’s PHASES. htt. hm. Wew .. Jan. 1.. 1.52p.m. 1st Qr. .. Jan. 8.. 5.40a.m. POM ny IS adh, EPCOT ob yo 2G} comingig ehh IMEI a0 Oy BR 1.23 a.m. In perigee, January 3rd, at 5 p.m.; inapogee on roth, at 5 p.m.; and in perigee again on 31st, at I2 p.m. METEORS. hn. Jan. 2- 3...Quadrantids...Radiant R.A. 15.20 Dec. 52° N. Rich. » 14-20...X Cygnids .. » y --19-40 4, 53 N. ) 18-28... Coronids .. oS) SSS 2B GLEN CONJUNCTIONS OF PLANETS WITH THE Moon. Op Jan. x Marst 9 p-m planet 3.8 S. rm! Venust Ay 6 57) 0:0) 1S 1, 20 Jupitert+ ep silent om EHO INI »» 28 Saturn* Sia.m. = Oa neSe > 30 Mercury* Bhpsmenee a ek) Sh 1 30 a Mars+ S10;psm-) -- nm Ge Sh * Daylight. + Below English horizon. OccULTATIONS AND NEAR APPROACH. Dis- Angle Re- Angle Magni- appears front appears from Jan. Star. tude. hn. Vertex. hm. Vertex. ° 2 .6..19 Piscium 52.-. 712p.m... 63.. 8.10 p.m... 182 10..7~ Arietis pI oo hu pas 49 -- 7-59p-M. .. 295 11..K1 Tauri .. .. 4.6 ..10.27 p.m. .. 90 .. 11.34 p.m. .. 205 11..K? Tauri .. 5.5 --10.40 p.M. ..115 .. 11.23 p.m. .. 178 17..@Cancri .. . 517 a.m. ..136.. 5.50 a.m, .. 196 24./B.A.GC. 4722 .. 5.5... 3.35 a.m. ..158.. 4.45.a.m. .. 285 THE Sun still has small outbreaks at intervals. At 6 a.m. on January 2nd the earth is in the part of its orbit nearest to the sun: MERCURY is a morning star all the month, but from its great southern declination is poorly placed for observation. At 1 a.m. on January 8th Mercury and Saturn are in conjunction, the former being 51' to the south, but both are below the British horizon. VENus is an evening star all the month, daily getting into better position for observation. Mars being in conjunction with the sun at 5 a.m. on 16th, is too close to the sun for observation. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. JUPITER is a morning star all the month, but its. great south declination militates against successful observation. SATURN and URANUS are both morning stars, but not well placed for observation. NEPTUNE is well situated near ¢ Tauri. YERKES OBSERVATORY.—Professor E. B. Frost, of this observatory, has had a grant of 500 dollars. from the Rumford Committee of the American Academy of Arts towards the construction of a new spectrograph, especially designed for the determination of stellar velocities in the line of sight. NATHANIEL E. GREEN.—Astronomy has suffered a great loss in the death of Mr. Green, a past- president and one of the founders of the British Astronomical Association. His delineations of Mars. and Jupiter are some of the finest in existence. The former were made at Madeira, in 1877, with a With Newtonian, and are really faithful drawings. Mr. Green had been a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society since 1875. HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY before many weeks have passed, will be furnished with a photo- graphic telescope of 12in. aperture, and having the abnormally long focal length of rooft. The requisite funds have been found by anonymous donors. The image of the moon, without enlargement, will be about Toin. A New Mrnor PLANET has been discovered photographically, by Mr. Coddington, of the Lick Observatory, and sufficient observations were made during October and November to determine its orbit. Tue NEw CENTURY will not, of course, commence until January Ist, 1901. The present new year beginning the last year of the century. STONYHURST COLLEGE OBSERVATORY.—We have received from Father Sidgreaves the report of the meteorological and magnetical work carried on at this observatory, as well as of that of St. Ignatius College, Malta. The meteorological and astro- nomical work at this observatory is very well known for its high character. é A PuBLIC OBSERVATORY.—The executors of the late Canon Cross, of Appleby, having offered a valuable set of Astronomical instruments, the Lincoln- shire County Committee have consented to allow an observatory to be built in the keep of old Lincoln Castle. A public subscription, it is hoped, will defray the cost of erection and maintenance. The Committee are to be asked to receive the whole in trust for the County. “THE HEAVENS AT A GLANCE.”—We have re- ceived a copy of this useful Card Calendar, for 1900, from its compiler, Mr. Arthur Mee, F.R.A.S., of Cardiff. The price is only 7d., post free. It is most handy for ready reference. EDINBURGH CITY OBSERVATORY, under the direction of Mr. William Peck, is thrown open on certain nights in the week to Visitors, and thousands have paid it a visit, both to see it arrangements. and to learn something of Astronomy and _ its methods. A Russian MountTAIN OBSERVATORY is to be erected, probably in the Crimea or Caucasus, under the auspices of the Russian Astronomical Society.* THE LuNAR ECLIPSE on December 16th and 17th, was well seen in London, happening when the moon was high in the heavens and the sky fortunately clear. The eclipse was by no means a dark one, and the strong copper colour of the shaded portion of the disc was very noticeable. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 251 CHAPTERS FOR YOUNG ASTRONOMERS. By Frank C, Dennerr. THE SUN. (Continued from page 219). Tue brightening of the inner edge of the penumbra is well shown in Professor S. P. Langley’s drawing of a typical sun spot, made at the Alleghany Observa- tory in December, 1873, and the brilliant edgings to dark spots is very evident in the late Warren De la Rue’s Beau tifa photograph, dated September 2oth, 1861. This necessarily leads us to the subject of the faculae or bright spots which are so often visible near the limb, but generally seem lost in the intense brilliance of the middle portions of the disc. The faculae usually appear not so much as spots, but as brilliant branching streams. They are almost always to be found around spots and groups near the limb, especially on the following, or eastward side. When found on the disc apart from dark spots, they often indicate the place where dark spots have disappeared, but this is not the unbroken