i if i = mn — RAR en ee _ fr Ole aT) Tt Saeed Pas Nay it sy sic Se we AS tat Cay. aE etal Be y Asi an’ a“ ih Sy a aA a 7, Bk PALO LAP I el Sl ce - a 1 eceSTs00 TOEO O MOTO 1 IOHM/18lW ‘ La ? i" okt ‘ i a ‘| , > ‘) ‘/ wu K ay my ¢ ’ a ay ii i4 Po ¥ Pa Tet ty ary 1 ¥ ie “. ty avant We vw fay ‘at if a =a a vs rs Pi } . , < DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM J. A. Fleming, Director Scientific Results of Cruise VII of the CARNEGIE during 1928-1929 under Command of Captain J. P. Ault N ( \/ \" OCEANOGRAPHY — III el Ocean Atmospheric-Electric Results O. W. TORRESON W. C. PARKINSON ©, 3 GBH G. R. WAIT CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON PUBLICATION 568 WASHINGTON, D. C. 1946 This book first issued June 15, 1946 PREFACE Of the 110,000 nautical miles planned for the seventh cruise of the nonmagnetic ship Carnegie of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, nearly one-half had been com- pleted on her arrival at Apia, November 28, 1929. The extensive program of observation in terrestrial magnet- ism, terrestrial electricity, chemical oceanography, physical oceanography, marine biology, and marine me- teorology was being carried out in virtually every detail. Practical techniques and instrumental appliances for oceanographic work on a sailing vessel had been most successfully developed by Captain J. P. Ault, master and chief of the scientific personnel, and hiscolleagues. The high standards established under the energetic and re- sourceful leadership of Dr. Louis A. Bauer and his co- workers were maintained, and the achievements which had marked the previous work of the Carnegie extended. But this cruise was tragically the last of the seven great adventures represented bythe world cruises of the vessel. Early in the afternoon of November 29, 1929, while she was inthe harbor at Apia completing the storage of 2000 gallons of gasoline, there was an explosion as a result of which Captain Ault and cabin boy Anthony Kolar lost their lives, five officers and seamen were injured, and the vessel with all her equipment was destroyed. In 376 days at sea nearly 45,000 nautical miles had been covered (see map, p. iv). In addition to the exten- sive magnetic and atmospheric-electric observations, a great number of data and marine collections had been obtained in the fieldsof chemistry, physics, and biology, including bottom samples and depth determinations. These observations were made at 162 oceanographic sta- tions at an average distance apart of 300 nautical miles. At each station, salinities and temperatures were ob- tained at depths of 0, 5, 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 700, 1000, 1500, etc., meters, down tothe bottomor to a maximum of 6000 meters, and complete physical and chemical determinations were made. Biological sam- plesto the number of 1014 were obtained both by net and by pump, usually at 0, 50, and 100 meters. Numerous physical and chemical data were obtained at the surface. Sonic depths were determined at 1500 points and bottom samples were obtained at 87 points. Since, in accord- ance with the established policy of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, all observational data and ma- terials were forwarded regularly to Washington from each port of call, the records of only one observation were lost with the ship, namely, a depth determination on the short leg between Pago Pago and Apia. The compilations of, and reports on, the scientific results obtained during this last cruise of the Carnegie are being published under the classifications Physical Oceanography, Chemical Oceanography, Meteorology, and Biology, in a series numbered, under each subject, I, II, and Il, etc. A general account of the expedition has been prepared and published by J. Harland Paul, ship’s surgeon and ob- server, under the title The last cruise of the Carnegie, and contains a brief chapter on the previous cruises of the Carnegie, a description of the vessel and her equip- ment, and a full narrative of the cruise (Baltimore, Wil- liams and Wilkins Company, 1932; xiii + 331 pages with 198 illustrations). The preparationsfor, and the realization of, the pro- gram would have been impossible without the generous cooperation, expert advice, and contributions of special iii equipment and books received on all sides from inter- ested organizations and investigators both in America and in Europe. Among these, the Carnegie Institution of Washington is indebted to the following: the United States Navy Department, including particularly its Hydrographic Office and Naval Research Laboratory; the Signal Corps and the Air Corps of the War Department; the National Museum, the Bureau of Fisheries, the Weather Bureau, the Coast Guard, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey; the Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California; the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Har- vard University; the School of Geography of Clark Uni- versity; the American Radio Relay League; the Geophys- ical Institute, Bergen, Norway; the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth, England; the German Atlantic Expedition of the Meteor, Institut fiir Meereskunde, Berlin, Germany; the British Admiral- ty, London, England; the Carlsberg Laboratorium, Bu- reau International pour |’Exploration de la Mer, and Laboratoire Hydrographique, Copenhagen, Denmark; and many others. Dr. H. U. Sverdrup, now Director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California, at La Jolla, California, who was then a Re- search Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton at the Geophysical Institute at Bergen, Norway, was consulting oceanographer and physicist. In summarizing an enterprise such as the magnetic, electric, and oceanographic surveys of the Carnegie and of her predecessor the Galilee, which covered a quar- ter of a century, and which required cooperative effort and unselfish interest on the part of many skilled scien- tists, it is impossible to allocate full and appropriate credit. Captain W. J. Peters laid the broad foundation of the work during the early cruises of both vessels, and Captain J. P. Ault, who had had the good fortune to serve under him, continued and developed that which Captain Peters had so well begun. The original plan of the work was envisioned by L. A. Bauer, the first Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington; the development of suitable methods and apparatus was the result of the painstaking efforts of his co-workers at Washington. Truly, as was stated by Captain Ault in an address during the commemorative exercises held on board the Carnegie in San Francisco, August 26, 1929, ‘‘The story of individual endeavor and enterprise, of invention and accomplishment, cannot be told.” The present volume is concerned with investigations during cruise VII on the electrical conditions of the low- er atmosphere. In the introduction, O. H. Gish, Assist- ant Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, discusses the importance of studying these conditions over the oceans. On previous cruises all the atmospheric-electric observations were made with eye-reading instruments. On cruise VII recording instruments were used for the first time for continuous measurements of the potential- gradient and the positive and negative conductivities. Eye-reading observations of the concentration of con- densation nuclei, the concentration of small ions, the production of ions by penetrating radiations, and radio- active content of the air were also made daily. One section of the volume describes instruments and obser- vational procedures. Various conditions of weather, sea, and vessel must 6261 “ST 1equIeAoN 0} gz6T ‘T Avy ‘ofsouTeD oy} Jo oyn0y 92 Y38W: af. 2 ie HOMWA Ftc 2 Ty 1€ asnony| P\E 8380190 te ’ | tsnonv | iv PREFACE v be considered in any analysis of observed atmospheric- electric data. Because of the importance in interpreting measurements, detailed notes were kept of weather con- ditions, including nearby clouds, variations in wind direction and velocity, changing conditions of mist or haze, and other related meteorological factors. One section gives an abstract of these notes, as entered in the ship’s log by the sailing officers and of the notes on engine operation. Positions of the mainsail were re- corded by the observer in charge of the atmospheric- electric work. W. C. Parkinson, senior scientific officer, was in charge of the atmospheric-electric program throughout cruise VII. O. W. Torreson, executive officer, assisted in the observations and computations from May 1928 through July 1929 and S. E. Forbush, who replaced him, for the remainder of the cruise. Reports of the work done during each leg of the cruise were mailed at every port of call. These were examined at Washington and comments submitted prompt- ly to the observers on board. These reports and the sug- gestions are included here because of potential value in future operations at sea. A systematized program of observation was followed insofar as possible. Over two hundred and fifty complete daily observations were made for each of the elements included in the program. Diurnal-variation series of twenty-four consecutive hourly sets of observations were scheduled to be made at weekly intervals and thirty-two complete or partial series were obtained. Several of the series could not be completed because instrumental dif- ficulties developed or unfavorable weather conditions made observing impossible. Compilations of the daily observations, diurnal-variation series, and the automat- ically recorded data are given in four tables in sections V to VIII. The final section (IX) comprises eight short discussions of studies of the great number of observa- tional data. O. W. Torreson edited and compiled the material for publication. This volume is the twelfth of the series “Scientific results of cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928-1929 under command of Captain J. P. Ault.’’ It is the third of the Oceanographical Reports. J. A. Fleming Director, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism In. HH Ss <2 CONTENTS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC OBSERVATIONS AT SEA INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS FIGURES 1 - 25 REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC WORK, CARNEGIE CRUISE VI, 1928-1929 COMMENTS ABSTRACT OF LOG DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC DIURNAL-VARIATION RESULTS ATMOSPHERIC POTENTIAL-GRADIENT RESULTS ATMOSPHERIC CONDUCTIVITY RESULTS STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY DETERMINATION OF REDUCTION FACTORS FOR THE CONVERSION OF MEASURED VCLTS TO POTENTIAL-GRADIENT IN VOLTS PER METER FOR CRUISE VII, CARNEGIE, 1928-1929 THE DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF THE ATMOSPHERE OVER THE OCEAN THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AT SEA THE RATIO OF POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE CONDUCTIVITY ON CRUISE VII AND ITS VARIATION WITH POTENTIAL-GRADIENT THE COMPUTED MOBILITY OF SMALL IONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE OVER THE OCEANS INTERESTING ASPECTS OF THE AIR-EARTH CURRENT DENSITY OVER THE OCEANS AS DERIVED FROM ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC DATA OF CRUISE VI OF THE CARNEGIE THE NUMBER OF CONDENSATION NUCLEI OVER THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS NOTE ON PENETRATING RADIATION MEASUREMENTS OF THE CARNEGIE’S SEVENTH CRUISE FIGURES 1 - 17 INDEX vii O. Ww. O. 00 Of O H. Gish C. Parkinson H. Gish . W. Torreson . C. Parkinson . W. Torreson . H. Gish . W. Torreson . W. Torreson . R. Wait . W. Torreson . R. Wait . W. Torreson Page 103 113 123 129 135 137 141 143 145 153 157 161 177 j i} > \ ; ; Ay ‘oe ae yy 1 7 ee aa é 5 bs wl, Bead : > ie ti an “ord - : mt ) dey to hae Ve g) 007" saa Re A Oo ye “ —_ . t Guy hoya, MOP AVIRA we > -: | moe f ae : a maONe > cw scene CUE ymat i sean seG8h 9°99 : acid F.0 =? wrayaan’ aot a — eran a weaves pith ci i. | eTrOU LER Sormis tty ve v7 BNOTOAN MOT ou an. : 7 , oti a AND LALIMaTOR Lis ; eet bE | RIDA Oar tO 2) Tee sg A 40 sn aa TA PATON son : | au on co yeepOMOD avTTADAM OF om) ba atone tt" OF Ty rd wT (et LaAlrrAnaT ios aspen Bae) sere Aor 2, iawe 1) PRES, OYE gay al tet Ted TARR ORE atta ae ee AD nV ek Cae. A wit Wevo' roy ae ia » ‘on To eT vreae gage ie aigurrat .W oO t' 7 v = P 7 = a y 5 7 i : ; ri ine I. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC OBSERVATIONS AT SEA Why investigate atmospheric electricity at sea? What can be accomplished there that could not be ac- complished more easily ashore? These are questions which no doubt have arisen in the minds of all those who have been concerned in one way or another with such in- vestigations. Certainly when facing the difficulties al- ways attending such measurements but increased at sea by the high average humidity, the salt-laden air, and the rolling and pitching of the vessel, observers must have emphatically propounded questions of equivalent import. The answers which may be given today to these ques- tions contain new aspects which could not have been seen fifteen years ago, when the first intensive programof at- mospheric-electric observations at sea was inaugurated on the Carnegie. These years have seen important ad- vances in the science of atmospheric electricity, ad- vances which, to a marked degree, were derived from the data obtained at sea, and which present the phenom- ena of atmospheric electricity in a new and improved perspective. The answers to our questions and the full significance of atmospheric-electric observations at sea will be seen best if viewed in this perspective. It may assist in this respect to review briefly some aspects of the science. It will be recalled that in so far as con- cerns atmospheric-electric phenomena, the earth may be considered a large electrically conducting sphere, charged with negative electricity and surrounded by an atmosphere which to a small degree conducts electricity because of the presence there of electric carriers, or ions--some positive and some negative. The positive ions are attracted to the earth and tend to neutralize its negative charge, while those of negative sign are re- pelled. Thus neither the charge of the earth nor the conductivity of the atmosphere could continue long with- out some source of replenishment for each of them. Calculations show that the charge would fall to one-tenth its initial value in twelve minutes if the conductivity as observed remained undiminished. The sources of replenishment of the ions in the air are such ionizing agents as the radioactive matter ofthe earth and of the atmosphere, together with the penetrat- ing radiation which includes cosmic radiation. The charge of the earth is maintained by some elusive, un- known factor, which we may call the supply current. To ascertain the origin and character of this supply current constitutes one of the most important objectives in pres- ent day atmospheric-electric investigations. Although the earth’s charge or its measure--the po- tential-gradient at the surface--and the conductivity of the air, are both on the average constant, yet interesting variations occur in both these features. The conductivi- ty which depends both on the number of small ions and on their mobility will be affected by variations in these elements. The variations in the mobility of these ions, however, is of only minor importance. It is the number of ions (small mobile ions) which is the controlling fac- tor in conductivity. This number is dependent both on the rate at which ions are formed and on their rate of decay or diminution. As already mentioned, the radia- tions from the radioactive matter in the earth and the atmosphere, together with the penetrating radiation, are the ion-producing agencies. Over land the radioactive matter of the earth and air is the predominating agency, while at sea the only agency known to be active is the penetrating radiation. Ionization produced by the latter cause is nearly constant everywhere, whereas that pro- duced by radioactive matter varies considerably with both time and place. The radioactive matter in the air produces more than half the ions which arise from radi- oactive sources over land. It comes originally from the soil, and hence varies from place to place, depending on the content and porosity of the soil. It varies with time under the influence of changes in soil temperature, vari- ations in barometric pressure, and depends on the di- rection, velocity, and turbulence of the wind. Although ions probably are produced at the average rate of about ten pairs per cubic centimeter per second over land, and at the rate of only one and one-half to two per cubic centimeter per second over the oceans, yet the average number of ion-pairs in a cubic centimeter of air near the earth’s surface is roughly 500, not only over land but also at sea. The population of small ions in the air is determined by their birth rate and their death rate, or the rate of formation and rate of diminu- tion. It is apparent then that the rate of diminution over land is considerably greater than over sea. The rate of diminution depends in part on the recom- bination which takes place between positive and negative small ions, and in part on the union of these small ions both with large, relatively immobile, ions and with cer- tain electrically neutral particles or molecular com- plexes. These large ions and molecular complexes also serve as nuclei; or starters, in the condensation of water vapor. On this account they are called condensa- tion nuclei. Everywhere in the lower kilometer of the atmosphere these nuclei occur in sufficient abundance to constitute the element which chiefly determines the rate of diminution of small ions. Their number and corre- sponding effect in decreasing the average life of small ions are much greater over land than at sea and are sub- ject to large fluctuations which, especially in the vicinity of cities, often arise from man-made conditions. The conductivity of the atmosphere thus affected has in turn an influence on the earth’s charge and on its at- tendant electric force, or potential-gradient. Thus, for example, the low and fluctuating conductivity in the vi- cinity of cities gives rise to high and fluctuating values of the potential-gradient. The earth’s charge, however, as measured by the potential-gradient varies from other causes. Thus, the electric charges generally connected with dust, smoke, fog, etc., and especially those intense charges which are developed in thunderstorms, all affect the potential-gradient directly. Effects arising from these causes will obviously vary in an irregular manner from place to place and from time to time, especially over land. There is also another source of variation in the po- tential-gradient, to which attention is especially invited. From a study of the potential-gradient data obtained on cruises IV, V, and VI of the Carnegie, Mauchly was able to conclude that the regular change in this element dur- ing the day over the ocean proceedson auniversal sched- ule. Thus, for example, highvalues tend to occur every- where at about 18 to 20 hours (6 to 8 p.m.) in Greenwich meridian time. Also, later he found evidence which sup- ports the view that the same phenomenon occurs over 2 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS land. Other effects such as have been mentioned already, however, and which are of very local origin, are there entangled with the general world-wide effect. Thus we see here evidence of a phenomenon world-wide in ex- tent and simultaneous in occurrence, the manifestation of a factor which affects the entire earth at the same in- stant of time and which waxes and wanes in a regular manner throughout the day. This factor is likely the supply current. That it was possible to make a discov- ery of such far-reaching importance on the basis of the relatively small amount of data available at the time emphasizes not only the feasibility of measurements at sea but also the advantage of studying atmospheric- electric phenomena under the relatively simple condi- tions which prevail over the oceans. Under simple con- ditions fewer data are required in a given locality and with a moving observatory measurements at widely dis- tributed localities may be obtained, a point of importance to the study of a world problem. On cruise VII, for the first time at sea, the potential-gradient measurements were made with a recorder instead of with eye-reading apparatus, and many days of record obtained. In order to ascertain the effects of the various fac- tors which determine the conductivity of the air at sea, measurements were made on cruise VII of both positive and negative conductivity, of ionic density, of the pene- trating radiation, of the radioactive content of air at sea, and of the number of condensation nuclei. During the earlier part of the cruise the conductivity was meas- ured by an eye-reading method, but beginning at San Francisco the apparatus which provided a continuous photographic record was used. The other measurements were obtained with eye-reading instruments. An addi- tional instrument for measuring penetrating radiation and of a type different from that used on the Carnegie since 1915, including the present cruise, was put into use at Hamburg. The purpose of this was both to ascertain more definitely the absolute amount of ionization which is produced in the air by this source and to ascertain whether variations occur in this factor. In addition to the regular daily program of all these measurements, series extending throughout twenty-four consecutive hours were made as frequently as possible for the pur- pose of studying the diurnal variation. Over 250 complete daily observations were obtained for eachof the several elements includedin the program. The diurnal-variation series, whichwere scheduled to be made at weekly intervals, were attempted on thirty-two occasions. Several of the series could not be completed because of the development of instrumental difficulties or unfavorable weather. Completed series ranged from sixteen in the case of nuclei concentration, to twenty- seven in the case of conductivity, with the series for small-ion concentration being completed on twenty oc- casions. It is also of considerable interest to note that satisfactory records of air potentials were obtained be- tween August 7, 1928 and November 18, 1929, for 181 complete days, of which 160 days were free from nega- tive potential, and that in the interval between San Fran- cisco and Apia, Samoa, September 3 to November 18, 1929, complete and satisfactory records of conductivity were obtained for 58 days. Thus the recorders yielded satisfactory data at a rate which in the case of the poten- tial-gradient was eight times, and in the case of the con- ductivity twelve times, the rate maintained when using eye-reading methods for diurnal-variation series. The gratifying success of this program in great measure is owing to the interest of the Commander, J.P. Ault, to the enthusiasm, diligence, and skill of W. C. Parkinson, senior scientific officer, who was in charge of the atmospheric-electric work throughout the cruise, and to O. W. Torreson, executive officer from Washing- ton to San Francisco, and S. E. Forbush, executive offi- cer from San Francisco to Apia, who aside from their other duties assisted in various parts of this work. Tl. INSTRUMENTS, Among the chief difficulties associated with atmos- pheric-electric work at sea is that of overcoming the effect of the ship’s motion on the measuring instruments and of securing good insulation of the instruments. For satisfactory observing with the ship’s motion, bifilar and unifilar electrometers were adopted on early cruises of the Carnegie (1) and their use was continued on cruise VII. Bifilar electrometers of Wulf’s design, as modified by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, were used and unifilar electrometers of the Einthoventype as mod- ified by Wulf. In both types of electrometers very fine fibers spun from quartz, made conducting by a very thin coating of gold or platinum, constitute the measuring elements. The fibers, of the thickness of fine spider- threads, are attached at their upper ends to the amber- insulated main terminal of the electrometer and at their lower ends to a bow or circle also made of a quartz fi- ber but not coated. The bow or circle maintains tension on the fiber system at all times. The amber and quartz mountings provide satisfactory insulation for the fibers. In the bifilar instrument the two fibers are attached at the same point both at top and bottom. When the fi- bers are electrically charged they repel each other, and the resulting deflection can be read with a microscope suitably mounted in relation to the fibers and containing a graduated scale in the eyepiece. This type of instru- ment is useful where a sensitivity no greater than one- half to one division per volt is required. The fibers are mounted inside a housing consisting of an inner and an outer case. The inner case is insulated from the outer as well as from the fiber system, so that by raising or lowering its potential, by means of batteries, the read- ings of the instrument can be brought to any desired part of the scale in the eyepiece. The auxiliary potential on the inner case also permits the instrument to be usedfor any desired range of potential. In the unifilar electrometer, instead of an inner case, two insulated metal plates are mounted, one on each side of the fiber, with their planes parallel to each other and to the quartz fiber. With the case of the in- strument earthed, and the plates charged to say +100 volts and -100 volts respectively, or any other conven- ient amount, any charges communicated to the fiber will cause it to be deflected. The sensitivity of the electrom- eter may be altered either by changing the field between the plates or by changing the tension on the fiber. The latter may be accomplished by adjusting the position of the support of the bow or circle at the lower end of the fiber. Batteries used for supplying potentials to the inner cases of bifilar electrometers or to the plates of unifilar instruments for the early part of cruise VI, were of the silver chloride type, in banks of 100 cells each, and giv- ing approximately 100 volts potential, but for the greater part of the cruise commercial 45-volt “‘B”’ batteries gave very satisfactory service. Both types of batteries were protected as well as possible from the moist sea air and the spray by being installed in closed cabinets in the atmospheric-electric observing cabin, on shelves be- low deck, or in other closed compartments, suitable con- necting wires being brought to the instruments from these locations. OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS The observing cabin on cruise VII was the same size and shape as on previous cruises and was located in the same place, although it was rebuilt just before cruise VII was begun. It stood between the mainmast and the after magnetic dome and was midway between the port and starboard rails. Thus it was not far forward of the quarter-deck (figs. 1, 2). The rebuilt cabin was equipped with convenient electric outlets for obtaining 110-volt direct current for lights and motors from the ship’s power plant in the engine room. The cabin also con- tained shelves, storage compartments, and work tables or benches. Within the cabin there were permanently mounted four atmospheric-electric instruments, together with numerous items of auxiliary equipment including control and calibrating apparatus. Along the port wall, in gim- bals attached to the ceiling of the cabin, were disposed ion counter 1 (IC1), penetrating radiation apparatus 1 (PR1), and radioactive content apparatus 4 (RCA4). These pieces of apparatus were designed and constructed by the Department for use on cruises IV, V, and VI but were overhauled, improved in some respects, and put in good working condition before installation for cruise VII (figs. 3, 4, 5). Along the after and starboard walls were work tables and benches. At Hamburg, Germany, in July 1928, a portable penetrating radiation apparatus was added to the atmospheric-electric equipment, designated as Kolhorster apparatus 5503. When used for simul- taneous observations with PR1, it was placed on a shelf in the atmospheric-electric cabin just beneath PR1 (fig. 6). On the forward wall of the cabin was a shelf for the conductivity apparatus. The conductivity apparatus was new and arranged otherwise for cruise VII than for pre- vious cruises. On previous cruises the tube through which the sample of air was drawn for the conductivity measurements had been located horizontally just above the roof of the cabin near the after end, with the elec- trometer located centrally below it within the cabin, sup- ported in a gimbal mounted on the ceiling of the cabin. A large wooden box covered the tube when the apparatus was not in use. For cruise VII a vertical air-flow tube was adopted, standing at the port end of the shelf on the forward wall of the cabin and extending through the roof, and capped with a conical hood at a height of approxi- mately one meter (figs. 7, 8). The new apparatus was designated 8A (CA8A), and was planned for continuous registration of conductivity. The recording equipment was not completed by May 1928, however, and only the air-flowtube and central cylinder and their appurtenances were installed at the beginning of the cruise. An eye- reading electrometer was utilized in place of the uncom- pleted recording equipment for measuring conductivity in the same manner as on previous cruises. Figure 7 shows the eye-reading electrometer fas- tened to the shelf and making connection to the insulated central cylinder of the air-flow system through a small connecting tube. Below the shelf the vertical tube was connected to a horizontal duct running along the port wall, and at an aperture in the after wall at the end of the duct a motor-driven fan was mounted to draw the air through the air-flow system. The eye-reading electrometer was 4 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS used for conductivity measurements from the beginning of cruise VII in May 1928, until the ship arrived at San Francisco at the end of July 1929. While in port at San Francisco, recording apparatus was installed and con- tinuous records of conductivity were obtained for the three months September to November 1929--the remain- der of the cruise. Positive and negative conductivity were recorded on alternate days, so approximately equal amounts of data were collected for each sign (fig. 9). In addition to the measurements made in the observ- ing cabin, of conductivity, ion content, penetrating radi- ation, and radioactive content, measurements of poten- tial-gradient were made at the stern rail as on previous cruises. Eye-reading observations were made with po- tential-gradient apparatus 2 from the beginning of the cruise in May 1928, until September 16, 1928 (fig. 10). Continuous recording of the potential-gradient was begun on the stern rail July 7, 1928, after unsuccessful at- tempts to record at the top of the mainmast and on the roof of the atmospheric-electric observing cabin (fig. 11). The recording apparatus employed four ionium- coated collectors mounted at the tip of an insulated col- lector rod, the latter being attached to the fiber system of one of two recording electrometers designated Gun- ther and Tegetmeyer 4946 or 4947 (fig. 12). Recording of potential-gradient with this apparatus was continued on the stern rail to the end of the cruise in November 1929. A considerable number of parallel observations of potential-gradient with eye-reading and recording equipment was obtained between July 7 and September 16. Measurements of the concentration of condensation nuclei in the air were added to the program of atmos- pheric-electric observations for cruise VII. A small portable nuclei counter (figs. 13, 14) of the type devised by John Aitken in 1890 (2) was used, the measurements being made on the ship’s bridge. Nuclei counter 4 was employed for the initial part of cruise VII, but difficul- ties with it, arising from accidents, required its re- placement. It was used until arrival at Callao, Peru, January 14, 1929, but during the stay at Callao, counter 5 was obtained from the Department’s Huancayo Mag- netic Observatory at Huancayo, Peru, and was used for the remainder of the cruise. From the above brief summary the following list of apparatus for the measurements of the atmospheric- electric elements on cruise VII may be made. Ion counter 1 Penetrating radiation apparatus 1 Penetrating radiation apparatus 5503 (from July 7, 1928) Radioactive content apparatus 4 Conductivity apparatus 8A (eye-reading to July 28, 1929; recording from September 3, 1929 to to November i8, 1929) Potential-gradient apparatus 2 (to September 16, 1928} Potential-gradient recorder 4946 (from July 7, 1928 to November 18, 1929, except twelve days in August 1928 when 4947 was used) Nuclei counter 4 (to January 14, 1929, then counter 5 to November 18, 1929) In the following paragraphs the various types of ap- paratus will be described in sufficient detail to give the reader a background of information to assist in evalu- ating for himself the data presented later and the dis- cussions which complete the volume. Much of the descriptive material was presented by W. F. G. Swann in connection with his preliminary discussions of the results of cruise VI (3), but is repeated here for conven- ient reference. Potential-Gradient Apparatus 2.--This apparatus is shown in use in figure 10. A brass tube was attached at one end to an axle so that it could rotate about that axle. The axle was mounted on supports fixed to a platform located at the mid-point of the stern rail, and the brass tube carried at its projecting end an umbrella-shaped conductor made of fine mesh bronze screen. The handle by which the tube was rotated was insulated from the rod and axle, and the latter was insulated from earth by sul- phur rings at each end which were fixed in the axle sup- ports. The axle was connected by a thin wire to the in- sulated fiber system of bifilar electrometer no. 28, used for this work exclusively. A contact was provided such that when the umbrella-shaped conductor was hanging downward over the stern at its lowest position the elec- trometer fibers were earthed. On rotating the conductor to some higher position as fixed by a stop, a deflection proportional to the potential-gradient was obtainedon the electrometer. Insulation difficulties were minimized by this arrangement, since the leak occurring in the brief time required for turning the conductor from one posi- tion to the other would be very small. Further, the op- eration could be performed so quickly that a reading could be obtained at any desired position of tilt of the ship. The sensitivity of the apparatus was considerable, and it was not difficult to arrange to get full-scale de- flection for normal values of potential-gradient. The brass tube and umbrella-shaped conductor could be put in place or removed very quickly, and when the appara- tus was not in use these were removed and the electrom- eter and axle were covered by a weatherproof box. Aux- iliary potentials for the inner case of the electrometer were supplied from batteries stored in a small labora- tory forward of the quarter-deck, the connecting wires being brought beneath the deck to a marine plug located conveniently near the apparatus. With such an auxiliary potential, the range of the instrument could be adjusted to suit the occasion, and further, the sign of the prevail- ing potential-gradient could be determined readily by noting the direction of movement of the deflected fibers when a small change was made in the potential of known sign applied to the inner case. Procedure for Observations with Apparatus 2 1. Uncover the electrometer and axle; attach the brass tube and the umbrella-shaped conductor. 2. Examine the electrometer and axle for excessive dampness of insulators or for any foreign material that may be bridging across insulators. 3. Test for insulation leak. To do this raise and lower the umbrella several times. Note the response of the fibers of the electrometer to each raising. If there is no response, the insulation breakdown is complete. If the fibers return immediately to zero reading, the leak is comparatively large. If the maximum deflection is maintained sufficiently long so that the fiber readings may be noted inan unhurried manner, the insulation is satisfactory. Poor or bad insulation must be remedied by drying or cleaning the insulators. . 4. Having satisfactory insulation, apply to the inner case of the electrometer auxiliary potential of such magnitude as to bring the deflections of the fibers with the umbrella raised to a position on the scale most con- venient for rapid reading. 5. With the fibers earthed (umbrella down) observe INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS 5 the fiber deflections to obtain the value of the auxiliary potential applied to the inner case. Record the fiber readings on a suitable form. (Department form No. 102) 6. Commence observations of potential-gradient at such a time that twenty readings taken one minute apart will center on the average time of the observations of conductivity, ion content, and nuclei content which are being made simultaneously. Record the readings for the twenty observations on the form. Between the tenth and eleventh readings repeat item 5. 7. After the twentieth observation repeat item 5. 8. Record the position of mainsail and boom for the period of observation. 9. Record appropriate notes of weather conditions for the period. 10. Remove brass tube and umbrella; replace cover over electrometer and axle. 11. Calibrate the electrometer at least once each week or more often if necessary, always with the inner case earthed. With batteries brought on deck, apply po- tentials in suitable steps to cover the desired range of deflections on the scale of the electrometer. Record the deflections and the battery voltages as determined with a suitable voltmeter, on the calibration form. (Depart- ment form 153a) It was necessary, of course, to determine the factor by which the potential measurements should be multi- plied to reduce them to values representative of the po- tential-gradient over an open, flat surface undistorted by the presence of the ship. For the reduction factor de- terminations a shore station was chosen at each of those ports where there was comparatively flat open land, free from trees and other objects, as nearly as possible at the level of the surface of the sea, and not too distant from the ship’s anchorage (fig. 15). At the stations a wire approximately twenty meters long, having sulphur insulators attached at each end, was stretched horizon- tally between two posts about one meter high. A metal disc coated with ionium preparation was attached at the mid-point of the wire and throughout the observations the height of this ‘‘collector’’ was maintained as closely as possible at one meter. The stretched wire was con- nected at one end to an electrometer, located at a dis- tance of two or three meters, by means of a fine wire, and simultaneous eye readings were taken with this ap- paratus and with the apparatus on the ship. Readings isually were made at one-minute intervals for fifty minutes of each hour, for a period of several hours. During ten minutes of each hour, the collector was re- moved from the stretched wire and the insulation of the insulators supporting the stretched wire and of the elec- trometer was tested. Bifilar electrometers 25 and 26 were used on different occasions for the shore observa- tions. With potential-gradient recorders 4946 and 4947 available for reduction-factor determinations as well as the eye-reading apparatus, continuous recording both on the stern rail of the ship and at the shore stations could be arranged. During cruise VII five shore stations were established and at each one some work was done withthe recording equipment, while a recorder was operating also on the stern rail on all occasions except the first. On two occasions continuous recording was maintained both on ship and shore for several days. Positions of the mainsail and mainsail boom were noted during reduction-factor observations as the boom and sail extended astern far enough to contribute to dis- tortion of the field. Careful note was made of weather conditions during these observations as it was known from previous work that nearby clouds, variations in wind direction and ve- locity, and changing conditions of mist or haze could cause widely divergent values of potential-gradient at the two locations, thus making the measurements ob- tained in such circumstances unsuitable for determining the reduction factor. Reduction factor determinations were made as fol- lows: 1. May 5, 1928...... Kitts Point, Maryland, U.S. A. 2. July 25, 1928... ... Reykjavik, Iceland 3. Sep. 28-29, 1928 . . . Bridgetown, Barbados, B. W. I. 4. Dec. 9-10, 1928. . . . Easter Island 5. Apr. 10-13, 1929. . . Apia, Western Samoa The results obtained at these five stations were not con- sistent with each other, and a study was made of the data in an effort to determine the relative reliability of the separate sets of material. A detailed report on this study will be given later. Briefly, sets 1, 3, and 5 ap- peared to have the greatest reliability, and on the basis of these three the data from the other two were adjusted to give compatible reduction factors. Potential-Gradient Recording Apparatus.--Cruise VII was the first cruise of the Carnegie for which ar- rangements were made for continuous recording of the potential gradient. Initially it was planned that only eye- reading apparatus 2 would be used at the stern of the ship as on previous cruises, and that continuous record- ing apparatus would be used at the top of the mainmast. It was found, however, on the voyage from Norfolk, Vir- ginia to Plymouth, England, May 10 to June 8, 1928, that recording at the masthead was not practical. (See progress reports, p. 31.) Recording on the roof of the atmospheric-electric observatory was tried then and also found to be impractical, so during the stay at Ham- burg, Germany from June 22 to July 7, 1928, a platform for the recorder was built on the stern rail of the ship to starboard of the apparatus 2. On the platform was mount- ed the metal-sheathed weatherproof wooden box contain- ing the recording equipment, and from the top of the box projected a metal rod at the tip of which was mounted a circular metal plate supporting, on its underside, four small metal discs coated with the radioactive material ionium. During experiments with the apparatus at the mast- head, a short vertical rod was used to support the col- lector plate. When the apparatus was installed on the stern rail, a bent collector-rod which projected out over the water directly astern was used at first. The collec- tors at the end of the bent rod were approximately one meter beyond the metal-sheathed box and in a horizontal plane approximately 75 cm above the top of the box. This arrangement is shown infigure 11, where the location of the recorder with respect to apparatus 2 may be noted also. The bent collector rod was used from July 7, 1928, when the ship sailed from Hamburg, Germany, until No- vember 5, 1929, eleven days after leaving Balboa, Canal Zone. After leaving Balboa, bad weather was encoun~ tered and during the next eleven days the bent rod was twisted out of place at frequent intervals and no useable records of potential-gradient were obtained. A vertical collector rod was installed on November 5, 1929, which was not as short as that used in the masthead experi- ments; it supported the collectors approximately 75 cm 6 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS above the top of the box. This rod was used for the re- mainder of the cruise (fig. 16). For reduction of record- ed volts to volts per meter for the two different collector rods, two standardizations were made with the bent rod and two with the vertical. These are discussed in detail in another part of this volume (pp. 127-132). The Potential-Gradient Recorder.--The recorder, manufactured by Gunther and Tegetmeyer, consisted of a bifilar electrometer of Wulf’s design, a projection microscope, and a recording box with driving clock at- tached. (Two recorders were taken on the cruise, nos. 4946 and 4947; no. 4946 was used at the stern rail loca- tion throughout, except for twelve days in August 1928). The recorder, together with various items of control and operating equipment (except batteries), was con- tained in the weatherproof box, the front of which was removable to permit inspection, testing, and adjustment of the apparatus (fig. 12). The collector rod was sup- ported in an amber insulator which was mounted in the tube projecting from the top of the box. Within the tube, above the amber insulator, was located an electric heat- ing coil which served to keep the amber dry. The cur- rent in this coil, supplied by the ship’s power plant, was regulated by a rheostat mounted in the wooden box. To protect the heating coil and amber insulator from rain and spray a metal “‘skirt’’ or cap was attached to the collector rod just above the end of the tube. Within the box, the inner end of the collector rod, projecting down from the amber insulator, made connection with the fi- bers of the electrometer. The Electrometer.--The Wulf bifilar electrometer was equipped with an inner insulated case constructed in one piece. The inner case had a terminal which project- ed from one side of the outer case or housing, and the case was connected to the housing when the small thread- ed cap on the terminal was screwed against the housing. Care had to be taken to insure that this cap was not against the housing when an auxiliary potential was ap- plied to the inner case, when the housing was grounded. A grounding terminal was located on the bottom of the housing. Each battery supplying the auxiliary potential was provided with a protective resistance in its circuit-- 10,000 ohms or more for each 100 volts. The fibers of the electrometer were illuminated by a 110-volt lamp which was operated from the power plant of the ship. The desired degree of illumination was ob- tained by moving the lamp up or down or rotating it inits holder, or by adjusting a rheostat which was in the lamp circuit. On one side of the electrometer housing, under the microscope tube, there was an aperture covered by a screw cap. When the electrometer was in use, a glass tube or bulb half-filled with drying material such as phosphorus pentoxide was fitted at the aperture, mounted on a brass ferrule which replaced the screw cap. Anoth- er tube or bulb of drying material was mounted at the aperture in the side of the cap which protects the upper amber insulator of the electrometer. Both drying units are shown in figure 12. The Projection Microscope.--To obtain a good pho- tographic record, the projection microscope was adjust- ed as regards both focus of the fibers and symmetrical placing of the scale in the microscope in relation to the fiber positions. For focusing, a screw on the upper side of the microscope barrel could be loosened to adjust the position of the projecting lens; for symmetrical placing of the scale, the adjustment was accomplished by sliding the microscope mounting sidewise in its support on the side of the electrometer housing, after loosening a clamping screw. The Recording Box and Driving Clock.--The driving clock was mounted on one side of the recording box (not seen in fig. 12), so connected as to rotate the lower of two wooden rollers within the box. Unexposed photo- graphic paper was placed on the upper roller, and the clock-driven lower roller wound up the exposed paper during operation. The back of the recording box was made to slide up- ward for insertion and removal of the photographic paper. To insert paper, the upper wooden roller was removed from the box by pulling out the upper knob which was on the side of the recording box opposite from the driving clock. The lower roller was removed by pulling out the lower knob, when the exposed paper was to be removed. Two cords, fastened in the recording box above the upper roller, rested against the photo- graphic paper and were kept taut by a weight which they supported; the cords kept the paper in correct position during operation. The moving paper was exposed as it passed a slit on which was thrown the image of the elec- trometer fibers and the scale. Photographic Paper.--Single weight matte enamel bromide paper was used. It was supplied in rolls of 150 cm length and 67 mm width, which was sufficient for a week’s record and also allowed for a space between daily records of 5 cm. The average hourly rate at which the paper passed the slit when a week’s record was al- lowed to accumulate on the lower drum was 5.92 mm. The first day required approximately 13.9 cm and the last day 14.5 cm. Automatic Control of Time Marks.--The driving clock on the side of the recorder box was equipped with a contacting device which closed an electromagnet cir- cuit once every hour for a period of two minutes, begin- ning one minute before the hour and ending one minute after. The electromagnet was mounted at an aperture on the side of the cap covering the top of the electrome- ter, and when actuated, its inner end attracted a flexible metal strip which was grounded and which moved suffi- ciently far to make contact with the post at the top of the electrometer fiber system and to ground it. The hourly time-marks not only controlled the time record but provided points for establishing a base line from which deflections of the fibers during regular recording could be measured. Electrometer Calibration and Sensitivity.--For cali- bration of the potential-gradient recording apparatus, the collector rod was removed. A calibration was made each week, if weather conditions permitted. From batteries brought on deck, potentials in steps of twenty or thirty volts were applied between the grounded part of the ap- paratus and the insulated fiber system, and the deflec- tions of the fibers noted for each value of voltage (fig. 17). The calibrations usually covered the range from 0 to about 300 volts.. As calibration curves for electrom- eters of this type usually are not linear, particularly for the smaller deflections, it was arranged that during re- cording an auxiliary potential be used of such magnitude and sign that the deflections would usually be in that range of the scale having the best linearity. In this pref- erable range the sensitivity in divisions per volt was greater also, giving added reason for the use of the aux- iliary potential. A value of auxiliary potential of 50 to 100 volts was usually used, and as the potential-gradient of the atmosphere is positive with respect to earth in INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS 7 fair weather, the sign of the auxiliary potential was nega- tive. Calibration always was made with the auxiliary potential applied to the inner case, the value of the po- tential being approximately known and assumed to re- main fairly constant. The sensitivity of the electrometer was maintained generally between 10 and 20 volts per scale division on the photographic paper, the tension of newly installed fibers being altered if preliminary cali- brations showed that the desired sensitivity did not exist already. Batteries and. Auxiliary Potentials.--Auxiliary po- tentials were used on the inner case of the recording electrometer throughout the cruise. Initially, for the masthead experiments, the auxiliary potential batteries were kept on a shelf in the after galley, and connecting wires were brought up to a marine plug on the starboard rail directly above the galley. From the marine plug, flexible rubber-covered twin cables made the necessary connection to the apparatus. After September 16, 1928, auxiliary potentials were supplied from batteries housed in the small laboratory situated at the forward edge of the quarter-deck on the port side of the cabin compan- ionway. Wires ran beneath the deck from this location to a marine plug on the stern rail. Prior to September 16, these batteries supplied auxiliary potentials to the eye-reading apparatus 2, but work with it was discon- tinued at that time. Serious breakdown of insulation in the marine plugs occurred from time to time during the cruise and caused short-circuiting and rapid deteriora- tion of the batteries. Insulation Leak.--Under sea conditions, the insula- tion of the amber mountings for the collector rod and for the fibers in the electrometer needed to be tested frequently--sometimes tests were made two or three times per day, but at least once each day when weather conditions permitted. With the upper part of the collec- tor rod removed, a potential approximating the prevail- ing atmospheric potential was applied to the insulated system of the apparatus by a momentary contact. The deflection of the fibers then was immediately observed and, at the end of a period of four to eight minutes, was observed again. If these readings indicated that the leak exceeded one per cent per minute, the insulation needed to be improved. This rate of leakage was based on the condition that, during regular recording, four collectors were used on the collector rod. With fewer collectors the permissible rate would have been less. When insu- lation had to be improved, the amber insulators were cleaned by applying Putz Pomade with a piece of cham- ois, then later polishing them with a clean piece of chamois. Meteorological Observations.--Weather conditions, of vital importance in the interpretation of the atmos- pheric-electric measurements, were carefully record- ed while at sea by the meteorologist for his own rec- ords and by the ship’s officers in the ship’s log. The meteorological records have been published in Volume I of this series (4), and the ship’s log appears both in that volume and in a later section of this one (pp. 47-64). Sail Positions and Engine.--Other conditions at sea which affected the measurements, and which had to be re- corded, were the position of the mainsail and the mainsail boom (fig. 18), and the operation of the ‘‘main’’ engine. The boom of the mainsail could be swung into three posi- tions and the sail itself could be either ‘‘set’’ or ‘‘furled.”’ In the ship’s record, set and furled were designated as “up”? and ‘‘down,’’ respectively, and the following notations were adopted, for brevity, to indicate the various arrangements: MUBS = mainsail up, boom swung out to starboard MUBP = mainsail up, boom swung out to port MDBPC = mainsail down, boom lowered into port crutch MDBS = mainsail down, boom swung out to starboard MDBP = mainsail down, boom swung out to port Variations in the amount to which the boom was swung out to starboard or port naturally occurred but, except when the ship was ‘‘close-hauled’’ (and such occasions were recorded) the variations in position were not con- sidered great enough to affect the measurements. The last two arrangements noted above were met with only rarely, and in any case the standardization observa- tions which were made indicated that the sail up or down was of little importance as compared with the position of the boom. The presence of the quarter-deck awning (figs. 18, 19) also was shown, by the standardi- zation observations, to have no appreciable effect on the measurements of potential-gradient, no doubt because the awning was behind the crutch which was in a domi- nant position with respect to the apparatus. The operation of the main engine was required to drive the ship in calm weather. The main engine ex- haust was located at the stern and the effect of the at- mospheric pollution produced by the exhaust usually was marked enough to be obvious even in the most casual in- spection of the potential measurements. The operation of the main engine thus made records for certain hours and even whole days of such doubtful value as to make it necessary to discard them. Control Program for Potential-Gradient Recorder Daily 8:00 - 9:00 A.M. Local Mean Time (LMT) 1. Note positions of electrometer fibers through view- ing window. Correct illumination if not satisfactory, Focus fibers if necessary. . Note whether driving clock is running. . Ground the fibers and note position: position indi- cates whether or not auxiliary is applied to inner case. 4. Test hourly zero contact by manual closing of hour- ly contact circuit. 5. Change drying material on electrometer if neces- sary. 6. Remove collectors and make leak test for approxi- mately five minutes, noting movement of fibers through viewing window during this interval. If leak exceeds one per cent per minute (rate based on use of four collectors during regular recording), im- prove | the insulation. 7. On a “Daily Record’’ form record times of above observations and results obtained. Greenwich Mean Noon (or Midnight) 1. Advance photographic paper 5 cm. 2. Note position of electrometer fibers through viewing window. 3. Make appropriate notes on daily record. 5:00 -6:00 P.M. LMT Repeat items 1 to 7 under 8:00-9:00 A.M. above. whe Weekly 1. Calibrate recorder over voltage range of zero to ap- proximately 300 volts, then allow to record for fif- teen minutes. 2. Roll balance of photographic paper onto bottom roller in recorder box. 8 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 3. Remove recorder from wooden box on stern rail, take to darkroom and remove the week’s roll of photo- graphic paper and install new roll. Qo . Replace recorder in box on stern rail. . Make notesof above operations on daily record form. Conductivity Apparatus 8A.--The method employed on cruise VII for the visual measurement of the conduc- tivity of the air was the same in principle as that used on previous cruises although the arrangement of appara- tus was somewhat different. The method is that devised by Gerdien (5). In this method air is drawn by a fan through the space between two concentric cylinders, the central member of which is charged and connected to the insulated fiber system of an electrometer. The the- ory of the instrument shows that as long as the velocity of the air stream is large enough to insure that the cen- tral cylinder cannot collect from the air all the ions at- tracted toward it as the air passes through, the rate of loss of charge by that cylinder is independent of the air velocity and dependent only on the potential applied and on the conductivity contributed by the ions of sign oppo- site to the charge on the cylinder. The outer tube of the air-flow system has been shown in figures 7 and 8. Air was drawn into the intake of the air-flow tube on the roof of the observing cabin. It passed around a small cylinder which was supported in an amber insulator concentrically within the air-flow tube, and at a height convenient for attachment of an eye- reading electrometer or a recording apparatus located on the shelf in the cabin. A difference of potential was maintained between the small cylinder and the air-flow tube by means of a battery, the battery being carefully protected against the sea air by being kept in a suitable cabinet or compartment. In the upper part of the air-flow tube, above the small central cylinder, two concentric cylinders were installed, the innermost being connected directly to the air-flow tube and the other one insulated from both. A high potential could be applied across the cylinders whenever desired, to “‘sweep’’ out of the air stream all the ions entering the tube, a procedure which was used both with eye-reading and recording apparatus. With eye-reading apparatus, the sweeping potential was applied when tests were made of insulation leak, and with recording apparatus it was applied for a few minutes once each hour to establish a base line from which the deflec- tions during regular recording could be measured. The procedure on cruise VII, as on previous cruis- es, for eye-reading measurements of conductivity con- sisted essentially in observing the rate of discharge of the central cylinder and the attached electrometer when charged to an average potential, V’. In determining the rate of discharge it was convenient to observe the time, 7, required for the fiber (only one fiber is observed in this work) to move over a specified number of scale di- visions, 6, corresponding to a change in potential, 5V. The symbols used here are those used on a form sup- plied for recording the observations (Department form 101), and the potential is expressed in volts. The capac- itance, Cj, of the central cylinder, the electrometer and the connections of electrometer to central cylinder, and also the capacitance, C9, of that part of the insulated system exposed to the air flow, enter the determination of conductivity. Both values of capacitance must be measured rather than computed; otherwise inaccuracy is introduced in the conductivity determination (6). The formula for the conductivity is as follows: . Wind driving clock and set to correct Greenwich Time, Cc A= OV 1 (7m - tm7!) V’ 41Co where tid is obtained from leak tests as explained here- after. Procedure for Eye-Reading Conductivity Measurements on Cruise VII 1. Preliminary (a) Ascertain that the bifilar electrometer and bat- teries are in proper working condition. Desirable electrometer sensitivity is about two volts per di- vision. (b) Start fan motor and apply the sweeping potential. (c) Calibrate the electrometer over the range to be covered in the observations, using for this pur- pose a Weston voltmeter connected in parallel with it. Two points near the limits of the range will be adequate. 2. Initial leak test (a) Apply to the central cylinder and electrometer system a potential slightly higher than that desired at the beginning of the conductivity observations proper. (b) Observe leak in scale divisions for a definite in- terval of time, say 180 seconds. Record time- duration of leak test (on form 101 opposite At). Observe and record position of fiber at the begin- ning and at the end of the leak test and enter on form after 6,. 3. Conductivity observations (a) Remove sweeping potential one or two minutes be- fore starting observations. (b) Select the number of scale divisions, 6, over which the electrometer shall discharge, say four divisions, and charge the apparatus as in 2(a). (c) Observe the time at which the fiber reaches the be- ginning and the end of the four-division range and record the times on form 101; the time interval in seconds is 7. Recharge the fiber and repeat this operation three times or more to obtain several values of 7. 4. Final leak test (a) Apply the sweeping potential and begin the leak test when the fiber reaches a position approximate- ly as far below the scale range used in 3(c) as it was above the scale range at the end of the initial leak test. Complete the test as in 2(b), recording At2 and 62. 5. Computation of conductivity (a) Compute the several values of 7, take the recip- ‘rocal of each, and obtain the average, which is Tava is iia 10-4 units. (b) Compute t1-lfrom the formula tj~! = 64/6 (At1) and t9-+from a similar formula, expressing the hear in 10° units. Average the two values for tae (c) The value of capacitance of Cj is 14.9 cm and that of C2 is 6.14 cm; consequently C1/4rC2 = 0.193. (d) From the calibration made in 1(c), determine the voltages Vj and V2 for the scale readings at the beginning and end of the four-division range used in observing conductivity. Fromthese, 5V=V1-V2 and V’ = (Vj+V2)/2. (e) Compute conductivity from os working formula A = 0.193(5V/V')(7m7! - tm=}). INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS 9 In accordance with the above procedure, observations were made daily on cruise VII until July 28, 1929, except when bad weather or other cruise programs prevented. Each day three separate determinations of conductivity would be made; on one day the first and third sets would be measurements of positive conductivity and the second set of negative, while on the following day the first and third sets would be negative and the second positive. Each set would require fifteen minutes or longer, depend- ing on the magnitude of the conductivity. The sets were so spaced and the actual manipulations of apparatus were so arranged that the same observer could also make measurements of ion content, penetrating radiation, and nuclei content centering very closely on the average of the beginning and ending times of the conductivity ob- servations. Conductivity Recording Apparatus.--AtSan Francisco, in August 1929, the eye-reading electrometer was re- moved from the conductivity apparatus and a very satis- factory recording apparatus, designed and constructed by the Department staff for observations at sea, was in- stalled (figs. 9, 20, 21). The shelf on the forward wall of the observing cabin had originally been planned for mounting the recording equipment, and the installation was readily accomplished. For recording it was planned that the charge acquired by the central cylinder from the air stream in the air-flow tube should be allowed to leak continuously through a very high resistance of about 1012 ohms. With such high resistance, although the cur- rent would be extremely small, the voltage drop would be appreciable, of the order of a volt or two. With one side of the high resistance to the fiber of a sensitive unifilar electrometer and the other side to the electrom eter case, a voltage drop of one or two volts would pro- duce appreciable deflections of the fiber, and variations in the voltage drop due to variations in conductivity would cause measurable variations in the fiber deflec- tion. Figure 9 shows that recorder as it appeared in use. The electrometer, the high resistance, and other parts that might be detrimentally affected by moist and salt- laden air were enclosed in the metal box seen at the left. Calcium chloride was placed in this box to absorb any moisture which might slowly gain entrance. In figure 20 one side of the box is removed to show the electrometer and in figure 21 the opposite side is removed to showthe high resistance unit. The high resistance unit was a radioactive cell of the Bronson type as modified by Swann and Mauchly (7), and consisted essentially of a cylindrical metal chamber about 20 cm in diameter and 20 cm high in which the air was made very slightly con- ducting by the presence of a small amount of ionium salt. From the metal box a lightproof tube extended to the recording mechanism at the right in figure 9. Two fit- tings on the lightproof tube supported glass containers in which drying material was placed. A viewing hood attached to the tube permitted the observer to view the position of the electrometer fiber at any time. The re- cording mechanism included a driving clock, a metal cylinder or drum rotated by the clock, and a lightproof cylindrical container in which the rotating drum was enclosed. Where the lightproof tube joined the cylindri- cal container a horizontal slit was provided through which the image of the electrometer fiber was thrown onto the photographic paper on the rotating drum. This slit could be opened or closed by a simple manual manipulation. The drum was made to rotate once in twenty-five hours, so that the photographic paper on the drum would represent one day of recording of conductiv- ity. Each daily record was 30cm long and 9.5cm wide. Each hourly interval was 8.3 mm long. The scale in the eyepiece of the electrometer was focused on the photo- graphic paper, giving a background of lines 3.0 mm apart parallel to the long dimension of the paper against which to measure the fiber deflection. To obtain deflections representing zero conductivity from which to measure the deflections obtained in regu- lar recording, the sweeping potential mentioned earlier was applied for a few minutes once each hour to the cylinders in the upper part of the air-flow tube. The potential was applied automatically by a contact device fitted to the driving clock. Above the lightproof tube and recorder mechanism was mounted the calibration apparatus by which values of conductivity could be established for different de- flections of the electrometer fiber. It consisted of a variable cylindrical condenser, one element of which was made to move by a motor at a steady rate, to give a uni- form change in capacitance with time, dk/dt. Across the two elements of the condenser was applied a potential, V. Thus, in place of the unknown current flowing through the high resistance during conductivity measurements, a known current Vdk/dt was supplied by the calibration apparatus. Different values of potential across the con- denser gave different values of current and different de- flections of the fiber. The wiring diagram of the appa- ratus is shown in figure 22. During the three months September te November 1929, when the recording apparatus was in use, the “‘operating potential’? applied between the central cylinder and the air-flow tube was maintained at 185 volts, except for the brief period September 5 to 11, when various values ranging from 93 to 231 volts were used at various times. With the rate of air flow in the tube approximately 400 cm per second, and an operating potential of 185 volts, ions were being drawn from a region in the air-flow tube bounded by a cylindrical surface of about 4 cm radius, which is only half of the radius of the air-flow tube. Ob- servations for determining the sensitivity of the elec- trometer were made at approximately weekly intervals by applying values of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 volts, from a po- tentiometer, between the fiber and case. A sensitivity of approximately 1.3 scale divisions (4 mm) per volt was consistently maintained. Calibrations of the entire ap- paratus by means of the variable ‘calibrating condens- er’? were made almost daily while at sea during Septem- ber 1929, and in October and November were made every two or three days. Calibrations for positive and negative conductivity were made on alternate occasions. The calibrations showed that for negative conductivity the adjustment of the high resistance cell gave a constant scale value of 2.1 x 10-5 esu per scale division. For positive conductivity the calibrations were not linear, giving greater scale values for the smaller deflections. Typical values were 3.7 X 10-5 esu for 1.3 divisions and 3.2 x 10-5 esu for 4.5 to 5.0 divisions. The positive scale values were thus more than 50 per cent greater than for the negative conductivity, the difference being related to the adjustment of the high resistance cell and the direction of passage of current through it. Ion Counter 1.--Ion counter 1 (IC1) used on cruises IV, V, and VI, after being overhauled, provided with an electric motor instead of the troublesome spring-driven 10 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS motor used previously, and put in good repair, was in- stalled for cruise VII. A description of the apparatus, the procedure for making measurements, and the method of computing ion content was given by Swann in 1917 (8). Some details of both apparatus and observational pro- cedure, however, can be described to advantage at this time. The apparatus differed from the design of Ebert in one major respect; namely, it was designed so that the “‘charging’’ method instead of the ‘‘discharging’’ method could be used. In the Ebert apparatus a stream of air is drawn by a fan through a cylindrical condenser, the inner cylinder of which is connected to an electrom- eter and charged to a potential sufficiently great to in- sure that all smallions (mobility greater than 1.0 cmper second per volt per cm) are removed from the air stream passing by it. Ions of sign opposite to that of the charge on the inner cylinder will be collected by that cylinder, discharging the cylinder with time. In the charging method the air is drawn through a cylindrical type condenser, the outer cylinder of which ’ is maintained at a constant potential while the inner cylinder is, at the outset of an observation, near toearth potential. Ions which are well within this condenser and of the same sign as the potential on the outer cylinder are driventoward the inner cylinder. When the apparatus is used as anioncounter, all ions of mobility greater than a certain value reach this cylinder and impart a charge to it, hence the designation “‘charging method.’’ The in- crement of charge thus acquired from a known volume of air is measured and used in the calculation of ionic density. Ions which at any instant are located outside or even some distance within the mouth of the condenser, however, are subjected to a field which opposes their entrance unless special provision is made when design- ing the condenser to shield them from anopposing field. Swann (9), who devised this type of counter, was cog- nizant of this potential source of error. He states “‘this difficulty is one which shows itself very materially in practice, as appeared when experiments were made to test it. . . I finally adopted (the shielding cup) which en- tirely overcomes the difficulty.”’ The effectiveness of this device has been verified by tests made on several occasions in more recent years. A more detailed description than that given by Swann of the novel features of the type of ion counter used in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism is given in that which follows. Some improvements which were made when conditioning the instrument for use on the Carnegie during cruise VII are included. This type of counter differs from the well-known Ebert only in the form of condenser and in that a single- fiber electrometer is used. It will suffice here to de- scribe only the condenser. The details are shown infig- ure 23. It consists of an outer brass cylinder (1) with its attached cap (9) and intake-port (10) whichis covered with a suitable cowl (not shown), an inner cylinder (2), and a central electrode or collector which is made up of the brass rod (4), the struts (7), and the cylindrical brass shield (3). The lower end of the outer cylinder fits into the cap of the electrometer and connects with the tube that leads to the air-flow meter and the air- flow fan and is thus in electrical contact with all the ‘earthed’’ parts of the system. The inner cylinder is insulated from the outer cylinder by two tight-fitting ebonite rings (5), which, together with the binding-post (6), also serve tosupport it. This cylinder is maintained at a constant potential of from 20 to 100 volts by means of a battery attached at the binding-post (6). The lower end of the central rod (4) fits into the post of the elec- trometer and thus connects with the sensitive element. Three brass struts (7) (radial arms also have beenused) support the thin-walled brass shield (3) from the central rod and connect these parts electrically. The shield (3) is maintained in a central position by an amber ring (8). An annular disc (11) is placed below this insulator to shield it from the intense field of the condenser-ele- ment (2) and thus avoids effects from induced creeping charges. The shield (3) is designed to intercept those electrical fields which, without it, would drive some of the ions to ‘‘earthed’’ parts of the condenser. Thus, for example, the field which without (3) would extend be- tween the upper part of the inner cylinder (2) and the lower part of the intake-port (10) and cap (9) would also drive some ions to these last-mentioned parts andthere- by decrease the number collected by the central elec- trode. The number of ions determined under these con- ditions accordingly would be too small. The relative merits of this type of ion counter and the usual Ebert type for conditions encountered on the Carnegie at sea are as follows: (1) An increment of charge may be measured with a given precision in about one-twentieth the time required for the Ebert, provided that in both methods the conductance across the prime insulators is small and nearly constant. (2) Defective insulation is both a less common and a less serious source of error than with the Ebert method. (3) With the charging method one can at once distinguish corrections arising from insulation-leak from those arising from a conduction current. (4) With the charging method more auxiliary equipment is needed than with the Ebert meth- od, but this disadvantage is not serious and is greatly outweighed by the advantages enumerated. Ion counter 1 was mounted in the atmospheric-electric cabin near the conductivity apparatus (fig. 3). It was held in a gimbal supported from the ceiling, and the air-flow tube projected approximately one-quarter meter through a roof aperture (fig. 8). A funnel was fitted at the intake which could be turned into the wind and thus eliminate possibility of aspiration up the air-flow tube in moderate and heavy winds. A domed metal cap or hood covered the roof aperture and air-flow tube when the apparatus was not in use. The potential applied across the cylinders of the condenser on cruise VI, was 60 volts from May 1, 1928 to July 28, 1929, and 90 volts thereafter. The unifilar electrometer was adjusted for a sensi- tivity of approximately ten divisions per volt. The air- flow fan was driven by an electric motor operated from the ship’s power plant, and the volume of air passed through the apparatus during a period of observation was determined by an anemometer calibrated by the United States Bureau of Standards in March 1928, just before cruise VI. began. The same anemometer was used on cruise VI and was calibrated by the Bureau October 6, 1919, before that cruise began and again on February 24, 1923, sixteen months after it ended. The correction fac- tors for converting anemometer readings to liters per second obtained on these three occasions were: for 1919, 1.08; for 1923, 1.05; for 1928, 1.02, over a range of 1.4 to 2.0 liters per second. The factor for cruise VII, namely 1.02, was thus in reasonable agreement with the values for the previous cruise. That it varied little, if any, from the value of 1.02 during the nineteen months of cruise VII seems likely, judging from the small change indicated for the twenty-five months of cruise VI. INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS Procedure for Obseryation of Ion Content 1. Preliminary (a) Ascertain that the electrometer, batteries, and electrical circuit are in working order. (b) Apply plate potentials to the electrometer and start the air-flow motor ten or fifteen minutes be- fore observations are to commence. (c) Select the range of scale divisions, say five or ten, over which the electrometer shall discharge dur- ing the observations, centering this range on the scale division representing the earthed position of the fiber; determine the potential in volts to which the selected range corresponds. Record the range as 6 and the voltage 6V on a suitable form (De- partment form 101). 2. Leak test or test of residual ion content with air flow stopped (a) Stop air-flow motor and discharge central cylinder and fiber. (b) For a selected period of say 100 seconds, observe the fiber position at beginning and end of period. (c) Record on form 101 the time interval of the test in seconds as Atj, and the scale readings of the fiber at beginning and end as 6}. 3. Ion content observations (a) Start air-flow motor; keep it running throughout this part of the work. (b) Charge the central cylinder to a potential suffi- cient to bring the fiber to a position slightly be- yond the beginning of the selected scale range. (c) Note anemometer reading as fiber passes the be- ginning of the selected range and again as it pass- es the end, and record on form 101, under M. Re- cord watch time Tj of first anemometer reading. (d) Repeat (a) to (c) to obtain as many sets as desired, usually three or more. Record watch time T9 for last anemometer reading. 4. Leak test, etc. (a) Repeat test of section 2 above, recording the ob- servations as Atg and 62 on the form. 5. Repeat preliminary calibration (a) Redetermine the potential, V, for the selected range 6 used during observations of ion content. Procedure for Computing Ion Content and Mobility 1. From the anemometer readings observed under 3(c), obtain AM in seconds and multiply this by the conver- sion factor for the anemometer, 1.02 x 103, to obtain W, the number of cc per second of air passed through the apparatus during the voltage drop 6V. For con- venience in computation, obtain the reciprocal w-l, in 10-7 units. Obtain W-! for each set of observa- tions under 3(d) also, and take the mean Wm-!. 2. From Tj and T2 and the corresponding anemometer readings obtained under 3(c) and 3(d) determine the total number of seconds during which the air was drawn through the apparatus and the number of liters drawn through. From this compute the time p for one cc to pass through. (For the particular fan, motor, and air-flow system used on cruise VII the value of p was between 0.6 and 0.7 x 10-4 as the rate of airflow varied between 1.7 and 1.4 liters per second.) 3. From the value selected for Atj and Atg under 2(b) and the value of 6 selected under 1(c), together with the observed values of 61 and 62 obtained under 2(c) and 4(a), compute values of t-1 and t-2, in 10-3 units 11 from the formula tj-! = 91/@(At1) and tg-4 = 62/6 (Atg). Take the mean t,~! of the two values and multiply by the value of p just obtained, and record as Wm~!, in 10-7 units. 4. The formula for computing ion content, n, or n_, de- pending on the sign of the potential applied to the central cylinder, is PCN ay 300e m=! - wm) where C is the measured capacitance of the appara- tus, and for ion counter 1 was found to be 24.2 cm. Determinations of capacitance indicate the value to be correct to within plus or minus two per cent. If the value 24.2 cm is used, then C/300e = 16.8 x 107 and the working formula becomes n = 16.8 6 V(Wm7! - wm7?) where the exponental terms 107 and 10-7 cancel out. 5. Confusion may arise on occasion as to the sign of the correction Wy, ~. This may be clarified as follows. (a) If the travel of the fiber during the leak observa- tion is in the same direction as during the obser- vation of ion content, then n = 16.8 6V[Wm7! - (+wm71)] (b) If the travel during the leak observation is opposite in direction to that during observation of ion con- tent, then n = 16.8 6V[Wm7! - (-wm74)] (c) These rules apply whether positive or negative ion content is being measured. Ion counter 1 was installed near the conductivity ap- paratus to facilitate simultaneous observations with both types of apparatus. Form 101 was used to record both ion content and conductivity as long as eye-reading in- struments were used for both. Observations were so adjusted that both types of measurement covered as nearly as possible the same period of time, and the data therefore can be regarded as taken simultaneously. From simultaneous data of ion content and conduc- tivity the specific mobility of the ions can be determined by means of the formula mobility, v, = 4 /300ne where v is expressed as cm per second per volt per cm. Computed values of mobility were derived for all simul- taneous sets of observations of ion content and conduc- tivity and are tabulated later in this volume (pp. 66-112). Aitken Nuclei Counters.--More than fifty years ago John Aitken devised an instrument for counting the number of particles in the atmosphere which act as centers or nu- clei for condensation of moisture (2). A considerable body of observational evidence has been gathered since that time, showing that the number of these particles present in any locality affects the electrical condition of the at- mosphere there. Certainly when they are numerous, the 12 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS potential gradient of the atmosphere is greater and the conductivity less than when they are few. The particles acquire and lose charge through combining with small ions and with each other, and on any given occasion some will be charged positively, some negatively, and others will be uncharged. It is a matter of considerable impor- tance to determine what part these particles play in the ion equilibrium of the atmosphere. Aitken called the particles ‘“‘dust’’ particles and his instrument the dust counter, but, since his particles are not dust particles as we now know them, to avoid confu- sion they are called condensation nuclei and his small, portable counter the Aitken pocket nuclei counter. Fig- ure 13 is a view of the Aitken pocket nuclei counter and details are shown in the drawings in figure 24. A shal- low circular receiver, R, connects through a three-way cock, K, with a piston chamber, P, when the cock is set as shown. The cock, K, when turned 90°, connects the receiver to the outer air, while at the same time the piston chamber is, by a separate orifice, also connected to the outer air. The volume of the receiver is a few cubic centimeters and the piston chamber about one- third that of the receiver when the piston is down at full stroke. Hence the air in the receiver may be expanded about 30 per cent by a full piston stroke. The air in the receiver is kept saturated by a mois- tened disc of blotting paper, mounted on a loose disc within the receiver. When the counter is shaken, the disc mixes the air. In the bottom of the receiver is a glass window divided into millimeter squares for a counting stage, and on the receiver cover is mounted an eyepiece, M. Light is directed into the receiver by an adjustable mirror mounted below the receiver on the piston tube and so designed as to give black background illumination. To move the piston the operator uses the knurled collar which slides on the tube, G. When the piston is pulled down sharply, moisture in the receiver will condense on the nuclei present and make the latter readily visible through the low power eyepiece as they fall on the counting stage. It is always assumed that nuclei once deposited are never returned to the air and recounted, and the functioning of the counter indicates that such an assumption is justified. On the side of the tube, G, are markingsof 1/5, 1/10, 1/20, and 1/50 which are used when introducing different proportions of impure air into the counter for testing. Aitken arranged the markings to be so placed on the tube that when the knurled collar is set with its bottom edge coincident with one of them, impure air is introduced in such quantity that when it is mixed withthe pure air in the receiver and expanded by a full piston stroke, there will be in the receiver that proportion of impure air speci- fied by the marking. An equation for this was given by Wait (10) in connection with his study of several counters made after Aitken’s design, as follows. If V; is the vol- ume of the receiver, Vx the volume of the piston tube with the piston down at full stroke, and Vg the volume of the piston tube above the piston head for any marking 1/S, then [(Vr + Vx)/Vr]:[(Vr + Vs)/Vs] =S. Aitkenalso arranged the height of the receiver above the counting stage to be one cm, and by counting particles falling on a mm square his sampling was made from a volume of 0.01 cc in the receiver, necessitating introduction of a factor K = 100 to obtain particles per cubic centimeter. Seven instruments of the Aitken design made in Ger- many and the United States were found by Wait to have dimensions different from those of the original Aitken instrument and also to have the markings on the tube G, improperly placed. In particular, the height above é the counting stage was not one cm, thus affecting the fac- tor, K. The two instruments used on cruise VII (count- ers 4 and 5) were of this group and for these the product SK, instead of being 500 for 1/5 setting, 1000 for 1/10, and so on, had values as follows. Product SK Setting Counter 5 1/5 710 695 1/10 1300 1260 1/20 2520 2440 1/50 6000 5900 The use of the counter involves several systematic operations including initially clearing all nuclei from the receiver, next introducing a certain proportion of outside air, then mixing the air thoroughly, and finally expanding it enough times to insure the deposit of all nuclei from the air, at the same time counting all the droplets that fall on a chosen square in all the expansions. To clear all nuclei from the receiver, the cock, A, is closed and cock, K, set as shown in figures 13 and 24, after which repeated strokes of the piston are made until no more particles fall on the counting stage. Sometimes the repeated strokes of the piston will build up pressure in the receiver, apparently because on the downstroke of the piston small quantities of air somehow enter through interstices too small to admit nuclei as well, and this pressure must be relieved or the subsequent nuclei meas- urements will be erroneous. Therefore, after the several strokes to clear the receiver have been made, the piston is left at its highest position and the cock, K, turned so as to connect the receiver with the outside air, to equal- ize the pressure inside and out. The cock, K, then is promptly restored to its initial position. Then the piston is set to one of the settings on tube, G, and the cock, K, turned 90°, permitting outside air to enter the receiver to equalize the pressure inside and outside. At the same turning of the cock, the piston chamber is connected to the outside air and next it is exhausted into the outside air by bringing the piston to its highest position. The cock, K, then is restored to its first position, connecting the receiver with the piston chamber. The counter now is shaken to stir the air in the receiver, the mirror ad- justed for the best illumination of the counting stage, and the piston smartly pulled down for its full stroke. With the expansion thus produced, droplets will appear and fall to the stage, where the number falling on a given square must be counted. The counting must be done very quickly as the droplets evaporate in a few seconds. The piston is then returned to its highest position, after which a second expansion is made. The droplets in general will be fewer on this expansion, and by the fifth or sixth expansion only one or none at all may fall if the counter is not leaking. Usually no particles are left to fall after the fifth or sixth expansion. For a satisfactory set of observations ten repetitions of the above manipulations are generally made. If for a given setting of the piston more than ten droplets are deposited on the chosen square on the first expansion, the observation should be discarded, the re- ceiver cleared of nuclei, and a new setting of the piston, representing a smaller proportion of polluted air, should be adopted for the particular occasion. To count more INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS 13 than ten particles before some of them evaporate is very difficult, and the piston setting should always be such as to keep the number deposited at any one expansion at some value smaller than ten per square millimeter. On cruise VII the practice was adhered to of taking ten successive determinations of nuclei content as one set of observations. Such a set required between ten and fifteen minutes for completion. The sets were made to coincide with the mid-point in time of the conductivity and ion-content measurements, thus making the various types of data simultaneous. Early in the cruise it was found that the nuclei were not numerous over the ocean and the observing program was modified by counting the particles falling on four squares instead of only on one square. The constants used in connection with various settings on the piston tube were therefore only one- fourth the values given in the preceding table. A suitable form (designated number 157) was pro- vided for recording the nucleicounts. On the form space was provided for weather notes relating to wind direc- tion and velocity, visibility, presence of fog, mist,'or haze, and other items which might be pertinent to the nuclei concentration in the atmosphere. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus PR1 and Kolhorster 5503.--The measurement of the penetrating radiation consists essentially in determining the rate of formation of ions in the air of a closed chamber. This is much the same in principle as measuring the number of ions with an ion counter. All the ions of one sign are swept to an electrode (or central system), near the center of the ionization chamber, by a suitable electric field. Thus, in apparatus of the type of PR1, the central system (in- cluding the central electrode, the fiber, and other con- nected parts) gradually acquires charge, and in an in- strument of the Kolhérster type it loses a charge. The time (7) required for the central system to suffer a change of potential (6V), indicated by a change in fiber position (@) is noted. Then the charge in electrostatic units acquired per second is C5V7-1/300, where C is the capacitance of the entire central system, 6V is ex- pressed in volts and 7 in seconds (the symbols here used are the same as on Department form 104). The charge acquired per second divided by the charge (e) of a simple ion gives the number of ions collected by the central electrode per second and this in turn divided by the volume (U) of the ionization chamber yields the number of pairs of ions (R) formed per second in one cubic centimeter of the air contained in the chamber. Thus R = C6v7~-1/300 Ue Chief Features of Penetrating Radiation Apparatus 1.--A cylindrical chamber approximately 29 cm in di- ameter and 34 cm high, was made from copper sheet ap- proximately 0.1 cm in thickness. It was thoroughly cleaned and filled withdry filtered air. Mounted on suit- able supports, it was insulated from earthand, being con- nected with one of the plates of a unifilar electrometer, was maintained at a potential of about 100 volts (fig. 4). Concentric within the lower two-thirds of the cylinder was a rod, or central electrode, which was connected with the electrometer fiber and with the inner element of a small condenser, the latter being mounted on the side of the electrometer cap. The other element of this condens- er, the outer cylinder, was insulated from earth and connected with that electrometer plate which was not connected with the ionization chamber. The potential on this outer cylinder therefore was equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that on the ionization chamber, pro- vided all insulation on the lines connecting with the bat- teries was adequate. The capacitance of the so-called balancing condenser could be varied by small amounts by means of the adjusting screw at the end of the outer cylinder, but for greater changes it was necessary to re- move the outer cylinder and screw the inner cylinder in or out as required. The balancing condenser was correct- ly set at the laboratory in Washington and instructions were to avoid changing it, if possible, as the adjustment would be a tedious operation. The purpose of the con- denser was to annul inductive effects that, without it, would occur from very small variations in the battery potential and would falsify the measurements. All the prime insulators of the central system were surrounded by earthed guard-rings and, since the poten- tial of that system differed very little from zero, the loss of charge over these insulators could not be large. Furthermore, the observations were so arranged that the average potential of the central system was zero (e.g., an initial potential of +1 and a final potential of -1) so that the loss and gain would nearly balance. Two drying tubes were attached to the ionization chamber. The drying material was metallic sodium which lasted for long periods provided air was not admitted to the chamber. During use, the sodium would change to sodium hydroxide on absorbing moisture, and the latter was itself a fairly good drying agent and could be left until droplets of the liquid solution appeared in the tubes. The constants of PR1 were: capacitance, C, 12.8 cm; volume, U, 21,600 cc. These, together with the value for the charge of a simple ion (e = 4.77 x 10-10), were used in the equation given above and, when com- bined, gave as the working formula for this instrument R = 4140 6v7r-1 Special Notes Regarding Care and Adjustment of PR1.-- When a change of dryer became necessary, the change was made in such a way as to minimize the chance of an interchange of air between the chamber and the outside. The procedure was that one of the spare drying tubes would be filled with fresh sodium before the change and so would be ready to screw into place as soon as the exhausted tube was removed. The insulators on the battery lines were those which required most attention. To be satisfactory the insulation resistance on each battery line needed to be about 109 ohms. Tests to determine whether or not this require- ment was fulfilled were made in accordance with instruc- tions. Other insulators which were carefully watched for leak were those on the ionization chamber and the out- side insulator on the balancing condenser. Adjustments of the electrometer were necessary at times, both to obtain the desired sensitivity and to obtain about the same sensitivity on either side of zero. If the latter conditions were not approximately maintained, the loss and gain of charge by leakage across the prime in- sulators did not balance. Whenever adjustments of the electrometer were made, it was necessary that both the ionization chamber and the balancing condenser be dis- connected from the electrometer plates and earthed. After completion of the adjustments, the zero-positions were noted for both settings of the battery reversing switch. With these zero-positions in mind, the ionization 14 chamber and the balancing condenser were connected to their respective electrometer plates and the positions again noted. If these were changed, defective insulation on the battery lines was regarded as the most likely cause. Differences in the zero-positions, however, of about 10 per cent were tolerated in practice. If the differences were greater, and insulation dif- ficulties were found not to be the cause, adjustment of the balancing condenser became necessary. Instructions for this operation were supplied in some detail. Adjust- ment was not expected to be needed unless there had been a creep of the adjusting screws or an unbalancing caused by thermal expansion. If the outer cylinder were to be removed for any reason, care was to be taken that the adjustment of the inner cylinder was not changed and, on replacing the outer cylinder, particular note was to be taken that it was firmly seated against the shoulder of the rubber insulator supporting it. In any adjustment of the balancing condenser, the fine-adjustment screw (ex- posed at the end of the condenser) was to be tried first. If this didnot provide sufficient change, the outer cylinder was to be removed, and the inner cylinder screwed very slightly inward or outward until the final adjustment was within the range of the fine adjustment. Only a few de- grees turn of the inner cylinder would be necessary to produce a large difference in the fine adjustment. With the electrometer adjusted for equal sensitivity on either side of the position taken by the fiber when the battery switch was open, and with adequate insulation on the battery lines, the correct adjustment of the balancing condenser was that for which equal deflections to either side were obtained for the two positions of the battery reversing switch. These deflections usually were small; for a sensitivity of ten divisions per volt they were only a fraction of one division. On cruise VII no major ad- justment of the balancing condenser was necessary; the use of the fine-adjustment screw was sufficient on the few occasions when adjustment was required. Chief Features of the Kolhérster Penetrating Radia- tion Apparatus 5503.--This instrument consisted of an ionization chamber of about four liters volume, at the center of which was placed the electrometer system con- sisting of two loops made from metal-coated quartz fi- bers (fig. 6). These were viewed with a microscope and acted in much the same way as the fibers of the bifilar electrometers. The calibrating procedure was essentially the same as for the bifilar electrometers. The electrom- eter system was charged either for calibrating or for measuring the penetrating radiation by means of a con- tact-arm located inside the chamber and connected with an insulated outside binding post. This contactor was operated from the outside by a magnetic device. The contactor was earthed (i.e., was in contact with the walls of the chamber) when in the position for observations. On this account the battery was not applied except when the contactor was set in the position for charging ithe central system. The procedure for observation with this instrument was: (a) Charge the system to a potential giving nearly a full scale deflection and allowit to stand a few min- utes until the charge becomes distributed over the insulators of the central system (b) Note the positions of the fibers, and the time (c) About one hour later again note fiber positions and the time of doing so The equation given earlier for calculation of R also OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS applied for this instrument, dV being the change in potential represented by the change, 6, in fiber posi- tions during the observed time interval, 7, expressed in seconds. The capacitance, C, was given by Kolhérs- ter as 0.374 cm and the volume, U, was 4130 cc, making the working formula R = 630 6V7-1 (See discussion of changes in C on page 15). Comparative Measurements.--Simultaneous meas- urements with two instruments so different in typeas the PR1 and the Kolhérster were expected to be of more value than a much larger mass of data obtained with a single instrument, on the basis of the following consid- erations. The total measured ionization in any penetrat- ing radiation apparatus is produced by at least two dis- tinct agencies. One of these agencies either is radio- active matter in the material from which the ionization chamber is made or is the natural radioactivity of that material itself. The part of the ionization arising from that source may be termed the residual ionization. The rest of the ionization is produced by the penetrating ra~- diation which passes through the walls of the ionization chamber and by its secondary radiation. In an air-tight vessel the residual ionization may be considered con- stant. It is that which would be observed if the penetrat- ing radiation were cut off by surrounding the chamber with a sufficient thickness of absorbing material. The Kolhérster instrument was so designed that the residual ionization could be determined by immersing it in a suf- ficient depth of water. Dr. Kolhérster determined the residual ionization of his instrument, giving the value as 1.3 ion-pairs per cc per second. The residual ioniza- tion for PR1, however, could not be determined by immersion, and it was hoped that a satisfactory estimate for it could be arrived at from comparative measure- ments with the two instruments. Another uncertainty in the measurement of penetrat- ing radiation, apart from that caused by residual ioniza- tion, arises from the fact that the number of ions produced in the chamber is not the same as would be produced in an equal volume of air. The intensities of the rays are reduced somewhat by absorption in the walls of the cham- ber and the surrounding structures, but in spite of this the ionization in such a chamber usually is considerably more than in free air, owing to secondary radiations excited in the walls of the chamber. In order to ascer- tain the ratio of the observed ionization to that which would be produced in free air by the same agency, the so-called Eve’s constant for the instrument is determined. The determination of this constant for PR1 was made on the Carnegie at Newport News in May 1928. The result, however, fell short of what was desired since it was im- practicable to include the effect of masts, rigging, etc. It was hoped that a fairly close estimate of the latter effect could be obtained at sea by obtaining observations with the Kolhérster instrument alternately in the atmos- pheric-electric house and somewhere on the quarter -deck well to the stern of the ship where the largest clear ex- panse about the zenith could be seen. The ratio of mean values of R obtained at these locations (i.e., Ro/Ri, in which Ro represents quarter-deck measurements and Rj the indoor measurements) would then be a ‘‘reduction factor” for eliminating the effect of the ship’s gear from the measurements made with the Kolhorster apparatus in the atmospheric-electric house. With this factor, and a series of comparative measurements with PR1 and the INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL Kolhorster, a factor for the former could be found. The number of such series that would be required would de- pend on how consistent the Kolhérster results were for the indoor and outdoor positions. A minimum of four series was planned, each of about four hours duration, for the early part of cruise VI, two of these to be with all sails furled, if possible, and two with all sails set. Definite results from these might obviate further tests. During the regular daily observations and during diurnal-variation runs, the Kolhérster instrument was to be placed at a convenient position in the atmospheric- electric house, preferably between the ion counter and PR1. It was desired particularly that simultaneous ob- servations be obtained with PR1 and Kolhérster 5503 during diurnal-variation observations. In accordance with the suggestions of the foregoing paragraphs, simultaneous measurements were made with PR1 and 5503 from July 9 to 19, 1928, between Hamburg and Reykjavik, and again after leaving Reykjavik from July 28 to August 18. From these results an attempt was made to determine the residual ionization of PR1, but the scatter of the data for apparatus 5503 was so great as to prevent getting a satisfactory value. The data for the period August 10 to 18 were not used in this inves- tigation, as it was noted that after August 9 a radical change in the measurements with apparatus 5503 oc- curred, much higher values of ‘ionization being obtained with it after that date without correspondingly higher values for PR1. In the progress reports of the next sec- tion (pp. 31-45), difficulties with apparatus 5503 are dis- cussed; continued difficulties culminated in abandonment of the program contemplated for this instrument and the return of the apparatus to Washington for repair when the ship arrived at Canal Zone in October 1928. The repaired apparatus was returned to the ship at Tahiti in March 1929. The repairs included the replace- ment of the broken ‘‘charging arm’’ and replacement of the fibers and fiber mounting of the electrometer ele- ment. These changes altered the capacitance to 0.348 cm in comparison with 0.374 cm as given by Kolhorster. Both these figures subsequently were corrected when in- formation was received that a correction factor of 1.243 should be applied, the new values being 0.433 and 0.465 cm, respectively. After March 20, 1929, simultaneous measurements with PR1 and 5503 were again made, but the scatter of data obtained with 5503 again prevented determination of the residual ionization of PR1. In general, the operation of apparatus 5503 was unsatisfactory throughout cruise VII, and the data are being omitted from this publication. Unfortunately, this apparatus, as also all other instru- ments and pieces of apparatus, was lost with the ship on November 29, 1929, and therefore no attempt could be made later, in the laboratory, to find the causes for the unsatisfactory performance. Penetrating radiation apparatus 1 thus was left without an established value for the residual ionization. Measurements were made regularly, however, through- out cruise VII with this apparatus, the average value for 368 daily measurements being 2.8 pairs of ions per cubic centimeter per second, not corrected for residual. Each daily measurement required between one and two hours and the period of observation was arranged to coincide with the period required for conductivity and ion content measurements. Attempts were made on thirty-two occasions to make diurnal-variation observations of penetrating ra- PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS 15 diation with PR1; twenty-six series of twenty-four hours each were completed and six left incomplete. So much scatter was found among the hourly measurements composing these series, that the publication of this material as representative of the diurnal variation of penetrating radiation (or cosmic rays) is scarcely war- ranted. Furthermore, so much has been done since 1929 by other investigators toward establishing the character and magnitude of diurnal variation of cosmic rays that little need now exists for the data of cruise Vil. Accordingly, this material will not be presented. Mauchly (11), discussing the daily measurements of penetrating radiation made with PR1 on cruises IV and VI, gave the average values, not corrected for residual, as 3.2 pairs for cruise IV and 3.8 pairs for cruise VI. These means were obtained for observations on 296 and 316 days, respectively. On the matter of residual ioni- zation he said “‘.....this probably does not much exceed two pairs per cubic centimeter per second, since it is not uncommon to observe a total ionization of the order of two and one-half pairs per cubic centimeter per sec- ond, with several extreme cases going even below two pairs.’’ In one of the progress reports of the next section (p. 33), the suggestion is made that lack of a roof aperture over the penetrating radiation apparatus, such as had been used on previous cruises, might be re- sponsible for the lower value of ionization (2.8 pairs) observed on cruise VII. This seems unlikely, however, because at sea the penetrating radiation is largely, if not entirely, cosmic rays and the presence or absence of the roof above the apparatus should make little difference. A more likely explanation might be that the lower value of cruise VII was the more accurate value, owing to greater reliability of the apparatus as a result of im- provements incorporated just prior to the start of the cruise. The balancing condenser, in particular, was im- proved considerably. Mauchly’s value of two pairs per cubic centimeter per second for the residual ionization of PR1 seems somewhat too high for the cruise VII data. A more ap- propriate value would seem to be about 1.5 pairs, thus leaving the balance of 1.3 pairs as the average ionization by cosmic rays. The scatter of the observed valuesfrom the average of 2.8 pairs per cc per second may be indi- cated by stating that 60 per cent of the values fall between 2.6 and 3.0, 90 per cent between 2.4 and 3.2, and 95 per cent between 2.2 and 3.4 pairs per cc per second. The individual values will be tabulated in a later section in which the daily observations of the several atmospheric- electric elements will be presented. Radioactive Content of the Atmosphere.--Apparatus for the measurement of the radioactive content of the at- mosphere was installed on the Carnegie before the begin- ning of cruise VII, but successful measurements were not obtained with it until the last two months of the cruise because of persistent insulation failure on one of the three major items of equipment. The apparatus used on cruise VI, as on previous cruises, consisted of a collecting ap- paratus, ahigh potential generator, andan ionization cham- ber with electrometer attached. The high potential gener - ator was the equipment on which adequate insulation could not be maintained, until the instrument was remodeled. The method employed for measuring the radioactive content of the atmosphere consists in drawing air between two concentric cylinders of a collecting apparatus, the central cylinder of which is charged negatively to such a high potential (by the high potential generator), that all 16 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS the active carriers entering the outer cylinder are brought to the central cylinder. The saturation current produced in the ionization chamber by the active deposit collected on the central cylinder in a given time is then measured. This, combined with a knowledge of the air flow during the collection of the deposit, permits the amount of active material per cubic meter of the air to be estimated, if one assumes a knowledge of the nature of the deposit, which latter can be obtainedfrom the form of the decay curve. The Carnegie apparatus was designated radioactive content apparatus 4. The ionization chamber was the same as used on previous cruises, but it was overhauled and put in good working condition before cruise VII began. The high potential generator of previous cruises was taken along on cruise VII and in addition a unit incorporating new and improved features was supplied. Both these were superseded in September 1929 by astill further improved generator unit, and this final unit was the one with which successful measurements of radioactive content were obtained. The collecting apparatus consisted of an air-flow tube and a central collecting system. The air-flow tube was a copper cylinder 64 cm long and about 20 cm in diameter, with an anemometer at one end and a fan at the other. The fan was driven by an electric motor op- erated from the ship’s power plant. The central system consisted of an insulated wooden cylinder 12 cm long and 12 cm in diameter, supported by a rod passing through’ its axis and insulated from it by sulphur. When the col- lecting apparatus was in use, the surface of the wooden cylinder was covered with a sheet of copper foil, held on by rubber bands, and it was on this foil that the deposit was collected. Earthed metal caps, attached to the cen- tral rod, covered the top and bottom ends of the central cylinder without touching it, to insure that the negative charge, and consequently the active deposit, would be confined to the copper foil. The collecting apparatus, high potential generator, and accessories, were mounted together as a portable unit which could be moved to suitable positions for col- lecting. The collecting apparatus was operated on the bridge in such a position as to be exposed to the prevail- ing wind. For charging the central cylinder of the col- lecting apparatus a potential of about 2000 volts was re- quired to be supplied by the high potential generator. A form of Kelvin water dropper was used on earlier cruis- es as the high potential generator. In the simplest form of water dropper, a jet of water issues from the nozzle of a water tank, the droplets falling through an insulated metal cylinder mounted below the tank. The cylinder is connected with one terminal of a battery of, say, 100 volts, the other terminal of which is earthed. Below the cylinder is mounted a funnel or container which becomes charged by the droplets falling into it, and in practice the potential of the funnel or container rises until the rate of electrical leakage over the supporting insulators equals the rate of supply of electricity by the drops. The origi- nal Carnegie water dropper had, instead of one cylinder and one jet of water, a group of seven smaller cylinders each with a separate jet, and the effect of the multiple jets was shown to be additive, so that the efficiency of the apparatus accordingly was enhanced (12). The other type of high potential generator provided at the beginning of cruise VII had, instead of several jets from which water issued under force of gravity, a single nozzle (atomizer) from which water was forced by com- pressed air, thus giving a fine spray of innumerable very small droplets. These droplets, as in the earlier appa- ratus, passed through a charged insulated cylinder and then communicated their charges to an insulated funnel or container below the cylinder. This type of generator was found very efficient under laboratory conditions. Under sea conditions, however, with rolling and pitch- ing of the ship, the spray contrived to reach the insula- tion of the funnel or container and further modification was necessary. The final modified form of generator was supplied at San Francisco in August 1929 (fig. 25). On this unit the insulation for the cylindrical container to which the droplets gave up their charge was at the upper end of three supporting posts, within an upper compartment into which no water was sprayed. Drying material in this compartment assisted in keeping the insulatorsdry. In the figure the generator unit is shown removed from its outer case. The connections for water hose and air hose are readily seen at the top of the unit. One of two black binding-posts on the top plate makes connection with the charged metal cylinder through which the water is sprayed; the other is an earth connection. A third binding-post on the top plate has a metal hood protecting the insulating material, and this post makes connection with the container collecting the charge. The ionization chamber of the radioactive content apparatus has been shown in figure 5. The chamber was a cylindrical copper container about 12 cm in diameter and about 25 cm long. The insulated central system of the ionization apparatus was a long thin rod, and it was attached to the fiber system of a unifilar electrometer. The sensitivity of the electrometer was adjusted to be- tween 5 and 10 divisions per volt. When the copper foil was removed from the collecting apparatus, it was formed into a cylinder with the active surface inward, and placed as a lining against the inner wall of the ioni- zation chamber. Installed this way, the foil did not con- tribute to capacitance of the apparatus. The height ofthe chamber was made about twice that of the foil cylinder, so that the latter would cover only the middle part of the chamber wall; in this way it was arranged that none of the a particles would strike the top or bottom of the chamber. Thus, although the range of some of the « particles would be cut short by their traversing, for ex- ample, ashort chordof the cylinder, the average reduc- tion of range brought about in this way would be a defi- nite and calculable function of the radius of the cylinder and of the true range of the @ particles. It would be in- dependent of the distribution of the active material on the foil--a point of some importance, since the distribu- tion of active deposit on the foil would not be uniform. In the measurements with the ionization chamber, the method of allowing for insulation-leak was exactly analogous to that adopted in the case of the eye-reading conductivity apparatus, except that no test could be made after a measurement because the whole internal surface of the ionization chamber would be likely to be covered with the disintegration products of the material origi- nally collected. The observations were recorded on a suitable form (Department form 103). The symbol, n, used on this form represents the number of pairs of ions produced per second in the ionization chamber, because of active material which would be deposited on the col- lecting cylinder in an air flow of 1 cc per second. 7 is recorded on the form for various periods of time after the completion of the deposition, and serves as a INSTRUMENTS, OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE, AND CONSTANTS a) preliminary quantity for use in subsequent determination of the radium-emanation content. This determination, which necessitates a careful analysis of the curve ob- tained by plotting 7 against time, was carried out at Washington rather than on ship. The value of 7 is computed from the formula n = C6v(r7} - t-4)/300we where C is the capacitance of the apparatus; 5V is the voltage change corresponding to the change in deflection of the electrometer fiber over a selected range, 6, of scale divisions; 7 is the time in seconds for the fibers to move over the selected range, 6; t is the leakage cor- rection based on a leak-test made before the copper foil is introduced into the ionization chamber and derivedas explained on page 8 under computation of conductivity; e is the electronic charge; and W is the number of cubic centimeters per second of air drawn past the collecting cylinder during the period of collectionof active deposit. For cruise VII the capacitance, C, was taken as 8.9 cm for radioactive content apparatus 4, as compared with 8.7 cm used for cruise VI. Twenty measurements of radioactive content were obtained on as many days, during the period between September 22 and November 18, 1929. The observational procedure was such that the copper foil was exposed in the collecting apparatus for 3600 seconds, during which time air was flowing past the foil at the rate of approximately 130 liters per second. The high potential generator maintained the foil within the range of 1500 to 3000 volts, negative with respect to the air-flow tube, for each collecting period, with the most frequently obtained potentials lying in the range between 2000 and 2500 volts. After transfer of the foil from the collecting appa- ratus to the ionization chamber, observations with the latter were made over a period of two to three hours, during which time five or six, and occasionally more, sets of measurements were made of the ionization pro- duced by the active deposit. From these several sets of data the form of the decay curve could be obtained. Owing to a late beginning of the observations of radioactive content on cruise VII and the sudden ending of the cruise, only twenty measurements were obtained, as has been mentioned earlier. One measurement was made September 22, 1929, and the remaining between October 8 and November 18, 1929, all in the Pacific Ocean. To assemble these into groups of about ten for the purpose of drawing an average decay curve for each group, as was done for the data from cruises IV, V, and VI, would yield only two or three determinations of em- anation content. This number is small compared with the thirty-two derived values of emanation content for the Pacific Ocean obtained from 271 measurements made with apparatus 4 on cruisesIV, V, and VI. Fur- thermore, the measurements over all oceans on these cruises totaled 497, and the derived values of emanation content totaled 63. These have been tabulated and dis- cussed by Swann (13) and Mauchly (14). The two or three values to be derived from cruise VII measure- ments have been considered, therefore, to be too few to warrant the lengthy and involved analysis which would be required to obtain them, and too few to add signifi- cantly to the information obtained from the work of pre- vious cruises. The data from this part of the program of cruise VII accordingly are being omitted from the present publication. LITERATURE LIST . Bauer, L. A., W. J. Peters, J. A. Fleming, J. P. Ault, and W. F. G. Swann. 1917. Ocean magnetic obser- vations 1905-1916 and reports on special research- es. Researches of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175, vol. 3, pp. 378-392. Ault, J. P., S. J. Mauchly, W. J. Peters, L. A. Bauer, J. A. Fleming. 1926. Ocean magnetic and electric observations, 1915-1921. Researches of the Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175, vol. 5, pp. 201-209. . Collected Scientific Papers of John Aitken. 1923. Cambridge University Press. pp. 236-246. . Bauer, L. A., W. J. Peters, J. A. Fleming, J. P. Ault, and W. F. G. Swann. 1917. Ocean magnetic obser- vations 1905-1916 and reports on special research- es. Researches of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175, vol. 3, pp. 380-401. . Jacobs, W. C., and C. Clark. 1943. Meteorological results of cruise VII of the Carnegie, 1928-1929. Sci. res. of cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928- 1929 under command of Captain J. P. Ault. Meteor.- I. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 544. 168 pp., 62 figs. . Gerdien, H. von. 1905. Die Absolute Messung der Specifischen Leitfahigkeit und der Dichte des Verti- calen Leitungsstromes in der Atmosphare. Jour. Terr. Mag., vol. 10, pp. 69-71. : - Swann, W. F.G. 1914. The theory of electrical dis- persion into the free atmosphere, with a discussion of the theory of the Gerdien conductivity apparatus, and of the theory of the collection of radioactive de- posit by a charged conductor. Jour. Terr. Mag., vol. 19, pp. 81-88. 18 7. Swann, W. F.G., andS. J. Mauchly. 1917. On the conduction of electricity through an ionized gas, more particularly in its relation to Bronson resis- tances. Jour. Terr. Mag., vol. 22, pp. 1-21. 8. Bauer, L. A., W. J. Peters, J. A. Fleming, J. P. Ault, and W. F. G. Swann. 1917. Ocean magnetic obser- vations 1905-1916 and reports on special research- es. Researches of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175, vol. 3, pp. 386-389. : 9. Swann, W. F.G. 1914. On certain new atmospheric- electric instruments and methods. Jour. Terr. Mag., vol. 19, pp. 171-176. 10. Wait, G. R. 1932. The Aitken pocket nuclei-counter. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 37, pp. 429-439. 11. Ault, J. P., S. J. Mauchly, W. J. Peters, L. A. Bauer, J. A. Fleming. 1926. Ocean magnetic and electric observations, 1915-1921. Researchesof the Depart- ment. of Terrestrial Magnetism. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175, vol. 5, pp. 421-423. 12. Bauer, L. A., W. J. Peters, J. A. Fleming, J. P. Ault, and W. F. G. Swann. 1917. Ocean magnetic obser- vations 1905-1916 and reports on special research- es. Researches of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175, vol. 3, pp. 390-393. 13. Bauer, L. A., W. J. Peters, J. A. Fleming, J. P. Ault, and W. F. G. Swann. ibid., pp. 413-416. 14. Ault, J. P., S. J. Mauchly, W. J. Peters, L. A. Bauer, J. A. Fleming. 1926. Ocean magnetic and electric observations, 1915-1921. Researches of the Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175., vol. 5, pp. 416-421. FIGURES 1 - 25 TITLE . Atmospheric-electric cabin at right, showing starboard wall and entrance . Looking down on roof of atmospheric-electric cabin just forward of the mainmast . Ion counter DTM No. 1 (IC1) for measurement of small-ion content of the atmosphere . Penetrating radiation apparatus No. 1 (PR 1) for measurement of ionization due to cosmic rays and other penetrating radiation . Ionization apparatus of radioactive-content apparatus No. 4 (RCA4) . Kolhorster penetrating radiation apparatus No. 5503 in use on quarter-deck for special tests . Conductivity apparatus No. 8A (CA8A), showing vertical air-flow tube and the eye- reading electrometer which was used until September 1929 . Air-flow tubes of ion counter and conductivity apparatus on roof of atmospheric- electric cabin . Conductivity recording apparatus installed at San Francisco in August 1929 . Potential-gradient apparatus No. 2 (PGA2) with umbrella-shaped conductor, used for eye-reading observations until September 16, 1928 . Potential-gradient recording apparatus installed on stern rail to starboard of eye- reading apparatus PGA2. . View of recording electrometer for potential-gradient, as installed with accessories in weatherproof box for mounting on stern rail . Aitken nuclei counter, used to determine the number of condensation nuclei per cubic centimeter in the atmosphere . W. C. Parkinson operating the Aitken nuclei counter on the bridge . Potential-gradient reduction-factor station on Watson’s Island, Apia, Samoa, April 1929 . View of short vertical collector rod on potentiate edient recording apparatus substi- tuted for bent rod (fig. 11) on November 5, 192 . Calibrating the potential-gradient recording apparatus, an operation performed once each week unless bad weather prevented . View of potential-gradient recorder and eye-reading apparatus on stern rail of ship . View of potential-gradient apparatus from quarter-deck with awning up . View of unifilar electrometer of recording conductivity apparatus CA8A . View of high resistance ionium cell of recording conductivity apparatus . Schematic diagram of Gerdien conductivity apparatus with unifilar electrometer, high resistance cell, and variable calibrating condenser . Design of shielding ‘‘cup’’ at intake of ion counter devised to avoid error in ion 4 measurements when the “‘charging’’ method of operation is used . Detail drawing of Aitken nuclei counter . High potential generator for radioactive content apparatus No. 4 shown removed from metal housing 19 Page 21 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 ee ae ( ~ e 7 2 7 ; 7 ) Ly - 0 —fe OS é aA¢ * “ ig - a dl an) @" | § ; a ; ’ , soe vio fate Tae heres iyts da ees APM a= BPN shana: Ad ‘ gowlsek 407 a Le | be ded nn fis Da lo eo owubl yatont 4 ee ee m+ Utretma-got (7%) 1). 4b Aeros eel \iae eas es Di | NO he 6 ae yin’ al SOA ise ie hea fa * 4 id ‘ce iaitéy pil + ‘> is : ay eM a itera ul bn pig omitir Buie ay wes a a é ' Lirica eds i vacde ; i aren grat ; Dee A fi \ srylgy pnt tine ay _— 7 i} Idictawe, ‘ON ales is i ae neh Cs geaderie sentp ins te ne . i 7 rae 4 Chae oe is oe ‘ 4 A i : pra gil wl i 1 sphwrcstn., CA At Phe a pis 4. A ‘ siq28 iting bald Ga “ft; eae |) ast | ne or sey ae wrtviaebatom alae mir hsb ¢? " ; 4 ‘ vit fi bs —— i | ws the Ata Ae teri: ’ aa te bel pa uci Pa pian ama agrer iit le TERS) | i Ped Legh j egy, ak eds aba Fp aus Cea te v bal tate rhea: sey Ae rat CRS nahh slg ‘, te ) peas acts aig 10} oofanmeopley pag eyed4 fm 9 shin ex ie "9 ' A > § opus cole rer aniia ct waren so lel an we LA Pye} free } +> fathi ggetathentod Wh bors A i oelibeeuriee rh ‘e nbeaces sattioomy si feel hanes to01L008 oo (2s "eem viegqe simhes «es fad Sobrtoey teal (lny £260 rete aun) wuetagge San) or “ae WIV ne yaitringes to ‘miembrinale y/o gets He Me on ite ease sicngg ‘eity: erry jalbeoD tonebasd gal Sept o) Osghee oeineed ot’ Je edabe! 1g s rr esaqy ini paged : ; vehi pithey ar worn a2 ov. “s* ied os nine mnowiion 0 3 ; Ch Fig. 2. Looking down on roof of atmospheric-electric cabin just for- ward of the mainmast. Forward of the cabin is a dome used for magnetic measurements, and forward of the dome is the bridge. At the stern rail may be noted both eye-reading and recording apparatus for potential-gradient measurements Fig. 3. Ion counter DTM No. 1 (IC1) for measurement of small-ion content of the atmosphere. The apparatus projects through the roof and is uncovered during use 21 — ——_—_ one neo >>. cnengennencaina cdabideteereseRu? cs! cine ttpecabchla nonce ease a5 OUY VT Oe \ nd N i 1 Fig. 5. Ionization apparatus of radioactive-content apparatus No. 4 (RCA4). Copper foil with a deposit of radioactive material is placed in this apparatus and the resulting ionization meas- ured 22 ‘Fig. 6. Kolhérster penetrating radiation apparatus No. 5503 in use on quarter-deck for special tésts. Generally used adjacent to PR 1 in atmospheric-electric cabin ro — baiting = AnRA« Fig. 7. Conductivity apparatus No. 8A (CA8A), showing vertical air-flow tube and the eye- reading electrometer which was used until September 1929 23 Fig. 8. Air-flow tubes of ion counter (small tube) and conductivity apparatus (large tube) on roof of atmospheric-electric cabin Fig. 9. Conductivity recording apparatus installed at San Francisco in August 1929, and used at sea September through November, 1929 Fig. 10. Potential-gradient apparatus No. 2 (PGA2) with umbrella-shaped conductor, used for eye- reading observations until September 16, 1928 Fig. 11. Potential-gradient recording apparatus installed on stern rail to starboard of eye- reading apparatus PGA2. Note form and po- sition of collector rod; this was used from July 7, 1928 to November 5, 1928 fo | = nase . Fig. 12. View of recording electrometer for potential-gradient, as installed with acces- sories in weatherproof box for mounting on stern rail Fig. 13. Aitken nuclei counter, used to determine the Fig. 14. W. C. Parkinson operating the Aitken number of condensation nuclei per cubic centimeter nuclei counter on the bridge in the atmosphere or 4 mS Ree NNN Fig. 16. View of short vertical collector rod on poten- Fig..17. Calibrating the potential-gradient recording tial-gradient recording apparatus substituted for apparatus, an operation performed once each week bent rod (fig. 11) on November 5, 1928 unless bad weather prevented. 26 Ss Fig. 18. View of potential-gradient recorder and eye-reading apparatus on stern rail of ship. Note how the boom crutch dominates the location, and shields the apparatus from distortion of the earth’s field arising from the installation or removal of the quarter-deck awning. The mainsail is up with boom to starboard, a position designated as MUBS in this volume . it Fig. 19. View of potential-gradient apparatus from quarter-deck with awning up. Note the small boat on davits at the port rail, probably contributing somewhat to the distortion of the earth’s field at the stern of the ship 27 Fig. 20. View of unifilar electrometer of recording conductivity apparatus CA8A Fig. 21. View of high resistance ionium cell of recording conductivity apparatus 28 osIp SuIp[orys 1etnuue ‘T_T faanjrede oyequt ‘oT {deo ‘g ‘3urs Sutje[nsut raquie ‘g fsynajs ssevaq ‘), {ysod-Sutputq ‘9 ‘sSuli Sutye[nsut aztuoga ‘g ‘pour Teajuao ‘p ‘dno 10 pratys Teotaput{Ad ‘g f1asuapuod jo zaputytAo aauut ‘z f1aputtAo SStiq 1ajno ‘— “pasn st uoT}ye1edo jo poyjem , Suls1vyo,, 9y} UdaYM SJUSMIINSVIUI UOT UT 10118 PIOAE 0} pastTAap 1ayUN0dD UOT JO ayezUT ye ,,dnd,, Surpratus jo usjsoq ‘Ez “Sta = g Vm! WS WH, (ZZ IZ 7 ae PY a CILLA LLL LL LT DIZZZ INL | I ; H H H H H H ) ] ) 8 H H " H H \\ ZL Q2Z2IIIITILIL LLL LLL LLL, ayeIQI[Vd 0} Iap1o ut SauT] UaHOIq JO suOT}ISod OWT UMOJY} O18 § PUB CO SOYyd}IMG :9}0N ‘UOT}IAS-SSO19 pe}jOp UT UMOYS de SIsqUIy *Tetquajod ayeyd ‘yy, ‘uotzeaqryeo 10; TeryUajod Sutyeaqtteo Ajdde pue jerjuajod Sune -1edo aAOW AI 0} YO}TMS MOY} aTqnop ‘atod aTqnop ‘g ‘s8uta parensd ‘y {1asuapuoo SuT}eIqi[Teo Jo reput{Ad atqeaour ‘% ‘yetquajod Surzeaqiqeo ‘q ‘uoryearqtyTed 10; [a0 SATJOVOIPEL 0} JAaSUSPUOD BuTyeAqI[Vo Jo 1oquIaU [e1jJUaD SutJOuUod AOJ YORIMS ‘O ‘LesuspUuOd SuTjeAqITeo ayqetava ‘N {][]90 aATJOVOTpeI dOURISTSaI YSTY ‘Jy {19j9UI01} -d9]8 Jeptyun ‘y f10j}stSaa aAt}09}0AId ‘[ ‘TerJUa}od Sutye1ado ‘yT {ry yous Aq parid -de st‘ ‘Tetquejod Sutdeams yoTyM ssoioe saqny d1ayUaoUoD ‘FY fasapuT[Ad [TerjUa0 5) ‘oyequr ire ‘gq ‘pooy feotuos ‘gq furqed Jo autyT yoo ‘q Suey 0} aqn} MOTJ-ATe WOIy yonp ‘D ‘sajorzzed usta10j yo Arqua yUaAaId 0} Susaros ‘gq faqn} MOTJ-1Te TeoTap -ul[Ao [edtqI0A ‘WY ‘IaSUapUod BuTyeAqITVd o[qeIIeA pue ‘[[e0 soURsISeZ YSTY ‘19030 ‘ -WO1}DaT9 Ie[I}JTUN yyIM snyeredde AjIATJONpuOD UsTpiey Jo WeISeIp oIyeMIAYOS “Zz “SIA 29 Sursnoy [ejoul WOIJ poAouler uMOYS f “ON Snyeredde yuoUOD aATJLOTpe. 10J 1OJe19UaT [eTJUSJOd YSIH “Gz “3a 19jUNOD Taponu usyITY JO Zurmearp [tejoq “PZ ‘Sty AR ho — Ill. REPORTS ON ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC WORK OF CRUISE VII, 1928-1929, PREPARED ON BOARD SHIP NEWPORT NEWS, VIRGINIA TO PLYMOUTH, ENGLAND, MAY 10 TO JUNE 8, 1928 After leaving Newport News on May 10 the firstfew days were occupied in acquiring some degree of facility in observing during the ship’s motion. The conductivity and penetrating radiation apparatuses have presented no great difficulties but the ion counter has been found to be extremely sensitive to rolling and the fiber therefore hardly ever at rest. It might be considered advisable to increase its stability by having an additional weight be- low the electrometer platform which could be removed when the gimbals are clamped, thus preventing undue wear on the pivots. A systematic daily program of observation similar to that carried out on previous cruises has not been ar- ranged, for the following reasons. During the oceano- graphic work the potential-gradient at the stern cannot be observed, because the engine is running and nets are being towed; also, with the ship hove to, the rolling is excessive and we have not been able to work with the ion counter at these times. When the magnetic work is be- ing done, the conductivity motor possibly may cause disturbances in the field in the after dome. The oceano- graphic work and, to a lesser degree the magnetic work, are controlled by sea conditions and it has happened on one occasion so far that the oceanographic work has been done in the morning and the magnetic work in the afternoon of the same day, leaving no part of the day free for atmospheric-electric work. It is proposed to make tests to determine the effect, if any, of the con- ductivity motor on the magnetic work in the after dome and a regular schedule of atmospheric-electric obser- vations will be carried out as often as conditions permit. Recording Potential-Gradient Apparatus. --Contin- uous recording of potential-gradient at the masthead has had to be discontinued. For the first few days, while the mainsail was to port, the recorder box remained fairly steady and one good 24-hour trace was obtained; the fibers, however, were at a low sensitivity (about 60 volts per division). When the mainsail was put to star- board, the recorder-box guide cables slackened, owing to the play in the masthead and the box was in continuous motion through an angle of about 45° astern of the mast- head. The traces obtained during this period were quite HAMBURG, GERMANY TO REYKJAVIK, General.--Observations of all the atmospheric- electric elements, with the exception of radioactive con- tent, have been made whenever conditions permitted. Lack of time and adverse weather have prevented any attempt to get the radioactive content apparatus into working order. It is hoped that something may be done with this when more temperate latitudes are reached. During the stay in Hamburg additional shelf space was provided in the atmospheric-electric observatory for the storage of batteries and miscellaneous equipment. Potential Gradient Recorder.--At Hamburg a staging was built on the stern rail, to starboard of the potential- gradient apparatus 2, and the recorder was mounted thereon. The collector rod was remodeled so as to al- illegible. There is no way of preventing this play of the masthead because of the elasticity in the hemp rigging. There were difficulties in raising and lowering the box past the sail when the mainsail was to starboard also. Then it was thought that a satisfactory diurnal-variation curve might be obtained on the roof of the atmospheric- electric house, in spite of the probable low field due to the proximity of the mainmast and staysails. An experi- mental trace, however, showed that the field was too weak to produce a curve from which the diurnal varia- tion might safely be derived. Next it is planned to try mounting the box on the stern rail, near potential gradi- ent apparatus 2, though it is feared that the daily running of the engine will produce serious gaps in the records. Radioactive Content Apparatus.--On several occa- sions during the few periods of good weather we have had, we have experimented with the collector of this apparatus but have been unable, so far, to maintain a potential of 1500 to 2000 volts for more than five min- utes. For atime it seemed that it was an advantage to have the door closed rather than open, but in the end the insulation always broke down after a few moments had elapsed. We have been unable so far, therefore, to ob- tain any observations of radioactive content, but experi- ment with the collector will be continued as soon as possible. Diurnal-Variation Observations.--Persistent bad weather has prevented diurnal-variation observations of any of the atmospheric-electric elements. Nuclei Concentration.--Since May 21 practically daily observation has been made with the nuclei counter 4. No difficulties have been encountered. Battery Replacements.--Fifteen cell replacements have been made in battery 14689 and the use of the bat- tery on June 7 for calibration of potential gradient appa- ratus 2 indicated some more bad cells. All other bat- teries have maintained high potentials. Attention might be called to the consistently low values that were obtained for ionic content and conductiv- ity, particularly the latter. No reason for this fact is apparent, except unusually stormy weather conditions. ICELAND, JULY 7 TO 20, 1928 low the disc collectors to project over the stern. So far some very good traces have been obtained with this arrangement. Because head winds required frequent running of the main engine, some of the records do not represent normal air conditions. Appropriate record, of course, will be kept of the times of starting and stop- ing the main engine, for proper interpretation of the traces. It was hoped that the traces obtained up to date might have been transmitted before leaving Iceland but the ship and shore observations have made this impos- sible. It is felt, however, that the present location of the instrument is the only feasible one on the ship and it is confidently anticipated that some reliable diurnal- variation data will be obtained. 31 32 Penetrating Radiation.--As previously reported, Dr. Kolhérster delivered his penetrating radiation instru- ment (Ginther and Tegetmeyer No. 5503) in Hamburg and, as will be seen from the records transmitted, daily intercomparisons between this instrument and penetrat- ing radiation apparatus 1 have been made. There are some difficulties in the use of an instrument of this type, rigidly mounted on a rolling ship, and having coarse fibers widely separated which are in constant and irregular motion. It is necessary to use a large initial potential (over 300 volts), and the time interval for each observation must be at least one hour. It would be an advantage to have the initial voltage the same for each observation, no doubt, but with the magnetic con- tact-device now in use, it has been found impossible so far to reproduce a deflection with the same number of cells. The ‘‘zero’’ position of the fibers has moved about 15 divisions (full scale deflection is about 160 di- visions) to one side of the center and there seems no ready way of bringing it back to the center. For the computation of the values of R the calibration curve sup- plied by Dr. Kolhorster has been used, but with the change of zero it is doubtful whether it still holds. It is intended to recalibrate the instrument before leaving Reykjavik. Potential-Gradient Apparatus 2.--During the damp weather encountered since leaving Hamburg, trouble has been experienced with the sulphur insulators supporting the collector-system, and since arriving at Reykjavik these have been recast. It would be a convenience if one or two spare sets of these insulators, with the screw holes made, could be supplied, as it is impossible to re- cast the sulphur while the ship is in motion and dry in- sulators could be mounted easily when necessary. The shield protecting the hard rubber connection of the han- dle of the umbrella-shaped conductor or collector was accidentally dropped overboard and a replacement of this is requested as soon as possible. Frequent neces- sity for using the main engine has decreased the number of opportunities for making potential-gradient observa- tions. Reduction-factor observations on ship and shore, using both recorders and eye-reading instruments have been made at Reykjavik but the final analysis of the re- sults has not been completed. Silver Chloride Batteries.--Some of the batteries are beginning to show signs of rapid deterioration. Number 14832 has had two replacements; no. 14689, which had fifteen cells replaced during May, has had the remaining eighty-five renewed; and no. 14870 needs en- tire renewal. With the new penetrating radiation appa- ratus, requiring 300 volts for its use, it seems neces- sary that six entirely new batteries should be supplied at Balboa. The 45-volt Burgess batteries can be used for some purposes, of course, but they are not conveni- ent where intermediate voltages are required. Acknowledgment is made of the memorandum of July 7, 1928 dealing with the penetrating radiation meas- urements. The comparison observations had been made before receipt of this memorandum but the observations follow closely along the lines suggested. Advantage will be taken of any opportunity to make measurements onan exposed part of the quarter-deck to determine the shield- ing effect of the atmospheric-electric observatory, and other parts of the ship’s superstructure. Dr. Kolhorster had informed us that the residual ionization of the cham- ber of his instrument is equal to 1.3 ions per cc per sec. It is intended to make diurnal-variation observations OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS at least once per week from now on, of as many of the atmospheric-electric elements as the weather permits. Comments Some Preliminary Deductions from Data up to July 19, 1928.--The penetrating radiation observations re- ceived from the Carnegie thus far show characteristics much like those obtained on previous cruises and the comparisons between penetrating radiation apparatus 1 and Giinther and Tegetmeyer No. 5503 indicate that these two instruments on the whole give ‘consistent values. The observations obtained July 19, 1928 are the only ones seriously out of harmony with the general trend. A rough estimate from these data of the ratio of Eve’s constant for penetrating radiation apparatus 1 to that for Giinther and Tegetmeyer No. 5503, gives 0.9+ 0.1, and the residual ionization for penetrating radiation apparatus 1, taking that for Gunther and Tegetmeyer No. 5503 as 1.3 ions per cc per sec as given by Kolhorster, is 1.9 + 0.1 ions per cc per sec. This last is surpris- ingly close to that estimated by Mauchly.! These values are only tentative; the final values must be deduced by a statistical study of a more extensive mass of data. Using the value for Eve’s constant determined at Newport News (namely 5.0 X 109) andassuming the square law for recombination, we find that the mean number of ions in a cc of air during the period July 9 to 19 is by cal- culation 725, whereas the mean of observations is 547. Although the calculated value is about 30 per cent too great, it is considerably closer than other calculations in which the present controls are lacking. The discrep- ancy here maybe in part because the value of Eve’s con- stant is too small since the effect of masts, rigging, etc., is not included, and in part because nuclei increase the rate of recombination and thus reduce the total number to be found at any time. An estimate of the former fac- tor can be obtained by the method indicated under ‘‘Com- parative measurements of penetrating radiation (p. 14) and a control for the latter may be derived from nuclei- count observations. The Desirability of Simultaneous Nuclei Count, Ion Count, and Penetrating Radiation Observations probably has not been stressed sufficiently heretofore. These three elements are needed to determine definitely whether the penetrating radiation is the sole and ade- quate ion-producing agent over the oceans. This is one of the most important unsolved problems in atmospheric electricity. The Difficulties with Gunther and Tegetmeyer Rad- iation Apparatus No. 5503 which were mentioned in the observer’s report probably will necessitate opening the chamber in order to examine and adjust the troublesome parts. If the defects are such that this instrument is not usable, it should be opened and the attempt made to ad- just the contact finger so that it makes more positive contact. The electrometer element should be examined also to ascertain the cause of the zero shift and erratic behavior reported and should be adjusted if possible. If satisfactory adjustment is obtained, the chamber should be sealed again and used as before. Possibly the points at which the quartz support is attached to metal may be the real source of difficulty as the cement may have loosened or broken away. DeKhotinsky cement (possibly lResearches of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism, vol. 5. 1926. REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC WORK 33 the soft grade) and perhaps, more conveniently, shellac and alcohol may be used for recementing. The shel- lac should be thoroughly dry and all excess of alco- hol removed before the instrument is reassembled. Naturally every care must be used to avoid salt particles being inclosed in the chamber and the air inclosed must be as dry as possible. Even though the residual ioniza- tion will doubtless have changed, this can be measured later. The other instrument to be supplied by Gunther and Tegetmeyer will be sent as soon as possible to re- place 5503, which should then be returned to Washing- ton unless otherwise directed. REYKJAVIK, ICELAND TO BARBADOS, B. W.I., JULY 27 TO SEPTEMBER 16, 1928 General.--Observations of the atmospheric-electric elements have been made practically daily throughout this leg of the cruise. Low values of ionic content and conductivity were obtained until reaching 13° north lati- tude on August 27. From August 27 to September 3 the values obtained were higher than normal and as the westerly course to Barbados was begun the values grad- ually became normal. On six occasions complete 24- hour diurnal-variation runs were obtained and on three other days diurnal-variation observations were begun but had to be discontinued because of bad weather. Potential-Gradient Recorder.--Various difficulties have been encountered in obtaining good scalable traces. The chief difficulty has been the instability of the fibers of the electrometer. Part of this (and the greater part) is electrical, but there is some mechanical shifting of the fibers with the pitch and roll of the ship and, at times of light wind, with flapping of the mainsail and movement of the boom. An effort to reduce the electri- cal activity of the fibers was made by removing three of the four ionium discs from the collector system. With this arrangement, however, the electrometer deflection took several minutes to come up to its normal value af- ter each hourly zero and so the discs were replaced. Various sensitivities have been tried and the one now being used (about 25 volts per division for each fiber) seems the most suitable. An inspection of the spare sets of fibers supplied showed that there were some on which the gold sputtering had flaked badly. When one box was opened, all three fiber systems were found broken. One set of fibers was broken by an observer when he mounted them in the recorder, during consider- able motion of the ship, in place of a set of which the fibers were too fine to use at the required sensitivity. For these reasons, a request was made that more fibers be sent to Balboa. It appears that thicker fibers should be supplied as they will give a more satisfactory trace in addition to the fact that the added inertia will tend to damp out some of the larger fluctuations. Control ob- servations with potential-gradient apparatus 2 have been made almost daily but it-will be seen from the traces that, owing to the raising and lowering of the umbrella, the trace during the observation assumes a character different from that preceding and following. For this reason it seems hardly worth while to try to standardize the recorder by observations at the stern but rather to do it by land comparisons, using another recorder on shore over a period of several days, as we plan to do at Barbados. Another source of trouble which occasioned some loss of trace was the loosening of the objective lens inside the tube connecting the electrometer to the recording-paper housing. This lens fits against a spi- ral spring in the inner case of the electrometer and, presumably from some continuous motion, it worked loose, thus throwing the trace out of focus. Several attempts to refocus by the ordinary method were made before the real cause of the trouble was discovered. After the lens was replaced it would remain in position only for about two days. Finally, on September 10, the lens mounting was fixed in the tube with shellac and no further trouble has been experienced up to date. Potential-Gradient Apparatus 2.--The sulphur in- sulators for this have had to be recast since leaving Reykjavik, thus reducing insulation difficulties, but considerable trouble has been experienced with the hard rubber insulator near the handle of the rod supporting the umbrella-shaped conductor. It seems necessary to have this unscrewed about one-half turn before it acts as an insulator. A brass cover was made for this insu- lator and was found quite effective iniuse. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus Gunther and Teget- meyer 5503.--Inspection of the values of R obtained after about August 9 and also the attempted calibration of August 19 show that the deflection of the fibers is not representative of the applied voltages. The cause is not definitely known but the fact can be ascribed onlyto some defect in the fiber system itself. It has been the prac- tice, during the magnetic observations in the after dome, to remove the penetrating radiation instrument to the photographic dark room, but the greatest care has been exercised in the removal at all times and it is certain that the instrument has suffered no sudden jar. When in the atmospheric-electric house, the instrument is se- cured by a leather strap to the port bench, between the radioactive-content electrometer and penetrating radia- tion apparatus 1. It is hoped that some satisfactory remedy can be suggested for the difficulty here men- tioned as the comparisons between this instrument and the older one were proving to be quite good. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus 1.--This instru- ment has performed very well and some instructive di- urnal-variation curves have been obtained. In this connection attention is drawn to the form now being used for this work. The old form is not very suitable for con- tinued observation and it is suggested that some forms might be supplied to obviate the workof ruling them up here. It will be noticed that the values in general are lower than those obtained on previous cruises. This change pos- sibly may be owing to the fact that formerly a part of the roof over the chamber was removed during observation. This seems a good proof of the desirability of a second instrument such as the Kolhorster, with whichobserva- tions could be made out-of-doors as suggested in Mr. Gish’s memorandum of July 7, which was acknowledged in our last report. It was necessaryto renew the sodium in the drying tubes on September 13, the operation being performed with as little exposure of the orifices as pos- sible, as suggested in Mr. Gish’s memorandum. Radioactive Content Apparatus.--Several attempts have been made to maintain a high potential on the col- lecting system but with the same negative results as previously reported. There has been too great pressure of work in other lines to warrant further effort to obtain results with this instrument. 34 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Silver Chloride Batteries.--Two more batteries have developed bad cells and the great pressure of cur- rent work has prevented replacements. It is intended, however, to make these replacements before leaving Barbados. Comments Difficulties with Potential-Gradient Recorder.--Mr. Parkinson’s conclusions regarding these seem plausible. We would suggest, however, that fibers as fine as are admissible as regards sensitivity and size of image should reduce disturbances of mechanical origin unless these disturbances are really caused through vibration of the invar rods and the lower support for the fibers. Whenever the electrometer is opened for any cause the invar rods and inner case should be inspected so as to ‘assure that all parts are rigidly fastened. As indicated in the report, however, it is likely that the chief sources of instability are electrical disturbances which may arise from movements of the mainsail or the boom or may be caused by space charges carried from spray by gusts of wind. Disturbances arising in this way proba- bly will act on the recorder chiefly by induction and, if so, removing three of the four collectors would not re- sult in much greater stability. If the capacitance to earth of the shielded part of the collector system were increased, however, the inductive effects would be re- duced, and the effective collector activity would be cor- respondingly reduced even with the four collectors in use. Hence such a device would be effective whether the disturbances result from induction or from actual col- lection of charge. This scheme should have another ad- vantage over reducing the number of collectors, namely, that the falsifying effect of insulation leak, as we see it, is not increased even though the system may have so much added capacitance that it takes five or ten minutes to charge from zero to air potential. Although it has been possible to give this difficulty only brief consideration, it seems likely that an attach- ment which will correct it can be made up in the shop and sent to the Carnegie for installation. Even with the recorder as operating during the period August 10 to September 17, many diurnal-varia- tion data are being obtained which, on preliminary in- spection, seem valuable and at the rate of accumulation during that period will soon outnumber the series ob- tained on all previous cruises. The form in which these data are tabulated seems very convenient. Radioactive Content Collector.--If this cannot be made to function when the atomizer is used, the parts of the old water dropper which are on the Carnegie should be tried. In our opinion the spray from the atomizer fouls the insulation under conditions aboard the Carne- gie although in the laboratory it worked beautifully. Silver Chloride Batteries.-- The experience withthe silver chloride batteries apparently is not much differ- ent from our experience here. The lack of any report about the ‘‘B’’ batteries suggests that they continue in good condition. BARBADOS, B.W.I., TO BALBOA, CANAL ZONE, OCTOBER 1 TO 11, 1928 General.--Observations have been made daily and in as complete form as the generally variable weather conditions would permit. A diurnal-variation run was begun on October 8 but bad weather and a large leakage in the ion counter prevented its completion. The special leak tests of the ion counter suggested in Dr. Wait’s memorandum of September 11 were made on October 9 and will be found among the records being transmitted from this port. Potential-Gradient Recorder.--This instrument has operated continuously. The records, however, are somewhat broken up by squalls. Reduction-factor obser- vations were made at Bridgetown, Barbados and in spite of indifferent weather conditions eighteen hourly values are available for comparison. These give in the mean a reduction factor for the ship recorder to volts per meter of 0.70. This is in good agreement with the value as determined at Reykjavik, which was determined in- directly, by use of the reduction factor for potential-gradi- ent apparatus 2 as determined at Kitt’s Point. It will be noticed fromthe summary of the observations at Bridge- town that the position of the boom, rather than that of the mainsail, appears to be the dominating factor, but the different values are so close as to warrant using, as a preliminary reduction factor, the value of 0.70 and the scaled values are being converted to volts per meter on this basis. The new fibers received at Barbados have not been used so far but it is planned to insert one set of them while docked here. Kolhorster Penetrating Radiation Apparatus.--On October 1, 1928, after overdeflecting the fibers many times, according to the advice of Dr. Kolhorster, using 500 volts+, and getting no satisfactory results, we opened the instrument. It was found that the contactor arm had been displaced to the wrong side of the contact pin of the electrometer system. This condition con- firmed previous impressions that the contactor arm did not touch the case, as it should do, when away from the contact pin. The varying deflections thus were the re- sult of the varying effect of the field between the charged contactor arm and the fibers, dependingon changes in the position of the arm, this position naturally changing with the roll of the ship. When the instrument was re- assembled again, a calibration was made which gave a satisfactory curve, although the sensitivity had decreased slightly. On October 2 and 3 observations were made which gave results which were comparable with those obtained with penetrating radiation apparatus 1. On October 4, when about to begin an observation, we found that the contactor arm had crossed to the wrong side of the contact pin again. It should be mentioned that, dur- ing the magnetic work on October 4, the instrument was moved from the atmospheric-electric observatory to the biological laboratory. The utmost care was exercised in doing this and the instrument, wrapped in a soft cloth, was not moved during the time it was in the biological laboratory. On October 4 the instrument was reopened. In trying to bend the contactor arm so as to lessen the danger of its flying past the contact pin, we found that the arm was loose from the aniber insulator. This in- sulator also holds the phosphor-bronze connector from the outside terminal. This loosening probably was caused by the heat softening the substance which was used as an adherent. The contactor arm was removed with a view to fastening it to the insulator again. During these operations one of the fibers became loose, at one REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC WORK end, from the vertical strip to which it was held with shellac. In view of the difficulty of making the neces- sary repairs in a satisfactory manner on board ship, the advisability of having dry air in the apparatus when again assembled and sealed up, and of making some changes mentioned below, it is recommended that the instrument, with its accessories, be returned to Wash- ington from Balboa. Tests made with the instrument while it was open showed how easy it was for the con- tactor arm to pass to the wrong side of the contact pin and it is recommended that this pin be made longer and also with an upper extension so that the contactor arm cannot slide over it as perhaps it does now. Also, if possible, the substance used for fastening the various parts together, such as the contactor arm to the amber insulator, should have a higher melting point. There has been no means of telling the temperature inside the chamber but the attached thermometer frequently reg- isters 40° C, which is the limit of its scale. Silver Chloride Batteries.--It is planned to test all cells here and make up as many complete batteries as the stock of spare cells on hand will cover. It will be necessary to purchase some Burgess batteries here. Comments Potential-Gradient Recorder.--The reduction fac- tors obtained at Bridgetown for the potential- gradient recorder are very consistent indeed. It was rather ex- pected that the factors for ‘‘boom to port”’ and for “boom to starboard’’ would differ more than was found, but it was not surprising to learn that values for ‘‘main- sail up’’ differed inappreciably from those obtained with “mainsail down.’’ Apparently no observations were made with the boom over the crutch. Will it be possible at all times to avoid that position when potential-gradi- ent is being recorded? Penetrating Radiation Apparatus No. 5503.--The description of defects in penetrating radiation apparatus Gunther and Tegetmeyer 5503 as given by Mr. Parkin- son has been helpful in determining the methods of re- conditioning this apparatus. It isexpected that this will be repaired and tested in time to be placed again on the Carnegie at Callao. The duplicate instrument did not ar- rive in time to send to Balboa andinviewof Mr. Parkin- son’s surmise that the cementing material used by the makers softens at the temperatures reachedon the Car- negie it has seemed better to repair No. 5503 in sucha way as to avoid such a source of failure and return it to the Carnegie rather than to send the duplicate instrument and run the risk of a repetition of this type of failure. BALBOA, CANAL ZONE TO CALLAO, PERU, General.--With the exception of October 27, and of the seven days during which the vessel was anchored off Easter Island, observations of the atmospheric-electric elements have been made daily throughout the period covered by this report. Some interesting effects of local meteorological conditions were noted during this period. Among these may be mentioned (a) the effect of rain on conductivity, October 28, and (b) the effect of fog on ion concentration and conductivity, December 22. Weather conditions, apart from the period October 26 to Novem- ber 4, have been generally favorable. Eight complete 24-hour diurnal-variation runs have been made. 35 A Further Comparison of Penetrating Radiation Measurements with penetrating radiation apparatus 1 and Gunther and Tegetmeyer No. 5503 indicates that the latter instrument began to act abnormally on July 19, 1928. Most of the measurements after that date yield values of R which are so near the residual ionization for this instrument (No. 5503), as reported by Dr. Kolhors- ter, that they obviously are in error. From Mr. Parkin- son’s diagnosis of the ailment, it appears that the change in capacitance due to the proximity of the charging arm may be sufficient to account for the change in the rela- tion between the values of R obtained with the two in- struments. This appears especially likely when it is noted that an increase in capacitance of 0.3 cm would account for the difference. The Performance of Penetrating Radiation Appara- tus 1 according to this examination apparently was very good until some time early in August 1928. After that, however, departures in the relations between values ob- tained with the two instruments occur and in such direc- tion as to indicate that the values from penetrating radi- ation apparatus 1 are too small, in fact, sometimes less than the value of residual ionization which was deduced from the earlier and more consistent data. Since the observations are taken so that loss and gain due to de- fective insulation on the central system should just bal- ance, this possible explanation seems excluded. Other instrumental factors which may diminish the charging rate of the electrometer are: progressive changes in the insulation of the battery circuits or a changing bat- tery e.m.f. The latter should have no effect, however, provided the insulation on the battery circuits is ade- quate and the balancing condenser is in proper adjust- ment. If, however, the capacitance of the balancing con- denser has in some way increased, that fact alone would account for the diminished values of R. Another possi- bility is that the residual ionization of penetrating radi- ation apparatus 1 has changed, but this seems unlikely. These various possibilities are mentioned in the hope that they will suggest tests or observations that may disclose the cause of this diminution of R, provided it is of instrumental origin. If notes describing such tests and observations are entered in the operating records, they will be helpful in making analyses as well as in appraising the data. Even a brief indication of such matters as, e.g., the times when the insulators were cleaned, the drier was renewed, various adjustments were made with some details as to their nature, at times may be of considerable value if for no other reason than allaying a doubt as to the value of a group of data. OCTOBER 25, 1928 TO JANUARY 14, 1929 Potential-Gradient Recorder.--The sloping collector rod which had been installed at Hamburg was still in use during the week following departure from Balboa, but in the rough weather encountered, the rod began to be twisted round by the wind and by the excessive rolling of the ship. On two occasions the rod came apart at the soldered joint near the lower angle and it became obvi- ous that it would be dangerous to continue to use a col- lector rod of this type as it is impossible to anchor it without the introduction of another insulator and, there- fore, another possible source of leakage. An attempt was made to hold the rod in place with wires stretched 36 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS from insulators attached to the handles of the recorder box but it was found impracticable to put sufficient ten- sion on the wires without deforming the rod. It will be remembered that the apparatus originally was designed for use with a vertical collector rod where lateral mo- tion of the collector was of no importance, so this type of rod was reverted to on November 5. This change, of course, made a considerable change in the reduction factor and thus made necessary an alteration in the sensitivity of the fibers. Subsequent traces, however, gave promise that a good representation of the diurnal variation of the air potential could be obtained and that, with adequate shore control, reliable absolute values could be deduced. During the three days, December 9 to 11, at Easter Island, intercomparisons were made between the re- corder on the ship and the spare recorder mounted at the shore station. In spite of very indifferent weather conditions and an unfortunate fogging of the shore trace during some of the daylight hours, fair provisional re- duction factors for the three boom positions were ob- tained, as follows: Mainsail up, boom starboard ........ 1.61 Mainsail up boomiportins. «a. s.: ° + «©. « 1.25 Mainsail down, boom over port crutch .. 2.48 Between November 5, 1928 and January 14, 1929, fifty complete days’ traces were secured and there is only one day, December 15, for which no value of poten- tial-gradient is available. On this day, it should be noted, no eye observations would have been possible. Careful attention has been given at all times to the elimination of leak; tests are made daily, sometimes more than once. Calibrations are made as nearly as possible weekly and the curves obtained are in remark- ably good agreement. Owing to the excessive heat generated by the burn- ing lamp inside the metal-covered box, the glass window has been removed. During rough weather, when spray is likely to enter through the hole thus made, a plug is temporarily inserted. Appropriate record has been kept of the positions of the mainsail and boom and also the times of operationof the main engine. A disastrous series of mishaps with fibers for the recorder occurred on November 16. The fibers in use were dismounted as they were obviously flaked. In at- tempting to fit a new system, three pairs were brokenin succession. The task was then given up and the follow- ing day a pair was successfully mounted and has been in use since that time. The Wollaston-process gold fibers were tried but were too fine and flexible for use in the recorder. Remarkable peaks occurred in potential-gradient at about 16h on December 27. This large increase in the air potential corresponded to a very low value of con- ductivity obtained at that time when, fortunately, a diurnal-variation run was in progress. Conductivity Apparatus.--On October 27, soon after leaving Balboa, when preparing for observations, we found that the fibers of electrometer 25 were nonconduct- ing. New fibers were fitted but these also were found to be flaked. A third set of fibers was mounted and, after considerable adjustment for a suitable sensitivity, was found to be satisfactory. This set is still in use. Ionic Content Apparatus.--As reported by radio, considerable trouble has been experienced with the fibers for use with this instrument. The story can best be told, perhaps, by extracts concerning this matter from the atmospheric-electric log: Oct. 29--Adjustments to IC in p.m. Found fiber did not respond to alterations of voltage as applied by potentiometer. Cause unknown. Made ex- haustive examination of instrument. Changed fiber, with no different result. 30--Spent whole morning investigating IC as above. Finally forced to conclusion that fiber was flaked. Inserted another fiber after lunch and at once got definite result. 31--Adjusting sensitivity of IC between showers. Began observations but fiber began to drift. Spent some time investigating cause and afterward made observations. Nov. 1--Rain showers too frequent for any attempt to be made to adjust IC. 2--Adjusted IC. 5--Changed fiber in IC and adjusted. Old fiber flaked. 7--Put new fiber in IC and adjusted. flaked. 9--Began observations but after first set IC de- veloped large leak and fiber afterward be- came “‘dead.’’ Spent remainder of afternoon in adjusting, but with no result. 10--Adjusted IC in a.m. Put in new fiber but that soon flaked badly, this time in view through telescope. Put in new fiber (the last goodone in stock) and adjusted. 13--Began observations at noon. At 17h IC fiber flaked badly, in view through telescope. Dis- continued observations. 15--Endeavored to replace IC fiber by the only other one on hand, that in the RCA but fiber broke. Dec. 1--Successfully transferred fiber from PRA to IC and adjusted IC. Old fiber This fiber is still in use. During the shore poten- tial-gradient work at Easter Island, the discovery was made of a single fiber in an electrometer in the instru- ment room, and on December 13 this fiber was inserted in the penetrating radiation apparatus where it is still in use. We are at a loss to explain the extraordinary ease with which the gold sputtering on these fibers has flaked. There is no motion of the instrument in its gimbals when clamped, so that the defects could not be produced by continuous jarring. It would appear that those made up just prior to the departure of the Carnegie from Washington are, in some way, inferior to the older ones _ but the only reason for thinking this is the fact that both the single fibers now in use presumably are of an older batch. All the fibers appeared perfect when inserted in the instrument. One had suspicious dark patches on it as it lay in the carrying box and this one was not used until the last. Attention may be called to the observations of De- cember 21 which were made while the fiber was subject to a large drift. In view of the fact that all the insula- tors were subjected to a thorough cleansing more than once, it seems hard to believe that this drift resulted from insulation leak, and it is probable that the trouble was in the fiber system itself. A similar drift was noted as preceding flaking on October 31 and November 9. It was interesting to note how well the final values agreed with other data when the amount of the drift was taken care of by the “‘leakage’’ corrections. REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC WORK 37 Penetrating Radiation Apparatus 1.--Between De- cember 1, 1928, when the fiber was transferred to the ion counter, and December 13, when a fiber from a spare electrometer was inserted, this instrument was idle. At all other times it has functioned normally. On December 28 the sodium drying tubes were changed, the same precautions as before being observed to avoid un- due change of the air contained in the apparatus. Nuclei Counter 4.--On December 18, during one of the observations of a diurnal-variation series, the re- ceiver came apart from the pump stem. An effort was made to resolder the parts, but the heat generated to run the solder loosened the tube of stopcock A, so that this came off also. Three more attempts were made to tesolder the parts and to make the receiver airtight when the cocks are closed. It appeared for a time that this had been successfully done but evidences of leak were apparent again on January 10. The values obtained since the repair are very erratic and we have no means of telling whether they are correct. It would seem ad- visable, therefore, for us to have a second instrument on board. Batteries.--The silver chloride batteries have re- mained in good shape since the replacements were made in Balboa. Four bad cells have developed in one battery and these were cells which were in the battery when leaving Washington. It has been necessary to put only two of the Eveready batteries into service to replace two Burgess “‘B” batteries used for the auxiliary potential of the potential gradient recorder which had been short- circuited through a defect in the marine plug on the quarter-deck. We shall have use for more of the “‘B”’ batteries purchased in Balboa when the Kolhorster in- strument is in use again. Radioactive Content Apparatus.--Attempts have been made to maintain a high potential on the outer cylinder, but without success. With the atomizer, the potential builds up to about forty divisions and immediately falls to zero. With the old type multiple-nozzle sprayer, so far it has not been possible to obtain any deflection of the electroscope. Further efforts will be made while the vessel is at Callao. Comments Potential-Gradient.--Since the change in the collec- tor on the potential-gradient recorder did not make the reduction factor much greater than unity, and since the reduction factor for different boom positions does not differ a great deal, the new arrangement no doubt will prove satisfactory. The great number of potential gra- dient diurnal-variation records being obtained is grati- fying, especially in view of the fact that these appear to be quite reliable. We are unable to find a satisfactory explanation for the distressing experience with the electrometer fibers unless it be that the fibers were too heavily gilded. The entire ‘‘sputtering’’ system was thoroughly cleaned and repaired and arranged to “‘sputter’”’ platinum instead of gold. Accordingly it is hoped that the new platinized fibers will prove more durable. The item regarding the drift of fibers brings to mind similar experience at the laboratory; however, in certain of these cases the cause was not defective fibers but resulted from charges which had been developed on the insulators while these were being cleaned. A drift owing to this cause will disappear in a moment if the insulator is exposed directly to the action of the collector or of a burning match held within approximately one inch from its surface. Batteries.--The report regarding the batteries is reassuring. From the experience reported on the earli- er part of the cruise, together with recent reports from the observatories, we became convinced that the silver chloride batteries obtained in the last year or two are of inferior quality and we feared that considerable trouble with these might be encountered during the remainder of the cruise. It is also a matter of interest that the “*B”’ batteries originally put on board have held up so long. If these had lasted only as far as Balboa, they would have been considered satisfactory. Nuclei Counter.--The trouble with nuclei counter 4 was owing to the poor workmanship put into it by the makers. It is understood that the instrument at Huan- cayo was obtained to replace counter 4' and it is hoped this will prove satisfactory. As stated before, nuclei counts in recent years have become recognized of great importance in atmospheric-electric studies. According- ly it is desirable that such counts should be made in con- junction with ion counts, conductivity, and penetrating radiation measurements whenever possible. Radioactive Content Apparatus.--The difficulty with the radioactive content collector no doubt is owing to the insulators becoming fouled by the spray from the atomi- zer of the high potential generator. If this part can be enclosed in a sheet-metal shield which is so made that the spray does not readily come into contact with the high-potential insulators, then it is believed that the charging device will work satisfactorily. This shield should surround all the parts and have a tube of about one and one-half inches diameter which leads to the out- side air or into the lower parts of the fan compartment. The suction of the fan with the latter arrangement may assist in giving the desired circulation inside the shield. It is hoped that it may be possible either to construct such a shield on board or have it made up at one of the ports of call. If, however, this will not be possible be- fore reaching San Francisco and in case no other means is found which will bring about satisfactory operation of this apparatus then the office should be advised soon so that there will be time to construct something of this sort to be installed at San Francisco. CALLAO, PERU TO PAGO PAGO, SAMOA, FEBRUARY 5 TO APRIL 1, 1929 General.--Observations of the atmospheric-electric elements have been made practically daily during the period of days at sea covered by this report. Weather conditions between February 5 and March 5 were gener- ally favorable; after that date, frequent squalls, calms, and heavy rolling in swells have tended to produce ab- normal values. Complete diurnal-variation runs, through twenty-four hours, were made on February 10 and 11, 18 and 19, and 26 and 27; incomplete runs, aban- doned through squalls and generally abnormal conditions, were begun on March 10, 25, and 27. Doubtless it has been noted that the general program of observation dur- ing these diurnal-variation runs is slightly different from that of previous cruises. With the present program 38 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS and the apparatus as now arranged, it is possible for the complete hourly cycle of observations to be made by one observer. Potential-Gradient Recorder.--During the first few days after leaving Callao on February 5, parts of three days’ records were lost because the loose endof the ten- sion string (which prevents too rapid feeding of photo- graphic paper and which had been renewed recently) became caught on the lower tension roller and stopped the supply of paper. From February 15 to March 5 in- clusive, continuous record of potential-gradient was ob- tained. After March 5, when the ship was among the island groups, generally squally conditions prevailed; light, variable breezes and frequent calms at times ne- cessitated the operation of the main engine. Conse- quently the records are intermittent; in fact, only one Greenwich mean day, March 25, is really complete be- tween March 6 and April 2. Part of this loss, it should be noted, was caused by instrumental difficulties. The upper heating coil became open-circuited and caused loss of zero marks until it was replaced by a new one. Also, on March 26 the earthing wire became corroded and disconnected from the hull and caused erratic de- flections until it was discovered and renewed on March 28. In order t> shelter the helmsman from the fierce tropical sun, frequently it has been necessary to stretch an awning over the stern. Thus, the reduction-factor observations contemplated at Apia will be extended so as to include periods with stern awning “‘up’’ and “‘down’’ to determine the effect, if any, of its presence. Conductivity Apparatus 8A.--This apparatus has functioned normally throughout. Ionic Content Apparatus 1.--No trouble, apart from the usual insulation difficulties, has been experienced with this apparatus. A cover for the top of the air-flow tube has been made so that the cowl can be removed when the roof opening is closed, thus minimizing the chances of jarring the tube. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus 1.--During the early part of February there were indications that the values of R that were being obtained were not independ- ent of fiber sensitivity. With a low sensitivity the values of R tended to be greater than those with a high sensitiv- ity. The truth of this suspicion naturally was not very obvious in the daily observations but for the diurnal- variation run of February 10 and 11, when the scale- value curve was plotted and compared with the curve for the values of R and a remarkable similarity was dis- closed, a definite relation was demonstrated. During the diurnal-variation observations of Febru- ary 18 and 19 the electrometer fiber went off scale and attached itself to one of the plates. Afterwards it was found that this action occurred because one of the cells of the plate battery had developed a high internal resist- ance. During efforts to release the fiber from the plate, it was broken. Later in the same day the defective cell was replaced by a new one and a new fiber was inserted in the electrometer. Tests were made to determine whether a change in scale value produced a change in R. It was found that the two values were independent of one another. With the diurnal-variation curve of February 26 and 27 also has been plotted the scale-value curve and here, again, the independence is well demonstrated. The sodium in the drying tubes was renewed on March 27, the usual precautions being taken. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus No. 5503.--This apparatus was received on board at Papeete, Tahiti, on March 16, 1929 after having been overhauled and recon- ditioned in Washington. When the apparatus was un- packed, the Zamboni pile, which presumably had been screwed on to the charging post before shipment, was hanging loose. The outer threads on the pile were stripped badly enough to prevent its being replaced on the charging post. Beyond securing the instrument inits former situation on the observing bench, between the penetrating radiation apparatus 1 and radioactive con- tent 4 and covering the charging post with the cap pro- vided, nothing further was done to the instrument until March 21, after leaving Papeete. On attempting to apply a charge to the fibers, it was found that the charging arm was on the wrong side of the standard pin. Efforts made to put it back on the right side by sudden movements of the magnet were unavailing and therefore it was reluc- tantly decided to open up the case. This was done on March 21. Other than carefully lifting the pointer past the pin, nothing inside the case was touched and the time the case was open on this occasion did not exceed 30 seconds. On resealing the case, and applying a charge to the fibers, it was apparent at once that the fibers were adhering, either to each other, or to the spines, or were crossed. The separation of the fibers at the bottom of the field of view was much greater than at the scale level, whereas at the top of the field the fibers were very close together and out of focus. In order to separate the fibers, a charge of over 460 volts (10 ‘‘B”’ batteries in series) was applied many times, the fibers being charged and earthed in quick succession. This charge would, of course, normally send the fibers right off scale but the total deflection of both fibers was not more than sixty divisions. An hour or more was spent in this way and further efforts in the same direc- tion were made on March 22, but with no success. On March 23 it was decided to reopen the case and separate the fibers by passing a glass spine between them. This operation, a delicate one under the best conditions, was rendered more hazardous by the rolling of the ship in a moderate swell and also by the intense heat in the at- mospheric-electric laboratory with door and all windows closed to prevent draughts. The separation was accom- plished successfully at the first attempt, however, and the instrument resealed. Two trial observations made later in the day gave high values. Doubtless this can be attributed to a slight leak over the quartz rod, rendered damp by exposure; subsequent observations showed that the sodium in the drying tubes was gradually restoring the insulation. Control observations on the quarter-deck to deter- mine the reduction factor of penetration radiation appa- ratus 1 will be made as soon as possible, probably while the vessel is anchored at Apia. Radioactive Content Apparatus 4.--Considerable time was spent between March 4 and 9 in trying to get this apparatus to function normally. On March 4 most of the parts were disassembled and cleaned. On reas- sembling, a potential of over 2700 volts was maintained for over thirty minutes and accordingly a fiber was in- serted in the electrometer (the original fiber was broken on November 15, 1928 in an endeavor to place it in the penetrating radiation apparatus) and adjusted in readi- ness for a regular observation the next day. On March 5, however, when the inner cylinder with the foil was in place, no potential at all could be obtained. It was sus- pected that the lower end cover which, of course, is REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC WORK earthed, was touching the foil. With this cover removed and, indeed, without any inner cylinder, the potential on the following day could not be maintained for more than two or three minutes. Trouble was then experi- enced with the atomizer which became clogged; so it and also the water vessel, were thoroughly cleaned, fresh clear water was provided, and new rubber tubing fit- ted. On March 8 cardboard covers were made and fitted over the main insulators and some of the wiring was renewed. (It appeared to make no difference whether the hard rubber insulator on the 110-volt power line was covered or not.) With the main insulator covered, the potential obtained never exceeded 1000 volts, probably owing to the added capacity, but could be maintained, at first, for a considerable time, say fifteen to twenty min- utes. Later this time became reduced to anything be- tween one and three minutes, the same as without the cover. The most obvious explanation of the difficulty is the fouling of the insulators by the spray. But a curious fact is the ease with which the charge will rebuild just a few seconds after it has been reduced to zero. This gives one the impression of a short circuit which oper- ates only when the vessel is highly charged, the contact being broken at zero potential. Careful search has been made to discover any lint or other material attached to any of the parts, which might act in this way, but noth- ing has been discovered. The use of a shield to cover the whole system appears well worth trying. It is doubt- ful whether such a shield could be made satisfactorily on board or at any of the ports earlier than San Fran- cisco; therefore it would be best, perhaps, to have it made in Washington and shipped to us. Nuclei Counter 5.--This instrument was obtained from the equipment of the Huancayo Observatory while the ship was in Callao harbor to replace no. 4, which was returned to Washington. After some slight prelim- inary adjustment, no difficulty was experienced in its use. During the approach to Tahiti rather large values of nuclei concentration were obtained; after leaving Tahiti there were frequent rain storms and the number of nuclear particles decreased considerably. Comments General.--Although a succession of squalls, calms, and periods of heavy rolling in swells interfered con- siderably with the atmospheric-electric observations in the latter part of this leg of cruise VII, considerable was accomplished in the earlier part. In a careful ex- amination of the records, one is favorably impressed with the progress being made and especially with the diligence and skill of the observer and the excellent form in which the records are made up. The observa- tions of the diurnal variation of nuclei concentration are commendable. A study of the correlation of this ele- ment with the ionic number during the day will be of great importance and will be made when the number of series is sufficient to give hopes of definite results. Potential-Gradient.--The various instrumental dif- ficulties with the potential-gradient recorder are all such as must be expected occasionally. No doubt the earthing connection which failed will be inspected in the future whenever the opportunity occurs so that this may be renewed in time to lessen the likelihood of failure on the high seas. The effect of the stern awning should not be very large but of course it is quite right to eliminate this possibility by ascertaining a reduction factor for 39 use when this awning is in position. I is noted that ob- servations on potential-gradient apparatus 1 are no longer being made. Suchobservations should be helpful as a test of the effectiveness of the insulation on the recorder. Conductivity Apparatus 8A.--It is gratifying to note that the insulation-leak on this apparatus scarcely exceeds the error of an electrometer reading. This constitutes a great improvement in comparison with the apparatus of previous cruises. As far as noted, the in- dication of leak, when found, was always on the first reading. Can the observer suggest an explanation for this? Ionic Content Apparatus 1.--The cover which was made for the air-flow tube of the ionic content apparatus should assist also in protecting the insulation during the period when the apparatus is not in use. Some evidence that extreme values of ion count give extreme values of mobility has been noted. Some of these cases may be owing to accidental errors of observation, but there may be other factors, for example meteorological ones, which careful scrutiny will disclose. Penetrating Apparatus 1.--The indication that the values of R varied with the electrometer sensitivity would appear, as reported, to have been associated with the defective cell. Just how the defective cell caused this and also how it should cause the fiber to go off scale so as to adhere to the plates is not clear at present, un- less the balancing condenser should be out of balance or unless the insulation at some point on the battery lines was defective. Of course if the megohm resistor should develop an open circuit either in its coils or at a binding- post connection, that of itself could cause such effects. Whatever the explanation is, it is gratifying that later comparisons gave no further evidence of a dependence of R on electrometer sensitivity. Studies of possibilities of instrumental errors such as these are very desirable even if it is necessary to omit an occasional daily pro- gram. Instruments are not infallible and it is highly de- sirable to ascertain for each instrument its degree of fallibility. Especially is this true of the penetrating radiation apparatuses. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus No. 5503.--The difficulties experienced with penetrating radiation appa- ratus no. 5503 are to be regretted. No doubt the fiber loops would have been in good shape had the Zamboni pile not worked loose. The difficulty with the charging arm could not have been so readily avoided. If the standard pin of the electrometer element had been made long enough to prevent this sort of occurrence during shipment, that would have increased the capacitance considerably and consequently decreased the quantity sensitivity of the instrument. Under the circumstances it was quite the proper thing to open the chamber and correct the defects. Mr. Parkinson is to be congratu- lated on the successful outcome. It is noticed that the calibration curves do not differ much from those ob- tained before this instrument was shipped from the of— fice. It is hoped that no further difficulties will be ex- perienced with this apparatus. An examination of the observations from March 23 to April 1, inclusive, shows that this instrument has suf- fered no air leak of importance. The test for this is that the pressure (p) in the chamber, divided by the absolute temperature (273 plus observed temperature, t), should be constant if the chamber is airtight. Thus p/(273 + t)=K 40 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS The mean value found for K was 2.448 with a mean de- parture of +0.005. This is only a little greater than the error of reading p or t and may be owing to the fact that doubtless the observed temperature is not always that inside the chamber. A comparison of the values of R obtained simultan- eously on the two instruments indicates morescatter due to instrumental causes than is desirable. This scatter was greater in penetrating radiation apparatus 5503 than in penetrating radiation apparatus 1, possibly be- cause the insulation in penetrating radiation apparatus Suggested hourly schedule for diurnal-variation atmospheric-electric observations on the Carnegie Ship’s : Operation time Charge penetrating radiation apparatus (PRA) 5503 and start ion-counter motor and conduc- tivity motor First initial reading PRA 5503 Second initial reading PRA 5503 Third initial reading PRA 5503 Fourth initial reading PRA 5503 Fifth initial reading PRA 5503 Begin leak-test for ion counter (IC) Begin leak-test for conductivity apparatus (CA) End leak-test for IC Begin negative ion count End leak-test for CA Begin negative conductivity Begin first PRA 1 run rae end negative conductivity Approx.) end negative ion count Begin positive ion count Begin positive conductivity End first PRA 1 run Begin second PRA 1 run (Approx.) end positive conductivity Begin conductivity leak-test (Approx.) end positive ion count Begin leak-test IC (Approx.) end PRA 1 second run End leak-test IC End leak-test CA Begin nuclei count End nuclei count Begin leak-test CA Begin leak-test IC Begin PRA 1 run End leak-test IC Begin positive ion count End leak-test CA Begin positive conductivity run (Approx.) end PRA 1 run Begin PRA 1 run End positive conductivity run End positive ion count Begin negative ion count Begin negative conductivity run End PRA 1 run End negative conductivity run Begin leak-test CA End negative ion count Begin leak-test IC End leak-test CA End leak-test IC First end reading PRA 5503 Second end reading PRA 5503 Third end reading PRA 5503 Fourth end reading PRA 5503 Fifth end reading PRA 5503 He Be be pp i Hm Go Go Go Go 00 C9 0 Ww 69 anreoownw§o ROOPRWEHO ajaooucnne oa co oO O10 OF 1 1 OT OT DOO 69 COR Rt et © AT -1 OD SOCONOKRWOWrFOO oooouonocoon0ceo oooooow CoO-ID woon oooo Pee SSeS eS SSS SSS SSS OOOOOCOOOOOOCOOCOCOOOOOCOCOOCOCOCCO i=) wo i=) Oo _ i) a So Oo 5503 has not as yet become steady. There was evidence of improvement in the later readings. There is good evidence, however, of correlated variations in the two instruments which most probably are owing to actual variation in the intensity of the radiation. In order to increase the precision of measurements with penetrat- ing radiation apparatus 5503, it is recommended that five initial and five final readings of the fibers be made as indicated in the accompanying hourly schedule. The importance of penetrating radiation to atmos- pheric electricity has been increased distinctly as a result of a recent experiment by Dr. Bothe and Dr. Kol- horster of Berlin. This experiment shows rather con- vincingly that the penetrating radiation (except such part as is owing to the gamma rays of radioactive matter in the earth and air) is a corpuscular radiation, beta radi- ation of very high velocity. If this is true, the penetrat- ing radiation should not only ionize the air but should charge the earth. Perhaps we are now on the verge of discovering how the negative charge of the earth is main- tained and the Carnegie stands a good chance of aiding materially in this. Radioactive Content Apparatus 4.--A new water- spray, high-potential generator designed to obviate the fouling of insulation by the spray will be made and in- stalled at San Francisco and our hope for its success is strengthened by this detailed report of tests and obser- vations made on board in March. Nuclei Counter 5.--The success of observations of nuclei is gratifying. That the values should run as high as those found on approaching Tahiti is a matter of con- siderable importance in attempts to account for the num- ber of ions found at the same time. Schedule of Atmospheric-Electric Obseryations.-- The schedule of observations now in use has been re- viewed with considerable care. It has been found difficult to offer improvements without making the program more strenuous. It is appreciated that a program which one observer may carry out is desirable, and no doubt im- perative in the case of the diurnal-variation observations. Hence, in preparing the accompanying suggested sched- ule, this requirement has been kept in mind. The principal objects sought in the suggested sched- ule are to obtain both positive and negative values of ionic numbers and of conductivity during the diurnal- variation runs, to observe the nuclei count at about the mean time of the other observations, and to increase the precision of the penetrating radiation observations made with penetrating radiation apparatus 5503. The last is to be accomplished first by charging this apparatus some five to ten minutes before the initial readings for a de- termination are begun. Then by taking initial readings of the position of the fibers at intervals of one minute until five minutes have elapsed (half-minute intervals could be used if preferred), and a similar set of final readings, the accidental errors in the mean fiber posi- tions obtained from these would be reduced considerably. It is believed that the outline of the suggested sched- ule will be clear as tabulated. The schedule is a some- what more strenuous one than that which has been fol- lowed recently, and we realize the possibility that it may not be feasible, on that account, to carry it through. This proposed schedule was designed primarily for lsince this was written, investigations by many physicists show that the corpuscular components of cos- mic radiation cannot contribute appreciably to the main- tenance of the earth’s charge. O.H.G. REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC WORK 41 the diurnal-variation observations but some of its fea- tures could be introduced into the regular daily schedule without appreciably increasing the intensity of the work. The schedule provides for the recording conductivity apparatus when that is installed. It is hoped it will be possible to try this schedule and that the Carnegie staff and observers who have had experience in this work will study it with a view to arriving at a schedule for the rest of the cruise after San Francisco. APIA, SAMOA TO YOKOHAMA, JAPAN, APRIL 20 TO JUNE 6, 1929 General.--Daily observations of the atmospheric- electric elements have been made as before. For the first week after leaving Apia it was necessary to use the main engine at times in order to reach the trade wind belt and conditions therefore were not favorable for a complete program. Between April 27 and May 28 good weather conditions prevailed. Diurnal-variation 24- hour runs were made on April 30 and May 1, May 9 and 10, 17 and 18, and 27 and 28. Potential-Gradient Recorder.--Between April 28 and May 28 complete records were obtained, excluding the five days during which the vessel was moored in Guam harbor. Calibrations and leak tests have been made as before. Soon after leaving Guam it was noticed that the deflections were much smaller than those previously obtained and it was suspected that the sensitivity had changed appreciably. A calibration made on May 28 showed that this was the case. It was found that the ma- rine plug in the auxiliary potential line (the Eveready ‘*B’”’ battery supplying the inner-case potential is locat- ed in the control room) had become badly corroded. The plug was thoroughly cleaned and another calibration made on May 30. It is important, of course, to be able to tell just when a change of sensitivity such as this oc- curs, and, to some extent, the potential applied daily for leak tests affords a rough check. In this case the change evidently occurred sometime during the period when the recorder was out of operation in Guam. In the future the recorder will be operated while in port even though the presence of surrounding objects makes the results of little value. Negative potentials have occurred on eight occasions but at no time has the potential re- mained negative for more than a few minutes. Between April 10 and 13, while at Apia, the record- er was operating on the ship under varying mainsail, boom, and awning conditions and the hourly scalings from these records have been made and checked. As soon as the figures are available the scalings will be compared with the hourly values obtained from the Benn- dorf recorder in the reef house (designated Lagoon House) of the Apia Observatory. After an inspection of the standardizing station used by Mr. Thomson of the Apia Observatory staff, it was questioned whether the reduction factor (1.00) adopted by the Observatory for the Lagoon House was valid. To test this, eye observa- tions were made, during the hours of low tide, on Wat- son’s Island--an ideal location for this work, as it was about midway between the Lagoon House and the Carne- gie. One disadvantage of the Observatory’s standardi- zing site is that it is closely hemmed in by mangrove Swamp and cocoanut trees; another, is that it is not pos- sible to observe there for more than one hour at a time. The eye observations on April 11 were quite successful, five consecutive hours being obtained. The resulting ratios are: Islan an and d = 0.731 Asland = 1.086 _Land__o.682 Lagoon Land Lagoon (Island observations were made by eye-reading apparatus and Land bythe recorder at the observatory land station.) The work on the following day, April 12, was seriously interfered with by a severe thunderstorm which swept the island of Upolu from east to west and the observa- tions may be considered worthless. Itappears quite defi- nite from the above ratios that the reduction factor for both land and lagoon stations cannot be 1.00 as hitherto assumed from Mr. Thomson’s observations. Because Watson’s Island has so many advantages over the old standardizing station, Mr. Sanderson was asked to ob- tain further observations on the reef before the Carne- gie’s return in November. For this purpose, Mr. Park- inson mounted a new pair of fibers in the observatory electrometer and left two more sets, with a mounting device and other equipment, the observatory having no spare fibers and no means of mounting them. It may be mentioned that at the time of the eye ob- servations on Watson’s Island on April 11, the condition on the Carnegie was ‘‘MDBS awning up’”’ and the mean reduction factor obtained for the Carnegie recorder for the five-hour period was 3.14. The mainsail had to be lowered during this time as there was a stiff breeze, but it is probable that the position of the boom rather than that of the sail is the controlling factor. Conductivity Apparatus 8A.--Unusually high values of insulation-leak prevailed for a few days early in May. Thorough cleaning of all the insulators did not immedi- ately remedy the defect, which disappeared of its own accord about May 10. Ionic Content Apparatus 1.--During the damp night hours of the diurnal-variation runs of April 30 and May 1 and May 9 and 10, high insulation leaks developed and could not be eliminated. Apart from this the apparatus has worked perfectly well. Penetrating Radiation Apparatuses 1 and 5503.-- Special attention has been given to comparisons between these two instruments. The first attempt to obtain a comparison of values between numbers 1 and 5503 mounted in an exposed position on the quarter-deck was made on May 16. It was soon found that heating up of the chamber by the sun gave abnormally high values. Dur- ing the diurnal-variation run of May 27 and 28, no. 5503 was first used inside the atmospheric-electric labora- tory, then at sundown it was mounted on the quarter- deck, and it was brought inside again at sunrise on the twenty-eighth. It was found that the mean ratio of no. 5503 to no. 1 for the night observations was less than unity, a result which was probably influenced by tem- perature effects. A grouping was made of all compari- son observations taken in the laboratory between May 2 and 30 to show how the value of this ratio is related to the temperature of 5503. Of course many more obser- vations will be needed before any temperature correc- tion can be deduced. Here it should be mentioned that the thermometer attached to no. 5503 is difficult to read accurately without a reading glass and it is clear that more than one reading will have to be made in the future 42 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS to ensure that the value of temperature entered in the records approximates the mean value for the interval occupied by the observation. The chief source of uncer- tainty in comparisons of 5503 with 1 is the difficulty in obtaining with 5503 an accurate reading of fibers so widely separated, when, because of the ship’s motion, both are moving irregularly. Taking this into account, and also the temperature effect already noted, the compari- sons, so far, may be considered to be satisfactory. Further sets will be obtained as frequently as condi- tions permit. In order to avoid the risks involved in moving the penetrating radiation apparatus 5503 during magnetic observations in the after dome, tests were made at the Apia Observatory to determine the magnetic effect of the instrument. The distance between penetrating appa- ratus 5503 and the marine deflector in the after dome is 3.5 meters. With magnetometer 12 mounted on the ob- servatory pier, the deflection produced on the freely suspended magnet by the approach of 5503 was: Distance, Deflection BREE Minutes BED 0.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 0.1 0.2 2.0 1.0 2.0 These data indicate that no important disturbance is caused by the presence of penetrating radiation appara- tus 5503 even as near as 2.5 meters. It will be unnec- essary, therefore, to move the instrument in the future during the magnetic program. The sodium in the drying tubes of penetrating radi- ation apparatus 1 was renewed on June 2. We have only two spare glass drying tubes for this apparatus. This is just the number required to make a rapid renewal of drying material and it seems desirable that we should have a reserve stock in case of damage. On June 3 an attempt was made to eliminate the “‘flicker’’ or sudden movement in the fiber of penetrat- ing radiation apparatus 1 which had been evident, though not serious, for the few days preceding. It probably was caused by a defective cell or cells in one of the plate batteries, though no such defect could be located in test- ing the batteries with the voltmeter. The megohm re- sistor in the battery circuit was changed, and finally both silver chloride batteries were replaced by four Burgess “‘B”’ batteries, after which the fiber behaved quite normally. It will be interesting to see how long these batteries remain efficient for this service. Nuclei Counter 5.--Observations have been made with this instrument at every opportunity. When near the end of the diurnal-variation run of April 30 and May 1, the observer fell, causing the instrument to fall also, breaking the pump stem at the soldered joint at the top of the pump cylinder, and shattering the mirror reflec- tor. The stem was resoldered successfully the same day and the reflector repaired, so that observations could be made as usual the following day. Values rather larger than ordinarily obtained thus far were encountered on May 17 and 18, just before reaching Guam and again on May 27 and 28. On the lat- ter date the vessel was about 100 miles to leeward of the northern Marianas group, which is marked on the chart as volcanic. On May 18 an attempt was made to preserve a sample of the nuclear material by placing a microscope slide, smeared with balsam, on the wire screen of the conductivity apparatus air tube and run- ning the fan for fifteen minutes. This sample wastrans- mitted to Washington for examination. Silver Chloride Batteries.--Soon after leaving Apia the whole stock of silver chloride batteries was tested and the entire supply of 280 cells received at Callao was used in making replacements. We have now, besides the batteries on service in the shelf cupboards below the instruments (five batteries in all), two complete 100-cell units and 80 cells of another which show high enough voltage to be called in good condition. The Burgess and Eveready ‘‘B”’ batteries used for potential gradient aux- iliary potential and leak tests and those used for charg- ing penetrating radiation apparatus 5503 appear to be holding up remarkably well. Comments Change of Sensitivity of Potential-Gradient Record- er.--The proposals for obtaining closer check of the sensitivity of the potential-gradient recorder should be helpful. When the change is owing to some alteration in the auxiliary potential, such as is inferred to have oc- curred at Guam, then a comparison of the hourly zeros should make this manifest, and an exact correction could be made if the recorder is calibrated with inner case earthed. Of course if the tension on the fibers has changed, the correction would require a knowledge of the value of the auxiliary potential. If the latter re- mained constant, then the change in sensitivity could be determined from a comparison of the hourly zero de- flections. Comparison of Penetrating Radiation Apparatuses. --The careful observations for comparing penetrating radiation apparatus 1 and penetrating radiation appara- tus 5503 and the analyses of these observations have been studied. Apparatus 5503 is definitely subject to more variation than is no. 1, and, furthermore, those variations unmistakably are of instrumental origin. They seem to be associated with the temperature of the instrument but it is not evident how temperature should give rise to such changes. It may be necessary to re- place 5503 by its companion instrument 5658 when the Carnegie arrives at San Francisco. Nuclei Counter 5.--The accident which befell this instrument is unfortunate. This calls to attention the need of a reserve counter on the Carnegie. According- ly it is being recommended that counter 2 be sent to the Carnegie at San Francisco. REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC WORK 43 YOKOHAMA, JAPAN TO SAN FRANCISCO, General:--Daily observations of the atmospheric- electric elements have been made, with the few excep- tions noted below. The light and contrary winds which prevailed during the first week after leaving Yokohama, and the fog, mist, and rain encountered in the higher latitudes, made the period covered by this report unfa- vorable for atmospheric-electric work on the whole. Diurnal-variation runs were made on July 3 and 4 and 21 and 22. Potential-Gradient Recorder.--Twenty-six complete days’ traces have beensecured, seventeen of which were rendered abnormal by fog and mist. On some of these abnormal days, hourly mean potentials of over 300 volts (uncorrected to volts per meter) were recorded on several occasions. Fortunately, during the stay in Yokohama, the sensitivity decreased considerably, and it is owing to this fact that complete records of the fog effects were obtained. The recorder clock, which had been showing a high and variable rate just before reach- ing Yokohama, was cleaned and adjusted there and has behaved remarkably well since. On June 30 the upper heating coil burned out and a new one was fitted, the lead wires being renewed at the same time. Leak tests and calibrations have been made as before. Conductivity Apparatus 8A.--Values of conductivity obtained near Japan, both before arrival and after depar- ture, were abnormally low. During the periods of fog and mist already referred to, the values were extremely low. No instrumental difficulties have been encountered. The day before reaching Yokohama, during the heavy weather of a typhoon, a block from one of the staysail sheets dropped on the cowl of the air tube, breaking two of the three horizontal supports of the cowl. Repair was made in Yokohama, but the day after leaving, June 25, a sheet of one of the staysails caught under the cowl, bending it sideways and tearing the wire screen. A tem- porary repair was made and it has remained effective. CALIFORNIA, JUNE 24 TO JULY 28, 1929 Amore permanent repair will be made in San Francisco. Ionic Content Apparatus ].--On several days obser- vation was impossible with this instrument owing to the penetrating fog fouling the upper amber ring-insulator. During the night hours of the diurnal-variation runs, the insulation broke down from this cause. It is a question whether a new design for the top of the air tube, similar to that employed on the conductivity apparatus, would not enable observations to be secured during light rains, when, with the present arrangement, observation is im- possible. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus 1.--Daily observa- tions have been made with this instrument and no diffi- culties encountered. The Burgess “‘B’’ batteries used for the plate potentials have given satisfactory service. No renewal of the sodium in the drying tubes has been made. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus No. 5503.--Com- parison observations between this instrument and no. 1 have been made daily. During the diurnal-variation run of July 3 and 4, no. 5503 was mounted on the starboard side of the quarter-deck during the night hours. At 4h on July 4 the fibers would not charge up; the instrument was opened up in the warm cabin, where the heating stove was burning, and it was found that the phosphor- bronze leading strip had parted. A new strip was fitted and the instrument has worked normally since. A sum- mary of the comparisons between the two instruments, especially with a view to determining the temperature coefficient, has been made and the ratios for no. 5503 to no. 1 have been plotted against temperature of 5503. It appears that more observations are required at temper- atures around 12° and also above 20° before an approxi- mate temperature correction can be deduced. Nuclei Counter 5.--Except for four days when rain prevailed, observations have been made daily. Values have deen generally low, averaging around 1500 particles per cubic centimeter. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA TO HONOLULU, HAWAII, SEPTEMBER 3 TO 23, 1929 General.--Between September 5 and 22, daily ob- servations of the atmospheric-electric elements have been made as previously. Some modifications of proce- dure have been made, but care has been taken so as to maintain a reasonable standard of accuracy and at the same time to preserve the system of simultaneity of ob- servation. Unusually calm weather with variable winds was encountered between September 7 and 18, and very low values of conductivity and ionic content were meas- ured. The potential-gradient was correspondingly high during this period. A diurnal-variation run was begun on September 18 but had to be abandoned after four hours, owing to instrumental troubles. Potential-Gradient Recorder.--Altogether eleven complete days’ traces have been secured during the period covered by this report. The principal cause of loss of scalable trace was the necessity for frequent operation of the main engine during the calm period re- ferred to above. Minor losses of registration were as- sociated with the loosening of the invar supporting rods in the electrometer, a defective plug in the hourly zero circuit, and poor illumination from the recording lamp. Conductivity Apparatus 8A.--While the vessel was in port at San Francisco, Mr. Gish, assisted by Mr. Parkinson, installed the recording apparatus. The skill- ful design and beautiful mechanical workmanship of this apparatus are illustrated bythe fact that only very minor difficulties were met with in its installation and records were being obtained within a few days of the unpacking of the boxes. Some adjustments were necessary when operating under sea conditions, but these involved very little loss of trace. Ten complete days’ traces have been obtained, five of positive and five of negative con- ductivity. Owing to the possible effect of the fan motor on the magnetic apparatus in the after dome, the fan is shut off during the magnetic program. It is planned to make tests of this effect as soon as possible, so that, if it is negligible, no further interruptions of the conduc- tivity traces will be caused. Ionic Content Apparatus 1.--In general, this appa- ratus has functioned normally. On September 16, how- ever, a large leak, or fiber drift, wasobserved and after exhaustive tests, it was found to be an effect of bound charges on the amber insulators. In efforts to dissipate these charges with radium, the trouble apparently was accentuated and finally the insulators were left standing for a day, after which no further trouble was encoun- tered. 44 Penetrating Radiation Apparatus 1.--Except for some erratic behavior at the beginning of the diurnal- variation run on September 18, this instrument has worked normally. Comparison observations with this apparatus and the Kolhorster instruments 5503 and 5658 mentioned below have been made daily. Kolhorster Penetrating Radiation Apparatuses 5503 and 5658.--Apparatus 5658 was received at San Francis- co on the arrival of Mr. Gish. During the stay of the vessel in San Francisco, Mr. Gish, assisted by Messrs. Parkinson, Jones, and Seaton, made a series of obser- vations with the two instruments, both in air and under water, at Crystal Lake. Both instruments appeared to be somewhat erratic in behavior and the cause for the discrepancies between them is obscure. Apparatus 5658 is being returned to Washington with Mr. Gish. Nuclei Counters 2 and 5.--Instrument 2, received at San Francisco was tried out soon after leaving port but was found to leak badly. An examination by Mr.Gish showed some bad mechanical defects and the instrument is being returned from Honolulu. Counter 5 apparently OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS is working normally; nevertheless, it is advisable that a second instrument be available on board for compari- sons. Radioactive Content Apparatus.--Mr.Gish has spent considerable time installing and adjusting the new poten- tial-multiplier device received at San Francisco. He also made several alterations in the assembly and re- wired the apparatus. Trouble is still experienced in maintaining a steady high potential on the central cylin- der. A trial observation was made on September 22 and it is hoped that frequent determinations will be possible from now on. Batteries.--In view of the good performance of the Burgess “‘B’’ batteries and some advantages they pos- sess over batteries composed of silver chloride cells, the latter type has been eliminated from use with the various instruments. The present stock of Burgess bat- teries is ample for some considerable time, but, if fur- ther supplies have to be shipped to the Carnegie, it might be well to specify the “‘knob type’’ terminal rather than the ‘‘spring type’’ previously supplied. HONOLULU, HAWAII TO PAGO PAGO, SAMOA, OCTOBER 2 TO NOVEMBER 18, 1929 General.--The eye observations of ionic content, penetrating radiation, and nuclei count have been made whenever possible--practically daily. Four complete diurnal-variation runs have been made. Special obser- vations of penetrating radiation, using radium as an ionizing constant, have been made, as described below. Considerable computational work has been done on a preliminary reduction of potential-gradient values to show that diurnal variation proceeds on universal time. Potential-Gradient Recorder.--This instrument has worked moderately well. Thirty-eight complete days’ traces have been obtained. On October 3 the recording paper became loose from the lower roller and therefore did not rotate. Heavy rains on October 11 and 12 caused some loss of trace--a considerable quantity of water accumulated in the collector-insulator tube, presumably having splashed up inside from the top of the instrument box. From this time, at intervals, until the end of Oc- tober, frequent periods of earthing occurred for which the reason is still uncertain. The collector system was disassembled and carefully reassembled several times but the earthing recurred after varying intervals. The indications were that there was a definite metallic con- nection to ground rather than poor insulation, as aspark could be obtained when the collector hood was connected to a battery. On October 23 the electromagnet, which operates the hourly zero, burned out and, presumably at the same time, the amber surface of the central insula- tor in the collector tube was badly scarred. It is be- lieved that a defect in the engine room power circuit oc- curred during the time the hourly zero was in operation. The coil was removed and it was intended to replace it by the one on recorder 4947. The holders for these coils, however, are not interchangeable on the two in- struments and, in disconnecting the good coil, the wire from the center broke off too short to be repaired with- out rewinding. It has been necessary, therefore, to make manual zeros, two or three each day, and, as the zeros have been very constant, it is thought that this will suffice until a new coil is received and fitted. Conductivity Apparatus 8A.--The performance of this recorder has been most gratifying. Scalable values have been obtained for every hour, except one, of every day since leaving Honolulu. Thus forty-seven complete days’ traces are available--twenty-three for positive and twenty-four for negative conductivity. Calibrations of both signs have been made frequently and the mean curves showvery little variation with lapse of time. On October 29 a thermometer was fitted to the electrome- ter house, with bulb inside and scale outside, and, for calibrations subsequent to this date, temperature read- ings have been made and recorded. On October 18 one- hour runs were made, on both signs, with an ionium col- lector in the air-flow tube. The ratio of positive to negative conductivities derived from these tests was 1.17. From the mean values of positive and negative conductivities obtained for observations made between October 2 and 31 (using only undisturbed days, eleven of each sign) which were 1.30 x 10-4 and 1.08 x 10-4, re- spectively, a ratio of 1.20 was derived. On October 24 the duration of the hourly zero was increased from four to six minutes. On October 25 one of the recording drums began to stick, in the same manner as was en- countered on several days during September. The drum was taken apart and greased, but the stoppages recurred on October 29 and 31. The driving spring therefore was removed and the drum has worked quite well without it. On November 10 the same thing happened to the other drum; so the spring was removed from it also. The fol- lowing interesting features of the conductivity traces might be mentioned: (a) The sudden change in type of trace at 16h 45m hours on October 7, for which no cor- responding change in meteorological or other factors to which it might be related, could be found; (b) the change from land to sea conditions soon after leaving Honolulu on October 3; (c) the sudden decrease in values during rain. It was noticed that the values of ionic mobility derived from the conductivity records and from eye ob- servations of ionic content are somewhat high and rather more variable than those previously obtained. This question invites some investigation which can no doubt be carried through more effectively at Washington than on board ship. Ionic Content Apparatus 1.--No difficulties have REPORT ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC WORK occurred with this instrument. It has been possible, with a new type of hood over the apparatus, to observe during periods of light sprinkling rain without any bad effect on the insulation of the apparatus. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus 1.--The sodium in the drying tubes was renewed on October 16. The new tubes supplied at San Francisco were found to fit; so we now have an ample supply on board. On October 17 ob- servations with this instrument and penetrating radia- tion apparatus 5503 were made, using radium as an ionizing constant. The results appear quite satisfactory but it is planned to repeat them at an early date. Penetrating Radiation Apparatus §503.--The diurnal- variation curve of October 5 and 6 showed irregularities which obviously were instrumental and were brought about in the following way. The electrometer was charged up every two hours, and, owing to the desirability of mak- ing the mean times of observation one hour apart, the initial reading of the first, third, fifth, and subsequent odd-numbered hours was made one minute after re- charging. This arrangement was adopted because the electrometer had been charged for about two hours be- fore the beginning of the diurnal-variation run, and its performance during that period indicated that initial readings could be taken very shortly after recharging. This, however, later was found not to be justified. In order to determine the minimum time required for nor- mal values to be obtained, a series of observations was made on October 8. The fibers were charged and read- ings were made after one, three, five, etc., minutes had elapsed. After twelve of these readings the instrument was left for one hour and the final reading then made. It was found that the “‘charging effect’’ persisted for about five minutes rather than only one minute, after which the values of R were consistent, within the limits of accuracy of the instrument. The hourly routine of the diurnal-variation observations therefore has been amended, as follows: 45 Performance First reading of 5503 First reading of penetrating radiation appa- ratus no. 1 Leak test of ion counter Begin ion count Nuclei count and meteorological observations End ion count. Start leak test of ion counter Last reading of penetrating radiation appa- ratus no. 1 Last reading of 5503 Recharge 5503 immediately Above routine repeated each hour Two of the diurnal-variation runs (October 13 and 14 and 21 and 22) show very good agreement between instru- ments 1 and 5503. Both curves show a pronounced double maximum. The curves on the other two occasions dur- ing the period covered by this report are more erratic. Radioactive Content Apparatus 4.