rule, for the bright spots are sometimes found in northern or southern lati- tudes, never reached by the dark ones. They are usually more difficult objects to observe properly than are the dark spots, needing a larger telescope to show them to the best advantage. Very occasionally they may be per- ceivedonthelimb, seeming to stand out from it almost like little brilliant mountains; though it is quite possible that this may be in part due to what is known as irradiation. The writer saw an instance of this on March 5th, 1899, at 10 a.m., but by 2 p.m. the faculae had disappeared round the limb. Faculae may be readily observed whilst they remain near the limb, but as they advance on to the disc they pale, and are lost in the greater brilliance of the middle portions. i Remarkable outbursts of brilliance occasionally reward the persistent observer, as in 1859, when, on September 1st, Messrs. R. C. Carrington and Hodg- son saw a burst of ‘‘ flame” over the disc exceeding the solar brilliance. Again on October 2nd, 1864, Brodie saw a very brilliant body 4" or 5" (from 1,800 miles to 2,250 miles) in diameter, much brighter than the rest of the disc, travel in one-third of a second along a pathway 1’, or 27,000 miles, in length, when it seemed to fall through the surface. The visible surface of the sun is certainly not solid, otherwise the spots would remain stationary with relation to each other, which is contrary to observa- tion. Likewise spots having different latitudes give Tyeicat Sun Spor of DECEMBER, 1873. After a Drawing by S. P. Langley. different results in determining the sun’s rotation period. Notwithstanding this, unless observers have been mistaken, spot groups haying similar charac- teristics, frequently reappear on the same spot where a predecessor has disappeared. This seems to indi- cate that there must be a solid or semi-solid body beneath the surface of the photosphere, as the light- supplying surface is called. From time to time when very large spots or groups appear, or disappear, round the limb, or cross the central meridian, more especially if considerable change is going on in the spots at the time; the earth’s magnetism becomes much affected, and we have what is known as a magnetic storm. Usually this follows a few hours later than the observed phenomenon, asif time were needed for the influence to travel across the intervening 93,000,000 miles. Simultaneously there is frequently a display of the Aurora. The ‘northern lights,” as they are often called in England, are therefore more frequently seen near the times of maximum sun spots. Whilst alluding to the Aurora it may be well to observe that the radiating centre appears not in the direction of the pole of the earth, but towards the magnetic pole, which is nowsome 16.5° west of due north as seen in England. Fre- quently the great rays of light, which are gene- rally a distinguish- ing feature of the phenomenon, have a slow motion from west to east. More directly connected withthe sun is the wonder- ful Zodiacal Light. What its real nature is, is little more than conjecture. In ap- pearance it is like a cone of light varying in breadth at the base, on the horizon, from 10° to 30° according to Hind, and stretching along the course of the ecliptic for some 70° to 100° from the sun’s _ place. Demonstrably, therefore, it must extend to a distance from the sun beyond that of the planet Venus, if indeed it does not reach outside the orbit of the earth. In appearance it is not unlike the Milky Way. In the tropics it 1s always visible after sunset and before sunrise, but in England, February, March and April are the best for evening observations, and September and October for morning appearances. So far only once has its light impressed its image on the photographic plate. The spectroscope shows a continuous spectrum, making 1t probable that its light is in reality reflected sunlight. The plane of the Zodiacal Light does not exactlyaccord with that of the sun’s equator, or with that of the ecliptic, though I approximate very near to that of the former. In shape it is, in my opinion, vertical. (To be continued. ) 252 SCIENCE-GOS SIP. SS SS ws) . Af CONDUCTED BY JAMES QUICK. New. VERNIER Mrcroscope.—Messrs. John J. Griffin and Sons, Ltd., of Sardinia Street, W.C., have lately introduced some more new pieces of apparatus, which will be certain to supply a desideratum in the various schools and colleges. Among these may be mentioned a useful vernier microscope for measuring lengths, etc. Along the top of a perfectly rigid cast iron base run two parallel, deeply cut grooves in which slides a substantially built brass carriage, supporting a smaller carriage running between parallel guides. Upon the smaller carriage, the reading microscope is fixed. A thick brass strip the entire length of the base, let in flush with the top, is accurately graduated into half millimetres. Readings can easily be obtained to zfsths mm., by means of a vernier which is attached to the carriage holding the microscope. This carriage is moved i backwards or forwards by means of a fine adjustment screw, as shown in the accompanying illustration. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.—Mr. Marconi arrived back in England from America towards the end of last month by the ‘‘St. Paul,” and when the vessel had approached to within some sixty miles of the * Needles, wireless messages were commenced between the two, and were repeated frequently as the vessel approached land. The passengers on board therefore had the unique opportunity of obtaining the current news long before disembarking. The ship’s com- positor made good use of the occasion by printing, on the spot, a miniature newspaper containing the news received, and then selling the same at one dollar per copy ; the receipts being handed over to the Sea- men’s Fund. It has been reported that the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company has been incorporated in New York with a capital of ten million dollars, to introduce and work Mr. Marconi’s patents in America. J. F. Ne G.—The Editor cannot adniit anonymous ‘communications in any part of SCIENCE-GossIP. Please send name and address. |\COUN Pus TULIPS AND ORCHIDS IN SOUTHERN FRANCE. About the month of April, springing up in the early corn and under the plum trees, may be seen the first flowering tulips. The vellow Z2/zpa sylvestvis comes first, a long, narrow bud opening to a lovely yellow and scented flower. It is a beautiful sight to see them thus in full bloom, all wide and reflecting the sun’s rays from their shining petals ; just a little protected by their faint green leaves. Thus they seem to gracefully arise among the lightly sprouting corn, a contrast to the curious bare brown twisted stems of the vines. About two weeks later sprung up the great open red cups of the Tulipa oculus-solés, shining like blood through the sunlight. These flowers have a black centre, are larger and with more spreading leaves. Mixed with the yellow, in the shade of the branching, lichen- clothed trees, tangled with ivy, wild vine, and clematis, they form as fair a sight as flowers can give us on a fresh spring day. Again, on the hills, in the Cevennes, wild tulips blossom so high and thick as to obstruct the view, and they are crushed under foot by the shepherd or peasant in passing. Earlier than the tulips are the daffodils, and I do not know which are the lovelier. The daffodils run simply wild, all in golden tufts and groups. From a distance, one sees nothing but a clear golden stretch, and the farmer’s plough cutting through the land catches their roots, nipping off the beautiful dancing heads. The white narciss in the broad meadows grow in great rising tufts. Jonquils are under the great spreading elms on grassy banks near the roadsides, while the blackthorn and wild plum drop a shower of light petals on the ground, exquisitely white as snow. Little white delicately scented hyacinths also grow on the banks of the river Lol, and above, over the stretching vineyards, the star of Bethlehem opens wide in the sun; the starry blossoms of pure white, striped white and green on the outer side. In tufts of grass are the grape hyacinths, a dull blue, each flower a little globe of honey for the bees. The meadows, marsh land, ditches and open hillside, have a charm of their own in the different orchid flowers. The early purple orchis (Ovchzs mascula) decks the meadows, while the green-winged meadow orchis (Orchis morto) is found in the damp limestone meadows. The sweet scented orchis (Gysz2adonia conopsea) rose-purple, with a quaint long spur, is found on the hilly pastures. Some which I up- rooted in bud, were carried home in moss, where they flourished in pots, blooming well. The meadow grasses are nearly all flowers by the end of April. Orchis pyramidalis, a lovely rose pink, flowers with the quaking grass and early budding moon daisy. _ Along the roadsides, where during all winter one has seen its broad freshly shining leaves, blossoms forth Orchis hirctna, a brownish green flower, and smelling. In the woods, butterfly orchis (Habenarza bifolia), a lovely white scented orchis, springs up in the damp mossy glades. (Miss) Hampson, London. - Eee ne Pee eee a ‘ SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 2 CONDUCTED BY WILFRED MARK WEBR, F.L.S. CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS A MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF ELEREFORDSHIRE.—A paper on this subject has been written by Messrs. Arthur E. Boycott and Ernest W. W. Bowell, and published by the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. It is, however, by no means intended to be merely a local list, and although it fills over a hundred pages, the authors begin with an apology for its ‘‘ very incomplete state.” We have, however, to take it as we find it, and may say at once that Messrs. Boycott and Bowell have succeeded in their endeavour. They have presented to us some- thing new, and, like all novelties, open to much criticism, but an honest attempt to graft on to the old style of collecting some work of a modern kind. After a glance at the paper it would be no longer possible to call the authors only conchologists or malacologists, for they are true students of the mollusea, considering the small series we boast of from almost every point of view. In the paper are given tables of distribution according to fourteen sub-divi- sions of the county, already made out for the flora, as well as for three geological formations, Old Red Sandstone, Silurian and Limestone. Several pages are devoted to methods in which the anatomical side is dealt with, indeed the authors say that they ‘‘ found this one of the most interesting branches of the subject.” It is worthy of mention that anatomy is not for a moment supposed to be ‘‘ utilised asa convenient way of differentiating species.” Microscopical re- agents are discussed, and one cannot help quoting the remarks made about mounting shells, as they agree so precisely with the ideas often expressed by the present writer, on curatorial methods. ‘‘ Any system, however, of keeping shells, that is for the purposes of a private collection, which involves stick- Ing them on to cards, etc., cannot be too strongly condemned. A shell once stuck down is practically removed, till it is unstuck again, from playing a very useful part in the study of biology ; it is scarcely more than a subject on which to exercise the visual aesthetic sense.” A true remark also is that which says, there isnosingle one of our species whose habits and anatomy have been at all completely worked out. A novel feature of the paper is the attention given to measure- ments, whether as to size or to weight. We wonder very much, however, at the ‘‘ Shell Collectors’ Handbook for the Field,” by J. W. Williams, being seriously considered in this or any scientific con- nection. Most praiseworthy is the attempt to tackle nomenclature, and the giving of