--Difficulties with the electrometer used with this apparatus on October 3 and 4, led to exhaustive tests and finally to the exchange of this instrument for the spare, no. 15, which has flat plates instead of the knife-edge type of plates of no. 5. There was no further difficulty. Frequent attention was necessary to the collecting apparatus. The values ob- tained on October 8 and 10 were high; since that date low values have been recorded and a test observation made just before entering Pago Pago harbor on Novem- ber 18 showed a decided increase, tending to show that the apparatus had been functioning properly. On two occasions collection had to be made without the upper earthing cap, but after tightening the friction clamp at the top, a high potential could be maintained and so the cap was used on subsequent observations. Nuclei Counter 5.--Regular observations have been made and, in general, low values have prevailed. Batteries.--The Burgess ‘‘B’”’ batteries continue to give good service. - hi he oo, (i wae eae “fh « yer thm om Sy ihe edie! IV. ABSTRACT OF LOG CONTENTS Washington, D. C. to Plymouth, England, May 1,- June 8, 1928 Plymouth, England to Hamburg, Germany, June 18 - 22, 1928 Hamburg, Germany to Reykjavik, Iceland, July 7 - 20, 1928 Reykjavik, Iceland to Barbados, British West Indies, July 27 - Sep. 17, 1928 Barbados, British West Indies to Balboa, Canal Zone, Oct. 1 - 11, 1928 Balboa, Canal Zone to Easter Island, Oct. 25 - Dec. 6, 1928 Easter Island to Callao, Peru, Dec. 12,-1928 - Jan. 14, 1929 Callao, Peru to Papeete, Tahiti, Feb. 5 - Mar. 13, 1929 Papeete, Tahiti to Pago Pago, Samoa, Mar. 20 - Apr. 1, 1929 Pago Pago, Samoa to Apia, Western Samoa, Apr. 5 - 6, 1929 Apia, Western Samoa to Guam, Marianas Islands, Apr. 20 - May 20, 1929 Port Apra, Guam to Yokohama, Japan, May 25 - June 7, 1929 Yokohama, Japan to San Francisco, United States, June 24 - July 28, 1929 San Francisco, United States to Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, Sep. 3 - 23, 1929 Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, to Pago Pago, Samoa, Oct. 2 - Nov. 18, 1929 47 Page 49 49 50 50 52 52 53 55 56 57 57 58 59 61 62 a > BPSeEcete ssa s. WOM a6 ee occ to prot wh talent or eoletl Oeflatd jag _ sGAdee POANT Sas Ms BiwrTe co : * P ‘4 Lange seers ot. 0, | BRR coo pried great ot talgt ie Ay Lub haemeok allpalayed> of vunenee Dy ast gy) ao! ios AUT nabed etl gh fina sand, ae yi Sina eed al phir dove tage ae, wer) ott ~ 8S Oo Laskey yeeee Be ent ani , 7 ori wth O20L-2iseull) sae] yamine, a2? oe 4 Lat 0 aM «8 Bet er ateoiea ot eal ~—T 08 iM jeoried ope’) aye? ol FARR) re ' . ere 8. 6 wd” one ew ea wiare? 7 ein pM. OC ve epee maepell iD a Ea ao rORe at ots) Sent Set eee yakge dando a. aed ee weianest anh ot wagel, ee ee jipaglt a. grade: T> Date IV. ABSTRACT OF LOG Noon position Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) Coon aD op = = i 12 June 1 1928 June 18 2 ’ is} y Washington, D.C. St. Mary's River St. Mary’ s River St. Mary’ Ss River St. Mary’s River Newport News Newport News Newport News Newport News Newport News 3715 N 286 09 3817N 291 56 3743.N 296 37 3700N 299 40 3704N 303 24 3748N 30650 3812N 310 21 3911 N 314 29 4038N 31811 4201 N 32113 4404N 323 54 45 29N 326 40 4435 N 32653 4351 N 32818 4313N 328 30 4400N 331 35 4550N 334 29 48 11N 33852 4850N 34110 49 37 N 344 24 5023N 346 29 5006N 346 54 49 32N 347 53 5012N 347 29 5016 N 34755 4955 N 348 52 5010N 349 56 5012N 352 04 4959N 35457 Plymouth miles Washington, D. C. to Plymouth, England Total distance, 3669; time of passage, 29.3 days; average day’s run, 125.2 miles miles i row ww for) TOWN SN LWOIrO arco & 2 CNHOOIANWAROND NUNwWRe 10k Left Colonial Beach Steamboat Co. pier under tow at 09h 00m. Anchored at entrance St. Mary’s River, Chesapeake Bay, at 00h 20m off Kitts Point. Swung ship for declination-observations and deviation. Clear. Light variable breeze. Atmospheric-electric observations. Clear. Light NW air. Atmospheric-electric observations. Clear. Calm. Atmospheric-electric observations. Clear. Calm. Under way 20h 30m with pilot. Anchored at 08h 30m. Overcast. Fresh northerly breeze. In drydock of Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Co. at 10h 10m. Cloudy toclear. Fresh northerly breeze. In drydock. Overcast. Rain. Strong NE breeze. In drydock. Overcast. Rain. Calm. Under way at 13h 15m with pilot. Took departure from Cape Henry at 18h 20m. Gentle SE breeze. Partly cloudy. Clear to cloudy. Smooth to moderate sea. Moderate southerly breeze. Cloudy to overcast. Moderate to choppy sea. Moderate to fresh breeze, S ina.m., NE in p.m. Partly cloudy. Moderate sea and northerly wind. Overcast, rain. Gentle to fresh northerly breeze. Moderate sea. Overcast, rain. Fresh northerly breeze. Choppy sea. Partly cloudy. Moderate to fresh NW breeze. Moderate and broken and choppy sea. Partly cloudy. Moderate sea. Rain squalls. Moderate breeze, NW in a.m., SW in p.m. Cloudy, rain. Strong southerly breeze to moderate gale. Roughsea. Partly cloudy. Fresh southerly breeze. Roughto choppy sea, squalls. Cloudy. Fresh southerly breeze. Moderate choppy sea. Squalls. Cloudy. Moderate southerly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudy. Moderate sea. Moderate to gentle SE breeze. Overcast. Rain. Moderate to strong NE breeze. Moderate to rough sea. Overcast. Heavy rain. Strong NE breeze to fresh gale. Rough sea. Cloudy. Fresh NE breeze. Moderate sea, broken, and choppy. Cloudy. Fresh northerly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudy. Fresh NW and SW breezes. Moderate to rough sea. Overcast. Strong northerly breeze to moderate gale. Choppy sea. Clear in p.m. Moderate sea. Moderate southerly breeze. Overcast. Fog. Rain. Moderate southerly breeze and sea. Overcast. Fog. Rain. Moderate sea. Gentle SE breeze. Cloudy to overcast. Misty. Moderate sea. Moderate E to SE breeze. Cloudy. Fresh to strong easterly breeze. Moderate to rough sea. Cloudy to overcast. Fog. Rain. Strong to light SE breeze. Choppy sea. Cloudy to overcast. Fog. Rain. Gentle to strong easterly breeze. Choppy sea. . Cloudy to overcast. Moderate easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Southerly swell. Cloudy. Squalls. Light to fresh SE breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudy to overcast. Gentle southerly breeze. Rain. Moderate sea. Slightly cloudy in a.m., overcast in p.m. W to SW light winds in a.m. Moderate sea. Rain and strong wind in p.m. Anchored in Plymouth harbor at 20h 30m. Plymouth, England to Hamburg, Germany Total distance, 614 miles; time of passage, 4.1 days; average day's run, 149.8 miles ° , ° , Plymouth 5029N 35859 51 39N 2 24 53 23 N 4 24 miles 126 146 128 20 120 40 miles Took departure from Plymouth Breakwater at 16h 38m. Cloudy. Moderate sea. Gentle W to SW and S breeze. Overcast. Gentle to moderate SW to W breeze. Smooth to moder- ate sea. Partly cloudy. Moderate W to NW breeze. Moderate sea. Partly cloudy. Moderate northerly breeze in morning. Gentle southerly breeze in afternoon. Moderate sea. 49 50 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Plymouth, England to Hamburg, Germany--Concluded Noon position Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) 1928 July Aug. 27 11 FORD So oemiles ss emiles Mouth of Elbe River, Germany 137 18 6.3 Arrived at Elbe lightship no. 1 at 10h 12m. Overcast. Moderate southerly breeze. Moderate sea. Hamburg CHU © B060" aba5¢ Picked up pilot at Elbe lightship no. 1. Picked up tug at Altenbruck. Towed 54 miles to Hamburg Harbor, Jonas Dock, Vorsetzen. An- chored at 20h 00m. Hamburg, Germany to Reykjavik, Iceland Total distance, 1329 miles; time of passage, 13.0 days; average day’s run, 102.3 miles oe, = milesss smiles Hamburg Cl chs0. caps Left Hamburg Harbor at 07h 00m. Under tow from Harbor to Helgoland. Took departure from Helgoland at 08h 35m July 8. Partly cloudy. Gentle westerly breeze. Moderate sea. Tow dis- tance 96 miles. 540 7 38 5 49 Partly cloudy. Gentle westerly breeze. Moderate sea. 9N 3.0 1N 513 110 42 9.6 Partly cloudy. Fresh to light WSW breeze. Moderate to smooth sea. 58 00 N 225 185 56 16.0 Cloudy in morning. Overcast and drizzling in afternoon. Fresh W to SSW breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. ON 024 162 67 20.2 Overcast and misty. Fresh W to SW breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. 6N 35459 169 43 14.2 Partly cloudy. Strong SW breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. 6316 N 35040 133 34 23.2 Partly cloudy. Strong SW breeze. Choppy, rough sea. 7.2 Cloudy to overcast. Squalls. Strong SW breeze in morning. Very light NE air in afternoon. Rough sea to moderate. 6328 N 345 07 93 337 11.2 Partly cloudy. Light easterly air in morning. Gentle to moderate SW breeze in afternoon. Smooth to moderate sea. 63 20N 34246 64 31 13.6 Partly cloudy. Moderate westerly breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. 6257N 341 36 39 84 10.6 Overcast in morning. Rain. Cloudy in afternoon. Moderate west- erly and fresh NW breeze. Moderate choppy to rough sea. 6233N 34009 46 153 14.4 Cloudy in morning. Overcast and misty in afternoon. Moderate W to NW breeze. Moderate, choppy sea. 63 38 N 338 00 87 64 12.8 Overcast. Misty to drizzling. Moderate NW breeze. Moderate sea. Squally. Reykjavik 61 150 16.0 Overcast and drizzling. Gentle westerly breeze. Smoothsea. At anchor in Reykjavik harbor at 08h 00m. 6405 N 34822 79 5 Reykjavik, Iceland to Barbados, B.W.I. Total distance, 5715 miles; time of passage 51.8 days; average day’s run, 110.3 miles fr MiMmmMies wes emiles Reykjavik —".-.. Saco iu séead Left at 12h 00m with own power. Partly cloudy. Moderate sea and moderate NE to N breeze. 6231 N 33342 156 154 7 Cloudy in early morning and evening. Clear during day. Moderate sea. Moderate northwesterly breeze. 6040N 32845 180 144 14 Cloudy to overcast. Moderate sea. Moderate north breeze. 5917N 32545 122 180 14 Overcast in morning. Cloudy in afternoon. Light to moderate N to W breezes. Smooth to choppy sea. 5754N 325 50 83 72 6 Cloudy to-overcast. Moderate to gentle NW to SW breezes. Moder— ate sea. 5815 N 324 10 of 359 15 Fog, mist, and drizzling rain. Overcast. Gentle SW to NW breezes. Moderate sea. 5816N 32118 91 153 2 Overcast and misty. Calm to fresh E and NE breezes. Moderate to choppy sea. Squalls. 5752N 31427 219 324 4 Aurora borealis in early hours. Cloudy until evening then overcast and misty. Strong NE to E breezes. Choppy to rough sea. 5430N 31059 233 292 15 Aurora borealis in late evening. Overcast in morning. Cloudy in afternoon. Strong E to NE breezes. Rough sea. Squalls. 5138N 31028 174 244 14 Clouds on horizons. Moderate NE to NW breezes. Moderate sea. Iceberg abeam at 19h 35m. 4826N 31151 199 137 12 Cloudy. Moderate WNW breeze. Moderate sea. Aurora borealis in late evening. 4554N 31207 153 172 5 Clear during day. Few clouds on horizons in early evening. Mod- erate to fresh NW to W breeze. Moderate sea. ; 4314N 31306 165 77 9 Cloudy, but principally on horizons. Moderate NW breeze in morn- ing and moderate sea. Gentle NE breeze in afternoon and smooth sea. 4210N 312 39 67 139 2 Cloudy. Light NE breeze in morning and smooth sea. Moderate to fresh SE breeze and moderate sea in afternoon. 3948N 31111 156 343 25 Cloudy to overcast. Rain and mist in middle of day. Fresh to strong SE breezeand rough sea in morning, gentle breeze in afternoon. 3838N 31114 70 91 15 Cloudy. Calm. to gentle W breeze. Moderate sea. ABSTRACT OF LOG Reykjavik, Iceland to Barbados, B.W.I.--Concluded , Gna Day s Lati- tude | Tun tude 1928 Dime e=miless = miles Aug. 12 3658N 31142 103 157 17 Cloudy on horizons. Light to gentle W and SW breezes. Moderate to smooth sea. 13 3648N 31334 91 85 33 Squalls in early morning. Cloudy on horizons during day. Moder- ate S to W breezes. Moderate sea. 14 3514N 31541 139 90 16 Cloudy. Squalls in early morning. Moderate SW breeze. Moderate sea. 15 3336N 31745 142 64 15 Cloudy on horizons and occasionally overhead with squalls and lightning. Moderate westerly breeze. Choppy sea. 16 3110N 31856 157 117 23 Cloudy. Squalls in afternoon. Fresh to light W to NW breeze. Mod- erate sea. 17 2945N 319 24 88 160 17 Cloudy. Squalls in early morning. Clear overhead during day. Light to gentle N to E breeze. Smooth sea. 18 2754N 32032 126 264 7 Cloudy on horizons with distant squalls. Gentle to fresh E breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. 19 2539N 32101 137 310 6 Cloudy on horizons. Moderate to gentle SE breeze. Moderate to smooth sea. 20 2359N 32023 105 65 5 Cloudy, with squall conditions. Moderate to fresh breeze in morn- ing, gentle in afternoon. Moderate sea. 21 2146N 32022 134 292 11 Cloudy on horizons. Fresh E breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. Coe OM2ING o2tcdl LOeeoD 6 Cloudy. Fresh to moderate E breeze. Moderate sea. Squalls; threatening during day. 23 1635N 32210 162 215 12 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate E breeze and moderate sea in morning. Light ENE airs and smooth sea in afternoon and evening. 24 1548N 32203 47 206 20 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Calm to light E airs. Smooth sea. 25 1456N 32150 54 218 20 Cloudy. Light ESE breeze in morning; calm thereafter. Smooth sea. Started main engine at 19h 20m. 26 1355 N 32158 61 161 2 Cloudy. Light E airs:in morning. Light W breeze in afternoon. Smooth sea. Rain in morning and evening. Stopped engine at 08h 10m. 27 1322N 322 00 33 184 17 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Calm to light west airs. Smooth sea. Started main engine at 19h 25m. 28 1154N 32208 89 184 9 Clear in early morning, cloudy thereafter. Squall in evening. Light W to SW airs and breeze. Smooth sea. Stopped main engine at 08h 00m, and started again at 20h 10m. 29 1049N 32236 70 158 £12 Cloudy. Light variable airs, to calm. Smooth sea. Squalls morn- ing and evening. Stopped engine at 05h 55m and started again at 20h 15m. Remarks pate (Local mean time used throughout) 30 928N 32252 83 122 10 Cloudy. Calm to light and gentle SW breezes. Smooth to moderate sea. Stopped engine at 11h 20m. Rain at midnight. 31 8 11N 323 52 97 79 17 Squalls throughout day. Gentle to fresh westerly breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. Sep. 1 926N 32320 £81 57 25 Overcast and raining, morning and evening, otherwise cloudy. Gen- tle W breeze until evening, then calm. Moderate sea. 2 950N 323 20 24 113 17 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light to moderate westerly breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. Squall at midnight. 3 1107N 322.52 82 60 15 Rain morning and evening with lightning in evening. Cloudy during day. Gentle westerly breeze, tocalm. Moderate to smooth sea. 4 1123N 32157 57 227 18 Squall in early morning. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light to mod- erate NE breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. 5 1133N 31910 164 264 18 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate togentle NE breeze. Moder- ate sea. 6 1140N 31724 105 344 1 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle NNE to NxE breeze. Moderate sea. Heavy squall at 19h 00m. 7° 1118N 31542 103 202 25 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light NxE breeze to light NNE airs. Moderate to smooth sea. NE swells. 8 1136N 31454 51 296 33 Clear in morning, cloudy in afternoon. Light NE airs to calm. Smooth sea. NE swells. : 9 1IE45 Ni) 313)53 60 214 12 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons, until evening; then rain squalls. Gentle to light northerly breeze. Moderate sea. 1210N 31215 99 257 20 Heavy squalls during morning, cloudy thereafter. Moderate to fresh westerly breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. 1313N 31019 130 20 22 Squalls threatening in morning, then cloudy chiefly on horizons. Moderate to light SW breeze. Choppy, moderate sea, calm in evening. 12 1309N 309 24 55 257 20 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light ENE airs to light ENE breeze. Moderate sea. 13 1317N 30739 102 305 18 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle E breeze. Moderate sea. 14 1302N 30540 117 319 3 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle SE breeze. Moderate sea. 15 1254N 30343 115 286 12 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle ESE breeze. Moderate sea. 16 1301 N 30131 128 329 11 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle ExS breeze. Moderate sea. Sighted island at 16h 30m. 17 Carlisle Bay, Barbados ...._ .... Partly cloudy. Gentle ExS breeze. Moderate sea. At anchor in Carlisle Bay at 08h 35m. enn TT” ee oe - Oo 52 or rn oO 10 11 1928 Oct. Nov. 25 26 27 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Barbados, B.W.I. to Balboa, Canal Zone Total distance, 1361 miles; time of passage, 9.7 days; average day's run, 140.3 miles — Day s Lati- tude Am’t. t miles Barbados onog = coon © ado Left anchorage at 11h 30m. Partly cloudy. Moderate sea and gen- tle NEXE breeze. 1441 N 29837 141 245 17 Near the islands of St. Lucia and Martinique during morning. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate sea and moderate to light NE breeze. Lightning in east. 1446N 29624 129 277 22 Cloudy in morning, overcast.in afternoon, with heavy shower in mid- afternoon. Lightning from NE to NW all day. Moderate to smooth sea. Gentle to moderate NNE to ExS breeze. 1501 N 29353 147 339 15 Cloudy in morning with lightning in SW in early hours. Overcast and squally during midday, clearing somewhat in afternoon. Mod- erate sea and moderate to light E breeze. 1519N 29147 124 321 18 Partly cloudy. Lightning in NW and N morning and evening. Mod- erate sea and moderate easterly breeze. 1510N 28845 176 303 16 Cloudy during day, clearing in evening. Lightning in NW in early morning. Moderate sea and moderate ESE breeze. 1427N 28553 171 277 14 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate sea and moderate E breeze. 13 34N 28331 147 306 37 Partly cloudy in morning. Overcast with rain in mid-afternoon, clearing in evening. Hazy in evening and lightning in S. Moderate sea and moderate to fresh ESE breeze. 1123N 28129 17% 317 22 Cloudy and hazy in morning. Overcast with rain, thunder and light- ning in afternoon. Lightning in evening. Moderate sea and moder- ate to gentle easterly breeze. Hazy in evening. 1015 N 280 46 81 36 18 Cloudy, with rain squalls, in morning. Cloudy in afternoon and even- ing. Lightning in SW in evening. Light easterly to SW breezes. Moderate to smooth sea. Colonand Balboa 68 .... .... At anchor in Colon breakwater at 04h 00m. Cloudy all day. Light SxE and S breeze up to 04h 00m. Left Colon anchorage at 11h 00m with tug and docked at Balboa wharf at 19h 30m. Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) miles Balboa, Canal Zone to Easter Island Total distance, 4788 miles; time of passage, 41.9 days; average day’s run, 114.3 miles ate Siuaemiles! >) miles Balboa poco, eoccHe mncEeD Left dock at 10h 40m under tow. Ran 10 miles to Taboguilla Light abeam, at 12h 27m. Then took departure. Cloudy and hazy. Mod- erate sea and moderate NW breeze. Lightning in NW in late even- ing. GrS2ENee enon 4) 152222 30 Cloudy in early morning. Overcast after 06h 00m, and all day, with rain squalls. Clear in evening. Moderate NW breeze changing to calm and, in evening to light SE and SW airs and breezes. Moder- } ate to smooth sea. 544N 280 06 49 115 3 Cloudy to overcast all day, with occasional short rain squalls. Clearing in evening. Lightning and thunder in east during morning. Gentle to moderate westerly breeze. Moderate sea. 415 N 280 21 90 86 13 Cloudy to overcast all day, with rain squalls and drizzling rain. Lightning and thunder in morning. Moderate to choppy sea. Vari- able moderate to light breezes, changing to calm in evening. 408N 28007 15 98 9 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light to moderate southwesterly breezes. Moderate sea. Rain squalls from 16h 45m to 19h 00m. 253N 27952 76 94 16 Cloudy to overcast with occasional rain squalls after 04h 00m, and all day and evening. Moderate SW breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. 432N 27812 140 50 26 Cloudy, with frequent rain squalls throughout 24 hours. Fresh to moderate SW breeze. Choppy to moderate sea. Malpelo Island abeam at 07h 02m. 603N 27701 116 #476 13 Cloudy, with rain squalls all day. Clearing in evening. Gentle to moderate SW breeze. Moderate sea. 438N 277 43 94 128 23 Overcast, with frequent rain squalls throughout 24 hours. Fresh SW breeze changing to light W and SW in evening. Choppy to moderate sea. 341N 278 31 75 104 # «21 Cloudy to overcast. Squally. Rain squalls during morning. Moder- ate to fresh SW breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. Malpelo Island sighted at daybreak. 227N 27858, 7 78 15 Overcast to cloudy. Moderate to gentle SSW to SWxW breezes. Mod- erate to choppy sea. 135N 279 12 54 =78 12 Overcast in early morning, clearing somewhat during day. Gentle to light SSW to W breeze. Moderate sea. 046N 27848 55 8 5 Overcast and hazy in early morning. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons, during day. Calm until 10h 00m, then gentle southwesterly breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. 0O27N 27757 89 192 9 Hazy in early morning. Cloudy until evening, then overcast and 21 Dec. a 8 fF © NE 1928 Dec. 12 ABSTRACT OF LOG Balboa, Canal Zone to Easter Island--Concluded Noon position , Current ae Days Remarks fate aden |e as |e (Local mean time used throughout) east Sats °' miles ° miles drizzling. Moderate southwesterly breeze. Moderate sea. 129S 277 37 66 247 11 Overcast morning and evening; cloudy during day. Moderate SSW to light S breeze. Choppy to moderate sea. 119S 27505 152 262 16 Overcast in morning, otherwise cloudy chiefly on horizons. Gentle S breeze. Moderate to smooth sea. 139S 27255 131 253 55 Cloudy. Light to moderate S to SxE breeze. Smooth sea. 153S .27055 121 237 34 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle to moderate S breeze. Moder - ate sea. Sighted Galapagos Islands in early p.m. 116S 26841 138 257 28 In vicinity of Galapagos Islands all day. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons, Light to moderate S to SE breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. 131S 26646 116 287 34 Overcast all day, hazy in evening. Gentle to light southeasterly breeze. Moderate to smooth sea. SE swells. 146S 265 41 67 287 29 Overcast in early morning, clearing during day, cloudless in even- ing. Calm, to gentle SSE breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. SE swells. 230S 26415 96 269 12 Overcast in early morning, clearing overhead during the day. Gen- tle SSE to moderate SE breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. 304S 26144 154 276 10 Drizzling rain at 04h 00m. Cloudy to overcast all day and evening. Gentle to light SExS breeze. Moderate sea. SE swells. 315S 26007 98 280 17 Clear between 04h 00m and 08h 00m, otherwise cloudy. Light to moderate southeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. An unusual mete- or appeared in ENE at 04h 45m, stopped at 35 altitude, and faded away. - 401S 25720 173 293 22 Clear in very early morning, otherwise cloudy.. Moderate to gentle SExS breeze. Moderate sea. SE swells. 435S 25451 152 308 30 Cloudy to overcast in very early morning; thereafter cloudy on hori- zons. Moderate to fresh SE to ESE breeze. Moderate sea. SE swells. 657S 25308 176 248 18 Clear, changing to cloudy on horizons. Moderate ESE to ExS breeze. Moderate sea. 914S 25134 165 250 15 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate to fresh ExS to ESE breeze. Moderate sea. 1157S 24945 195 261 14 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Fresh ESE breeze. Moderate sea. 1412S 24804 167 256 16 Cloudy. Squally in afternoon and evening. Moderate ESE breeze. Moderate sea. 1644S 24657 165 259 10 Cloudy and squally all day, with drizzling rain at 19h 00m. Fresh to moderate E to ESE breeze. Choppy sea. 1914S 24552 162 252 10 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Fresh to moderate easterly breeze. Choppy to moderate sea. Easterly swells. 2142S 24534 149 247 14 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate to gentle easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Easterly swells. 2320S 24513 100 258 10 Squally in early morning, with rain at 01h 00m. Clearing to cloud- less in afternoon. Gentle easterly breeze. Moderate sea with easterly swells until noon, then SW and southerly swells. 2448S 244 35 94 282 15 Cloudy. Gentle to moderate easterly breeze. Moderate sea. South- erly swells. 2636S 24440 108 261 16 Cloudy and squally in very early morning; rain at 02h 30m. Cloudy on horizons during day, drizzling rain in late evening. Moderate to gentle ENE breeze. Moderate sea, southerly swells. 2804S 24451 89 247 18 Cloudy to overcast with rain squalls during morning, then cloudy to clear. Light to gentle northeasterly breeze. Moderate to smooth sea. Cloudy to clear. Light to gentle northeasterly breeze. Smooth sea. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light to gentle northeasterly breeze. Smooth sea. Southerly swells. Overcast in mid-afternoon, otherwise cloudy. Gentle to moderate N to NW breeze. Moderate to smooth sea. Southerly swells. 3123S 24956 137 139 16 Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Squally in late evening. Moderate to fresh NW to WxXN breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. 2854S 25119 165 76 20 Overcast, with rain squalls in very early morning, then cloudy. Fresh to moderate W to SW breeze. Moderate sea. Easter Island Ly) ioe ee oeee Sighted Easter Island at 03h 40m. Cloudy. Moderate to light south- westerly breeze. Moderate sea. At anchor in Cook’s Bay at 08h 55m. 2912S 24513 70 156 3034S 24544 86 162 3132S 24716 97 215 a AD Easter Island to Callao, Peru Total distance, 3334 miles; time of passage 32.9 days; average day’s run, 101.3 miles ° , ° , ° miles miles Easter Island nace bem G00 Ran 10 miles from anchorage in Cook’s Bay, then took departure off Needle and Flat Rocks at 17h 06m. Cloudy. Gentle E to NExE breeze. Moderate sea. 53 54 14 1929 29 22S 3108S 32 02S 31458 3153S 32 27S 34 03S 35 17S 3651S 38 40S 395458 4019S 40 26S 3954S 38 26S 36 38S 24 32S 32 30S 32 10S 315458 3155S 3145S 3102S 285158 26 57S 2458S Noon position 251 07 250 29 249 06 250 35 251 02 252 37 253 18 254 37 255 55 257 06 258 59 261 02 262 30 263 46 265 52 266 55 268 10 269 59 270 56 271 10 271 45 272 45 273 25 274 37 276 04 277 45 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS pay’s|_ Current | Easter Island to Callao, Peru--Continued | current | run Dir. ° miles 71 i3 193 112 265 89 259 78 23 25 200 87 154 102 105 98 218 113 241 122 204 114 186 Of 166 68 142 66 109 131 140 119 359 140 283 152 265 52 288 21 30 53 54 146 319 137 264 150 324 miles 21 12 10 Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) Hazy morning and evening. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light NE to E breezes. Smooth sea. Northeasterly swells, in morning, changing to southwesterly in afternoon and evening. Squally in evening, with rain at 20h 30m. Clear overhead in early morning, thereafter cloudy to overcast, with occasional rain squalls. Light to gentle E to NE breezes un- til mid-afternoon, then moderate gale. Smooth to moderate to rough sea. Northeasterly swells. Cloudy to overcast throughout, with frequent rain squalls. Moderate E gale to strong E breeze, changing in afternoon to fresh south- easterly breeze. Rough to choppy sea. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate to fresh to light southeaster- ly breezes. Choppy sea. Southeasterly swells. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons, until evening; then clear. Light to mod- erate SE to E breezes until early evening, then calm. Moderate to smooth sea. Southeasterly swells. Cloudless until noon, then cloudy on horizons. Calm to light north- erly airs until mid-morning, thereafter moderate northerly breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. Easterly swells in morning. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons, until evening, then overcast, with driz- zling showers. Light to gentle northerly breeze until evening, then moderate northeasterly breeze. Smooth sea until evening, then moderate. Southerly swells. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Hazy in afternoon. Moderate to gentle northeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons, and hazy. Squally in evening. Heavy dew early morning and late evening. Moderate northeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. Southerly and westerly swells. Overcast and foggy except in early morning and late evening; then cloudy and hazy. Moderate NEXN and NE breeze. Moderate sea. Southerly swells. Overcast to cloudy. Hazy. Moderate northeasterly breeze. Moder- ate sea. Cloudy and hazy until noon, thereafter overcast and hazy. Moderate NNE to moderate and gentle N breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudless in afternoon, otherwise cloudy on horizons. Gentle N to NNW breeze. Moderate sea. Heavy dew in late evening. A few clouds on horizons, otherwise clear. Calm during morning, otherwise light N to NW airs and breezes. Smooth sea. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle to moderate northwesterly breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. Heavy dew in very early morning. Cloudy and hazy in morning; overcast and hazy in afternoon and evening, with occasional showers. Moderate westerly breeze until late evening; then light SW breeze changing to calm. Smooth sea. Overcast and rain in very early morning; calm. Thereafter cloudy, chiefly on horizons, with moderate SE to ESE breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Moderate ESE to E breezes. Moderate sea. Rain 13h-14h. Cloudy in morning; cloudy to overcast thereafter. Moderate south- easterly breeze in morning; calm to light variable airs thereafter. Moderate to smooth sea. SE to SW swells. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Gentle to light SE breeze in early morning, otherwise calm. Smooth sea. Small easterly swells in morning. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons. Light southerly airs in morning, chang- ing to northerly in afternoon. Smooth sea. Calm until midday, Light northerly airs thereafter. Cloudy, chief- ly on horizons. Smooth sea. Overcast to cloudy until midday, thereafter clear or only cloudy on horizons. Light northwesterly to southwesterly airs and breezes. Smooth sea. Cloudy, chiefly on horizons, until late evening, then rain squalls. Light southwesterly airs in morning, changing to moderate south- easterly in afternoon. Smooth to moderate sea. Clouds, chiefly on horizons. Moderate to fresh southeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. Overcast and rain squalls in late evening. Overcast, with squall conditions. Drizzling rain and rain squalls in afternoon and evening. Fresh ESE to SE breeze. Moderate and choppy sea. Overcast in morning, clear to cloudy in afternoon; overcast in even- ing. Moderate SE breeze. Moderate sea. ABSTRACT OF LOG 55 Easter Island to Callao, Peru--Concluded Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) ° miles Jan. 9 2306S 27845 125 308 12 Overcast. Moderate to gentle SE breeze. Moderate sea. 10 2127S 27933 108 248 13 Overcast, with occasional small breaks in clouds. Moderate to fresh SE breeze. Moderate sea. 11 1907S 28041 152 273 16 Overcast, with occasional small breaks. Moderate to fresh SE to ESE breeze. Moderate sea. 12 1642S 28122 150 298 13 Overcast in morning, cloudy in afternoon. Moderate ESE to SE breeze. Moderate sea. 13 1406S 28208 162 315 12 Overcast in early morning, then clearing to clouds on horizons in afternoon. Moderate southeasterly breeze and moderate sea. 14 1216S 28240 114 274 12 Heavy dew in early morning. Cloudy to clear to overcast during day. Moderate to smooth sea. Gentle southeasterly breeze, chang- ing through light E airs, to calm. 14 Callao 23 aaceie Beses At anchor in Callao harbor at 15h 22m. *Current data unreliable, as ship’s speed insufficient to register on log. Callao, Peru to Papeete, Tahiti Total distance, 4470 miles; time of passage, 35.8 days; average day’s run, 124.9 miles 1929 ee? “ils imiless ysis miles Feb. 5 Callao Gago = bad) Gabe Left anchorage in Callao harbor at 15h 20m. Ran 7 miles to San Lorenzo Island abeam at 16h 32m; then took departure. Cloudiness 7 to 8. Light southwesterly breeze. Smooth sea. Hazy. 6 1154S 281 20 G1) pone egos Cloudiness 3 to 7, and hazy. Gentle S to SE breeze. Moderate sea. Light dew in early morning and late evening. 7 1009S 28002 129 329 #20 Cloudiness 1 to 5, chiefly on horizons. Gentle southeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. Hazy in afternoon. 8 957S 27745 136 336 15 Cloudiness 3 to 7, chiefly on horizons. Moderate S to SSE breeze. Moderate sea. Hazy in early morning. 9 1026S 27545 122 310 8 Clouds 7 in morning. Clouds 1, on horizons, in afternoon. Moderate southeasterly breeze in morning to light southerly airs in after- noon. Moderate to smooth sea. 10 1045S 27502 46 257 9 Cloudiness 1 to 8, chiefly on horizons. Light southerly airs in morning and evening; calm during day. Smooth sea. 11 1039S 274 06 56 279 8 Nearly overcast before 08h 00m, otherwise cloudiness 1 to 2 only on horizons. Gentle to light S to SE breezes. Smooth sea. South- erly swell. 12 1100S 27232 94 330 9 Cloudiness 2 to 4, chiefly on horizons. Moderate S to SE breeze. Moderate sea. 13 1233S 27018 161 302 9 Cloudy to overcast after early morning hours; a few clouds on ho- rizons before 04h 00m. Moderate to fresh SE breeze. Moderate sea. 14 1423S 26745 185 255 16 Partly cloudy, amount 2 to 5, except just before noon; then nearly overcast. Fresh to moderate SE breeze. Moderate sea. 15 1549S 26506 175 287 12 Cloudy to overcast, amount 9 to 10, up to noon. Squally. Drizzling rain at 07h 00m. Clearing overhead after midday, clouds 2 to 5. Hazy. :Moderate SE to E breeze. Moderate sea. 16 1516S 26223 161 305 5 Cloudiness 3 to 8 in morning; 8 to 10 in afternoon and evening. Mod- erate ESE to ExS breezes. Moderate sea. Hazy. 17 1446S 25914 186 273 7 Cloudiness 6 to 9 in morning; clearing somewhat in afternoon with cloudiness 2 to 5. Moderate to fresh easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Short drizzling rain at 05h 00m. Cloudiness 1 to 7; hazy. Moderate E and ExS breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 2 to 3, on horizons. Moderate ExS and ESE breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 2 to 5, on horizons, until late evening, then clouding over to amount 9. Moderate ESE to gentle ExS breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 2 to 7, chiefly on horizons. Gentle to moderate easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 3 to 6, chiefly on horizons. Moderate easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 5 to 6, chiefly on horizons. Moderate easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudy and partly cloudy; amounts 1 to 8. Moderate to gentle E to NE breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 2 to 5, chiefly on horizons, until evening, then almost overcast. Gentle to moderate ENE to E breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 9 to 4. Gentle to moderate easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Easterly swell. Drizzling rain and a rain squall between 01h 00m and 03h 00m. Cloud- iness thereafter 1 to 5, chiefly on horizons. Moderate sea. Fresh to moderate ENE to E breezes. 18 1419S 25641 150 273 19 1334S 25407 156 291 20 1300S 25151 137 283 21 1231S 24953 119 124 22 1236S 24740 130 196 23 1231S 24450 166 357 24 1241S 24227 140 261 25 1246S 24036 109 122 26 1303S 23842 114 319 27 1328S 23550 169 236 oo FD FF WOW WO DD TW 56 13 Papeete OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Callao, Peru to Papeete, Tahiti--Concluded Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) 129 113 71 119 90 135 95 195 167 189 270 Cloudiness 3 to 9. Moderate easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 1 to 4, chiefly on horizons. Moderate to gentle easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Clear to cloudiness 1 to 4. Gentle easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 1 to 2, on horizons. Gentle easterly breeze. Moderate sea. Easterly swells. Cloudiness 1 to 5, chiefly on horizons. Gentle E to SE breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 2 to 4, chiefly on horizons. Gentle ESE to ENE breezes. Moderate sea. Northeasterly swells. Cloudiness 1 to 4, chiefly on horizons, except in early evening, then cloudiness 9. Light northeasterly breezes to airs in morning; calm in afternoon. Started engine at noon. Smooth sea. Rain squall at 01h 30m. Sighted Tatakoto Island at 05h 30m. Cloudiness 2 to 6, chiefly on horizons. Calm until late afternoon, then light SSE airs. Smooth sea. Hazy. Engine running. Sighted Amanu Island at 05h 15m. Cloudiness 1 to 6, chiefly on ho- rizons. Light SE airs in morning. Light ESE breeze in afternoon. Smooth sea. Ship hove -to from 08h 30m until 16h 00m while scien- tific staff ashore. Running with engine, until 17h 10m. Cloudiness 2 to 5 until noon, 8 to 9 after noon. Gentle to light east- erly breezes. Smooth sea. Started engine at 20h 00m. Hazy in evening. Cloudiness 1 to 10; overcast and squally in afternoon. Rain from 18h 00m to 20h 00m. Variable NE to SE breezes. Smooth to mod- erate sea. Stopped engine at 07h 10m. Cloudiness 8 to 10; squally. Rain squalls in mid-afternoon. Gentle northwesterly breezes until 20h 00m, then calm. Running engine after 15h 47m. Smooth to moderate sea. Cloudiness 6 to 10; squally. Lightning in SE in early morning. Light showers before 05h 00m. Mehetia Island abeam and distant 2 miles at noon. Gentle northwesterly breezes. Smooth to moder- ate sea. Heavy rain squalls during evening. Engine running. Cloudiness 10; squally. Light NW airs to calm to light E airs. Smooth sea. At anchor in Papeete harbor at 09h 55m. Note: cloud amounts expressed in scale from 0 for cloudless to 10 for overcast. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Papeete, Tahiti to Pago Pago, Samoa Total distance, 1274 miles; time of passage, 12.2 days; average day’s run, 104.4 miles ° , Papeete 16 46S 17 36S 1710S 1654S 16 32S 16 08S 15 4258 15 32S 2 , 209 16 208 15 207 19 206 20 203 59 201 38 199 26 198 00 miles 78 77 60 59 137 138 129 84 136 26 329 252 157 240 180 miles Left anchorage in Papeete harbor under own power at 03h 35m. Ran 3 miles, then took departure at 04h 33m. Cloudiness 8 and 9. Rain squalls in evening. Moderate to gentle easterly breeze. Mod- erate sea. Southeasterly swells. Cloudiness 2 in very early morning; thereafter 6 to 9, with rain squalls in late afternoon. Gentle to light northerly and westerly breezes. Southeasterly swells. Started engine at 05h 55m, stopped at 08h 00m. Cloudiness 7 to 9 with rain squalls during morning, otherwise cloud- iness 2 to 4, chiefly on horizons. Moderate northwesterly breezes in morning; light westerly airs in afternoon. Moderate, choppy sea. Started engine at 20h 00m. Cloudiness 1 to 3, on horizons. Light westerly to easterly airs, to calm. Stopped engine at 08h 00m, started at 12h 37m, stopped at 15h 45m. Smooth sea. Cloudiness 2 to 5 before noon, 5 to 8 after noon. Rain squalls in late evening. Light, to gentle, to moderate easterly breeze. Smooth sea until evening, then moderate. Cloudiness 7 to 10 with lightning in NE and NW in early morning and in evening. Moderate to gentle easterly breeze. Rain squalls in evening. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 5 to 9, with rain squalls at intervals throughout 24 hours. Moderate E and ExN breeze. Moderate sea. Thunder in morning. Cloudiness 5 to 10, with rain squalls in very early hours and threat- ening all day. Variable light to moderate E to N breezes. Moder- ate to broken sea. Overcast in morning, with rain squalls very early. Cloudiness 5 to 7 in afternoon, 4 to 2 inevening. Gentle to light E breezesuntil even- ing, thencalm. Moderate to smooth sea. Started engine at 21h12m. 1929 Apr. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 ABSTRACT OF LOG Papeete, Tahiti to Pago Pago, Samoa--Concluded Noon position Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) miles ° miles 1516S 196 40 79 270 4 Cloudiness 2 to 4, chiefly on horizons. Calm to light variable airs. Smooth sea. Engine running. 1442S 19420 139 341 6 Cloudiness 3 to 6, with rain squalls in afternoon. Calm, or light variable airs. Smooth sea. Engine running. 1441S 19207 129 294 2 Cloudiness 5 to 8 until late evening, then cloudiness 2. Rain squalls in early evening. Calm in early morning, changing to light and gentle northerly breezes in forenoon and, in afternoon, to light westerly breezes. Smooth sea. Engine running. 1426S 18958 125 233 8 Sighted Manua Islands at 03h 00m. Cloudiness 3 to 6. Light to gen- tle northwesterly breezes. Smooth sea. Engine running. Pago Pago ef) sods hose At anchor in Pago Pago harbor at 19h 33m. Pago Pago, Samoa to Apia, Western Samoa tens ° * miles ° miles Pago Pago poco ood «cao Left Pago Pago harbor under own power at 14h 10m. Light SW to W breezes until evening, then calm. Moderate to smooth sea. Cloud- iness 3 to 4, chiefly on horizons. Engine running. Apia BLU agoo. a000 Cloudiness 3. Hazy. Light W airs, to calm. Smooth sea. Engine running. At anchor in Apia harbor at 08h 15m. Apia, Western Samoa to Guam, Marianas Islands Total distance, 3914 miles; time of passage, 28.8 days; average day’s run, 135.9 miles ate ot -amiles! fn miles Apia cong | ance ande Let go moorings in Apia harbor at 11h 25m. Took departure at 11h 35m. Shut down engine at 13h 13m. Cloudiness 6 to 4. Light northwesterly breeze in early afternoon, changing through calm to light northeasterly airs and breezes in late afternoon and even- ing. Smooth sea. 1307S 18812 42 312 8 Cloudiness 4 to 6. Gentle easterly breeze. Smooth to moderate sea. Found two stowaways on board at 08h 00m. Returned to Apia and transferred stowaways to harbor tug at 18h 45m. 1244S 188 23 25 260 9 Cloudiness 3 in very early morning on horizons, increasing to 8 by noon. Overcast in afternoon and until late evening. Gentle to mod- erate easterly breeze until mid-afternoon, then varying between moderate breeze and calm. Rain squalls in afternoon and evening, Hazy in late evening. 1120S 18824 83 254 10 Cloudiness 5 to 7 in morning, 4 in afternoon, chiefly on horizons. Moderate to fresh E to SE breezes. Moderate sea. 840S 18857 164 321 21 Cloudiness 4 to 7 in morning, 2 to 5 in afternoon. Easterly breeze, moderate in morning, gentle to light in afternoon. Moderate sea until late evening, then smooth with easterly swells. Rain squalls at 11h 30m and 14h 00m. 739S 18811 76 272 16 Cloudiness 8 to 9 in morning, with occasional rain squalls before 06h30m. Cloudiness 6 to 4 in afternoon and 10 in late evening, with rain squall at 21h 45m. Light northerly airs to calm in morn- ing; light NE breeze in afternoon. Smooth sea. Easterly swells. Hazy and misty during day. Engine running. 644S 18735 65 244 17 Cloudiness 8 and 9 in morning and evening, 4 to 6 during day. Light northerly airs to calm. Smooth sea. Easterly swells. Squally in evening. Engine running. 508S 187 37 96 194 11 Cloudiness 3 in early morning, 5and6 during day, 8 inevening. Calm in morning, light NW airs and breezes in afternoon, calm in even- s, ing. Smooth sea. Squally and hazy in mid-afternoon. Engine running. 347S 18719 83 260 14 Cloudless and calm until 05h 00m, thereafter cloudiness 4 and 3 and northeasterly breeze, increasing through day from light, in early morning, to moderate in evening. Smooth to moderate sea. Engine running. 146S 18631 130 272 16 Cloudiness 3 and 4, only on horizons, until noon, increasing after noon to 9 in late evening. Gentle to moderate E to NE breezes. Moderate sea. Rain squalls at 22h 50m and 23h 40m. 022N 18558 135 283 12 Cloudiness 4 in early morning, decreasing to cloudless in mid-aft- ernoon, then increasing to overcast in late evening. Fresh to moderate E to NE breezes. Moderate sea. 230N 18454 144 336 10 Cloudiness 5 to 8 in morning, 4 thereafter. Gentle to moderate to fresh northeasterly breezes. Moderate to choppy sea. Rain squalls at intervals from early morning to late evening. 422N 18337 136 166 6 Cloudiness 4 in early morning, thereafter 8 to 10, with rain squalls during morning and heavy showers between 16h 00m and 18h 30m. Hazy all day. Freshto moderate northeasterly breezes. Choppy sea. 57 58 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Apia, Western Samoa to Guam, Marianas Islands--Concluded 1929 May 3 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1929 May 25 26 27 28 29 Noon position Day's run Current Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) 2 , 6 29N 810N 10 47N 1402 N 145 56 Port Apra, Guam miles 149 122 185 205 194 179 202 156 165 142 158 145 165 166 171 142 89 258 259 269 253 232 215 218 348 244 292 313 316 297 328 276 10 20 10 13 Cloudiness 8 to 10 until late evening, then 6. Squally in morning. Rain squalls at 13h 30m, 15h 32m, 20h 45m. Fresh to moderate NE breeze. Moderate and choppy sea. Cloudiness very variable, ranging in amount from 4 to 9. Rain squalls at 14h 15m, 15h 00m, and 18h 15m. Moderate to fresh northeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. Hazy. Cloudiness 6 in early morning, thereafter 4. Squall conditions all day, with rain squall at 16h 50m. Fresh to strong northeasterly breeze. Choppy sea. Omitted, because the 180th meridian was crossed. Cloudiness 3 to 6. Light rain at 04h 00m. Strong ENE breeze in early morning, changing during day through fresh to moderate in evening. Squally in afternoon. Hazy in evening. Choppy sea. Cloudiness 3 to 4, chiefly on horizons, until noon, 9 in early after- noon, and 4 to 5 thereafter. Rain squall at 22h 10m. Moderate to fresh NE to ENE breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 5 to 3, chiefly on horizons. Fresh NExE and ENE breezes. Choppy, moderate sea. Squally in evening, with driz- zling rain at 22h 10m. Hazy. NE swells. Cloudiness 10 in early morning, clearing to 3 by mid-morning, clouding over to 8 before noon and clearing to 3 in late afternoon. Squally in early morning. Fresh to moderate NEXE and ENE breeze. Choppy to moderate sea. Hazy in afternoon. Cloudiness 2 to 4 in morning, 7 to 2 after noon, chiefly on horizons. Moderate ENE breeze. Moderate sea. Sighted Wake Island at 08h 00m. Hazy in early morning. Cloudiness 3to 10 up to noon and 6 to 3 thereafter. Moderate to gentle ENE and NExE breezes. Moderate sea. Light rain at 03h 05m and squally during morning. Cloudiness 2 to 7 in morning and 4 to 2 in afternoon, chiefly on ho- rizons. Moderate northeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 3 to 5, chiefly on horizons. Gentle to fresh ExS breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 4 to 9 during morning, 3 to 5 after noon, chiefly on hori- zons. Gentle to moderate ExS and SExS breezes. Moderate sea. Horizons hazy in early morning. Lightning in S in early morning. Rain squall at 10h 30m. Cloudiness 1 in early morning, thereafter 5 to 6. Moderate ExS to SExS breezes. Moderate sea. Heavy rain at 23h 20m. Cloudiness 5 to 9 except for few hours in mid-afternoon, when practically cloudless. Squally in very early morning. Moderate to fresh ExS to SE breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 2 in early morning; increasing amount of thin clouds to 9 by noon; thereafter cloudiness 8 to 10. Moderate ExS and E breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness, chiefly on horizons, 3 to 8 in morning, 3 to 5 after noon. Moderate to gentle E breezes. Moderatesea. Sighted Rota Island at-09h 00m and Guam at 17h 00m. Hazy in morning and evening. Cloudiness 3 in early morning. Light southeasterly breeze. Smooth sea. Started engine at 05h 50m outside Port Apra. Pilot aboard at 06h 00m. Moored in Port Apra at 08h 00m. Port Apra, Guam to Yokohama, Japan Total distance, 1447 miles; time of passage, 13.2 days; average day’s run, 109.6 miles CW Port Apra 16 05 N 18 33 N 21 31N 23 26N a , 144 07 143 59 144 13 144 05 miles 161 148 179 115 miles Let go moorings at 13h 45m, ran one mile under own power, and took departure at 14h 08m. Cloudiness 4 and 5, chiefly on hori- zons. Moderate ENE breeze. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 2 to 5, chiefly on horizons, except in mid-afternoon, when cloudless. Moderate ENE to E breezes. Moderate sea. Rain at 01h 45m. Cloudiness 6 to 1, chiefly on horizons. Moderate E breeze. Moder- ate sea. Drizzling rain at 04h 25m. Cloudiness 1 to 5, chiefly on horizons. Moderate to gentle easterly breeze. Moderate to smooth sea. Cloudiness 7 in very early morning, decreasing through day to 1 in late evening. Gentle to moderate E to SE breezes, until mid-aft- ernoon, then southeasterly light breezes to light airs. Squally in early morning with rain at 00h 05m. Light dew in evening. Run- ning with engine after 19h 23m. ABSTRACT OF LOG 59 Port Apra, Guam to Yokohama, Japan--Concluded ? Dir.| Am t. Noon position — Day’s : Longi- Lati- run east , 2. , Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) miles ° miles May 30 2515N 14409 109 228 15 Cloudiness, chiefly on horizons, 4 to 6 before noon, 3 to 4 after noon. Calm in very early morning, then light to gentle southeast- erly breezes. Squally in early morning. Hazy in morning and evening. Smooth sea. Stopped engine at 07h 05m. 31 2624N 144 25 71 = 152 14 Cloudiness 4 to 8 until mid-afternoon, thereafter 2 on horizons. Gentle S breeze decreasing in force to light airs in afternoon and evening. Smooth sea. Heavy dew in morning, light in evening. Engine started 18h 00m. June 1 2829N 14400 127 298 3 Cloudiness 6 to 10. Light southerly breezes in early morning, in- creasing in force to strong in late evening. Smooth sea in morn- ing, changing through day to rough in late evening. Heavy dew in morning. Rain at 23h 45m. Engine stopped 06h 00m. 2 3010N 14356 101 132 14 Overcast before noon, thereafter cloudiness 7 to 9. Hazy all day. Fresh SWxW breeze until mid-morning, changing to moderate westerly breeze and decreasing in force through afternoon to calm in late evening. Choppy, moderate sea. Started engine midnight. 3 3103 N 14418 57 63 18 Cloudiness 8 to 10 until late evening, then 6. Very hazy all day. Light westerly airs in early morning, increasing in force to mod- erate in evening. Choppy, moderate sea. Northwesterly swells in early morning. Started engine at 12h 10m. Stopped engine 08h 00m. 4 3242N 14213 145 307 21 Cloudiness 8 to 10 until late evening, then 5. Moderate to fresh southwesterly breezes. Choppy, moderate sea. Hazy all day. Southwesterly and westerly swells. Stopped engine at 05h 38m. Started engine at 15h 00m. 5 3357N 14112 91 30 15 Cloudiness 4 in very early morning, thereafter 8 to 10. Gentle to moderate W to SW breezes. Moderate sea. Hazy all day. Wester- ly and northerly swells. Sighted Miyake Island at 18h 30m. Saw reflected ray from Nojima Zaki Lighthouse (SE Japan) during evening. Stopped engine at 15h 55m. Drizzling rain after 23h 06m, with rapidly falling barometer. Started engine at 17h 20m. 6 3452N 14039 £61 44 38 Overcast in morning, with drizzling rain in early morning; cloudi- ness decreasing after noon to 3 in evening. Moderate southerly breezes in early morning increasing in force to fresh gale by mid- day and decreasing to moderate breeze in evening. Rough sea. Stopped engine at 02h 00m, started at 04h 45m, stopped at 09h 45m and hove to on southern edge of typhoon. 7 Yokohama PA” Seah 1 Band Overcast all day, and hazy. Gentle to fresh NE breeze after 01h 30m. Moderate sea. Got under way with sails at 01h 35m. Started engine at 10h 55m and ran in to Yokohama harbor. Anchored out- side breakwater at 19h 45m. Yokohama, Japan to San Francisco, U.S.A. Total distance, 4839 miles; time of passage, 34.9 days; average day’s run, 138.7 miles 1929 ree je niles eas miles June 24 Yokohama OS ae: ESS Took departure from Honmoku Buoy, Yokohama harbor, under own power, at noon and ran 33 miles to entrance to outer bay at 17h 50m. Overcast, hazy, rainsqualls. Gentle to moderate northeast- erly breezes. Smooth to moderate sea. Easterly swells in late evening. 25 3444N ~ 141 04 98 66 44 Overcast and drizzling in early hours, clearing to amount 7 by noon and to amount 4 by late evening. Hazy all day. Calm in early morning, changing to gentle easterly breezes before 06h 00m. Moderate sea. 26 3600N 142 05 91 47 42 Cloudiness 4 in early morning, increasing steadily to overcast by noon; thereafter overcast. Hazy throughout. Light ESE airs and breezes up to noon, thereafter light SSE breezes. Smooth sea. Heavy dew in morning, light dew in evening. Southeasterly swells. 27 3641N_ 143 38 85 33 9 Cloudiness 4 on horizons in early morning and late evening, other- wise overcast. Hazy throughout. Gentle to light SSE breezes during morning, changing through S to SSW by mid-afternoon. Light airs to calm after 15h 00m. Smooth sea. Swung ship for declination in afternoon. 28 3646N 145 23 85 237 4 Hazy throughout. Cloudiness 7 to 9 throughout. Heavy dew in early morning. Calm until 08h 00m, thereafter light easterly airs and breezes. Swung ship for horizontal intensity and inclination from 09h 00m to 19h 00m. Smooth sea. 29 3745 N 145 27 59 294 18 Cloudiness 9 to 10 (overcast) throughout. Hazy after midday. Gen- tle easterly breezes until late afternoon; light airs to calm there- after. Smooth sea. Started engine at 18h 57m. 60 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Yokohama, Japan to San Francisco, U.S.A.--Continued 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 38 06 N 38 43 N 39 50 N 40 22 N 41 22N 42 35 N 43 45 N 45 30 N 46 56 N 47 02 N 46 43 N 46 00 N 45 16N 46 22N 48 07 N 49 14N 50 32 N 5125 N 52 22 N 52 33 N 5157N 50 13 N 4759N 45 58 N 4416N 42 34N 40 39 N 39 36 N 147 42 149 29 151 03 153 16 155 33 158 12 159 40 162 58 166 34 169 27 171 41 172 58 174 08 178 06 183 20 187 18 192 41 198 14 204 23 209 35 213 54 217 17 220 15 222 25 224 46 227 39 230 28 Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) 106 79 116 126 135 122 161 148 120 103 69 82 192 218 172 210 214 225 195 192 189 171 137 144 173 144 98 116 126 299 311 295 339 283 240 14 10 11 12 Cloudiness 7 to 4 in morning; 7 to 10 thereafter. Hazy. Light south- easterly airs throughout, except for few hours gentle breeze in afternoon. Smooth to moderate sea. Southeasterly swells. Stopped engine at 12h 50m. Cloudiness 2 to 6, chiefly on horizons. Slight haze in early morn- ing. Light to gentle SE breezes. Moderate sea. Southeasterly swells in morning. Cloudiness 9 in early morning, decreasing gradually to 3 in early evening, then increasing to 7 in late evening. Gentle to light south- easterly breezes. Moderate to smooth sea. Southeasterly swells in morning. Cloudiness 7 to 9 during afternoon, otherwise overcast. Gentle southeasterly breezes. Smooth sea. Overcast throughout. Misty and drizzling in evening. Gentle to mod- erate southeasterly breeze. Moderate sea. Overcast throughout, with mist, fog, and drizzling rain. Moderate SExS breeze. Moderate sea. Overcast throughout, with mist, fog, or drizzling rain. Gentle to moderate SSE breeze. Moderate sea. Overcast throughout, with fog or drizzling rain. Gentle to moderate southerly breeze. Moderate sea. Overcast throughout, with mist, fog, or drizzling rain. Moderate to gentle S and W breezes. Moderate sea. Overcast throughout, with mist or fog. Moderate W breeze until evening, then light northwesterly breeze. Moderate sea. Overcast throughout, with mist or haze. Moderate to gentle NNE breeze. Moderate sea. Northwesterly swells in evening. Overcast throughout, with mist or fog. Moderate to gentle NNE to NE breezes. Moderate sea. Northwesterly swells in morning. Overcast throughout, with thick fog. Gentle to light southeasterly breezes. Smooth sea. W and NW swells in morning, E to SE swells in afternoon. Overcast throughout, with mist or thick fog. Light to gentle south- easterly breezes in morning, moderate to fresh southerly breeze after midday. Smooth to moderate and choppy sea. Rain during morning. Southeasterly swells in morning. Overcast throughout, with mist, fog or rain. Fresh southerly breeze. Choppy sea. Overcast throughout, with mist, thick fog, or rain. Strong to mod- erate SxW breezes. Choppy, rough sea. Overcast throughout, with thick fog in morning; hazy thereafter. Fresh to strong SxE breeze. Moderate, choppy sea. Overcast throughout; heavy mist in evening. Fresh to strong south- erly breeze. Choppy sea. Overcast throughout, with mist, fog, or haze. Strong SxE and S$ breeze. Choppy sea. Overcast throughout, with thick fog or mist. Fresh S to SW breezes Choppy sea. Southwesterly swells. Overcast throughout; drizzling rain in early morning, mist there- after. Fresh SWxW breeze. Choppy sea. Southwesterly swells. Overcast throughout; misty until evening, then drizzling rain. Fresh to strong SWxW and SW breeze. Choppy sea. Southwester- ly swells. Cloudiness 9 to 10 (overcast), misty and hazy. Strong SW to W breeze. Choppy sea. Westerly swell in afternoon. Cloudiness 7 in morning, increasing to 10 (overcast) in evening. Rain in early morning and late evening. Moderate to fresh W to WSW breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 9 in early morning, decreasing to 4 by noon, remaining so until late evening, then increasing to 9. Drizzling rain at in- tervals up to 08h 00m, then hazy until noon. Clear after midday, Moderate WxS to WSW breezes. Moderate sea. ~ Overcast throughout, with rain at intervals throughout. Moderate to fresh SW to S breezes. Moderate sea. Cloudiness 8 to 10 (overcast) in morning, overcast thereafter. Hazy during day. Drizzling rain and mist in evening. Fresh southerly winds to mid-day, moderate to gentle westerly thereafter. Mod- erate sea. Cloudiness 7 just before midday, otherwise 9 to 10 (overcast). Drizzling rain and mist in early morning. Moderate to strong N breeze. Moderate to choppy sea. W swells in early morning. ABSTRACT OF LOG Yokohama, Japan to San Francisco, U.S. A.--Concluded : Longi-| Day’s Lati- eae CR Wy he Am’t east 5 1929 hams PN miles July 27 3849N 23414 182 254 20 Cloudiness 6 to 9 until midday; overcast thereafter. Hazy in late evening. Strong NNW breeze in morning, decreasing in force through afternoon to light in evening. Choppy to moderate sea. Started engine at 21h 30m. 28 3756N 23704 143 207 17 Overcast; haze and fog until noon. Light NNW airs to calm. Mod- erate to smooth sea. Heard Point Reyes fog signal at 08h 45m. 28 San Francisco 743i = Gaa8 ace oer e San Francisco harbor at 16h 00m and dropped anchor at 6h 30m. Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) San Francisco, U.S.A. to Honolulu, T. H. Total distance, 2186 miles; time of passage, 20.1 days; average day's run, 108.8 miles 1929 Sa eee milesiaen miles Sep. 3 San Francisco Beas.) ‘os00 con Took departure under own power from pier 16, San Francisco har- bor at 10h 00m and streamed the log at 13h 45m, through the Golden Gate. Ran 12 miles to Bell No. 5 at 15h 18m, thence 64 miles to the noon position on Sep. 4. Smooth sea, easterly swells in the evening. Overcast and hazy all day. Calm to gentle breeze. 4 3707N 23621 (76) (330) 5 Smooth to moderate sea. NW swells. Light airs and light S breezes in forenoon and gentle W breezes in the afternoon and evening. Main engine stopped at 08h 00m, started at 13h 50m, and stopped again at 18h 10m. 5 3530N 23502 116 294 23. Moderate sea all day with moderate NW breezes. Cloudiness 10 most of the day with a minimum of 5 at 16h 00m. 6 3347N 23340 123 92 15 Moderate sea; gentle NW breezes. Light drizzle in morning and in late afternoon with the sky overcast much of the day. Rarsa2opNeas2d2 OSmgtt2 35155 12 Sea moderate in a.m. with NW swells, smooth thereafter. Light and gentle NW breezes. Sky overcast nearly all day. - 8 3136N 231 13 68 121 8 Smooth sea; gentle NW breezes. Cloudiness 7 to 10. Started main engine at 12h 55m, stopped main engine at 20h 05m. 9 3023N 22906 131 240 10 Sea smooth in morning with gentle NW breezes. Sea moderate with gentle to moderate NNE breezes in the afternoon. Sky partly cloudy. 10 2919N 22727 107 70 11 Sea moderate with gentle to moderate NNE breezes. Sky partly cloudy. 11 2812N 22540 114 198 1 Sea smooth with light to gentle N and NE breezes. Morning sky overcast, partly cloudy in afternoon. 12 2744N 224 33 66 234 4 Sea smooth. Light airs to light ExS breezes in morning; calm in afternoon. Sky overcast in morning, clear in afternoon. Main engine started at 11h 20m. 13° 26158 N 22213 124 47 11 Sea smooth. Light SE airs. Sky clear in morning, partly clear in afternoon. Engine stopped 18h 45m. 14 2640N 22052 75 280 13 Sea smooth. Light S breezes. Sky partly clear, a little rain at 06h 30m. Main engine started 00h 45m. Main engine stopped at 04h 45m, started at 19h 15m, then stopped at 23h 08m. 15 2627N 219 24 80 351 12 Sea smooth. Light S airs to gentle S breezes. Sky partly cloudy. Z y Main engine started 04h 40m and stopped 10h 00m. 16 2613N 21756 80 49 15 Smooth sea. Gentle SE breezes. Sky partly clear in morning, and partly overcast in the afternoon. Main engine started at 18h50m. 17 2507N 21622 108 34 10 Smooth sea in morning with light SE breeze. Moderate sea in the afternoon and evening with moderate NE breezes. Sky clear all day with horizon partly cloudy. Sky overcast in evening, rain at midnight. Stopped engine at 06h 45m. 18 2402N 21426 124 24 15 Moderate sea, moderate NEXN breezes. Rain at 01h 20m. Mostly clear near midday with horizon cloudy and partly clear in after- noon. Sky clear, horizon cloudy in evening. LO 2a tN 2S e177, 76 10 Moderate sea, moderate NEXE breezes in forenoon. Sky mostly overcast during afternoon, squally near midnight. 20 2251 N 20837 151 98 8 Moderate sea, moderate ExNE breezes in forenoon, moderate ExN breezes in afternoon. Partly cloudy with overhead clear most of the day. 21 2216N 20623 129 54 15 Moderate sea, moderate ENE breezes during first part of morning with gentle breezes ExNE and NEXE during the rest of the day. Horizon partly cloudy in the early morning and late evening with sky about half overcast during the day. 22°21 44 N° 20420 119 23 14 Sea moderate. Gentle ESE breezes in morning and gentle ExS breezes in the evening. Few drops of rain in early morning with squalls. Sky partly cloudy during the day. 23 Honolulu 106 5Se--e- “00 Started engine at 07h 50m. In harbor at 10h 00m. 62 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Honolulu, T. H. to Pago Pago, Samoa Total distance, 5777 miles; time of passage, 47.2 days; average day’s run, 122.2 miles Noon position Current Remarks Date (Local mean time used throughout) 1929 ae aemiles | aaeemiles Oct. 2 Honolulu harbor Left the dock at 10h 00m assisted by tug. Left tug at 10h 25m and oO reeGyNie 201054," 1(14)) ce. ASS ran 14 miles to bearings at noon. Moderate sea with fresh ENE breeze. Cloudiness 6 to 10 with rain squalls in the evening. 3 2332N 20028 157 174 12 Moderate sea, moderate to fresh ENE breezes in morning, fresh E breezes first part of the afternoon and moderate NEXE breezes in the evening. Horizons cloudy, overhead clear during the morning and rain squalls at 16h 00m. 4 2626N 19928 182 198 16 Moderate sea and fresh ENE breezes. Few drops of rain at 15h 24m. Cloudiness 4 to 5, overhead clear during the morning; cloud- iness diminished to 3 by evening and to 2 by 24h 00m. 5 2908N 198 46 165 220 12 Moderate sea. Moderate to fresh ENE breezes. Cloudiness 3 to 5 during the morning, with the sky about half overcast in the after- noon and a few drops of rain at 13h 30m and at 16h 18m. ‘he sky was partly cloudy in the evening. 6 3142N 19900 154 214 13 Moderate sea during the day; smooth sea in the evening. Moderate to gentle E breezes in a.m. and gentle to light E breezes in p.m. The sky was more than half overcast all day. 7 3246N 199 16 64 324 8 Smooth sea with swells. Light E breezes and light E airs in a.m. and light NEXxE airs and light NE breezes in the afternoon and evening. Sky clear in early morning, cloudiness 3 to 4 during the day and squally near midnight. Started the engine at 11h 18m. 8 3416N 200 02 98 230 10 Smooth sea during the day with moderate sea in the evening. Light NE breezes and NE airs and gentle ExS breezes in the forenoon, with light to gentle SE breezes in the afternoon and moderate to fresh SW breezes in the evening. Sky cloudy most of the day with a short drizzle at 18h 42m. Stopped engine at 11h 48m. 9 3405 N 20307 153 290 10 Sea moderate and choppy. Fresh to strong SW breezes during the day, with fresh to gentle NW breezes in the evening. The sky was overcast and squally all morning with a short rain squall at 06h 12m. Sky overcast during the afternoon with a little rain at about 17h 00m. 10 3335 N 20531 123 233 10 Sea smooth during the early morning, swells during the day, and moderate sea in the late evening. Gentle NW breezes to NW airs during the day with light S airs to gentle S breezes in the first part of the evening and gentle to moderate SxW breezes during the latter part of the evening. Engine started at 09h 00m, stopped at 20h 12m. 11 3339N 20820 141 236 8 Sea moderate in a.m. and choppy in p.m. Moderate to fresh SW breezes all day. The sky was partly cloudy in the forenoon and mostly overcast in the afternoon with a little rain at about 18h00m, 12 3317N 21218 200 258 10 Sea choppy in a.m. and moderate in p.m. Strong to fresh SxW and SW breezes in a.m. with a moderate NW breeze in the first part of the afternoon; calm at 15h 00m. Gentle to moderate SW breezes during the rest of the day. The sky was overcast all day and there were occasional rains. 13 3326N 21436 116 255 7 Moderate sea in a.m. and swells inp.m. Gentle to fresh NW breezes in a.m. with light NW, W, and WSW breezes in the after- noon and evening. The sky was overcast and squally in the morn- ing, and partly cloudy for the rest of the day. 14 3334N 21652 114 237 9 Moderate sea.. Gentle and moderate SW breezes in a.m. with fresh SSW and SxW breezes in p.m. The sky was partly cloudy all day with a few drops of rain at 23h 30m. 15 3148N 21915 161 330 18 Choppy sea. Fresh SW breezes in a.m. with breezes NW, NNW, N NxE, and NEXN, moderate to fresh during the rest of the day. The sky was partly cloudy in the a.m. and completely overcast in the afternoon and evening with rain from 12h 30m to 13h 00m and from 15h 30m to 16h 36m. 16 2903 N 22041 181 279 21 Sea moderate to choppy. Fresh NE breezes all day and light SW breezes in the evening. The sky was overcast and cloudy most of the day with a few drops of rain at 03h 30m and rain from 16h 30m to 17h 30m and a drizzle from 20h 30mto 21h 48m. Engine started at 18h48m, stoppedat 19h 42m, andstartedagainat 20h06m. 17 2722N 221.52 119% 302 13 Moderate sea in the early morning and smooth sea the rest of the day. Light SSW and SxW breezes in a.m. with light S airs the first part of the afternoon and calms the rest of the day. The sky was mostly clear all day. Engine: stopped at 08h 00m and started again at 10h 42m. 18 2601 N 22254 98 313 7 Smooth sea all day. Calm in the early morning, variable light airs to light breezes from the SE quarter the rest of the morning and light ExS breezes in the afternoon with gentle ExS and ExN breezes in the evening. Engine stopped at 06h 36m. ABSTRACT OF LOG 63 Honolulu, T. H. to Pago Pago, Samoa--Continued Lati- Longi- PavAs tude tude east 1929 ays o.cenmilesmanen samiles Oct. 19 2457N 22215 373 334 16 Moderate sea. Gentle ESE breezes in a.m. and gentle to moderate ENE breezes in the afternoon. The sky was almost wholly over- cast during the early morning hours, with rain squalls and rain from 02h 06m to 02h 18m, from 03h 06m to 03h 12m, and from 04 18m to 06h 42m. The sky partly cleared near midday but later became overcast. There was a drizzle from 15h 42m to 15h 48m and from 22h 42m to 22h 48m. 20 2310N 22140 112 329 16 Moderate sea. Moderate ExS breezes most of the day. The sky was more than half overcast all day but the cloudiness decreased to 3 in the evening. There were frequent drizzles and rains in the early morning. 2t2E15N) 221025 116 (337 16 Moderate sea and gentle to moderate E breezes in a.m. and moder- ate breezes from the E, ExN, and ENE in the p.m. The cloudiness was about 8 all day. 22 1818N 22159 180 306 21 Moderate sea in forenoon, choppy thereafter. Breezes: moderate to fresh from the E, ExN, ENE, and NExE. The sky was about half overcast most of the day. 23 1611 N 22255 138 306 29 Choppy and moderate sea. Moderate to fresh NEXE breezes. The cloudiness was 10 in the early morning and the late evening with an average of 5 during the day. 24 1334N 22319 159 296 24 Seas: choppy, moderate and broken. Breezes: moderate to fresh EXxN, ENE, and NE until 13h 00m with light N airs in the afternoon and light SxW breezes in the evening. The sky was almost wholly overcast all day with a drizzle from 00h 12m to 01h 54m, a few drops of rain at 02h 00m and more rain from 18h 18m to 18h30m. Engine: started at 17h 06m, stopped at 21h 48m, and started again at 23h 12m. 29 1239N 222 28 74 188 1 Sea smooth to moderate. In the forenoon there were light breezes variable from the SW quarter and light E airs and calms during the rest of the day. The sky was overcast nearly all day withfre- quent rains and squalls all day. Engine: stopped at 08h 00m and started at 13h 42m. 26 1119N 22121 104 109 8 Smooth sea. Light NW airs to light NW breezes during the day and calms all evening. Engine: stopped at 08h 00m and started again at 13h 00m. 27 1005N 22017 97 70 16 Smooth sea with light E airs and calms all day. The sky was most- ly clear all day but there were rains between 16h 00m and 18h 00m and squalls near 24h 00m. Engine: stopped at 08h 00m and started again at 12h 00m. 28 836N 21916 107 95 34 Smooth sea. Variable light airs and light breezes from the SE quarter in the a.m. with variable light to gentle breezes from the NE quarter the rest of the day. The sky was about half overcast all day. Engine stopped at 08h 12m. 29 744N 21838 64 92 30 Smooth sea the first part of the day and moderate thereafter. Var- iable light to gentle E breezes all day. The sky was about 0.5 overcast all day with a little rain at 02h 42m and at 06h 54m. 30 703N 217 29 80 75 32 Sea smooth to moderate. Variable light to gentle breezes from the SE quarter all morning increasing to moderate and fresh breezes from the same quarter and changeable light breezes from nearly all quarters during the evening. The sky was partly cloudy in the morning and mostly overcast in the afternoon with rains in the evening and a heavy rain from 22h 00m to 23h 00m. 31 643N 216 39 54 72 19 Smooth sea with light SW and SE airs and calms during the fore- noon and variable light airs to gentle breezes from the SE quar- ter in the afternoon. The sky was more than half overcast all day with rain from 00h 00m to O1h 12m and rain from 12h 24m to 12h 48m. Engine: started at 01h 12m, stopped at 02h 12m, and started at 03h 12m, and stopped again at 19h 30m. Noy. 1 5546N 215 20 97 28 15 Sea smooth in a.m. and moderate in p.m. Breezes light to moder- ate from SE, SExE, and SxE in the morning and the first part of the afternoon and moderate SSE and SExE breezes all evening. The sky was mostly overcast nearly all day; there was a drizzle from 04h 48m to 04h 54m and rain from 09h 12m to 09h 30m and i from 12h48m to 14h30m. The sky was partly clear in the evening. 2 452N 21313 137 53 12 Moderate sea with moderate SExS breezes. The sky was complet- ly overcast most of the day. 3 418N 21044 152 16 32 Moderate sea all day and smooth sea all evening. Moderate SSE and SxE breezes all morning, calm all afternoon and most of the evening with light SExS airs near midnight. The sky was nearly all overcast all day but was partly clear in the evening. Engine started at 16h 00m. Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) 64 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Honolulu, T. H. to Pago Pago, Samoa--Concluded Remarks (Local mean time used throughout) Nov. 4 302N 21012 82 13 13 Smooth sea in morning and moderate sea all evening. Light to gen- tle SExS breezes in a.m., and gentle to moderate SE breezes all afternoon and evening. The sky was partly overcast all day. Engine stopped at 08h 00m. 5 0O48N 20832 168 349 12 Moderate sea with moderate and fresh SExE and ESE breezes all day. The sky was mostly clear all day. Crossed the equator at about 18h 30m. Gayl 49'S) 9207) 36. 16%) 356 21 Moderate sea in early morning and choppy the rest of the day. Fresh ExS breezes in a.m. and fresh ExN and ENE breezes the rest of the day. The sky was partly overcast all day. 7 4452S 20636 193 315 19 Moderate sea with moderate NE breezes. The sky was mostly clear in the morning and evening; but was partly cloudy near mid- day. 8 638S 20455 145 31 5 Moderate sea and moderate NE, NEXxE, E, and ENE breezes in the afternoon. The sky was mostly clear all day. 9 805S 20305 140 20 16 Moderate and gentle ENE, NNE, and NE breezes. The sky was part- ly cloudy all day. 10 900S 20156 Cy ae @ A) 8 Moderate sea in forenoon and smooth sea in the afternoon with gen- tle NE breezes most of the day. The sky was partly clear. Sight- ed Penrhyn Island at 05h 12m. At Penrhyn Island from 09h 48m to 18h 00m. Engine for short intervals 07h 30m to 18h 00m. Engine: started at 18h 12m and stopped at 19h 54m. 11 924S 20058 62 58 15 Smooth sea with gentle NE, N, ENE, and ExN breezes. The sky was partly clear most of the day. 12 1024S 19856 135 22 15 Moderate sea in the morning and in the evening with smooth sea near midday, with moderate to gentle ExN, NE, and NNE breezes. The sky was mostly clear all day. Arrived at Tauhunu village Manahiki Island at 12h 24m and left the island at 17h 42m. En- gine at intervals 12h 00m to 18h 00m. 13 1058S 198 02 63 126 13 Moderate sea almost all day with smooth sea in early morning and late evening. Light to gentle NExE breezes in the forenoon and moderate to light NNE breezes in the afternoon. The sky was about 0.5 overcast except near 08h 00m when it was completely overcast, with rain from 06h 12m to 07h 42m and from 09h00m to 09h 12m. 14 1135S 196 36 92 95 13 Smooth sea with light NNE airs in the forenoon and calms in the afternoon. The sky was mostly clear. Started the engine at 08h 42m. 15 1203S 195 03 95 65 17 Smooth sea. Light S airs and light E breezes in the forenoon and light NE, SE, and S airs in the afternoon. The sky was mostly clear all day. Engine: stopped at 08h 00m and started again at 13h 48m. 16 1250S 19301 128 30 10 Smooth sea with light SSE breezes and light S airs in the forenoon and calms most of the afternoon. The sky was almost wholly clear all day. 17) 1337'S) 19137 95 109 14 Smooth sea with calms and light SW, W, and WXN airs. The sky was mostly clear all day. Engine: stopped at 08h 00m and start- ed again at 11h 48m. 18 1413S 18934 124 56 13. Smooth sea with calms and light WNW airs to gentle WNW and NW (17) breezes. The sky was mostly clear. Ran 17 miles from noon position to moorings in Pago Pago harbor at 15h 00m. Note: Left Pago Pago for Apia about 15h 00m, Nov. 27, arriving at Apia about 08h 00m, Nov. 28. Under en- gine power all the way with head winds on first leaving Pago Pago, 80 miles. V. DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS EXPLANATORY In accordance with procedures and instructions out- lined in section II of this volume, observations were made each day, if weather permitted, of several atmos- pheric-electric elements. Generally, the observations were made between ten hours and fifteen hours local mean time and they required between one and two hours for completion. During the observing period note was made of the prevailing meteorological conditions. The elements observed were: Potential-gradient, positive and negative conductivity, small-ion concentration, nu- clei concentration, and rate of ion production by pene- trating radiations. Potential-Gradient.--Only eye-reading measure - ments of potential-gradient were available for use in the present table up to July 10, 1928; thereafter, until Au- gust 14, 1928, recorder values were used for some days and eye-reading values for others. From August 14, 1928, for the balance of the table, recorder values have been given exclusively. Recorder values have the ad- vantage of being obtainable from the photographic record for the exact period of time occupied in making the three sets (occasionally two) of measurements of conductivity and small-ion concentration which were obtained each day, and each recorder value of potential-gradient given in this table is a mean value for that period. On some days the values of potential-gradient are omitted and the letter e inserted instead; this notation indicates that the ship’s main engine was operating dur- ing the observing period, and that exhaust gases coming from the exhaust pipe near the water line under the stern rail had affected the potential-gradient and given a spurious value that could not be used. Inspection of the photographic records indicated when this effect was present; on many occasions no effect from the exhaust gases could be noted. Apparently the wind, on these lat- ter occasions, would blow sufficiently strongly across the stern of the ship to carry the exhaust gases away so rapidly that no effect would be produced. Conductivity and Small-Ion Concentration.