synonymy in a number of cases, but this is often treated in a conver- sational way, that leads to very little, and the authors are not consistent. It is a pity that a committee is not formed to settle the question so far as possible, seeing that we have only about a hundred and forty species to determine. Slugs have had _ little attention paid to them in Herefordshire, nine species only being recorded. Under the heading of various species, many interesting records of colour variations are given, as well as suggestive remarks Lea ve which well deserve discussion. ‘There are also little points here and there which show that keen observa- tions have been made in the field, as well as at home. In the present short notice many interesting things have to ie passed over, but we must call attention to the fact that Lymnea pereger and L. auricularia are considered as one species, under the name of Z. limosa L. At last some one has definitely expressed the opinion held by many of us, that these two so- called species are not yet sufficiently differentiated to Warrant two names; but evidence is still required upon the point. A single sub-fossil deposit at Led- bury is alluded to, which is interesting, owing to the fact that two species of Vertigo not hitherto recorded for the county, occur there. —Milfred Mark Webb, 2, The Broadway, Hammersmith, November 16th, 1899- SCALARIFORM HELIX ASPERSA.—In SCIENCE Gossip (anée, p. 181) I saw a figure of the scalariform monstrosity of He/ix asfersa identical in appearance with a specimen I presented a few years ago to the British Museum. It was found a great many years since by an acquaintance of ours, who used to live at Henbury, in the Arbutus Walk in Blaise Castle Wood, which extends along a portion of the precipi- tous side of the valley forming the Blaise Castle Gorge. It is the only specimen I have seen from this district. —Spencer George Perceval, Severn House, Henbury, Bristol. {A monstrosity such as the scalariform //e/i aspersa is not dependent upon locality one would say, but is due to some injury, or other cause which leads to the whorls taking a larger curvature when growth is recommenced. The writer has a specimen of the common snail from Reigate Hill, which he collected long before he took up the systematic study of shells, which though not attaining quite to the remarkable conformation of the shell figured upon p. 181, shows this point very well.— WM. IW.) VERTIGO SUBSTRIATA.—Some time ago I found, but have not hitherto recorded, a number of speci- mens of Vertigo substriata Jefl, at Westerham, in Kent. The molluscs in question were in a similar situation to the one in which I discovered the same species in Essex—among the damp grass, in swampy, but slightly rising ground at the edge of a stream. Though common enough in Pleistocene deposits recent Vertigos are somewhat rare, and one would think that more careful collecting would yield more records. THE HoMING or LiMAX FLAvus. —Mr. Taylor's remarks upon the homing of slugs and snails in the last part of his monograph, notice of which will be found on page 242, remind me of the behaviour of a specimen of the large yellow lilac- horned slug Zivax flavus. It was when I was living in this neighbourhood before, that the characteristic **spoor” of a large slug was noticed leading from the grating over a drain up the wall to a soap-dish hung on anail and back again. I do not remember now whether the trail crossed itself; but night after night a new one was made and the cake of soap diminished, until at last, having indulged a little too freely, the slug was somewhat late in returning home, and was captured before reaching its hiding place. Upon dis- section the alimentary canal of the animal was found to be full of ‘* primrose” soap, and its characteristic internal shell went to enrich my collection. The food chosen in this case also serves to show the omnivorous tendencies of the Limacidae, for which the varied forms of teeth described by Mr. Taylor in his mono- graph well fit the members of this family,—/V2/fred” Mark Webb, 2, The Broadway, Hammersmith, W. er TuHE death of Sir Richard Thorne Thorne, the principal medical officer of the Local Government Board, removes one of the enthusiasts in the crusade against consumption, and a man who has done a very great deal for sanitary science. AT the last meeting of the Essex Field Club, held at Jermyn Street Museum, a woodlouse, new in the fauna of the British Isles, was exhibited. Its name is Poxellio ratzburgt Brandt, and it was found at Warley by Mr. Wilfred Webb, who is working out the land Isopoda of the county of Essex. Messrs. LONGMANS have in the press an English edition of *‘ Malaria, according to the New Researches, ” by Professor ANGELO CELLI, Director of the Institute of Hygiene, University of Rome. It is translated by JouHN JosrpH Fyre, M.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.Ire. Ph.D. Cambridge. With corrections and additions made for this translation by the Author. PROFEssOR E. A. SCHAFER has received from the University of Edinburgh grants from the Moray Fund, towards the expenses of his researches on the cerebral nervous system. Dr. John Malcolm has received funds from the same source for experiments on the alterations in bone marrow produced by nucleins and their allies. THE famous herd of Chillingham wild white cattle are given a new owner by the death of Lord Tankerville, at the advanced age of ninety. We might point out that too careful preservation of a strain may cause it to deteriorate, while the occasional gift or exchange of an individual cow or bull might be of advantage to two herds. WE regret to record the death, at the age of 68, of Mr. R. James Gregory, the well-known dealer in geological specimens, which took place on December 15th. Our readers will doubtless recall that the recent articles upon ‘‘ Meteorites” in our pages were founded upon the very fine collection of these bodies, one of the best in existence, in the