--The daily observations of conductivity consisted generally of two measurements of conductivity of one sign separated by one measurement of the conductivity of opposite sign. On occasions when diurnal-variation observations were made over a twenty-four-hour period, however, the program consisted of one measurement of a given sign of conductivity, followed by twenty-four measurements of opposite sign, and one final measurement of the orig- inal sign. On these occasions therefore, there were two instead of three measurements available for inclusion in the present table, the beginning and ending pairs of measurements being used to represent two successive days. Observations of small-ion Concentration were made simultaneously with the conductivity measure- ments on all possible occasions, but rain, mist, and spray interrupted the small-ion measurements much more frequently than they did the conductivity measure- ments and the small-ion data are less complete. Care was taken to insure that the concentration of ions measured was of the same sign as the conductivity being measured at any giventime. From these simultaneous measurements the ionic mobility was computed. Computed Small-Ion Mobility.--The computed mo- 65 NOTES AND COMMENTS bility values in this table are found to be reasonably consistent up to October 16, 1929. From this date until November 6, 1929, numerous high values are encoun- tered. Careful examination of the observational data has failed to disclose a reason for the high values of this period. High values of mobility similarly are found in the last two sets of diurnal-variation data in the table in section VI. These two sets were obtained October 21- 22, 1929, and November 4-5, 1929, both of which occa- sions are within the period just mentioned. Computed Air-Earth Current Density.--From the conductivity measurements and simultaneous values of potential gradient, values of air-earth current density have been computed and included in this table. The values range, in general, between 5.0 and 15.0 x 107? esu but there is a considerable group of very low values for the period August 11 to August 24, 1928. After Sep- tember 3, 1929, when only one sign of conductivity was measured each day, the other sign was computed from the relation X,/A_ = 1.10, and this computed value used in the computation of air-earth current density. Penetrating Radiation Data.--Values of ion-pairs produced per cubic centimeter per second in penetrating radiation apparatus 1 during each daily observing period of approximately one hour, are tabulated as measured, no correction being made for residual ionization. In- spection of the tabulated values indicates that the resid- ual ionization probably is nearer one ion-pair per cubic centimeter per second than two. Meteorological Data.--For brevity, various conven- tional symbols are used in presenting the meteorological data, as follows. Cloud Types Wind Force (Beaufort) cirrus ci 0 calm cirrocumulus’~ cicu 1 light air cirrostratus cist 2 light breeze altocumulus acu 3 gentle breeze altostratus ast 4 moderate breeze cumulus cu 5 fresh breeze fractocumulus frcu 6 strong breeze stratocumulus stcu 7 moderate gale stratus st 8 fresh gale cumulonimbus cunb 9 strong gale nimbus nb 10 whole gale nimbostratus nbst 11 storm 12 hurricane Weather Notes d drizzling q squalls or squally f fog r rain h_ hail S spray 1 lightning t thunder m_ mist z haze Pp passing showers Cloud amount on scale of 0 for cloudless to 10 for overcast. Visibility on scale of 1 for poor visibility, with no- ticeably hazy or smoky air, to 3 for good visibility with air very clear. Visibility 2 represents conditions not poor enough for the former nor good enough for the latter. OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions sat |g | +] a= | me Lm |e | ee en/a/i/em Mobility GMT | LMT | Lati- | tude 18.7 13.8 37.3N 286.4 50 MUBP GSP sbacem nooede dtod noon. aeded . |. Gocee Pp Ars IEG ete EPG oes pocencoued (Ee cada doo!) Boge | FGGEE 8 Ga9ac Veet SIO Ver NCIS PRT cee saaeddgdato® yigogo 2. Jladees /S:ccane SP Sets. ae wooods 13.2 Chil i sciticthiti, PES | | soo agandadosa! ) Boca! iddood OS Sia ATS RSI Iet me weer 14.0 CFO a raleN ie 2094 ee eCenMeas -clscises (UT seang | oad 6 good! aconos. | scase ET MC Piel PR cca SdppgeeHeD | nose, u6oac WET, S6sce | wdact y's yone0G! ,- = gacée, pagar BOG2, 00504 « _DonRS «-'necoR 16.6 13.8 40.8N 318.5 sg6 900909090 cont (EGS Scode CHAU Bouck tctiph Gases 17.2 14.4 40.8N 318.5 550 ngaasoedos goad |) cabeE OE eeca I Gonse 1.72 17.8 15.1 40.8N 318.5 Ona) wy. anggsondne wae EPA Gaon SXO) csrot glla8iy © casde 11.3 Sate SIONS oolet 42 MUBP BH) ase56.. 9 anodes pda) wdc0G! koodOUk “es onqae 12.6 10.0 41.9N 321.1 ee 9500... fis00d OE), Geae 2) coon 1.36 13.0 10.4 41.9N 321.1 OGD) cnece PAY Gone «AGRE Coan ei) NOL) ZHI )int eile Gag) Tobaddecras ease codec ODO eae ee anc OOMa cee 1.31 14.4 11.8 41.9N 321.1 ac fonm . | Soosto — Boog!“ bsea) “wood | Fone vitae 16.8 14.4 44.1N 324.0 34 SPAS mo bs!s cones OGL: @ HOUy, eidoods». « o0ada 17.8 15.5 44.1N 324.2 sac CodOne edendh dcbian SoeeU coast | encen aM trast 18.5 16.1 44.1N 324.3 50a, dggoutb0u 2008 HES GI sence GIS) cong UBS Sones 18.8 16.4 44.1N 324.3 con wogoceooR6 co50), ood ONO Ra eNO OM feces 1.70 19.1 16.7 44.1N 324.3 5a5 doopacaceS s00e WERE) Sess 046i Le Oe 19.7 17.3 44.2N 324.4 se “adooocesos aficgm — luineste © sosdoc odode BdO5. | CoH A doons 11.6 Wee} ZIG) GRY da = Soaansnsted. poooy. | chontellodatd=. cou | eenogq) .cno0g, 0000 11.7 GW ein) SPAS aac) econanasbas ope. = acon daoun! tose) 6 Goad Hoods Sadad 11.8 9.5 45.5N 326.7 Sop ond pdEao40 coed. end GodoR modo = -an80- fiasea cane 12.7 104 45.4N 326.5 41 MUBP IBY) | obsos Esoba poco. enoa | «choos, sabe 13.2 11.0 45.4N © 326.5 G00 | aeeonedeN sons cgage CHO coda | BER sece 1.42 13.6 11.4 45.4N 326.5 S05 nentoooase sone OLS Seeeres DG 2h wececeel oltOmmnrerete 14.0 11.8 45.4N 326.5 sed.) -Aosanodoos ee mcrae OSAP escent Oi cem somes 1.38 14.3 12.1 45.5N 326.7 55 MUBP UPA essa cados ab05.-. 8D, Wochos oonb6 15.6 13.4 45.6N 327.0 see CHog = BOeDS Bondo) | ches dodo), ceed. | 92400 INGER SA ZAG IN SPAT IN SBAP | Bbccucoace WF ccte” stash odson' Baket dso | ced | odbc MB) IG EIGEN C2 da)” Gtocisnocso! | dado. doobo. | doote Padre) IIL AIGNER pe = Gondecnbas pocn |) Godee » .Ouag0 10.3 tees CLES INT CPt) A | Bigcdcdescas* cnn «1 * 10oGde" = cidocc| «, ouoo,. Deen’ ecb | pose 10.2 Fe we ER) INI. SEA UU Aap nRoaaceene =. coUO Tr) PGS0A bm c00ct.” . God0s w potid.. scota ™ ocace ME SIGE OL ZR IN GGT "ER Grcoondcoa: "ceed | ‘dodot = dada ei tcdouM boot) Micanoall = Sgshds IG TG IRS SR) EC Goceuaddool coca! NGSOSdm | Geadolhs SBASayh odd GaBKa 6 coond bey IG RUST RE) GSI Scaoncdods” cod Scand: » Soacos"sstodom os0D yy CSOE. = Bode TGs seal INT PAS) SIRS OME RS one cioo hdco 65569 doch ka Sood. a dood. Gabo)” =. abide Pale. SIG) F ECON SG) GS Gataababes = boca «nce, one CAST Geca | onsas once PSY PADS) ZIRCON SPL) ERG igecbnoocrs «= nad bone ade ZT Babe yesens Gos PRG PADRES CRS SRG) Ga Sananosdco | Ssadl nh Masdady meade XU aacell! © doedia 6600 Zo eO) eel Gage Nec OPO mmm cce) | sccsssanee Oe aocsae! Aosad wood 4 Guddd soto Oe. eR CBE RAT SPE) ga SSsonnonace OLA ec ec et iceeeh sctcanen ected 10 2320) 4S:4NeO2O SOMME cece) weectneees Le Toodeos Rods) | ecg. eecoda . cade 10.3 8.4 44.0N 331.6 coh pudNHOCOoC nao | does Baden Sans coos | Saga8 Bao os 10.9 9.0 43.9N 331.3 32 MUBS 110 6 epee ncn face dson”) Wddbes MT dcbe 16.9 15.0 44.1N 332.0 cog banbnoates nGaa | 8 Sood) Saadoe noog ~Stodd SECHEY . Eddos 18.6 16.8 44.2N 332.2 46 MUBS IIB ee cinoonin ie OOO SOOE iis DCO! whyADOOCO he GDI00 10.2 8.5 45.5N 334.1 300: mOSbOODSAS Boke | Seda Gods BOE p80 COCO ta bt bob) 10.5 8.8 45.6N 334.2 32 MUBS MO cosoms Sock Bod = Bosco! coosdie Boto7 11.0 9.3 45.7N 334.3 36a gnaqganne: spo) oodee 0.72 So) feonds 5050 11.5 EVER ORAS SBYES} 9 gh MESARBanan0e UTM Road “bcd oekbl WM Scada, 1) Scns 12°17 1053) 4507N 3384"3 50g -eodrIbenDS occa doo 0.65 CupprReCOOS: © wASH0e 12.5 10.8 45.7N 334.3 36 MUBS INE). aecos espsact Shoo. 8 dagG, © opon. 8 pods DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 67 Visi- Clouds bility observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929 Fay Weather notes eee =<] So Oo —_ oa ao oO _ is n ie NNMNDY anon BT OIRO LOR Mpa 0 ao So eR a pip apd gE etedisehed hs 3 ath ag an COR 9 Seog (oso so NwwNe!: oo — 1 AC OOD : Wecwtwt: Mr: i: cee 1130 es: 13.6 68 NNW ol 7 sree TOiG) =) oe Melo 6 NW 1 a 68 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions} Mobility vona| S| yj | Dee d= [ime [lm tte [ee “ag cm/s/v/em 1928 May 2tiwlsiay tet... 45xGN) “SS4eS" Rea Seeccecces aac!) 0 cwoseni, seme po aden cece] teenie | anaes 28 11.6 10.2 48.1N 338.6 coo pacaadoes Baas OPS6 acess SOB Ny actecl lic Ol ammectcns 28 12.0 10.6 48.1 N 338.6 soo. Teatoadeoor root ogo0e O%S Seer OO eeeoaes 1.30 28 12.4 11.0 48.1N 338.6 506 sdapogsobe S008 0290) 2-2: EVA) ono DEG 8 cence Pas aisle) SIBLE} eI GEG cas peemeececuceoa) coo50| cece. | cee, cone Acetone 29 10.7 Drala EB BING “SSONTMR ery Uccasécsosss, “aleea cestageceueby ces ececah | tosses rceee 29 eG 0) T1418) ASOUN) "SSR ORR e ne esececcss cco ceten s osere cece aSGO” egeee DOR ele( Sree GrOt 40 CIN GOS et OMMEEPOREE ccccccccc | accel. teccise SHE Vso SIDES Geace 1.36 29 18.2 17.0 48.9N 342.0 We scone BER) ced) DIRE cece OP SSG ATSC aS 8OIN (SS2EORN Mest) cecesesccs: saceu neste OE) Sonn EP soc 1.38 SOR Gn BY CORBIN SHSIJ5) ane papeaadedon = doce = edo | nopng. | doo «=o hooda. = cee 30 15.7 14.7 49.8N 344.9 (WEEP aonce Mlcada 1. pacell “soaac0.- 8 BiGaac6 SORBUG Sie gl Sema OCODN [me 44eOMMMMMeIrn) csccechcsy isese mninec BHP Goan pane. oocea cance SO iO) wl 6: Oe 4 O° 0 NperG44e OM tenn) | ccclccese OEE ccaos = fon onde cecos «= Sobo0 31 10.5 CH BXOKENTIN) SENSSGS ok ghenccote: Go00 toonta’ Bocca dcop, cone) Seopa: dodo June 1. 8-7 UG} GOIN SKB} soe BSenecstss © Goon = Gonos) edad) cone) oon coos = on 2 9.0 8.2 49.4N 347.8 Bogis sspsccagdcos Sede = pddos 0000 coco ase) tcocop » tadsce 2 10.6 9.8 49.5N 347.9 cog SaaoI0G00 ac05) = on806 O39) ee. (YF osane 1.61 2 11.3 10.55 49.5N 347.9 oa0_Gpn0009000 boob (OEP5U 5000 OB} cosa GH Scctcn 2 12.1 11.83 49.5N 347.9 soo | ogaseo5e¢ 200. coan O14 eo eet O nemreeeer 0.88 2 12.8 11.9 49.5N 347.9 so oeadsco008 500d. 0000 onoD sooo nod GocDS SG 4 9.1 era GOIN SEYVIG) = Seg Meecceosoce cong) =o” «Gguao) coco) cso tno AU, LOSI ASOLSINGSS OO) one seenssrivre LPT cscoo = scans tone Bl 2 Oe eel Om DOLGPNEMEGSPONN cee. Gaesinsaeeeel) | \nceel un Reese WP) cose concen oD 4 12.9 12.1 50.3N 347.9 DPE! noang con Sind ons Sono Atel Gaiimyl OOM OOLORNMSS0C4 ieee. casetjonselal Yecmeilln nN Necjaciar Mbslectacu ll Miseciel laces? Mlncions Ntsc B Gbil Gee} GTN) BEY Gea bececcccce «= oe «cto cong coc etn Dee aL OA OeOENG GA OSOM NN fese | fescaescees i Mamesil utsincls OCA OO murals 1.32 5 12.0 11.3 49.9N 348.8 OR Taemecre SUS el OA reer 5 12.5 11.8 49.9N 348.8 one scope OYE boop ALI Shon 1.41 5 12.9 12.2 49.9N 348.8 50 MUBS BY} cede Aaaae sueg, deGG Soca. oct 6 10.9 10.2 50.2N 349.9 565. Spnigsconoe 5Bpe 0.80 ..... SOO Ne ccery ele 40 6 11.5 10.8 50.2N 349.9 cen ogaconcate deco pees OL econ © SIE Bocce 1.50 6 11.9 11.2 50.2N 349.9 Seo Gooeeecooe occe OES 2ieanaee S49 eee lOO memaeae 6 12.6 11.9 50.2N 349.9 35 MUBS UNG) es6e8 7) ceces seg onde) anda. © 86000 6 17.1 16.5 50.4N 350.7 568 Cognecooce Scag eneno Cee Sudol foscoy apoud 8 “eédoc Cielo LGlOMMmDO:4gNemmGOOnl Eee. (cocectesece cap. coco coco <0 eos san son 925 GLO) Best Sect og eecccccane sooo =Ss«Ci area cen S00, osddo cece eeellCS Men QeemEOOCONISOcEO) 5. laecsseeens sa seo Oca 8 een OOO Mmnants 0.87 ilice2 epllcGmEOOLCHN[ GO2s0) 9 c.. ccarerenee pees (BY rans 423 100s 7 12.6 12.1 50.2N 352.0 socd DK OFA Dees Oceans 0.95 7°#15.5 15.0 50.1 N 352.5 meDuI. «edo! bocca ond, doris tiogso, scenic 7 16.3 15.8 50.1N 352.6 20 (i) GS8SY coun! «osc « cet) cond © ores 7 16.8 16.3 50.1N 352.6 SoGe | rodose| saocca ) cest. | edo” “Soran coor 8 8.8 GES GLEN) GEKLGY ERGERMtnccsocece "Seu Goce “cecan “Woo dca. Conch d ccdos July 8 104 10.9 54.1 N Te, i CetmmereeeS ea pn \ocpou a wi caccnemtbood, ll asoa | 88a, “acco ey -c0dc 8 13.7 14.2 54.2N Tis. 1 ERMC occosy | paao_ | | occch, oneal cnoay Pod) Maosco” coced 8) 1953) 81958 915455 N il0) SegIRcetoacee 4 osed. oddot, | coocdl icc, "SAPS, gocdo crane 9 9.4 O81 95523 Ni isle) -Gagmmmeeecccccan. cdam scdoculesecoy WiMtocup P688h— “osaua. Soaked 9 13.0 13.3 55.4N Bicih SBIMeebesecasb) “lososs ms Ssda0" OadgaY ‘odae! | ood; ~ oqooa » » .cc000 Ome ie2) eeliteOn DD soeN Cl (Sa CRSP er ne MiGcoON er cidad. Moconc! Wsdso odbe cooto sy aGoce Oe827 S00), e55°99N) Llib. SUNS eoAas | occas | chdede soo00a Beane | Poqatly — Soqce, |. 00006 10 8.1 8.3 57.6N 713) WSRGMMMPeConceecame aso) | dodha casa Mdona “sacdo, 66008. =" cco0s 10 10.2 10.4 57.8N 2.6 nog QgaQabS2be Spa | pad00 OA Gon UGE “orcas 1.74 LOW ON 1059) sor. GaN 2.6 107 MUBS 353 0.54 ..... Py oqo, UTE cena LOM T1214 a5 SiN 2.6 97 MUBS S20 estes OFS reese OOM 1.54 10 11.9 12.1 57.8N 2.6 107 MUBS BERR \gacn6 00508 Sho.» {eos -9UnKa.) ,900cn 11 8.2 8.2 60.1N 0.9 900 Be pce, posi ceo wifcuoel| “cueod' cao 11 10.8 10.8 60.4N (O13) ScccucsceconenIn “obog, 8 cbubs- oasal) | ipnad cGed cos0g. = cn000 11 13.6 13.6 60.6N QRIGMNNIMers 0 (Usesscecocc. Aetesl | Wecteptkecsssyl 0 Micon) MecralMuKa-<<-EMNEECneer 11 14.4 14.4 60.8N 359.8 OSG seca IGE Aepe5 UGS) chon 11 15.0 15.0 GO.8BN 359.8 =... — weseeeseee eee seve (ORES Gog, PRL cade 1.72 11 15.4 15.4 60.8N 359.8 =... — cecceeeeee Ue GPF a 5588 SE cecg AGES go0ga Mi) 15t8) W5s8. 6OlBIN P3598 ire. eewces..s ews te einns 0.64 348... 1.28 11 16:2. 1652). 60:8\N 35998 ees. OOMcases 486 ee ES coane OTE SIGH IGE GLI T SELSEy ngs" "oostoconcbimmmceds = = locons, Goods § 9 c60u ono | “cndgo 5 “dcooG 12 (8:8 VE GOS SBE aA) cepcecoceeemonsa | Matto: “Gcood | s “caso. cto «© Setooee cotoc 12/7 9:8 da GSI ING SRR cc ~~ coscucbaee Shon coe te cudds, «een, — cordo',. 9 -cdood DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 69 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- Pen. Visi- current ion- : density pairs per Type cc/sec Weather notes see 3.40 = a 7 te et ane PLOSO © uceaes 89 3 2 3 eves OB. )0470 Wess: 88 2 0 3 Reese ae ee B67 ae th eee ee ey ee ee ee SSSR URAScasoce r Seasee, | Re, | cash ge See MRS aammnenenss y ‘ieee, . Roses |. useess otis. Mos 0 Memes nee ss r Sites 900 weces 13.0 95 NE 1 10 1 p 50005 1140 meee: 13.2 95 E 1 8 2 m 50800 1850 meee 14.4 88 +E 3 6 1 Saecls ae Poet iY Dame o 2 5; ae eee 5890 BCOOE 12.6 98 3 10 1 m eee Becewerso) UMBG.cee yee ds aS. aS ze r Reese | gsy eetioheS OP its QB (pascns “ es r neues MIR BR Geccss. > @BMesss —etdees 55 - r Bae 2.39 Rone ae ss Re Bees cease: Py POLLO acess 13.4 94 3 10 2 week a 1420 2 Siamese 93) Ee Bs 10 2 ae wes nae, 66s ee eee é ae Soules 1350 Boe 14.0 90 S$ 2 8 2 es Saeed 1990 seees 14.4 89 E 1 7 2 Eeees a 1850 ee ew) 92 2 6 3 se. ee 2a00 o., cp z . a AaORG 1350 50000 13.3 86 WSW 4 4 2 eae aisles 7540 Besce 14.1 79 WXN 3 9 cu 2 sees nies 9750 Bete 14.8 83 Wwxs 2 0 deecassasaces 2 Saeee seties 3620 ah 15.0 90 Wwxs 3 0 desesensiesces 2 Scot weoss a eee 2.91 aa Leeeeesss x Drove ek soso 7 eaece Beets 5400 arene 14.5 90 WwW 2 0 See sBies oo 2 Sar eleelais 12480 BocGe 14.0 90 WwW 3 2 cu 2 sess Sees 14690 Beier 13.6 89 WwW 4 8 cu-acu 2 e0ae Meee 2560 Seeks 12.0 91 wxs 4 Hi cist 2 Bone 10.8 ae Se i pee. ke ES i Bey 4 Be. An 1350 ma) 98 WxS » 4 ites staan 7 ae Rees | Tesisises 2.71 Seba6 sere Seaaenien atotsta sisieleisisleis Seen atatelere 8380 SCI 11.6 94 Wxs 4 9 st 1 dood: ane 1490 am ST) () 0 “Wee - ait 3 9 ster 2 a Tice 1060 “ene 10.1 98 WSW 5 8 ci-acu 2, Agee? Sects | Reece 2.97 eee re BnECHORS wesuevenev cn asses 70 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Aug GMT LMT Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions] Mobility Lati- DR Ree Ph eh ek et ND et ee ee me pe ek et D Whe Or -1 00 ONMDAIMNIMAIUINOWAWOOCATAAON NON OAOADNADDH TOW PAP AON DAITIWOWNNHEOANMWWON Ue 3-3 Dr re et pet et ek et fet et 9 bet et et et et DD tt et et et et et tt WN Re Ree DRS ee NNR e WAAMNMNAIWO RBOWWNONNVOANINOOAIDOOHIOOAWNHORUNNORAODHENODPRHERDIIWOWWRWOROMNMAOMHE oe se a Deh eR mh eh pk pk et et pe seins || Sat || gh || eal el is Hm nile pi position in 10- | in 10-4esu | | in10-4esu | per ce _| em/s/v/em 63.2N 351.3 oe (ieee at ee ae Birt) ooslaas cee 63.2N 351.0 oil ghee ee oe i ee (0599 enn 44 Ones 1.56 63.2N 351.0 96 MUBS yp sex) eS 609) Atte. 1415 eee 63.2N 351.0 Sok genase se ee OL ates SUT ee 1.36 63.5N 350.3 sit Ae crete ane MS pie A PEP ARS NEN Oo 63.6N 349.8 Bo ee en Ss ee Soo. ANA eee 64.1N 348.4 £. Be TBST eae 5T& SRE 89) aes: 64.1N 348.4 108% <= a) eee 64.1N 348.4 TOY ose 865° cssae-eO'BGU qian GAMING “3484.9 Ash) saieiess Gth) “Sones O05 hater LOCO wi nee 1.16 64.1N 348.4 TIO asace UE. eee IO acces 64.1N 348.4 253 are +... Ween) se eemmee rn eyren Wa 63.9N 347.2 HS) Aesesiesd, ee ee oe Sone (Gene. Eee 63.5N 345.3 ie Gacneanes: kas, eR SS ince \yncaktacucdcn Mae 63.5N 345.3 [re eee o cS ee Of) ken 20) fd 1.29 63.5N 345.3 er pare ea a Se HONOGG ees 642) 102 eee 63.5N 345.3 ema. & oe ee OO5verns 464be 1.36 53.4N 344.8 Sa ene, 8 a Lee... Boss), | Oe Gece ae GRAN: (3406 teh Gaiden | DRE let Pe 63:30Ni “3440 ssh newest Se) RS eee Pee ee eee 6BSNi G44 css Beene an, tigi Ae, ee eee GYAN SAD) — bre peezeseéen EER = caer accce eect ee ee 62.9N 342.1 pera LS 2 a ed Da wig) | SOD ce ave 62.7N 341.1 ais laastetttes #28, LOUTH ae Q55\ iestee 1208 Gee 62.7N 341.1 ee aS, alae O49 Orta ee 1.25 62.7N 341.1 0184625 532) |. cesnee 1 Ole BPSTEN) TSAI. 35) deretesees. ec ace. ( tree es 62:8N 340 S. Eeee ERE «6B ee 62.6N 340.1 a4 Me ees TOS Wiaecc.) MbOO meses 1.40 62.6N 340.1 25. MUBP Gey eer” ee Gia) Saker 39 ae 62.6N 340.1 ang, © eeedezees ae diijveea.. 5d yee o.ce 1.46 62.6N 340.1 Se. Betas, 5 2 en oe eee ie | ewe > GS4iN 888.9 9 250 esicceseese ae) ) Be BAS yo dpi d AM agence 63.4N 338.2 aia astiterdes ae 169m noes 820) Sek 1:43\ ee 63.4N 338.2 | agedeneess ae. 15d “TOs Fe 1.49 63.4N 338.2 ae AER, se:8 L66\* cs<53 LLY WaeR ers Gy) ays. 63.4N 338.2 ers aeoasens, wade |, awaits Bo | ge sock esse eee 6S47ANt 8380 Bs secede MB. BBL ee ED ee 6sisne aed = he ciaean BLD ) SR ae” ee 62.5N 335.7 bee) _mdeeateee. Hens) Settee EN Seax 5 fai So a 62.2N 332.7 sigs bbeearis: ts, - See O67 ented. 22850 ae 1.63 62.2N 332.7 211 MUBP 148 0.79 ..... 3D) irks (107) | eee 62.2N 332.7 a: re O58 sea: S2T6R ae 1.46 GDIOONT 3320" Fe ASS GER ee eco eds ee ee ee GION SSO cade eeteeteeel. ee eee 2 ORE es, eee GOLOUN 320'3 hs LS OR ie eee 60.7N 328.8 Be AE Oak ay tl, Steg) SS DO Ree Og ee 60.2N 327.6 Fee: ey. (0892 AND DRT C36; Wee 60.2N 327.6 61 MUBP 201 _..... 0:69:sh.c;0 -S98R on; 1.20 60.2N 327.6 i, jee. Ee NOSE 456° See! 1:43) meee 60.0N 326.9 mee peathdens att cea, Mics Fak Sf aGaeena eae ieee BOVINE :SQO0R Mc fiwccce AME PAL ie ae) ee 58.8N 326.0 29 MUBP G6 wR ss a, AE ae 58.8N 326.0 Wg ee a WNO8E css 600) Oph 20 nes: 58.8 N 326.0 81. MUBP) 102) s1S108 ee 609. 2968 1-95 ee 58.8N 326.0 27. MUBS EE) OGL Saber A05, 28s. 1.610 gente 57.8N 326.1 33 MUBP 109 1.09 ..... 554 v.04 1-36 Bie 57.8N 326.1 32 MUBP 106 _ 0.98 ..... 517 3251131 ae 57.8N 326.1 A? MUBP S39) Secon ee. Be ee ep mira WT SUSN 3260 B. 2 See. eGete.) ~ R eeee 58.4N 324.0 Re) oy, ees pe. Og0made.c, SS2nIeee 1.71 58.4 N 324.0 53 MUBS 175 0.77 ..... 909 © cgi 1G Gl epee: 58.4N 324.0 Lens, © WER cS epee 0.57 PY Fale 177 BSVAiNY 32400) Chars | Satecucenes 2 cost Sea ee OS ok hoa eo HOUSING 210: "lect? Ucetenkeo® Cael ce Sera eS char ck eee ee BBROENG S2056:° een camoemcecle cuca. URGE hac ue ee ine meer 58.2N 320.2 Be ee ee My. aor f:.- 663. B88) 025) Vee 58.2N 320.2 1582 MUBP 111... O:85i eu. S00 1.18 DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- Visi- earth Wind Clouds bility current Nuclei Weather density per cc notes in: Soees 2410 2.94 10.0 89 SW 5 3 ci-acu 2 s 5.0 Rats ea ile. .teceeae a tue ee ae a AA 1560 ey “1018 oe we i 6 ie ercup ah’, 2 aa noaae 1210 aelsiete 10.0 92 wxs 5 1 ci 2 s ee tes be, aed 5 gee ros Oana : . 2 bk ene O04 (ae eee ae z & 7 poeca 4830 aos 8.4 91 1 10 2 fases Bicck 6600 sees tiles 84 0 1 3 wes ie 2410 ee 88 3 3 3 ae Betas 1060 3.30 11.0 91 3 9 3 serie A 2130 Seas 10.9 91 3 8 3 ees seeds 1060 eisai 10.9 91 3 9 2 Sees mabe 2060 3.14 Tg 87 2 3 2 aaiea's aca Agaesieote 3.30 poe Ne e bieise ce. 3410 st a gle 87 NW 5 2 2 aie panes 1420 BSe ss 10.8 94 NWXW 4 Hf 2 seins “6.3 es ce bea a ee “ oe ae cas 300° ga Rex! ee See ¥ =oald cases 200 neh ss 10.9 92 4 8 2 eeeicis ae ae > CuLY ee he rr * & Es Secs 370 Wao: 11.0 96 4 10 1 saaiis Saas 370 e5au% 11.2 90 3 10 i eees8 ARS 1920 Sess 11.0 90 3 0 2 ances “7.0 ae Ae om Me ae . if mee aes 1560 =. / 71S%0 88 NNE 3 0 2 Aa tr. 2.72 Senet ia asteaeees +e Ee Saas gakee 990 aan 10.1 92 N 3 10 2 Sees uses 710 sasds 10.5 92 N 3 9 2 apieaie Secas) . yaaeuteees, | aes 11.2 90 Spawsseas ses - Ee ae HOS9e | giccseee | ueeces 11.2 B90) acces. Sas ay a asee ee eck PR Dscccc, RR: 11.1 88 i eeabaee ss = sesa's Sees 840 2.73 10.3 95 N 3 9 2 Seeks wana 1700 Sa50e 10.2 93° Ni 2 8 2 ere 5 Cc) meres 10.4 80 siete % - meee Peto) BRiOscche.i Bless 10.4 80 ae is sees eee, | Aste 3.25 10.6 81 fi oe eae ace weasels 10.5 83 a x seaas ee AO Laceccsy, esse 12.0 81 Es = seess rande®” geavacseess 3.22 12.4 80 =e Lt vere wee NE Resccs,, Bess: 12.6 83 ‘ie - ares $0. 390 rr 11.2 88 3 10 1 BSoee ieee Vessels — paisaizes 10.0 94 neeecess adeneteoeeee’s Sorat BES) Ll usesceee | waco 9.9 93) sesesgves, ava, ee “Seecscceeess Pies” gl utress Se ED Ecco BOS:.: 9.8 91 «ebaeesas sewedeaseces Feces £2. ace 3.06 9.2 92 Vdastactee ees ve ee ines 4470 Scots ila 72 2 10 st 2 d cheks, Vandy Soeeee 2.64 ih 84 sees swoscr MM Meccsccome lerecc. 11.6 84 Bocas URLS pedal iocs cere Ad csees 10.9 860 dideessee Set . QCM cee cee IRS Oe geese 72 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions} Mobility Local | GMT | LMT Lati- date h h tude r» rd. n k von | 2 Jom 22 | = T= De re rin 10-fesu | perce _[em/a/eom 1928 Auge 22059 1852) OG 2UN 9 GoOl a ect manlinrsccocccs 800 O08) conse 592) yam ilclS) genes Ue ICES} GUISE ono SnpoonanoG onso = Sage OH Sooo CE roo 1.31 3.17.7 14.6 57.5N 313.8 1872 MDBP 131 TENS) cases G2ITae- tenet fll eeumeeents eh bye) MER GHIA Gost deccagsdcd ofc0 = 0nt000 F990) eieee OD meEe res 1.23 ay IRAE) bey aN SHISE}) 5006 Beoooneade asc Genca- cos06 con etbe ye faceoo = acaac a) PAM NEG eS IN) SHI Gass.“ Goocsounad opoo, = neogo, ca000 decd Ofiboy coca © Saco AS Oh lec) Oss OU Nino: OMe steromnnl verseecacls Bio. occine» “CORE goons, "COS, 1 coscd| “cece Aa) 1358) os 2eNp GL O:Gumr cece) acncacese= oo20 WORE Gece CEES cte5 TSG Soon 4 17.4 14.1 54.2N 310.8 154 MDBS 108 ieee ONO eiees= 4 OO Nemecens 1.37 4 17.6 14.4 54.2N 310.8 .... 2000 We cono9 CEEY cog A Soca CL PRUE al Sea SOS sac = ncodecoa = bcp «=o = paca, = const. «tooo. cay 5) 81659) 13°56 2 Sirs Nie s10'6 <2. p00" 0086 1 OO See-ce-n OO Dmeeee ens 1.01 5 17.2 13.9 51.3N 310.6 39 129 1 OO Meeas HG cote, OHH sccoe 5) ino) 14.2 oles Ne olO:6)-... ccc, Codon O295 0 eees-1 GSO Meee wes 1.03 Sie Boome o Ome OP NM@MEGLOSGIiny coccltl | \ccosccesol Nicccei ll luccoceiMicctcc NnM@ coil Ment ciiNtsa n-ne GCI 1A Ca AGLOINIS L200) cee saetemensr a900 OES) cso CRY Aaa | ORE soe 6 17.9 14.7 48.0N 312.0 1940 MUBP 1S Gases OL aoc CY sano 1.11 CUBES lo ON 4SrO NE GU2°0) ce oaeseteees od66 OPS. se. BUG Goon REE) aco: @G al) Ta ROIS | NPA) Bas aconocacds senda, Gaseo Foc noose Oondg. besos Gi O: Ol G CO mmeaueOONGtol2:0) | leensfl | -wecimentes S000! noow donde Buco cope» ononp | ga0cd 7 13-9 10:7 45:9N 9312.1 pe08. §— Godadscote Seth. donde OC) = cag CPP Sonne 1.14 7 14.4 11.2 45.9N 312.1 200 MUBP 140 O° 36m 524) renee 1 4 eres 7 14.9 11.8 45.9N 312.1 Gooa. -agaoacecc Soc. 00000 0°60) ers Alene 1.00 7°17. 14.3 45.9N 312.1 sdoo. = pansgcoune Saco ‘cone. anood Sanby onoae, cocoa ano 8 14.5 11.4 43.2N 313.1 sto @bagnga0aC noc, OnOS O298Seeee a cO arc 1.62 8 15.1 11.9 43.2N 313.1 42 MUBP 139 OLO Gease 567 coche wl ol6) Gere 8 15.6 12.4 43.2N 313.1 Boon = opcanesicdo S000 = donee 0:92) Sere. 466002... 2. 1.37 DetGecmmelosle 4c OWN) uO Oc4s vecce i incmeneceae aoc 1504 ences 5Y8)) ease eel2O) renee 9 18.6 15.4 41.9N 312.4 42 MUBS 139g. WA) pean IR oaane 1.41 G) Oe aby c Sian eh VS Gags aoconscne5 a000 WO! Soono 548) oc. oe SO) Paeens M20 rs emulate eae OUNer al 2e4 i yecec)i i tenamtennes nooo once conan Sone, ose » Gouda. doses U0) Tee BO SNP eh Ges conosonses coon gnKoe OEE) pong CEE nce 1.03 10 18.7 15.5 39.5N 311.2 1402 MUBS 98 HELO. | Gass GIS) cee 1.00) eeeee LOMO Zl OsONrSOSOPNG GNM 2) enc tcneseeser ga09 © cubeg 568) eres 2 OOleee ee 0.97 1G) UL REBT SDT eeG “cocooscncs poco, ©) Q508O.- onond 5050. Coen, = SOO oso ely Sila OM GOLAU NGG CGO) ) ncmclet lessteseliatee 9808 0.45 ..... OT Faced Oonit in mescits 11 18.4 15.2 38.4N 311.3 175 MUBP 122 nce OFFI Pees Oo OOMtes 0.85 LSS elon meGoea UN eoileG) soccg ccmmemeiens 5000 OUSGaeeone CNY song (UES Gono til 202Ge ei ee maOrerNG TOPICS) -..0) cesescemas ondo. ono ~ Gabon so0e) fidod | Sousa = Banc 12 12.5 ros eN GEG ILO ocr Uelwecedane ApSole N tonood Ol 25 eis acon 0.78 12 13.1 9.9 37.1N 311.6 216 MUBP 151 OSSOMeese PRYY conn URS cose WA Ur UGH Srfetl Nf GTO sea. 9) ScococaGa0 Bond ideas era Song A conc 0.82 We wie Tle! SIL INE SHI) Gea Gononconeo Rona Badbo. -, dadcd nego. dopa. aecbo = oun00 13 18.1 15.0 36:6N 313.9 .... Soe 0.45 ..... DLO)) yeceh enO- 61) | ieee 13 18.7 15.6 36.6N 313.9 61 PAUL Goso0 OLS) OS iscog SIU) sa 0.74 13 19.2 161 36.6N 313.9 .... conn HEN oaees 448 .... 0.73 WB} PADS EY SY HIE Sage scosdsosgon © 0ps0, agua) cediou = ound pada, Sand 14 13.6 10.6 35.3N 315.5 .... Bodo! | decodes Goode, woods coco. | coscg | ogee ER IBS) ale SELON) SIMS) aa Sascoonten phon = GOR OUSO Riser) CA Ocueisecn. 0.80 14 18.6 15.7 35.0N 316.0 172° MUBP 120 0.68 ..... ality Socag ERY Saas NZ sey GY ONT BRIGH))—“Sean8 Mecnddscobs. © anna) = coo Shc6e coop. Oho. OG 1G STO 152 One NGerolGsO reece) emcecnne 9003 OFG 2aereees 589) GeeceeeeOntS) licence 16 18.5 15.7 30.7N 318.9 173 MUBP Ar eater O°AG) peee--) CAO Glmeenane 0.69 AIG 18.9) 1G SORT ON ROUSES ce ca senacese ee O°6678...-. BHR casa, HEY sages 1620-4 17:7 S3O0:5N 31950 .... .........: ated goado. BNneS Gite), cocathamiceresl mentee 17/522) DIG S29SGININ GLOKAD ees sesecessas wees OlG6) sieerest CO cmeeeee: 1.27 17° 15:6 12.9 29:83N) 3194 138 MUBS 97 0.83 ..... 530) --oeep OB wecsce Gh Is Ia PGT SWIG) Sea | Sosogonce ms Ghod | ifoonoss erage el beeS) Goan) coudh © Ghuce 18 14.7 12.1 27.9N 320.5 108 MUBP 76 WEEDS 56550 A38) \cceceeendlc2Gi a metres NGS by PAG PAIN) SPADE) cece! 7 padiadeddd Bost -opood (OHA) Goto BEL Goose 1.47 18 15.5 12.8 27-9N 320.5 2.2. sevceceeee goco, =, Dad0d 80000 Good. o000 cocoa 19 14.1 11-5 25:7 N 32150) .... .....2.... B50, cance ook = edo) osu. code o008 19 19.3 16.7 25.3N 320.8) .... .....-0ss. Hood © .onood OLGGiteses) SO lmemacer. 1.31 19 19.7 17.1 25.3N 320.8 138 MUBS 97 UN TB Aacos DOS eee Ocmmmmeeees 19 20.1 17.4 25.3N 320.8 .... — -....000-. seas A jenaee OLGSieaier--eoOlumeecen 1.15 21 1839 1623) (21.3;Ni (32055) Se. e ese eee- soe, ereeemmwese Sooo nace) on, 21) 1925) W659) <20235Ne (32055) ee |. :..-.--- Bad ee Bonds | aanoe nooo, G6o8 goog SOD 21 21.8 19.2 20.8N 320.8 .... ssveeeees B00 O'G6iReces SRHE gesg eG ash 21 22.2 19.6 20.8N 320.8 .... secereeee we mates OFGSiemee-en OO Gecens 1.41 DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 73 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- ou wind Clouds current Nuclei Weather density per cc notes pe | wore fame | DRAAAAAIIIIIIIISSSIIAGSIIIIAGHGIAAHAS SS SOM MORMINROVVE AAA SSSSSSSSSoGDOOS NVNVOCAODOOKP KH NVEPNAMRBHNUNUUINOGOCOOCOCOCOHPAUINNAUTIWUP PSP PTR WWF ORDUIWOTHALPUOKHMON DUP RONAAMAADO fo] > NNYNNMNNYN NN NYNYNNNNNNNNNNN NNN NNNNN DN WD DD DDD bt bt bt bt bet bt bt bt bet bet bt et bt bt et et et bt et et bt tt tt 74 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions sail pas | im | n| Volts | position Mobility Local date Aug 21 22.5 19.8 20.8N 320.8 aggo. -d0G0000c00 508 OD rscles 330) syecestenel DB) smeseees 17.2 146 18.8N 321.7 Sado, coanocineds opeo = ene Obi ao00 YD gn 1.04 22 1.5) TSO SSN sZt LT MUBS 82 ORO IT iteces GER) sono HAM senc0 22 17.8 15.2 18.8N 321.7 gogo DUnGOSOS EK Soda) anna OLB 1 eee eee 1.07 22 18.9 16.3 18.8N 321.7 S000, connaouod ces0 btaee cous Gage) doco econ écoan 22m lo Cee On LOC OR NMS oli) | uiscscnlliiecsecetese mead = oanoa © aondd 5605 cong ca0go..—ccton 23 16.9 14.4 16.3N 322.1 eee | ieceaece ts pO (WETS) Géo0a ANT2) SceoemnOsB2) arrestee 23 17.9 15.4 16.3N 322.1 128 MUBS 0) secon Ol 60 Sire- OC meee 1.16 23 18.2 15.7 16.3N 322.1 state ees 0.69 ..... 48 3)e re .-nO-00 emcee 23, 19.5 17.0 16.3N 322.1 sock ous | nooo Gondd | aod) so0o. Sogso cccoc Ms} PADD arf) IGP BPI ong = Geocceooas nooo. «—=St*=« HD. «swOKDN «=O 24 15.0 12.5 15.5N 321.9 000 Shad 0201 eee. BES ooo IY conse 24 15.3 12.8 15.5N 321.9 78 GI} ganas OE soo CE) secae 1.27 2A 15 NT essa) LSSOUN) 32159) cc opa0, ==, «= On0pD ©=s «oO coon noo ZA CSA OlmLO-OPNGMUGA150) | Veccatl Uiicatcccceccuniiccce) MllscadcimMecsos]: MEECeec)l Ul coe Maca coon moe set Ha) SES IID) IT} goo hoonseso © poo aa good, ono) anno 25 14.0 11.5 14.9N 321.8 5008 oom, = —_do0on WEY “aren PLY Sa 1.39 25 14.3 11.8 14.9N 321.8 121 MUBP 85 0.96 ..... BEES Geen eA Succ 25 14.7 12.1 14.9N 321.8 nado © oodogeatnd noon = nba OodoS ange obese «= cto 26 17.1 14.6 13.9N 322.0 Gogo, _-coooodncnc Bodo ROS. Ga0d TEU coco coon cones 26 17.4 14.9 13.9N 322.0 84 MUBP GY) Sapee. © oabon cong, = EH Goo = Scone 26 17.7 15.2 13.9N 322.0 aco0 «Gobo goadan oago = Snoog). aod THY cncs cons = ado ZOMG Ged mL GLOPNI WiG22-0) | loescli Uleseceocscs 5500) spodg) Goods pega soos «= oddone 27 17.1 14.6 13.4N 322.0 onoS pops ncNOan pons, Gop de MeSH, pea ERY acon 1.75 27 17.6 15.0 13.4N 322.0 178 MUBP 125 MeSHL coo00 G34 eee 4 Once 27 18.0 15.5 13.4N 322.0 so0u. _-qnooscocob cba, nba 124 ee - SO Creer 1.84 27 19.2 16.6 13.4N 322.0 nooo = nopenccce ont = onde. enon Sco = gbdo. ogo 27 19.8 17.3 13.4N 322.0 S608 SOGdt Gc0do,, Sondo | dcop mons soon. = neuee Pup PAV aMafe ST OT e PPO dey Gocdotesdd «© sond) node. GAcoD) aaao doco pone dcdda PAY NY SUSI) GRA Gaps | ccocodoocd = Gc05 = couom, «ooodo «too «= oao) Coes PAS TB) SY TSI GPP aos, Gonophosos. = odo, =, =a, S00 28 17.9 15.3 11.7N 322.2 2006 goon UWE) Gooan HIM ohn BES Gone 28 18.3 15.8 11.7N 322.2 208 MUBP 146) ee Wee segs GREY bocce 1.36 28 18.7 16.2 11.7N 322.2 Seat coasacacan 6000 ID OMe 144) Wrenee el 45) ieee. 28 20.1 17.6 11.7N 322.2 Aono , poecvopend boon = Bde RONDE soc 605 adogo Gaced ZO oll A CumLOLOUND O2ae 0) | lvceatil Wpesseeseesls esd, = onde C2 ece LOO Meee 1.59 29 17.5 15.0 10.8N 322.7 229 MUBP 160 Mehl Gooaa GEE} occa NER Seon 208 OlmelOcOMMLOLGANI Gant) | lescct | uiscnece cies Bem oece 1 Oates: OMe 1.64 29 19.5 17.0 10.8N 322.7 Go. Qosodseaas Gta. Spddo. | “Spago aAG -CODe dona COO 30 17.1 14.6 9.3N 323.2 ago. = aegaoopeos asin Wsatt! aoode TKS con TP conan 30 17.5 15.0 9.3N 323.2 120 MUBP 84a... 14 Dens OOO MEEanens 1.44 30 17.8 15.4 9.3N 323.2 arco, = agaadeg00 dee U6G}!) Gong CPt song RE) onc 30 19.6 17.2 9.3N 323.2 nooo = penononoes bong = bonded. “nodde “son doco Gouda © ace 30 19.9 17.4 9.3N 323.2 BoGy = acoogedo0G ecco! = Bocas | BeOS Boom OBS. HoCgg, INC 31 14.4 12.0 8.2N 323.9 Soda, _oscoonanan Good. Hadoo ler4) Sabon GHEY acéos 1.46 31 14.7 12.3 8.2N 323.9 151 MUBP 106 MEG) Gasa6 CEE) edun libel Sass 53 ie Uo Me | 8.2N 323.9 cael ipewnctectastes 6000 Dodd.) “0do0n Cao, dod. | BOOS, | COCG Sep 1 16.8 14.3 9.6N 323.4 Souo. | nONOSSCES Sens WAGE Sac 693 eerie] O Gummer 1D ae2) 427 9.6N 323.4 236 MUBS UG go058 esi cen HE sen 1.46 16) 5.1 9.6N 323.4 qodo == nagecsonad Se TAGE} Saone CYTO) Gong eh essa A ES Sali | 9.6N 323.4 Sooo ng50590055 acgg = Spned. “tanoD node! peo Sopa. Sat 2 12.5 10.0 9.7N 323.4 apo> = Gogsoeaca0 so0d c000D, -doNdo copa | coda moO S000 2 17.6 15.1 10.0N 323.3 Spon cnoconnos Sooo | oncdo G00 OGG 6006. Soo0g = Coe 2 21.4 18.9 10.3N 323.1 Boag. oADSSSONCE pdd) |) Hoses WE naga GE) odoa0 1.75 2 21.7 19.3 10.3N 323.1 159 MUBS 111 WERY4 Brboe CE asog RY SeH00 2 22.1 19.7 10.3N 323.1 ecg = saasosg0en epog oocdd 80 cone DEY Bano 1.79 3 14.8 12.3 11.2N 322.8 qoae = acospancne song = onibod ESR). “psca, EES “accom 1.58 3 15.1 12.7 11.2N (322.8 5000. cgq0ss0c00 aes NERS caees (PIR) Manos BAG bY =e -ces 3.16.1 13.7 11.2N 322.8 G00 =. ddo050nn06 O00 ED ee cee Chey ccd Beef) Necaae 3.17.2 14.7 11.2N 322.8 S600. | Goooosa0a6 Soc 14Gb we cc. coed Gacd. cious, “cases 3 18.0 15.5 11.2N 322.8 Sopa | idasSoncdco S603 1e4a5iee. GHP e650 AIRGIR). Gadc0 3 19.1 16.6 11.2N 322.8 abcd 2 puauteendd 6800 sSHl aocen Boe = cued eeene = a0co0 4 12.0 9.5 11.4N 322.2 S050 Sods 0OH0O ctod |) oped,” Badan oun = oo0b) | occ. = “Abo 4 17.4 14.8 11.4N 321.4 Sddo." HoseGo0600 enc 1.24 © aces. G26 erecm ek OO mmmrsstess 4 17.9 15.3 114N 321.4 peso! | ‘cado0den06 poog =o OE Sega, GH vecdes 1.35 4 18.3 15.8 11.4N 321.4 SACOM we edbccdeanG Cong etl Basco CAB acag Sar case 4 19.5 17.0 IL4N S20.4 200. scsesecene So8o.. | pondt }ésooo Spee bag ‘hdtde: , GaCeD 5 1551 12:4 11 6IN Py Si9.2 baba ddbobonds caso. odd al} paso GEN edo 1.30 DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- earth current density i, in 10-7esu tease Sees NN: Weather notes 4 8 2 a 5 3 ae 2 6) cpa 0 6 3 e: 1 8 S320! Mocano 0 2 3 a) 9 3 ie: 9 68 Te ocbon = i. | 4 5 3 ee ie 2 ml “3 4 3 ee a Pe Sac ee q 5 3 PAR enor ‘4 4 2 ee 715 16 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions as ag ks Mobility 1928 Sep 5 15.6 12.8 11.6N 319.2 157 MUBP 110 MevSL esac G58) eee eel lioness 5 16.1 13.3 11.6N 319.2 agian = Goooosnttn Becrid ‘codes, doada Gono Gdoby | Goon © con0d 5 17.9 15.2 11.6N 318.9 So08 | HodadcDaC doo Goacd) , ccndd oc80, cueu cooddy dace 5 21.1 18.3 11.6N 318.7 ndsc = ocggonene peo pepo | codee Boag) cco! ace | bonce 6 13.6 10.8 11.7N 317.5 ened = oecocanee Beco Poocos! . qoude noo ugco good Gon: Case eis) ele NT Stes 6506. 00000600 S00 TUG RR cess (Ce Goon BGR asbe 6 14.6 11.8 11.7N 317.4 148 MUBP 104, face OG Res OOS erase 1.46 6 14.8 12.0 11.7N 317.4 Saag -sacaoa deeds Spd) “So0od+ » dopod coo adSd) GoDed NEES 7°#17.5 146 11.3N 315.5 5050 uobopSsoN 500 Ths Goon 659) ere lcod meee 7 18.0 15.0 11.3N 315.5 190 MUBP MS cooce 1 OG Meeees 8 OAT esc 1.41 7 18.4 15.5 11.3N 315.5 Sod? = quoannssoe Son 124 erence TW cme NEPA Gada 7°195 165 11.3N 315.5 enop = ongoonaneS cody © pacce 0000 OOUG INS O00 |. goood) & ccude Ue PAU) ae alblcch inp ohltagy) coe en crecteareris Soso = odods. - aoaga coop ogo) ccd tect 8 17.1 14.1 11.6N 314.8 ono cgaNSzoo0 soba. = puss UU Fon, UP Secon 1.60 8 17.5 14.5 11.6N 314.8 146 MUBP 102 Wooo KY) Geta loPAY Counc 8 17.9 14.9 11.6N 314.8 Geog = Donmecicoge ecop panes WONG opast GIES ops0e 1.47 8 20.0 17.0 11.6N 314.8 nage = coomncaooc Sado oneeD = gnao0 coto cco conse 0008 8 20.7 17.7 11.6N 314.8 Bo00, ——— ODGOOGSCOC Saco, gonod. | donod S00. cocdN!. sGopome! . aco 8 20.8 17.8 11.6N 314.8 pot) = QesoDNanoe Scoo, = cgene -GoO0S meso O00 ocede ——«. Gzece 8 20.9 17.9 11.6N 314.8 nono = cgboobesor Goso| pend. onGor Sago, on09)ogde9—gos0n 9 18.0 14.9 11.8N 313.7 B0On. —_andueco950 9000 Mars! Gocen SOSN eee O4 messes 9 18.5 15.4 11.8N 313.7 160 MUBP 12 eeses TU odan. HRT toca 1.40 9 18.9 15.8 11.8N 313.7 agop gapnoRCAoO sece PA Sones CPE Soto UES S500 92020 SG oe InONS (SIS B00 pooo! | sonece) anne pfog, ove onooD = “odcu 9 20.2 70 ILTN 313.7 ates Goan Dao oop e000, cman LOLS) sO OMMEE LAS OON |: eOlllei() 0) vattemi gu ictettociec acct ulcers) 1 lniResieeeMmmntcostel Ma inerstsio ete crane cts 1 Cotas 10 19.9 16.7 12.5N 311.7 590¢ orad.— 000 1.18 10) 20:47 ez) 1225)N SiIEY 6153 107 MeSR) Goccn 10 20:8 2176 12.5N 311.7 6000 goog" .gagse ee esos. _ogndle! “p00 soage 11 17:9 14.6 13.2N 310.2 5900 2030 Mails) Goon BEE oooo Uh iSca00 11 18.3 15.0 13.2N 310.2 137 MUBS 96") Geace T0f8) Gono BBS sac 1.77 11 18.8 15.5 13.2N 310.2 S000! OD0OOOOND ep00 1 ogo B96, seca aS ec 11 20.1 16.8 13.2N 310.2 oacn §=——neagaaciaae ppac. = denen eQnad ago Goda) Sontaa §—— hooud 11 20.7 17.4 13.2N 310.2 nego _coennoODDoC aye Gedo» GooDC choc, nnd = cece «= S20 12 17.66 14.3 13.2N 309.2 opp ogboSonoD oi = gOS TAS Tocco) BYE Sagan0 1.38 12 18.1 14.7 13.2N 309.2 127 MUBP 89 Mp’! Googe GO eee enue lal Gimmeecter 12 18.6 15.2 13.2N 309.2 Sogo poaoegccn6 onc0, 0000 NCO edad EI coads 1.28 12 20.2 16.9 13.2N 309.2 napg = shenoseng moa2—gdone, Coody Stiga | ono ormor — oooos 13 15.0 11.5 13.3N 307.6 oop, bbbnocadnn BOC 1 Ob Reencrs OE eon | Woe) acon 13 15.5 11.9 13.3N 307.6 162 MUBP WSL acre OED Soca, CHAD) Goose 1.44 13 15.9 12.4 13.3N 307.6 Sogn qoocenodes con Boe HOSus ROUTE Roddo! WM ocuoo HY Goca¢ 14 14.0 104 13.1N 305.8 oun QnonuoANoD ao00 = ade0D. OonC mao) onet cond. abo 14 14.4 10.9 13.0N 305.7 pode. = geaoeg9aKE asco gg008 OEE) ~ Choa | WE "Gado0 1.28 14 14.9 11.3 13.0N 305.7 169 MUBS 118 SI) Gocis GG cone! aE aon: 14 15.2 11.6 13.00N 305.7 1000 po;acaddsa, poco gaoda ~ooaga) edd gona 15 17.8 14.0 12.9N 303.3 a6eh S596 TAG races S00) sens 1CSGi) Mess. 15 18.4 14.6 12.9N 303.3 196 MUBS Sie escekt OUOS terest 4.0 uuaeares 1.43 15 18.8 15.1 12.9N 303.3 pedo = onganddEge ets TE So566 DAG eee led Occ ses 15 204 16.7 12.9N 303.3 nono = eoanobeanc aon opGUe. Ggoed o0G6 —.p000 Sobacar ~— sbacce 15 20.7 16.9 12.9N 303.3 nage! anooda04IO Geos DODD. /60c00 500s cguth | Faadon cou 16 13.4 9.5 13.0N 301.8 p009—_puons50000 5000 COnSd. pOUdE oncos Soddde soca § Wasco 16 17.1 13.2 13.0N 301.4 p00 = gnagaesba0 chog) , 00edo | /odoe Popol cool Micoasd) hooose 16 17.7 13.8 13.0N 301.3 cand Godtusaod9 qo0d = go030 OSC} Sepa EBT Gosee 1.27 16 18.1 142 13.0N 301.3 157 MUBS 110 LL Si vase. 635), hes la Ol aeeces 16 18.6 14.7 13.0N 301.3 mono © agnecanRn sono, eaoac TRO Wteds, EWEN OiGadac 1.39 16 19.3 15.4 13.0N 301.3 moO | oogeGo000 ndod — Aocoo ode oddb deo beasg) — boboc 16 20.7 16.8 13.00N 301.3 puD0 §—_sweOUEP DOC pcod § gande. “cao S000) | naco! Gang) ddd Oct 2 15.3 11.2 14.7N 298.8 aago © pigoonianeD cieigy dane” | \ode0s pboo 4 OcddN SY agd0e §— “ausag Zeelet licOelaeEN 297.9 na09 © 4I0G000005 occ) = fdo100. cose s90m ceoe! Fastida = Gnon0 3.18.7 14.4 14.8N 296.1 Goor » -pddc9oNb0 meee WSO) “soos OSD eeee th 2G ences 3.19.1 14.8 14.8N 296.1 196 MUBP NIP aa08 ICS eee OCS mamecace 1.28 3.19.5 15.3 14.8N 296.1 ano ©». nosed a0 Tbe ee G30 944 .... 1.06 25 3), 19:9) Vo ees, «629651 Bacc § © ndoationcs¢ mano nosde |“ eeod Sond, 6dco, Dae 3 21.7 17.4 14.8N 295.8 oo0s = sooneseooDs moog =) oboe tagdod cide = ondeo © soba 4 18.0 13.6 15.0N 293.6 Gaon, undncooded bog oeear ULI) eosdo peck oon in 4 186 14.2 15.0N 293.6 163 MUBP 114 0:90) -.... Hone! . .Gsbe ~~ ct00' ‘Sond 4 19.1 14.7 15.0N_ 293.6 Dodo = aoouS i906 ecg gods SAL Poca. “sds pone Gesa0 5 18.0 13.4 15.3N 291.6 popped oageene pene WEE) Sesce HER) pace CUES otean DAILY ATMOSPHERIC--ELECTRIC RESULTS 17 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- earth current density Nuclei Weather Bree as eee 28.4 WS Seseaiees ape) ctece actce =) BashSoa 2.54 28.4 75 aeteeaaee nO scents eocoe 2060 Pease 27.9 74 NE 3 2 2 aaeds caoee 990 wach 28.5 71 NE 3 9 2 sages Seas 1350 eeeke 29.0 74 NNE 3 7 3 saves eae st AC |. cee 29.1 68 ists ee a seaea WitthMen. sete cussate 29.0 1) rc oneaccs em Woche acon) eeelSat 2.68 29.0 iP aaeeaes 55 Sain eect ees Giatiliee an dlrs 28.4 76 seeence se ciease OE Seo Pe PSacho 28.3 hit WBSESSscoac ce hee fect) ER cece BIBS SR 28.3 17 Seapanese RS Roce Spsee 1140 EOE Pao 17 NNE 2 7 3 eee Leo :MELAI seseter 2.46 27.9 74 Beare ae sis dees Aoboe Ge nen 29.4 69 ceceeeeen 300 55 APCS eS PRAG LIESINS 2815 wee wes = tote NURS hasan EPA a8cn6 1.37 OP 16245 125 IE SIN] 28025 179 MUBS 125 TOS reece 587) Seen 129) pees SP 628) Ge Se SNe Zo leo stea aeSaeeaee st) caaeee OL98 =... SHON vtcae 1.31 9 17.1 DAC SmrPINRSENG Se 2BUR5) oss eee eecsca “eet || Sewece (ncccsPiee Meccleel™ sees Volcecte™ menesees LOPS OW IES PPPHIOLSSNee 28088) acdc «SR eeeSSeecel ibs Geeecis cacewapel Meaces’ (ccesiimy cocceeel Sumeeeee NODPUBES2 “TSFORSSOLAINM OBOE, «acc Se eRietestee (Matec) | SceeBh acctrewhihlinecct® ceeeem Tecooet Minera LOM LOSSe VAG ORIEN 28056" sis. Seaceseesce Beene || Seseae Ssaecsimaeecacen aiken cacelste mamseette LOR 205709 WS Ame SIOLOUNI e280'6) wach; | Seecsezccne Glan 9 teen cco omccce) ccceewes iocessuemmucmeee 1OP 230 ia OESAN 2805) ccs aeRSESEa Be || RE cece cere, seen cesinch ben Moteee 1OP Oe 1954) OEGENG “28054 .zz.. sbseseecr Sd: uD scala Wace = niche Solhoch meee tte 10) 220) 2037; ett nt APA CEE ccocccha, sCdsae mEbococ mEcaCom meucrcOs smcacd. Neocco. coded 10) 320) 2107; ORIN) (280.3) stew, wasetecewere Weteey “Sees “Rasch UMoccer® SenG@ cicueietl nemeeeee Pacific Ocean Oct 25) 1822" 1229 BSN: 28055 aces“ aaaeeaeetee Reearh ceinleee cued Mtaniceatt! (cceepM cevesl weneesee 26 19.9 14.5 6.3 N 279.8 OSSD ccc Beccary icky) Soe cl eeatncee 26 20:5 15.1 GeSuNi® 2779.8) .cxz 0 Mieeexsieees Boos | dees CO Oe etpot a mesocc.. MiRGbcopee = ooda 7A} Zl al 15.8 6.3N 279.8 ; ONNT eSeseeee aceene! ehh) | Soueeihe pteomes PAS, PAD AIEEG) QPOIN (28052) wane, eccesenest) Boece | doves TROGIR 2 i." west ace estab eaccere 20) 2057 15:4 4.2N 280.2 Veale Sctcite stiease’ SSR lock Salenseee ras} o7dilial 15.8 ASQINIS “28052. asswe’ eeeeheeeeere Ce aE WIGS ce ccsht eM ccensk iemtowees 28 22.2 16.9 APOUNIE E02) «ssn: SecReeetees, USES Valet acth ch thuae taste Nosten LoceocM ana ceee PAS) ale) abil oa/ ADIGNM 20021 se.nrs Ghee MSetrn | OSSD cee EM(s cecen uscisteCR) owes MMmancit es 29 0.7 19.4 SEMAN 280.05 cnt “Acer lees DSH cccsceteanccce wckhh coset mbabmeneee PA) ali 19.8 SOTgN 280:0)) 42.5 tibetan, Goss! | Feet WEDS wi wewees cccSel cave § Mecece 29 eG 2082: SatgNG 280:0 0 ee | Seeeeekeeee WEARS Sossatiyeecsee! Swodeed “eset weweweee 30 20.4 15.0 POEUN :209°6) = sas, alstibleetetweisne Usecisee sttete ULAR Ssccct cutee cooceet lee emnees 301) 2058) 1525 DEOUNG 2926) es: ts ele we DSO sisccesr®S ancy! Rs, ws heswiaaeeeee SO 21h 20 1529 DEON DOO! cairn eceieeewceee Maccees feces 1 AE I: a Sccick, moo tioe occ: 31 18.9 13.4 BRORNM2hcO) Ssany ss atatetislein ors DBI Csccs ween aecnee) RESERV” oct embatocess SI 2165" 11651 BEORNIMEAHNEG)) c.tie * Iefetierawere SR Oeocae, coo. 8 bose. “obocc =. -boo0 Si 2220811625 BEORN MAO! wweel) iseteeeeene | Etadel | xewetos ae Oe eeAceeeneco ~\oocdb— Scos0 31 22.4 16.9 BOEING 28) see. awteeeiens TESA ce coee aecesete Gace occueh meelceese Nov 1 19.1 13.6 GRQENMEZTOCO. «ot. hewcatecceh Maecel® | Gees Vain yy cccen > RR cctecr i izecss 1 19°55 14°0 6.2N 276.8 IISE10) soccoee) umGonek pesca. ecacad: FP Lotoas POIs = 4r4' GoceNieatOroe” asc) veitceeteeni s Miieces |) tone sei we csoe Rete (lessen ements 12221 16.5 GHIPNigeaOLO. «enc SacBeteassme Macceee | Ldattte Soca Mune coccbe Heigemm: aneocbaueucoeee 2 1954 13:9 4.6N 277.8 57 Sees AUS jecccun (2:06) Wierccce 2 19.8 14.4 QiGiING Cameos vote! aeeeneees | Me rcoke leat LADO ccs) sd200° arene 2.41 2 20e2e 1428 4.6N 277.8 ee ese BE gad PES) 58 G08 2 2020 Lov ZL yinh. AeA) Se Beare ee erences a. ter UMMeGsocod Inceae 0 ce | cose | oddeo. ~~ encod 3) 20027 1428 RCTS. ALE?) Rea cec aso kacceo. ll ecSchc alii ls SASS MPC oabook, | oc00G 3 5 20s 15s5 OSU MGeAe ccvsied Wuwveadueese Nea less | igang.) coc, Gonep. -covde 3 21.1 15.7 BUAUNM AGM sede. cctelidenite) Meech Urteeen TIP Ghee cote conc, | pooon 32128 164 SYAUNPCQIGAIE lreeem ee 2.90 29.2 (feel weobceeoge x eee eee statist 500 sisee 28.5 17 SE 4 2 freu-cu 3 ats adodowere ws Ao8h00 2.82 28.8 81 nandasaag 69 nOdoLaDaDOete 54 aaeate alae 280 cds 28.9 719 SEXE 4 8 cu-cunb 2 wees sie pokes 2.72 29.0 80 oseece = See iaicaets te sete sn 390 Sone 29.0 19 SEXE 4 7 cist-cu 2 Rater OOD RRENMEER TS od0e 2.88 29.2 719 deciles i: as Seecenls wi sass aeekk 550 eae 29.0 78 SEXE 4 7 ci-cu 2 wes ee ets 2.86 28.8 81 Scpnoceod * Been gee Se Bape AACOC 430 Fats 28.4 81 SEXE 4 8 ast-cu 2 oon04 eee | Ae 2.91 28.5 82 AR “0 cbanoeauDBDAG * r etek 360 meee 27.7 82 ESE 4 10 ast-nb 2 eee eS" ne 2.99 28.2 80 fainws Wi deweedates x Nee 5600; 390 2.90 28.0 80 ESE 5 10 st-nb 2 wee sige 370 sia 28.0 81 ESE 5 10 ast-cunb 2 Siete geass 3.08 28.7 81 RAonconn Bs Bats. as # r Re cee me dete 28.4 83 Sromeass ee Seocostes we PA BtCr Fees 2.78 28.5 82 ees Eee Le © Behecscccis zag YS hess coca! Wl Mingo F Wmngdos 28.8 81 watesiees PopnGoOnERCOO de DOOD eee 410 20000 29.0 719 EXxs 4 8 cu-cunb 2 50000 aces 1920 S28 28.1 78 WSwW 2 10 st 2 wees Roce 1060 eee: 28.9 77 WSW 2 10 st-cu 2 RAC Bobee 1280 Bacon 28.3 77 WSW 2 10 st-nb 2 wace sieve 2980 asia 28.1 79 WSW 2 10 st-nb 2 es fate 2770 Sse 28.0 78 wxs 1 10 st-nb 2 Poe BOE 2560 Sar Patieth 80 Wwxs 1 SPORE neORDOD #8 Pen Reon 2340 aides 27.0 83 Wxs 1 Ge idececeen ea Ste; eas: 1780 ists 26.6 86 Wxs 1 Mecieicc iene Pe bs ADCO 680 s0000 29.1 79 WXN 4 7 2 meisiee See ) Gcaseaee | aes 27.0 89 Nshese aa r Say leant 2.30 27.2 88 Seeeaedee Fe r Metal Preeeiess 7! Sacks 27.4 87 Sessteses Be r SPS |e etek. Scatts 24.4 92 Soodconcg os r vag es diate 24.3 92 iascases is r SEAN > y ERR oe ate 24.2 93 eesereeee zi r Aas. ll series 3.63 24.3 PR aeieoeren ts r Pop 680 Sues 27.9 74 SW 2 3 3 asics sieve had Widistas 200) 90 wxs 3 uid 4 bes Ute rece 3.22 25.6 89 Reteoron ‘a sees Nason Gene Tp esse 25.6 90 BEOOROCED ad iis Wits sae Se 25.2 87 Ps r Se | tactile 3.29 25.2 86 é r A i ce COMM Gos 25.3 86 is r Sie ead 2.98 26.3 85 Be Bes Beis. | wea Baas 26.4 84 x Hone Nee tose 3.35 26.4 84 Meuse see x KOE aedee 320 areee 26.1 83 SW 4 2 2 Hoop Meds a ae 26.2 87 Tests esse OAK cate r Baked.) Paresss Bay 26.2 87 Woesssecsdesd r eee | Selec Seen 26.0 88 sha soe da celee r Seite 390 Sess 25.9 84 5 9 cu-nb 2 roe 80 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions| Mobility vous | 822 |yjm 2+] %= | me [im | ice poston)” Tin 0-tesw | per ce_[em/s//em 1928 Nov 4 19.5 14.1 BD IX PATE) Bose = Gooanooodd 5366 C0008 AA” Gaon Gong = oagGs = noc 4 20.0 14.5 Pata INf PHS sap | canoe sobe latG) Goud SasG. "S20G. Sooose MM ndos 4 20.3 14.8 ASTIN PAGE ene Becn0Ec000 dec 00a ado SoG, eto sesadh 1") “wea 5) eS LOR e326 Thee CPA) SS) ogo, 1 Moeedbasaas cago esta OnsSie eres OLOn eeces 1.59 5 19.6 14.2 14N 279.3 81 MUBP 235 UT cease S84 ieecet 04 neces 5 20.2 14.9 TSI) PATS ops) apseneso oppo | Od u0 Qbtit cada SID oc005 1.49 5 20.8 15.4 IAIN a ALOnSMmeMcnony Uucacccecece poco GG, ooCcS pou. cond 90088 (DID saab vbond) wxkiGoos » “second 20 21.1 14.0 7.28 253.0 35 MUBS 112 1h O4: Woes po0n dds) “Hadea. . WHaace 20 21.7 14.5 7.28 253.0 S600 8 “ecuceaaoed Kees) ewer MII seaage idadd!) Aaadae > « gos 20 22.0 14.9 eras} PaaS) nse 9 bendScobar A PO SSCEO OOOES Sten iidbeo §— “Sasto — “oooer 21 18.3 11.0 ed i} DET sea, Gi) Wabeideiccoce 3086 te ODieese: Sash? 5089 dca 008 21 18.8 11.5 9.2S 251.6 33. MUBS NOG Tm ue ee- tbh fcaedeeransd — Geddar s VaanaC 21 (19s Uys CYP) ZanG) yeepel ‘cécesoosoe ndto ™ fscco + coose BOGS ceoden Modsoa: +" See 22) BUS LOLSn SINCOLSMMEASONG: | enc) lecaeinnecs aoa > Wcisd00 (UIE ocho viendo, 1ad085. ada 22 18.6 11.3 11.9S 249.8 37 MUBS 118 WAWBy Send BStO meaceed 0850! = Fdadde 22; 1859) RG TIOIS 24008 es awesesens co%6. dened onde Song cago’ GtnS =~ “G0000 23 20:9 13:4. .14-4'S F248i0) o.. ceessssees one Bees UgilP4. © Acaee + todo. |< Gocooe' =) 6a. 23 21.4 13.9 14.4S 248.0 36 MUBS 115 iL PAD) “disease sooo noad “abso 60006 DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 81 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- earth current Nuclei Weather density notes i, in 10-7esu Rich 4 eae Sees 2.93 24.3 83 SSW 5 ve r As cu SP ed 24.3 Gate ee ln me 5; r Sas 320 ae 24.1 82 ssw 5 10 2 nn RR haat i. eee 25.0 Wee Bees Bas. re ce aoe 1233) ae Ueeeeee 3.97 24.9 HG. eee soa Ge acae ec eety fre) sceMETE.” wv tn BORSS 24.9 TG ancaneeee fs ae B55 300 se 24.7 75 SW 4 3 2 sake ecticde fkRtees ak Shoe 24.2 EXON Sochnacte a hae DOE ce RIS Saupe aoe 23.9 Sit 9 Reciuesss ae es, ee 620 tone 23.8 78 SW 3 9 2 sae ea audit OE a sete 22.7 Slee sce: Be Lads s(n: Saveepenee epee 3.65 22.8 Sle Bese. sox @ EROS ecient. OE wry hones 22.8 (Dee S sel re 850 aia 22.0 82 SWxs 3 10 2 aes 2 eee 19.7 Bis Dasaseeee fe - ce a ee 2.55 19.5 Ly eee ii # oe Pees es jy eee: 19.4 87 ze ve ee cee 320 Cone 19.2 83 3 10 2 ae SN wat emt 2.73 20.3 82 bg es = SE Side eee nae ae 20.7 75 5 ee sae NOS yee ae 2.99 20.8 76 Bf = Bar ce SO eke moment 20.9 78 es ae ee es 170 ae 20.5 76 2 3 3 oo a eeretuade (Aceh) © 4 .vy Atsee lark 71 , Bs tee TOO aha: Picemoes 2.65 21.0 ee Uae rate af) Mae BEN chews, yoy eee 20.9 12: Buea * ges nae 210 oo 20.8 69 Ss 2 1 3 sitet ee eS eee Rie TD aeeeaeet a caaee Oo. Beaks 2.62 20.9 M5 o eens 32. Bee kes Oe es 1 CSS Suung (toe 20.6 80) . ee oe aes ae 250 ak 19.6 75 SEXxSs 3 4 3 aes iecek wfuyg SaaS 2.63 20.7 15 sees 2 eect 10/0), .. AER 2573 20.9 TAL. haseeees a band ae 280 en 20.9 12 oes 0 10 3 gee ae 2.96 20.1 79). ucceeeeeee - uae SES ide Sect bw SESS 20.2 19) sei eeteees Fees te Bees 590 aneee 20.1 76 SEXxS 3 1 3 tebe: Se hans: DEE 25, 21.0 80) _ceeweaee “ tne Lys SES. 2.71 20.8 812 aeeet.: ee iro bd. |. ee hae 20.4 S38 eeeneess x ae eae 500 aoe 20.1 81 SE 4 1 3 Sar AG..\ Ceceaes aaere 21.7 82 geeks: Re ayes Nae Essent 2.87 21.7 Bo testers Bi ht esr Res ee! 4. ciel 21.6 SSF... ckosteses B ae Aas 250 eid 21.3 81 SExSs 1 10 3 ee TR ee acc 22.0 i eres oe seek YH PR Pe ce 2.52 22.0 Be eo seetoee 2 ee cee Se Bhan Mer Sense 21.8 Hie cnn ivi ae ae 480 see 21.7 68 SSE 4 2 3 ee eos, 22.6 TT hale das * ae Ohtieas uae 2.79 22.8 18) yi eeetoss erg Ss oe Oo Oe AS, 22.7 The saeco = re aan 500 eee 22.5 75 SEXS 4 6 3 ink Tle TE CME ha Sone 23.3 ibe eee es ite Owlaven | scutes 2.66 23.1 De ee eee cs: PEERS eee Lies eee 23.0 ASS eee eons > oe, deste 250 wee 22.8 71 ESE 4 1 3 ae ee ed ee ee 23.6 Gri bicsescsess es a: oe eee 2.61 23.2 BYE esc ecn cs Lee ih ee Sef vs eee we Lee 23.0 SO ear edes a a: os 570 rete 22.7 77 ESE 4 3 3 iti, gtinetdheo asain 2.91 24.1 WO, \eeeietaees = ae Negeri 2.73 24.1 pas eon Soa Oph ae, ee 550 aan 24.0 68 ESE 4 3 3 er seas 2.51 24.1 SM ces tie cae m ee Moe ae 2.83 24.1 73.0 tees: Licves, A PD eG GEE. oe 570 Sees 23.9 71 ESE 5 8 acu-cu 3 Te See ae ak EE oe: 23.8 76 GRR... ee aoe 82 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions} Mobility ee Ee ESSE position in 10- | in 10-4esu | | in10-4esu | perce | cem/s/v/cm 1928 Nov 23 21.8 14.4 14.4S 248.0 Ache: — soooddtquDE SOM Ee 0203 1.18 BoM occown Como | cases 23 22.2 14.7 14.4S 248.0 Rash | katecuetlees seas” | Meche cece Secs ateewee eens Geecrteee 24 21.7 14.2 17.0S 246.9 oboe) etecononenn O00 M24) ccsce Sone. Metees, ssocce wenosees 24) 2202 14.6 17.0S 246.9 36 MUBS TIBIGY Annas 1.20 Goode cocchelmaocno c. -ocoao 24 22.6 15.1 17.0S 246.9 bocg) =. fecenecode Race We2 ss05 wae, MOSRam, (Cone Weer aces 24 22.9 15.4 17.0S 246.9 seis sav eeeeses macs Me oe site, TeSeee loved uenmaieese 25: 21-2 13.6 19.5S 245.9 Resta adevesscss saat Mile Suctics 1.17 Soca, cbeo Goce) saoon 20 21.6 14.0 19.5S 245.9 35 MUBS 112 32) cece SCLC ECHOWMEEROHOO. T) hanisoc re} PPA 14.5 19.5S 245.9 Sen | MV anekintess mone | Meets 1.19 sess) cade “ecicocM ier eee 20 aaed 14.8 19.5S 245.9 Meck — sleweetasts wesal | Meee acer aaeiel Mean cote mantcoeee 26 21.6 13.9 22.0S 245.6 RRR Oweaeetertee weiss W460 sacs Sp00° § odo — o0Kb0 26° 22:1 14.4 22.0S 245.6 32 MUBS OQ” | Rares 1.30 dee” mcliae --daere 26 22.6 14.9 22.0S 245.6 siete wee sa" Bares WAT cosees Sado Girstee hes teceneeee 26 22.9 15.3 2220S? F24556e Seec8 | “scavececes’ Been’ sede cede cede, GRRS* hee ee 27 18.0 10.3 PEERS) pe lbyp) 6000 COCO OcCOMECOnDoy marco Peooomeecrccoe = Soon 27 18.4 10.8 23-019) 24ds2 GBs > Leeleeaeess igeack> | ReSeas 1.19 Local wcteem “icceccmmmceter 27 18.9 11.3 23.38 245.2 48 MUBS 154 1534 5 ccc aasin™ pbdcee " tcccee Mamnceces aie 1Or2 11.6 23.3'S\ 245.2 east | wetdter acs aaa | Me? Lotoas sees! Werae | -wesee Gewaetace 28 18.0 10.4 24.8S 244.6 Reese. Guscecoscees Bees 34: ..scke sshel wadeauy | oseee Nembiooten 28 18.5 10.8 24.8S 244.6 48 MUBS 54: Baers 1.10 Broo TR cade. scocne: | ‘sade 28 18.8 11.1 24.8S 244.6 San Poe ete tetes ADOC docodlls Good cote.) pdeee, -ceceem abboaeee 29 20.9 13.2 26.7S 244.7 sieot laaseseertise Asoo 1223) ostese Sea! qatee cosssolbaleue sees 29 21.4 V3.7 26.7S 244.7 43 MUBS VSS! Gases 1.10 Bes CHOREMEECEO! an s10 29 21.9 14.2 26.7S 244.7 Boo, WS cocoooccDD Good ES) Wee epo AOSGs ee HOODS. menodoos © “doa. 30) 2051 13.4 28.2S 244.9 Sodom, |. faBsaccddd aides Weenie 1.00 SE OMECGOGO. Hf Fcocca 30 21.6 13.9 28.2S 244.9 45 MUBS 144 WES! cccas sete.) Mtcscee os Seoe ame ates 30 22.0 14.4 28.2S 244.9 Beace © ouetoaeeas secs | Weaeae 1.01 gene, Meee, cectccl Men mosiocs 30 22.2 14.6 28.2S 244.9 eae. Swnieecenies SoC cooCOM oda) O00» Goce oon . Saodc Dec 1 20.9 13.2 29.3S 245.3 sede’ Megekiceeaes Rose NEZBe caves side, qucisteel . yscees Wammssteee fe 214 Ushi 29.3S 245.3 61 MUBS 1195) Fides. 1.04 SOOOk I pocoel waaebe. M eneaac 1 2029 14.2 29.3S 245.3 SOD Acononcoce S000 ESTs Aer seecl. aaeey caesebees@ianee ay 2420 13.4 30.7S 245.8 swear fleeces sce|=— RR 1.14 soos) BAGO! ces 1.65 a a4 13.8 30.7S 245.8 43 MUBS 138 M2 cece 585% Gees 151 eees PA er qiet} 14.3 30.7S 245.8 Boce) Me cnoooaa000 Epon coe) LelG seve) AAR? coe 1.82 ry Pee 14.6 30.7S 245.8 Bonoin mocecasded Race | Wesel cease SDOD MECC Mm anOaS, —- Senna 3) 1822 10.7 31.5S 247.3 Seon ceoncaacon seca . octet roses scan GE stb ees ej alte] 10.9 31.5S 247.3 ese, Widens Sets ney: eee 626: iw 91538) cee 3 «18.7 Ties 3155S! 24723 39 MUBS WAS) dobos 1.05 dong. GSM) Sead 1eo5) 3 19.1 11.6 31.58 247.3 POnOR | ceeenconco Soeou ee . Cocco eattbnes sie! qustciacts “Kost ak ae eee Oh Sieyal 10.6 SIAIS ~§.24959) kc Sev tess SnD) 60058 0.98 sess GODT -adeee 1.90 4 18.5 11.1 31.4S 249.9 48 MUBS 154 5 en 500) .w2ay) 6176) ee 4 18.8 11.4 31.4S 249.9 GOa0 | Sccdecgods Ramee! Mescee es ciceeta cath ejay) weete Me de sene 5 20.8 13.5 28.6S 251.3 wads" ea cideedenees boca © eee 1.00 See MOGAS mace 1.91 Seales 14.0 28-615) 2D 53 MUBS 170 Wee-A7 Bacco 519) Gee. 1563! Vises by vale 14.5 28.6S 251.3 wishigtt Wa talenbelcalcts icom | unceee 1.02 neo QiOON Uectece 1.83 Se 22-0 14.8 28.6S 251.3 wsce, (eyauteeiteets Nice |= ORS cane ete? vad eid testes 13) 2037 13.4 28.3S 250.8 wee). Gyaeteetadatarsts Reel aches 1.23 coo GIN nance 1.94 iB} Pehle? 13.9 28.3S 250.8 42 MUBS 134 eA Dy ce 565) eee HEE WM Bocice is} Paley 14.4 28.3S 250.8 Siac Uewastisacecss Spub- a cDadd 1.24 vests! WAS39) —ceee8 1.96 WS) 2251 14.8 28.3S 250.8 Sent” tae dea cette Ooi “fod oelleoae oop coco Gooon | soaoo 14 20.7 13.5 29.5S 251.2 vege’ wyadadecestes nnn 1240) ee 250 ce EBD cose Ze Pale? 14.0 PAN) Sy = Pahl? 50 MUBS 160 €.5%. 1.16 sete’ GASB faces: 1.84 14 21.8 14.5 292519) ‘2olne Aegge) | nedaenaeay Seo nla? 9 Lh oeeecee BB scans WG. sees 14 22.1 14.8 292515) 2bie2 Sane! wivwdiacences SPAOL NE Boone) loc DMC MEEULCOO BODO 15 20.8 S85) 3130 25085 wast pa vadedadeues ect Grane 1.09 BAGH COO! MCcCOG: ehace T5e2ie2 14.0 31:3S 250:5 basal’ cette seed 125 cores code GRR Vier cee 155 2028) 14.5 31:3'S 250.5 on apanOoCONN Aono! ye kos 1.10 One MAC, naGnoGoh eh doces uly Ale 13.8 32.0S 249.4 Sect, ba qcarsceteee 5000 O99) sce 532) awe) LEAS) eee 116) 2029 14.5 32.0S 249.4 Rex! Gajaeteetacers'e Gneo me Sonne 0.91 mpeg. CES “Goooo 1.39 16 22.4 iGyal 32.05 249.4 paca» dadecees Salers O93) sc. 529: pte) 122) eae 16 22.8 15.4 32.0S 249.4 waveit Qajudceciscen acct) Ba SaSer wah ADOomrO.. soocdo. me ssabded 17 209 13.6 Sienes) 2507 cco Laycdeetecree seek || eaaee 0.84 Boon eee! Gace0 1.75 Tie 25 14.2 Sleues! 25027 70 MUBP 203 OH99y «ses 480) Ae) 1c430 eee ie 2220 14.7 Sie) 25027 sient go0o. —sfobud 0.85 secs OO Oli seraiete 1.53 im 2223 15.0 cet At ier) ORY Seog Mopcosococd | oocdee) Gorcp, Bhocso.) | doom doo. Gocco Sued 18 18.1 11.0 31.9S 251.0 eee verte Bris 0.87 oct bY qoaco 1.92 18 18.5 11.4 31.9S 251.0 62 MUBS 198 Wala vavees S4OF ecco ate Oe a cske 18 18.8 11.6 31.9S 251.0 esate. enmeteees AGOO. Gco0n ances See L, vector! baucae ce ge icGleee DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 83 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- earth Wind Clouds ; current Weather density notes Rats OM aedees «= Gk weeds 23.3 79 SoSeeree Sete Becsast Sade 50050 410 beeee 23.0 76 EXSs 4 5 cu-cunb 3 S500 Rcves: Gets Tseeete Simeon 23.5 72 eeercsaios A aeteesseast seeee OFSim ve -keess. 2.63 23.3 MS! abitccosccss sch PRR Gaeeedetcss. sR deme cose Recs yw) me Sunes. © Jb raeecias 23.3 74 Rascies Bales cane sew ce sows 50000 800 seatate 23.0 74 E 4 7 acu-cunb 3 Bees. it weds, So aoe 23.2 76 2 gas Seeeece SSR l Gos. 2.69 23.2 Le fe ccccc Coe MOTOMEEE ab-oco-teetcce > Rte Ms Sceace Bites pia 1S 23.1 17 b Se dee onsets oi sages Rts 300 xase 22.9 74 4 2 cu 3 sabe Races: Petes HE | me esc 22.9 74 sate Ce US en eee 2.54 22.9 OL. actos, Bee. BRR Bechetet.. s.r hoe Gu coe Resa eR Rceeate bebe newt 22.8 76 ee sreces sees See's 300 sewed PPA | 72 EXN 3 3 3 sash Betcls 140 sees 22.9 717 -§EXs 3 8 3 Prec RSs MP ON Seeete. 2.70 PRIA 78 Pa nose es ae ee welt S20 sis 6 eeten. 2.64 PRP WB) s cccssaasas's ws awe cues Bote 120 abees 23.1 719 EXxs 3 7 3 eaters Raves wale «eee ee 2.60 23.2 AY Settecess Wee ae easter 122598 Wee. 2.70 23.3 17 se oe BM eceets Roses 520 wocne 23.1 78 4 2 3 sau east |) witecess ORR aces 23.0 79 eels oe ates NOG cncs mbeese 2.81 23.1 78 es we BE sates sccoo 270 BO600 22.9 719 3 7 3 sae Nese MME! HySettes) pew fosicee 22.9 75 = Xe sees MOS ies 3.10 22.7 78 age cil iy soece Boo. sWwie, occcecs, DPE SE: 22.6 78 sas - segies Rewes 270 Seieieis 22.2 77 3 1 3 Satie Reece ee. (ees. Py Meese ont 69 ET. eaucddeessstte 2 See yey TF en soae 2.85 PRPs ( eoceoscra: ) SUCcoNImEE (A ICOM Gocccoenros | ican = meres bac 200 aneee 23.7 67 NEXE 3 1 ast 3 aoe es Roce OES... GENE Wcccuc 23.3 71 Bodoseada os desies «ote eoecs AST ay cree) ice nete 23.2 i Ree COE OU. OCeG) al | | DOMEEE SROCbScaetaccy 6 Rey mC imicsacs ee aM patie) WW erc tees 23.2 72 SRA IOOREE waeenies see “sf sweee 55000 110 sans 23.0 73 NE 3 af cist-freu 3 setts cece 160 Aone 22.7 74 NxXW 4 7 cist-freu 3 o8a00 Sec Scde P eeoss-< (aE scone 22.8 715 aaanaAROS a Pay Qa are resets. wl seen 23.0 4: Gieeeeee.-. ae ge. eens ani 120 seeae 22.9 73 NxW 4 7 3 wuss sieleceememl UE eet es Miwa cent 22.4 84 Reececscs 35 Bach D1 Bias Peres) de eects 22.4 84) eececaeiss ee We sees bess 180 BopeO 22.2 83 NWXW 4 10 3 eeoes eco ctelle MISS «Baw oeeces 23.1 84 cciantaes'S os Seas PD ee eacoe osc 23.1 84) grAre.ke 3c. ae Seer Sake = | eteesen we eeeee 23.2 84 aseectees “ Rae oac0d 160 wee 22.9 84 Wwxs 4 tf 3 eases Sores sth i. Geese” = aan eceen 23.9 73 eases x ene VIRGOVE | Mikes... 2.38 24.0 13) 9 Malteoees =< ge awe pseeee ecee th be ecto: MO Rese 23.8 74 canine 0% Ec Bees Bess 120 anaes 23.1 78 EXN 2 7 3 + eeb Cel, — mE Ahertae 1. poeaS 23.6 74 Locnpeeaa re Sc0be 5 (ee neces 3.14 23.7 A Eeeseniccixe ee ecore ee ee ccs 23.7 75 BONS ases re Wises aces 140 saees Zane 17 NEXN 3 8 3 cee acetAM f Were: wimelmissoais 19.2 83 Reece ces ne ab r-s Becett ti WWE s W cee ctee 19.1 84 Sees # oe r-s ecm 4 gasses, AAUP oes 17.7 88 E 6 x a r-s cee hee weeeess. # elibe neste 20.3 67 Bocceaees Rie me eens Reosteias | Baek ees 2.53 20.3 67 Be ars . a Best Se ee <8 Yoegces MM wdvees 20.3 67 a: ae Seoss Roose 550 fend 20.0 68 5 6 3 cece e PV kdevecs 8) ~eeeee 20.8 67 eee ee oe See Wasce. 2.69 20.9 67 se a “ee ep a eo. eos 20.9 66 oct ae sour weave 280 oben 20.6 67 3 3 3 Bone es ckine | (AS... 2.74 21.0 67 B00 AS ese T3coeee eese.ce 2.72 20.9 CT. Wasesece sss sade css neon 270 esas 20.4 68 NXE 3 7) 3 Ae 84 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity sal | [erg | oor laa Volts V/m position -4 in 10-4esu per cc Mobility em/s/v/cm 1928 OYA US Stas SBIR) BS ES Use cooccoceos Koco. | ecg cose, hc | ec otk 192058) METSIGMMOIEOISe 8250.0 Oo. || Gee Ditecs | beet ecteclyueiccee: (GaED cone) wueene LSS AUT WAS O MMO crGIS. “ZOU. coc tyececcidccss: Mtess, | “edt cvexsuete nes) “eedeu Geer) glumeeee LSP E22. DROMMOMEOLS: 2002 case | pteeeeacinss: Mec. | Sectecy Ceceeiui ess, uceach ccese Me Micmeee treks IGG BRAC IAs geen Goccecocod | Aod umn corcs) SCcbGo) Geen Sneds titan BeGsSe 19) 07.4 SAOISSe S258’ 252°6 opge = sascecadag Sone TOT eenen CVA oseg HEGRE Gonoc 19) 19) a Oseea2iors: 252-6 64 MUBS ZOD Me eace (HESS) aan BR} ghee 1.79 20M 20/9ueeiseSees4s2'S 25314 snd « pessseeee eon WET) e605 ATOM ecco OSE meeases 20 21.5 14.4 34.2S 253.4 58 MUBS MEG) cose ET See PAN heats 1.89 20 22.1 15.0 34.2S 253.4 nods SoSec0bod 3600 Ne)! pags 42.0 eee lO 2 nee 21 23.4 16.4 35.5S 255.1 Soo | caboigdoade Sega diss IOP ace. CEE Gonee 1.80 21 23.7 16.7 35.58 255.1 40 MUBS 128 WEIS Gpote WE) dase TGR} aco a8 21 0.2 17.1 35.5S 255.1 Boog “OOESOOUEDE geag cease 1G O4 ames 432 ..... 1.67 22 20.5 13.5 36.9S 255.9 .... 3006 0.39 ..... WHE) ono EH ooo eh Pair TNE OEY Psa) coca = oobocuboo! ukdadh = godee OSes GH oeca¢ 1.36 22 21.8 14.9 36.9S 255.9 OLG5) eee 2A} eon ISTE) eens 23 20.5 13.7 38.8S 257.2 5000 song, akc O40 mee eee LO Omeaect 2.02 23 21.0 14.2 38.8S 257.2 80 MUBS 256 O81 eee. SE son BA Soe 23° 21.5 14.7 38.8S 257.2 ogo 2009030008 5300 goods OF Dae eee OGM Eeren 1.72 24 20.3 13.6 40.0S 259.2 S000. bndaniccgo0 gon6 e743) Senos BYVAL pes Scene 24 20.8 14.1 40.0S 259.2 54 MUBS WY} ciga9c OY ngs SHI gana 1.78 24 21.5 14.8 40.0S 259.2 360d gasag00008 3600 Weal aano6 BBL! Tosco NGA Aetiee 25 15.2 8.5 40.3S 260.7 fooa, —- pggnoceEr seas, Gado WEES cage BE RPA dese 1.45 25 15.5 8.9 40.3S 260.7 63 MUBS 202 AO esc EEE) casa ALGAE © Basen 25 15.9 9.3 40.3S 260.7 d5cG) —_-codgaoSDaC dodo. 6nd QB —ocoo SHI Ghana 1.38 26 18.2 11.7 40.4S 262.5 Soon Sanaea2900 spon, Snc00 WEEN dda ES Go8aa 1.60 26 18.8 12.3 40.4S 262.5 110 MUBS . 352 ONT2) eee. coil G5e5 ale Foo 27 16.4 10.0 40.2S 263.3 ops = SoodeunUE Son6 S008 GoD Soon coca BESS Sac 27 17.7 11.3 39.9S 263.8 Sco Ganon oodoS 3600 OLEPA sa000 DO eee OSes Aelee2, LIT 139%9)S) 263-8 68 MUBS 218) eae GES nocg SUR} Sonn 1.34 28 19.7 13.5 38.2S 266.0 ac89 © aponcodoo 5000 IE OS eee CAS God5 Wee} ood 28 20.4 14.1 38.2S 266.0 51 MUBS NOE) Saaae ET) oop | SEIS) Gon batty 28 20.9 14.7 38.2S 266.0 osee copesoosce — dood USIP] Sones SOD ese LO Sueemeomen 29 19.8 13.6 36.5S 267.0 ae Soo) Oued MO ota (GRAF cones 1.12 29 20.3 14.1 36.5S 267.0 66 MUBP 191 ES Sons 804 oe-en OLS sees 29 20.9 14.7 36.5S 267.0 coa9 © epnoancese Gera) | S008 O°98i ca O40) enone 1.25 PA) alee TG SS RET) cso benosons édeg,. baotide Soade dopa cosa, © Ganda. Scd00 30 20.2 14.1 34.3S 268.3 pope | pnnoncades 3006 IPH eocee Gib) eo GSH) sends 30 20.7 14.6 34.3S 268.3 58 MUBP NGS) Beeecs ei} odes UES Scede 1.35 30 21.3 15.2 34.3S 268.3 soc0. sO pQWESOS oe LPS eea5e GHA ota Sr. “So000 30 21.8 15.6 34.3S 268.3 5900. clonanncang cote ented Gone dcop acod © odo econ SlecO.d 1453) S2551S) 32770!0) sees Peer nessa = cba Gea WEBI) osca COE) 5 dean 1.81 31 20:9 ~«414.9' 32:5S 270:0 50 MUBS 160 WPS eens SSOD Meee sO lmmenens Slealeon 10:5) TS2s5iS) e200) sects | Weeeesenenn Sado osaag MP) sag Ce Soe 1.81 31 21.9 15.9 32.58 270.0 S65) os 90000800 Btcd Covad “Sodus Sdoq) | 000 boc don 1929 Jante1629)) 100) 325278) e2i7029 Sos, gugoousast papa. baba O29 Sire ets Ocdacees 1.69 cae eho) S2E2iS) 92i7029 58 MUBP 168 WO) Goro COG reece ele l Gnomes CeelGsame O39 3191S) a71e2 o06a cacsesOndE Hobe 1003) ce 534° Ree S40 eens 2 16.6 10.7 31.9S 271.2 58 MUBP AGE snes O29 0 irene eneD Leet es 1.39 3 19.2 13.3 31.98 271.8 Go00) = GsoSucodG0 SAC el. O0odG, Rtbood. Guus ) dado © dooce bade 3 20.1 14.2 31.9S 271.8 Acghye beads COBEO 086 TOU4= Foes 406 gee. lO eec 3 206 14.7 31.9S 271.8 38 MUBS 1226 Bie: Wa goa SEE Shc 2.21 Seyeloleeeloca O09/S) e2uMeO) | Meccc) | Metonteeces SE 1ST Sees COTY Sapa le Gada 3) e2ies es ts.5) 1319'S 27158 anda cogaceorce spo bet Obogi9 Ses seacoast oa Ce 4 19.1 13.2 31.7S 272.8 ego casement nag bonus Pecos 369) ..3.. 2.28 4 196 13.8 31.7S 272.8 32 MUBS 102 MEPL Sos55 (pL agen US boone 4 20.1 14.3 31.7S 272.8 sofa = agriesseced Boome nade UPGY Te gona. LET Sécn0 1.46 Bc cael acOme Olt iS) tataeG) | Wives) | leibscdevesse. onoa. = oekoo godin macy = Soden ODS DO) FLO ZeelOcOMeetS0LOS. TQTSI5, Meno. leetadeddedees Seas 1626) ccece 26 genes eeeleaO pueecese 5 19.7 14.0 30.9S 273.5 38 MUBS 220 Scere Wy oaee, | SIG) G50 1.51 5 20.3 14.5 30.9S 273.5 dors) MMdnectenccae Seo 120) te ac GD eee le SOl maces 5 20.5 14.7 30.9S 273.5 Agog) 9 ad0sDs000 “oo. cbotds. pose soda NecccaL | boacol ) Neones 6 19.3 13.6 28.7S 274.7 Broo = aes eoOONSK cong. = dasay OLY nsea ER onste 1.30 (Je CR: ee Cet: er a Ce 70 MUBP 203 110) eee BE cage HERE © doson AMES ale BA Ses Ril ase 9 noeecocdes cece Meenas (LE lagen, SETA) cdna8 1.52 6 20.88 15.2 28.6S 274.7 Sagd | agaguscnnn Bonn) |» Gouodll soon Sate) py Josecle Wgscnth Maisie UP USL PGS OE Bos nococbocce onli Gone: 655 aley-Gyy iGasan DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 85 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- Visi- earth Clouds bility current Weather notes Soc 300 dosst 20.6 66 NXE 4 2 3 baees tec 200 Paces 20.7 66 NNE 4 2 3 siete Reece 180 Sees 20.6 67 NXE 4 3 3 neat ates 370 “Bcc 20.8 68 N 3 4 3 se dices 410 Sees 20.4 7 N 4 10 3 see 5 Fe 80 2.58 22.6 71 wedenssiee se ee ute T2:8' seeee cece 2.46 22.1 71 NEXN 1 8 ses, ORM aces Secs SROE™ SSeresy) SW Eto cn 20.4 91 Miiects. oe 45 aa8,3 DD ee esc 1.85 20.4 Olly < seseetess%, sc: My Phebe Shaosy jhth® Sede, ihe acee 20.0 91 NE = Sate TE tS iO 20.1 91 BUOdOT IIS an aya Oi4. sm. weceet 2.65 19.9 92) i eeeeeees. an Oe Ait Sees Ncdete: | Sal cocci 19.2 95 NE 4 cay MAR caee eek © ance © doo dbo, «= bod) aad) cand 22 21.1 13.6 12.6S 247.5 diisa—--cocKeEoboS Bee OBO aces CPS Soporte 22 21.8 14.3 12.6S 247.5 38 MDBPC 148 ..... OG nese SI sate 1.48 22 22.6 15.0 12.6S 247.5 acon soot O28 5 cone SLOP eae el O eames rp Pag UG).3) TP PU ieee j/cosuc0case, non «= tdoos. © aosgo. «= cone. StU ande 23° 21.3 13.7 12.58 244.6 So0C app. gonnd OH cng EHIG) Sono 1.52 23 22.0 14.8 12.58 244.6 36 MDBPC_ 140 OHS Sesco CUE sooo ber ono 23 22.7 15.0 12.58 244.6 006 vosodadod0a nogo —-«-daccd (WER) dena = ERB pance 1.34 7433 PaO!) 8) UPA PE ose nedonodoeg Gon = toca toto = Shas, coon Boa nts 24 21.5 13.7.) 12.78 242.2 gana = aooa00N" S006 (W673 dono ENTS cop GHEY sone 24 22.2 14.4 12.78 242.2 38 MDBPC 7148) 3n-- GbE) coe, SEIKI Sica 1.50 24 22.9 15.0 12.7S 242.2 coc §— Gogoncoeds none WEEP sone EES sop5 wba) coca PHL Pops BES) eat aed boda). sonanodoes. «= Goda = God. pag. dood) nena) sdo | oer 25 21.5 13.5 12.8S 240.5 soo. , weserodeod Sand nang OT OM cacte ot OF Myce. 1.61 25 22.1 14.2 12.8S 240.5 46 MDBPC_ 179 O90 ence ADO) ieee ple 2Oneerecen 25 22.8 14.8 12.8S 240.5 pogo) GopoNacase Scan 00008 UN cron SHES Scone 1.57 PA Pe} = Lb Pe PAS TU" PEE Goda sobposudden) Good -onecd), 0nd = Sood apn -ooc0s. , noobs 26 19.2 11.0 13.1S 238.7 S600 | SnopacoSeE cosh = nonea donee food = ceoa = eno. Sonne 26 19.6 11.4 13.18 238.7 Adoo. -, Sagnnna0ds aaa! = o0006 (OEE. apdo a SHIR} obac0 1.56 26 20.1 12.0 13.1S 238.7 50 MUBS 160 OR) acon Sood _ cond = Secon. Sone 26 21.0 12.8 13.1S 238:7 epee sceciecs 5068 0.84 ..... ASG" orcs) pled4 eettacses 27 19.2 11.0 13.58 235.8 anh bagtioodace ates OL98) wee BE Soca aS oecing 27 19.7 11.5 13.5S 235.8 57 MUBS 182 eee HPS acts. ET Sate 1.33 27 20.0 11.8 13.58 235.8 A400 Sondscwong 9000 nodD, © SonoO, Food «= coy. ose. Get 28 22.0 13.6 15.0S «233.7 5066 : 2000 TharAUE ences CU ccog RH occ 28 22.7 14.2 15.08 © 233.7 47 MUBS L50 aeeeee AU) oc UES > aecce 1.49 28 23.3 14.9 15.0S 233.7 a0de —-adbondtdee aces Me-AS 5sc6 HEY occ ace 23) PABST SIGS IG GT-R cand “Cvcsboocdtha eitidod — eindsog) “Gadus God eoccd dood = Gaoon Mar 1 22.0 13.5 16.7S 231.8 S0G; | Ononincéddo pcad! = -D0b06 TOO e490) See caes 1.43 1 22.6 14.0 16.7S 231.8 50 MUBS 160 102 eence CRRA dod) tate" coos 1 23.1 14.6 16.7S 231.8 S060» -cadouotco3 0G | “conde 1 ODS n-s- OOO iene: 1.32 1 23.3 14.8 16.7S 231.8 aco ogenedeoe S00p: | -dooody dDuN O60 Lodcoe | docod, acest 2 22.1 13.5 17.0S 230.1 ncce. = gopancacds 908 102 ener CU scse Ne Goose 2 22.7 14.0 17.0S 230.1 32 MDBPC 81124 Wren NE) enc BEA sence 1.82 2 23.2 14.6 17.0S 230.1 Mono, > geannnadds doa WH” “ao600 Bet cade Herts) bocce 7) PAR} TIC EE Cl RUE Scot = cuscooccdoneOdee cdods, took JORG Gono | Gonot. ote 3 2205 13°98 ATS 228°2 see o0dt OlS8s cee 496 rice le AO maymecces 3 22a s9 «LTS! «622852 35 136 eee OLOSie tats) ee tOO ences 1.42 3 23.2 14.5 17.1S 228.2 3000 nee OLOS ens S6Siieces) lL OReee mene BYP TIES ies PS P-EY Rcecen wcoocod Gace Gosou | soccd) Bodog ocour \obss | Goctan = 50609 4 22.3 13.4 17.2S 226.5 Soot 5000 anes O04 eran eA OO eee 1.61 4 22.8 13.9 17.2S 226.5 28 109 104 cc 504 oie Le aOeeme eres 4 23.3 14.5 17.2S 226.5 3060 Soom | 00000 WEE none SYK sps00 1.58 A236 SUA 2iS 22615) Gece “Meeseemesss) et sere) |) Meese Conese gacd, rdoo.§ | Sco 5 22.5 13.5 17.1S 224.5 Soe =» gnaQDUCECC sats R04 raere GG cca tel Olemmrecrae 5 23.1 14.12 17.1S 224.5 40 MDBPC 156 e.... (OS) Googe SRG Gaano 2.05 5 230 14a iS) 224.5 Gogo 8). sodasocudse ae OZ) reser BE) osag IESKY gone 5 2087 SWbse ies, 224°5 Seon 0 Mieehteneessr Recen Reeten nl leester Seises Nmicones pfermceMMAin cance 6 23.2 14.1 17.2S 2238.1 acer ondoadoute meee) | Meee OBI Goon SEE coor 1.76 6 23.8 14.7 17.2S 233.1 weet) Cammaneesss e OFDS eee A900) ieres) elle Samuecas DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 89 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- earth current Weather density notes i, in M219 Cokes (ES 24.5 UALMieeeccosses Soe Estee Bec pee ete) ate Bceee 24.2 76 Eeeeeness a caeee Secce 1600 sass 23.9 76 ESE 5 1 3 eeess kaees 1880 aeons 25.1 75 Exs 4 1 3 eddes SAH maepsatn 3.03 eco fe Rentcess nee sie acon A Bkee tT een OUD ra. Bee ere 33 8) alee hcose 1880 reese 25.0 69 4 1 3 case VAS Ome. © Boeces, Wee rceece “55 So os 0 eee Bakes wasp AE50) pens ccc 73 4 9 3 8.6 2.62 sa ‘i soreseew (S890) «y Be 17 3 8 3 Stas O:Onee Ess Q2O2P akc Aah | cecorces so £0! o> ae 3480 Seoee 25.3 70 EXs 4 4 3 re Rocieeeehe Seed. SU. shced 26.0 71 Mecaeess ; eee TsBisiye Pease. 2.70 26.0 Yi WU ee eR Sie cree sek opmes | Bees eS Seach 25.9 71 Secadeecs - sends Saas 3270 seeds 25.7 71 EXxs 4 3 3 ik SOOO vet ROC OCCU. LeMeAr 26.2 70 Ssceseess a seme tay ls core 2.75 26.1 it. Spee... at 2s asseee iE sks WES tices 26.2 72 daasewese we aense ment 3060 sabes 26.0 70 SEXE 4 2 3 ater Senet) VEstece, eaves Steee 26.9 71 seececeee ae s aoe WG e 82585. 2.82 26.9 71 she 3 0 ee eoeese newer Seentice dure! ietase 26.9 71 aan ae saees “eet 4380 ss 26.9 70 4 8 3 watts eect A Baseis, BPS esses 27.3 70 see " ae were LOSS Rete reece. 2.89 27.3 71 ue Se Ew cere cece aeeass UNO | cd: PAR 71 ve s Sane vaeee 4030 aoe 27.0 70 3 Ky 3 adeee BACH 4520 Scone 26.6 74 4 8 cist-cu 3 sees ae co 2.83 26.6 75 Re cketees “ e; wa dehnecae dee Bc Roce Eile) ac060 2.76 26.8 WA. A Giesseses | es MOR | Sec te r 20000 4590 2.73 26.6 73 EXxs 3 9 cu-cunb 3 savas Sceematee Seeaee 2.89 2us0 68 eesceuse ee rae : 15+ = size. 2.87 27.6 Gi ely teacccseese feces | edhee,. Bcklsceee ee 2 caer CO0GC 4800 cose 27.8 64 Exs 5 1 ci-frcu 3 weees see aay eee) aaa coer 27.8 68 ELOCOREE ceeuebessices seeee V5" " “sete. 2.83 27.9 CGi eres es OWI - ee receceed h SN occ Fae Meaccoud ace 27.7 68 aentesces deducts cvesds soe acaes 3960 soeee Pr fteh 67 ESE 4 8 cist 2 atdes focest |) Laemtcr Mumia oae 29.0 67 re as works 1O'OR Sete 2.75 29.0 67 a = occu a eeeeeen dn uaeeee 28.4 68 es a ROUND 3130 seas’ 28.1 67 3 7 3 SSS TM RSS We Teer 28.2 69 os = Css. 2.91 28.0 Woe WARS. AA occan Sees feats PRD eee 27.9 72 iaeistees 5 sede Estee 3480 SORE 28.1 10) USE 4 3 3 wks Mocs te OT cedet 29.0 67 ee cascs e ieee SIS) eee: 2.71 29.0 68) 9 sieee.cee STAN fe tess oc y Mion Soe) Tae 28.9 68 Rakrcltsaws ae ieee. deese 3480 veoh 28.8 60 Exs 3 4 3 whee’s pau © Aer. 2.69% Sache ce eee Sie oS: saute 4380 eves 28.6 68 Exs 3 3 3 veces eon! Ot Meee ieee 28.9 69 Weveteecs Be a stews WOi2 "Tess 2.73 29.0 69 Pe es SERS, Bcaeedon aC ness 28.9 70 a ee sees mass 4170 seous 29.0 66 3 3 3 eae ones. PN wetness: | Eagiseses 28.7 71 = oe ceees Svea Baestee 2.95 29.0 68 Ee 90 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions} Mobility Sail Volts position 1929 Nt Gere a = ary 2 cca = cccogcendl, cod = = ‘dccxo « dags «= adso.SSC 7 22.9 13.7 17.48 220.9 sooo | aos (EE) nos5 SESE seen 2.04 7 23.5 14.3 17.4S 220.9 e ORO Seance 480 red yl 42ers me Of 1459" taeS) 22059 9500 = onaee GEERT ose SEIS) Gdn 1.88 Te 2053) 155 Lis) 22089 3500 odode, od: nous 930s ta LTS) e2ites bene, «= pgcO.aR0 3000 0°99) ree. CEE om, ST cen lr ales rile} 30 MDBPC 117 ...... OU bose ED) cece 1.57 Galery alr NS SE ellis} So00 0nd Sco0od 5000 NAOT paca OO Zeeeac ey c4 Oem acer SS 15.9 ue Se2i7.8 scqo -abOye00000 n005 06200. 0009 coos Gace cbtbo «| oaece 10) 19595 10235 182 01S 26eT onog. —‘BooNEEGGNO 3200 goscs CHEN) acon, IEE coe 1.38 10 20.3 10.7 18:0S 216.1 63 MDBPC 246 IL-{06) Esco Hts cose Here cosa 10 20.5 10.9 180S 216.1 a90a _ ddaoooaona sooo = gee Beane sooo) © b0nn— cn000 = bana 11 O6 14.9 18:28 213.9 9000 -_-oggeedeo00 0008 TOLON eee Sond foond gocsa — ceLoo LT 1S) 1526 a8 2iS e259 onde, obdaqea000 onod = gnc bet} G066 goa e0808 sa680 118) 1621) 822/S) 20359 G00 bbEdOCOROC oon OYE cosce Bona pono Dodo «= aono0 LOT Onl el 42 eli Ons mem on ter en09. ——-aguanOBNbN acter OEE) oroa BHI sonore 1.64 A Wale aS eal’ 57 MDBPC 222 109 Reece 569) Reve sel Sommers PX ale IGA ati ell asp bp osibeooes o000 Ona HE) peas P45} Goo 1.63 pales Pale allies eae o0d0 00g «coon Stoned «=—Sones «=e -cacan = acne Wp) eG) aff Te Seal) coda cacsdeodcs © node Susg © aco! O00 | sum) Soren «= auo00 WA Gay Ge eS malt! Sedo Geteacnsco «= hones Gaon co) oe nce We AG EG TMCS) BS) gone euconesose «= Spon ce c= C00 22 1.0 14.9 17.6S 208.2 5006 S000 1¢4 00s CPP coop Ut. oo 22 1.5 15.4 17.68 208.2 34 OS eee WPA) 28088 See eee 1.77 22 2.0 15.9 17.6S 208.2 2600 5500 UEML Sooce G32 eee LO OMe 22 2.2 16.1 17.6S 208.2 2800 onda © 'cocog. angod os0d, «aos, 23. 0.2 14.00 17.1S 207.1 noo, © Seneacedan po08 = dno0n Werth coo EEE p00 1.96 23 0.8 #14.6 17.1S 207.1 43 MUBS 138 er) pocoo BE) ean HE! scone Zoe ce lOsLemedidis! 20d s6g0 Ss teeodonOGS apd. | dc000 12 Bess SOO Mone 1.81 ZOOL bieles) 20st 1 and =—cceceedoon soto aon. ona soos ope) 08D Sn 24 0-2 13.9 1698S 206.1 ooh «= adoacrogbe cone ILS} Gapas SU 2 iene) 0 eee 24 #08 145 16.9S 206.1 34 MUBS 109) acer: WAU sa05 CERY 5000 1.61 24 1.3 «15.0 16.9S 206.1 Sogo ogSEccoD zoos MaIlG) Gases Gl} eno HEB PA) “bo ace 24 1.5 15.2 16.9S 206.1 Soda Gocococeod S000 —«aciond.~ esiago 5060, coud, dda «C508 25 20.9 10.5 16.5S 204.1 eae S00, oo 0094 ers eo eee 1.52 25 21.4 11.0 1658S 204.1 52 O96) sae CO pon LES Goan 25 21.7 11.3 16.58 204.1 nodo) ©«sGddbooodoD’ gogo: «| ooo ddnom «= dog, GHD) cS te 26 1:07 1475) 1631S 201-3 Wall sansa ose nes: «apo so Ole Cielo: OME OSES uemZOLGG) aecce) lllecccecessciMENa sep00 1 1.3 13.9 1448S 189.8 Sago = HOneSOCcHe 3000 oro WHER} cea OER aban 1.78 1 18 145 1448S 189.8 Sbog hOseSSC000 sec 0.96 ..... ASAT e ele DOr merece 1 2.2 14.8 14.485 189.8 nado © bebSaoste doy Sano. | naG aso |iddog) “oago | \Gadoo 22 2.0 146 12.5S 188.4 Gono desaconene S000 Iti I) oopec WE tose HER} ccccia 22) 2.6) 115-1 1255S) r8s-4 dicd> = oddone pono. aco 0B}, hep bese = eeooe ~ onced 22 3.2 15.8 12.58 188.4 S000» ‘adadnoades aso OG Hireeses S00) » }OhaG.. “dooce » anou 23) 2:0) 14°06) - S01 0;S 188.5 Apart sdeaicageans 00g teinae Osis Todbo CEI) sasee 1.39 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- earth current density i, in 10-7esu DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Boiss aad dL COO Te ferg atat tay ts ast-cunb cu-nb cunb-nb 91 Weather notes 92 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric E Potential-gradient Conductivity Local | GMT vm 2+la- | m [at rie i0-tem [perce [em /a//em 1929 Spread 2.00 @ lool 11.0S 188.5 45 MUBP 130 TET Casi 663 geey 12) ee 23 3.0 15:6 17.0S 188%5 aeeer | Deentcese ss Recs) | cee O'S6) eeece, BOOS weeeee 1.20 23) Mose, | N58 SUTEOISIeISSb) Gees) coecceeoaee Rees Oey “ecw ccos ccd) eaoaG ce 2a: Fas 14.7 84S 188.8 Sie. usescbseaee Ries O84. ee cae sees! (Uueisach | Meese cin ae eoemee 24 2.7 15.3 84S 188.8 Sess ssasbedess CCE eao0 O:88" Ace!) F449) eee 1.36 2A orn) doco 8.4S 188.8 wae) sjasactecuens cone AFOG? Wecsee 530) ....;. 1739) .o22 24 3.4 16.0 84S 188.8 Was tleeswocets Righty Medes, cosaas deus, Coon’ ‘oodda, | céace 25 1.3 13:8 7.4S 188.1 cn ofemenenees Socal aco. OFZ veces) Dao ees 1.17 25 1.8 14.4 7.4S 188.1 47 MUBS 150 OL87 cece 582) ges 104) 25 2:4 11570 74S 188.1 sess. av ecuneaes disc, esas O283h ew ecce O09) etccre 1.13 cy Af al) 7.4S 188.1 sweep = Uhensteeres Sesey. iecaton (ose wai Snes | ceccicn@ MB Ses 26) #1491329 OcciSi SiG: — ssn aeeeseene ee OUGG) secs. sks Reeeee dees 205 92:0) (70485 GibiS; STG ssn eescecdss Mics 9 eas ODay aceess Leescs| Meee cea 265 2:6 5a1 Gorse 1826) ueacnue Mesctesontes OL04 Joa Be iccee) scat eesest aeesen 265 e206) 1573 6.5S 187.6 sinh Raaectencas DOcg wn caDSo pce Sepa SSSR csSn wl lasses 27 0.9 13.4 5.0S 187.6 S000 © = dagnn00008 Cec mn Goode 1.11 seca CVU Backs 1:75 20) 1h3) 1338 5.0S 187.6 47 MUBP 136 105° sc -ce SY4 Aas, 1ca2ieee ee. Ae G8! P43 5.0S 187.6 saat sae ore oC once TRO sees DOO. Wr eccce 1.46 PE Pa alee} BOS) 1876, i | Msscte.c ies ESS eco, Nese eee eccencamanere 20) ies) #10.8 3.6S 187.3 Sais bees 0299) ese. 494 gee 1539) —cusce Aorta 1423 3.6S 187.3 37 MUBP HOT“ yesces 08922" 228) Fae Nese LZ 28 24 14.8 3.6S 187.3 Nivel “Gactenence meee Q2OT eese 492: eceesy INST Poses Pay Pa} Fb) 3.6:S 187.3 sess gaddsseceee Bice 0 oer asenes Solck Genes), Lascsiuelgtistoes 298 10) is 4 1.6S 186.5 Boo Leusenctane ceto. 6000 0.81 Reon) mOgal” Testes 1.44 29 1.6 14.0 16S 186.5 43 MUBP 125 0295) cs... ASW cee, | ie GGr es eeeare 29 «2.1 14.5 1.6S 186.5 ORCI EOC Doce Soe | esate O2388 ce eaSl ee... 1.46 29 2.5 14.9 16S 186.5 meee) | tcatencetee PRE GSocamn teanEe tivs, “ewer oveeer) lesen 30 23.1 11.5 0.4N 186.0 Weeeg cebawemmes Gesey feat ONTAS w 32.3, 400) eee. 1.28 30723-6067 9220 0.4N 186.0 49 MUBP 142 OW) cease 470) cere calmer 30. 23.8 12.2 0.4N 186.0 PERE coco fre Soest Bree! uceses isce | QSsaed) ossecl yo cease May 1 21.7 10.1 QcS Ng OUBSO — S tScwccccete MM iiccras MsRS:) cecceW scot ocasacs | conccmmamenees 1 22.4 10.8 2.4N 185.0 Sane |p eeseeeeenic wes D230 esiee Sigey stem eveca . cesens 2229) Sete? 2.4N 185.0 51 MUBP $48 Gene VRS ceesrs QaRGs Scccoe a patacese Py PPG) ala) 4.5N 183.5 meee CMU ©) cos oweter 5 Sect) Wccecee isccecmeeceeee 2 4.2 16.4 4.5N 183.5 O80) eccce Sace stevol® Deserve 24a 16:9 AUSENGNLOG Coram mr Akccae ACerS Wl manoseetloccd © cacco, Ji lidsces Crossed International Date Line eG TS54: TSSTON: uri iss seaesasees Sate Deal, acces 683) “Ges 235 eee figs eel 1359) WeLSSGN) WT 57 MUBP 165) memes 1.01 Rosen CURT seca 1.39 eee) 14-5 OUSSTON, Littl! Sets S58 Wet “Grads 569! :::.. 1:43) “sce. te ool ICTS I SCNT alii) so" esonetdoce “6568. ccc cscee) Godh) aads ~~ eeada «Goo Seles, 13:54 T5:5N “17455 wee misty estes US | ceeee ecOO) merce 1.38 Geeeerse 23-9) OLISESIN 17405) 38 110 WedBs cosee 682necs V1200 ORs Ciccone 14°45 T5'5IN) D745 ; Rees: 1) (Rese D0) cc Gale ference 1.23 Syemocamet4:s' PoL5(N 45. aks ctcccceccclMsce, NpSeccpiicssss) cescMmuisess) Ne scoeein uceese iy eRigtt = a leal 16.5 N 171.8 Relate Balsa.” | Cmca G5 ees, COUT eee. 1.29 SO Gra eG) GSN 71s 45 130 eZ) cesses G86; nates. 12257 ecco. Sy Ose Ss) GSN OLT1-8 epee ms coe ccoore SE te Toke eee Waceh. Gauche Sesses Womebete 10 23.0 10.4 18.3N 169.2 hae | eccnnoross Gosc IGNGS Geese 576. ssw, 9 WRAZS eee 10 23.4 108 18.3N 169.2 49 MUBP 14 ie ease Ath) gdoo® EEE) canoe 1.35. 10 23.7 11.0 18.3N 169.2 Seney g Pee ec ee Saioy EER, iociseie Sen Reco Meee J) 2221 9.2 19.3N 166.6 ese | Watetlesee sis AseG DAs oases GLO) greece el 4 eee Li 2226 9.7 19.3N 166.6 44 MUBP 28). Ween Ve285 Seaee OSG) Fecene 1.30 1) 23:1 10.2 19.3N 166.6 oy Namience een ss Nae ES FR SSZi wacey tle oo eeeeeecs 11 23.4 10.5 19.3N 166.6 peebw. ) Blecsactaoee wees: | gideee® cases Se Pceege cacoce WSuteS LIZ. LatG ese Ny (LGSs4.) sence piictasss>nnciailc cde 1.25 628i ee -ae 1.38 DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 93 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- Pen. earth rad. Clouds current Nuclei ion- Weather density per cc pairs notes i, in per 10-7esu cc/sec Ocoee aes: 3.00 29.1 719 Sl Watiateecca baa). sete ocCOO MM Coodaga. a Wiceaoe 29.1 719 cA eae meee 2990 eees 29.1 17 8 si Soteom ) Weeceonee en acne 27.1 85 3p t Moet oo oo tees 2313 27.5 83 seeaeiie’ « te dees Solos. | hf apcoecolie 9 fOscen 28.1 82 Baccdaced “ aiaee scene 1600 Jopee 28.1 81 ENE 4 saan Sete Geese seat 31.0 69 soaneodon a5 sae CRT ae Imbesccodem | wecnce 30.7 10)” ysdweteares Sod | Bsa ae eeice Oop AS OLED cose Siren, fu beset | este 30.0 74 ee Sune Seno. | ee Th" ) Seans 29.8 72 7 Sees aden. 7) | AeBcdeba nl) saceaed 28.1 719 = r SCCOO MINN bacdn = wnMcaaca 27.8 80 a r Beceen, |) micoscecee -. 4 uebees 27.8 80 oe r Soon SAI IT Ne eGasce 27.1 82 7 sisi aged, Mm facecooug, MilRDSSac 30.2 69 seseeenss OG ee hit Pe Deasesoke | faced 30.3 G8, teres Ge aR Rest cesiecettesecc a, BE cct ume ere Bisse, selene 29.4 68 aNewaeene a drese Sons 1530 Rees 29.0 75 CALM 10 sees ns meee). 8 Seca 28.8 75 sasasesas ac one GiSigw e Scccc 2.94 28.7 715 Sg) Guadiduceaseost Py Ss: Be Getie Reem By ecaces0 MEMS sc 28.6 76 aS Seiaws eset 710 Sot 28.6 74 2 welts Beneay ... sbsieetis a yc asees 28.1 80 fs oaewe WD) ed5000 2.92 28.0 81 Sok. geese PE Ee asec Beccty Penn elon aeOneD 28.0 80 55 Scents Eaees 770 sesee 28.0 78 3 She eco tMee. Poses: 2.81 PAE | 80 3 sang (as) coos 2.74 27.8 18s. aeesaees. « si emo aecRicn acest gcc Gp nace eaeis 990 eee 27.9 76 EXxs 0 sees acooC 1530 Soete 27.0 85 ENE 3 seiefes nec Meme cee n 3.00 27.8 82 see aeaes ie r IPAS) | Bea8G 2.90 27.9 81 & r Renee 2290 Bos 28.5 2 8 ee Sey tees See 27.3 85 BS r Secon. ot Meroe 2.85 26.3 91 a r oncco. | sooocoool nn Nl BeEa- 27.6 81 ie arate aeeale wees wasps Cale) imecpeers 3.04 27.2 84 Soy ) gp stcdie ccc Ware Bak seeks Shi se Sed 27.6 81 es A aieleeee's sees anaes eae 1670 Bane 27.8 80 9 cu-cunb seat cance: De sascss ” BN sess 27.9 719 ee Retest ee eeees sf 6.8" | eae. 3.36 1.9 WON @reveeeash ese BP SE actu dere ceees we nec ELNecicen.c 2.6 1323" 20F2)N 160:9 Good = seeEooNON 0906 1.24 ..... EB) scgo0. AY case 13 3.1 13.8 20.2N 160.9 35 MUBP LOZ ees TPA} 9905 PB). sang 1.20 13 3.6 14.4 20.2N 160.9 3052 -«-Qg00dNC000 . 00000 PAT Goes UPA e000 sli) ones 13 3.9 14.6 20.2N 160.9 no59 © cosooaadac nqgo = eocp-6OnGd esse” ghese, cece eee DepeocOMmel AsO) m4 2209N, 255-9) aeons eceecseece 3008 Ot PA Sdoee Bcd | 003) Moacco © “eaaK0 5 4.3 14.7 42.8N 155.9 . 118 MUBP 340)> ) reas (OAS son ane Gocag © Boone Bil GIG) CIPS all) Sag Sbcochddon 3600 0.44 ..... S64 “Eon 'ncbe. |) Gane Giece2eeloni G43-9)N 115853) 2.5. Help bor Ol46\5 eres) Cicecc eoceeemmence 6 3.7 14.2 43.9N 158.3 70 203 O366) ces eo6D. ccce) MORGbO © “oOD0C Greedolel4e7, s43°9.N 15803) oc. oben. code ONG otto ee ma ieemeeceeelceo) 45.7eN 15958) * f... x080 (OLG50) Shc Boom icdcs | | Bbccas Mee dkGoc i pseceeelo.9 45.0N 159.8 36 11045) eee ele Miaaca ef Sceod Naoboo | ¥oaco0 iSneeelacon ee 4ocrON) (159%8) 2.0: Drsecscest MTs We} Gace nobe cosa adage Sess lem ScOmma-OUN) 916323)0 7 Gan. scan OLS Beats 108° ss. 42.06 8 3.9 14.8 47.0N 163.3 134 MUBP SE) oases OED Wess PEN Shee 1.39 Sis Ammoron wATCOUN) WIG353)) eos | coeseece ee 3000 OVGbiee ee PANSY © Egon. LIEEEW i caaaa BH UBT CE) OUT) | Sée “Geseeebdes Aon, one OHTOT scan CLS “andes 1.03 9 3.4 14.5 47.0N 166.9 45 | MUBP 130 §=6.:0.64:—_".... SAO) eeceee) Loo Oe meecmes Sp mAalemebtnecmmeceOUN| 9166.9)" ofeen sc corcoc Son, tone GHW Cong SEE) Seos 1.25 10 2.6 13.9 46.7N 169.7 Been fe cletelate oe 3000 iloiey Gaeae RAO oso) wbee4if" gonad 10 3.1 14.4 46.7N 169.7 41 MUBP WG) Sgesée 1.03 noon DIL Shee 1.55 LOR estO me LOCOMmEOeNG LGOLT) | Sooerl Miicretecrce $000 MELO)” Apc 655) eves aloo ee cee U1 GontueeetOrGmEAOLOaN) ELIZ 109) oe. Sox CO (ER one, WEL “Sedos 1.10 11) 5256) SAA SeSIN 171-9 57 165 108) Groene UES cose EEE © Ssac0 Tey eSely eetacGiemetonOeN: 1719) |e. Eide a Rscette by Basa SEEN “adc06 1.23 12) 2:1) SS -GeAo aN) 9173.0 8. 3506 OUS Oi sees Sopem micccd wn Oco00. "iGoocD 12 2.7 14.3 45.4N 173.0 124 360) Weer (E(t) 7 eteeee cocm! Nccoda | /S6c00 12 3.3 14.9 45.4N 173.0 oars Beis (Het asece caso bebo §©— Onde Bode 13) 2357 \ 10-3), 46isyN 74-1... BS polmeO! cade | accoss "oddco Soe, bea hGH» Meno 13) °250), T3iG> V4GtHIN 174-4... S600 GPa Sense Boa Wedded “Gosod > 8ce0s 13 2.5 14.1 46.5N 174.4 76 220) Wiseses OMiGiee Bag 6 cet Bossa codec 13 92:9) 14:6 “46;5.N 9174:4 .... SOAs (OBE “aoace ates Beco Bosco, || oeoce 1459 23/00 Bal SAS TONNID mT 9) Ane. Nemeaencebnes Rote. Umeenel see Peer hose me Gosoe se sidngae DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 97 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- earth current Sos aR cease daae eae 20.9 87 Sees: SHE SS sie Cais te webs Seb Fey er nootodchle Se mmnbene 21.9 87 30002506 SaaS ceca seas 6.4 5980 3.03 21.9 86 SWxWw 3 8 ci-cist 2 Zz Sconce arse Mamereeer 22.0 88 Petcwsees ec ceeensecs dea waste wae cadens 3.13 23.4 83 seeeensl a Moiale ale wa\e\sies any oe 4520 cooke 23.8 82 Wxs 4 10 ast-cu 3 Bacto ASSEe Pela goon er pase 23.5 81 SOROOCORS Bae ieee aces eee 5.8 A520) Se wecete 23.4 19 WSW 4 6 ci-freu 3 Zz Sc ieceasden) atenes” mall eras 23.6 83 noocooste OSs dates cewee sede baat 2080 3.10 23.5 Wm § 2 7 cu 3 wees enter 4 Petaceowha ancate 21.9 87 Siecesae Be Pee oc wees 7.8 4100 3.31 21.6 84 SEXsS 2 10 ast 2 em cons Sabo Ay wéebsAtiey ba madd 21.4 87 Beans MeecBabice seth Tdeds re oe TOROS 8 ss alee 85 secadeone Dodi toc seeds oaeae bet! 3270 3.10 21.9 82 s 2 9 ast-acu pee ence SACs ehbee | eaceesy whin sseoe 22.0 85 eeecs gee sate Boos eecs 3270 Sai lir/ 19.6 89 EXN 2 0 aaidadeccecas 2 Zz Oe deadh costes. ag be ae 19.3 90 SsndoC CRS 3 Bosbancadauoe ediee DY aeIeN Rrsteccce duwbe sees 19.1 90 ONL Scots Leo | each wa cece eet beha o eeeeei! wane cee 18.0 78 = eee ee ae seats 7.6 4240 3.02 18.0 76 3 (0) "Fe Gsndcococonos 3 Z pee mes ae Notes seen coos 18.0 717 es peceans sleeals a6 cha RNs dk aeaecs) Khma oc 18.6 88 Beebe eBOn000 ap Sats 8.4 3540 3.97 18.3 90 2 1 ast 3 Z aces A icc taens SPaeerea 18.1 90 BosbooabdEocG a eae be ipaw cttaaes 3.10 17.0 90 BS ebceMeEoOS : sete Koco MT hace RE 17.8 78 es wee OOF chests 2.97 17.6 78 aja ods ee apbRC 4660 sees 17.7 68 3 2 3 Sasi ed Ar, aida sees 15.9 79 55 seeee 10.3 3060 2.92 15.9 78 3 2 3 OURe) seas DTT ese @ erten abee eee 15.9 79 a5 ah Rpdoc ek ee 2.93 15.0 77 es Es oes eascmebbe acters 3.24 14.4 84 aA aa Pood ORY song 3.10 14.3 82 x Ae | a3 wases 2290 AbSLE 13.9 82 3 10 3 BPACG neice teuee | leereee 2.90 11.5 88 Asbheonco “6 ae m MOOR d SESE 2.86 11.6 CS Aacanaso - m SBaEe 2080 soot la bate] 85 SSE 4 10 3 nets Bebe) 8 eee | | mecca 102 94 Ag Seebano ae 2 of f-d 8.1 2500 2.92 10.9 93 SEXxs 5 10 1 f-d teed “oes BRE Fes. 10.9 95 BIIVE.. ae is Re f-d cuaveys tae Sats) aauyl cate 10.3 97 SseROre aaa % fe f-d 8.3 3540 3.03 10.2 94 SSE 4 10 0 f-d Ttdceltin Gere | Wa ieceee 10.4 97 ReBCACEE sie fs Bs f-d Ses aD | Sugeees MG eee 9.2 96 Bee cece: zs ts = soos iis f-r GiGi eer 3.16 9.2 Oi tetsccten iis ss se f-r UST | eee Meee ee: 9.3 97 Sioeeees act % 6 f-r TT ee) eee ee 8.6 90 reece: wes Sc Fe f TPIS | 4450 3.00 7.3 89 WSW 3 a 0 f een | Sedete, oy Pecos ea) 92 Jeasssaes se oA a f Severin Gobet pake ote 8.1 93 nooo ceEEan hee = a f 5.4 3060 2.96 7.8 88 WwW 4 10 1 f Reeyaywd) “Settee wheal Seer 7.6 93 jmoobticos ae 2s ao r cpacd:, One ecetton Eeagoss 8.1 92 be Ks 5, m-Zz 8.5 3060 3.07 7.6 88 3 10 2 m-Z Sear e . (ioseks MA tase 7.9 88 500 3 56 m-z po ousl Woetees, ean fester 7.9 90 wae 3 a m-f 10.4 4380 3.05 7.8 86 4 10 3 m-f ec thae keecces oe teste 7.9 90 Re eeieees Jac +. aa m-f Ahooct Se CeCe | MaECEEeT 9.9 93 ceo ceOr ae aC Ae 1 11.5 1670 2.91 9.7 89 SE 2 10 2 f eels) | Yatasas) meee cette 10.0 92 RRS Ss eae ae Ss f Sestiewe, Beetccs 3.04 10.4 98 ieaeesaes me ee Ss f Risibem forces nee 10.8 98 Ceeeess nae aA bs r-f TOUS stee-- 2.97 10.8 96 4 10 os r-f secs Recs wie seas 10.7 98 wa ae Ae m-f aaa 3.07 10.0 98 wes oe Se m-f 98 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric cm/s/v/cm 1929 July 14 1:8 13:7 48.2N 178.5 waa, | AM aersetwe se ween, «| Vedas OL4Si i icc, ARR Gsese aeeee 14 24 14.3 48.2N 178.5 143 MUBP 415 OM Bes seeel pctcoan | ohcee be euecene 14 3:0 14:9 48:2N 1'78:5 ae Weteeteisce cies) autiee O33. 6 w:5 ORR 22:2. eee Crossed International Date Line 14 2.2 14.4 49.4N 183.9 Rie Ueiowslsesiss ss Bere O8360 ee. veoa siclocy | iecseuennees 14 2.8 15.0 49.4N 183.9 225 MUBP 652 See 0.23... cosy SERA Ao cccieeetee 14 3.3 15.6 49.4N 183.9 Rete Shcheeses ss sees O28 eras sewer (etres” Uacencye nena 15% 1:0)" 13:6 S50:6iN) 18:8 Ree Seneveoes cst ee 0:60):. 222 UR MSS 15 «(61-5 1450) SOLEIN' “18728 100 MUBP 290 ORT scece gacae | \isheee | Seawenmeeeeee 15 1.9 14.4 50.6N 187.8 fish Coo anes Oe ee OL62) sexo SEE aicssp OS 1G ARGS 14°59) SSIeGIN) 19355 Rene PF wannenssae Avie OF98> ceo. aes) Minas ceed Wagiernoeee GH 252) bet) SIR6INE 19325 81 MUBP 235) | Ween OF8OLE 2, CS 2228S 16) 2279) 15:6) 5126sNp 1193825 Ee Vildeweossats soe 91a) Eaeeaere Saved isteway weaseu den aseens 17 #1.1 14.4. 52.5N 199.0 Rhiose. |) istiasiewwaee wees: Wainleete OiGOM esc G4). aces 1.14 128) > 25:15) 5 2°5iN 119920 79 MUBP 229 O84) oe sts OTR AA 62:4) 157 “52°5N 9119920 Meth Witeleeewesn'ss sedzy WR OHTA Gsisz: 4j,802b> Hecece eeceeee 18) , 0:4 > 1451 {52%5iN) 20520 foe t Gatoebehae sass OU7D) cc.ce weet, “EDGR. Sexes S peeeee U8 1 45225 N) 20520 76 MUBP 220) tee O:6Gioe vec xcmete | cceneoey arceeee 18m i 154 52:5 N .20520 soue eeodaees shal OPS5ie cece waive) a veew, veaamel TP awaes 19 04 14.4 51.8N 210.1 SSean Sasa de sis woe, Wows OV9O).. cess, oboe Secon setteoee 19, (0:95 14:9) “5SIRSIN' 21051 78 MUBP 226 OL94) .5.82 coed OSE TAs LO IES SsS ee IeSOND 2105 OE ee ieee worse OLT2Q0, acess esate —Suctsm euvvoboes 20 23.4 13.6 50.00N 214.3 Sanat) © *Iudessaeus’s oe PA eee sek vgeden odav eds Mewes 20 0.0 14.3 50.0N 214.3 74 MUBP 215) tae. WO 3c VER RRO 20 0.6 14.9 50.0N 214.3 aiscy WAradewewess cae WE25) exes Pr er 21) 2125) 1220 4850IN 217-3 Seve, | “Uvoeeewcwss Keace Mga OVBSiE occ eee | coeecmemnceeee 2121.9 12°55 -48:0.N 217.3 76 MUBP 220 0:98) <-..- 520) cs, W230 3.25: 21 2222) 1258 48:0)N 2117-3 ades, | Maaue tacos aot SER 28 sssay brSbaeD Soeeeuha eee Cope eOnt Leshan 46t1eN) (220%2 CE Conreccnon And NSTAL Sacks N08) ccccex 1EOOLM iene 2ooieien elie s46u1eN) 22052 38 MDBPC 148 ..... PG. sc) GEN? t255: 1.34 22e2I1e3) ee lieSeee46sleNe 22052 Semel» eeclowewe'e ee Oc eee Keel cxscus, | OSC A yatcewe aon case) 14ale W44tON) 22276 ices | ee nee ies 1:32) 2 885 Oe) 104 078 Aamo oiee 145m “441ON) 22276 64 MDBPC_ 250 _..... WEB) Goon GTN) bace5 1.19 Zon 0226 15st 44 ENG 22276 wdsz) ~ Ataaweceees Sees 1025. 2088 TOS ewsce KOON Beecer Don LON O04) 44 NP 922256 dase: eeeeSeeune wess . Oaethe, aed seven a ktaee. seiieobeam eee 24a coe loca 142-4 0N 225-0 aessl Ge ddleciaes arent | GREE 1:20\8 02-8 1635 2.5: 1.31 24 22.8 13.8 42.4N 225.0 59 MUBP 171 NET) ecee TUT: OBRS 28a cass 24° 23°53 14:3 42:4.N 225.0 isa | Ceagneaetens Koen | Oeste NEOES Ga65 eK} “Aados 1.41 25 22.3 13.5 40.6N 227.9 ses igehbeeties eae 1208 3 650) -s05, else Zon 72250) 1431 40.6sN) 22729 44 MDBPG Set2i) sec Ox95wae dcncr ASAY aoe ily 25 23.5 14.7 40.6N 227.9 sive, Paddecteeeee dees WED? sees 644 aus. We2I yeeaee 26 22.0 13.4 39.5N 230.7 Recs) abueeseeee weve «= GRRES OUBSIG" 3.25 (4120) © Sees 1.44 26> 22°56) > 14:0) <39'5)N 230:'7 63 MUBS 202 1200) Fines 528) teen Sees ZOmoorome d4acGn i SOsOUNE a a0h7 baa uteeeaeesne saver BARES OFS5he sect 422) 1.40 Ph Pale). ale bay RE) 2S EG) Rios wane 0:68) 1.2 424 08 WILY ses Die 22eGes 1423" SSShieN) 12d4-5 84 969: - BEE: OF54.. ccm «4262, 2% 1.43 Pht PRYEE SIGS REL Teh ay. ty wes (O)(chl Gases 358 VWal'S i pecccess 28 «18.1 9.9 38.0N 237.0 cone | Uudieadteds | Uceeee © BieBents ONQO. nce. poSeest “west Daeee 28 18.9 10.7 38.0N 237.0 190 608 OE24) Ances 100 . ANGI) aceon 28) 192) 1120) (S8EOING 2320 Siwee buveumessusenneeeceny © SSR cioceyds IRS ices |b Pee ueucenes 28) 19% YTS) SBTORN (2370) sk | Ea Mk Re RR Se Sep) (5)22-3 14:0) *3bedaNe anes ess coe | Anees 0.44 PAVE} Teance 1.47 5 22:9)" 1456) S35e7eNp i2do-2 105 304 42:55..58 ASS) ASS. | Pore By 23050) 152) SbsleNE wacoeers seer. wan | Mgeeee Olin Sete (258? Seeae 1.26 6) 22:72 1473) S3iGiNi 223324 62 180 MRU2) cccee 568) . assy USI, eee 7 18:9" TO:4 S295 NP -232%2 tere) Reetecess Mee ERR See woes, Meee) senate wtees 7 22.6 14.1 32:.3N 232:0 47 136 T09) . secice BOS ise TRDTE cates i ipPeby eleyt)e sablebyint eistital ceawin EWsalisescet seer Wteees ONOSi EA eeSGre Ae 1.76 9) 23:0) 1423 S0F3pNi 22829 96 278, Ow ORE ack 4D) Oe 1.26 10) 23:0 W453)" 2952iN, 22ie3 101 293) Pecan Sock O24 .. cts) ceven, g aeees 12353) 14.4 28.1 N 225.5 71 206 Biseccen access Q6Gi scare Geosecimm uscatts 1 450 19.1) 28FOUN) 922523 57 165) Tc, 28 vecey MRSA, esos 12) 23:2) Wasa “OTN, 22453 42 134 (Je OPS Geek, peel, pecees LL, 13 23.6 14.4 26.9N 221.9 Beant OMeioeeeccc weve © Mbaeeeni | comes ibSaurent GSN: Vaasa eeees 14) 23°53 TA0le Q6t7EN) 322088 Rie Nec erscaM scan OD AOERD cape. 265: sesa. «sadeu., wpeenes 15 23.5 14.1 26.4N 219.3 38 122 O59) wes 298: 2 ans 139! Mere coc 16 Dh) 5:6) 26-2)Nr 211728 ae Meese ccc «| lea 0:68" s5 299) Fees 1.58 17 LORS) 4 25s OPN L 2A6i2 58 186 OU76: sceee 396). ince) ESO ees DAILY ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS 99 observations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, 1928-1929--Continued Air- Visi- earth Clouds bility current Weather density notes i, in i wo ou 1 Lal wo oa SSIES Efe eals ae Moataai nats: rh SCROWOMNOND NODORONIDH WONNARAHONANPHHENADOOORAROHHUIDHNONENUUBDONONMHOKUAM oor = ro) _ co ou Oo fe ee ee ee ll el ee el ed ow i] ~ Oo NY wWWWoOND aDoOroOoOrRD RP Pe OD : PB OwWoO: 0: Oo: p OQ c NONNNNMNYNNNNNNNEEEe [-) a Z fe3} x fe} WWWOrRM: NWWNHN: PP: p ° i=] WWWWWW: WW: WO: Ww: N i) | ol ou oO NwONNNN RCO OTe ee » ie} c 1 a o c CO-10-10 Crm OCW) 100 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Final results of daily atmospheric-electric Potential-gradient Conductivity | Small ions Longi- Local Lati- tude date tude ” m L2+la- | [a [ee | x. ° olts postin |“ Tin sortem [perce [om/e/em 1929 Sep 18 23.0 13.3 24.0N 214.2 49 MDBPC 191 O74) ecees REP bese elosal O casaa 18 23.6 13.9 24.0N 214.1 pose. pakasaoded S068 Ganng SSeS coop, ccc ode Sed De eBay ICS PONG PAI ono pnopseoos god («CO «ocd SSC 18 O28 14.6 24.0N 214.1 42 MDBPG 164) een cees ooo, te {3 coonoy deco 18 1.0 15.3 23.9N 214.0 42 MDBPC 164 0.54 ..... OTS! ccenee LST, trednce SMe ol Gla 2329 Ni OmS'S ies descreses.. cB mmbadcdiy paosa Sere eidatien i ‘ Pi : > z. a oe int —e— = pas f > 5 = - OL wt) eS Ot” ve G ¥0.£ ore cot , - a a eS aseli 2 * r n ye weci t ¢: OO4)1.o . ; Ps ned ‘ ie hy He a EAS Ph ea Ga? 1. tay 4 At ‘earl 2 cee my a Téa a os 79 i Kod ooh. - ‘2 a¢.¢) O61 i720 a < int ag.3 a My 5 BAS cre ies , 3 Rf? Mes ‘Paes A oT a4 Oport.e ry 4 ie 3.3 aan ‘ = 4 i . 97.2 te Lee" : 3 i 62.8 amet as y 'T & car sige © - ° t ‘Yr +] et ca} ect te. ab bl * O22 28,8 v “ie OS] Pore S Pt * Rae or "ines 7.9 ad aa a al yet Hey ' Pa a 7e7e |... AD <%. com ie - aseh eas. 9 UgeRE 7 2 ) aad > - 7 mb 30 F2 3 ; Seb 48 $228 ‘ if ie i q . Be acs: J = \ es a: pre i pt ye ee SS ee a 5 < o ER Se 3 > ere > est # ~~ = sigh Chaat vod parce orl ‘xita taiietadeks mec Oe Sit sno a a Poa sie” se Ane “se Vi. ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC DIURNAL-VARIATION RESULTS EXPLANATORY NOTES AND COMMENTS Measurement of the several atmospheric-electric elements through a twenty-four-hour period was sched- uled for once each week while at sea, in order to obtain information on the character of the diurnal variation of the various elements. During fifty-three weeks at sea, between May 11, 1928 and November 18, 1929, thirty- two diurnal-variation series were undertaken, or about two series in every three weeks. Actually the thirty- two series were obtained in forty-six weeks, no series being attempted in the first seven weeks, or until July 30, 1928, as the whole ship’s program was being organ- ized and systematized during this initial period. The observational procedure in a diurnal-variation series was to measure each element once each hour through a period beginning approximately at noon, local mean time, and ending at noon on the following day. Two ob- servers worked in shifts of six hours observing and six hours rest. Of the thirty-two series begun, several were not completed because instrumental difficulties developed or bad weather made observing impossible. The series begun on October 8, 1928 was discontinued so early that all data obtained on that occasion were placed in section V rather than in the present table. There are, therefore, only thirty-one complete and partial series tabulated here. The nuclei measurements were completed through the twenty-four-hour period on only sixteen occasions, with one additional series lacking only four values; the small-ion measurements on twenty occasions; and the conductivity on twenty-seven. Recorder values of poten- tial-gradient were available for twenty-four complete series, and for all incomplete series except the first, for which eye readings were used. Each diurnal-variation series is tabulated under lo- cal dates, and latitude and longitude are given for the average position for the twenty-four-hour period. Thus the position for each series is approximately that for twenty-four hours, LMT, of the first date given for the series. The atmospheric-electric elements tabulated are: potential-gradient, in volts per meter; conductiv- ity, of the sign given at the head of the column; small- ion concentration, of the sign at the head of the column; computed small-ion mobility; nuclei concentration; com- puted air-earth current density. Potential-Gradient.--Values of potential-gradient were taken from the photographic records for a period ranging from ten to twenty minutes in each hour, coin- ciding with the period during which the conductivity and small-ion measurements were made. Frequently the value of potential-gradient for this short interval differs considerably from the mean hourly value which may be found in section VII for the particular hour and date, ow- ing to the fluctuations which occur in the potential-gradi- ent even on comparatively quiet days. Comparison of the twenty-four values in any series in the present table with the corresponding twenty-four hourly mean values in section VII will give some indication of the extent to which the period is disturbed, as the more disturbed peri- ods show larger and more frequent differences. The eye- reading values of potential-gradient used for the series of July 30-31, 1928 were obtained fifteen to twenty-five minutes earlier than the values of the other elements 103 with which they are associated in the series; some ques- tion may therefore be raised as to the validity of the computed air-earth current values which have been tab- ulated for the group, and for the sake of homogeneity in studies of the material in this table perhaps they should be ignored. Conductivity and Small-Ion Concentration. --Unlike the procedure for the daily observations of conductivity and small-ion concentration, under which the measure- ments of positive and negative values of these elements were alternated, the procedure for the diurnal-variation measurements required that only one sign be measured, and that this be done at hourly intervals through the twenty-four-hour period. The time required for one measurement in each hour ranged from ten to twenty minutes, the conductivity and small-ion concentration being obtained simultaneously. The small-ion measure- ments were subject to more frequent interruption than the conductivity, however, because the occurrence of rain or spray on any occasion made necessary the clos- ing of the roof aperture through which the ion-counter intake projected. Computed Small-Ion Mobility.--From the simultan- eous measurements of conductivity and small-ion con- centration, values of small-ion mobility were computed for the present table as in section V. For the last two diurnal-variation series which are given, obtained Octo- ber 21-22 and November 4-5, 1929, the mobility values are conspicuously higher than for any of the other series obtained on the cruise. These two series fall in the peri- od October 16 to November 6, 1929, when high mobility values were consistently obtained from the daily meas- urements of conductivity and small ions, as stated in connection with section V. No explanation has been found for these high values. Nuclei Concentration.--The values of nuclei concen- tration shown in the table, except for the last four series, generally were not obtained at the particular times with which they are associated. The times given are the mean times for the conductivity and small-ion measurements, and as the nuclei measurements were not begun until after these had been completed, their mean times actually are from fifteen to thirty minutes later than the times tabulated. The magnitude of this time difference was as indicated because the conductivity and ion measurements required ten to twenty minutes for completion, while the nuclei measurements required ten to fifteen, and five minutes or more were consumed in changing from one type of measurement to the other. For the last four se- ries, when both potential gradient and conductivity were being recorded, the eye-reading measurements of small ions and nuclei were made simultaneously, and with po- tential gradient and conductivity recorder values taken to correspond in time with these eye-reading measure - ments, the tabulated values for each hour in these series represent simultaneous measurements. Air-Earth Current Density.--As in section V, each value of air-earth current density was computed from the sum of the positive and negative conductivities and the corresponding value of potential gradient. For the present table, however, since only one sign of conductiv- ity was measured during any one diurnal-variation series, 104 it was necessary to compute the value of the other sign. The formula used for this computation is ,/A _ = 1.10. Of these 645 values of computed air-earthcurrent density in the present table, 142 were obtained in the Atlantic Ocean in seven series between July 30 and September 16, 1928. Three of the series, August 14-15, August 17-18, and August 24-25, having a total of 58 values, have 34 values or 60 per cent of the total, lying between 3.5 and 5.0 x 10-7 esu. Such low values were not encountered on any other part of the cruise; there are only eight other scattered values as small as these in the entire table, and several of them are associated with disturbed weather conditions. That part of the Atlantic Ocean in which the 34 low values were obtained, sustains a large steamship traffic, and it may be that pollution from the ships is a cause for low air-earth current density in the region. Discussion of this possibility will be undertaken in a later section of this volume. Except for the low At- lantic values just mentioned, and omitting a few extreme values, the range in the table is 5.0 to 15.0 x 10-7 esu. Meteorological Notes and Data.--Appropriate mete- orological notes and measurements were made every hour during a diurnal-variation series, but on most oc- casions the variations throughout the twenty-four-hour OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS period in any of the several meteorological elements, except perhaps cloud types and cloud amount, appeared to be too small to warrant detailed tabulation. Instead, a summary of the meteorological data and notes has been made below each series of atmospheric-electric measurements, when such notes and data have been available. The meteorological symbols and notations used in section V, and defined in the explanatory note for that section, have been used in the present section also. Several of the series lack the meteorological notes and data because the meteorological work was a part of the program of nuclei observations, and when nuclei data are lacking the meteorological data likewise are lacking. Special note has been made of particularly disturbed weather conditions under any series where one or more of the atmospheric-electric elements obviously has been disturbed by those conditions, and where specific note was made by the observer of the disturbed meteorologi- cal element. For more detailed meteorological informa- tion reference may be made to Meteorology-I of this series of publications of Carnegie results, which deals with the meteorological data of cruise VII (Carnegie In- stitution of Washington Publication 544, 1943). ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC DIURNAL-VARIATION RESULTS 105 Table 2. Diurnal-variation measurements of atmospheric-electric elements July 30-31, 1928. Latitude 58°8 N; Longitude 326°0 E August 14-15, 1928. Latitude 34°8 N; Longitude 316°7E Air- Air- earth u- earth current GMT | LMT clei | current density h per density in cc in 10-7esu 10-7esu 16.5 14.2 96 1.04 600 12009 Foe. 6.34 18.6 VOes 2 OC Siem ola: Olanmrceer rs 5.2 eon 15:2) 102 1.10 609 125%) lessees ed LOSS) 162959 55 ee FOS es Caen Oc bee eens 5.6 18.5 16.2 89 0.94 405 TAG Baessis 5.3 200) Sit 5 5ee Olan 4900 0.6 lame oes 5.6 19.5 lt (-P/ 1.11 600 L28 ORL. Seon wawaee 21.8 18°29) 78h O53 ees 40 nm OB meee 6.0 20.5 18.2 1.02 561 1.260" 1.28 Ol Sh. 23.0) “203014405 20634 5S OSS Tie eee 5.8 2IR DE 193i 10Iew 1058590854000 010908 tance 10.3 0.3 21.4 129° 0.64 418 1:06 ...... 9.2 22.0) 20:3 152 0.88 489 PAR Bbcase 8.5 Way 622,05, LON e 000s OD OLO om mrorors 4.0 ZSnome leon al 20e 1095 smb 13am al 26m) cee 10.2 2e2) 2313 : :O4RN fects 4.6 C6. PEEP SHE sig: Ri Pisa 12.8 Sr3)) §0%4) | 1190 50/660ee 5150 gO SOR 5.0 HED! <2323i5 secee 1.15 488 1 26R0 2. cae ec 4.2 1.3 133 ORGS acta 5.3 ae a ee rt ne aoe a: Observations discontinued because of rain. 4.6 2.3 1.02 491 14a ted. ee 5.6 3.3 1.02 503 W410 esate aac 6.6 4.3 0.99 491 1400" bisiccte ee te) 5.3 1.04 478 1 OLUE EAE 8.6 6.3 0.97 466 AQ Fo ee 9.5 Weis ace: Wee BRAS} W408 Goce) Sees 10.6 ios} ale 0.92 498 128 Me he me 11.6 O45 2 1.15 574 139M) i258 8.2 12.6 10.3 106 1.18 563 14S Oe. eee 8.0 1325" 1ils3) 1/22 Tite eso93 ESHA © Renehic 9.1 14.6 12.3 109 1.09 554 VSG | wenn 7.6 15.6 13.3 106 0.98 517 TGS He a Spasaes 6.6 @air-earth current density computed from potential- gradient and the sum of positive and negative conductivities, assuming A, = 1.10 A_ August 7-8, 1928. Latitude 44°5 N; Longitude 313°0 E August 17-18, 1928. Latitude 28°9 N; Longitude 319°9 E Air- Air- earth earth current GMT current density density 14.9 11.8 : ite 6.0 15.6 12.9 90 0.83 535 NO)” Y Sena e 4.8 NGt3-) 11322 j 1 6.3 16.9 14.2 99 0.84 591 O89) Rese 5.3 Pine | 1431 ; ils 6.8 W7E8) bel 84 0.85 519 LEAN yp cos oe 4.5 186205 15.1 j ils 8.1 18.7 16.0 88! 0:83) 525 IPAs» teceiscs 4.7 19.4 16.3 : fe 8.2 11938) 7a 99 0.84 553 TOSS PE coe 5.3 20:4" 17.2 : fe 7.8 20.8 18.1 101 O'S1 R584) NOsGiEy 5.2 21k4s 18.2 : te 8.6 2188 e191) 1133 ONTO MIGGT © HOlS2iee eee 6.7 2233) 119.2) 13) 0.91 533 ie -eeeren 8.3 22NB lO AT BON TTieeO29 OL O one ee 6.2 503" 20:28 111 0.93 590 1098 ER ees 782 25501 e101 0.82 591 OoGiett = 5.3 OsF 21-2 94 1201) 5627 iia Od Dee oe 6.6 Ob, F220), e108)", 20l80n5 27 iy erBer 5.5 eis PONG) 83). 10199). 1637 1087 i.e 5.8 tet 52320 90 0.76 512 1AOSHIL csse 4.4 24) «23.2 76 1.06 642 A 8 Aaaaee 5.6 2.8 0.1 83m WONTS amas TRON sscs-te 3.8 3.4 0.3 81 1.06 641 1.15% ee 6.0 3.7 eal 80 0.72 463 AAOSIM cece 3.7 4.4 1.3 90 1.09 638 118°) ct 6.9 4.8 2.2 84 0.72 519 oro6iy 23 = 3.9 5.2 2.1 97 1.02 601 LTO oe 6.9 5.9 3.2 85 0.73 464 THO9 ene 3.9 6.2 3.1 97 0.99 617 11 6.7 6.8 4.1 97 0.73 514 0:99 4.5 7.3 4.1 83 1.02 622 1140S 5.9 7.8 5.1 BS RON AMb27F GOS. e. 4.1 8.2 5.1 78 1.11 636 1.91 Of EHS 6.1 8.8 6.2 108 0.77 509 105m cose 5.3 9.3 6.1 97 0.98 625 1,092 See 6.7 9.7 7.0 105 0.79 508 10S cccoe 5.3 10.3 7.1 97 1.03 623 MST | | Ssocce: 7.0 10.7 8.0 107 0.81 476 UelSte | A. 5.5 11.4 8.3 99 0.96 574 WG scoate 6.6 11.9 9.2 102 0.81 466 nea eee 5.3 12.4 Gees 2 lt) 0.95 526 WEAD | Sea5ec 7.4 12.9 10.3 102 0.68 473 TO) sae 4.4 MS A 1053) eel il 0.94 486 S40 ecaaee 7.3 1326) 1120) 7 102 0.74 446 Tew oaesa ee 4.8 14.6 11.4 106 0.98 420 1-620 desea: 7.3 14.8 12.1 70 0.81 438 TOR eee 3.6 106 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 2. Diurnal-variation measurements of atmospheric-electric elements--Continued August 24-25, 1928. Latitude 15°5 N; Longitude 321°9 E September 13-14, 1928. Latitude 13°2 N; Longitude 306°7E Air- Air- earth earth current GMT current density density » 5 yr 15.3 12.8 56 0°91 499 Heath oS58c 7.3 14.0 11.5 80 0.85 425 oS PE b60000 4.7 14.4 10.9 129 0.99 535 ls243) | osonee 6.9 Temp. range: 28.9-26.0°C. Rel. hum. range: 73-93 per cent. Wind: SE to NE, 1-2. Visibility: 3. Clouds: ci-cu-stcu-cunb, 1-8. Shower 4.3h-4.4h GMT. September 5-6, 1928. Latitude 11°6 N; Longitude 318°2 E November 13-14, 1928. Latitude 1°68; Longitude 266°3 E earth current density A+ Ny ky L537 22-85) 1010 1.11 658 Wet s6oa9¢ 7.8 18.4 12.1 141 1.11 564 1.36 280 10.0 16.5 13.7 108 oil) Gaal Weray —aa0900 8.2 Se ee ye ayy 1.12 502 1.55 320 11.2 17.6 14.8 108 1.18 640 ert} cease 8.1 20.3 14.0 163 ISLS ROOT 1.52 360 11.5 18-5 «15.7% ©6107 1.23 699 MP4 co bo05 8.4 21.1 14.9 186 1.14 492 1.61 460 13.5 19.4 16.6 107 122058 725 Wel) conace 8.2 22.0 15.8 128 1.13 576 1.56 480 9.2 20.2 17.4 121 1.10 740 Id0B} aadaas 8.5 23.2 16.9 173 isi?) secs Se 480 12.3 21.3 18.5 119 1.16 680 Wei) piescec 8.8 24.0 17.8 38 TOY eee) coade: | cgoes 2.6 22.2 19.4 118 1.19 663 PAN) Baaose 8.9 O29) 1857 141 ible) sc65 © Soepn 680 9.8 23-1 2073 115 1.24 675 era) | baad 9.1 Pati) alls ey/ 38 il) pag cose 340 2.7 0:0 21.2 108 1.23 647 EEE A croocc 8.5 3.0 20.8 106 ib) Bee) Gade 230 7.8 11 22-3) 11011 11S) 632 1.31 7.6 4.0 21.8 118 MiG) grog 3 GQ5an 250 8.7 2.1 23.3 108 1.21 632 1.33 8.3 5:0) 22.7. 118 ial cea Bann 300 9.1 3.1 0.3 108 1.26 663 1.32 8.7 620) 23.7% 147 IEPAD) | = G5G0). Gosoo 210 11.2 4.0 12 92 1.30 650 Wee) | aaane 7.6 7.0 0.7 106 ibility S596. | Gedes 200 7.5 5.1 2.3 91 1.14 612 Mert) cocsct 6.6 8.0 ila 99 MAR) sa55 apse 430 6.9 6.0 3.2 91 1.14 613 UP) eSosce 6.6 9.0 Patsy allt} TAY) ABaG! 1 acd 340 9.0 teal 4.3 96 1.12 601 WerAth space 6.8 10.0 3.8 .118 ier4Y) .saoo. | adoan 410 9.0 8.0 5.2 106 ia | 582 WSERA — gacnoe 7.5 11.2 5.0 106 NPS) ons aas06 780 8.5 9:2 6.4 96 1.13 591 URE) codec 6.9 12.0 5.7 125 ee | Sea * © Coond 910 9.9 10.1 7.3 90 1.12 587 eRe saneo 6.4 13.0 6.7 128 ila seog soon 440 10.4 11.2 8.5 87 1.13 578 ASG et cecees 6.3 14.0 7.8 125 iC Sosa, | 156000 460 11.2 12.1 9.3 96 1.14 588 DISD E secsee 7.0 15.0 8.7 118 164 Se... ed, towne 280 10.8 13.2 10.4 90 1.13 586 4 es ce 6.5 16.0 9.8 163 1.31 608 Gnd 370 14.0 a LS 97 1.16 614 12S 1s ese wee. 17.1 10.9 173 Wer ices. 2 Sede 2 | doses 13.9 Temp. range: 21.1-18.0°C. Rel. hum. range: 72-83 per cent. Wind: SE to SSE, 1-3, except first four hours calm. Clouds: ast-cu-cunb-nb, 10, except last three hours frcu- stcu, 1-7. Visibility: 3. Drizzling 23.5h, 0.2h, 1.4h GMT. ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC DIURNAL-VARIATION RESULTS 107 Table 2. Diurnal-variation measurements of atmospheric-electric elements--Continued November 21-22, 1928. Latitude 10°6 S; Longitude 250°7 E December 3-4, 1928. Latitude 31°6S; Longitude 248°5 E Air- Air- earth earth current | GMT current density h density USES eel 1e5) e106 TO1GiEe cst met cees 550 te) Lea | 1163) 125 1.05 471 1.55 1600 9.2 198 12:6 106 Of9Giae 0 710 7.1 19.5 12.0 134 1.04 421 12200 9.7 20.9 13.6 the MOSS." Ossie 520 5.6 PAD} aIR Ry ales) 1.07 450 1.65 2000 9.4 22.0 14.7 93 TELS}: = Saas) | Sogabe 480 6.9 21.9 14.4 109 1.11 498 15500 8.5 2o.0) 11527 86 LAS ee. Ss 730 6.8 23:0) 115-6) 102 1.12 488 1.59 3200 8.0 24.0 16.7 77 IOS 8.5 se Ae 2d 640 5.6 24.0 16.6 86 1.16 554 1.45 4600 7.0 ita) alieéey/ 70 TES Gaea Feast 690 be 0.8 17.4 86 109mm Ii? 1.46 3400 6.6 20) Sa, 70 nla) © seen 7 Sees 820 5.4 Dane 18:6 86 eh RY 1.43 2800 6.7 Zeon el OL 70 Weill Scns posao 640 5.4 3.0 19.6 86 1.14 530 1.49 5000 6.9 4.0 20.7 74 1 Tea Ue peer am ncaa 710 5.8 4.0 20.6 86 1.15 543 1.47 4500 6.9 BrOe wate, 70 MeL Sogn 8 Fooade 730 5.4 5eOe 206 99 1.13 522 1.50 2800 7.8 6.1 22.8 74 Teh. Gone 1) | pooeo 660 Bail 6:0) 22°56. 109 Wey vy 1.55 2800 8.6 qa PRE) 74 1204 Mess.) O.2.5.2 770 5.4 We0e 2326) 109 1.08 544 1.38 2000 8.2 8.1 0.8 74 WOM YO os. 410 Dea 8.0 0.6 122 1.11 536 1.44 1800 9.5 9.1 1.8 74 OE Sado | Sedans 230 5.1 9.0 1Gy el 22 1.08 549 1.37 1800 9.2 10.1 2.8 80 OLEH “Aoo6 Bi) aabee 250 5.4 10.0 2:6) 125 12078 518 1.43 2500 9.4 11.1 3.9 80 OFS TOS AU Ts 5.4 11.0 Sh) 5} 1.13 541 1.45 1800 9.9 12.0 4.7 83 (Gy once | Baon 410 5.3 12.0 4.6 134 1.15 564 1.41 3200 10.8 13.0 5.8 106 CTs)" Spee.” oader 610 7.1 13.0 SEG hod 1.10 556 1.37 2300 10.3 14.1 6.9 106 OS Teams. WY OSes 410 7.2 14.0 6.6 157 1.02 507 1.40 4300 11.2 15.2 7.9 106 1HOOK ss 0 ess 620 7.4 14.8 cde weelOre 1.05 489 1.49 2000 11.5 16.1 ey lal} (OLE gngo, | ‘conse 680 7.9 16.0 8.6 163 0.98 360 1.89 1600 Hale. 17.0 One 22 OSSGINErc ce cs. 480 8.2 17.0 9.6 163 0.98 363 1.87 2500 13/22 IGS le aoe sala OLO TIE. OT Aus: wane 7.6 18.1 10.6 163 0.98 357 1.90 1800 11.2 Temp. range: 24.0-22.8°C. Rel. hum.range: 68-82 percent. | Temp.range: 23.0-21.8°C. Rel. hum. range: 73-85 per cent. Wind: ESE, 4-5. Clouds: acu-ast-cu-stcu-freu, 1-8. Wind: NW to NNW, 3-4. Visibility: 3. Visibility: 3. Few drops rain 21.2h GMT, Nov. 21. Clouds: cist-ast-freu-stcu, 5-10. November 27-28, 1928. Latitude 24°0 S; Longitude 245°1E | December 18-19, 1928. Latitude 32°3S; Longitude 25271 E Air- Air- earth ; earth current GMT | LMT “| tivi i i| current density h i density A+ Ny ky A+ n+ ky 18.9 3 154 JE S4 Si .-- ee tec cecs 120 13.1 18.5 11.4 195 A5) 349 Peas Sane ec 14.3 19.8 12.1 147 IRSTPGM Qe Tock. 210 12.8 19.4 12.3 179 1.01 361 1194 wie eects VI25 21.0 13.3 125 i40gee-. 06 a2: 210 ab bp 20.5 13.3 179 1: OV meea 2 Ter Logooes 1222 22.0 14.4 93 DES}. Sooke | a paces 140 8.2 21.4 14.2 173 1.10 451 A69'ee 3c. -s 12.1 23.0 15.4 93 Ma Ecos ts caodD 140 8.5 Beno 15.3 150 1.11 487 1258! Sees. os 10.6 0.1 16.4 74 139R TESS. ie Be: 340 6.5 23.5 16.3 147 igi 507 TABS} goaaae 10.5 1.0 ies 74 ee he ashe. | Sones 370 6.3 0.5 aly (3 138 Walh) 473 i640 ecg 9.8 2.0 18.4 67 DES} Repke oon es BAe 280 5.6 1.2 18.0 131 1.08 469 CCU eeeer 9.0 3.0 19.3 83 BSS iER. zeae | I Sicoce 480 6.9 2.3 19.1 131 1.05 462 TIBRY SE TSg5nce 8.8 4.0 20.4 93 PLY cpap baw 390 7.6 3.3 20.1 131 1.04 442 TECK) — Sas600% 8.7 al 21.4 93 PA de emi SoBcE 280 7.6 4.4 21.2 150 1.02 430 STAG bY Goce 9.8 6.0 22.3 106 DSL sys. 20 Bre. 250 8.8 5.4 22.2 163 1.00 425 1263 eeri.t.3 10.4 7-0) 2334 109 NPA cana —— kocads 340 8.9 6.5 23.3 163 0.98 437 135 Greens 10.2 8.0 0.3 115 Wer aegn 7° Adee 280 9.4 7.4 0.2 166 1.00 428 A G2igeeesans 10.6 9.0 1.4 109 134 Ree... se coon: 270 9.3 8.5 ils} 157 0.97 473 142) Re Recon 9.7 10.0 2.3 102 TESSicaee. ee Toe: 270 8.6 9.7 PAGS ales} 0.99 502 a ERS fe ere ile ea ileal 3.4 96 14 3¢ Pes OF West 270 Geral 10.4 3.2 150 1.04 443 WAR coer 10.0 iPzal 4.4 102 124 Seo. cle Vesess Boba 8.1 11.4 4.2 166 1.03 458 lt 5 Gi me mace 10.9 12.9 5.3 109 Ua esee F oerce 280 9.8 12.6 5.4 189 0.98 452 1-50 ae eed 11.8 14.0 6.4 Tt'5 NAA: Nance | mr ecoee 270 9.9 13.4 6.2 195 0.99 441 A Meccer 12.3 15.0 3 125 ES TE Mes.< 3b Alexees 210 10.9 14.6 7.4 205 1.01 442 1-59 aoe MB}? 16.0 8.3 134 1.29 Sie Deseo 300 11.0 15.6 8.4 205 1.02 424 1267 Bee ssa.8 13.3 v7.0 9.3 154 1.30 Seat MMMUvek 270 UPB ( 16.5 9.3 208 1.04 435 L6G get.s:.2 13.8 18.0 10.4 154 1.34 Scns \OnRBO 520 Set 17.4 10.2 205 1.01 427 164 Sa----02 13.2 Temp. range: 20.7-19.9°C. Rel. hum. range: 76-93 percent. | Temp.range: 22.2-19.6°C. Rel. hum. range: 66-84 per cent. Wind: E to SE, 1-4. Clouds: cu-frcu-stcu-cunb-nb, 1-10. Wind: NXW to NEXN, 1-4. Visibility: --. Visibility: 3. Rain 1.2h-1.3h and 12.5h-12.8h GMT. Clouds: ci-cist-ast-cu-stcu, 0-10. 108 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 2. Diurnal-variation measurements of atmospheric-electric elements--Continued December 26-27, 1928. Latitude 40°4 S; Longitude 263°0 E January 10-11, 1929. Latitude 20°4 S; Longitude 280°0 E Air- earth current density earth current GMT density BES) 612232346 0.72 371 1 SOMMNeo car 15.9 foil allots) F j 8.1 19:9 13:4 (275 0.78 387 140 00a scoces 13:7, 11892) > 311228) : : 8.0 20:9 14.4 227 0.84 429 eS Giemecaaes 12.1 19.3 14.0 : : 7.8 21.8 15.3 202 1.06 477 154 reece 13.6 20.3 15.0 ; . 6.8 Zale M6235) 2192 0.96 466 Wee'S} © os0202 11.7 21.3 16.0 218 0.48 275 eral | pecs 6.7 23.8 17.4 170 1.01 396 WSU coonos 10.9 22.3 17.0 218 0.48 268 MEX coceicc 6.7 ale 11836455150) 0.98 398 1 Tee ecee 9.4 23.2 17.9 186 0.51 290 PPA eacece 6.0 OR 97457, 1.01 462 1 2a eeeree 10.1 O83) FLOORS St5i7, 0.62 327 1.32 6.2 2.9 20.4 176 0.89 573 1.08 10.0 1.3 20.0 148 0.66 350 1.31 6.2 3.8 21.4 195 0.84 512 1.14 10.4 2.2 20.9 145 0.75 383 1.36 6.9 ARSy (22 40e 21 0,89 516 1.20 12.0 3.3 21.9 136 0.76 423 1.25 6.6 5.8 23.4 230 0.79 468 We Ecoea 11.6 4.2 22.8 130 0.78 402 MER Bacto 6.5 6.9 0.4 192 0.88 532 eG} Soge6s 10.8 5.3 23.9 130 0.78 413 GSH shone 6.5 7.8 1.4 166 0.99 528 BEST | Gaaaee 10.5 6.2 0.8 139 0.79 421 AEZOM a:20-8: 7.0 8.9 2.4 154 1.01 558 WPS cooabe 9.9 ler? 1.9 130 0.80 421 13 200 reese 6.6 9.9 3.4 157 0.93 515 ily orcas 9.3 8.3 3.0 160 0.77 414 TAS) occas 7.8 10.9 4.4 150 1.07 606 TB} Gaeaoe 10.2 9.2 3.8 142 0.81 426 123258 tocsces 7.3 11.8 5-3 (157 1.10 658 lst Boao 11.0 10.2 4.9 162 0.80 418 ee RY aeece 8.3 12.8 6.3 144 1.08 679 Weil) Gooone 9.9 11.2 5:9 151 0.81 431 A= SOME acces 7.8 13.8 esueelost ibe) (als IORI Wikcceces 11.1 12.2 6.8 180 0.79 425 2 OMe 9.1 15.0 855) e208 © eos Bul: ” ” Socggull se anias Me emecode 13.0 iat? tes} 0.75 422 TEP AR) SS Eroocc 8.7 16.0 9.6 314 0.76 649 OL opci0c be? 14.1 8.8 194 0.76 398 RR) at Becaec 9.4 16:9 10.4 330 0.70 530 OHPA Beococ 14.7 15.2 9.8 232 0.73 393 2 ON se cee 10.7 Lice eS es 0.92 591 HAO: 650000 13.3 16:2 10°79 232 0.75 397 USS | getess 1 Temp. range: 19.0-15.2°C. Rel. hum. range: 73-98 percent. | Temp. range: 20.7-18.9°C. Rel. hum. range: 70-81 per cent. Wind: NW to NxW, 1-3. Visibility: --. Wind: ESE to SEXS, 3-5. Visibility: --. Clouds: ci-ast-cu-stcu, 0-7. Clouds: cu-stcu-nb, 10 January 1-2, 1929. Latitude 32°0 S; Longitude 271°1 E February 10-11, 1929. Latitude 10°6 S; Longitude 2'74°7 E Air- Air- earth earth current | GMT current density h density i in 10-7esu A+ Ny ky A+ ny ky ae lle oe 10:99) 606 TSE” bos.2 11.0 16.8 11.2 134 0.98 441 1.54 660 8.4 18.3 12.4 183 1.02 512 TEST} eee 11.9 A7ESES M1221 ee 14 7a 0189 emr4 air 1.38 940 8.3 Ties) TES) 96 1.05 564 VPA ih eee 6.4 LON) 134s 41 0.92 433 1.46 970 8.3 2093) 1423 99 0.92 518 TEP) pe eee 5.8 2010) +1453") 182). 0%84. 1389 1.50 1210 9.7 2183) S15s3) 04 1.03 546 1:31 Meee 6.8 21:0 15/3 109 0:94 475 1.37 780 6.5 22.3 16.4 125 0.89 484 ToOBis Wrcecee foil 2109) S632 12514) 10:92 ee STONmde6s 590 Tice. 23°38 AA 02 0l77 488 151 OM ee escec4 5.0 QQ TO 122) 0890 45 1.47 210 7.0 0f3%) 18'45136ie" 097 606 sles ie oe eee 8.4 23.9 18.2 0.95 401 1.64 170-4) 1.8 19.8 168 0.92 582 Oyen 9.9 102% 1935 0.94 371 1.76 750\ee 256i 2026 peel obmenO0-97, 594) WSS Lees. 7.9 On2F 32085 0.96 363 1.83 640.05 3.4 21.5 145 0.99 592 1G" 9 sees 9.1 3.3 21.6 0.92 393 1.62 THA 8 onic 475) 22:5). 125) (0188 551 nts 0 Olam pera 7.0 4:2 22.5 0.98 371 1.83 560.22 3s Deal) 2374s 125 e0098) (568 1220) sce 7.8 Bis) 612816 0.99 368 1.87 500\09 ae 6.2 0.3 #125 0.94 575 TS Ie ap eae 7.5 6.3 0.6 0.92 384 1.66 560 ee 7.2 deo 4 Bee OS90I i535 TU Ey ease 8.5 mS 1.6 0.91 377 1.68 490.1 3 8.4 225) 142) 0098 = 574 1218) 2" As 8.9 8.3 2.6 0.92 353 1.81 4405 9.4 3.5 136 0.99 556 1594 ee Pee 8.6 9.3 3.6 0.91 329 1.92 1080 ..... 10.4 4.5 125 TEOTeeESGON 40119) 945.22 8.0 10.1 4.4 0.92 364 1.75 800.) 22e 11.3 Ee wee 1) 1.05 583 1005 a5 ents 8.7 11.1 5.4 0.94 392 1.66 870 =e 12.4 6.4 130 0.94 555 DAIS tok 7.8 12.1 6.4 0.92 393 1.62 1440 ..... 13.2 Teo 128 1.04 568 EPA Mnasso 8.5 13.0 7.3 0.93 371 1.74 1030 ..... 14.1 8.2 136 1.05 533 1.37 9.1 14.1 8.4 0.88 382 1:60) 112508 .oe 15.2 Oe s151 1.01 522 1.35 9.7 15.2 9.5 0.93 385 1.68 940% 338 163255 110'3) 5165 1.03 534 1.34 10.8 16.3 10.6 0.93 359 1:80Pes108000 8 howe Temp. range: 23.3-19.6 °C. Rel. hum.range: 63-75 per cent. Temp. range: 27.7 = “24, 2°C. Rel. hum. range: 56-76 per cent. Wind: Calm first 11 sets, then SE to SSW, 1 Wind: Calm or SSE to SW, 1-3. Visibility: 3. Visibility: --. Clouds: cu-freu- stcu, 0- 8. Clouds: ast-frcu-stcu, 0-9. ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC DIURNAL-VARIATION RESULTS 109 Table 2. Diurnal-variation measurements of atmospheric-electric elements--Continued February 18-19, 1929. Latitude 14°0 S; Longitude 255°5 E March 10-11, 1929. Latitude 18°0 S; Longitude 215°5 E Air- Air- earth earth GMT current current density density r n k 19.1 12.1 176 0.89 523 1.18 1880 11.0 20.3 10.7 588 1.24 2290 14.3 20°3' 13.4 189 0.90 488 1-287) 1110 11.9 21.1 11.5 582 1.23 2020 14.3 21.3 14.4 160 0.99 541 12/7 11250 11.1 22.0 12.3 572 1.25 2360 15.1 2onon 10.38 el 60 1.03 534 1.33 1740 11.5 23.0 13.4 578 1.24 1390 13.6 23.1 16.1 144 1.06 556 1.32 1670 10.7 0.2 14.5 530 1°48. 18100 F eee. 24.0 17.0 125 1.03) (547 1.31 1950 9.0 1.3 15.6 573 1.45 2850 12.0 Th) SIGS) SIP aT YN) aU 8.5 2.3 16.7 679 1.32 2220 13.4 DEO M1 9} Oyemel 115 eel] OlG 26st 3222090 8.9 Seome Liter 485 1.82 ...... 5.4 2298 520508" +109 1.07 633 1.17 2850 8.2 4.5 18.9 Jago, CKD. «S ON 2.2 4.0 21.0 106 Hele} Yeh 1.07 2360 8.4 Drom LON 626 ilePAs) sap por 5.9 5tOme 22-1 112 1.09 610 1.24 2020 8.5 6.4 20.8 558 1.46 1810 7.4 oo ae is 08 pie ee ae ae Observations discontinued because of bad weather; rain from B.2 1.2 -147 1.06 564 1.30 3820 10.9 S:O RMT: 9.2 res alepl 1.09 551 1.37 3410 10.0 10.3 3.3 157 1.01 542 1.29 3200 11.1 ilal4 4.3 147 1.05 534 1.37 1600 10.8 12.3 5.3 147 1.05 562 1.30 2920 10.8 13.3 6.4 166 0.95 510 1.29 2150 ialal As : 14.2 1.2 157 1.03 589 1.21 3750 11.3 March 25-26, 1929. Latitude 16°5 S; Longitude 203°7 E 15.4 8:4 eeelis 1.10 574 1.33 4450 13.3 Air- 16.3 9.3 150 1.21 594 1.41 3750 UPA earth 17.1 10.1 170 1.20 594 1.40 3480 14.3 GMT current 1StOme elit 173 0.98 505 1.35 4450 11.9 density Temp. range: 26.0-23.4°C. Rel. hum. range: 69-82 per cent. Wind: EXS to SEXE, 4. Visibility: 3. Clouds: cu-freu, 1-4. 2A ee O57 9.6 22.5 12.1 151 {fou 0.1 13.7 142 8.1 1.1 4a peeess |) mOs OOS Ole 0 meedls.3 lee lO) Omir acees February 26-27, 1929. Latitude 13°1 S; Longitude 237°4 E Colne Oe ete oats mets OLenm to OO Mean :4 OMe S01 O)mmemeae cers Air= SEQ OO 1G 1810) cee earth 4.2 17.8 148 1.22 J 8.5 GMT Cunrent Deo LOO LTS 448 1.24 1670 9.1 density Observations discontinued because of bad weather. A+ Ny ky 20.1 12.0 106 O: 75 RNMis 77 TON S83) AZIM 128) a2 77 #112 118 106 118 125 125 134 15 2.4S 264.4 106 106 106 106 106 112 118 125 125 118 106 118 125 147 157 16 3.0S 262.3 134 150 163 147 ates 163 112 [Seo oismaooe! | 80! 70) 5 0 iG a4 80 886 893 93 90 96 99 106 102 [109] 19 <4 Oo Smcdors, 60) Tt 4 80 83 80 93. 99 106 106 106 102 102 122 125 20 6.3S 253.6 93 86 80 83 83 93 86 90 86 9 (86 93° 102° 106 106 115 ALB SiSmerzolLO att §«6=— 86 HRS Sait se kTAS* yT4 77 77 Iemma © 204 The oth lee phlitle el 3X5 22) ee USee 2004s 70). 70) i167 OKO ee ace i) 14) 100) 80) 0S aeSG) S02 ee OG 23 13.8S 248.4 93 106 106 106 106 125 122 118 112 106 96 99 106 125 106 24 15.9S 247.3 93 71, (96 “96 "967.999 90 106 199) 102) 106 106g 25 70 125 25 18.7-8 246.1 102 102) 96 99 106 106 106 106 99 96 102 .102 99 109 109 26 21.1S 245.8 93 93 96 90 90 93 96 96 93 93 106 115 125 128 90 2) 23-0)\See 24 0ssi ee oou) LOG) te 9675109) S098 (96 102, 6.90) 48 90 93 106 125 125 96 28 24.2S 244.9 74 64 67 83 93 106 109 115 115 106 102 109 106 109 118 29 26.1S 244.6 93 102 93/5) 96) 102) 115) PS TiS Pio on tte ero ee OSs Odmaaine 30 27/8 S| 24488" (90) 98° 83. 102) 109) 115.9 .193 (9s V102NeNoSm02 125 ees4) Meee ATMOSPHERIC POTENTIAL GRADIENT RESULTS 115 gradient in volts per meter on cruise VII of the Carnegie Remarks All times given are in GMT 141 142 152 136 139 140 131 121 111 0 36 .... high values 0-2h r, m 15-17h; disturbed 20-24h Gis Ge allstar aleiy ak ey al} alGhy/ 0 103 disturbed 3-6h 148 139 148 181 178 191 213 198 194 0 151 SUR ce coh ee sep cee vee 104 1408 Se Sena qus=t0h MGS USO 1AG GAR a1Giee lobe 144 38 08 .... q after 6h LES GSS W845 190) 1955 22355 hl 168) 165 0 5 ++» occasional q and d ASO 1245) 1255 121) 120) 13455 99) 1/20), 1118 0 q 13-16h, 20-22h SS St 88)) 100), 1025 99) 118) 1105)" 104 0 98 q 3-10h 74 1) 8) alls) ale alps) alts) aint} 0 99 distant q iS, 945 88 oo Fie TOG 102) 10405 1102 1 «+» Q, neg. P.G. 8-11h 3c Re 1 occasional q; neg. P.G. 10-12h 106 94 82 90 104 108 102 101 73 A be ee threatening weather; occasional q Of ACO Olga OOM Olu SO0lE 92m 35 78 0 95 Gm GGie cileeO pn Sime NGO SOSie) COMeNCiG 0 69 Cl) ae hy Salih Gs} alls}, ae} ayes alti 0 disturbed 18-24h; engine 22-24h 127 115 160 124 ca Pe 1 occasional q; neg. P.G. 19-20h 101 153 191 188 176 88 153 142 1-2 occasional q; neg. P.G.5-7h, 21-22h Cie SOG Gre Goren cnc LOE Banos lesces 49 2 .... 1, neg. P.G. 1-5h, 17-23h 15 TASES facie ag 47 106 111 OGiat.-0. 2 «1, neg. P.G. 15-20h, 23-24h aces “yates WBnos. taco Sande iaseesd ees weRS" wieece 1 .». 1, 0-6h, 9-11h; neg. P.G. 0-1h ATO Ost [(1OSP Oe Ores 120 STO ibe aS 0 109 ISB) REY See a5. NGI org © Talalt 93° 88 82 1 «.-. q 16-20h; neg. P.G. 17-18h LA pele 404005 125) 8 125)5 166) 1105 0 105 NOSE LOS O02 ies See 1270 1209 105.5 1105 0 111 ZOLA ce eG tre 1345 109)) 1005 oe o.n 1 .. q, neg. P.G. 22-24h soos oon. dada OR ake alee WOE) SKORS hy 1 «ss» gq 10-12h; neg. P.G. 11-12h 22 eS) OOM Obie 90 90 92m 78 72 0 99 q4-10h Ti 8a Bee 20 Oh) HOR BR eh) 0 86 Le A se eo 46 47 1132 135." 1120 0 114 LOOM LOS MLS Ae 42 OTe 132hs 24:5 24 0 131 127 125 134 4137 130° 129 125 108 105 0 114 104 100 112 108 100 104 102 105 105 0 102 CeCM Noseotin cea LOM OM wcce cn Moscertiy ceteh) Pcecte olae of .-» @q 10-24h; neg. P.G. 12-17h 1445 11S 46 oe 157) 123) 1205) 1145 101 1 os --- 1, q 0-8h, 15-21h, neg. P.G. 4-6h 102 112 120 117 #116 120 106 88 #88 1 Be 83) 178 0 a 89 Laon LON Oem el OMe. ct 35 66 # 80 1 .. 1, neg. P.G. 20-22h Gia} | WAR) GIG) ages sone G4e eee Ui eee laa r, neg. P.G. 11-12h, 17-21h, 23-24h Tit), 158!" 192, 153) 134° 125)) 134) 144 86 1-2 thunderstorms 0-4h, 7-13h; some neg. P.G. scape 202.8 249), 188i) 1625 177) 203\0 223)5 1116 0 D z 6-12h; disturbed 6-12h, 15-24h Wa 180) VSI 17%.) 2035 2645 2235 110), 96 0 D. disturbed 3-9h, 16-20h; d 22-24h sap)" Repo wanes aboS “ueco"y tegad | Mood) Suons Ie) BS D disturbed 0-8h, with some d 213), 203) 232). 238) 242) 225) 219 190) 142 1 s disturbed 3-7h; neg. P.G. 5-6h rereeee LOG) 20300203 L80)) 164 16405 158) 56 Ss oa6e 163 [170 176 179] 186 186 163 150 141 0 s 141 150 134 128 128 134 128 134 #4147 150 0 Ss 127 150% 128) 163) 140 157 Ui LION 1475 (90 0 s 141 disturbed 15-20h 163 186 179 186 173 157 4128 128 106 1 Ss .... Z, disturbed 0-4h; neg. P.G. at 2h 150m U50)8 150 73)) 173.) 186), 150) 1475 150 0 S) 134 ne cee eset LGowe 1°70 1150 A B54 eee 1 Ss ...- @at 10.5h; neg. P.G. 15-16h Bena eeed 99 106 106 99 96 106 £86 z s seat ible alway alee aA ap ley alae alata laa} 0 s 99 138 147 154 154 138 131 125 112 106 0 s 110 TIS 125)" 128) 1345 1:25.) 118 106) 106 90 0 Ss 102 102 96 86 106 102 83 86 90 §=683 0 Ss 83 (OR Seee lone epe ton Dope Lapel OG eos 0 s 90 TOG U2 5a 28s 25128) 122015 10685 90 0 Ss 112 125 144 141 138 131 131 125 109 86 1 Ss .... q all day; neg. P.G. 6-7h, 13-14h, 23-24h HiGeel2s. oly 14) V4 11s 12106 106 0 s 110 d2-3h 102 166 93 154 122 109 106 102 106 0 ) .... disturbed 14-20h 128 122 4118 154 154 144 125 102 #°&90 1 Ss ... d, neg. P.G. 8-9h 134 141 154 154 138 134 128 112 106 0 Ss 112 147 118 128 150 154 144 138 118 102 0 s .... Tat 10h; q 8-16h 134 118 147 138 141 144 #125 115 1 D d 6-9h; q, neg. P.G. 14-16h 116 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS GM noon position Date rae aes 0-1 Table 3. Hourly mean values on Greenwich Mean Time of potential- 1-2 | 2-3 | 3-4 | 4-5 | 5-6 | 6-7 | 7-8 2108 Vee es 130 116 110 125 133) 148 148) 160 168) 1940 1830 eiig 271.2 1386 154 139 139 128 125 130 151 145 136 125 130 133 139 142 Ahlen O02 1065 106 99 96 96 102° 109 112 106" 102° 102° 1027 109 ii 273.2 93 80 77 70 77 74 74 74 93 112 109 112 112 112 134 24: cee oO) 90, 9199) 102 107 72 113 110 122 142 145 160 168 174 180 279.9 171 165 160 128 130 128 113 133 136 125 125 4151 180 154 162 278.5 130 125 102 96 96) 104 996.5 S99le 11LO To OSS 102s Zone tooo 279.5 128 128 113 87 110 130 125 130 142 136 139 148 171 186 194 280.4 157 148 145 136 136 136 145 145 160 154 162 165 188 186 208 281.38 142 128 122 130 128 139 136 139 142 148 174 #191 197 200 215 282.0 168 154 1386 151 156 162 148 130 125 128 151 180 203 226 209 282.6 136 136 128 133 136 139 139 142 139 125 139 154 168 197 .... 1928 : Dec 1 2 245.2 109 115 125 125 109 #118 129 138 4128 128 #125 144 #144 147 160 2 3 245.6 147 144 147 150 150 160 163 163 170 166 163 173 173 179 4179 3 3 246.8 106 102 99 109 112 118 128 13% 122) 138i 138 157% 144° 157 157 4 3 249.1 86 86 86 93 86 96 109 122 122 125 134 134 134 150 157 a ar 251.2 .... 122 128 131 131 4160 166 176 179 182 144 173 182 189 195 U3 2 290.8 106 102 112 218 122 125 118 141 141 4131 4128 #4134 #%4138 4138 .147 14 2 251.0 125 122 118 93 134 122 138 128 131 102 131 125 131 134 «415 Li 3 20052 seens 165) US OR 60" 15% 165 1620 142" 154" 180) 168" 2 eee ees 18 3 250.8 147 141 125 128 141 +4153 160 157 157 4160 154 150 144 157 186 19 3 252.5 144 131 131 141 4154 160 163 166 4157 #4166 157 #4176 #189 205 205 20 3 253.2 131 86 70 147 170 150 102 77 112 115 4115 125 147 147 144 21 3 254.2 138 125 122 125 141 144 157 163 166 160 157 #170 173 166 166 23 3 256.6 214 144 144 144 195 147 182 186 227 230 262 205 227 266 266 24 3 258.6 154 170 163 189 176 144 198 131 160 170 138 144 160 179 186 25 4 260.4 154 128 125 134 131 160 154 99 147 154 163 160 163 186 189 26 4 262.4 141 141 141 144 #144 144 #147 #147 150 173 198 202 202 250 275 27 4 263.3 170 160 173 182 205 227 208 176 160 154 150 154 154 154 205 28 3 265.5 138 141 144 144 144 144 144 144 147 144 170 195 218 227 224 29 3 266.6 96 128 118 93 109 109 61 125 #84 186 232 171 154 165 203 30 3 268.0 136 151 154 154 157 151 128 154 154 154 168 180 191 206 191 iaae 3 2609. eOu | ees 133 136 130 157 151 139 136 136 162 160 145 142 .... 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 ONO ARIIOOIGIIIIIA PHOSOMNNNNWOPRATRYEHOOO NVPIOEPOIOEENN NVBIDSOCOSORWNEEOIDEHOS NOM BRYOROONMENHOO DRHOMDMAMDRHOBRURDONONIOR ARONUMABWUNWOON BAONANPNYUIHOIUWIOCOOUARWNS ° NNANN NANNNNNNNNNNNN RNNNRNARNNNANNUNNNUNUUNNN ANUNRNNARNURNNUNHN NANNnNNNNNRNNNUANNHRNHRNHNHNNNNAN Rebel 280.4 122 122 112 131 145 154 4151 142 151 145 136 145 154 157 151 (jal 278.1 112 109 109 112 112 4115 115 115 118 125 125 122 141 +4150 160 10 1 215.2 125 115 118 141 134 128 115 115 4109 122 122 109 122 141 138 V2 ot 2ecOe OG OS SLOG 109) ed) ozo 28 Sa ial Oe eee eee ae eee 13 1 270.9 125 125 122 125 134 #125 125 134 4138 4138 141 147 147 #154 160 14 1 PARE UP) scones “KeGSESMENOSOMMMMOBEN I Nacée M sends, Mlcaco Sloe) idxey cas Toswe Toner toes UGH 15 1 265.8 144 147 144 147 154 160 163 163 157 141 157 4150 147 #131 163 16S 263.0 160 160 147 150 166 182 182 189 166 176 160 179 189 195 205 iG at 260.1 170 160 141 138 141 144 160 166 150 148 164 121 160 187 218 ils} a 207.2 208 192 193 186 182 198 198 176 179 182 182 182 198 154 189 les} Gt 254.9 141 131 109 112 106 128 138 144 #170 147 #150 147 #150 173 160 20 1 202. 138 118 112 112 112 112 128 4150 141 122 141 #%122 138 #4128 «147 21 1 250.6 93 96 96 83 83 102 86 102 109 115 134 131 122 141 164 22 1 248.2 136 152 128 131 128 131 134 138 141 141 4112 134 #122 141 «144 23 1 245.8 144 140 129 117 148 144 148 148 152 148 148 144 160 168 171 24 1 243.0 148 225 121 117 #4125 #125 125 129 160 148 140 152 168 179 183 25 1 241.1 133 125 130 119 140 129 140 1388 140 148 152 156 156 160 191 26 1 239.3 147 144 138 188 131 131 125 134 4131 4131 4138 #%4141 #+4157 #+4170 182 27 1 236.9 138 131 122 115 109 115 118 118 134 128 113 136 160 156 168 28 1 234.4 131 147 144 128 122 122 118 118 118 125 138 4150 150 170 170 Mar 1 1 232.6 138 160 144 134 134 141 144 #141 144 #154 166 176 182 208 198 ieee 230.7 150 134 113 109 113 121 109 #101 4105 #4105 #4105 #109 #125 136 148 Sh a! 22809) 1OU seein 117 «109 113) 113 D3 WT De i tate og 144 Seton 45 Al Dene US 29 11S «105 109 105) sy) Way Laie tis Ui ase i268 eal 225.4 98 109 113 113 113 121 125 121 109 #113 #4125 #4129 #140 140 148 (i al 223.6 109 113 121 133 133 136 121 133 148 #140 133 152 136 144 140 Kya 21Bt4 cosy centers iD 115 222 0oy wO2is "99s S90 106). Too sents sGOm elon LOW ZUGSO) 121) SES LOS MSS 109 se eae seen ccece ease (C-enE (ocpe me o-Gmn (=n oee lt al 214.8 339 192 166 £61 29 96 107 99.113 93 4122 130 122 87 122 23 1 207.8 99 99 93 90 96 99 107 115 115 115 122 125 128 150 154 24 1 206.9 144 128 102 109 83 67 64 14 93 80 93 96 102 112 112 25 1 205.0 109 112 115 115 115 118 131 138 122 144 #141 140 145 148 145 ee) 19725) S148) MTOR OLS IG: 133 TOT “960 FOO ccc wcok es cscemy couche Gecwene (cn elincee Apr 21 1 188.3 .... 99° 102" 98! 113 116 96 52 HD) ) oes Oe 1G sme Go) eel Otome Oe 22 1 188.3 110 107 104 102 18° 22) O18, so0ie Use G5 GlOle (Glee Oe Ol penta 24 189.0 125 128 130 133 148 139 130 151 151 142 #145 148 #151 #4174 151 ATMOSPHERIC POTENTIAL GRADIENT RESULTS 117 gradient in volts per meter on cruise VII of the Carnegie--Continued 15- |16- |17- |18- |19- |20- | 21- | 22- | 23- 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 163 173 134 163 176 144 138 182 205 147 205 173 166 134 179 166 141 90 150 211 170 211 250 185 147 138 ily! 189 154 102 205 205 195 211 221 147 218 342 304 173] 168 148 174 150 122 128 197 200 154 197 206 226 229 154 163 147 163 188 163 170 278 186 173 128 160 131 125 154 168 173 192 125 198 168 176 144 133 195 250 281 150 128 177 116 78 180 189 147 125 154 186 160 166 195 205 221 205 214 147 218 358 208 147 168 168 174 163 122 125 200 180 160 197 203 218 246 163 166 150 170 195 144 202 253 195 195 125 152 144 160 179 168 160 205 125 186 174 207 150 140 261 269 238 122 [130 168 122 116 174 208 147 134 186 141 166 200 186 Sail 4|char.|, and | Mean om 198 195 189 166 0 S$ 150 14U¢:088 9122 112 ©0) 8) 155 125 G1f8pr109s0102/ Os; RSy .wB6 ML eeaT eae; 0) Sisk Re. 170! <190) Wage a54; yr Sif Be 138 181 122" 11° pr | vs | 134 TUS CUSOM ASIN PTAy ey PSL) Bes 215 1947 1800 174: (est RP eas 179s 179, 160; 147 10 ~S 160 198 179 157 150 0 S 173 214; 186) (070) 154] ty 9S); aa. 1798 157 141) AS; WOr, “S.. 163 2887 259,02971. 1nG) “MOLE Stl Gis: TORUS ON dss NO) Gs: 42. 176) 166) 157) 147) (0 Ss 165 275;) 221/195) 1B2) WOr, §Si\| 210 192) “WO W5ONM44) “HOM Si) ce: 163134 141; 188, 0 Ss 1O1/) 183) 17hpetses ye OD 168 168 160 139 0 P 144) A57- (GOK eor Meat GD 116 193: VALS ALO OD MPy | Ze. 176 122)' 109" 102; ©} D198 125. 109; 102; 80) SQ), Ms 108 102/°109" | 96)9) 96; HO PS 02 Dibe 197) IOehATA, BONE, ABE Lee: VGS7 A45;- 125993" GObe MELE ces: 159 145 119 122 0 P 123 203 212 200 168 0 P 160 2395203; 197) 197 60> “EP 176 200 186 180 180 0 P 174 191 160 160 148 0 PP 176 wo) R41. 00 EL ay eae Bee Bee 166 163 141 118 0 D_ 146 147g 1446, 1940/0292) 00m Sa 433 147 125 122° [si2) BO Sy 129 170) 163° 141, 34> GO, "S) 145 W276s 170 54e TOM MS; tA: 1470) 1506 176991702 Ong S 170P 1765 1G0eM173: OO OS 240 253 234 221 0 OD 102168 160.144 -40. SS _-:.. ISLpPIQQePIeMI2 Foe Sey 144 T22MIGGe BSE 9B OVE Sie ded 160 140 148 164 0 D_ 127 1362 196, 160,°1299 0 D= 136 193001960140, 129° On (Co 147 172 156 144 136 0 D_ 149 191 183 179 166 0 D_ 156 163) (66, 168: 150; 0 9S 152 122-16 | 160) WBE. Wir. Dy 4s. 115 147 150 150 0 § 189% 173; 160) 138° O S 167 15% 129) 129) 105° © ©D, 130 19) 0446186 9129 0, |G 137 125) “200N10S) 105, 0,, D. 130 168 168 164 152 0 C_ 133 dre era PO. 1E. 26% 176) 160) 193;9921; 0, D 2386 QSBAeTItge 265 Vane GC 176 211 218 i; 2D 99 99 118 131 0 OD 193] 134198) 118; AO, —S 180 156 171 157 0 D 157 wey ee or eee, © s0te 2 a 149; 1360 1257 22) 0. 4p Toe (ORRIP Ee, Mik, OB 1280 196" 9193. 142. “ule ab Clas mete ee eee er 2 Remarks All times given are in GMT q 10-12h; neg. P.G. 10-11h z after 12h r 3-4h; q 14-19h; neg. P.G. 17-18h d, neg. P.G. 2-5h, 6-8h Zz vA : z; disturbed throughout 7-8h very low 15.6-17.4h very high occasional p 12-24h p 0-16h; neg. P.G. 6-9, 12-16h r 19-20h high values 19-21h r 5-6h q and d throughout low value 16-17h q 12-20h; d at 13h r 16-18h r 11-12h disturbed 18-21h d and q 9-12h q 10-1ih q 23-24h occasional q; r, neg. P.G. 4-6h, 13-15h Engine 7-19h, 22-24h Engine 0-2h 1 and q after 6h low values 7-10h; engine 19-24h q after 20h; neg. P.G. 20-22h q after Oh; neg. P.G. 2-3h r, neg. P.G. 22-24h 118 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 3. Hourly mean values on Greenwich Mean Time of potential- GM noon position 9- |10- |11- |12- |13- |14- Date Lat. ae 0-1 | 1-2 | 2-3 | 3-4 | 4-5 | 5-6 | 6-7 | 7-8 | 8-9 10 il 12 13 14 5 1929 ‘ ; Apr 26 7.1S 187.8 .... 131 1380 154 136 128 139 142 157 133 133 136 165 148 122 Pa ee} BIC) oc = ade. ocd aoc 67 3= 83 61 14 OOF Lore 151s 1685 ATS Sse Lor, 28 4.35 187.4 136 116 16 93 96 109 102 106 102 61 58 64 Gi 74. 96 29° 28S 186.8 116 110 104 99 96 96 102 104 104 107 #107 #107 #+125 #4136 «145 30 0.6S 186.2 125 128 125 122 116 128 116 125 142 136 128 130 145 165 174 May 1 1.6N 185.4 136 128 119 116 122 130 133 154 157 160 157 151 154 154 157 2 3.6N 184.1 151 148 148 142 1389 133 145 142 145 99 157 136 145 154 168 3) De2)N) USSEh 133RP 148) 36 Ghee ---- 78 136 116 116 125 110 104 183 183 4 coyN 18186) 1b 136 1386) 139) 133° 122) 122) 1116) 93 93 139 139 145 145 171 5 9.4N 18023 122) 110 99 96 107 107 49 119 122 154 151 165 165 168 174 6 12.4N 178.3 145 148 145 148 133 130 154 154 157 168 174 #%171 #+4174 #+4177 «4174 7 14.6N 176.0 171 162 165 168 133 139 136 136 116 116 119 130 142 148 160 8) GOIN, SUSe2 OO ROOF Si) 93) 9G. TSR 1G) 119) 1255 1398 1428 baal SF UTEOIN) “7025! L25e SOs o bie 142) 1139 128) 28h 28) 128) 125) 1338 1398 dase ein 10> 1S29IN 16%27, 125) TOR Oz or, 113; «10% «61045 113) 119) 10) 104 Be) = eB) alty DN 19:87N 116553) Wssiealab a eGs 122) 1113 1/119) 128) 139) “ATS IG) ALON 113s 13h 16s 9 12 20.3N 162.4 99 997 8 SOF 10%) 116i DOF Ge LOSS Oe Ge et SOF (Simp os TSP A9SSIN V15925" 119i oO e048: 997 (96 99) 102) 10%) TOs DLO) 125) 1295 186s 1565164 14 19.0N 157.3 144 147 150 150 141 138 147 147 #147 #138 #122 131 4128 #4134 «150 15 18.1N 154.8 106 102 99 96 96 102 102 102 106 109 106 109 109 109 112 16 16.9N 152.3 115 Sooo G0 90) (865) 86 oSm 02S oG ee OGms6 90 83 102 LT Uo.GIN) L497 OG Re0255 599) 99) 102 965 ~965 93) 86) sah 74 Ge 0m 4 86 18) 14°49N) 140-25 1068 99) 9199) 102) 106 90: 115) 102) 106) (96) 93 93 106 131 147 19 13.8N 145.1 118 102 99) 102 96 109) 109) D125 102) 102) TOS) 106s 1025 P3ie 134 ZO lan4oN| 144-4 eee cccen merce cee) Lae ONO4Se SIGS Gon lien 180m. 160ml GOR Gomes) 26. 17.3N 144.1 212 188 171 177 180 194 194 203 203 209 200 203 194 188 194 27 19.8N 144.0 168 168 154 160 139 148 151 154 154 151 142 148 151 154 157 28 22.3N 144.2 183 168 154 148 122 122 139 154 157 160 150 136 142 154 130 20e 2a EN Se Ome aia: 165, Hrd 17i (1b, 14s 2008 2038 215m fre cae scene ecm nee 30 25.8N 144.3 [162] 160 122 110 96 93 96 102 107 104 102 110 130 154 150 SIPS ZielONS Saar ome Si, L48R 325° 122) 116) 1285 Sie eisse Sea cccewe cate corel eons June 1 29.6N 143.8 165 171 148 148 144 147 150 160 163 173 182 195 195 202 .... 2 30.66N 144.1 147 163 160 163 198 202 205 195 163 154 157 157 154 163 166 3 31.7N 143.6 186 208 237 275 291 291 275 256 275 288 234 237 237 240 243 4 33.2N 141.7 230 227 253 278 320 333 326 304 294 269 208 211 211 253 269 5 34.5N 140.9 138 138 160 154 147 141 138 95 84 90 90 90 139 84 84 6 34.8N 141.0 38 55 107 113 116 128 113 4116 4116 139 142 168 128 139 154 26 36.3N 142.9 276 270 244 249 258 276 296 290 299 331 313 302 290 287 281 Zee SGnieN 144-c8 olan 2o0meaco, 197 157 (200) 20CN se coon 218s 249e Joo mceGmmol ammo 28 36.9N 145.4 244 287 220 232 235 235 218 232 244 273 264 276 290 287 322 29 38.1N 145.8 226 258 287 281 276 264 264 244 244 281 249 220 241 258 270 30 38.4N 147.4 362 429 365 232 249 255 267 226 226 197 218 218. 191 241 235 July 1 39.3N 148.3 354 377 354 304 273 238 235 215 229 197 223 197 186 203 215 2 40.1N 150.3 357 383 360 336 313 267 258 342 412 377 304 296 273 238 261 3 40.6N 151.8 191 209 203 203 203 197 223 223 203 215 186 174 165 160 160 4 41.9N 154.4 215 171 165 223 223 235 235 235 223 218 174 203 229 273 313 5 43.1N 156.9 418 389 360 371 325 348 383 580 595 452 316 313 287 345 452 6 44.7N 159.0 331 235 261 235 154 197 174 174 276 287 197 171 304 348 296 7 46.3N 161.0 203 99 180 116 160 342 481 394 371 342 331 287 244 368 249 8 47.0N 164.7 583 470 545 450 378 275 115 189 218 230 205 77 144 144 144 9 46.9N 167.8 209 154 136 122 142 136 93 142 84 148 110 197 380 148 130 10 46.4N 170.6 200 212 113 165 206 183 165 165 165 194 177 160 165 165 160 11 45.7N 172.3 145 160 151 194 160 151 145 113 119 151 133 206 212 194 380 12 45.8N 173.6 751 505 368 304 322 394 351 345 464 310 345 548 519 528 1740 1S 47e20N LTGe1) oe 99 206 313 638 768 710 673 676 603 545 496 519 313 368 14> 48°6)N) “18056, “299 S68messomeote) S10 249) 10S 1455 (220) 3945 261s te serene se cumn-tes 15 49.9N 185.3 455 606 618 687 713 676 684 728 679 673 458 206 232 238 290 16 50.9N 190.2 328 290 281 281 536 220 215 244 232 226 215 232 220 220 232 17 52.0N 196.0 244 244 232 215 194 188 183 177 160 188 249 452 244 244 220 18 52.6N 201.8 232 226 238 276 409 673 531 438 505 528 528 545 644 644 647 19 52.2N 207.7 226 215 220 237 212 171 177 206 194 215 183 188 183 194 188 20 51.0N 212.2 206 244 255 261 200 206 223 307 380 302 302 160 177 200 206 21 48:7N 216.2 188 177 171 139 133 110 125 125 188 4188 125 183 271 125 125 22 46.7N 219.2 229 200 177 160 125 116 93 1383 102 139 145 139 160 154 139 23 44.7N 221.6 168 148 125 148 136 136 125 125 136 125 125 4136 136 136 136 24 43.2N 223.9 254 214 207 214 214 196 207 207 #179 168 168 136 94 105 156 25 41:1 Ni 2266 171 210) 60) 110) 139 177 194) 200) 194) 104) i) 200) 212) 223 241 26 40.0N 229.3 125 148 156 113 168 148 156 179 214 125 145 122 58ers Gir 27 39.0N 233.1 176 182 202 189 189 227 221 214 214 227 214 227 214 214 214 ATMOSPHERIC POTENTIAL GRADIENT RESULTS 119 gradient in volts per meter on cruise VII of the Carnegie--Continued 0 1 1 0 1 COCOrFOCCCOSCCOFCOOOCOCOOCCORFR EHH ooooo°oco°co°cwoor RPrROOOOFrFOCOrFOOoO o9°00000rS000: AOVSVASGCVVIVVVIVVVIVY VUVVUOOVUVUVUVUVUVU VUVUVVOANANY VUVVUVVUVANNNNAHOHVVVVVVIVIVVVUUU UUOON 123 114 103 128 110 “94 121 148 Remarks All times given are in GMT r 11-12h; engine 0-11h, 22-24h q 0-9h; neg. P.G. 1-3h, 6-8h; engine 0-20h q, neg. P.G. 2-3h; engine 0-20h r 10-12h; neg. P.G. 11-12h q 15-24h; neg. P.G. 15-16h, 18-19h q 9-10h, 20-22h; neg. P.G. 20-22h heavy r 3-7h; neg. P.G. 4-6h q 1-10h; neg. P.G. 8-10h q 2-7h; neg. P.G. 6-7h q 4.8-5.3h; r 16-18h q 3-6h q 10-11h d 10-11h r 16-17h; q 21-24h 1 13-15h; q 17-24h; neg. P.G. 21-22h heavy r 13-14h; q 18-20h r 15.5-16.5h d about 19h neg. P.G. 9-11h; low values 15-17h r 14-15h; q thereafter q after 20h disturbed 16-18h heavy storm after 13h z throughout; engine 14-22h z throughout; engine 2-20h z throughout; engine 5-22h d after 13h; neg. P.G. 13-15h, 18-2ih typhoon and gale; low values 15-20h z throughout; engine 0-4h z throughout; engine 7-24h z throughout; engine 0-7h z throughout; engine 9-24h z throughout; engine 0-3h disturbed 8-11h and after 16h disturbed 7-12h disturbed after 18h; neg. P.G. 22-23h d 10-24h m, f, or d throughout m, f, or d throughout; neg. P.G. 22-24h m, f, or d throughout; neg. P.G. 0-4h m, f, or d throughout m or f throughout; high value 12-13h m or z throughout m or f throughout m or thick f; r, neg. P.G. 20-24h m or thick f; r 0-4h; neg. P.G. 1-3h, 16-21h m, f, or rain; neg. P.G. 6-8h m, thick f, or r thick f or m; high value 4-5h thick f or m; high value 11-12h thick f or m rorm m throughout r, m, z r after 13h d to 18h, then z r at intervals after 10h z; r at intervals to 5h dor mto 18h 120 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 3. Hourly mean values on Greenwich Mean Time of potential- | Lat. | Lone. | 1929 2 2 Sep 5 36.3N 235.8 .... .... 264 310 322 316 328 316 328 339 334 328 334 328 339 8 31.8N 231.4 160 174 154 142 136 142 154 154 168 142 119 119 160 154 180 9 30.4N 229.8 .... 125 70 81 87) 125 110" 119° 130° 128" 1287) 9188" 180" 188 9273 10 29.6N 227.9 264 273 267 273 264 252 264 287 302 310 287 203 235 284 325 11 28.6N 226.3 258 223 220 194 174 212 215 209 206 203 223 229 235 270 258 12 27.8N 224.8 212 188 180 183 174 194 191 179 173 179 186 208 243 246 256 13 27.3N 223.2 108 96 90 112 102 90) 112" 1098 025 109%" 965 102)) 131) 18 ea50 15 266N 220.0 141 112 96 118 118 122 141 141 154 #4157 157 #4179 #166 #4192 186 18 24.4N 215.2 186 183 160 157 182 171 180 186 194 129 160 156 164 187 214 19 23.5N 212.6 164 160 160 164 156 172 171 180 186 168 168 168 183 188 171 20 23.0N 209.6 176 156 133 140 133 160 160 164 156 82 125 133 144 164 172 21 22.5N 207.2 144 148 164 160 136 152 156 152 148 152 156 164 182 157 154 22) 22.0 N 205-17 179) 11S AOS any 113 82) 109) iit. (1255 1298 17 = Anse Sit ei wala 23 21.5N 203.1 118 112 115 112 112 93 102 102 112 134 #4138 #=%$134 «+138 «$147 «3144 Oct 4 25.1N 199.9 154 165 .... 154 145 168 157 154 151 148 145 154 157 154 171 5 28.2N 199.0 136 142 145 148 142 142 148 154 154 154 165 171 191 194 188 6 30.8N 198.8 145 142 128 142 133 125 130 151 154 151 157 168 174 188 191 7 32.2N 199.3 171 154 165 154 162 162 168 174 174 171 165 165 165 4174 186 SerssveN 199 Gee 119 12299) 116 102 10% LOT 122" W119 51225 (128) 1425 AIG ess elas 9 34.2N 201.6 125 119 113 104 102 107 148 151 148 142 148 165 174 151 171 10 33.8N 204.5 151 154 eh GH ay 93 116 113 102 96 110 125 130 148 11 33.6N 207.3 90 86 102 106 102 131 99° 167 93" 104 110 128 119 22) e142 13 33.4N 213.8 [117 117] 117 113 133 129 129 125 125 106 128 131 141 154 154 14 33.5N 215.7 131 96 893 96 86 83 18)! 7186) 1a82\ 2282 ee ge) a SOD SO el oOmmicG 15 32.7N 218.7 130 116 125 122 128 122 139 148 157 145 154 154 154 165 186 16 30.2N 220.1 - 80 125 77 86 86 86 90 125 150 147 128 125 128 166 170 LAMCOM NMAC ANCA eed ie ccc.” Tosos since: eeae | eros’ ) cen) Weeeet = WHOM BILTON SI22 0 e3OR o1S9e ole ommreo 18 26.4N 222.9 75 61 52 «44 SR .Bdoue | spocaie | oticos Secado. bsodoe We Soable sooo! «coc 90 74 19 25.1N 222.4 93 90 93 83 Ge wie Gls GERI GE YE! 64 64 96 86 20 24.00N 222.0 86 64 86 = 83 80) 70) “S17 808 93% OR9GH 86h NOSR S10SR ei2oemian 21 21.8N 221.3 93 90 90 93 82 215 122) 9125" 1255 122 118) 122) 4s baat ZomLOLOUN Ace On merc | ccc isess) | force eens eeees) SLEON 22 eilS eis) els OZone lco mele 23 16.8N 222.6 90 106 93 99 96 93 96 106 115 109 102 93 125 138 138 24 14.5N 223.2 102 99°96 99 102 99 93 99) 190 5964" © 64% 91102) 91225 Hiss e102 25 13.0N 222.8 cco = oct, «= ogo) COG 94 113 70 74 152 850 90 90 93 104 26 11.8Ne 220.8) 35 2 O 44 20 58 Se 265 529 264 OTB TGR Gmeio 27 10.4N 220.5 43 Omen SO) se ut8 mene 74 62 78 78 113 117 #4113 4144 148 cas}, a BIB GES GTS) SIP) céccilggaoe | uabd = | osog | cagol ouoo, | fondo® _poont | gaol | snpan Leto! coco: once 29) 8:0)N)) 21858) 32) 20778. =... 9136) 1194. St) 128) 1134) 1385 57 99 106 134 eto) 30) 724 Ni 21870) 106) 99599 96 (80 190). 998 470 58 122 106 hl Gai) IGS ospe saee”—cdoa nog = odo =e ccc ce | ono oon code Nov 1 6.0N 215.9 [109] 109 134 128 125 122 134 131 138 131 157 #160 170 176 99 2 5.0N 214.0 109) 218 91128 125) a2) 2h SS 1b 1225 1345 ese es ati 3 4.5N 212.0 134 144 147 138 138 144 141 138 131 131 122 138 160 163 182 CL Giddnp Pac) get; STA SGeage) sosoe | gona) Goad 94 987" E94 eo101 99 112 134 138 5 1.8N 209.1 144 134 141 144 118 170 182 166 166 182 176 182 182 189 186 GaP LS) 2078 LOS 106102 99 138 144 154 141 134 134 134 141 138 157 179 TT 3:81S8 207-0) 166163 9160) 182 176 73 170) N57 16399150) 91545 166 Lise 166 Sen70 8 60S 205.5 115 99 96 112 122 125 138 141 154 150 147 125 128 147 166 9 125)S) 20358) Weseet47 147 147 (147 163 166s ATS OR Ge 179% Use elosm wale ee ane 10 8.7S 202.3 157 165 191 195 187 195 203 222 199 230 234 230 234 230 222 PEG) 9°2)S: (201745 S90 t2t 7-129) 113 7 A6OR F156" 152 S152 56a 1 68e 2a oi eeloo 12 9.7S 200.0 107 110 119 116 131 136 139 160 157 163° 160 176 189 198) 214 13 10.7S 198.5 122 96 142 168 151 145 179 164 168 152 156 156 168 168 176 144s 197) ibe 90) 881 119) 1S 130 10 TUG 11S 1 S6 eel 4S 1 COM el Gsaeetoy 15 11.9S 195.6 101 90 86 121 129 207 140 117 152 156 179 179 187 214 195 16 12.4S 193.9 136 109 144 113 98 152 152 156 179 101 144 154 157 182 179 1) 13-45S) 1192/0) L1G tsseei19) 122) 176 18 STO 1ST TO Lom eles 8 a elo mecca te LBS IOS PESTO! Giese 82.90 121 1140 136) 105 105) 98! 1156. 1195) 3199s 1218 ATMOSPHERIC POTENTIAL GRADIENT RESULTS 121 gradient in volts per meter on cruise VII of the Carnegie--Concluded Remarks All times given are in GMT Ie eee eZto 220) 299). d40) ao l0) 293 0 P PAG AD). DUD eons doe Tondo PSSA | cede! acod 0 P 307 319 322 .... 362 374 357 299 284 0 P engine 0-4h 284 310 334 310 264 302 313 310 278 0 P disturbed 11-20h 177 151 249 287 339 287 244 212 206 0 P disturbed 14-20h 269 269 170 173 186 179 150 138 131 0 D disturbed 12-17h; engine 20-24h 15% 16S 170) 79. 173) 079) 73 NTS) 157 0 Ss engine throughout 154 141 154 154 131 128 109 102 112 0 Ss engine 4-9h, 15-20h 226 19M eet Lon) SLO 188 21 195) 187 0 D ce ft O=1 th 191 220 235 238 235 238 223 200 168 0 D 188 195 187 195 218 214 199 187 179 152 0 Cc se» q9-11h 150 141 179 4179 -191 121 156 160 156 0 D disturbed 12-13h, 20-22h 148 148 155 159 163 148 211 166 154 0 D q 12-15h; disturbed 5-6h TE TUCO SO sGocoieme noe) 40800 28 jocbos se anoo, | ecod 0 Ss 177 #174 #165 4157 4162 4154 151 148 151 1 P +s. Vand neg. P.G. 2-3h 186 191 197 174 174 186 168 165 148 0 P 165 few drops r 2.1h 206 215 226 241 247 241 215 191 174 0 Pp 176 few drops r 0.2h and 3h 215 218 218 220 220 197 188 151 122 0 P 177 engine 22-24h 151 148 154 165 168 154 151 145 128 0 Pp .... q about 11h; engine 0-22h 191 188 212 244 215 174 186 154 154 1 Pp d 5.3h; q 13-21h; neg. P.G. 13-15h WeGy Bee) aay NEY Sco | “Sood acon ob0D 008 0 Pp q 2-7h; engine 19-24h by HER TS IG SK SER oa cose IGS 0 D .... disturbed 6-9h, 12-14h, engine 0-6h 157 154 150 125 138 138 163 157 138 0 D 135 occasional q; low values 18-21h 125 139 165 165 113 139 142 113 139 0 D 112 quite disturbed 17-24h; low 19-20h 186 194 194 186 203 139 125 118 131 0 D .. 1 Qh, 22-23h; disturbed 18-23h 150 192 170 192 189 182 157 144 131 0 Ss disturbed 0-3h, 13-18h; r 1-2h, 13h 154 160 183 183 171 154 142 119 104 1 D r 1-8h; neg. P.G. 1-5h; engine 4-24h 7 #98 115 118 102 106 106 99 £96 D engine 0-16h 80 ieoo) 25) 127 106" ~96" 93° 83 0 s occasional r 9-17h 122 131 134 134 144 131 128 115 102 0 Ss ..»» 1 0-2h and 8-17h 157 118 147 160 154 147 #141 125 122 0 Ss 127 99 131 141 134 125 125 122 118 £99 0 Ss ...» low value 15-16h 141 134 Sue 102 0 s 113 125 131 134 124 #101 4109 117 «281 0 D d 9-11h; disturbed 13-24h 93 113 230) OLS ean. 70 61 2 D frequent r; neg. P.G. 8-9h, 17-23h 107 113 160 165 187 168 125 ,82 78 1 D r to 8h; neg. P.G. 1-3h, 4-7h 156 140 191 214 168 199 125 102 118 1 D disturbed; neg. P.G. 0-2h, 7-9h, 12-13h 122 128 150 141 128 10 £93 s r 1.4h, 3.4h, 9.4h 102 128 186 205 189 176 131 157 131 1 D r at intervals; neg. P.G. 0-2h, 11-12h, 15-16h pode 1-2 § disturbed; neg. P.G. 7-9h, 10-11h 134 208 170 186 182 170 96 122 106 ae s r at intervals 32 70 #4131 4125 144 +128 182 173 2 s r at intervals; neg. P.G. 15-17h, 23-24h 150 144 141 131 125 112 131 106 138 i s ... 1, neg. P.G. 0-2h 182 179 163 166 170 157 150 147 138 0 Ss 150 157 163 153 157 144 141 141 150 160 1 D .... engine 2-18h; disturbed, neg. P.G. 1-3h 173 163 173 182 182 163 160 141 144 0 s 164 131 96 109 170 189 195 157 179 163 0 s .... disturbed 15-18h 170 173 170 176 176 #170 163 160 125 0 s 166 170 176 186 198 189 154 137 140 140 0 D 144 221 208 224 230 202 202 200 177 160 0 D 182 211 222 257 285 199 156 113 121 117 0 D .... @ngine at intervals 18-24h 195 197 206 212 191 180 168 154 133 0 D engine at intervals 0-6h 221 205 215 226 230 224 220 180 168 0 D engine 23-24h 199 214 39 94 90 144 152 116 99 1 D r 17-20h; neg. P.G. 17-19h 199 214 203 179 207 #195 148 117 101 0 D engine 19-24h 191 277 265 192 176 150 128 118 109 D engine 0-19h; very disturbed 128 #179 182 138 125 154 128 102 122 D . engine throughout; very disturbed 199 144 152 176 226 187 160 168 86 0 D .... engine 0-19h, 23-24h 250 186 191 180 203 197 180 160 148 ps D +. engine throughout : : oa) ] : ; : Me yin! Veneer beer area at ree aR a i} Leino? iit ges a ie sie aes el ‘ — vo _ . é — ay _— c r eae ; he | ace | - py i! PP per ¢ bh (any | Sebi) O67» ras a j te (OR alts er2iire SA ted ee UNS eet! TNA re Se hee bros Neri . wy 9 ry fel Oe wt ee 6S oe Ke hw fe Ay : ; o YE a — 5 eo ex fal Be Bet ws : d og geo j } nm wy coe kee Gi Car Be nol “ti sh a a ae ee ae ee neo be = c a ier etc oer eee oon ~ht's bab 's ff j- sh ae reed iz 1s, 2 Gee ey ote oe = : me ¥ i & m", w y f eur BAlY Un? ss he a . oo a ot i of 2 vile al @e £2: wt ae oe Gee eee $ s) a - : is ¥ 7 ‘ oat ae e2 2 2 oo i acmier) itt 1s. /e ij. awe Gee a i « < ‘ ss Zz Phy hs .¢ lly, a ax "i -. ' —— fay Ant a ant 6S er a , Fat oy ay ne fe as or € (ic tre + Fre | 7 5 7 Spd, om Hi, tl . i 7 "a +: rey Roi’ i. 4 2 { * fr : = ae =. > . r 1: eT at et 2m ie a od i | BBS . § ; S T : Sar wet Bet | ir t ar te ee So = war! s 8 cc! a ti Se - oe ON eer oan i wt Gar Ot a 7 2 or “i iat ee ae ' Au 80; tor lft iO3f 7 8 ; wa c = = v "i ‘ : aad ‘<;| wt cov aloe 7 4 ' x o ial{ wi 7 bf] | : at iy : sj met ie le 1 oe } a 4 =a eet e & / ? Rt “ ad aries un ; : Mi. a . t 7 ie *7 AY os! “oo _ g Pn } bs : as me << “97 je ter 7 ; at a vi aro ic ai Ey we 4 a a ee fe 7 : 4 ' ’ oy. i). Pe int 6 7 a: ~ a Le a LL oo) ec fra) . in 3d e+ : fh af if < ; gait i ares 4 ri Mi Sr lel Wet s a ha . ; { a. ct 10s nee ee eo a. , snd 7 > i ih; ’ oor Ta he i wet nips omg ? 