possession of the late Mr. Gregory. WHEN the Boer War broke out there were on the way to Pretoria, for the South African Republic, several insect cabinets consigned to the order of that Government, by Messrs. Janson and Sons, of Great Russell Street, London. What has become of these ‘valuable cabinets since they left Cape Town cannot ' be discovered, as they were in transit up country when war was declared. Their value much exceeds £100. ALL those who are fond of pictures of animals should manage to get a ticket for the ‘‘One Man Show” by Mr. Henry Stevens, at the Camera Club. It will be open all through January. We have seen many beautiful photographs of living animals at the Zoo by professional photographers, and of creatures in their haunts by field naturalists who have made this kind of work their special study, but in none is the perfection of detail to be seen which characterises Mr. Stevens’ charming creations. Amonc the Lecture Arrangements at the Royal Institution before Easter are, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Six Christmas Lectures, specially adapted for young people, on Fluids in Motion and at Rest ; Professor E. Ray Lankester, Twelve Lectures on the Structure SCIENCE-GOSSTP. and Classification of Fishes; Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Three Lectures on The Senses of Primitive Man ; Professor 1. H. Turner, Three Lectures on Modern Astronomy ; and The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, Six Lectures on Polarised Light. The Friday Even- ing Meetings will begin on January 19th, when a Discourse will be given by the Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, on Flight. By the death of Sir Henry Tate, Bart., science and general education, as well as art, lose a liberal patron. Born the son of the Rev. W. Tate, at Chorley, in Lancashire, in 1519, he died at his house on Streatham Common, in his 81st year. His mag- nificent gifts to the nation included the recently- erected Tate Art Galleries for the reception of modern masterpieces, 450,co00 to University College, Liverpool, £10,000 to Owen’s College, Manchester, numerous educational scholarships, several public libraries, and £30,000 for an homoeopathic hospital. Ear_y in the New Year, Mr. John C. Nimmo will publish the first volume, by Professor Sayce, of Oxford, of ‘‘The Semitic Series.” This is a set of new standard handbooks intended to present com- pactly, and in popular scientific form, the more important facts in the history, religion, government, language, and customs, of the Babylonians, Assyrians, and allied Semitic races of ancient history. The first issue is: ‘* Babylonians and Assyrians’ Life and Customs, with special reference to the Contract Tablets and Letters,” by the Rey. A. H. Sayce, Professor of Assyriology at Oxford. Other volumes will follow at regular intervals. ONE of the saddest events in connection with the siege of Ladysmith was the death of Arthur C. Stark, M.B., who was killed at his own door by an enemy’s shell bursting at his feet. He lived only a few moments, exclaiming ‘‘look after my cat.” This has been treated as one of the humours of the war; but as explained by one of his relatives, the last word could only have been the first part of the word cata- logue, and that he died before completing his sentence. Dr. Stark was engaged when the war broke out, in obtaining material for a book on the birds of South Africa. This was to have been the first of a series on the fauna south of the Zambesi, edited by Mr. Sclater, the Director of the Cape Town Museum. Ir is with very greatest regret that we have to record that our contemporary ‘‘ Natural Science” has had to own itself eliminated in the struggle for existence. It was originated in 1892 by some of the staff of the British Natural History Museum. The magazine soon became important on account of its straightforward and trenchant criticism as well as by reason of the valuable matter that specialists con- tributed to its columns. Only the Natural History Sciences were considered. If there is one branch one could pick out as having been typical of *‘ Natural Science” it would be that philosophic biology which Darwin’s work has pre-eminently helped to evolve from the older Natural History. WE recently received from the Warwick Trading Company, Ltd., of Warwick Court, High Holborn, an extensive and classified catalogue of new Cinemato- graph Films covering a variety of interesting subjects in motion. As we went to press a supplementary list to the foregoing reached us, chiefly devoted to subjects connected with the war in the Transvaal, though there are more general subjects included. WE regret to report that Mr. Carrington, our editor, was taken yery seriously ill a few days before Christmas. We are, however, glad to be able to add that, at the time of going to press, his condition has changed for the better, and we sincerely hope the improvement will be maintained. SCIENCE-GOSS/P. 2 THE arranged an exhibition this year on December 6thand 7th, which was well worth the journey from London to WINDSOR AND EYTON Screntriric SOCIETY view. The President, Mr. M. D. Hill, B.A., F.Z.E., of Eton College, had a large series of living marine animals from the Channel, the specimens of £chinus particularly well showing their tube feet. He had also a large exotic legless lizard allied to the blind worm, and a blue tonzued lizard, which from time to time he warmed at the radiator in the series of electrical novelties. A feature of the show was the demonstration of stereoscopic lantern pictures by Mr. Oldham. The two familiar parts of the double photograph had been painted as separate lantern slides and were thrown one over the other upon the screen. One lantern using red light gave a red picture, the other produced one with complendary colour, green. Where these pictures overlapped, which they did not of course absolutely do, the resulting picture was a monotone. There was also to the naked eye a necessary