7 i ) et) SR) ee ; rn ' . ae j a é > al Mi ori jane! a " aY = : ' bt : ets Ri waa Os - at ens ‘ eo \2 et hf (fmt tee fare Gee eee see ; e 14a : a 0 a | % ; 7 t ‘ mt Sf) wer Met a i 1 pee a a ry 4 s} Saf ee 1 | at Oe yas" , ae * é ie S wer '¢ soe eee ioe 8 - 7 ip i dee : rh t t 4 an AM gd ' bb 7 e Ae . t= “4 tl : a o * ~ | a Lal a = ng va; 5 ad ay a¢ 425 3h eacan* — — wal v « 7 al + { > i VIlIl. ATMOSPHERIC CONDUCTIVITY RESULTS EXPLANATORY NOTES AND COMMENTS Section VIII is the fourth and last of the major tables of data and contains hourly mean values, on Greenwich Mean Time, of the electrical conductivity of the atmos- phere in 10-4 esu. These values were obtained from photographic records made with the recording apparatus installed at San Francisco inAugust 1929. The recording apparatus replaced the eye-reading electrometer with which conductivity values given in the tables in sections V and VI were obtained; other parts of the conductivity equipment, including the air-flow system, air-flow fan, and the central collecting cylinder, were retained with- out change as they had been installed at the beginning of the cruise. Between September 3 and November 18, 1929, the ship was at sea sixty-eight days. During this time fifty- eight complete days of record of conductivity were obtained and seven days of partial record. Positive con- ductivity was measured on thirty of the fifty-eight com- plete days, and negative on the remaining twenty-eight. The high percentage of complete days obtained during the period of recording was very gratifying, indicating that apparatus suitably designed and built for conditions at sea can be maintained almost continuously in satis- factory operation. Interpolated Values.--Interpolated hourly values have been placed in brackets in the present table. These are almost all found in September, the first month of recorder operation, when time devoted to calibration of the apparatus was more lengthy than later, and when it was customary to shut down the apparatus because the air -flow fan was turned off during magnetic observations. In subsequent months calibration periods were so brief as to obviate interpolation, and the shutting down for magnetic work was discontinued as the running motor was found to have no effect on the magnetic instruments. In this table, as for the potential-gradient tabulation, in- terpolation has been performed only for hours which were quiet and undisturbed. Mean Daily Values.--All the complete days have been provided with daily mean values. Not all these days were regarded as undisturbed, there being twenty-one on which disturbed periods of a few hours were noted. Under the column headed ‘‘disturbed hours’”’ record has been made of these disturbed periods. For a study of days representing least disturbed, fair-weather condi- tions, the twenty-one days having disturbed periods should be excluded. Disturbed Hours.--Comparison of the periods of disturbance tabulated under “‘disturbed hours’’ with the disturbed periods noted in the table in section VI under “remarks,’’ indicates that bad weather conspicuously affected both the potential-gradient and conductivity dur- ing two periods of several days each. Bad weather was encountered from October 7 to 13 and from October 24 to November 2, and during these two intervals many low values of conductivity are found, with simultaneous dis- turbed values of potential-gradient. 123 124 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 4. Hourly mean values on Greenwich Mean Time of 7-8 8-9 v0 | 10-11 | 11-12 Positive conductivity Sep 6 34.2N 233.9 0.56 0.71 [0.78 0.84] 0.91 1.04 1.16 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.14 1.18 3270 N eac2e0) lel 6) soe pn 1 24a oa |leeds 129 7 v4 ode te 2On 1h o4u nie deed LOW ZO. GIN 221-9 NOD 2h OL 2 ya Ol1 4s ewOMome Oma) es: O°22"~ O19) ~ 10522" 0'22, 0f22)" 0122 MEM ZEIGEN: (2262S eee stem Becteed mane amie 0.22 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.38 0.38 0.38 15) 26-6:N, -220°0) 0:57 02577 » 90.549 10:52) 90250, 10:50 0:50 40:50) 10.52) (0:52), 025255 (0:54 18 24.4N 215.2 0.76 0.63 [0.66] 0.69 0.66 0.66 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.74 0.76 0.76 19 23.5N 212.6 0.69 0.71 0.84 0.69 0.76 0.86 0.89 0.91 0.91 0.94 0.94 0.89 22, 22.0 N 20021) 1:08) 10396) 10:89) 0196" 1203 1:01” 1069 1-06) 106s 108) eet 23 20-0 Ni 20321) 1G Gis MGT Smee 2S 1221, P1222 3Re eo ie el 26a 28 ie com emie oo Oct) si 2251 Neg 20100) U4 leo le SOM Ooms 25) sl 259) Bole 25 eal 2bies ull 05 eel Ome oG Dee2o.2,N loo Oe eo TGpeelcl CeiCOCmmnieO2e0 1-08) 110 es 1COSme 08 elie OOn mest mmeiaie Uh BPA IN boeing! teil let eal eS Ter Thee NOP cle sie LARA 112 9 734-2N “2016 1hda 4a soe 44 1440 133) 22) 1-22) 25) 22) 20 eire5 1 (33.560N) 207.23) 1066056310639 0:84-0:99 1.059 14) S25 255 M22iae25) eee Hide Sac4 Ni )6213°8 SOLOS PO {SO meta 0122) 111-22) 122000125 sole44s 407, s5O Gea 1240 145, 33.0) Nigtclo; ele SOmeoD Me lc20een 136 128) eu 2Sh el 20m 028) ol 30) eel Ommmloo 1G) 30:2) Nie (220128 eelcoo lea) 1636) 1.30) 130) 28 25) 28) sO 28) es 18 26.4N 222.9 1.40 1.37 1.31 1.34 1.31 1.31 1.40 1.43 1.46 1.43 1.46 1.43 20° 24:0)N) 22250) 1865) S555) 1758) 1-62-1558 158m 55 15S 15S e152 eet 23°) 1628! Ne 222226 emis eose 137 540) «1.317 Se A0 eo 40 e400 1-40) Wl eS 34 1629 20) pUStON| 9 922258) 04a ea e20) 1529) 991.29 131s p1S4.c5 13455 1629). 1°29) a - 2014 26 V1-8N) (221-8 10) 0580) 1-31 1.384 1.31 1.34, 1:14 3:14 1.29) 1°26), 1-31 2734 20 oN Lo O lc O4 ee cOL | (O76) (0:80) 0t95 01) 1-07 4s BO) Tet On Oeics SOM aiNeclOc Ome ctelesl 131e 131 1 SIP esi) esse ol LO esa Stem Oni NovielaeG: ONG 2o-Omel 2omeeli2d) Led = 12020) ANT 114 145 ee 105) ee 4 eee) 3 4.5N 212.0 0.92 0.92 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.85 0.88 0.85 0.85 0.88 Dc OONmCOS NO nOn OG.) Ov95 O98 100820 09 0795 On76n 0.7000. Gm Os Ome One 7 3.8S 207.0 0.92 0.96 0.85 0.88 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.96 0.98 0.98 9 7.58 203-8 0.82 0.85 0.96 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.88 0:92 12 9.7S 200.0 0.69 0.66 0.66 0.69 0.76 0.79 0.82 0.88 0.88 0.92 0.96 0.96 14 11.4S 197.1 1.01 1.01 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.88 0.92 0.96 16 12.4S 193.9 0.46 0.53 0.59 0.69 0.72 0.76 0.79 0.79 0.85 0.96 0.96 0.98 18 13.9S 190.6 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.98 Negative conductivity Sep 5 36.3N 235.8 0.31 0.28 0.24 0.25 [0.26] 0.27 0.25 0.25 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.24 8 31.8N 231.4 0.94 1.05 [1.05 1.05 1.05] 1.05 1.05 1.04 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.05 SesOro Nem229.6) 20698) Ole Ol [101 Vets 2025) atl 2 eet oO 20 Ome OmT 12 27.8N 224.8 [0.39 0.37] 0.35 0.37 0.33 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.22 0.22 0.26 0.28 13 27.3N 223.2 0.44 0.44 0.48 O43 0.43 O43 0.46 048 O49 0.48 0.46 0.46 16 26.4N 218.4 0.44 0.48 0.52 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.54 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.50 17 25.6N 217.1 0.63 0.68 0.70 0.76 0.72 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.63 0.63 0.65 0.65 20 23.0N 209.6 0.72 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.78 O.74 0.74 O.76 O.78 0.87 0.83 0.85 Zl 2225 NI 2076260291 0°87, (0:87 (0589 (O92) O92)" 10925" 10:92) 105) 105) 1c 04 aro? Oct 4) 2551Ne 19959) OG a0 106 104 110) 108) R10) 3s PO els elses 6 30.8N 198.8 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.06 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.01 0.99 0.93 Sisaai Ni 19926) O595meO293 0789) 101 10 Seo e221 Omelet 10 33.8N 204.5 0.99 1.01 1.19 1.04 0.99 1.04 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.89 12 33.4N 210.7 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.91 1.02 0.91 1.06 1.04 1.01 0°99 0:99) 0°95 1b) 32s NE 2lSa OS OSieet08) «61:06 104" 1:04) _ A044 | 1:01 Ol 04 104 OG Ler SING 22104 ie 2GeecGmemieco Le na Aeai tO 90S 05m e102 ee 102 Oo LOS 25 SONG (222745 ete Smet 6e) 118 126) 24) et 2124 8 2 7A Pale PPaleay ANE ale aleal} STS RE NA illest ole ab ala att altos) 2o2plOLb Nie 2216 1626 cleo Lome 1G! Ad OF ei O77: One 0505 1000 O2 meio 2a I4c50N 223.2) 1 Oo Ovje-05 (1.02 1202 e102 000298 100 er O2eOLg8 2 10F4 Ne 22055 ARNOT Seta OlG8eO:38 (0:58 «107 a6) 102 F055 105 eT OS tee 29) S8i0)N) 7218-8) 1:00) WObmemOnS 0164" 1:02) 1811) 16 lA GS Gea ee 31 6.7N 216.7 0.45 0.93 0.93 0.86 0.84 0.47 1.00 0.78 0.49 [0.86] 0.98 0.80 Nov 2 5.0N 214.0 0.51 0.93 0.82 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.80 0.80 0.76 0.73 4 3.5N 210.4 0.67 0.56 0.62 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.62 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.62 6 11S 207.8 0.60 0.60 0.62 0.58 0.58 062 060 0.56 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.58 8 60S 205.5 0.93 1.00 0.98 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.93 0.95 105 8S 20253) VOLTA ONT ON OsT Seen Ol 10569) | 0565.50.69 0571 5 0650 Gomen0.Gr7 11) 9218S) 2014s Ol73) ONT1) (OSTssONi Sie 0!62) (0:43) JOS6e ONTGi On1Ge Os (Gnu demos 13) 10!7)S) 19825) 0378) 0:80 0273) 0L67 10580) (0:78) O73) OrGh 0:78) OLS ONS Ons 15 11.9S 195.6 0.80 0.82 0.86 0.82 0.80 0.73 0.76 0.78 0.76 0.80 0.76 0.80 17 13.4S 192.0 0.93 1.06 1.00 0.95 1.04 0.98 0.98 1.00 0.98 1.02 0.98 0.98 125 ATMOSPHERIC CONDUCTIVITY RESULTS n a a & xs xt re! st p=] =] poste eX ic x s Os — ° + i} ' oD _ s ‘ N = NN Sal on N N oO LJ oO Ua N N 1 by 1 N © 3g g Scot eee ni 2 © = ao al co St — fee re] ae a - os ra sa aid ~-_ NN & = ‘a - o) = tN 3 ‘a3 menos aSSon ss : Ps os pot “Aono so NN 5 he aso Nay 1 i) pa at is is is (insta NA Cy DB oo omit tite wo ' OierS iio ' olan Ui ' 1 9mO A SH mHOO COOn o q 4H aN os) mMONGD O + ANN Ss fooler) tOoOnw rrenonnonntyrowownn ronmnnmwamnons os for] to DOHROOMWE-NNODYME Or NOODARDOOOLr = ines! ooor MANNA NNN NNT FHOCOCOCCOO on oO oo MOnROn RAR RH NONO oooooocdeo —_— a orn Aatsto . WOMDOOAMMIHMOOMHWMO WONANWMANW OOge -r-onm . WDmrHOMODDWOMOOHY TOMOMMAHO Ge mo fHOCOrR FAO NAAN AANAO COSCOSOSOS0CO CSOc0o 1000 FOn Onn AH HOOHr COSCOCCOOOn ce NtNOr-ORMO ANANNTMONMOMOOMMD NDONDODOW ONNSO aro OASAUMAHOMEMOOAHOD NOM OMMOIMiLO 1 OCOMNNOOMS NMWWMMWAWANDMOOM tr ADNOANNMM OD NO pw onl onl pel DANrFONMOUDUNOOOD APO OM- ROMS 1 AMINO LOOM N 5 ANONANIGNANS Ate oOowo DOM AMOR NOwOD :oOwd CONMONONNCOCOnS Wim OPO Orma | BMHOCCOCON : HARRAH HH HOHO CODCOD CCOO oooo -o0o HOH OKRA nn COCOCCCOCOSO 5 NaN Nt oO WOWMOODMOINNDDOM HO WHO Wl NWO 6YO OC LO LD Lolo oD OMMODWOMWOMNONWO UM OOM ANMO 1 mMN oOor-rn ANDRA NHANMNSTMIMAON DOMm-Or-ndoona NOnmM wow MOMNOOCOORNOOOCCO WOMMr Or-orr a = Eo} ooor Mn nnn RHR RR HHO oooocooc°ono Oonoo ooo MOK On RnR nn nnn oocooceo°coe —— for) Oo — (en oe] [ mal —_ _ hal AQ tm OnOr MOM HKHRMMOOWOAMARA HED LO LO NN MNO CO LO CO on AMWODOOMDNAOAMr-WMOWO ArmA MMOWOHOOW 5 1 DBHAN inaorn ANNOANWANTHOMNCON MOM DOME NMA BNre N oc SWDODODOHROOTRDAOS WWMM OOOKD = = Kool s-— 38 8 Eco | =| vom ~w THWOOM COMPNMNDODHMWOMHRBOOD ONWDOMOMDO OION .OQD ao WD-ODHMNOFRHAARDORM rtNOMM HMO u = fo) o & ms Botanrnndoan WODOHNDOONMNMO Het e DOANTANNRHO Zinr-non mw se O-—rMOA-ODOnMHDOOWOD MOOD AMMO g 1 NMAMNMODOMN MMANNOMPHOMMMO HOY ADAMWDONRDDOWMDrAA NONAMY oo: SDH RAANANHHOWO WOMODOOMMm AD oO oe BMHODCCCOR RN FANN RNR HOKR TH COCHOCOOCOHO Onocoo -ooO BORO OCCOnRRHOnRRO COCOCOCCCOCO ~ Q ie = NMADONDWOM WODONDONMMHNOMOr se rNODROMO RDO MOAN -Ore WOOMODErOWODOHEOON IO OWODO MOO ri x 1 NMAMODOOMN MNANNWTMOMMO SHANDY OA ODDARrHAAD NONND 100 : SDODDRADARAHOORO Wl OD FA 2 BMHOCCOCON NF FANN NNR HORT COOCHOOCOnO SHACOO 1900 FHOHOOCOCOKR AAA COODDCDCO0OO o = i OANDNOADM ANDOUOANANNTALE- YM HH MNM ANDO HC NE-oOogn wilo . OFrOMrnADOHRHRMOr- OO mODDnHOroOOow aol SH BMHOOCOCCOR TF HANNAN NN ANA HOR RT FROOCHOOCOHO SnAOCCO FOO +f FHOHOOHOKR RR HOnR DOCDCOCCOO a ia Sy DWAANNPTH IY OONPDORDDOMWM- AHH SHAUNDONANDC Nw oo elo] Ornr-rowndorouoanntst rANUNIADOOD = 1 MmIANMMOEOMA MANTANMOMMMOMANONNY ADOARMARWAAH Naren at oe SOHDAORORDHOCOCOHO WOOWOOMDOOM OM = & MHOC OCCOR RF AANA NAAR nnn FOO OOCOOCOO Onmooo -0o0 MOR OCOOCOHROKR AAA RAH COCOCCOOCO 5 us} 3 DAnNW AHH OO MANOA NOOMNDHONDE rORmRamoOnNoOwoD MWODRaowrNc OHORDr-DOOAANNMOD AANMIMONA Sl Mf AQAGHE AAA AAAANTAIMARARAD AOEARAAAH NOM AGCHOH ! AQADROSNGCOANG QOCAHOHE AS 3) ee mA OCOCOCOnsH So Bice oe Ecce Bhan on Bh ce Be Pe Poe ee Pe oe moOoCcooco°oco OnmOCoocoCo°o : MOR OCOOnR RnR RHO Re oooooeeoen| gat Le ir. ALY vey ea uty d eater et : 7 ote mie 1) lent aereenals soa ath wehed . : ST SIENA Gal dues: Mat 2 . F } i ee. EAT ee ret at Sv T ee sd tal Oe Ps fake teh 4 ‘ I a Da Gs bated et jie “04 Un oak On ett St. eit md we z i rh, a7 88 ‘6,.f Smt ~h nr 20) Gta a i ‘ i ; @.4 3.0 cz ie i . } af 7A. a7 ° 1) ‘ ‘ 2.6 é Ue 4 | . } ‘s ¢ f bd 1 ql ; . 7 , rf 6c SA. f is | nme i get OCR isk i i] st + _ ‘ eel arc ; ‘ ye? a | oe ' ia) 8/9168 ad.f 26.8 <4) 7TF st a ez} cl { i **et.f haa 9 4 al cys pd ' “~ ity ® je S.! tz { ii F* o£.6 @ | ' 07> 00.8 4 oe 06.9 5 ’ * { z 9 rh ] j é/ 6.) LI a 6 ‘ t 4 fay w 7.) a, : rf oO ' ‘9 8 hl re By aad or _ i BY) ao.k. 1955.0 195, ) 28 Obes ‘ od yt am bo Oe on O07 Oe ea oP Co Pee, of t\) 60.1 i¢ i ge 5) auf TO. et 0p ety, b eae Od Be. 0 Ve, be PO 1 POR 1, ert ap 4.0-O¥.o0. 9.97 86,092 na.fNs aaa et o.t at fs i) OF. tes ; a! 1 haa, a9 ; eerie. “a a0, (#,) | 64 Ob of ? Bt STO. be IN tae ' ‘as rs Taq. ™ try? 4 0, 5-9" Gib eG + Sr poten he: cub ae lyon) oer batRD ys bebe ates * £ i) 5 Rag ee. su "ga 40 e059 "agi oa! : Oo 486, 0- 55 ; eH TO rRs pe) ee Lee , I 'p ae A ee iat: eran 4 be ait ee tate yi . ar Mire. cy q rb Re iF, AM pO Oh in) SMUT S ee Heh 5 m™ Ta soe =~ IX. STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY CONTENTS Determination of Reduction Factors for the Conversion of Measured Volts to Potential-Gradient in Volts Per Meter for Cruise VII, Carnegie, 1928-1929 The Diurnal Variation of the Electric Potential of the Atmosphere Over the Ocean The Electrical Conductivity at Sea The Ratio of Positive to Negative Conductivity on Cruise VII and its Variation with Potential- Gradient The Computed Mobility of Small Ions in the Atmosphere Over the Oceans Interesting Aspects of the Air-Earth Current Density Over the Oceans as Derived from Atmospheric-Electric Data of Cruise VII of the Carnegie The Number of Condensation Nuclei Over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans Note on Penetrating Radiation Measurements of the Carnegie’s Seventh Cruise Figures 1 - 17 127 Page 129 135 137 141 143 145 153 157 161 que" vei tet - = | 7 - " yp TiQ(zTS4509 aie 5 wk ESIGUTS at ; e i: . Lew | : a Oe . » een nwo wi set quisciah 7 trap AS a a pe a rade Br pernrst— nes ail pine —os 16 oto lel nA wiOE8' ats ~ Be on MLD NG RAD SrRRATR : 1} Reg eee =) sO mvetomontth ott ab amok toon be et & ae othe” wil i foe han fy rer wy anaes >» , = : bd = 7 po) «fe Pee olinwliA eal r99O folguit pottes _ mat “cong Capa st to ateseanoRO geet a “4 wh Me - P=: IX. STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY DETERMINATION OF REDUCTION FACTORS FOR THE CONVERSION OF MEASURED VOLTS TO POTENTIAL-GRADIENT IN VOLTS PER METER FOR CRUISE VI, CARNEGIE, 1928-1929 In preceding sections of this volume values of po- tential-gradient have been tabulated in volts per meter, representative of conditions over an open, level expanse of the ocean. To convert measured volts, obtained with eye-reading and recording apparatus at the ship’s stern, to volts per meter, conversion or reduction factors were determined on five separate occasions while the ship was in port. On these occasions, measurements were made of potential-gradient directly in volts per meter at suitable shore stations while simultaneous measurements in terms of volts were made on the ship anchored as near the shore stations as possible. The procedure has been described on page 5. The five se- ries of reduction factor determinations were made at the following times and places. Series Location 1928 1 May 5 Kitts Point, Maryland, U.S.A. 2 July 25 Engey Island, Reykjavik, Iceland 3 Sep. 28-29 Bridgetown, Barbados, B.W.I. 4 Dec. 9-10 Easter Island 1929 5 April 10-13 Apia, Western Samoa Series 1 and 2 gave reduction factors for the stern eye-reading apparatus no. 2; series 2 to 5 gave factors for a recorder apparatus. For series 1, at Kitts Point, only the eye-reading apparatus was on the stern rail. On July 7, 1928, while at Hamburg, Germany, the re- corder was installed on the stern rail, adjacent to the eye-reading apparatus, and was equipped with a long, bent collector rod. Series 2 and 3 were made with this arrangement of apparatus. On November 5, 1928, after an especially stormy period at sea, the bent rod was discarded and a short, straight collector rod installed on the recorder, and series 4 and 5 were made with this final arrangement. Although it was recognized that the changes in ap- paratus would alter the reduction factors, examination of the five series showed discrepancies too great to be attributed to instrumental changes alone. Detailed ex- amination therefore was undertaken of the whole body of potential-gradient data, and the present paper deals with that examination. Table 1 is a summary of the reduction factors obtained at the different stations. In this table the letters MUBP, etc., have the meanings given in ear- lier sections of this volume. For the first series, made at Kitts Point, the eye- reading apparatus was mounted alone on the stern rail and was the same equipment as that used on previous cruises. The disposition of ship’s gear in the vicinity of the stern rail was the same as for previous cruises ex- cept for one item. The one change was the installation of a small lifeboat at the stern port corner of the quarter- deck, hung in davits which stood approximately three meters above the deck and which projected out over the water somewhat less than one meter. One davit stood very near the stern rail, and a slight increase in the reduction factors might have been expected from its presence as well as from the presence of the lifeboat. Seventeen 20-minute sets of measurements were made with eye-reading apparatus on the ship and on shore at the Kitts Point station on May 5, between 10h 30m and 19h 00m LMT. Recorder apparatus also was used at the shore station, connected in parallel with the eye-reading electrometer, and a satisfactory photographic record obtained over the period 11h 00m to 19h 00m. Comparison of the latter with the shore eye-reading measurements gave identical values of volts per meter, indicating that both measuring instruments were in good order. The first five of the seventeen sets of data were discarded because they differed so markedly from the remaining twelve. The large difference was attributed to the effect of wind conditions. There was only light wind during the earlier observations, and possibly the potential-gradient at the land station was different from that at the ship on that account. As the win1 came up Table 1. Summary of reduction factor results, Carnegie cruise VII Electrom- eter no. No.| Location Stern no. 2 Reduction factor values Recorder 1 U.S.A 28 25. °3.342° (3/218 SHR... SOB DR a ea ere, eee UR REAL ORT 2 A046%, 931424) | S12B amen... 40886 ecMacque Qmescoy- Le, ont dol eae p beereland 26igy 27s) aoe 2.15 2.647) V.vcivee ty Bok! (ee wee nee AOCCRE OG, ccieyy eS. Ghee 0:59! ult G50be wha 0.62 3. Barbados 4946 4947 (2.91) _..... (3505) Female ON67 eO66 nck OSG8y vies aise Asap Baste rie OL MA ON Ty ic. me A | OLR mites (Si0n) eh AT aie ner cinwGames AOAC aMOG (ek teisex) 4 vteseed ee: el. Careline apes ae SHAY why 28 ACAGIUAIO) Wi gis ox,.0.,1j atti Bae eee A 3.86 @Mean value for MUBP and MDBP is 3.28. The comparable factor for MUBP (and MUBS) for previous cruises is 2.85. he factor for MDBPC for previous cruises is 3.77. 129 130 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 2. Reduction factor observations for potential-gradient, Atlantic Ocean, Carnegie cruise VII Stern potential-gradient apparatus no. 2 Potential-gradient eye reading Ship’s stern Reduction factor for ship’s stern eye reading MUBP | MDBPC |} MDBP 1928 hm hm V/m Volts May 5 1805 1830 277.6 SStGe aessc sees 3.13 Eye electrometer no. 25 on 5s 18731 18 54 296.8 OSS st. «0 ot) WER 3.19 shore 5 UG) at 19 33 280.1 ON eRe css faseetd 3.02 Recorder 4946 on shore 5 19 34 1955 307.5 BONE tss0s5. oe p a cannes 3.51 Eye electrometer no 28 at 5 20 10 20 30 285.0 87.3 S520 sie ccadaBn | mlesoee stern in apparatus no. 2 5 20 31 20/55, 2513 73.4 KY ere ore FRCS 5 210% 21 30' 201:3 60.3 CERT ate 50k meee PSS a, Pal stl Pall aya) PALL) 63.2 9.34. = oie eee 5 22:06 22:30) ‘213:0 Bos meee ..:. 4:06" “OUR ER? 5) 22)31 2254 202.4 CW) Ey BSc A: OGIMER OR: 53 5 2306 2330 187.5 HO} 4 alte tons SM208 eb yess: Seecoval 2354 199.0 ZA cae PB Ae Wet teense Meansits 28. Svasnene eee cise ses as 3.34 3.96 3.21 Mean MUBP-MDBP = 3.28 Table 3. Reduction-factor observations for pote Potential-gradient apparatus GMT Date 1928 hm hm V/m Volts’ Volts July 25 1227 1255 139.2 60.7 .... ooo OF also 155.6 17.4 266 abe 40256 14755) 915829 60.2 256 74s) ih) (0) ley ee) ya 79.1 292 IMC ANISH eee stan cen Oe eens ein eee eS ship’s stern eye reading ntial-gradient, Atlantic Ocean, Carnegie cruise VII no. 2 and recorder 4946 at stern Reduction factor for ship’s stern recorder Reduction factor for oad08 2.29 s560e sng07 cee Sapee 09890 2.01 5a0ed shone 0.59 sees odoo0. =» dodo 2.64 S004 56006 0.62 Padi oocee e508 (ORY: Re iebcedens PE Gonas 2.17 2.15 2.64 0.59 0.59 0.62 Eye electrometer no. 26 on shore. Eye electrometer no. 28 at stern. Ship’s draft 11.5 ft. for’d, 13.85 ft. aft. Installed ship’s recorder at stern at Ship anchored one-half mile from shore station. and increased through later observations, the conditions at the two stations evidently became more alike. The twelve acceptable sets are shown in table 2, where the values of volts per meter for the shore station are those obtaine 1 with the eye-reading electrometer rather than the recorder. The recorder results will not be shown in tabular form as they merely repeat the results in table 2. For previous cruises of the Carnegie the reduction factor fo> MUBP or MUBS was 2.85 and for MDBPC, 3.77. In table 2 the comparable figures are 3.28 and 3.96, respectively, which are some 5 to 15 per cent larger. These increased values are accepted as reason- able. Series 2, made at Iceland with the recorder in- stalled on the stern rail near the eye-reading apparatus, gave results for the eye-reading apparatus which are low in comparison with those of series 1. They are al- most exactly two-thirds of the Kitts Point values for comparable sail positions. For the recorder the factors are approximately 0.6 for all sail positions, which ap- pears to be reasonable. The results for series 2 are shown in table 3. It is unlikely that the installation of the recorder on the stern rail produced the decrease in the factors for Hamburg, July 7, 1928, with bent-arm collector rod. the eye-reading apparatus. The bent collector rod, being at air potential, would not distort the field, and the recorder box was too small to introduce any consider- able distortion in view of the dominant position of the boom crutch and lifeboat. That the weather was respon- sible also seems unlikely. The weather was not partic- ularly favorable, and cloudiness increased throughout the five hours of observation until rain fell in the last hour, but if the weather had been responsible, the effect should have been the same on the stern recorder as on the eye-reading apparatus, and this was not the case. The possible existence of instrumental defects or diffi- culties was recognized; the eye-reading data were care- fully examined with this in mind, but nothing was found that would explain the low factors. It was noted, how- ever, that if the measured volts for both the recorder and the eye-reading apparatus were to be reduced in all cases by an amount of 20 to 25 volts, the factors for the eye-reading apparatus would be increased about 50 per cent to agree with those obtained at Kitts Point and for the recorder would be increased about 10 per cent to agree with those obtained later in series 3 at Barbados. Why both stern instruments would give values 20 to 25 volts too high is difficult to explain. In any case, the low STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY factors were not adopted for use because examination of later parallel observations with the eye-reading appara- tus and the recorder made while at sea between Reykja- vik and Barbados, taken in conjunction with the Barbados reduction factor results (series 3), has indicated that the factors for the eye-reading apparatus for sail positions MUBP and MUBS are nearer the Kitts Point value of 3.3 than the Reykjavik value of 2.2. The sets of parallel observations between the eye- reading and recording instruments on the stern rail, made after leaving Reykjavik, were obtained between August 10 and September 14, 1928. August 10 was the earliest available date because prior to that time fre- quent difficulties were encountered with the recorder. Recorder 4946 had been in constant use since leaving Hamburg on July 7 but on August 9 recorder 4947 was substituted for 4946, and it remained in operation until August 20. After that date, the two recorders were al- ternated at short intervals until August 30, and instru- mental adjustments were made on both recorders to secure the best possible photographic records. After August 30, recorder 4946 was permanently installed as the stern recorder. Twenty-four sets of data were ob- tained for sail position MUBP between August 10 and 131 September 14, and nine sets for MUBS, as shown in table 4, where the average value of the ratio of eye-reading to recorder measurements for MUBP is seen to be 0.23 and for MUBS to be 0.22. These ratios will be used later in connection with the results obtained in series 3 at Bar- bados. For series 3 only recording apparatus was emploved on shore and on the ship. The shore instrument was carefully housed for protection against the weather, and both ship and shore installations were allowed to operate continuously for thirty-eight hours on September 27, 28, and 29. From this extended period it has been possible to select the hours during which the most favorable con- ditions existed for the observations. Fogging of the shore record caused the loss of several hours of data, and bad weather caused the atmospheric potentials to vary greatly for a period of five hours. In addition, spi- der webs on the shore apparatus prevented successful operation of the instrument at various times. Altogether these difficulties accounted for twenty-two hours of un- usable record. The factors for the remaining sixteen hours show very good agreement among themselves. These are shown in table 5. Table 4. Simultaneous values of potential by stern no. 2 and recorder appartus, to determine ratio between them, Carnegie cruise VII Potential in volts Date GMT Ratio Eye Re- Eye Re- 1928 read- cord- read= cord- Aug 10 1836 1855 34 143 11 1807 18 26 34 182 12 12°53" “19/12 51 227 14 1739 1758 36 172 14 1905 1924 40 194 14 2016 2035 48 227 14 2117 2036 57 242 14 20,93), 522.42 54 224 14 2348 2357 49 199 17 1659 1718 se = 17 225i 230 - nei 18 546 605 ey aes 18 1136 1155 ie bri 19 1937 1956 be — 21 1943 2002 ae: dis, 22 1735 1754 Si — 23 1715 17 34 e the 27 1606 1625 33 143 Sep 1 1606 1625 Se sien 5 1742 1801 37 168 5 201g S220a70e" Wag 168 6 035 044 33 164 6 237 2:46 37 173 6 434 443 31 146 6 639 648 32 128 6 838 847 36 164 6 1041 1050 38 135 6 1240 1249 38 155 6 1601 1620 38 168 7 1636 1655 41 165 8 1621 16 40 39 143 9 1714 1733 42 162 11 1647 1706 5c Snide RES 12 1647 1706 31 115 14 1745 1804 - ots Mean ratios OF heer OP 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 122 198 158 155 148 106 106 142 135 132 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 5. Reduction factor observations for potential-gradient, Atlantic Ocean, Carnegie cruise VII Recorder 4946 at stern Reduction factor for ship’s stern recorder Remarks 1928 hm hm ~V/m_ Volts Sep 28 1100 1200 127 LOSMrmeteetee iSicvss 0:66: Recorder 4947 on shore 28 1300 1400 97 ESTAS ee tes O71) RR ey Meee Ship’s draft 12.3 ft. for’d, 28 1400 1500 102 205 OSSOM A 8.23. 97.205 Bae: 13.3 ft. aft ; 28 1500 1600 111 165 O-Gy) ARASH cisosdc. B18 aber Ship anchored approxi- 28 1600 1700 102 et} cagoe (OKT asco Sot mately one mile from 28 1700 1800 100 HS 0 Eee BET eceng “ace shore station 28 1800 1900 111 LGOR See sess OLGG) cei oe es aee's 28 1900 2000 108 1630 ee acts 0.66 Ree sees 28 2000 2100 114 NGG). oe weber 0:58" ee ee 28 2100 2200 119 ZOOM Tc caa MO Deer 0.60 28 2200 2300 85 NAA ee 8 ctl PER 0.59 29) 2500) 300 69 88 sono |_| | acano> | pdben 0.78 29 300 400 64 NO DM We wiivcceces wetlhe twists ngpeditioees 0.63 29 400 500 72 QOS tei sccseaa yh Lesee RAN agtcenise 0.73 2 900 1000 ra 110. en ae eccom = mt accec 0.74 29 1200 1300 152 184 0.83 tends eens? mr ecine Means ia wart ie eens 6 8). 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.68 Comparison of the Barbados results with those ob- tained at Iceland indicates that both sets of results are in general agreement, for individual values are found among the Barbados results which are identical with the Iceland values. The greater body of material for Bar- bados provides a better basis for establishing the mag- nitudes of the reduction factors than does the small amount of material obtained at Iceland. In applying the reduction factors obtained at Iceland and Barbados to the measurements tabulated in preced- ing sections of this volume, it was considered desirable to use a value to only one decimal, and therefore the factor was taken as 0.7. This was employed for conver- sion of all values of recorded volts obtained with the long, bent collector rod which was in use until November 5, 1928, but with which the last satisfactory records were obtained on October 11, 1928. The ship was at Balboa from October 12 to 25, but at sea from October 25 to November 5 bad weather prevented successful re- cording with that type of rod. Having the Barbados value of 0.67 for the mainsail boom to port or starboard with the mainsail either up or down, and having the data given in table 4 for the ratio of stern recorder to stern eye-reading measurements, namely, 0.23 for MUBP and 0.22 for MUBS, reduction factors for the eye-reading apparatus are readily ob- tained. Using the ratios 0.67/0.23 and 0.67/0.22, the factors become 2.91 and 3.05, or 3.0 as an average value taken to one decimal place. This agrees better with the Kitts Point factor of 3.3 than with the value of 2.2 ob- tained at Iceland, and on the basis of this result all po- tentials measured with the eye-reading apparatus (ta- bulated in tables 1 and 2), were converted to volts per meter with a reduction factor of 3.3 for either MUBP or MUBS, regardless of whether the measurements were made before or after installation of the recorder appa- ratus on the stern rail on July 7. For series 4 and 5 of the reduction factor observa- tions, made at Easter Island and Apia, Samoa, respec- tively, the instrumental conditions and arrangements on the ship were identical. Presumably, therefore, the fac- tors obtained should have been the same. Both series extended over many hours. No entirely satisfactory data were obtained at Easter Island, however, because of instrumental difficulties and bad weather. At Apia the conditions were much better. At Easter Island ship and shore recorders were operated for a period of fifty-four hours. Throughout the interval the sky was cloudy to overcast and for much of the time threatening, and drizzling rain or showers fell at several different times. On one occasion the supporting insulators for the stretched-wire system of the shore installation became wet with rain; on other occasions raincoats or pieces of canvas were placed over the insulators and recording was suspended. Alto- gether, twenty-seven hours of recording were made un- usable by bad weather. In addition to bad weather, spiders caused frequent trouble by spinning webs in the capof the shore electrom- eter and in the caps of the supporting insulators of the stretched-wire system. The spiders were numerous. Several hours of record were affected by the presence of spider webs. Instrumental difficulties, aggravated by the bad weather, caused additional loss of record. Fogging of the shore record during the daylight hours was a difficulty that had been thought to be eliminated, but was not. Other difficulties included failure of hourly zero marks, and un- satisfactory focus of the electrometer telescope. Of the fifty-four hours of recording, it was found that only three hours gave undisturbed, legible records at the ship and on shore, namely, 2 hours to 5 hours on December 10, GMT. Even during this interval, however, it is apparent that the shore recorder was only slowly recovering from poor insulation, and of the three hours only the last can be taken as indicative of the proper magnitude of the potential-gradient at the shore station. From this shore value and the simultaneous ship’s value, the reduction factor obtained is 3.0 for MUBS, which is in good agreement with the value of 3.2 obtained four months later at Apia, Samoa (series 5). STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY 133 Table 6. Reduction factor observations for potential-gradient, Pacific Ocean, Carnegie cruise VII Potential-gradient apparatus no. 2 and recorder 4946 at stern 1928 hm hm V/m_ Volts Dec 10’ 200 3 00 67 Al Beeps ta 10 300 4 00 78 Sachew ameee 10 400 5 00 79 26): sani 1EG3ie ee aenias Recorder 4947 on shore Popa) op emo Eye electrometer no. 28 at stern BOL e . Siteas, Ship’s draft 12.1 ft.for’d, 13.4 ft. aft. Ship anchored one-half mile from shore station. On November 5, 1928 the bent-arm collector rod was re- placed by a short vertical rod approximately 0.5 meter long. Table 7. Reduction factor observations for potential-gradient, Pacific Ocean, Carnegie cruise VII Recorder 4946 at stern 1929 hemi hyem April 1100 1200 Observations ..... 11 912,00 1300 lost at Apia, ..... 11 1300 1400 NOv-)192910) ieee Al p14 00.15 OO aus we) Vk De ees D1 15j00) AG00%s) » » eh Sas Apr 10 to 13, 50 hours comparison with Apia Observatory gave 2.87 Means 2.87 In addition to the measurements made with the re- corders at Easter Island, nine twenty-minute sets of measurements were made with the eye-reading appara- tus which was still located on the stern rail. This appa- ratus had not been in use since September 16, 1928, nearly three months earlier, but initially it appeared to be in good working condition. Examination of the nine sets of data, however, disclosed that the electrometer was very insensitive in its response to changes in air potentials. Furthermore, the calibration was found to differ greatly fromcalibrations made in September and earlier, indicating that the electrometer fibers may have become defective in the intervening months. This fact, coupled with the generally unfavorable behavior of the shore apparatus, made it necessary to regard the reduction factors obtained from these data as of no value. Series 5, made at Samoa, utilized measurements obtained with the potential-gradient apparatus of the Apia Magnetic Observatory. First, however, reduction-factor apparatus belonging to the ship was set up on a reef known as Watson’s Island, this reef being situated off- shore from Apia Observatory about three or four hun- dred meters and within the confines of the harbor. The Watson’s Island apparatus was operated simultaneously with the Apia Observatory apparatus and the ship’s re- corder for a period of five hours on April 11, and reduc- tion factors for both ship’s apparatus and observatory apparatus so were obtained. On the basis of the reduction factor thus obtained for Apia Observatory, more than Reduction factor for ship’s stern recorder IMUBP | MUBS 3.28 3.28 Remarks MDBPC | MDBS Beets oll Eye electrometer no. 26 on aes 3.18 Watson’s Reef : 3.03 Ship anchored one-half mile sie 3.05 from Watson’s Reef Boats 3.35 SEDO maidens 3.86 3.14 fifty hours of observatory recording was reduced to volts per meter over a period from April 10 to 13. During this time the ship’s recorder was also operating, and factors for the latter, under different sail positions, were determined from comparison of the ship and ob- servatory records. Unfortunately, these data were re- tained on the ship until the time of her destruction and the papers were then lost, so that only a summary of the results can be presented in table 7, together with the preliminary work of April 11. To augment the results obtained from the reduction factor observations in Apia harbor, the atmospheric po- tentials measured with the ship’s recorder over a period of several hours after leaving the harbor on April 20, were compared with simultaneous Apia land values after reducing the leiter to volts per meter. Table 8 contains thirteen hours of simultaneous measurements. Two po- sitions of the mainsail boom were involved, and reduc- tion factors for these two positions were obtained. It is noted in table 8 that the ship’s values for the first two hours were somewhat disturbed; this was true also for the third hour when, in addition to the disturbance, the change in sail position made the value questionable. Since the ship already was several miles away from Apia when these disturbed hours were recorded, it is probable that the effect of the disturbance was not the same at both places. The factors 2.64 for MUBP and 3.80 for MUBS, however, are in fair agreement with the values shown in table 7 for these positions, 2.87 and 3.28, re- spectively. 134 Table 8. Comparison of Apia land values (reduced to V/M) with Carnegie values for period immediately following departure from Apia 165th w MT Apia land Apr.20 14-15 109 119 31 ##MUBS_ 3.842 20 15-16 109 119 32 #MUBS_ 3.75a 20 16-17 98 107 (28) MUBP_ 3.82b 20 17-18 98 107 39 MUBP 2.74 20 18-19 109 119 40 MUBP 2.97 20 23-24 87 95 37 MUBP 2.57 i Osha 98 107 40 MUBP 2.68 Ml lo B 76 83 32 MUBP 2.60 Tl De § 87 95 36 MUBP 2.64 a 13. 4 87 95 36 MUBP 2.64 24 5 76 83 39 MUBP 2.13 21. 45= 6 87 95 39 MUBP 2.44 Ml BS 4 109 119 40 ##MUBP 2.98 MUBPE mean: 5m: cess <% Ba te cie eace eI oa 2.64¢ MUBS) mean af Als: tGee ee Cee os 3.800 aShip values somewhat disturbed. bomitted from mean; sail changed during hour. Standardization value of April 10 te 13, 1929 = 2.87 (MUBP). 4Stand- ardization value of April 10 to 13, 1929 = 3.28 (MUBS). OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS tained after July 28, 1929, were included because only one sign of conductivity was measured after that date. The results of the grouping are shown in table 10. Had the Iceland reduction factor for eye-reading ap- paratus no. 2 been used to obtain the potential-gradient values from which seven of the ten air-earth current values in the first group were computed, the average of the ten observations in that group would have been 6.9 rather than 9.0. The average of 6.9 would have given much less satisfactory agreement than the average ac- tually obtained. In connection with potential-gradient measurements on previous cruises of the Carnegie, study of reduction factor determinations indicated that the factors should be adjusted for differences in the ship’s draft at the dif- ferent ports, although such corrections in general would be small. In tables 3, 5, and 6 in this discussion, re- marks are made concerning the ship’s draft. Similar remarks should have accompanied tables 1 and 7, but they apparently never were transcribed from the ship’s log, and are not available now as the log was destroyed with the ship.. For lack of these data and because the series of reduction factor observations are few in num- ber, it has not been possible to investigate the effect of changes in draft of the ship on the reduction factors for cruise VII. In view of the comparatively limited number of re- duction factor determinations and of the several changes in potential-gradient apparatus during cruise VI, it is Table 9. Accepted reduction factors for potential-gradient measurements, Carnegie cruise VII Apparatus on stern rail Applicable period MUBP-MDBP MUBS-MDBS May 11 - Sep. 16, 1928 Eye-reading no. 2 Recorder (bent rod) Recorder (straight rod) July 7- Nov. 4, 1928 Nov. 5, 1928 - Nov. 18, 1929 From the preceding considerations, the reduction factors finally adopted and their periods of applicability were as given in table 9. That these factors may be accepted as substantially correct, may be seen from examination of the computed air-earth current values tabulated in Section V of the present volume. There is little reason for believing that the air-earth current density differs greatly from one part of the ocean to another in regions free from steam- ship routes and well away from large inhabited land masses. If, therefore, the air-earth current values in Section V are grouped in accordance with the three ar- rangements of apparatus shown in table 9, the average air-earth current values for the three groups might be expected to be similar. Such groupings were made, but the values for the period August 10 to 25, inclusive, were omitted as being obtained from a region not free from disturbing factors and, in addition, no values ob- Reduction factors MDBPC 3.3 3.3 4.0 0.7 0.7 2.9 3.2 3.9 believed that the factors given in table 9 are the most satisfactory that can be secured. Table 10. Comparison of average values of air-earth current density derived from potential-gradient measurements made with three different instrumental arrangements Average computed air-earth current Apparatus on Number of stern rail observations density in 10=7 esa Eye-reading no. 2 10 9.0 Recorder (bent rod) 32 8.8 Recorder (straight rod) 159 10.4 THE DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF THE ATMOSPHERE OVER THE OCEAN Successful continuous recording on the seventh cruise of the Carnegie (May 1, 1928 to November 18, 1929) of the electric potential of the atmosphere was be- gun August 7, 1928, after a three-month period of exper- imentation and adjustment at sea. In the early part of the latter period the recording apparatus had been mounted at the top of the mainmast. After a three-week trial of the instrument in that po- sition, it became apparent that the whipping of the mast- head would be aconstant source of lossof record because the motion was imparted to the fibers of the electrome- ter to such an extent that no photographic record of the fibers could be obtained even under the more favorable sea conditions. The instrument later was mounted on the roof of the atmospheric-electric laboratory for a short period, but this location was soon found to be so greatly shielded that diurnal variations did not appear. While at Hamburg, Germany, the apparatus was mounted on the stern rail of the ship, slightly to star- board of the center line. It was retained in this position throughout the remainder of the cruise (until November 18, 1929) without modification except in the shape and length of the rod supporting the four ionium discs of the collecting system. Between August 10 and November 5, 1928, a long rod, bent in a rough arc so as to project astern approximately one meter, was used. Between November 5, 1928, and November 29, 1929, a short ver- tical rod was used to support the collecting discs. Between July 8, 1928, the date of departure from Hamburg, and August 7, 1928, when the first of the suc- cessful records was obtained, the apparatus was under constant testing and adjustment. Control of the records was very effectively main- tained throughout the cruise. Tests of the adequacy of the insulation of the recorder were made regularly; usually twice each day, frequently several times a day when conditions demanded it, but always at least once each day. Calibration of the electrometer was done regularly once every week or ten days. Observations for the reduction of the observed potentials to volts per meter were made at five ports where conditionson shore were such as to provide a suitable location for the stand- ard comparison station. The results from the five ports did not agree quite so satisfactorily as had been hoped for, but it is believed that the subsequent adjustment of the data has given reduction factors of reasonable ac- curacy. Notes describing weather conditions were entered in the ship’s log by the sailing officers and were ab- stracted into a general description of each day for the entire cruise. These notes included direction and veloc- ity of the wind, condition of the sea, amount of cloud, the time of occurrence of distant lightning and thunder and their direction, and the beginning and ending time of rain squalls, showers, and thunderstorms in the vicinity of the ship. In addition to the weather notes, record was kept of the various changes in the position of the mainsail and the beginning and ending times of the periods of opera- tion of the auxiliary engine used in calm or nearly calm weather for propulsion. It was necessary to note the mainsail positions because the mainsail boom projected out into the region where the potentials were being meas- ured and changes in the boom position affected the re- corded values quite considerably. It was necessary to record the periods of operation of the engine because the exhaust was located directly below the potential record- er and the charge of the exhaust gas generally affected the records. Notes of instrumental difficulties show that practi- cally all the trouble with apparatus was owing either to breaking down of insulation by rain or sea spray, or to loosening or wearing of parts of the apparatus due to the motion of the ship. Between August 7, 1928, and November 18, 1929, the ship was on the open sea 317 days. On 181 days complete twenty-four-hour records of potential-gradient were ob- tained, a few of these days being completed by interpo- lation over periods of one or two hours. On 86 addition- al days several hours of record were obtained each day. Of the 50 days at sea when no record was obtained, in- strumental defects were responsible for the loss of 46, and running of the main engine for the remaining 4 days. Of the 267 days when record was obtained, 128 were af- fected by bad weather, and on 59 of these days some negative potential-gradient was recorded. Table 1 shows the distribution by months of the number of days at sea, the days of complete or partial recording, and the days when various disturbing factors existed which reduced to 82 the days acceptable as typical of fair-weather condi- tions over the oceans. The 82 days in the last column of table 1 represent critical choosing of data for the study of diurnal varia- tion of the electric potential under least disturbed con- ditions. These days were selected, however, without giving consideration to the type or amount of clouds or of the conditions of temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or atmospheric pollution. Undoubtedly some of these factors did affect the values of the recorded po- tentials on some of the selected days. The 82 selected days have been grouped into three- month periods and mean diurnal-variation curves pre- pared for each group as shown in figure 1. Comparable curves for 47 days of potential-gradient results from cruises IV, V, and VI are shown also. The curves for cruise VII are in very satisfactory agreement with those for previous cruises, and support the conclusion drawn from the earlier data that the atmospheric potential, when freed from local disturbing effects, varies in the same way and at the same time over the whole earth. It will be noted that the 82 selected days of cruise VI exceed by 74 per cent the combined number of days from cruises IV, V, and VI. The data of cruise VI represent observations over the north and central At- lantic and the northcentral, southeastern, and southwest- ern Pacific oceans, whereas the data of the previous cruises were obtained from even more widely distributed areas; so the results may be accepted as representative of world-wide conditions. Table 2 shows the results of harmonic analysis of the diurnal variation of the potential-gradient as previ- ously reported for cruises IV, V, and VI, and as deter- mined from the observations obtained on cruise VII. It will be noted from the last column of table 2 that the 135 136 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 1. Summary of atmospheric-electric potential-gradient records obtained on cruise VII of the Carnegie and of factors affecting the potential-gradient Days Complete a artial Bad Negative | Instrumental | Engine at THOU 4-hour | weather | potential defects running sea record record Accepted fair-weather days Month 1928 Aug 25 9 11 11 4 10 5 6 Sep 17 9 " 7 6 4 0 9 Oct 17 1 7 6 6 9 2 1 Nov 30 19 6 10 6 9 ) 12 Dec 24 17 4 6 4 7 0 9 1929 Jan 14 10 2 2 0 3 0 8 Feb 23 18 2 4 0 4 0 12 Mar 24 8 5 4 1 12 11 5 Apr 11 3 6 7 6 5 6 1 May 26 19 7 17 7 1 2 7 June 12 7 4 3 1 3 9 0 July 27 22 5 24 6 2 0 0 Aug 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sep 20 10 4 43 0 8 8 1 Oct 29 15 12 20 8 12 11 6 Nov 18 14 4 4 4 0 10 5 Totals 3172 181b 86c 128 59 89 64 82 4On 46 days at sea no record was obtained because of instrumental defects and on 4 additional days no record was obtained because the main engine was running. bNegative potential occurred on 21 complete days. Parts of 43 days at seawere lost because of instrumental defects, of 9 others because the engine was running, of 27 days more because of bad weather, and of 7 days because of the ship’s arrival or de- parture from various ports. Table 2. Summary of Fourier analyses of diurnal variation of the atmospheric potential-gradient (P) from Carnegie observations during 1915-212 (cruises IV, V, and VI) and during 1928-29 (cruise VII) Phase - | Phase-angles _| Amplitudes aioe eS ca Re a a ea, 1915-21 V/m V/m Lae V/m PET v/m PEF v/m Per h cent cent cent cent Cruises IV,V,VI Feb-Apr 132 205 313 235 8 20.6 16 58 4 ies al 2.3 2 0.28 16.3 May-Jul 102 159 214 104 193 101 10 68 7 3.3 3 Onan 0.67 19.4 Aug-Oct 113 173 209 302 28 196 17 6.7 6 (he al UST 7 0.34 18.5 Nov-Jan 120 195 256 226 330 19.5 16 26 2 3.4 3 ly ek OLS eel7.0 Year 116 186 237 202 165 Ae 154.0) ees QlO et OO a 0.23 17.6 1928-29 VII Feb-Apr 139 197 267 180 331 21.5 16 3.7 3 2.3 2 ey a4 0°17. 16:9 May-Jul> 117 158 214 133 322 19.8 17 5.2 4 3.8 3 OG anol 0.26 19.5 Aug-Oct 119 180 205 205 325 13.5 11 4 2.8 2 Ley al 0.52 18.0 Nov-Jan 140 198 256 216 4 25.8 18 86 6 io ah ey a 0.33 «16.8 Year 132 192 240 195 344 20.3 15 6.3 5 2.3 2 1G 0.31 = 17.2 ®These are finally revised values, correcting values published in Volume V of the Researches of the Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism (p. 397). btThere were no records obtained at sea during June or July 1928 and no quiet days in June and July 1929. times of maximum of the twenty-four-hour wave com- | cruisesand the possibility of obtaining continuous series pare excellently for the two sets of data. Very good instead of isolated sets of observations greatly enhanced agreement may be noted also for practically all the the value of the work. It is to be hoped that oceanographic other items in the two groups. or other scientific expeditions planned for the future may By the utilization of recording apparatus, potential- | include recording potential-gradient apparatus similar to gradient measurements on cruise VII of the Carnegie that employed on the Carnegie. were increased several fold in comparison with previous THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AT SEA Information regarding the distribution and variation of conductivity at sea has been derived chiefly from ob- servations made on board the Carnegie (1). The data thus obtained show no definite evidence of a simple de- pendence of conductivity on position, but near land the values are more variable than at sea both with position and time, and apparently tend to be somewhat smaller than well out over the open sea. The data seem to justi- fy the conclusion that there is no dependence on latitude amounting to more than a few per cent. This result is consistent with the assumption (a) that the cosmic radia- tion is the sole ionizer at sea and (b) that the content of condensation nuclei in the atmosphere is independent of latitude. Calculations which involve these assumptions show that although the cosmic radiation is less at the magnetic equator than in higher magnetic latitudes--the difference amounting to about 13 per cent in the eastern Pacific and about 21 per cent in the Indian Ocean--yet when the difference in temperature is taken into account, the average conductivity in low latitudes should not dif- fer from that in high latitudes by more than a few per cent. Such considerations lead one to expect that the conductivity of air over the open oceans Should vary only when the concentration of nuclei varies. Observations of nuclei are not yet adequate to disclose a definite depend- ence on position or to test this surmise in other ways. Variations in total conductivity from year to year apparently are indicated by the data in table 1. Variations from year to year in conductivity of air over open oceans Table 1. Carnegie cruise number Value prockryen: lainey i [eer Mean epoch 1916.2 1920.8 1929.1 Mean of total conductivity (in 10-4 esu) 2k2 207 2.0 This feature merits further investigation. It implies that over a great part of the earth either the rate of ion- formation was less or the content of nuclei was greater during the first and last epochs than during the interme- diate one. Either alternative presents a challenge to the investigator. An annual variation in the conductivity over the oceans has escaped detection since scarcely any data are available for winter, the season of rough weather at sea. Variations from day to day occur in an irregular se- quence. In the course of a few days or weeks the highest mean value for a day will be found to be severalfold as great as the lowest mean value. This is shown in figure 2, where daily mean values of conductivity are shown for sixty-five days in the period September 3 to November 18, 1929. The daily mean values were obtained from continuous registrations of conductivity in the central Pacific Ocean during the last months of cruise VI. Reg- istrations of positive and negative conductivity were made on alternate days, resulting in thirty complete days of record of positive conductivity, twenty-eight complete days of negative, and seven days of partial record. In figure 2 the two graphs have been drawn on the basis that the negative conductivity is approximately 15 to 25 per cent lower than the positive, and means for alternately missing values of each sign of conductivity have been interpolated accordingly. For the days of partial rec- ord, mean daily values have been placed in parentheses in figure 2. Bad weather was responsible for large variations in the conductivity on a number of days between September 3 and November 18, 1929. The days most affected were October 10 and 11, October 24 to November 2, inclusive, and November 15 and 16, as may be seen from inspection of the tabulated conductivity data on pages 124 and 125. Most of the bad weather occurred in the late morning or in the afternoon, local time, and as the ship’s position varied in longitude only between 235° east and 190° east during the three months, the effect when viewing the data on the basis of Greenwich rather than local time is to place abnormally low values of conductivity in the hours just preceding and following 24h GMT. Thirteen days affected by bad weather accordingly were omitted from studies of the diurnal variation in conductivity, as well as two additional days on which large changes were noted, leaving forty-three complete days. A diurnal variation in both positive and negative con- ductivity of small amplitude--about 4 or 5 per cent of the mean--is indicated by the data for the forty-three days selected as least disturbed. The character of the diurnal variation of both positive and negative conductivity may be described with the aid of figures 3 and 4. The ordi- nates there represent conductivity for the three months of September, October, and November and, in the lower- most graph, for all three months. The abscissas repre- sent the hours of the day counted from Greenwich mid- night on the bottom scale and, since the registrations were obtained in the relatively narrow range of 45 de- grees of longitude, on the top scale they are made ap- proximately to represent the hours of the local day by shifting the scale ten hours to the right so that local midnight comes at 10h Greenwich time. For figure 3, twenty-three days of record of positive conductivity were available and for figure 4 twenty days of record of nega- tive. It will be noted that the diurnal variation of positive conductivity proceeds in a manner opposite to that of the negative, although the two are not exactly in opposite phase, the minimum in negative conductivity occurring later than the maximum in the positive. Viewed on the basis of local time, the positive conductivity may be described as varying gradually during the day from a minimum in the afternoon to a maximum in the morning. This variation appears not only in the average for all three months, but is prominently shown in each of the monthly graphs. Hence a diurnal variation of this type appears to be characteristic of positive conductivity over considerable areas of the ocean. For the negative con- ductivity, the graph for all three months shows a mini- mum in the morning hours, on the basis of local time, and a maximum just after local noon. The separate graphs for October and November show considerable similarity, but the September graph is irregular, and 137 138 shows only a slight tendency to conform. One must recognize, however, that the five days making up the September group are widely scattered over a period when very large changes in conductivity occurred. The diurnal variation of negative conductivity may, perhaps, be better viewed on Greenwich time, since the character of variation is such as to suggest a relation with the variation in potential-gradient. For investigation of this point, data were assembled for the preparation of the graphs shown in figure 5. For figure 5, the registrations of conductivity were examined in relation to registrations of potential gradi- ent, the selection of days being based on the availability of undisturbed days on which both elements were satis- factorily recorded, and, equally important, on the avail- ability of groups of successive days of data for which alternate registration of positive and negative conductiv- ity indicated a homogeneity of conditions. Data for the period October 5 to November 12 were selected and in- cluded twenty-one days of potential-gradient, thirteen days of positive conductivity and twelve days of negative. Fewer days of potential-gradient than of conductivity data were available because no registrations of this element were obtained on October 12, 17, 18, 22, and November 4, whereas on one day, November 11, potential-gradient but no conductivity data were available. The homogene- ity of the material, however, made it appear desirable to include these days and thus increase the amount of data. No September data were used because much loss of record occurred in that month and the available com- plete days were scattered and covered an unusually large range of values. The graphs in figure 5, reading from top to bottom, represent (a) positive conductivity, (b) negative conduc- tivity, (c) total conductivity, (d) the ratio of positive to negative conductivity, and (e) the potential-gradient. The diurnal variations in positive and negative conductivity show no important departures from the graphs already given in figures 3 and 4. The range from maximum to minimum in positive conductivity is 9 per cent and in negative conductivity 12 per cent. The difference in time between the maximum in positive conductivity and the minimum in negative causes the total conductivity to be low during the period from 18h to 22h GMT, but otherwise the total conductivity is essentially constant. The ratio of the two conductivities, on the other hand, undergoes a considerable variation and the character of that variation is very similar to the variation in potential- gradient, having its maximum at 18h to 19h GMT, with gradual rise to the maximum and abrupt falling off there- after. Similar agreement will be found in cruise VI data which will be examined later. The negative conductivity varies in a manner opposite to that of the potential-gra- dient, suggesting that even a small diurnal change in field in fair weather may produce an appreciable ‘‘elec- trode effect,’’ causing the negative small-ion content of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface (and therefore the negative conductivity) to diminish as the potential- gradient increases. Since the variation in potential-gra- dient proceeds according to universal time (Greenwich time), as discussed in the preceding paper, rather than local time, this would imply that the variation in nega- tive conductivity should do likewise. Whether the diurnal variation in either or both con- ductivities proceeds according to local or to universal time cannot be decided from the three months of record- eddata, because of the restricted distribution in longitude. OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Therefore, comparisons with data obtained by manual observations earlier on cruise VII and data obtained in 1921 on cruise VI are of some interest. Diurnal varia- tion data were obtained by manual observations on cruise VII for complete twenty-four hour periods on twenty-three days between July 29, 1928 and July 28, 1929. Measurements of positive conductivity were made on seventeen of these days and of negative on six days, as shown in the table on pages 103 to 112. Of the seven- teen days of positive conductivity, three were obtained in the north central Atlantic Ocean at approximately 320° east longitude, eight in the southeastern Pacific Ocean between 237° and 280° east, one in the north central Pa- cific near 220° east, and five in the northwestern Pacific between 144° and 185° east. Only the eight-day group (reduced to seven days by discarding one disturbed day) offers enough material for accomparison with the graph for positive conductivity in figure 3. The comparison is made in figure 6 where the agreement perhaps is some- what better on a Greenwich time basis than on a local time basis. Thus, for cruise VI, two groups of data separated about 50 degrees in longitude, the measure- ments in one obtained manually and in the other by reg- istration, give comparable results for the character of the diurnal variation in positive conductivity. The graphs in figure 6 are based on a very considerable part of the total days of data for positive conductivity obtained on cruise VII; forty-seven days of data were obtained of which seven were disturbed by bad weather. Of the re- maining forty days, thirty --75 per cent--were used in figure 6. There is, therefore, a great preponderance of cruise VII data favoring a diurnal variation in positive conductivity of the character shown in figure 6. Turning to examination of positive conductivity measurements made on cruise VI, the diurnal variation is found to be quite different. This feature is not, how- ever, the only one in the earlier work which merits some discussion. Between April 9 and August 31, 1921, on cruise VI, manual measurements were made of both positive and negative conductivity (and simultaneously of potential-gradient) for complete twenty-four-hour periods on ten days in the central Pacific Ocean in the same lon- gitude range, 188° to 235° east, as that in which the data in figure 5 were obtained. On each of the ten days the measurement of positive conductivity was alternated from hour to hour with measurement of negative conduc- tivity, thus giving twelve measurements through each day of each sign of conductivity. One day, July 29 to 30, was disturbed by bad weather, leaving nine days of data from which to prepare the graphs in figure 7. In this figure, the sequence of graphs from top to bottom is the same as in figure 5. The character of the diurnal variation of positive conductivity in figure 7 shows no similarity to that in figure 5. Instead, it is very much like the variation in negative conductivity for cruise VI, and the total conduc- tivity for the cruise consequently shows a similar varia- tion. The completely different character of diurnal vari- ation in positive conductivity for cruises VI and VII would seem to indicate that purely local factors were operating on one or both of these two occasions eight years apart, to give the results obtained. Careful examination of the results from both cruises has revealed no reason for questioning the validity of either group of material, and the question as to what brought about the quite different diurnal variation characteristics must remain unanswered for the present. The negative conductivity exhibits some STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY similarity on the two cruises, since it shows a gradual downward trend from Greenwich midnight until 16h for cruise VI, and to 18h for cruise VI. The “‘hump’’ seen in figure 7 between 16h and 20h GMT, not only on the graph for negative conductivity but also on the graphs for positive and total conductivity, is the result of ‘‘non- cyclic change.’”’ For nearly all the nine series of ob- servations, begun between 16h and 20hGMT and finished twenty-four hours later, the magnitude of the conductivity value differed appreciably at the beginning and endof the observing period, thus causing a discontinuity evidenced by the hump. Had the data been obtained on nine succes- sive days instead of on nine days scattered over aperiod of several months, the discontinuity probably would not have appeared. With the discontinuity contributing to the form of the graph for negative conductivity in figure 7, the inverse relation between this conductivity and the potential-gradient is not so closely adhered to here as was the case in figure 5 and the suggestion of an elec- trode effect not as well supported. The field changes, however, and the average value of the gradient both are much smaller for cruise VI than for cruise VII and so for the former cruise the electrode effect would be ex- pected to be less. Turning to the graph for the ratio of positive to negative conductivity in figure 7, the general character of the variation consists of a gradual increase in the ratio through the Greenwich day-up to 20h, with a rapid decrease thereafter, much like the variation in potential- gradient. In both figures 5 and 7, therefore, the graphs for the ratio of the two conductivities seem to be in gen- eral agreement as to trend through the Greenwich day, with the maximum values of the ratio at the times of highest potential-gradient. The results for both cruises thus agree in supporting the idea that the electrode ef- fect is present, even though local or transitory factors are operating to obscure the effect as far as the separate diurnal variations of the positive and negative conductiv- ities are concerned. From figures 5 and 7 the mean values for positive and negative conductivity and for potential gradient may be taken and the value of earth-current density computed. The results are shown in table 2. Table 2. Computed air-earth current density for the central Pacific Ocean from measurements on cruise VI and cruise VU, 1921 and 1929 Potential- Conductivity alia See oar Positive | Negative ate = 10-4 esu | 10-4 esu ioetecn VI 94 vil 149 Although the method here used of computing the air- earth current density from mean values of large groups of data does not provide an accurate value of that quan- tity, it suffices nevertheless to show that the two groups 139 of data support the view that in fair weather the air-earth current density has an essentially constant average value approximating 10 x 10-7 esu. The concordant results engender confidence in the reliability of the techniques of measurement and the instrumental constants, for two periods several years apart. In particular, the reduction factors used in converting volts measured with the po- tential-gradient apparatus to volts per meter appear to have been satisfactorily determined. To account for the lower conductivity and higher potential-gradient values in the central Pacific Ocean for cruise VI as compared with the values for cruise VI, one may surmise that the condensation nuclei were more numerous in that region on cruise VII than they were on cruise VI. Evidence to support this conclusion is lack- ing, however, since nuclei measurements were not made until cruise VII. The nuclei results for cruise VII (see pages 65 to 112) showed large concentrations of nuclei in the western Pacific Ocean, probably produced by vol- canic activity in the islands of that region. Possibly volcanic activity in the years between 1921 and 1929 may have caused a higher level of nuclei content over the ocean in 1929 than existed in 1921. The nuclei content of the atmosphere over the oceans generally is much less than that over land or near land, because in the vicinity of land or over land smoke parti- cles and other condensation nuclei are much more nu- merous. The “‘land effect,’’ so called, is strikingly illustrated by conductivity records obtained when ap- proaching land and while in harbor. Sample records are reproduced in figure 8. The upper record was obtained when the Carnegie was approaching the Hawaiian Islands and for the first eighteen hours is typical of an undis- turbed day at sea. Baseline spots may be seen at hourly intervals on the record, and a set of calibration spots is shown between 5h and 6h. At 18h the ship had just reached the leeward side of Oahu Island, and the conduc- tivity thereafter shows large fluctuations and a general trend to lower value. Inthe middle record, with the ship in Honolulu harbor, the value of conductivity is, on the average, only about one-third or one-fourth as great as it was at sea just before arriving, and very large fluctuations are constantly taking place. These two rec- ords, obtained on successive days, show the striking change from sea to land conditions. The lower record in figure 8 shows the effect of bad weather. After 8h, 11h, and 21h, the positive conductiv- ity is decreased almost to zero, remaining so for twenty to thirty minutes or more. Such decreases in the posi- tive conductivity have been shown by other observations to be associated with very large negative values of po- tential-gradient, with the negative conductivity in the meantime remaining unaffected. With large positive values of potential-gradient, on the other hand, the nega- tive conductivity is much decreased and the positive conductivity shows no effect. Records obtained at sea which were disturbed in the manner illustrated, were omitted from the investigation into the character of di- urnal variation of conductivity. LITERATURE CITED 1. Mauchly, S. J. 1926. Studies in atmospheric electricity based on observations made on the Carnegie, 1915- 1921. Researches of the Dept. Terr. Mag., Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 175, vol. 5, pp. 385-424. N iw perry} nae vir tho ; RewS % é ' SwIi5 ers aoe OD vieip Oa RPeR br Seay , oe piALS of ogevgl CET. : fe (Pag wee heal {<2 qe al bites y ‘ , : jo Se | -“ E r e cepoil nh eae hd fane GT ane ‘ } hwhgm aft ¥ f\ signs ete e+ i . ” " i” on, ae Ke ! ef yt in esberet tiewed a | ) a wie vw" 6 catheliiieeiy fees tu n pre 4 a o*) ‘got i parva) 14 (trae efit", fi rs? P “ apes Gel et ‘ bei | a Dod att coryats | = 4 ae Sees F a >. endear hnerpatcg WOTLe (Mee fi if teal “ é ve oe don (gabe & wigeitw inp ps heal ayo ures ine 5) ge tii ee ough de ae r@ ‘ ~ 1 ate iio peat 4fol ed tea : oe 8 a rn a Te oa eee | lye eel is Shira a " re sili ena ere > nthe ase * MLAs was * $400) aes (et aes 4 iors alte We gh pad avr wr . ¢ 60, = ad yt bn ny eg iyi ag = oor) 7) « ’ * (ve ‘ iy = ? vs vidtads ¥PiTan Pars en he aor «! 5 wel’ (aes. 8 ee Fue tp? e * sonhieuse f 6 eo “here @ovetg hear ccm TT bee ‘ Lak Ww att ace Lenin ae 2 titi , wer 6 fot Cae ‘ vA y waka ~~ on hp ie 7 ' ai* é - singel ial fae TU S647). wel A Ey. lequres Woh aie : net ata 1 ne we evbesihr dan Se bthsay ey de ee ae* £eay - osm a 7° SFP tems * ( ~ @e@hah wv 1102 J i indte pas thd hye peas : - wipo4 dam. 4 al ne eae « i ’ igrrrg, Gis! ‘erst tw -< «ae Pe , en 8 Sere OT ya eo" te@hjri eet gone eeiinriparesn« ao... eee ee 3 ‘ s uh ti toler aia 7 Gere ( Veter senda hs Pyt rr. by oeilifyjyca™ ve eri 4 WAN Wil > ree, Shee us Teh et) are a pen rQetle idha.0 . bso enperwis Qe Big! # Heke qe ) Os SL “ 7 4 rene sl “Ys ; ae i Ope rt PPh 2 wt & ge 2th bow: Sedat i ey Layee pe jot é 4 (ute sale errr ine A Y, P PS a a el ’ diag Min FA OMe l ty seen as ot Vp Lt nee : ® wu La ay p-nosy Cay tir ¢ A ee -— ¢ sri » > ahd i 1 “ ‘ T ke f ‘e 4 4 wit : ; - +a 1) ‘ates i ' dived wae aa “ : é as Sai (ick Avie He rie wets a ~ , : : " ® p> = — a ~— AAMBIMRDBAIMID}DDOs-wWw ' NACOWIO-10r OO %& bLow values throughout day. Except one low value of STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY interest. These are found on November 21 to 22, 1928, and May 17 to 18, 1929, and the value in each case is 6.2 x 10-7 esu. In these two cases the values of conductiv- ity are typical of those obtained under least-disturbed conditions, but the potential-gradient values are lower than average. Now, storm clouds of proper polarity at appropriate distances might be thought of as causing the low potential-gradients on these occasions, but the ab- stract of the log in section IV does not indicate that such clouds were present. Another explanation for the low values of potential-gradient may be found in the change in this element with latitude. Gish (4) found a conspicu- ous change with latitude in his study of the potential-gra- dient data from the earlier cruises of the Carnegie. Al- though he did not find a comparable change in air-earth current density with latitude from the data for earlier cruises, the data of the present cruise, which show that under least-disturbed conditions the conductivity is es- sentially constant, require that the current density change with latitude in accordance with the change in potential-gradient for different latitudes. When the current-density values in table 2 are plot- ted against latitude, an increase with latitude is indicat- ed, but the two low values under discussion still appear low for the latitudes at which they were obtained (11° south and 16° north). There remain two ways of account- ing for the low values of current density on these occa- sions. Either an unusually low value of the total potential E may have existed between the earth and the upper con- ducting region, or there may have been an unusually high value of columnar resistance R. Since, however, the conductivity appeared undisturbed, the value of R proba- bly was not unusually high, and in that case the low po- tential-gradient and low current density on these occa- sions was caused by a low value of E. That the value of E might on one day be low and the next day high, say half again as great or even more, does not appear unreason- able. From the preceding discussion it may be seen that the air-earth current density may have high or low val- ues through the day or from day to day from various causes. As one cause, some disturbing element may en- ter the lower layer of the atmosphere as evidenced by smoke, dust, fog, mist, or haze, to lower the current density to a smaller value than would prevail if this ele- ment were absent. As a second cause, observing in mid- dle or low latitudes would yield smaller values of current density than would measurements in high latitudes. Asa third cause, the total potential E might vary from one occasion to another to produce higher or lower values from one time to the next. In the discussion to follow, account will be taken of these various causes in a study of disturbed periods encountered during cruise VII. The disturbed periods will be compared with so-called least- disturbed periods, and for the latter periods it will be assumed that the columnar resistance is constant and has the value given by Gish. Departures from this value in periods of disturbance will be evidenced by unusually low values of conductivity, the degree of ‘‘lowness”’ being indicated by comparison with a value derived from measurements of this element obtained under least-dis- turbed conditions and accepted as essentially constant. There will also prevail, in the disturbed periods, low values of current density, and the degree of “‘lowness”’ inthis element will be indicated by comparison with a val- ue representing least-disturbed conditions after giving prop- er weight to the effect of latitude and of variations in E. 147 The first of the three disturbed periods encountered on cruise VII to be considered will be that of June 2 to July 21, 1929. Throughout the thirty-three days at sea during this period the atmosphere was hazy, foggy, or misty, or a fine drizzling rain was falling, as recorded in the abstract of the log in section IV. The periods June 2 to June 7, before arriving at Yokohama, and June 26 to July 2, just after leaving that port, were character- ized by haze. The period June 2 to 7 was also marked by two typhoons, the first reaching the vicinity of the Car- negie on June 2 and the second on June 6. That the haze encountered before arriving and after leaving Yokohama is typical of the typhoon season is probable. Captain Ault recorded these meteorological conditions in_his progress reports of the cruise (3), and continued with very revealing descriptions of the conditions prevailing for the balance of July. Briefly, on July 3 or 4, the region of cold surface water was entered, with practically one hundred per cent of mist, fog, or drizzle thereafter until July 21. The fog or mist was “‘thick’’ on most days. On July 14 the winds changed from easterly and southerly to southwesterly, and freshened, driving the ship anaverage of two hundred miles per day for the next several days in contrast with an average of one hundred miles per day for the preceding interval. Thus, there are three periods having different meteorological conditions, these being June 2 to July 2, July 3 to 13, and July 14 to 21. Daily values of the atmospheric-electric elements for the three periods are tabulated in table 3. The sum of the two conductivities, + + A-, is given for eachday, together with the simultaneous value of potential-gradient, G, and the computed value of air-earth current density, i. For each of these sets of data the geographical posi- tion is given and the mean time of observations in Green- wich time. The subscript u is used with the designation for each atmospheric-electric element, to indicate what may be called ‘‘unusual’’ or disturbed conditions. Use will presently be made of this subscript. In the last col- umn of the table are given values of in, the subscript n designating normal or undisturbed conditions, the signifi- cance of which will be brought out in later discussion. Examination of table 3 reveals that the data for June 2 to July 2 were obtained in the 30° to 40° north latitude belt, those for July 3 to 13 in the 40° to 47° belt, and those for July 14 to 21 between 48° and 53° north. These groups are designated 3a, 3b, and 3c, respectively, for purposes of discussion. For group 3a the mean value of air-earth current density is only 7.4 x 10-7 esu, for group 3b, 9.1 and group 3c, 12.9 x 10-7 esu. When one compares these values with those obtained for April and May, 1929, taking account of the increasingly higher lati- tudes in going from April to July, as in figure 15, one finds that, had fog, mist, or haze not been present in June and July, the value for group 3a might have been expected to be about 11.8 x 10-/ esu, for group 3b, about 12.7 x 10-7 esu, and for group 3c about 13.3 x 10-7esu. That the curve in figure 15, drawn through the points repre- senting the April to July data, should have the slope shown, appears to be supported by the curve for the September to November data, which has been placed in figure 15 for comparison. The thirty-five sets of observations com- posing the September to November data were obtained at approximately Greenwich midnight, whereas the fifty- two sets of April to July data were obtained between 1.5h and 4.5h, Greenwich time. Evidently the universal diur- nal-variation characteristic and the seasonal variation combined to make the September to November values of 148 OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Table 3. Valuesof atmospheric-electric elements during fog, mist, and haze, June 2-July 21, 1929; derived fair-weather current-density values based on assumed heights of regions containing the fog, mist, or haze Gy i, in V/m 10-7 esu Latitude north Longitude rAT + Na east in 10-4 esu Group (a) 1 = 1.0 km) June 2 4.5 30.3 144 186 1.42 8.8 10.6 3 5.0 31.3 144 282 0.60 5.6 ial sr 4 5.0 32.8 142 339 0.57 6.4 13.8 4) 4.8 34.1 141 144 1.20 5.8 7.6 26 5.1 36.1 142 267 0.88 7.8 12.5 27 4.9 36.7 144 180 0.95 5.7 8.7 28 (10.3) 36.8 145 270 0.58 Bao, ilaleat 29 4.6 37.9 145 276 0.83 7.6 12.6 30 4.5 38.2 147 246 1.03 8.4 1202 July 1 4.4 38.8 148 276 1.07 9.8 13.9 2 4.1 39.9 150 319 0.97 10.3 55 Mean 4.7 35.7 145 253 0.92 7.4 11.8 Group (b) (hy = 1.3 km) July 3 Ps3} 40.4 151 206 1.53 10.5 U1 4 1.8 41.4 153 ri 1.38 7.9 10.2 5 4.3 42.8 156 342 0.71 8.1 16.9 6 3.7 43.9 158 203 lees 8.3 11.6 7 3.2 45.7 160 104 1.91 6.6 7.0 8 3.9 47.0 163 389 0.98 MOST 20.8 9 3.4 47.0 167 130 1.24 5.4 25) 10 Sil! 46.7 170 119 Paea lla) 8.5 8.4 11 2.6 45.9 172 165 1.90 10.4 11.0 12 Pett 45.4 173 360 0.96 11.5 19.1 13 220) 46.5 174 220 1.40 10.3 13.1 Mean 3.0 44.8 163 219 1.40 9.1 12.6 Group (c) (h, = 0.1 km) July 14 2.4 48.2 178 415 0.85 11.8 12.5 15 2.8 49.4 184 652 0.55 12.0 13.4 16 1.5 50.6 188 290 1.38 13.3 13.6 17 Pep 51.6 194 235 1.80 14.1 14.2 18 1.8 52.5 199 229 1.51 ialeb) ialay/ 19 isl aye) 205 220 1.46 10.7 10.9 20 0.9 51.8 210 226 1.75 13.2 13.3 21 0.0 50.0 214 215 2.28 16.3 16.3 21 (21.9) 48.0 217 220 1.81 13.3 13.4 Mean 1.2 50.5 199 300 1.49 12.9 13.3 current density average about 1.4 x 10-7 esu lower than the April to July values, throughout the latitude range. Accepting the curve for April to July data shown in figure 15, the air-earth current density for group 3a is too low by the amount of 4.4 x 10-7 esu, for group 3b it is too low by 3.6 x 10-7 esu, and for group 3c it is only 0.4 x 10-7 esu too low. If, now, one wishes to examine into the mechanism which is causing too low values of current density, the method employed by Wait (5) in his study of changes in the columnar resistance of the at- mosphere over the Watheroo Magnetic Observatory in Western Australia, provides some interesting informa- tion. In this method the columnar resistance of the at- mosphere is thought of as consisting of an upper and low- er part, with the resistance of the upper part remaining unchanged even on those occasions when the resistance of the lower part is altered considerably by the intro- duction of mist, fog, or haze particles. Measurements of potential-gradient and conductivity in the lower part during the periods of fog, mist, or haze, used in conjunc- tion with other measurements accepted as typical of con- ditions prevailing when the disturbing effects are absent, permit one to deduce a height for the lower disturbed region, assuming always a uniform vertical distribution of the medium in that height. One must note at this point a difference between the present data and those utilized by Wait. In his paper, the data included observed ocean values of ip and si- multaneously observed values of iy for the Watheroo Observatory, from which he obtained the height, hy, of the disturbed lower region of the atmosphere at Watheroo. For the present paper, since only ocean data are being considered, only values of iy, and not simultaneous val- ues of i, and iy, are available for any disturbed period. Under these circumstances both in and hy are unknown, and one may assume certain values for either one and STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY compute the other. On the one hand, to determine hy one must resort to the use of average values of ij, such as are obtained from figure 15 for use with each group of data of table 3, together with average values of iy from table 3, thereby deriving average values of hy. On the other hand, if suitable average values of hy are as- sumed for each of the three groups in table 3, one may compute individual values of ip for each of the thirty- one days comprising the three groups, and the values of hy chosen must be such that, when the values of ip are averaged for each group, these average values will agree with those required by figure 15. Comparison of the two methods of treatment will be made later, after develop- ing the formula from which either i, or hy may be de- rived. It was stated earlier that the relation between the air-earth current density, i, the columnar resistance, R, and the total potential between the earth and the upper conducting region, E, would be taken as E=iR (1) The current density, i, is obtained from the total conductivity, A+ + A-, multiplied by the potential-gra- dient, G, or i=G(A+ + A-) =G/p (2) where p, the resistivity, is the reciprocal of the total conductivity. Now if we assume that the columnar resistance, R, is divided into two parts, r’ and r’’, and assume further that the lower part, r’, is given by ph, where h is the height of the lower region, we have (3), (4) R=r’ +r’, and r’ = ph whence R = ph+ r’’ (5) Then from (1), (2), and (5), we have a G(peh + r’’) i p (6) If, now, we use the subscript n to indicate normal, least-disturbed conditions and the subscript u to repre- sent unusual conditions, we may write for unusual condi- tions G the ae set E, = veal u) (7) and for normal conditions En = inRn (8) If, further, the unusual conditions are local, or limit- ed in horizontal extent, they are not likely to affect E, so that Ey = Ep, and we may then write, from (7) and (8) (Me Gyleyhy + Ty) (9) PuRy Finally, adopting the view that r’’ does not change when the unusual conditions occur, so that rjj =ry and 149 hy = hp, and in (9) we replace rij by Rp-pyphy, then we obtain h, 1 h yee, a Se (10) Rn Pu PuRn Substituting iy for Gy/pu in (10) in = Gyhy/Rn ats iy (1- pphy/Rn) (11) Restating (11) as an expression for hy, we have hy = (in-iy)Rn/(pu- pndiu (12) In computing, now, values of hy from equation (12), for each of the three groups of data in table 3, the value of Rn is taken as 1.11 x 109 esu, a figure discussed earlier, and the value of py as 0.476 x 104 esu, this value being the reciprocal of the average value of total conductivity, 2.10 x 10-4 esu, found for least disturbed conditions in the Pacific Ocean from the table in sectior V. For ip the three values are 11.8, 12.7, and 13.3 x 10-7 esu as stated on page 147. The values of hy found from this computation for the three groups 3a, 3b, and 3c, are 1.1 km, 1.8 km, and 0.2 km, respectively. When the attempt is made to compute individual values of hy, however, particularly for the eleven days in 3b, impos- sibly large values of hy are obtained for some of the days, indicating that this method cannot be used in this detailed manner. Equation (11), on the other hand, lends itself to the computation of ip in a detailed manner, for the data in table 3. The thirty-one individual values of ip in the last column of table 3 were computed from this equation. For this computation, the same values of Rn and pp were used as in the preceding computation. An average value of hy was chosen for each of the three groups, of such magnitude that, when used in the computation of the individual values of in, an average value of in was ob- tained for each group which closely approximated that called for in figure 15 for the proper latitude. That is, the height of the fog, mist, or haze in the atmosphere was taken as 1.0 km, 1.3 km, and 0.1 km for groups 3a, 3b, and 3c, respectively, and individual values of in computed, from which average values of ip of 11.8, 12.6, and 13.3 x 10-7 esu were obtained for the three groups to meet the requirement of 11.8, 12.7, and 13.3 x 10-7 esu of figure 15. The fact that the scatter of individual values of ip around the required average values is es- sentially the same as that exhibited by the day to day values in table 2 would point to the use of equation (11) as a satisfactory procedure. The differences shown be- tween the values of hy obtained by the two methods, namely 0.1 km, 0.5 km, and 0.1 km for the three groups, are not significant except perhaps in the case of the 0.5 km for group 3b. The scatter of the observed data in this group no doubt is responsible for divergent results from the two computations, and in this connection it would appear that the method using equation (11) gives a more reliable value of the average height, hy, than the other. Accepting, therefore, the results obtained with equa- tion (11), it appears that during the hazy period between June 2 and July 2, in which interval the conductivity was less than half of normal value, the height of the haze was about 1.0 km. After the region of cold surface water was reached, with its attendant thick fog or mist, the height 150 of the fog or mist layer was somewhat greater than that of the preceding haze layer, namely 1.3km, until the wind freshened and changed to southwest on the fourteenth, at which time the layer became very thin, about 0.1 km. For the latter period a thin layer would be expected, since the current density was so nearly normal; the fog or mist increased the resistivity in this thin layer by about 50 per cent, but the increased columnar resistance in the layer added only about 3 per cent to the total col- umnar resistance, if the assumption is valid that the total potential E was from day to day the same as it would have been had not fog or mist been present. The second period of interest is that in the Atlantic Ocean between August 10 and 25, 1928. During this peri- od the conductivity was about half normal value, and the potential-gradient slightly lower than the average for all undisturbed values in the Atlantic, so that computed val- ues of air-earth current density for the period had an average value of approximately half of that obtained for the remainder of the Atlantic data. The ship remained between 311° and 322° east longitude during the thirteen- day period under discussion, but sailed southward 1700 miles from 40° north down to 15° north. The daily set of observations was generally made about 18h GMT. Table 4 shows the values of the atmospheric-electric ele- ments for August 10 to 25, and again the last column in the table contains values of current density derived on the basis that the lower layer in the atmosphere, in which the conductivity was about half normal value, had a defi- nite vertical extent. Table 4. Period of low values of air-earth current density in the north central Atlantic, August 10 to 15, 1928, and derived equivalent fair-weather values based on assumed height of affected region of the atmosphere i, in 10-7esu Aug 10 18.7 98 1.56 5.1 7.2 11 18.4 122 0.91 3.7 9.0 12 13.1 151 0.53 2.7 11.2 13 18.7 201 0.79 5.3 14.9 14 18.6 120 1.18 4.7 8.9 16 18.5 121 1.10 4.4 9.0 17 15.6 97 1.49 4.8 7.2 18 14.7 76 1.51 3.8 5.6 ey alae 97 1.39 4.5 7.2 22 17.5 82 1.75 4.8 6.1 23° 17.9 90 1.23 3.7 6.7 24 15.3 55 1.82 3.3 4.1 25 14.3 85 1.81 5.1 6.3 Mean 17.0 107 1.31 4.3 8.0 Utilizing equation (11), as before, preliminary in- spection of the data indicated that the layer having higher than normal resistivity was quite thick. This was appar- ent from the fact that, the potential-gradient being very little different from normal, the reduced air-earth cur- rent density would be indicative of a significant change in columnar resistance of the atmosphere. Accordingly, the value of hy was chosen such that the second term of equation (11) became zero. This is 1 - ( Pnhy/Rp) =0 (13) OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS With the columnar resistance R taken as 1.11 x 10%esu, as before, and the values of py inthis case as 0.461 x 104 esu (the average value of total conductivity over the Atlantic was found to be 2.17 x 10-4 esu for least-dis- turbed days on cruise VII) the value of hy is found to be 2.7km. In effect, the present procedure means that all the columnar resistance is confined to a height of 2.7 km, which is not true, but it may be within a reasonably good approximation of being true. The values of ip found on this basis average 8.0 x 10-7 esu, a value close to the average of 8.7 x 10-7 esu found for all least-dis- turbed days over the Atlantic. In this case, whatever may be the nature of the par- ticles or nuclei responsible for the low air-earth cur- rent density, the region containing the particles appears to have extended vertically to a considerable distance. The third and last group of material containing un- usual values of air-earth current density was obtained between September 9 and 20, 1929, after the ship left San Francisco on the voyage to Honolulu. It will be recalled from an earlier paper in this volume that a few days after leaving San Francisco the conductivity decreased in the course of one day to about one-tenth its normal high value, and subsequent recovery to the original value required a period of ten days. The day on which the drop occurred was September 9, 1929, and the present discussion will deal only with that day. The hourly mean values of con- ductivity for September 9 (negative conductivity recorded on this date) have been tabulated on pages 124 and 125 in the table in section VII, and corresponding hourly mean values of potential-gradient on pages 120 and 121 in sec- tion VII. For convenient reference the data have been reproduced in table 5 below, where it will be noted that five groups have been arranged, the first (5h to 11hGMT) representing least-disturbed or normal conditions, and the remaining four showing progressive changes in the various elements tabulated. When the conductivity and potential-gradient data are examined together, it is clear that as the conductivity de- creased through the Greenwich day, the potential-gradient increased to much higher values than would be expected on the basis of the normal universal diurnal variation. In group (1) in table 5 the potential-gradient averaged 123 volts per meter, representing least-disturbed con- ditions in the early hours of the Greenwich day, and the normal increase to maximum at 18 to 20 hours GMT might have been expected to give a value for those hours of perhaps 180 volts per meter instead of the 360 volts actually recorded. Air-earth current density also would have increased through the Greenwich day, had the day been normal, from 10.4 X 10-7 esu as found for the period 5 to 11 hours GMT, to perhaps 13 x 10-7 esu or more at 18 to 20 hours GMT. In table 5, under the col- umn ip, assumed values of ‘‘normal’’ current density are given for groups (2) to (5) to represent the diurnal change in this element with universal time. These val- ues were arrived at with the help of the lowermost curve in figure 14, which gives the diurnal variation, onGreen- wich time, of the air-earth current density for October and November, 1929. On that curve the average current density for the six-hour period from 5 to 11 hours, is 9.8 x 10-7 esu, which is 0.6 x 10-7 esu lower than the value found for group (1) in table 5. For groups (2) to (5) comparable values from the curve are 11.0, 12.1, 11.7, and 10.0 x 10-7 esu, respectively, and when these are adjusted upward by the difference of 0.6 x 10-7 esu found between group (1) and the curve, the best available STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY 151 Table 5. Study of conspicuous change in conductivity and air-earth current density on September 9, 1929 in the Pacific Ocean At (a) h, () q GMT A+ +A- p G Group n n h 10-4 esu| 10-4 esu | 104 esu | V/m meters (1) 5- 6 1.20 1.32 2.52 0.397 125 ORGY ee a esosae 6- 7 iis25 1.38 2.63 0.380 110 DAN ire) ve25.8 7- 8 16745) 1.38 2.63 0.380 119 WO a maceer 8- 9 1.20 1.32 2.52 0.397 130 1OS9¢ we & Acces 9-10 1.20 1.32 AKTY 0.397 128 ORB Wyte Wrces 10-11 1.20 1.32 2.52 0.397 128 NOI L Pye eietaet Mean 1.22 1.34 2.56 0.391 123 HO SASU wai are OU ee seas AG AG A+ + A- Pry Gy 10-4 esu 10-4 esu. 10-4 esu. 104 esu V/M (2) 11-12 0.77 0.85 1.62 0.617 NS Biaey Vee 10.2 12-13 0.79 0.87 1.66 0.602 NSOhe 10.0 13-14 0.77 0.85 1.62 0.617 ESN These 10.2 Mean 0.78 0.86 1.63 0.612 185 11.6(c) 10.1 750 (3) 14-15 0.38 0.42 0.80 1.25 ilo) Woah ees 7.3 15-16 0.29 0.32 0.61 1.64 BOM) merase 6.2 16-17 0.22 0.24 0.46 Pastas SLO CM fees 4.9 Mean 0.30 0.33 0.62 1.69 300 12.7(c) 6.1 925 (4) 19-20 0.14 0.16 0.30 3.33 SC2iee Wess ss2 3.6 20-21 0.14 0.16 0.30 Ces) BE Om heeds al 21-22 0.14 0.16 0.30 3.33 SH Me Tinos 3.6 Mean 0.14 0.16 0.30 3.33 364 12.3(c) 3.6 915 (5) 22-23 0.12 0.14 0.26 3.85 299) Hoe 2.6 23-24 0.14 0.16 0.30 3.33 aoa Sb See 2.8 Mean 0.13 0.15 0.28 3.59 292 10.6(c) Oat 1011 (@)x4 =1.10a-. (0) hy = (ip - iy)Rp/iy(euy - pn), where Ry = 1.11 x 109 esu, and py = 0.391 x 104 esu. (c) Values for in assumed from 11h to 24h, in accordance with universal-time diurnal- variation characteristics of figure 14. approximations to normal values become 11.6, 12.7, 12.3, and 10.6. These values of in may be taken with some confidence as correctly representing the current- density values that would have existed on this occasion had not a disturbing element been present. A period of hours rather than days is involved here, unlike the situ- ation in the previously discussed cases, making it pos- sible to establish the values of in with reasonable ac- curacy. In this case, then, the values of ip for groups (2) to (5) in table 5 are accepted as known, and the com- putation of appropriate values of hy for these groups is readily accomplished from equation (12). In the compu- tation, the value of py, was taken as 0.39 X 104 esu, as obtained from group (1) in table 5, and Rp was taken, as before, as 1.11 x 109 esu. The computed values of hy are shown in the last column of table 5. Within each group, except (3), in table 5, a certain stability of values of both conductivity and potential-gra- dient will be noted, as if the changes proceeded in defi- nite ‘‘steps’’ through the day. Group (3), the exception, shows continuous change from hour to hour, but the three hours are nevertheless treated as a group. As only negative conductivity was recorded, values of posi- tive and total conductivity for table 5 were computed on the basis that A+/ A- = 1.10. The values of hy for groups (2) to (5) give the inter- esting result that the thickness of the layer in which the disturbing element existed was, except in the first three hours, about 1km, although there was continuous change of potentiakgradient and conductivity over a much longer period. In the first three hours, however, the height ap- pears to have been only seven hundred and fifty meters, and, if the first hour only is considered and the value of i, for that hour is taken as 11.3 x 10-7 esu, the value of hy is found to be about five hundred meters. Thus, a wedge-shaped layer appears to have been entered onthis occasion, with a “‘front’’ five hundred meters high. This front was entered suddenly, because the photographic records of both potential-gradient and conductivity show that the change from normal to disturbed conditions took place in only three or four minutes, commencing at 11h 05m and ending at 11h08m or 09m. At 11h05m both con- ductivity and potential-gradient had values very close to the average given in table 5 for 10h-11h, and at 11h09m both had arrived at the values given as the average for 11h-12h. Stable conditions existed before the disturbed region was entered, and were established again, but ona different basis, four minutes later. During the next three hours stable conditions existed within the layer but the layer thickness changed from five hundred to one thousand 152 meters and then, from 12h to 24h, conditions within the layer changed while the height remained essentially con- stant. At 24h, the columnar resistance, R, had become 4.31 x 109 esu, or about fourfold as great as that pre- vailing before Yih. All through the following day, September 10, con- ductivity remained at approximately the same value as that found for the last two hours of September 9, and the potential-gradient also remained essentially at the value established at that time, so that a disturbed lower layer of about 1 km thickness is indicated for all of the tenth. When the disturbed region was entered at 11h GMT or 2h LMT on the ninth, the ship was between five and six hundred miles southwest of San Francisco, and in the following ten days or more during which the disturbed region appeared to persist, approximately one thousand miles were traversed. As the ship was sailing in a gen- erally southwest direction the extent of the disturbed re- gion in that direction was one thousand miles; what width the region might have had at right angles to the course cannot be stated, but it is possible that it may have been narrow, perhaps confined only to the width of the steamer lane of the ships regularly plying between San Francisco and Honolulu. Smoke from the ships might be the disturbing factor in this region, although the measurements of condensation nuclei on the Carnegie did OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS not show particularly high concentrations, as indicated by the nuclei data in section V. In conclusion, one may summarize the preceding discussion of air-earth current density data derived from the atmospheric-electric measurements on cruise VII of the Carnegie, as follows: (1) Air-earth current density varies through the day according to universal time, with minimum values on normal, least-disturbed days not infrequently as low as 5 x 10-7 esu and maximum values as high as 15 X 10-7 esu; (2) when the current density is affected by the presence of a disturbing element in the lower atmosphere, the latter may exist in a layer adja- cent to the earth’s surface only a few meters thick or as much as a few kilometers thick, and the thickness to- gether with the concentration of disturbing material in the layer, may be such as to reduce the current density to only a small fraction of its normal value; (3) the hori- zontal extent of the layer containing the disturbing ele- ment may be hundreds of miles; (4) the disturbed condi- tion may manifest itself as mist, fog, or haze, but may also have no visible manifestation and yet be equally ef- fective in producing large departures from normal in the atmospheric-electric elements; (5) passage from a nor- mal, least-disturbed region into a disturbed region may be very abrupt. LITERATURE CITED 1. Gish, O. H. 1939. Terrestrial magnetism and elec- tricity. Physics of the earth, vol. 8, pp. 149-230. 2. Wait, G.R., and H. U. Sverdrup. 1927. Preliminary note on electromotive forces possibly produced by the earth’s rotating magnetic field and on observed diurnal variation of the atmospheric potential-gra- dient. Terr. Mag., vol. 32, pp. 73-83. 3. Ault, J. P. 1945. The work of the Carnegie and sug- gestions for future scientific cruises. Oceanogr.- IV. Scientific results of cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928-29 under command of Captain J. P. Ault, CIW Pub. No. 571, pp. 1-17. 4. Gish, O. H. 1942. Further evidence of a latitude- effect in potential-gradient. Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 323-324. 5. Wait,G.R. 1942. Electrical resistance of a vertical column of air over Watheroo (Western Australia) and over Huancayo (Peru). Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 243-249, THE NUMBER OF CONDENSATION NUCLEI OVER THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS During cruise VII of the Carnegie, 755 sets of ob- servations were made with an Aitken nuclei counter. Generally a single set was made each day except when a diurnal-variation series was started. Occasionally sev- eral sets were made on some particular day, usually to test some point that was raised in the observer’s mind at the time. Of the diurnal-variation series attempted, sixteen were completed or essentially completed during the cruise. Excluding all sets of each diurnal-variation series except the first and last, there was a total of 365 sets of nuclei observations. The values of nuclei content in the 365 sets were distributed as shown in table 1 be- low. It is thus seen that the majority of the measure- ments fall into the lower nuclei content groups. On 144 occasions the nuclei were found to be less than 1000 per cc, while on only 15 occasions did the nuclei rise above 10,000 per cc. Nearly three-fourths of all the observa- tions listed in table 1 gave a nuclei content less than 2500 per cc. Thus it is seen that, contrary to what is so Table 1. Distribution of values of nuclei content for cruise VII Nuclei per cc 100 - 500 72 3500 - 4000 8 500 - 1000 72 4000 - 4500 13 1000 - 1500 42 4500 - 5000 U 1500 - 2000 48 5000 - 5500 2 2000 - 2500 34 5500 - 6000 3 2500 - 3000 16 6000 - 10000 10 3000 - 3500 23 10000 - 20000 14 20000 - 30000 1 frequently found over land, the nuclei over the ocean generally are few in number. The nuclei content varied considerably from one leg to another of the cruise. This fact is brought out in table 2 (1). The data in table 2 include all sets in the diurnal- variation series as well as those taken once or only a few times each day. In obtaining the means in the table, six sets taken on July 8 and 9, 1928, at the mouth of the Elbe River, were excluded from the Hamburg-Reykjavik leg of the cruise. The mean of the six excluded sets is 8910. Had they been included with the other values, the mean for this leg would have been increased to 3720 and the average number of nuclei per cc for the five largest values would have been increased to 10,570. That large values of nuclei were found at the mouth of the Elbe emphasizes the possibility that an industrial region on land can affect the ocean values of nuclei for a considerable distance fromshore. This point is still further emphasized by observations taken on the Carne- gie as the ship receded from the vicinity of Europe. A map showing this leg of the cruise is given in figure 16. The map gives the number of nuclei per cc measured at various localities, with arrows indicating the direction and force of the wind at each locality. A number representing wind force on the conventional Beaufort scale is inset in the circle attached at the end of each arrow. It is seen that, as the ship left the vicinity of Europe, the nuclei content of the air gradually diminished. It is apparent that even at considerable distances from land, during those occasions when the wind blew from the direction of land on which there was considerable indus- trial activity, the ocean values are unusually large. In the Pacific Ocean the nuclei content of the air in- creased to considerable values shortly before the ship Table 2. Nuclei content of the air over the oceans from observations on the Carnegie between May 1928 to November 1929 Ocean Leg of cruise Average nuclei per cc 5 5 All sets largest smallest values values values Atlantic Newport News - Plymouth May 10 - June 8 25 2940 640 1460 Plymouth - Hamburg June 18 - June 22 oye on eScaoee 0) ecoccome! © |. Beacate Hamburg - Reykjavik July 7 - July 20 20 5160 610 2300 Reykjavik - Barbados July 27 - Sep. 16 54 3780 280 1070 Barbados - Balboa Oct. 1 - Oct. 11 21 2510 360 1180 Means! 5 ccmecc +s ate) ls ee epee 120 3600 470 1370 Pacific Balboa - Easter Island Oct. 25 - Dec. 6 123 830 130 382 Easter Island - Callao Dec. 12 - Jan. 14 24 450 120 238 Callao - Papeete Feb. 5 - Mar. 13 112 4560 350 2170 Papeete - Apia Mar. 20 - Apr. 1 30 3260 620 1700 Apia - Guam Apr. 20 - May 20 93 10800 450 2910 Guam - Yokohama May 25 - June 6 37 22550 4570 13610 Yokohama - San Francisco June 24 - July 28 74 4450 700 2490 San Francisco - Honolulu Sep. 3 - Sep. 23 18 5670 1380 2850 Honolulu - Pago Pago Oct. 2 - Nov. 18 124 2250 310 1100 Means ®? sae, < Ge ist ous cle eencrist eat eateneaae 635 6090 960 2350 Means fOrawhOlelerulse) smaeetie 1 seeker Gs eakw acest Reisen 755 5320 810 2200 154 reached Guam from Apia, and remained so throughout most of the next leg of the cruise. It is of interest to note that during this part of the cruise, the vessel was in the vicinity of volcanos which might be expected to contribute appreciably to the nuclei content of the at- mosphere. It seems probable that the unusually high nuclei content of the atmosphere found in this locality was produced by the action of volcanos in the region. Of the sixteen complete or nearly complete diurnal- variation series obtained during the cruise, none was obtained in the Atlantic. The first series was made be- tween Balboa and Easter Island, on November 13 - 14, 1928, and three additional series were obtained on the same leg of the cruise. Three series were completed between Callao and Papeete, and three between Apia and Guam, one between Guam and Yokohama, two between Yokohama and San Francisco, and three between Hono- lulu and Pago Pago. It would seem desirable to deter- mine if there is any systematic variation through the day in the nuclei content of the atmosphere over the ocean, when considered either on local or on universal time. Inan effort to ascertain whether any systematic vari- ation exists, the sixteen diurnal-variation series were arbitrarily separated into four groups. Each day was arranged according to local time and the hourly means were obtained for each group. The four diurnal-varia- tion curves are shown in figure 17A. It is easily seen that the four groups are not systematic, that is, similar in the type of variation they display. It is concluded, therefore, that over the ocean the nuclei content of the atmosphere does not vary systematically through the day according to local time. In a similar manner, each day in the various groups-was arranged according to Green- wich time and the hourly means were obtained for each group. The four diurnal-variation curves thus obtained are shown in figure 17B. It is seen that in this case, like- wise, there is no systematic diurnal variation in the nu- clei content of the atmosphere over the oceans according to universal time. Any variation through the day that has been observed, therefore, must have been of acci- dental nature. OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS Out of 755 sets of condensation nuclei shown intable 2, there were 225 sets which were made simultaneously or nearly simultaneously with measurements of either positive or negative small-ion content of the atmosphere. These 225 sets of simultaneous data were grouped accord- ing to the legof the cruise, and the mean value for each leg was obtained. For the Atlantic 44 sets were avail- able, while for the Pacific there were 181 sets. A sum- mary of the results is given in table 3. The mean values for all 225 sets are 1776, 522, and 422 per cc, respec- tively, for the nuclei, the positive ions, and the negative ions. How ‘‘w’’ was derived will be seen in what follows. The small ions of both signs should be more numer- ous than indicated in table 3 if they are being destroyed only through recombinations with each other. In this case, aSSuming equilibrium conditions to exist, the num- ber n of small ions of either sign per cc, positive and negative ions being assumed equally numerous, can be computed through the well-known equation, q = an2 (1) where q is the rate of production of ion pairs and & is the recombination coefficient for small ions. The ioni- zation over the oceans is due essentially to cosmic rays, hence the mean value of q may be taken as about 1.4 ion pairs per cc per second. A generally accepted value of a is 1.6 xX 10-6. Using these quantities, the value of n is found to be 935. To account for the observed smaller values of n, it is necessary to assume that the small ions are being destroyed by some additional process be- sides recombination. Condensation nuclei are known to destroy the small ions by combining with them. When combining occurs, the uncharged nucleus converts the small ion into a large ion while the large ion neutralizes the charge on the small ion. Assuming that the reduced number of small ions in the air over the oceans is due to the presence of condensation nuclei, it is possible to com- pute the rate at which the nuclei combine with the small ions and, further, on the basis of certain assumptions, to compute the number of large ions per unit volume in the Table 3. Derived values of combination coefficient ‘‘w’’ based on simultaneous values of nuclei and small ions for all legs of cruise VII Atlantic 1 Newport News - Plymouth May 10 - June 8 5 1390 413 298 2.0 2 Plymouth - Hamburg June 18 - June 22 (aap eas sane 3608 % 3 Hamburg - Reykjavik July 7 - July 20 fl 2839 495 389 0.7 4 Reykjavik - Barbados July 27 - Sep. 16 26 1019 576 461 1.4 5 Barbados - Balboa Oct. 1 - Oct. 11 6 532 635 490 2.2 Pacific 6 Balboa - Easter Island Oct. 25 - Dec. 6 12 290 491 373 ee 7 Easter Island - Callao Dec. 12.- Jan. 14 17 204 576 447 7.4 8 Callao - Papeete Feb. 5 - Mar. 13 33 2614 503 409 0.8 9 Papeete - Apia Mar. 20 - Apr. 1 10 2155 517 454 0.9 10 Apia - Guam Apr. 20 - May 20 23 2556 615 545 0.5 11 Guam - Yokohama May 25 - June 6 11 10354 507 406 0.2 12 Yokohama - San Francisco June 24 - July 28 17 3263 500 385 0.6 13 San Francisco - Honolulu Sep. 3 - Sep. 23 18 2846 386 308 ileal 14 Honolulu - Pago Pago Oct. 2 - Nov. 18 40 1289 513 417 1.5 Motalsonimealnsmrncwcw ts) cl ae) us toe min calen ices teu ea mee mceee 225 1776 522 422 STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY air over the ocean. When nuclei and large ions are present, it has been shown that for equilibrium condi- tions the equation q=an2 + NoNon + 74Nn (2) applies where No represents the number of uncharged nuclei per cc, N represents the number of large ions of one sign (positive and negative ions assumed to be equally numerous), n represents, as stated above, the number of small ions of one sign per cc (positive and negative also assumed to be equally numerous), 7, and n 1 are the combination coefficients between the small ions and the uncharged and charged nuclei, respectively, and qa is as defined above. This equation reduces to q= an? 4 274Nn (3) and finally to ~(4) (2) where Nag is the total number of condensation nuclei, charged and uncharged, per cc. The value of the com- bination coefficient w between the small ions and the nuclei is given in the following relation n1[2/(R + 2)] q= an2 + wNan Ww I (5) where R (6) From equation (4), assuming q = 1.4, where I is the number of ion pairs per cc in the atmosphere, a = 1.6 x 10-6, and using Na = 1776 and n = 522 from table 3, it is found that the value of w comes out to be 1.0 x 10-6. From (5), assuming a value of 5 x 10-6 for 71, (3) the value of R is 8 and, since No + 2N =Na, No/Na = 0.80. This value of No/Na is only slightly greater than the value found for Washington (4), the latter being 0.75. The value of N/NA accordingly comes out as 0.1 from which one would deduce a value of 178 per cc for the number of large ions of one sign over the ocean. The cause of ionization over the ocean has been dis- cussed by Swann (5). His discussion involved a question concerning the large-ion content of the air over the . oceans. He derived a relation between the ratio of ioni- zation over land and ocean and the ratio of ion content over land and ocean, which was expressed in the follow- ing equation No/N = n1/No ) 1/2 (7) where the subscripts L and S refer to land and ocean values, respectively, and the other notations are asgiven previously. In arriving at this relation it was assumed that there are no large ions in the air over the ocean and that the value of a is the same over the ocean as that over land. It was further assumed that ng = nz, and that dg = 1.61 and qj, = 6.1 I. The number of large ions per ec over land, on this basis, was found to be about equal to the number of small ions over land, that is, Ny = nj. In reconsidering this matter, on the basis of equation (3), assuming that 2 7; = 6a and that there are no large ions over the ocean, it is found that 155 (n? + 6Nyn, )/ng = q,/4g (8) In applying this equation, it seems necessary, in view of the large variation in the values of the elements ny,, Nz, and qy, from place to place, to choose values appropriate to some particular land station. At Wash- ington, D. C.. ny, and Ny, have been measured over a long interval of time. The value of qj, has been closely estimated from ionization measurements with a thin- walled chamber. For this station the average value of ny, may be taken as about one-third the average value of ng, whereas the average value of qj, appears to be about seven times that of qg. From these values it is found that the number of large ions in the air at Washington is about ten times the number of small ions at this sta- tion. This ratio, though large compared with the value obtained by Swann, is less than one-half the ratio actually found, on the average, to exist at this station. During the warm season (6) of the year, ny, = 198, Ny, = 4010, or Ny /ny, = 20.1, while during the cold season of the year, nL, = 169, Ny, = 6010, or a ratio of Nj, to ny, of 35.6. The above values were obtained in measurements from October 1932 to September 1933 inclusive. Since it was found, from estimates made earlier in this paper, that the large ions over the ocean are not ab- sent but probably average around 178, it seems neces- sary to reconsider the whole matter of ionization over the ocean and allow for the presence of such large ions. Equation (3) may be assumed to hold over land so that (9) = an qy, pezon Nay and, in a similar manner over the ocean, dg = on, +27 (10) s sNgls To simplify these equations, let us assume that 2 7], = 6a = 275, that ng = 3ny,=3Ns, and that qy,=7qs; then ay,/ds = (nz + 6nyNy)/(nd + 6ngNg) (11) from which it follows that Nz, = 31 nyz,. This ratio of the number of large ions to the number of small ions at Washington is more in keeping with that found, the aver- age ratio from the two seasonal values given above being about 28. The estimate of the value of each element in- volved, including that of the large-ion content over the ocean, appears to have been reasonably correct; other- wise the resulting check would not have been so favor- able. On the basis of the mean value of condensation nu- clei and of small-ion content of the air it is possible, as pointed out in the previous paragraph, satisfactorily to account for a reduced number of small ions through their destruction by the condensation nuclei. When, however, one examines the variation in the nuclei content and the corresponding ion content from leg to leg of the various cruises, such an explanation is not so satisfactory. From the results given in table 3 it is seen that the average nu- clei content of the air varies considerably from one leg of the cruise to another. The small-ion content, on the other hand, remains much more nearly constant. This suggests that the nuclei were not always equally effective in the destruction of the small ions. It accordingly ap- pears that, on the average, as the nuclei content of the air increases, the average effectiveness of a nucleus for 156 destroying a small ion diminishes. For a quantitative test of the average effectiveness of the nucleus in de- stroying a smallion, the value of w has been calculated. The resulting values are tabulated in the last column of table 3, each value being obtained through the applica- tion of equation (4), using mean values of nuclei and positive small-ion content of the air for each leg. The values of w are seen to vary from about 7 to 0.2 10-6 corresponding to the lowest and the highest nuclei con- tent respectively of the air. It might be pointed out in passing that a similar variation in the value of w was obtained by Torreson (7) from data obtained at the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory. In that case, however, there was a much greater spread in both the nuclei and the small-ion content of the air. The variation in the value of w was explained by Torreson as due to a change in size of the nucleus. The value of w calculated for the two legs, Balboa to Easter Island and Easter Island to Callao, is muchtoo large if the value of 27; is taken as equal to 10x 10-6 (3). A value of w even as great as 5 X 10-6 would re- quire that all nuclei be charged. The large values de- duced for w for these two legs may be the result of in- correct values of nuclei content, as the nuclei counter may not have been functioning properly during that part of the cruise. The receiver of the instrument fell apart from the pump during observations on December 18, a few days after leaving Easter Island. Repairs were soon made and observations continued for the remainder of the leg. At Callao another instrument became available and was used for all subsequent work. The measure- ments with the second instrument gave noticeably higher values than those with the original instrument, in the ocean region near Callao. The mean of the first tensets after leaving Callao was 757, whereas the mean of the last ten sets before arriving at Callao (made after De- cember 18) was only 201. It seems probable that the OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS original instrument was making too small a count not only after December 18, but for some time previous to this date, possibly as early as the beginning of Novem- ber. If one eliminates the data between Balboa and Cal- lao, thus eliminating the impossible values of w, then the mean nuclei content of the air for the entire cruise, as shown in table 3 will be increased to 2000, while the values of the positive and negative small-ion content of the air will remain practically unchanged. This adjust- ment would diminish the average values of w for cruise VII (1.0 x 10-6) by 11 per cent, and the high values of w for legs 6 and 7 being thus omitted, the range in values of a for other legs of the cruise would be 2 to 0.2 x 10595 The results on condensation nuclei and small-ion content of the atmosphere over the oceans may be sum- marized as follows: 1. The average nuclei content over the oceans (about 2000 per cc) is appreciably smaller than that for the land stations where this element has been measured. 2. There is no systematic diurnal variation in the number of nuclei over the ocean, according to either local or Greenwich time. 3. The average nuclei content of the air appears to be sufficiently great to reduce the average small-ion content by about 44 per cent. 4. The detailed relation between nuclei content and the small-ion content of the air over the oceans found in cruise VI. measurements is accounted for, assuming that the usually accepted equilibrium equation holds, through a change in the efficiency with which a nucleus combines with a small ion. A decrease in efficiency ac- companies an increase in the nuclei content of the air. 5. Calculations based on the equilibrium equations indicate that, in the air over the oceans, there are on the average, about 200 large ions of each sign per cc. LITERATURE CITED 1. Wait, G. R. 1930-1931. The number of Aitken nuclei over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans as determined aboard the Carnegie during 1928-1929. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, p. 366. 2. Nolan, J. J.. R. K. Boylan, and G. P. deSachy. 1925. The equilibrium of ionization in the atmosphere. Proc. R. Irish Acad., vol. 37, sec. A, pp. 1-12. Wait, G. R. 1931. Diurnal variation of concentration of condensation-nuclei and of certain atmospheric- electric elements. Terr. Mag., vol. 36, pp. 111-131. Gish, O. H. 1939. Terrestrial magnetism and elec- tricity. Physics of the earth--VII, pp. 183, 186. 3. Harper, W. R. 1934. On the theory of the combina- tion coefficients for large ions and for uncharged particles at any pressure. Phil. Mag., vol. 18, pp. 97-113; On the theory of the combination coefficients for large ions: A correction. 1935, vol. 20, p. 740. 4. Torreson, O. W. andG. R. Wait. 1934. Measurements of total nuclei, of uncharged nuclei, and of large ions in the free atmosphere at Washington, D.C. Terr. Mag., vol. 39, pp. 47-64. Sherman, K. L. 1940. Total and uncharged nuclei at Washington, D.C. Terr. Mag., vol. 45, pp. 191-204. 5. Swann, W. F.G. 1917. Causes of atmospheric ioniza- tion over the ocean. Researches of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. 3, pp. 414-415. 6. Wait, G. R. and O. W. Torreson. 1934. The large-ion and small-ion content of the atmosphere at Washing- ton, D. C. Terr. Mag., vol. 39, pp. 111-119. 7. Torreson, O. W. 1939. Condensation nuclei in the at- mosphere at Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, Huan- cayo, Peru, and their relation to meteorological ob- servations. Terr. Mag., vol. 44, pp. 59-74. NOTE ON PENETRATING RADIATION MEASUREMENTS OF THE CARNEGIE’S SEVENTH CRUISE Measurements of penetrating radiation, or cosmic rays, were made regularly on cruise VII with apparatus no. 1 mounted in the atmospheric-electric house. The apparatus and the observational procedure have been discussed in section II, pages 13 to 15. Apparatus no. 1 was used also on earlier cruises of the Carnegie, but fo1 the seventh cruise was improved in several respects, the most important improvement being that made to the “balancing condenser”’ (page 13). Although more than three hundred measurements of penetrating radiation were made on each of cruises IV and VI, accurate values of penetrating radiation itself, in terms of ion-pairs per cc per second in the free atmosphere, were not obtained, owing to uncertainty as to the amount of “‘residual’’ ion- ization of the apparatus. From study of both sets of data, Mauchly (1) estimated the residual ionization to be about 2 ion-pairs per cc, and it was hoped that on cruise VII a more accurate value could be determined. To determine the residual ionization on cruise VU, a second apparatus, small and portable, designed by Dr. Kolhérster and numbered 5503, was supplied to the Car- negie at Hamburg, Germany, in July 1928. This appara- tus was so designed that its residual ionization could be determined by immersion in a sufficient depth of water, and, having such a determination, comparative measure- ments between apparatus 1 and apparatus 5503 would be expected to yield values of residual ionization for no. 1. The progress reports in section I go far to explain why this expectation was not realized; difficulties were con- stantly arising with apparatus 5503, the chief difficulty being that of displacement of the “‘charging arm’’ within the chamber of the apparatus, which affected the con- stants andoperability of the instrument. The final result of much instrumental adjustment and manipulation, and several intercomparisons, was abandonment of the work with apparatus 5503, so that satisfactory determination of the residual ionization of apparatus 1 was not obtained. Some indication, nevertheless, may be obtained of the magnitude of the residual ionization from the very earliest intercomparison observations between no. 5503 and no. 1 if, as seems probable, instrumental difficulties had not yet developed in the first two weeks after no. 5503 was received. The Carnegie left Hamburg on July 7 and arrived at Reykjavik July 20; on each of eight days from July 11 to 18, inclusive, a daily intercomparison was made and the values of R (ion-pairs produced per cc per second inside the chamber of the apparatus) for the two instruments show reasonably consistent differ- ences from day to day. The data are shown in table 1. When apparatus 5503 was supplied to the Carnegie at Hamburg, Dr. Kolhérster gave the value of residual ionization of that instrument as 1.3 ion-pairs per cc per second. This figure had to be corrected later to 1.6 ion- pairs when he corrected the value of capacitance of the apparatus by a factor of 1.243. With the residual ionization of 1.6 ion-pairs per cc per second for apparatus 5503 and a difference between no. 1 and no. 5503 of -0.1 ion-pairs, the value of the re- sidual ionization for apparatus 1 appears to be 1.5 ion- pairs per cc per second. This result will be seen to be a satisfactory value, when the penetrating radiation data for cruise VII are examined. Table 1. Intercomparison observations with Carnegie penetrating radiation apparatus no. 1 and Kolhérster apparatus no. 5503, from July 11 to 18, 1928 Date Ion-pairs per cc per sec 1928 | nm | PRI | 5503 | Difference July 11 10 46 2.71 2.84 -0.13 12 9 45 2.97 2.95 +0.02 13 9 43 2.94 3.06 -0.12 14 12 10 2.41 2.34 +0.07 15 17 56 3.30 3.87 -0.57 16 10 31 3.14 3.29 -0.15 17 10 04 3.30 3.50 -0.20 18 12 49 3.06 2.84 +0.22 Means 2.98 3.09 -0.11 The observations of penetrating radiation, or cos- mic rays, made on cruise VII are tabulated in sectionIV, where 368 values are given. Each value is the result of approximately one hour of measurement with apparatus 1, usually only one measurement being made each day in midafternoon, the time of measurement being made to coincide as closely as possible with the time of ob- servation of other atmospheric-electric elements. Ona few occasions several measurements of penetrating ra- diation were made on the same day; all values obtained on these occasions are given in section IV. The grand average value for the 368 values is 2.8 ion-pairs per cc per second, and when a residual ioniza- tion of 1.5 pairs is deducted, the value of 1.3 ion-pairs per cc per second produced by cosmic rays in the at- mosphere near the earth’s surface is in good agreement with the now generally accepted value. When the observations are grouped according to geographic latitude there is some indication that for the northern hemisphere the values in high latitudes are larger than the values obtained in equatorial regions, but the results for the southern hemisphere do not give the same indication, at least to latitudes as high as 40° south. These remarks are based on the data presented in table 2, where the average value is given for each group of penetrating radiation measurements made in each 10- degree latitude belt between 60° northand 40° south. The number of measurements ineach group is also indicated. When the Atlantic Ocean data are regrouped under only two latitude ranges, namely, 0° to 30° north, and 30° to 64° north, the average values of penetrating radi- ation for these groups become 2.61 and 2.94 ion-pairs, respectively, the value for high latitudes being 12 per cent greater than that for low latitudes. When the data for the northern hemisphere of the Pacific Ocean are re- grouped similarly, the high latitude value of 3.02 ion- pairs is found to be 4 per cent greater than the value of 2.89 for low latitudes. For the southern latitude data in the Pacific Ocean, on the other hand, a value of 2.7 ion- pairs per cc per second satisfactorily represents the en- tire range of latitude in which measurements were made, namely 0° to 40°4 south. Subtracting the residual, 1.5 ion- pairs, from the various values just given, high northern latitudes give values of 1.4 or 1.5 ion-pairs, low latitudes give values of 1.1 to 1.4 ion-pairs, and southern latitudes 157 158 a value of 1.2 ion-pairs per cc per second for the free atmosphere near the ocean surface. These values will be recognized as in satisfactory agreement with the work of other investigators in cosmic rays. In tables 3 and 4 the distribution of penetrating radi- ation values is shown for the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, respectively. In both tables the values fall chiefly in the range of 2.40 to 3.20; in table 3 the values in this range are 77 per cent of the total, and in table 4 they are 93 per cent. The greater scatter of data for the Atlantic Ocean may be due to the fact that the work in that ocean was done in the early part of the cruise when observational procedures perhaps were not so well established as later. OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRIC RESULTS For the Pacific Ocean data 75 per cent, or three out of every four values, lie within the narrow range of 2.60 to 3.10 ion-pairs produced in the instrument per cc per second, for which corresponding values of ion production in the atmosphere would be 1.1 to 1.6 pairs per cc per second. These values, and others given earlier in this paper as representing the rate of production of ions in the free atmosphere, are of acceptable magnitude, indi- cating that the value of residual ionization of 1.5 ion- pairs per cc per second for apparatus 1, although derived from few data, is close to, if not precisely the correct value. Table 2. Penetrating radiation measurements of cruise VII in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, grouped according to geographic latitude Atlantic 2.96 2.80 3.02 2.93 2.32 (11)® = (11) (15) (7) (3) Pacific 22.0. 3.05 3.01 3.01 2.82 = ae yy (6) (25) (32) (34) 60.0- 50.0- | 40.0- 30.0- 20.0- 10.0- 0.0- 0.0- 64.1N| 59.9N} 49.9N] 39.9N] 29.9N/ 19.9N| 9.9N} 9.9S R2 R R R R R R R 10.0- 20.0- 19.98 | 29.9S R R R 2689s, 560: Spars cacy 1) azo e's, peor aeeE (42) (B)irn iéseant hlumcsead ny esveccihone eee 2.01, S206 oer 21. ae aang (24) (28) (25) (61) (14) (27) 2R = ion-pairs produced in apparatus per cc per second. number of observations in each group. bNumbers in parentheses indicate Table 3. Distribution of Atlantic Ocean values of penetrating radiation from cruise VII for different latitude belts R ion-pairs per cc 60.0- 50.0- 40.0- per second 64.1 N 59.9 N 49.9N 2.00 50 5 2.00-2.09 Ee Be 2.10-2.19 ad oo 2.20-2.29 50 os 2.30-2.39 1 6 2.40-2.49 1 1 2 2.50-2.59 oe 1 1 2.60-2.69 ae 1 2 2.70-2.79 3 1 1 2.80-2.89 oO 2 1 2.90-2.99 2 1 1 3.00-3.09 1 1 1 3.10-3.19 1 ne “0 3.20-3.29 1 2 1 3.30-3.39 2 = ea 3.40-3.49 ac oc 2 3.50-3.59 5 3.60-3.69 3 3.69 Latitude belts 3 0.0 1 oe 1 ae 1 oO 1 2 ae 1 1 re 2 20 ae 1 1 2 06 ae o0 1 2 ) 15 3c 7 9 Bc Ul 1 11 2 1 4 12 = 5 8 6 6 10 2 5 : a 1 2 4 So 2 oc 2 1 4 1 1 STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY 159 Table 4. Distribution of Pacific Ocean values of penetrating radiation from cruise VII for different latitude belts R Latitude belts ion-pairs Total per cc 50.0- 40.0- 30.0- 20.0- 10.0- 0.0- 10.0- 20.0- 30.0- per second 59.9N|] 49.9N | 39.9N] 29.9N] 19.9N| 9.9N 19.98 | 29.9S| 40.48 2.00 oc 66 es Be ee Se Sc Be Bo 1 1 2.00-2.09 nC és ae a8 5 an oe ws ae BO Rs 2.10-2.19 Re 50 a we = 46 3c 60 aC ae es 2.20-2.29 oc Be oC Ne ae ap 68 1 ae 66 1 2.30-2.39 ie ais 5c 1 0 1 a ob 1 me 3 2.40-2.49 Ac Ae 1 1 1 ne te 4 1 2 10 2.50-2.59 5c ao 1 3 1 Ne 2 A 2 4 17 2.60-2.69 oc oc 2 3 3 Hf 10 8 3 9 45 2.70-2.79 ale 50 il 5 2 4 6 18 2 if 45 2.80-2.89 50 2 3 9 1 2 1 16 3 3 40 2.90-2.99 1 10 6 5 Uf 3 5 8 oC 1 46 3.00-3.09 3 Uf 9 4 5 3 we 2 50 33 3.10-3.19 2 4 6 3 3 1 50 ae 2 21 3.20-3.29 46 1 ot “ 1 2 me 4 3.30-3.39 1 1 Ee 2 a8 4 3.40-3.49 oe % Ae se 3.50-3.59 i ss 1 3.60-3.69 1 1 1 3 3.69 1 1 a0 2 A Gad +: GY 99 ley cabok pls yee a tantoneg pow _ aor a 37 impart) * 6 tae ee Teer ativat, seat wd p iu -* > Tar or be. ge | Oa ee ee ee a : | ane al aeiirnp = Gets lar ted | apttey pl Sh ig. Ye ne rt wy e? ; kwoe Meer.) Carl gh 4 #7 bade AWE es 4 mas Loe é Va , wtpeay S« te “i Alive Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig.10 Fig.11. FIGURES 1 - 17 TITLE Mean diurnal variation of potential-gradient for three-month periods from observations on board the Carnegie, 1915-1921 and 1928-1929 Daily mean values of conductivity from recorder apparatus CA8A, Carnegie, cruise VII, from measurements in the central Pacific Ocean, September 5 to November 18, 1929 Diurnal variation in positive electrical conductivity over the central Pacific Ocean from continuous registrations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, September to November 1929 Diurnal variation in negative electrical conductivity over the central Pacific Ocean from continuous registrations on the Carnegie, cruise VI, September to November 1929 Electrical conductivity and potential-gradient over the central Pacific Ocean from continuous registrations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, October and November 1929 Diurnal variation in positive electrical conductivity, Carnegie, cruise VII; (A) Over the southeastern Pacific Ocean, November 1928 to February 1929, (B) Over the central Pacific Ocean, September to November 1929 Electrical conductivity and potential gradient over the central Pacific Ocean from * manual observations on the Carnegie, cruise VI, April to August 1921 Air-conductivity records on the Carnegie: (a) A;, approaching Honolulu, September 23, 1929; (b) A_, in Honolulu harbor, September 24, 1929; (c) A4,, record at sea, October 30, 1929, disturbed by bad weather Change in ratio A+/A- with change in potential-gradient. Points are daily means of recorder values of potential-gradient and corresponding ratios of daily means of recorder values of A+ and A-. Carnegie, cruise VII, October 5 to November 12, 1929 . Change in ratio 4+/A- with change in potential-gradient, using eye-reading measure- ments of conductivity obtained July 28, 1928 to October 9, 1928 in the Atlantic Ocean and November 5, 1928 to July 28, 1929, in the Pacific Ocean Frequency curves of computed mobilities, for positive and negative ions, k; and k-, for cruises IV, VI, and VII of the Carnegie, 1915-1929 Fig.12A. Variation in conductivity and ion content with computed mobility, from combined data of cruises IV and VI, using values of both positive and negative components; frequency curve for mobility data at bottom Fig.12B. Variation in conductivity and ion content with computed mobility, from eye-reading Fig.13. Fig.14. Fig.15. Fig.16. Fig.17. data of cruise VII (May 1928 to July 1929), using values of both positive and negative components; frequency curve for mobility data at bottom Variation in conductivity and ion-content with computed mobility, after conductivity recording began on cruise VII (September to November, 1929), using values of both positive and negative components; frequency curve for mobility data at bottom Diurnal variation in computed air-earth current density, Carnegie, cruise VII, August 1928 to November 1929 Variation in computed air-earth current density with change in latitude Wind force (Beaufort) and direction and condensation-nuclei content of the air from measurements aboard the Carnegie, cruise VII, between Hamburg and Reykjavik Diurnal variation in condensation nuclei over the oceans, from cruise VII data of the Carnegie : 161 Page 163 163 164 164 165 165 166 167 168 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 174 175 Thy ® San 701" <“_e"! : i MITT? itt Baa rie bg muss 0 te woctztviy Lea ily nO1 HSB L- 8.’ .cctuamed MAY tuasent ane 2 mRiWED ieglieociy ob Vi cReloebads ta wecdiay anne mene a Ae APL) reo SALE) Rtnveneapepnds Ane a ones ve uy inet Ueediaherp le wetlinirt at detsed are Lac rae a sidagnell w 7 or aksonde aetese oy sigs? aes win aleant Bemus els] = U j |) tA lt Détiours AS) ee ele hid nary TON FRIES aedinewnid & ale in co dectiaestedo Thmmald ° a 7 ' ; Va our & i 5 pod patra ro a HOt Fe Sadens 4, (a) ek a "Di * ANLAHD had ue is Fee! OE 204 _ ih eve hl ageeds Hie = 5\ Lalivallogi ee f 4 709 eee ee tes lactiaeay Aditne to four eee? THETOSN, ae |) begat EY eatund sipiiiml) -«.@f00 « sodas ab eat athaa>-e peter dees r pon yg ade ! mt by . ’ ee eT right at Rae ath ou Sie oe bey rf Geet rd as 7 Kee ai fn bowie tiny s0) An Hideo? Donigans lo era ol ave 7 t Zi0t etree) at) veges oY sheen : 4 tl “fetes ono Ahi Insines ne bee eelnvhacs ; * Poly ae pent be ve eine Abe la yon amie at ae ate td Aintose et sor nd Amey 2 wi Neo Bviuqonos (ittve Jesiess mot bas ¥ cine ‘ - Jaa eavity y (eke? ytel ot BOE yw) IY wells et tf gheb Ses net ive ae endif i oo ty ire wohw> a See ae ; lpr pilAe Vie re wrovk oF h pepe > ot ope it ayad » ets Aled VCS Toranrso! cat priniener es Siseane bar we Bad! © : y ie sassy Solr aly Qa) aan Seer arate Doha a Lessa ply gl by ere ‘ al . “aeaberevoti af oe age a '> pre Oludtsc vb nyse tae YBa west si ede The teteaytieer a naktairay if i a Aa: ot cee ee ete Mr ke tiene A ineerdent | TV enitcr> , was a ee. ti ce ——— a = ff VE L$ ) 6 160 CRUISES IV, V, 1 —— CRUISE WI ---MEAN 139 —MEAN 132 MAY -JUNE ~JULY toa 120 —__—AUG--SEP-- OCT. mom A- a --MEAN 140 34 DAYS B o R NOV.-DEC-JAN. pre ae aoe — MEAN 120 Pal 14 DAYS oO PMETE oe eee Sane 82 DAYS —-MEAN 132. VOLTS | {PER Fig. 1. Mean diurnal variation of potential-gradient for three-month periods from observations on board the Carnegie, 1915-1921 and 1928-1929 t + + AT HONOLULU ) IF + + = POSITIVE CONDUCT/V/TY © = NEGAT/VE CONODUCT/V/TY { > 5 wy v 1 Ss x ES ~ i ~ x ~ K & 8 z S © | aT SAN FRANCISCO SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER 5 10 15 20 15 20 /4 Fig. 2. Daily mean values of conductivity from recorder apparatus CA8A, Carnegie, cruise VII, from measurements in the central Pacific Ocean, September 5 to November 18, 1929 163 22 2 APPROXIMATE LOCAL HOURS SEPTEMBER CONDUCTIVITY IN 10-4ESU -4esy < & OCTOBER (1 oars) CONDUCTIVITY IN 10 S ® D NOVEMBER MEAN 0.87 (7 oars) | -4eEsu 9S ® is} IN 10-4 ESU AVERAGE MEAN 1.09 (23 Days) S 3 ' GREENWICH MEAN HOURS 12 /6 Fig. 3. Diurnal variation in positive electrical conductivity over the central Pacific Ocean from continuous registrations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, September to November 1929 CONDUGTIV/TY IN 1/0 ONDUCT/V/ Ci > 22 2 6 APPROXIMATE LOCAL HOURS Ss a w 4 &SsU MEAN 0.6/ \ ONDUCT/V/TY IN, 107 ria NOVEMBER (6 oars) 4esu AVERAGE CONDUCTIVITY. IN 107 GREENW/CH MEAN HOURS /2 /6 Fig. 4. Diurnal variation in negative electrical conductivity over the central Pacific Ocean from continuous registrations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, September to November 1929 164 = % is) /8 22 ae APPROX/IMATE LOCAL HOURS G ~4Esu At (13 bars) 7 CONDUCTIVITY IN /0 MEAN 0.96 /r- RAT/O A+ Pe is) a IN is} ~ a is) VOLTS PER METER POTENT /AL- GRADIENT (2/ bars) ~ w is) GREENW/CH MEAN HOURS 12 Fig. 5. Electrical conductivity and potential-gradient over the central Pacific Ocean from continuous registrations on the Carnegie, cruise VII, October and November 1929 A+ (7 bars) LONG. 260°E -4 /0~* ESU a > G CONDUCTIVITY IN, Pad ~ Ay (23 oars) LONG. 2/0°E GREENW/CH MEAN HOURS l2 Fig. 6. Diurnal variation in positive electrical conductivity, Carnegie, cruise VII; (A) Over the southeastern Pacific Ocean, November 1928 to February 1929, (B) Over the central Pacific Ocean, September to November 1929 165 2 APPROXIMATE LOCAL HOURS 3 x SS CONDUCTIVITY IN 10~4ESU As (9 DAYS) LONG. 2/0°E > Ww S A- (9 DAYS) LONG. 210°E et CONOUCTIVITY IN 10-4 EsU & \ is) > & w \ MEAN 3.09 > 5 ww v 1 Ss ~4 = ~~ Ss N = i 1S) > S 9S © = Nn w RATIO A4/d_ POTENT/AL-GRADIENT (9 oars) MEAN 94 LONG. 2/0°E GREENW/CH MEAN HOURS 8 12 Fig. 7. Electrical conductivity and potential-gradient over the central Pacific Ocean from manual observations on the Carnegie, cruise VI, April to August 1921 166 Jeyyeam peq Aq paqinystp ‘gZ6T ‘0g 1040300 ‘vas ye proder ‘+y (0) ‘6Z6T ‘FZ Iequiajdeg ‘roqrey n[NfoucH ur ‘-¥ (4) ‘6z6T ‘gz Iequiezdag ‘nnjouoy Sutyovordde ‘+ y (e) sdtsouTeD oy} UO Spsodar Ayfayyonpuoo-aty *g “Sty O/ Ni F7TVIS NSF p- ' = Ss \ mH Ss O/ N/ F7TVIS | S ~ NS » i % ~ H NVIN HIIMNIZY9D Ee PACIFIC OCEAN 152 OBSERVATIONS POTENTI/AL-GRAD/IENT IN VOLTS PER METER & S y 3 & Q Rr I Ss xX 2 Ss RK = x S & 1S) 1 x x K = wy K is) Q ATLANTIC OCEAN 46 OBSERVAT/ONS Fig. 9. Change in ratio \+/A- with change in potential-gradient. Points are daily means of recorder values of potential-gradient and corresponding ratios of daily means of recorder values of X+ and X-. Carnegie, cruise VII, October 5 to November 12, 1929 Fig. 10. Change in ratio +/- with change in potential-gradient, using eye-reading measurements of con- ductivity obtained July 28, 1928 to October 9, 1928 in the Atlantic Ocean and November 5, 1928 to July 28, 1929, in the Pacific Ocean 168 SCALE OF k_ S 3 S & 1S) CRUISE WZ CRU/SE ZIT SCALE OF Ky SNO/LVAYISEO ~ 40 &F8WNN —— Fig. 11. Frequency curves of computed mobilities, for positive and negative ions, k, and k_, for cruises IV, VI, and VII of the Carnegie, 1915-1929 169 14 16 1.8 2.0 2.2 SCALE OF ky IN CM/SEC/V/CM MEAN CONDUCTIVITY (Ax) VS. COMPUTED MOBILITY (ky) re CONDUCTIVITY IN 10-4 ESU PER CC 8 9 t MEAN IONIC CONTENT (ny) VS. COMPUTED MOBILITY (kx) SCALE OF n - NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS VS. COMPUTED MOBILITY (k4) NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS Fig. 12A. Variation in conductivity and ion content with computed mobility, from combined data of cruises IV and VI, using values of both positive and negative components; frequency curve for mobility data at bottom 170 0.8 10 12 14 16 18 2.0 2.2 24 2.6 SCALE OF ky IN CM/SEC/V/cCM 12 3 w xv ' g e > MEAN CONDUCTIVITY (Ag) VS. 0.8» | COMPUTED MOBILITY (k,) N i G 8 = S ) 0.4 T +— ul =e 600 e é e e e;e . .S) Je J —— S 500 . & @ MEAN JONIC CONTENT (ny) VS. c ra COMPUTED MOBILITY (4) $ w e ~~ | Sa = in ° i ) e e 200 ie == 300 ' i] 5 i 1 SSS r ' I ' 160 + w 2 a mae ie al g ! = ' s w NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS VS. 8 COMPUTED MOBILITY (ky) 120% s : > = ——— Fig. 12B. Variation in conductivity and ion content with computed mobility, from eye-reading data of cruise VII (May 1928 to July 1929), using values of both positive and negative components; frequency curve for mobility data at bottom 171 1.4 16 1.8 2.0 SCALE OF ky IN CM/SEC/V/CM = ® e MEAN CONDUCTIVITY (Ax) VS. COMPUTED MOBILITY (kx) —__}—____ _ CONDUCTIVITY IN 10-4 ESU 8 MEAN IONIC CONTENT (n4)VS. COMPUTED MOBILITY (ky) SCALE OF ng PER CC A is) is) | NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS VS. COMPUTED MOBILITY (ky) NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS Fig. 13. Variation in conductivity and ion content with computed mobility, after conductivity recording began on cruise VII (September to Novem- ber, 1929), using values of both positive and negative components; fre- quency curve for mobility data at bottom 172 /2 16 GREENW/CH MEAN HOURS 10-7 ESU ieee TEMBER, 1928 ATLANTIC OCEAN (5 DAYS) LONG. 3/6°E CURRENT-DENS/TY _/ ty ~ 9 NOVEMBER, /928—FEBRUARY, 1929 PACIFIC OCEAN (9 DAYS) MEAN _9./ LONG. 256°E © CURRENT-DENS/TY IN 10-7 Esu ® x ~ MEAN 9./ © APRIL—JULY, 1929 PACIFIC OCEAN (5 DAYS) LONG. 160°E 3 w N 1 g ES 10. S 5 fe > S € S re) ® ~ w % OCTOBER-NOVEMBER, 1929 PACIFIC OCEAN (2/ DAYS) LONG. 2/0°E CURRENT-DENS/TY IN 1077 ESU $ > Fig. 14. Diurnal variation in computed air-earth current density, Carnegie cruise VO, August 1928 to November 1929 173 FOG ANO MIST JULY, 1929 OBSERVED BETWEEN o's ANO oats GMT APRIL TO JULY, 1929 > a w nN D = = ~ wR 5 = w ia CURRENT FOG AND MIST OBSERVED AT 0” GM JULY, 1929 SEPTEMBER TO NOVEMBER, HAZE JUNE-JULY, 1929 NORTH LAT/ITUOE 30 Fig. 15. Variation in computed air-earth current density with change in latitude (Note conspicuous departure during fog, mist, and haze from April-June curve; figures in circles denote number of observations included in each point) GY 10° 1S Fig. 16. Wind force (Beaufort) and direction and condensation-nuclei content of the air from measurements aboard the Carnegie, cruise VII, between Hamburg and Reykjavik 174 /2 LOCAL MEAN NUCLE/ IN 109 PER CC HOURS Xenwe-% = 5 DAYS (NOV 13-/4, 2/-22, 27-28, DEC 3-4, 1928, AND FEB 10-11, 1929) 4 DAYS (FEB 18-19, 26-27, APR 30, MAY 1, AND 9-1/0, 1929) 5 DAYS (JUL 4, 22, OCT 5, 2/-22, AND NOV 5, 1929) 2 DAYS (MAY /7-18, AND 27-28, 1929) = Ke xe eee 4 8 = -—— oY mm Xe aye ae oe = x KE /2 GREENWICH MEAN HOURS a /6 o—< Oxf 4 —o— (A) om Km am yee = aXe X= = ee = xe = ee NUCLE IN 109 PER CC eo hor ee ee eo a +x — o _,— * Ka Ke = ee = ye = ee ~ oo Ny Fig. 17. Diurnal variation in condensation nuclei over the oceans, from cruise VII data of the Carnegie 175 Abstract of log, 47-64 Atmospheric-electric laboratory, 3-4 figs. 1,2, 21 Batteries, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 42, 44, 45 Conductivity, positive and negative, apparatus 8A (CA8A) eye reading, description, 3, 8 fig. 7, 23 observer’s reports, 36, 38, 41, 43 comments, 39 procedure for measurements, 8-9 location and description, 3 recorder, description, 9 figs. 9, 20, 21, installation, 4 observer’s reports, discussion of results, annual variation, 137 daily mean recorder values, fig. 2, 163 diurnal variations, 137, 138 figs. 3-6, 164, 165 land, effect of, 139 fig. 8, 167 nuclei, effect of, 139 24, 28 43, 44 ratio of positive to negative, 138, 139, 141-142 weather, effect of, 139 fig. 8, 167 methods for measuring, 2 tables of data, daily observations, 66-101 explanatory note, 65 diurnal-variation observations, 405-112, 124-125 explanatory notes, 103, 123 Cosmic rays (see penetrating radiation) Current density, air-earth, change with tatitude, 147 fig. 15, 174 computation, 65 daily mean values, 146 table 2, 146 daily range, 146 table 2, 146 discussion of results, 139 disturbance factors, 145 disturbed periods, 145, 147-152 tables, 148, 149, 150 diurnal variations, 145 fig. 14, 173 tables of data, daily observations, 66-101 diurnal-variation observations, 105-112 explanatory note, 103-104 Diurnal variation, observer’s summaries, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 41, 43 INDEX Diurnal variation, suggested schedule, 40, 41 table, 40 tables of data, 105-112, 114-121, 124-125 Electrometers, 3 Introduction, 1 Ions, small, positive and negative, apparatus, counter 1 (IC1) description, 9-10 fips ee location, 3 observer’s reports, 43, 44 comments, 39 computation of content, 11 diminution, 1 procedure for observations, 11 production, 1 tables of data, daily observations, 66-101 explanatory note, 65 diurnal-variation observations, 105-112 explanatory note, 103 36, 38, 41, Meteorological data clouds, 66-101 types, 65 daily notes in log, 49-64 tables, 105-112, 114-121 explanatory note, 104 relative humidity, 66-101 temperature, 66-101 weather notes, 66-101 symbols, 65 wind, 66-101 Beaufort scale, 65 visibility, 66-101 scale, 65 Mobility of ions, positive and negative, computation, 11 discussion of results, effect of earth’s field, 143 large ions, 143 observational errors, 144 frequency curves, 143-144 figs. 11-13, 169-172 mean mobilities, tables, 144 tables of data daily observations, 66-101 diurnal-variation observations, 105-112 explanatory note, 103 Nuclei, condensation concentration, 31, 32 counters description, 11-13 figs. 13,14, 25 no. 2, observer’s reports, 44 177 Nuclei, condensation, counters, no. 4, 4 observer’s reports, 37 comments, 37 no. 5, 4 observer’s reports, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45 comments, 40, 42 discussion of results, 153-156 combination coefficients, 154- 156 change in magnitude, 156 table, 154 computation, 155 diurnal variation, 154 fig. 17A and B, 175 land, effect of, 153 fig. 16, 174 range of values, 153 relation to small ions, 154-156 table, 154 volcanos, effect of, 1£* observations, 13 tables of data, daily observations, 66-101 diurnal-variation observations, 105-112 explanatory note, 103 Penetrating radiation apparatus no. 1 (PR1) adjustments, 13-14 comparison with 5503, description, 13 fig. 4, 22 location, 3 observer’s reports, 32, 33, 38, 41, 43, 44, 45 comments, 32, 35, 37, 39, 42 no. 5503 (Kolhérster) comparison with PR1, description, 13, 14 fig. 6, 23 location, 3 observer’s reports, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 41, 43, 44,45 comments, 39-40, 42 no. 5658, 44 discussion of results, average ocean value, 157, 158 latitude, change with, 157 14-15 14-15 tables, 158, 159 residual ionization, 32, 35, 157, table, 157 158 table of data, 66-101 explanatory note, 65 Potential-gradient apparatus eye reading, no. 2 description, 4 fig. 10, 24 location, 4 meteorological observations, 5 observer’s reports, 32, 33, 34 178 Potential-gradient apparatus, eye read- ing, no. 2 procedure for observations, 4-5 recorders, nos. 4946 and 4947 description, 4-7 figs. 12,17, 25, 26 location, 4,5 meteorological observations, 7 observer’s reports, 31, 33, 34, 35, 38, 43, 44 comments, 34, 35, 37, 39, 42 procedure for observations, 7 discussion of data diurnal variation, 135-136 fig. 1, 163 harmonic analysis, 135 table 2, 136 INDEX Potential-gradient, discussion of data, selected days, 135 table 1, 136 universal time component, 136 reduction factors method, 5, 41 results, 34, 35, 36, 41, 129-134 stations, 5, 32, 33, 34, 36, 41 fig. 15, 26 tables of data daily observations, 66-101 explanatory note, 65 diurnal-variation observations, 105-112, 114-121 135- explanatory notes, 103, 113 engine, effect, 7, 135 operation, 65, 88, 90, 100, 113, 115-121, 135, 136 Potential-gradient, tables of data, sail, effect, 5, 7, 129-134, 135 positions, 7, 66-101, 113, 115-121 variations, sources, 1 Resistivity, columnar of the atmosphere, lower region, 148-150 computation of height, total, 145, 147, 149-151 upper region, 148, 149 Radioactive content apparatus 4 (RCA4) description, 15-16 fig. 5, 22 location, 3 observer’s reports, 38-39, 44, 45 comments, 34, 37, 40 measurements, 16-17 148-151 31, 33, 37 at 1 He ‘ = 2 2 nan ann Apne an ODA RO I A RON ORAL MORIN nn magne ASS pe