indistinctness, seeing that the combined pictures were not identical. On putting on, not rose coloured spectacles exactly, but a pair with one glass red and the other green, a fine effect was produced, each _ glass allowed only one picture to reach the eye, which the pair combined to form a_ single photograph, but in relief as seen in the ordinary apparatus. Mr. Everett attracted quite as much attention with Zesla’s experiments, and the most recent developments of his apparatus. The explana- tion of the matter is, that alternately electrical currents of very high frequency, have no harmful effect on the human frame. It must, however, be said that to see a vacuum tube lit up when taken in one hand by the experimenter whose other was in connection with the terminal of the apparatus—seemed a veritable repre- sentation of a magic wand. The effect was not lessened when sparks were drawn from Mr. Everett's nose. A Maxim gun with two-red-coated ‘‘ beggars present in the body ” to explain its mechanism, came in for a good deal of attention. Carbon printing from photographic negatives was practically shown. Liquid carbon dioxide was still a novelty to many present. Microscopes were numerous, and a fine series of lepidoptera gave a touch of colour. Lastly, the presence of the honorary secretary, Mr. J. W. Gooch, lent success to his own work.—JI. A. 1Web6. NortH LonpoN Natura History Society. Oct. 5, 1899.—The exhibits of the Pocket Box Microscope and Lantern Exhibition were consider- ably more numerous than at the previous Exhibition, and contained much of interest. Messrs. Austin and Hanson exhibited birds’ eggs, Messrs. C. S. Nichol- son and R. W. Robbins botanical specimens, Mr. Nicholson’s including Juda crithmoides, Thalictrum dunense, Scilla verna, Euphorbia portlandica and Orobanche hederae ; but the exhibits of Lepidoptera were the most numerous. Perhaps the most interest- ing of these, in view of the Society’s particular studies and aims, was Mr. Colin Murray's box of insects, taken at electric light at Stratford this season ; these included Zeusera fpyriza, Dicranura bifida, Nolodonta dictaea, Hylophila bicolorana, Leucania obsoleta, L. phragmitidis, Calamia /utesa, Triphaena fimbria, Cirrhoedia xerampelina and Hecatera serena. Oct. 19, 1899.—Donations: bred series of Gortyna ochracca and Hydroecia micacea from Stratford were presented to the local collec- tion by Mr. Murray; a bred specimen of E upithéc: a subfulsate and a few ci iptured specimens of Hypstpetes autumnalis (trifasciata) from Hale End by Mr. Prout. Exhibits: Mr. Shepherd ex hibited various Lepidoptera, including //y/enodes albistriguiis from Loughton, 7210/7. piniperda (bred), Lithosia sericea and Cymatophora duplaris (the dark form) from W arrington. He stated that only one specimen out of nine bred 7”. piniperda had developed perfectly, the rest showing a certain amount of crippling on malformation, particularly in the left hind wing. A discussion ensued as to the probable phylogenetic origin of such weaknesses. Mr. Shepherd also passed round a drawing of a pupa, evidently of Sphinx convolouli, from a larva found on Convolzulus arvensts at Deal. Mr. Frost read a paper entitled *“Notes and Echoes,” urging the society to make certain important departures in its proce- dure, with a view to organising its work and increasing its membership, and thereby its sphere of usefulness. He emphasised the need for popularising the study, and expressed the opinion that it was essential to the well-being and the development of the society that it should obtain sufficient members to render possible the acquisition of premises of its own. He also put in a plea for the accumulation of facts, as contrasted with mere Opinions or theories, and for more systematic research work, and indexing of work already published, in such a way as to make it acces- sible. In the discussion which followed, Mr. Prout stated that the Council had already appointed a Commission to consider some of these questions, and that they would probably come before the society again by-and-by. Nov. 2, 7899.—Exhibits : Messrs. Bacot and Simes exhibited Scotch Lepidoptera taken by themselves this season, including fine variable series of Hydroecia nictitans var. lucens and of Cidaria immanata, and also series of Zrebia aethiops, Celoena haworthit, Noctua castanea and others, and odd specimens of Mamestra furva, Noctua dahlit, Calocampa solidaginis, Cirrhoedia xerampelina, etc. Miss Robinson exhibited a very interesting lot of paintings of Scottish scenery. Communications : Mr. Bacot announced that he had recently had larvae of the Processionary Moth hatch from the egg, and that they immediately commenced their peculiar pro- cessionary performance. Messrs. C. Nicholson and R. W. Robbins reported recent visits to Epping Forest, in which Chestas spartiata had been taken in different parts; Mr. Lane stated that this species could be readily tramped up out of broom by day. Election of President: Mr. J. A. Simes, being the only nominee for the office for the year 1900, was declared duly elected president. Mr. Simes then read a very interesting paper on “A Holiday in the Highlands,” with numerous lantern illustrations under the superintendence of Mr. Wheeler.—Zowis B. Prout, Hon Sec. RoyAL METEOROLOGICAL SociEry.—The monthly meeting of this society was held on Wednesday even- ing, the 20th instant, at the Institution of Civil Engineers, Mr. F. C. Bayard, LL.M., President, in the chair. Mr. Baldwin Latham, M.Inst.C.E., read a paper on ‘‘The Climatic Conditions Necessary for the Propagation and Spread of Plague.” The bubonic plague is primarily due to a specific organism or 256 SCIENCE-GOSSTP. microbe of infinitesimal size—so small that probably 250 millions of them would be required to cover a square inch of surface. Plague is infectious and con- tagious, and is greatly influenced by pestilential emanations from polluted and waterlogged soils. The author gives accounts of various outbreaks of plague in this and other countries, including the great plague of London in 1665, when 7,165 deaths were recorded in one week in September. Plague is undoubtedly a disease of the poor, and attacks most readily those living on a low diet. The conditions which are conducive to the spread of plague are identical with those which give rise to the escape of malaria from the ground. That the ground itself exercises an enormous influence upon plague is shown by the fact that in all the epidemics, persons living on the ground floors suffer to a much greater extent than those who live in the higher storeys of the houses. Mr. Latham says that there cannot be a doubt that the conditions which ordinarily produce evaporation from water or land surfaces are identical with those which produce exhalations from the ground ; and these exhalations consist largely of vapour of water carrying matters injurious to health with them. Mr. Latham has discussed the meteorological observations (in- cluding the temperature of the soil at the depth of 9, 20, 60 and 132 inches) made at the Colaba Observa- tory, Bombay, and has compared them with the number of deaths from plague during the recent epi- demics in Bombay. He says that if the temperature of the air increases beyond the temperature of the ground so that its dew-point is above the temperature of the ground, condensation takes place instead of evaporation. To this increased high tempera- ture may be due the sudden stoppage of plague after a certain high temperature has been reached; which by raising the temperature of the dew-point, stops all exhalation from the ground and may cause condensation to take place instead of evaporation. So also a sudden fall of temperature causes plague to arise; for a fall of temperature means that the temperature of the dew-point must fall and the tensional difference between a low dew- point and a high ground temperature would at once lead to exhalations escaping in large quantities from the ground, and so lead to the liberation of the plague bacillus from the ground, accompanied with the exhalations necessary for its development. NOTICES OF SOCIETIES. Ordinary meetings are marked +, excursions * ; names of persons following excursions are ofConductors. 4 Lantern Illustrations. Limerick FieLcp Crus. Jan. 2,—°}¢'‘ Plates and Printing Papers.” a 9.—tSeventh Annual General Meeting of the Club. oa 23.—1¢'‘ Irish Geological Notes.” J.P. Dalton, M.A., M.R.S.A.I. ‘Feb. 6.—°+3** Portraiture.” ee 20.—}('‘ Early Christian Architecture.” P,. J. Lynch, F.R.S.A.I. March 6.—*}}‘* Outdoor Photography.” 7 13) 14, ah ae 27, 28.—Lectures by G. H. Carpenter, April 3.—}Exhibition of Prize Lantern Slides, lent by Ze Amateur Photographer. Francis Neale, Hon. Sec., Limerick. South Lonpon EnromoxiocicaL and Naturat History Society. Jan. 11.—?}Photomicrographic Illustrations. Fred. Noad Clark. fa 25.—Annual Meeting, 7 p.m. Stanley Edwards, Hon. Sec., Hibernia Chambers, S.E. Hui Scienriric AND Fietp Naturauists’ Ciup. Jan. Boeiaet ural History Notes in North Wales. R. H. hilip. es 17.—ttSymbiosis. J. F. Robinson. » 31.—ttCyclone and Cloud. C. H. Gore, M.A. LT. Sheppard, Hon. Sec., 78, Sherburn Street. SELBORNE Society, Frerp Cius. Jan. 13.—Bird Section, Natural History Museum, Crom- well Road. Bowdler Sharp. Feb. -—Archacological Meeting. Mch. .—Kew Gardens. Bulbous Plants and Museums. Professor Boulger. HampesteEAD ASTRONOMICAL AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Jan. 12.—+Notes on Some Odd Fish. E.R. Budden, F.I.C., BGS.) FalS:) ZS vi Feb. 2.—tThe Mechanics of the Bicycle and of Bicycle Riding. C. O. Bartrum, B.Sc. R Basil WW. Martin, 7, Holly Place, Hampstead, NW. TunsripGe WeLts Narurat History AND PHILOSOPHICAL 12.—?The Natural History of Malarial Fever. By A. W. Brown, B.A., F.L.S. 19.—?Haunts and Habits of British Wild Birds. By R. Kearton, F.Z.S. Feb. 2.—}Microscopical Mecting. Paper on Mycetozoa. By Mr. R. R. Hutchinson. on 8.—Phenomena outside our Apprehension. By Mr. W. Brackett, at 94, London, Southborough. NOTICE. : SUBSCRIPTIONS (6s. 6d.) for Vol. VI. are now due. The postage of SCIENCE-GossiIP is really one penny, but only half that rate is charged to subscribers. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To CORRESPONDENTS AND EXCHANGERS.—SCIENCE-GOSSIP- is published on the 25th of each month. All notes or other communications should reach us not later than the 18th of the month for insertion in the following number. No com- munications can be inserted or noticed without full name and address of writer. Notices of changes of address admitted free. Business Communications.—All Business communica- tions relating to SciENCE-Gossip must be addressed to the Proprietor of ScrencE-GossIP, 110, Strand, London. SUBSCRIPTIONS.—Subscriptions to ScrEncE-Gossip, which may commence with any number, at the rate of 6s. 6d. for twelve months (including postage), should be remitted to the Office, 110, Strand, London, W.C. EprroriAL COMMUNICATIONS, articles, books for review, instruments for notice, specimens for identification, &c., to be addressed to JOHN T. CARRINGTON, r10,-Strand, London, W.C. Tue Editor will be pleased to answer questions and name specimens through the Correspondence column of the maga- zine. Specimens, in good condition, of not more than three species to be sent at one time, carriage paid. Duplicates only to be sent, which will not be returned, unless accom- panied by return postage, and then at owner's risk. The specimens must have identifying numbers attached, together with locality, date, and particulars of capture. TueE Editor is not responsible for unused MSS., neither can he undertake to return them, unless accompanied with stamps for return postage. EXCHANGES. Norice.—Exchanges extending to thirty words (including name and address) admitted free, but additional words must be prepaid at the rate of threepence for every seven words or less. WanTED, minerals, fossils, and English postage stamps. (not present issue under 1s.), for similar exchange. Also want bicycle mud-guard, and nested boxes for small fossils. Offered, electric bell apparatus, field glasses, telescope.— Martin, 23, Campbell Road, Croydon. Wanrtep, Lang's ‘' Butterflies of Europe,” and_ Kane's “Handbook of European Butterflies.” What offers for Newcomb's ‘‘Popular Astronomy,’ Webb's ‘“‘ Celestial Objects,” Ball's ‘‘ Story of Heavens"? E. J. George, St. John’s Vicarage, Cambridge. Wantep, good authentic British flint implements, arrow- heads, scrapers, knives, etc. A. Hartley, 19, Thorpe Garth, Idle, Bradford, Yorkshire. Srrex GiGas (females) in exchange for shells or Stamps. John Roseburgh, 54, Market Street, Galashiels. VERTIGO MOULINSIANA, etc., in exchange for Vertigo angustior, V. minutissima, Helix revelata or H. obyoluta. F. J. Partridge, 3, Carlyle Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. WANTED, interesting micro-slides, particularly entomo- logical. Can offer many rare and local British Coleoptera, well set, neatly carded and named. List sent. Jas, Murray, Close Street, Carlisle. OFFERED. Duplicate foreign postage stamps. Wanted, foreign marine shells, especially Cyprea, Conus and Oliva types, or stamps not in collection of 2,500, Jas. S. Wood, Walker Gate, Newcastle-on-Tyne. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. WATKINS & DONCASTER, _ Naturalists and Manufacturers of Entomological Apparatus and Cabinets, N.B.—For Excellence and Superiority of Cabinets wa, Apparatus, references are permitted to distinguished Patrons and Colleges, Sc. Catalogue ( 66 pp. ) sent post free on application. Plain Ring Nets, Wire or Cane, including stick, 18. 3d., ax., 28.6d. | Taxidermist’s Companion, #.¢., a pocket leather case, containing Folding Nets, 3s. 6d. and 4s. most useful instruments for skinning, 108. 6d. Umbrella Nets (self-acting), 7s. Scalpels, 18. gd. ; Label Lists of Birds’ Eggs, 3d., 4d., 6d. Pocket Boxes, 6d.; corked both sides, od., 1s. and 1s. 6d. | Scissors, per pair, 2s. Setting Needles, 3d. and 6d. per box. Zine Relaxing Boxes, od., 15., 18. 6d., and as. | Coleopterist’s Collecting Bottle, with tube, 1s. 6d., 1s. 8d. Nested Chip Boxes, 4 dozen 8d., 15. 9d. gross. Botanical Cases, japanned double tin, 15. 6d., 28. 9d., 48. 6d., 48. 6d. Entomological Pins, mixed, 1s. 6d. oz. | Botanical Paper, 18. 1d., 18. 4d., 1s. 9d., as. ad. perquire. (7s. 6d. Sugaring Lanterns, as. 6d. to ros. 6d. Insect Cases, imitation mahogany, as. 6d. to 118. Sugaring Tin, with brush, 1s. 6d., 28. Cement for replacing Antennz, 6d. per bottle. Sugaring Mixture, ready for use, 1s. od. per tin. Forceps for removing insects, 18. 6d., as., 2s. 6d. per pair. Mite Destroyer (not dangerous to use), 1s. 6d. per Ib. Cabinet Cork, 7 by 33, best quality, 1s. 4d. per dozen sheets. Store Boxes, with Camphor Cells, as. 6d., 4s., 58. and 6s. Pupa Diggers, in leather sheath, 1s. 9d. Insect Lens, 1s. to 8s. Ditto, Book Pattern, 8s. 6d., ape 6d. , and ros. 6d. Glass Top and Glass Bottomed Boxes, from 1s. 4d. per dozen. Setting Boards, flat or oval, 1 in., 6d.; 1h in., 8d.; Zin., 9d.; ain., | Label Lists of British Butterflies, ad. rod. ; agin., 18.3 gin., 18. 2d.; g}in., 18. 4d.; qin., rs. 6d.; | Ditto Land and Fresh-Water Shells, ad. din., 1s. 8d.; 5in., 18. 10d. Gomplete set of 14 boards, tos. 6d. | Ege Drills, 2d., 3d., 1s.,; Metal Blow Pipe, 4d. and 6d. Setting Houses, 9s. 6d. and 11s, 6d., with corked back, 148, Our new Label List of British Macro-Lepidoptera, with Latin and Zinc Larva Boxes, od., 1s. Brass Chloroform Bottle, 2s. | English Names, ts. 6d. Our new Catalogue of British Lepidop- ies numbered, 18. ; or on one side for Labels, 2s. Breeding cage, as. 6d., 45., 58., and 7 78. . Gd. | tera, every BP All Articles enume pga are kept in Bene ire can She sent Ey tedints ly on receipt of order. The DIXON’? LAMP NET (invaluable for taking Moths off Street Lamps without climbing the lamp posts), 2s. 6d. CABINETS. Special Show Room. The following are the prices of a few of the smaller sizes ; for measurements and larger sizes see catalogue. Minerals and Dried Minerals and Dried Insect. Eggs. Plants, Fossils, &c. Insect. Eggs. Plants, Fossils, &c. 4 Drawers ...... 138. 6d. .... 1as.od. .... 10s. 6d. SuDrawersin tess ded 340s ce vawsncrGOMs Spo eps ccemaGes 6 Drawers ...... 17s.6d. .... 168.6d. .... 15s. od. TOMO hie yoreneerd 2G be porScacd tke oer bec? GF A LARGE STOCK OF INSECTS’ AND BIRDS’ EGGS. Birds, Mammals, &c., Preserved and Mounted by First-class Workmen. 36, STRAND, W.C. (Five Doors from Charing Cross). W. LONGLEY, ENTOMOLOGICAL CABINET and APPARATUS MAKER, 12, WHITE HART STREET, Catherine Street, Strand, London, W.C. TO MUSEUM GURATORS. SEND FOR DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE SPECIALTIES FOR VUSEUMS. Post free from LIBRARY SUPPLY CO., 4, Ave Maria Lane, London, E.C. Nets, Breeding Cages, and Apparatus of every descrip- tion; Cabinets for Insects, Birds’ Eggs, Minerals, Shells, Coins, etc., etc. ; Pocket Boxes, Store Boxes, and Book Boxes. Sheets of Cork any size to order. **CARD SYSTEM” CATALOGUE, showing a Perfect System of Indexing—applicable to a@// branches of Science and Library W ork—Post free. NATURAL HISTORY AGENT AND BOOKSELLER. Telegrams: ‘“ AUKS,’”’ LONDON. Telephone: 1824 GERRARD. ESTABLISHED 1760. JI. C. STEVENS, HENRY STEVENS. D. PELL-SMITH.) Auctioneer and Waluer, 38, KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, W.C. This old-established and widely known business is now being conducted under new partnership arrangement. Every Friday at 12.30 Sales are held at the Rooms of Microscopes and all Accessories by best makers. Microscopic Slides, Telescopes, Theodolites, Levels, Electrical and Scientific Apparatus, Cameras, and all kinds of Photographic Apparatus. Lanterns by leading makers: Lantern Slides in great varicty. NATURAL HISTORY SALES once and twice a Month. Catalogues and all particulars of Sales, post free. Valuations for Probate or Transfer, and Sales conducted in any part of the Country. JOHN -—